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New Planck Data Challenges Our Understanding of the Universe
TOPICS:AstronomyAstrophysicsCosmologyGalaxy EvolutionKavli InstitutePlanck MissionPopular
By Kavli Institute for Cosmology May 20, 2013
The anisotropies of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) as observed by Planck. The CMB is a snapshot of the oldest light in our Universe, imprinted on the sky when the Universe was just 380 000 years old. It shows tiny temperature fluctuations that correspond to regions of slightly different densities, representing the seeds of all future structure: the stars and galaxies of today. Credit: ESA, Planck Collaboration
New data from Europe's Planck satellite challenges our understanding of the Universe, suggesting that Universe may be different on scales larger than those we can directly observe.
Planck refines our knowledge of the Universe's composition and evolution
New maps provide excellent evidence for our standard model of cosmology
Planck dates Universe at 13.82 billion years old
Anomalies suggest that Universe may be different on scales larger than those we can directly observe
Most accurate values yet for the ingredients of the Universe, with normal matter contributing just 4.9% of the mass/energy density of the Universe and dark matter making up 26.8% – nearly a fifth more than the previous estimate.
Europe's Planck satellite — a flagship mission for the UK Space Agency – has compiled the most detailed map ever created of the cosmic microwave background (the relic radiation from the Big Bang). The new map refines our understanding of the Universe's composition and evolution, and unveils new features that could challenge the foundations of our current understanding of its evolution.
The image is based on the initial 15.5 months of data from Planck and is the mission's first all-sky picture of the oldest light in our Universe, imprinted on the sky when it was just 380,000 years old. This cosmic microwave background (CMB) shows tiny temperature fluctuations that correspond to regions of slightly different densities at very early times, representing the seeds of all future structure: the stars and galaxies of today.
Overall, the information extracted from Planck's new map provides an excellent confirmation of the standard model of cosmology at an unprecedented accuracy, setting a new benchmark for our knowledge of the contents of the Universe.
This graph shows the temperature fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave Background detected by Planck at different angular scales on the sky. This curve is known as the power spectrum. The largest angular scales, starting at angles of ninety degrees, are shown on the left side of the graph, whereas smaller and smaller scales are shown towards the right. For comparison, the diameter of the full Moon in the sky measures about half a degree. The multipole moments corresponding to the various angular scales are indicated at the top of the graph.
The red dots correspond to measurements made with Planck; these are shown with error bars that account for measurement errors as well as for an estimate of the uncertainty that is due to the limited number of points in the sky at which it is possible to perform measurements. This so-called cosmic variance is an unavoidable effect that becomes most significant at larger angular scales.
The green curve shown in the graph represents the best fit of the 'standard model of cosmology' – currently the most widely accepted scenario for the origin and evolution of the Universe – to the Planck data. The pale green area around the curve shows the predictions of all the variations of the standard model that best agree with the data.
While the observations on small and intermediate angular scales agree extremely well with the model predictions, the fluctuations detected on large angular scales on the sky – between 90 and six degrees – are about 10 per cent weaker than the best fit of the standard model to Planck data. At angular scales larger than six degrees, there is one data point that falls well outside the range of allowed models. These anomalies in the Cosmic Microwave Background pattern might challenge the very foundations of cosmology, suggesting that some aspects of the standard model of cosmology may need a rethink. Credit: ESA and the Planck Collaboration
Dr Chris Castelli, Acting Director of Science, Technology and Exploration at the UK Space Agency, said, "We're immensely proud to be playing a key role in this amazing discovery. With its ability to make such detailed and accurate observations, Planck is helping us to place the vital pieces of a jigsaw that could give us a full picture of the evolution of our Universe, rewriting the textbooks along the way."
"The CMB temperature fluctuations detected by Planck confirm once more that the relatively simple picture provided by the standard model is an amazingly good description of the Universe," explains George Efstathiou of the University of Cambridge, UK.
The properties of the hot and cold regions of the map provide information about the composition and evolution of the Universe. Normal matter that makes up stars and galaxies contributes just 4.9% of the mass/energy density of the Universe. Dark matter, which has thus far only been detected indirectly by its gravitational influence, makes up 26.8%, nearly a fifth more than the previous estimate. Conversely, dark energy, a mysterious force thought to be responsible for accelerating the expansion of the Universe, accounts for slightly less than previously thought, at around 69%.
The Planck data also set a new value for the rate at which the Universe is expanding today, known as the Hubble constant. At 67.3 km/s/Mpc, this is significantly different from the value measured from relatively nearby galaxies. This somewhat slower expansion implies that the Universe is also a little older than previously thought, at 13.8 billion years.
The analysis also gives strong support for theories of "inflation," a very brief but crucial early phase during the first tiny fraction of a second of the Universe's existence. As well as explaining many properties of the Universe as a whole, this initial expansion caused the ripples in the CMB that we see today.
Although this primordial epoch can't be observed directly, the theory predicts a set of very subtle imprints on the CMB map. Previous experiments have not been able to confidently detect these subtle imprints, but the high resolution of Planck's map confirms that the tiny variations in the density of the early Universe match those predicted by inflation.
When compared to the best fit of observations to the standard model of cosmology, Planck's high-precision capabilities reveal that the fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background at large scales are not as strong as expected. The graphic shows a map derived from the difference between the two, which is representative of what the anomalies could look like. Copyright: ESA and the Planck Collaboration
"The sizes of these tiny ripples hold the key to what happened in that first trillionth of a trillionth of a second. Planck has given us striking new evidence that indicates they were created during this incredibly fast expansion, just after the Big Bang", explained Joanna Dunkley of the University of Oxford.
But because the precision of Planck's map is so high, it also reveals some peculiar unexplained features that may well require new physics to be understood. Amongst the most surprising findings are that the fluctuations in the CMB over large scales do not match those predicted by the standard model. This anomaly adds to those observed by previous experiments, and confirmed by Planck, including an asymmetry in the average temperatures on opposite hemispheres of the sky, and a cold spot that extends over a patch of sky that is much larger than expected.
One way to explain the anomalies is to propose that the Universe is in fact not the same in all directions on a larger scale than we can observe. In this scenario, the light rays from the CMB may have taken a more complicated route through the Universe than previously understood, resulting in some of the unusual patterns observed today.
"Our ultimate goal would be to construct a new model that predicts the anomalies and links them together. But these are early days; so far, we don't know whether this is possible and what type of new physics might be needed. And that's exciting," says Professor Efstathiou.
Professor John Womersley, Chief Executive of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), said, "Planck has given us an amazing picture of the very earliest moments of the Universe. These results are the culmination of many years of work by UK scientists and engineers supported by STFC. This kind of project can sometimes seem expensive but the payoff in science and technology more than justifies the investment we've made."
Further information on the science results are available here.
A series of scientific papers describing the new results have been submitted to the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics. The preprints can be accessed here.
Background information to the topics discussed in this release – the Cosmic Microwave Background and the history of structure formation in the Universe – is available here.
The new data from Planck and the cosmological results based on them have been presented at a media briefing organised by the European Space Agency at Headquarters in Paris, on 21 March 2013, 10:00-12:00 CET. A reply of the briefing is available here. Further results were discussed at a science briefing on 21 March 2013, 14:00-15:45 CET.
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Detailed Map Reveals New Information about the Age, Contents and Origins of the Universe
Quest to Reveal Fundamental Secrets of the Universe Driven by Curiosity and Technology
Fresh Twist to Debate Over Universe's Age From New View of the Oldest Light in the Universe
New Planck Data Explore the History of Our Universe
Loop Quantum Cosmology Theory: Cosmic Tango Between the Very Small and the Very Large
Researchers Use New CMB Data to Analyze the First Hundred Thousand Years of Our Universe
Astronomers Use New Data to Create Extraordinary Dark Matter Map
19 Comments on "New Planck Data Challenges Our Understanding of the Universe"
Henry | May 20, 2013 at 9:33 am | Reply
I have one question about this map. But first the story was nice to read and full of facts to sit back and think about. Okay my question is with this MAP of the universe it has Earth at the centre or can only be made with Earth at the centre, with are point of view. So the map has to either be in error to the Big Bang theory or in favor of the God theory.
If we were to travel out 500 million light years in any direction and do the same set of test, we would in turn come out with the same map. That is to say if the Big Bang theory is correct, seeing we do`not know where it happened only that it did. If this is true then the age of the universe can not be counted as being correct with no real point to start at. First we need to find the point of origin of the Big Bang and count out from there. For if and when it happened we would not be in the centre but on the move out .
BG | May 20, 2013 at 2:19 pm | Reply
Henry – that argument would be valid if the universe had a center. Rational wiki has a decent explanation of why this is not the case. http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Centre_of_the_universe
The Big Bang didnt happen somewhere, it happened everywhere.
C. Peter O'Connor | May 22, 2013 at 1:38 am | Reply
Hi, Mark Sinus! Hope you are well!
Hope you don't mind me suggesting it but, it is my view your comments are complete nonsense!
Where on Earth did you get the idea of; 'multilayer structures with fundamentally different physical properties from?' – You've been reading 'Marvel' comic books, Haven't you?' I reckon you must be so steeped in the current dogma you would find it exceedingly uncomfortable to step outside of the tenets and 'THINK FOR YOURSELF!'.
Madanagopal.V.C | May 20, 2013 at 9:56 am | Reply
Black body radiation observed by Planck is successfully employed in deciphering the ancient temperature profile of the early Universe in getting the CMB plotted by Planck's temperature chart. Our Big Bang and inflation theory apart from the Dark Matter and Light Matter composition is proved well. Thank You
Mike Williams | May 20, 2013 at 4:01 pm | Reply
I don't expect every science writer to be a scientist or mathematician but a little fact checking would be nice. This story says we have normal matter at 4.9% plus dark matter at 26.8% plus dark energy at 69% which puts us over 100% before we even include normal energy.
Well stated, Mike Williams! It would appear there is still a little bit of logic flying around the planet. The one thing that puzzle me is; 'How do You define, 'Normal Energy?' The reason I ask is because there is only 'ONE' form of energy in 'My' universe. (Electromagnetic). Furthermore, there is, in my view, 'NO SUCH THING AS: 'DARK MATTER/ENERGY'! – The concept is a, Myth based on current dogma which in my view has its foundations well and truly rooted in, 'Misinterpretation of the evidence'…
BRENTEFS | August 29, 2013 at 8:55 am | Reply
Peter, I feel as if you are reading my mind… Well said… BL
Wardell | May 20, 2013 at 7:53 pm | Reply
The Universe is not expanding, if anything the red shift indicates a contraction! The higher red shift indicates stronger centripetal force.
The Dark Energy revealed.
The so-called mysterious Dark Energy is the Momentum Energy, cP = cmV. This is the vector energy associated with every spec of matter that is moving and having a momentum vector. cP = mcV is much larger than vp = mGM/r = mv2 the scalar potential energy.
The Energy of the Universe is W = -mGM/r + cmV = -vh/r + cP.
The Hubble Constant is 60 km/s/Mpc and the Universe is around 16.3 Gy.
The Universe is not expanding!
Hi, Wardell! I find it interesting that you make reference to, 'EXPANSION' rather than 'Inflation'? You appear to have an excellent grasp of mathematical/scientific equation which suggests to me that you were educated within the dogmatic arena however, I have found that the terminology 'Expansion' does NOT sit well within either of the disciplines in question.
I also find it interesting that you again step outside the dogmatic arena in your use of the terminology; (so-called mysterious Dark Energy). You do realise that such is held as sacrilege among the scientific community?
Anyway, try the following with regard to your mathematical equations and see how it works out…
Our universe is made entirely of 'Electromagnetic Energy' under the weight/heat and pressure of our entire universe, a single strand of Infinity snapped and then broke down into the smallest divisible pieces and formed into Protons and Neutrons. Gravity, isn't 'Gravity' per se but the natural affinity held within electromagnetic energy to attract or repel according to polarity. Protons formed first which attracted all of the smallest reductions making then positively charged and Neutrons formed second when all of the much smaller charged particles had been used up, leaving Neutrons to form 'Neutral'. the latter, under pressure then formed into atomic structures; 'Heaviest element, 'Oconnorium' first' 'Lightest'(H160 Hydrogen) last. At the point of 'Criticality our universe exploded and sent out all of the elements as we recognise them today. (With all of the Heaviest elements trapped at the centres of the largest pieces, (Spiral galaxies) which emit throughout their journey outwards from the, 'Bang'!
Now, doesn't the latter explanation lend itself much more appropriately to math than the nonsense that is in situ at the moment?
Wardell | May 22, 2013 at 9:24 am | Reply
C. Peter, thanks for your comments. I agree with much of what you say, the Universe is electromagnetic energy. Gravity energy is large scale aggregate of electromagnetic energy (mass). Gravity defines the structure of the Universe. The size and energy is defined by mass.
Here is my mathematics for mass the atom, again the "Dark Energy" is the key to the proper mathematics:
Watom = -vh/r + cP
where cP is the electron vector energy. The velocity of the electron is v= Z alpha c where Z is the atomic Number and Alpha is the Fine Structure Constant and c is the speed of light.
F= XW= [d/dr, DEL][-vh/r,cP]=[vp/r -cDEL.P, cdP/dr – DEL vh/r + cDELxP]
F= [vp/r -cp/r cos(P), -cp/r1P + vp/r1R + cp/r sin(P)1RxP]
F= cp/r[v/c – cos(P), -1P + v/c 1R + sin(P)1RxP]
At Boundary 0=F = cp/r[v/c -1, -1R + v/c 1R] thus v/c -1=0 or v/c=1
and v=c at Boundary. For Atoms v= ZAlpha c=c thus ZAlpha = 1 this implies that Z is less than 1/Alpha = 1/7.2E-3 = 138,8888.
Here we see that atoms cannot have nuclear charge higher than 138.
The Fine Structure Constant is e2z/2h where z is the Free Space Impedance.
The Free Space impedance is the resistance in space for electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's Aether. z= 374 Ohms = W/Q and Planck's Constant h=WQ.
Here we have two Quantum Constants and two unknowns, this gives h=zQ2 and q= 4/3 E-18 Coulombs and W=500E-18 Webers (Volt seconds).
The Free space is filed with electric and magnetic charge, Q and W.
The Fine Structure Constant is 1/2 (e/Q)^2 = 1/2 (.16/4/3)^2= 1/2 (.48/4)^2 = .5(.12)^2= .5(.0144)= 7.2E-3.
Q = 4/3E-18 Coul = 25/3 e = (13U,1d) Quark = (13(2/3) 1(-1/3)).
Mark Sinus | May 20, 2013 at 9:39 pm | Reply
The Universe has multilayer structures with fundamentally different physical properties.
Within all of the dogma that has arisen throughout the last century in particular there is not a single instance where someone has 'Logically' described how our universe was created and perhaps more importantly, 'From What'!
It is simply illogical to the point of inanity to suggest our universe was created from a, 'Singularity' because, in the first instance such supposition will always generate the questions; 'What came, 'BEFORE' the, 'Singularity' to generate the impetus 'For' the Singularity?
Furthermore, even the concept of 'Infinite density' goes against every 'Scientific Law' we hold dear because, it relies on the precept that either our entire universe was once crammed into a space the size of a, Proton or, additional energy was created after the, 'Bang' and given the fact that 'Energy' cannot be, 'Made', that single fact blows a very 'Large Hole' in the current dogma.
Logically, the only way our universe could have come into existence is if there was a source of energy present 'Before the, BANG'.
There is unequivocal proof written into the CMB of how our universe was created and from what. That is, of course, provided one can 'STEP OUTSIDE OF THE DOGMATIC COCOON FOR A MOMENT IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO OBSERVE IT.' (FACT!) There are, 'FOUR' distinct ripples indelibly etched into the CMB. 'Does everyone agree with the latter evidence?' If you do, then you will be able to accept that, the only way that such a phenomenon can occur is if our universe was in situ, 'BEFORE THE BANG'! THE SIMPLE FACT IS! IF ONE ADHERES TO THE SINGULARITY CONCEPT, (coupled with, 'INFLATION') IT IS 'PHYSICALLY' impossible for the 'Ripple' effect to manifest because 'EXPANSION' would be 'SMOOTH' and uninterrupted…
I spent a decade of my spare time studying the various subjects involved and at the end of that period decided the only logical conclusion was; 'THE CURRENT DOGMA RELATED TO THE CREATION OF OUR UNIVERSE IS SERIOUSLY IN ERROR!' CONCLUSION! — THE ONLY APPLICATION THAT IS BOTH LOGICAL AND PERHAPS MORE IMPORTANTLY, 'WORKABLE', IS IF OUR ENTIRE UNIVERSE WAS IN SITU 'BEFORE THE 'BANG' TOOK PLACE.' I THEN POSTULATED THAT THE ONLY ENERGY IN OUR UNIVERSE
CAPABLE OF TICKING ALL OF THE BOXES (so-to-speak) is if our entire universe is made from, 'VOID ENERGY' (INFINITY) which in turn has to be; 'ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY'.
I deposited my various postulations on the creation of our universe with the academia of the world in June 2011 and the, 'Americans' (including their President) didn't have the common decency to acknowledge receipt of my gifts.
(Although they are using the information I provided them with in their current research, which comes in the form of the use of; (powerful electromagnetic fields to create distortions within Protons.)
Not one of those involved in the conspiracy could possibly claim to be either an 'Academic' or a 'Professional'.
James Hayes | May 23, 2013 at 5:08 am | Reply
No, it does not have to be electromagnetic energy, it just has to be self-expanding "energy". Self-expansion is the only property the universe needs. With anything that self-expands, as in creates more of itself, it immediately creates the fundamental differentiation required for relativity and it creates the energy for causality to occur. It requires no first cause, being The Cause, and thus is infinite in a pre-existing sense, a future sense and a hierarchical universe sense.
Fundamental differentiation – newest is "bigger" than not than what is the preceding newest, but not bigger than all that precedes newest. This is the core differentiation, lacking the introduction of division.
Expansion – Not describable as it is too fundamental, however I use the term Time to refer to this affect. Time is observed to run at a set but relative rate. Time must pre-exist and permanently exist for change to occur. Causality is meaningless without the assumption of time. Time is a sort of physical nothingness, which a singular property thingness would also be until the inclusion of relativity.
Energy = expansion + pressure.
Flow – Where energy is less bounded then that is where it will shift to equalise internal pressure.
Division – As what is not newest is also expanding, that expansion is bound by what is newer, ad infinitum. This creates internal pressure that builds up over time, until eventually the internal expansionary "energy", exceeds that of it's "shell", the shell only being that expansion that is newer. This is the Big Bang effect – one that happens constantly on different scales. This fracturing of the shell causes "energy" whirls, where it has changed from a uniform pattern of differentiation to a mixed pattern of energy flow.
Space – A mixed energy flow is a change from a 3 dimensional expansionary sphere to a more flattened 2 dimensional existence and as a result creates planes of existence. Space is the totality of these planes.
Things – Interwoven space.
Relativity – Expansion always results first is the growing out from a centre in all directions. It is spherical and has a floating centre, not of gravity, but of the brick wall caused by internal expansion. It is unable to expand into that centre it can only expand outwards and around the centre (causing spin, once in a relative state). Once the shell is fractured, then that becomes a second level of differentiation and a division from what is not in a fractured state. This has always existed so relativity has always existed – there was always a past that was lesser than now.
Evolution (of matter) – the result of the above.
James Hayes | May 22, 2013 at 6:45 pm | Reply
People view the universe incorrectly. The universe grows from the outside in, as well as the inside out. Science sees everything as growing from the inside out (ie a big bang).
Atoms, black holes etc are regressions from the present – they do not grow from inside via quantum strings and gravity, they merely recede observationally from the present as in a russian doll scenario.
View galaxies as whirlpools – it is the ocean that creates the whirlpool.
The first cause is a continuous cause. All everything is is time creating more of itself from itself alone. Galaxies are expanding away from each other only because in the relatively empty spaces between galaxies, time's expansion is less bound (less relativity, less equalisation, less static) than for things of matter such as suns and planets.
Wardell | May 25, 2013 at 11:57 am | Reply
All should read Edwin's Hubble's article THE PROBLEM OF THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
http:nimble.nimblebrain.net/hubblepaper.html
"On the other hand, if the nebulae are receding, and the dimming factors are applied, the scale of distances is altered, and the law of red shifts is no longer linear. The rate of expansion increases more and more rapidly with distance. The significance of this result becomes clear when the picture is reversed. Light that reaches us today left the distant nebulae far back in the dim past – hundreds of millions of years ago. When we say that the rate of expansion increases with distance, we are saying that long ago, the universe was expanding much faster than it is today ; that, for the last several million years at least, the rate of expansion has been slowing down. Therefore, the so-called "age of the universe," the time interval since the expansion began, is much shorter than the 1800 million years suggested by a linear law of red shifts. If the measures are reliable, the interval would be less than 1000 million years – a fraction of the age of the earth and comparable with the history of life on the earth. The nature of the expansion is permissible and, in fact, specifies certain types of possible worlds. But the time scale is probably not acceptable. Either the measures are unreliable or red shifts do not represent expansion of the universe."
hUBBLE IS THE kEPLAR OF OUT TIME. He is clear and convincing.
It is time to set aside General Relativity and adopt Quaternion Physics.
The proper Theory of Gravity is
W – -mGM/r + cnV = -vh/r + cP = -vp + cP
Gravitational Energy consists of a scalar/potential energy -mGM/r
and a vector Momentum energy cmV= cP. Current Physics does not consider vector energy, thus the vector Momentum Energy cP, is hidden in plain sight.
This Momentum vector energy is the so-called "Dark Energy" and its Divergence is the centrifugal force that is responsible for preventing gravitational Collapse. the earth falling into the sun and the electrons galling into the nucleus!
Hubble.s data and analysis has established the reasonableness of no recession. Quaternion Physics provides the Theory that supports this data and conclusion.
Mohammad Shafiq Khan | May 26, 2013 at 4:44 am | Reply
THIS CONFIRMS THE SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS AS THE RESULT OF WHICH THE ADOPTED PARADIGM OF PHYSICS HAS BEEN OPENLY CHALLENGED. LET EVERY STUDENT & FACULTY OF EVERY UNIVERSITY KNOW ABOUT FOLLOWING OPEN CHALLENGE TO ADOPTED PARADIGM OF PHYSICS. You could see it at worldsci.org/php/index.php?tab0=Abstracts&tab1=Display&id=6476&tab=2 and gsjournal.net/Science-Journals/Essays/View/4018.
Open Challenge
The article 'On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies' by Albert Einstein is based on trickeries is proved beyond any doubt whatsoever in the articles (1). Experimental & Theoretical Evidences of Fallacy of Space-time Concept and Actual State of Existence of the Physical Universe published in the peer-reviewed journal namely Indian Journal of Science & Technology (March 2012 issue) available on indjst.org (2) On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies By Albert Einstein is Based on Trickeries (Open letter to Professors, Teachers, Researchers and Students of Physics) published in peer-reviewed journal Elixir Online Journal (February 2012 issue) available on elixirjournal.org. The Voigt transformation was simply a mathematical possibility which was changed by Lorentz by introducing the Lorentz factor but the Lorentz factor is simply a manipulation. Thus nature and forces in nature were trivialized and made subservient to mathematics in the theories of relativity, Big Bang Theory, Space-time concept and in all physical sciences which are directly or indirectly based on the 'On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies'. It is unfortunate for humanity that exposing these trickeries took more than one hundred years.
I openly challenge all the professors, researchers & teachers of physics/philosophy of physics to come forward & show me where I am wrong or else they have to accept that they are teaching incorrect physics based on trickeries.
My challenge may not be treated as a publicity stunt, but I sincerely wish that truth should prevail on this planet and am expecting identical response from all truth loving people/intellectuals. I do understand that it is hard for mainstream physicists to reconcile with the alternative philosophy; though actual and factual; as almost all the living physicists and researchers are borne, brought up and taught physics which is fundamentally incorrect. Their livelihood is based on the physics which has been adopted as the result of fraud, but these material interests should never be a stumbling block to acknowledge the reality, which to my understanding is the essence of scientific thinking and honest living for the betterment of entire human society.
I have not an iota of doubt that sooner or later the truth will prevail, but it would be in the interest of humanity that truth is accepted now so that humanity comes out of clutches of materialism which in itself is naked atheism.
Madanagopal.V.C | June 1, 2013 at 7:09 am | Reply
I agree with James Hayes in reply to Wardell and Peter O Connor, by correctly explaining that energy need not be only electromagnetic in nature. He is like a blind man touching only the trunk of the elephant and saying that it is like a pillar and another one touching the body and saying that it is like a wall. There are other form of energies also like electro-weak energy, mediated by Z and W+, W- Bosons, and then strong forces mediated by color forces Red, Blue and Green gluons in the quarks. Gravitation is not mediated by electromagnetic photons as stated by him, but by another exotic force particle. For a moment I was astonished to find his analysis and thought that he will be getting the next Nobel prize for his great discovery. The loss of momentum of a moving particle in matter media invokes heat energy and it is how it is expended and that it goes to increase the entropy of the Universe. The concept of Dark Matter came only after observing kaleidoscopic galaxies under the influence of lens effect of some mysterious very massive invisible matter or energy by sheer gravitation to split the light under its gravitational force. They have only the gravitational wing of the force and not electromagnetic force. Otherwise the photons would be emitted to make them glow. There are no energy splashes in the dark matter ensemble. Further the gravitational displacement of galaxies at a fantastic speed speaks of their proportion in the Universe. One friend is doing school arithmetic to say that total of Matter, Dark Matter and Dark energy exceeds slightly 100%. Does he not know that percentages are given by approximate strength only and they don`t do the counting of apples in a basket?
Hamiltonian and Lagrangian in classical dynamics refer to potential and kinetic energy only and they cannot be extrapolated to quantum states. In the case of falling meteors the zero potential as long they are drawn towards any gravitating planet, gains the potential energy which was the transformation of the gravitational energy only. This potential energy as it falls into the potential well gives out its kinetic energy into heat energy by burning and then getting the potential energy reduced to zero once it touches the ground. Thus the currency of exchange of energy is well preserved and it will never go to form any Dark Energy as stated? Thank You.
Ai | November 23, 2014 at 7:49 am | Reply
Mohammad Shafiq Khan,
//I openly challenge all the professors, researchers & teachers of physics/philosophy of physics to come forward & show me where I am wrong or else they have to accept that they are teaching incorrect physics based on trickeries.//
Your obvious ignorance of physics is not an excuse for conspiracy theories and ignorant conjecture about the science. Philosophy is not a hard science, so using it in the same sentence with physics is ludicrous.
I spend a good part of my day every day attempting to educate pseudo scientists like you who probably never made it past a high school education and think that by reading a few disreputable articles that you are suddenly a physics professor. It takes about twenty years of college to acquire a Ph.D and a Masters degree in physics as I have done. Your comments disparage the unshaken dedication of all the people who have selfishly devoted their lives to knowledge and science.
Nobody NEEDS to prove you wrong or accept your ignorant conjecture. The amount of evidence and information on this is irrefutable. You have no idea what you are talking about. There are no "trickeries" in science. And based on your comment, we have no need to waste our time with you, as it would take a lot of instruction just to get you to a level of understanding where we could have an intelligent conversation on the subject.
Mohammad Shafiq Khan | July 27, 2015 at 7:06 am | Reply
For the detailed reply you may read the link https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/adopted-paradigm-physics-incorrect-shafiq-khan?trk=prof-post.
I would like to keep you informed that the open challenge has been sent to almost all professors of physics & universities of the world and so far two retired professors of physics namely Jeremy Dunning-Davies of Hull University & Brian Cole of Columbia University accepted the challenge but both of them finally failed to show a single error in the papers on the basis of which open challenge was put forward. In this regard exchange of articles between me & Jeremy Dunning-Davies are available on vixra, General Science Journal & Elixir Online Journal. Now almost every concerned physicist of the world is in total knowledge of the standing open challenge and they also know that they can do nothing about it technically & scientifically. They would have easily accepted the alternative paradigm of physics which emerges as the consequence of my scientific publications but that would reduce their degrees to trash and they will morally have to quit their jobs. Besides there is fund flow of huge public resources annually for research to different research institutions including the research institutions all over the world and once world comes to know that all these institutions are knowingly wasting public money for baseless research millions of heads would have to roll. Thus all the main-stream physicists are maintaining a deliberate silence and ignorance of the standing open challenge.


Ah, Adobe Flash Player. It provides us with so much entertainment.
Vimeo. YouTube. Vevo. Hulu. The list goes on.
All of these sites are powered by Flash, although some of them are coming around and supporting the HTML5 video standard. Flash also powers quite a few of the annoying banner ads you see on sites every day.
You know what else is pretty common about Flash? Each time you visit a site with a Flash video playing, you'll notice your computer's fans speeding up, as the computer skyrockets to temperature levels close to those of the surface of the sun.
For a while now (a few months?), I've been debating whether or not it would be a smart idea to get rid of Flash completely from my MacBook Pro. I develop websites professionally, so it might seem daft to do such a thing. What would I have to gain from it?
Geek factor. Yup, the main reason I disabled Flash on my MacBook Pro is for the geek factor. Did you know that you can get up to an hour of extra battery life when you don't allow your browser to load Flash content? What a resource hog, right?
It turns out that HTML5 video uses up to 20% less CPU resources than Flash does. You know what that means? I might actually get the advertised 7 hours of battery life on my MacBook Pro! But there has to be a tradeoff, right? There must be something that makes this decision not worth it.
Since I disabled Flash, each time I go to a video site to watch a video (be it news, comedy, or movie trailer), if it doesn't work, I simply leave the site. Have you ever gotten stuck in the YouTube Zone? It's where you go to YouTube to watch just one video, but it turns into a Weird Video Marathon, lasting three hours. That doesn't happen any more, since I turned off Flash.
Sure, YouTube does have HTML5 support for some videos, but it doesn't work on all of them. That's better for me, because I save the initial 5 minutes of video watching AND the extra 2 hours of unplanned video watching.
So what about the times when I absolutely need Flash? A week ago, I had to check in for a car service appointment, and the dealership's check in service was written completely in Flash on their website. Sure, I probably could have called, but I preferred to do it online.
As it turns out, Google has baked Flash directly into Chrome. Since getting rid of my Android phone, I'm a huge fan of avoiding Google products as much as I can, but sometimes it's just necessary. When I absolutely need Flash, I'll fire up Chrome, get done what needs to be done, and close Chrome as quickly as possible.
You might call this cheating, but I call it a necessary evil.
So that's all I've got for you. Flash is going away, folks. It doesn't ship on the iPhone, iPad, or iPod Touch. It also doesn't ship on any Apple computers. HTML5 will get better and better, and there will soon be no need for Flash. I'm getting rid of it now, because it not only increases my productivity, but my laptop's battery life as well!
If you haven't been keeping up with The Rich Life lately, you'll be surprised to know that I've recently published a book. It's called Live Free Travel Free, and it's all about traveling more without spending more money. This book is the most extensive recounting imaginable of the techniques I use to get slick deals on everything I buy and travel extremely often for cheap or free.
The book is over 9,000 words, and it is something I am truly proud of. In a nutshell, Live Free Travel Free is all about using arbitrage techniques with rewards credit cards to earn unlimited amounts of rewards points. While earning these points, you'll be able to acquire elite status with a few of the hotel chains, and possibly earn something even better like a Southwest Rapid Rewards Companion Pass.
I don't want to spoil it by giving too many details away, but if you want to seriously increase your potential to travel for free and earn a good bit of side profit while doing so, I'd highly suggest downloading my book. You can also join the subscription service to receive instant deal alerts, but if you're more of a read-and-learn sort of person, just stick with the book.
Here's a link that will take you to the shopping cart where you can purchase Live Free Travel Free. It's selling for $47, and will soon be increasing to $57.
In December of 2006, I had a decision to make. I was getting into the meaty courses of my Electrical Engineering degree, and I knew I would be needing a laptop during the coming semester. I was deciding between a 14″ HP Laptop, and the 13″ Black MacBook. Apple had just released the MacBook models with the Core2Duo processors.
The cool thing about the Core2Duo processors at the time, is that they were the first legitimate dual-core processors. The Core Duo processor was marketed as "dual-core", but it only had 2 threads. The Core2Duo actually had 2 cores. This meant it was one of the first 64-bit processors to hit the market. Since 64-bit operating systems weren't widely popular at the time, I knew this processor would stand the test of time – for a LONG time – as the next big thing hadn't even started yet, and this processor was ready to take it on.
The HP was selling for about $1200, and the MacBook was selling for about $1700. What would make the $500 decision? I just happened to be taking a course called 'Multimedia and Music' the following semester, and I knew the class would be focused on Macintosh software.


Bristol Rovers have come up with a way to tackle the credit crunch and give local businesses a fantastic opportunity to get involved with the club.
The club has decided to hold a special sponsorship draw in which local businesses can buy a draw ticket for £1,000 and win the opportunity to see their company's name on the blue and white quarters next season.
Second and third prizes are equally impressive with the opportunity available to get your company's name on the Rovers 09/10 away shirt and a perimeter advertising board respectively.
The club is also offering everyone who enters a fantastic hospitality package worth £700 – which includes a meal for 10 people and a stadium tour, a chance to have your photograph taken with the squad and a Bristol Rovers signed football.
The League 1 side have been looking for a new sponsor since Cowlin Construction decided not to renew their deal back in March. Since then they have had talks with a number of companies, but after failing to close a suitable deal, they came up with this creative idea.' And with the draw capped to a maximum of 100 tickets, Rovers hope this idea will hope to get local business involved with the club.
Elsewhere, Burnley FC have unveiled their new Errea home and away kits for the 2009/10 season.
The kits have been designed to replicate those worn by the Clarets when they were last crowned champions of English football in 1960.
The traditional V-neck claret and blue home jersey features the 50th anniversary logo, is embroidered with the club crest worn in that era and emblazoned with the new shirt sponsor, Cooke Oils.
Kit sponsors Errea have kindly allowed their branding to be moved from the right breast to the sleeve, giving the jersey a more vintage appearance. The jersey is finished with claret and blue trim on the neck and sleeves and accompanied by plain white shorts and claret and blue hooped stockings identical to those worn by Jimmy Adamson's men when they won the First Division title.
The away jersey is again in keeping with the 1960 team, featuring a white shirt with claret and blue trim on the V-neck and sleeves. This time, Errea's branding is present on the front of the shirt, along with the same club crest and sponsor's logo. The away jersey is accompanied by black shorts and white stockings with claret and blue trim.
And in other news, having secured their Premier League safety, Stoke City have unveiled their brand new 2009/10 away kit made by Le coq sportif. The all black affair, enhanced by touches of red, will hit the shelves on Thursday 21st May at 9.00am.


The Road trip dress in Pumpkin is the dress you have been dreaming of.
With a subtle 70's reminiscence, this print will give you a sophisticated and romantic look.
Flattering and easy to wear, this wrap dress will be your best friend for autumn days and late nights, wether you are going to the local market or having a walk alongside the ocean at sunset.


text:
"Everything I make is rooted 100% in improvisation" - Julianna Barwick
10 de Março, 2016 • Entrevistas • Sara Dias
"I love the feeling of the bass pulsing through my body" • Paul Waller (OHHMS) in interview
Cícero: "Já não existe o sensor da gravadora que diz quem merece ser gravado e ouvido"
Tremor festival is about to shake S. Miguel Island and the whole historic center of Ponta Delgada, the biggest town of Azores. From 15th to 19th March, the concerts will be taking place at multiple venues varying from a theater to a clothing store. The festival is organized by Lovers & Lollypops, Yuzin S.Miguel and the independent curator António Pedro Lopes.
Julianna Barwick is one of the most interesting acts to perform there, alongside with Bitchin' Bajas + Bonnie "Prince" Billy (Will Oldham), ZA! and Dan Deacon, amongst others. The Azores Islands are the perfect background for Barwick's ethereal soundscapes and her celestial voice – it's not by chance that she has been compared with Grouper, at least as her "white witch" version.
Therefore, we have interviewed Julianna before the announcement of her new album Will which is coming out May 6th via Dead Oceans. The first single, "Nebula", was already released and you can listen to it bellow.
We haven't heard from you since the release of Nepenthe and your latest EP Rosabi. Are you working on something new to be released in 2016?
I have a new record called Will that's coming out on may 6th via Dead Oceans. I worked on it in a bunch of different of locations, so the sound of it really varies from song to song. I experimented with synths while recording at Moog last summer, for instance, which is something I always wanted to experiment with.
The recording and making of Nepenthe took place in Iceland, and I think that came out as being really tangible in the album. Where would you like to go to record a new album in the future?
I would love to record my next album in a beachy locale. The ocean is my favorite place to be, and diving in waves is my favorite thing to do. I think I could come up with some really good stuff in a place I love so much.
Since most of your vocals are mostly just sounds, how do you come up with their titles?
After the song is complete, I listen to it and pay attention to what it makes me think about. A word or a phrase will pop into my head and 99% of the time, that's the title that sticks.
When you're recording how much of it is planned and how much of it is improvised?
Everything I make is rooted 100% in improvisation. I sit at a piano, or a synth, or a loop station, and make stuff up. Sometimes recording it and working it out from there. I don't really know how to 'write' music. I could, but it's not what comes naturally to me and makes me the happiest.
And live? Do you plan everything or do you do things by impulse?
I recreate my songs live now, so I do have a plan and it's often practiced many times. In the early days Ii would do a lot of improvisation but I don't really do that anymore.
What albums have influenced you to choose this/your type of music? – ambient, I would say, even though I don't want to restrict your music to a genre or a stereotype.
I would say soundtracks and choral music, mainly. I grew up singing in choirs and love that sound. Human voices layered on top of layers and harmonies. I saw "Empire of the Sun" in 1987 as a kid, and there were songs by a boys' choir in it. John Williams' score had a lasting effect on me.
When and how did you decide to make music? Do you come from a family of musicians?
I've been singing and making up songs my whole life. My Mom has an amazing voice and is always humming or singing, which I definitely do also. So I would say my Mom and growing up in choirs informed almost everything I make...or have ever made.
What instrument did your first learned to play? And what came first, vocals or instrument?
I played clarinet in school during the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. We always had an upright piano in the house, so I played that pretty much every day of my life. Someone gave me a guitar in high school and I tinkered around with that also.
I've read like a thousand times that you like Drake – so do I! - so, do you imagine yourself exploring other types of music at some point of your career?
I love all kinds of music. It's true, I have a bit of a pop obsession. I'm not sure what roads I'll end up taking musically, but I'm pretty sure I won't be rapping or crooning about dudes or anything anytime soon!
What are your inspirations besides the musical ones? (Movies, directors, books, photographers, other artists, places, etc.)
I love Stanley Kubrick, Sofia Coppola, and Michel Gondry. Films like "Empire of the Sun", "Eternal Sunshine", "Lost in Translation". The Fountainhead, Catcher in the Rye. Francesca Woodman, Cy Twombly. Lisbon, Paris, Iceland, The beach. They all inspire me.
I've read in an interview that your sister wanted you to try out American Idol. What song would you've sung if you had participated?
"Vision of Love" by Mariah [Carey].
Recently you retweeted this: "Julianna Barwick is like the Jesus friendly version of Grouper". I laughed really loud but what is your interpretation of the tweet? Are comparisons with Grouper recurrent?
I thought it was funny because Liz and I get compared sometimes and it's usually pretty amusing. Years ago, I read that she was the 'black witch of ambient music" while I was 'the white witch"...which I loved. Grouper is one of my favorite artists of all time and I love her music very much.
You're coming to Azores to play on Tremor Festival, have you been there yet? What to you think about the rest of the line-up (Black Mountain, Dan Deacon, SUUNS, Bonnie Prince Billy, etc.)?
I've played Lisbon many times. Coimbra and Guimarães, but never Azores! I'm excited beyond belief. The lineup is amazing. I can't wait to see everyone play in such a beautiful place.
"Nebula" is the first single of the upcoming album Will, out May 6th.
por Sara Dias
em Entrevistas
Bandas Julianna Barwick
2016, Azores, Açores, Entrevista, Festival, Interview, Portugal, Tremor
[Entrevista] Nick Allport
Entrevista aos Sensible Soccers
Bruno Abreu (Revolve): "Estas bandas vão dar que falar"

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Murcia Station is the main train station in the city and province of in southeast Spain. It's located about 2kms south of Murcia's city centre. Routes from the train station include regional services to Lorca and Cartagena. In addition to these, there are also longer distance services to Madrid Chamartin Station and Barcelona Sants Station.
Facilities at Murcia Station include a cafe, toilets, car parking and car hire.
Murcia is about 45kms from the coast and beaches along the Costa Calida. If you're in or travelling to Murcia and want to continue on towards the coast, the best way to get around is with a Murcia Station car hire. With the convenience of having your car, getting around is easy.
Spain's Costa Calida is a popular stretch of coast in Spain, which includes beach resorts along La Manga del Mar. La Manga (for short), is a long and thin strip of land with the Mediterranean Sea on one side and Mar Menor, a seawater lagoon, on the other. The strip caters mainly for tourists with hotels and resorts filling up much of it. Other popular beaches nearby include those around Torrevieja, Puerto Mazarron and Cartagena.
The vast majority of visitors to the region head straight to the coast but the city of Murcia is worth checking out for a taste of Spanish city life. Highlights include the historic old town, which is south of the city centre, close to the River Segura. Two architectural gems in the city are the Cathedral and Episcopal Palace. There are also many great restaurants serving the local cuisine and it has a fantastic indoor market called the Veronicas.
The nearest airport serving the region is Murcia Airport. It also has car hire services. But, unlike the train station, the airport is much closer to the coast and is located in San Javier. If you're looking to collect a car hire in downtown Murcia, the train station is more convenient.


I have another GOSH Cosmetics review for you and today its the turn of the Long Lasting Lip Marker*.
I received the shade 05 in Soft Rose, as the name suggests it is a gorgeous rose pink that intensifies once on the lips and can be built up to a really strong, vibrant pink.
It is like a huge marker pen and is surprisingly pigmented and builds up really well. Even though the nib of the marker is quite thick it still applies well and is easy to follow the line of your lips. I slant the pen on its side when filling in my lips as i have lined around the outside. Once applied it doesnt bleed or smudge and stays put.
It doesnt feel too sticky at all on the lips, however first applied it feels slightly wet but dries quickly. It has a gorgeous fruity scent, that smells wonderful and tastes sweet which i really do like although im sure some people wouldnt.
The packaging is quite simple, in a matte black tube with plastic at the base to show the colour of the lip marker.
These really are long lasting and once dry stay on the lips amazing well and wear slowly over the day and obviously last a lot longer the less you drink or eat. Once on the lips you cant feel it at all and are comparable to lip stains in this sense.
The GOSH Cosmetics Long Lasting Lip Markers are available in 4 shades, soft rose, natural brown, berry and red and each tube contains 2.5g of product.
They are available to buy now from the Superdrug website here and retail for £6.99.
Have you used any lip markers before?
Im all about the alternatives to lipstick at the moment, have to check this one out! Sounds so good!
Do you ever buy much for yourself? You seem to only ever review things you are given.
This looks like such a fun product. I sometimes find that the stains are a tad drying having tried the Revlon Just Bitten and being left a tad disappointed. I might have to try this to see how it compares.
I've never used a lip marker before. It seems like such an interesting product though. I really love how the color shows up on your lips.
I really hated the 'lip-stains' that came out last year as they make my lips look dry. flaky and vile. But this sounds as if it could be more a hybrid towards a lipstick formula?? I'd love something long-lasting as I never find time to reapply at college!
Such a beautiful color.Have to love GOSH .
Their lip products are fabulous.
I love these, that colour is so pretty and fresh! I love the felt tip!
Hey there, I've just awarded you with the Blogger Appreciation Award.


text:
//
//   Copyright 2018  SenX S.A.S.
//
//   Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
//   you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
//   You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
//   Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
//   distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
//   WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
//   See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
//   limitations under the License.
//

package io.warp10.script.processing.color;

import io.warp10.script.NamedWarpScriptFunction;
import io.warp10.script.WarpScriptStackFunction;
import io.warp10.script.WarpScriptException;
import io.warp10.script.WarpScriptStack;
import io.warp10.script.processing.ProcessingUtil;

import java.util.List;

import processing.core.PGraphics;
import processing.core.PImage;

/**
 * Call background
 */
public class PcolorMode extends NamedWarpScriptFunction implements WarpScriptStackFunction {

  public PcolorMode(String name) {
    super(name);
  }

  @Override
  public Object apply(WarpScriptStack stack) throws WarpScriptException {

    List<Object> params = ProcessingUtil.parseParams(stack, 1, 2, 4, 5);

    PGraphics pg = (PGraphics) params.get(0);

    String modestr = params.get(1).toString();

    if (!"RGB".equals(modestr) && !"HSB".equals(modestr)) {
      throw new WarpScriptException(getName() + ": invalid mode, should be one of 'RGB' or 'HSB'");
    }

    int mode = "RGB".equals(modestr) ? PGraphics.RGB : PGraphics.HSB;

    if (2 == params.size()) {
      pg.colorMode(mode);
    } else if (3 == params.size()) {
      pg.colorMode(
        mode,
        ((Number) params.get(2)).floatValue()
      );
    } else if (5 == params.size()) {
      pg.colorMode(
        mode,
        ((Number) params.get(2)).floatValue(),
        ((Number) params.get(3)).floatValue(),
        ((Number) params.get(4)).floatValue()
      );
    } else if (6 == params.size()) {
      pg.colorMode(
        mode,
        ((Number) params.get(2)).floatValue(),
        ((Number) params.get(3)).floatValue(),
        ((Number) params.get(4)).floatValue(),
        ((Number) params.get(5)).floatValue()
      );
    }

    stack.push(pg);

    return stack;
  }
}


Here you can find replacement straps and spare parts by Casio. We have many original Casio replacement straps in stock. Whether you are looking for G-Shock, Baby-G, Edifice, Wave Ceptor, Casio Sport, for original watch bands made of rubber (resin), metal, leather or textile material, for bezels or for other Casio spare parts, you will find the suitable original item in our shop.
We recommend using the search mask (above) in order to find the desired watch band or spare part quickly. Just enter the model number of your watch and all the items we quote in connection with your model will appear. Should your watch not be listed in our website, please use our contact form. We will be glad to quote all available replacement bands, bezels, or coverings for the watch case.
You will find a detailed description of Casio replacement straps and how to change or fit them.
Watch strap Casio for EQW-M710, WVQ-550E,WVQ-570E, ECW-M300 a. v.w.


text:
Old Norse Ægir The meaning of his
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Old Norse Ægir
The meaning of his name is associated with water. He was also called Hler and Gymir [the Blinder] (the name of Gerd's father -- it is not known if they are one and the same). Aegir was the god of the seashore or ocean, and called the ruler of the sea by Snorri. He was a personification of the ocean, be it good or evil.
He caused storms with his anger and the skalds said a ship went into "Aegir's wide jaws" when it wrecked. Sailors feared Aegir, and thought he would sometimes surface to destroy ships. According to Sidonius, early Saxons made human sacrifices to a god of the sea, possibly connected with Aegir.
Aegir was one of the Vanir and a giant. His father was Mistarblindi [Mist-Blind], and his brothers, Logi [Fire] (identified by Guerber as Loki), and Kari [Air]. Aegir's wife (and sister) was Ran and they lived under the sea by the island Hlesey. Ran and Aegir had nine daughters who were the waves: Himinglaeva, Dufa, Blodughadda, Hefring, Unn, Hronn, Bylgia, Bara, and Kolga -- all of their names are poetic names for waves.
Aegir brewed ale for the gods after Thor brought him a big enough kettle. Every winter the gods would drink beer at Aegir's home. He was, therefore, famed for his hospitality. Instead of having a fire, gold was put onto the floor of the hall to provide light. Gold is therefore called Aegir's fire. The cups in Aegir's hall were always full, magically refilling themselves. Aegir had two servants in his hall, Fimafeng [Handy] and Eldir [Fire-Kindler]. According to Lee Hollander, Aegir's function as the gods' ale brewer was suggested by the ocean's foam.
After the death of Balder, the gods gathered for a feast in Aegir's hall. Loki showed up and insulted everyone (this is told in Lokasenna in the Poetic Edda). The gods couldn't do Loki harm in the hall since it was a sanctuary where no violence could be committed.
It is interesting to note that in Snorri's Gylfaginning [see Edda] Aegir is not mentioned as one of the gods, and in part of his Skaldskaparmal Aegir, also referred to as Hler, was a man "very skilled in magic" living on the island Hlesey who went to visit the gods in Asgard. During his visit he listened as Bragi told him of the gods' adventures.
In Egil's Saga, after the death by drowning of Egil's second son Bothvar, Egil composed the poem Sonatorrek which mentions Aegir:
Sure, if sword could venge
Such cruel wrong,
Evil times would wait
Aegir, ocean-god.
That wind-giant's brother
Were I strong to slay,
'Gainst him and his sea-brood
Battling would I go.
But I in no wise
Boast, as I ween
Strength that may strive
With the stout ships' bane.
(Leach, A Pageant of Old Scandinavia, p. 321.)
Aurvandil
Old Norse Aurvandill
Aurvandil is briefly mentioned in the Prose Edda, but not at all in the Poetic. The little information we have regarding him is quite intriguing. Referred to as Aurvandil the Bold, he was the husband of the sorceress Groa (named ale-Gefion in the Haustlong)- the woman who attempted to magically remove a whetstone from Thor's forehead. Thor mentioned to her that he had carried her husband in a basket on his back out of Jotunheim and across the Elivigar. What they had been doing is anyone's guess - was Aurvandil one of Thor's frequent companions on the god's adventures against the giants? While crossing the freezing poisonous rivers Aurvandil's toe had frozen so Thor broke it off and threw it into the sky creating the star Aurvandil's Toe. According to Star Names Their Lore and Meaning, Aurvandil's [Orwandil] Toe was Alcor in the big dipper while Rigel, in Orion, was his other toe.
In the Old English Christ I we have another reference to Aurvandil:
Eala earendel,
engla beorhtast,
ofer middangeard
"O Aurvandil, brightest of angels, over Midgaard." Even though the passage is from a Christian poem, it is apparant that a pre-christian mythological figure is being referrenced and that Earendel / Aurvandill was the name of a star or planet. For any Tolkien fans, this was his inspiration for Earendil.
Aurvandil makes another appearance in Saxo's History of the Danes as Horwendil. In this context he appears as a hero. Son of Gerwendil and brother of Feng, Horwendil makes a name for himself as a king of Jutland and then as a Viking. He meets the king of Norway on an island and kills him by hacking off the king's foot. He then married Gerutha daughter of Rorik the Danish king. Together they had a child named Amleth (yes this is the original Hamlet). Of course Horwendil's brother Feng became jealous, killed Horwendil, wed Gerutha, and we all know the rest of the story thanks to Shakespeare.
Old Norse Baldr, variant Baldur
One of the Aesir, his name means "The Glorious". He was also called the "god of tears" and the "white as". Balder, the son of Odin and Frigg, was described as a very handsome and wise god. Some consider him to be a god of light since he was so bright, light shined from him.
Balder's wife was Nanna and they had a son named Forseti. Balder and Nanna lived in Breidablik [The Broad-Gleaming], where nothing unclean could be and there were "fewest baneful runes". Breidablik had a silver roof on golden pillars.
At one point Balder had a foreboding dream. Odin rode to Hel's realm to wake a volva from the dead to find out the meaning of Balder's dream. She foretold Balder's death by Hod (Hodur), his fraternal twin.
Frigg asked all things to swear not to hurt Balder but didn't ask the mistletoe because it was so young. Loki, diguised as an old woman, visited Frigg and found out Balder was invunerable to everything but mistletoe. Loki then made a dart out of mistletoe and tricked the blind god Hod into throwing it at Balder -- all the other gods were playing games by throwing various items at Balder --, thus killing him.
Nanna died of heartache after Balder's death and was burned with him on his funeral boat -- along with his chopped up horse and an unfortunate dwarf who Thor kicked in at the last minute.
Hermod rode to Hel's realm and got her to agree to let Balder return to the living if all things would weep for him. One giantess named Thokk, Loki in disguise, refused to weep, so he remained dead and was cremated on his funeral boat, hringhorni. He is supposed to come back to life after the Ragnarok. A more complete retelling of Snorri's account of Balder's death is available online.
Snorri and Saxo Grammaticus give very different views of Balder and his death. In Saxo's version of this story, Hod (Hother) is alone responsible for Balder's death.
Balder's name rarely occurs in place names, therefore, it is thought that not many people worshipped him. It has been suggested that Balder was an ancient hero who was elevated to divinity. The poets used his name to mean warrior.
Balder is also mentioned in the Merseburg charm.
Listed by Snorri as one of the goddesses. Snorri tells the story of Vidfinn's two children, Bil and Hjuki, who, as they were leaving a well named Byrgir carrying a pail named Saeg on a pole called Simul, were taken from the earth by Moon to accompany him on his journeys.
Snorri mentions that from Earth Bil and Hjuki can be seen with Moon and Grimm relates in his Teutonic Mythology "to this day the Swedish people see in the spots of the moon two persons carrying a big bucket on a pole."
Some people claim this is the original Jack and Jill tale but that nursery rhyme actually had its origin in English politics from the time of King Charles.
Bil is also called the goddess of weaving by Gisli in Gisla saga Surssonar. After Gisli has a prophetic dream regarding his death, he speaks the verse containing the reference to Bil. The tone makes it seem that weaving refers to weaving destiny.
God of poetry, (adopted?) son of Odin and the giantess Gunlod. He was the chief poet of Odin and said to be very wise. He was married to Idun and he had runes cut on his tounge.
In The Lay of Hakon, Bragi is in Valhalla with Odin who tells Bragi to go out and greet Hakon as he arrives. Bragi is also in Valhalla alongside Odin in The Lay of Eirik, and Odin refers to Bragi as one who "knowest everything well". During the feast in Asgard attended by Aegir, it is Bragi who relates to Aegir the tales of the gods.
There was a 9th century skald named Bragi Boddason and some believe he may have been raised to a god by later writers. Others believe Bragi was an aspect of Odin.
Old Norse Freyr
God of weather and fertility. He ruled over the land of the light elves, Alfheim. He was the son of Njord and Njord's sister (mayhaps Ingun), and the brother of Freya. His step-mother was Skadi.
To make peace, the Aesir and Vanir exchanged hostages. He, along with Njord and Freya, were sent by the Vanir to dwell with the Aesir.
He owned the ship Skidbladnir which was made for him by dwarves. It could sail on the land, sea, or through the air. It was large enough to hold all the gods, yet could be folded up and fit into a pocket.
He also owned a chariot drawn by two boars, Gullinbursti and Slidrugtanni. He could ride Gullinbursti [golden-bristled] through the sky. It was made by dwarves for Loki to give to Frey.
His name means "Lord" and it is thought that he was at one time the consort of his sister Freya [Lady].
His wife was Gerd, a beautiful giantess who he fell in love with when he espied her from Odin's throne. He sent his servant, Skirnir, to win her for him. For this task, Frey lent Skirnir his sword which "swings itself if wise he who wields it" and his horse. After Skirnir's threatening of her, Gerd agreed to give herself to Frey in nine nights at the forest Barri.
At the Ragnarok, Frey will be killed by the fire giant Surt.
Also known as Yng, Frey is named as the progenitor of the swedish royal family. There was a statue of Frey in the temple at Uppsala in Sweden, the center of his worship.
Old Norse Freyja
Goddess of fertility and war. Originally one of the Vanir. She was the daughter of Njord, and the sister of Frey. Her daughters, by Od, are named Hnoss, who is so beautiful that whatever is valuable and lovely is named "treasure" after her, and Gersemi.
She lived in Folkvang [battlefield] and each day chose half of the slain warriors to split with Odin. She had a husband named Od, whom she somehow lost and cried golden tears for. Many believe Od is Odin.
Her chariot was drawn by male cats (their names are never stated) and she owned the precious Brisings' necklace, which she slept with four dwarves to acquire. She also owned a feather coat which she could use to fly between the worlds.
After she went to live with the Aesir as a hostage, she taught them -- including Odin -- seidr. Some sources say Friday is named after her.
Goddess of marriage. She is the wife of Odin, and Friday is named for her (according to some). Her abode was called Fensalir [The Ocean Halls] and she weaved the clouds.
Another name for Frigg was probably Saga [ON Sága]. In the Prose Edda it states that Saga was an Aesir goddess who dwelt in a "big place" called Sokkvabekk. That is the only mention of her. In the Poetic Edda she is also only mentioned once:
Sokkvabekk called is the fourth, which cool waters
ripple round about;
there Odin and Saga all their days drink,
glad from golden cups.
- Grimnismal, Lee Hollander tr.
That is all that is said about her in the Norse mythological sources. As Hollander points out she is probably identical with Frigg since she is said to drink with Odin (Frigg's husband) "all their days" and Fensalir, Frigg's hall, means "Ocean Halls" which is comparable to Sokkvabekk, "Suken Hall".
Some people call Saga a goddess of history or a goddess of poetry, possibly because the word Saga is connected to the word for history, and also refer to her as a daughter of Odin but there is no discernable basis for any of this.
Listed by Snorri as one of the twelve divine goddesses, she appears mainly to function as Frigg's maid, taking care of the goddess's shoes. She also, sometimes, functions as Frigg's messenger. Some believe she is Frigg's sister. Snorri stated she was a virgin with long golden hair who wore a gold band around her head. It has been suggested that this band represents the binding around a sheaf of grain, making her a fertility goddess.
When Hermod rode to Hell to ask Hel if Baldr could return to Asgard, Nanna gave him a gold ring to give to Fulla, among other gifts. Fulla is called a maid of Frigg in The Lay of Gimnir in the Poetic Edda, and is sent on an errand by Frigg. We also have mention of Fulla in Gisla saga Surssonar:
My Fulla, fair faced, the goddess of stones
Who gladdens me much, shall hear of her friend
Standing straight, unafraid in the rain of the spears...
Gefjon
Old Norse Gefjun
A prophetic virgin goddess and a member of the Aesir and Vanir. All women who die virgins go to her hall. She was also a fertility goddess. In one myth, Gylfi, king of Sweden, tells Gefjon, who was disguised as a beggar, that she could have as much of Sweden as she could plough with four oxen in one day. She traveled to Jotunheim and found her four oxen sons whom she had by a giant (she isn't a virgin in this myth!). She returned to Sweden in Midgard with her sons and ploughed all of the land now known as Zealand so it became part of Denmark, thereby tricking Gylfi. Her name means "Giver".
Old Norse Heimdallr
Watches the rainbow bridge, Bifrost , for the coming of the frost giants at the Ragnarok, at which time he will sound his horn Gjallar. In the Ragnarok, he and Loki will kill each other. He never sleeps, can see in the dark, and can hear sheep wool growing. His dwelling place is Himinbjorg [heavenly mountains]. Nine sisters, signifying the waves, gave birth to him. As Rig, he begets Thrall, Carl, and Earl, representing the three classes of man; slave
Daughter of Loki and the giant Angurboda. She is the sister of Fenrir (Fenris-wolf) and Jormungand (Midgard serpent). She is the goddess of the underworld. Her realm was Niflheim and her hall, Elvidnir [misery]. She was described as half white and half black., freeman, and noble.
Old Norse Iðunn
Goddess of youth, her name means "The Rejuvenating One". She is married to Bragi and is the keeper of the apples which keep the gods eternally young. The only myth we have concerning Idun is the story of her kidnapping by the giant Thiazi.
Odin, Loki, and Hoenir, were on one of their travels when they happened upon an ox and, since they were so very hungry, decided to cook it. For some reason however, the meat would not cook.
As they were trying to discern the reason for this travesty a huge eagle perched above them in an oak tree told them he knew why the ox wasn't cooking and would show them how to roast it if they would first let him eat his fill.
No sooner had they agreed than the eagle ate such a great portion of the ox that Loki got angry, took a pole and struck at the eagle. The eagle flew upwards with the pole and Loki stuck to the other end. He told Loki he would only let him down if Loki agreed to kidnap Idun and her age-defying apples.
When the gods arrived in Asgard Loki did as he had promised and lured Idun outside of Asgard to where the eagle was waiting. The eagle, who was none other than the giant Thiazi in his eagle skin cloak, took Idun to his home called Thrymheim in the mountains of Jotunheim.
The gods began to quickly age once the source of their immortality had been stolen so they decided Loki should have to go and fetch her back. After all, he was the one who had caused all the trouble.
Loki borrowed Freya's falcon cloak and flew to Thrymheim where he found Idun alone. He turned her into a nut and flew back to Asgard as fast as he could, holding Idun in his claws.
As soon as Thiazi returned and found Idun gone, he put on his eagle cloak and flew towards Asgard. His wings beat so quickly and with such force that he caused strong storm winds to hamper Loki's escape. The gods could see the eagle coming in pursuit of Loki so as soon as Loki was safe inside the bounds of Asgard they built a bonfire which set fire to Thiazi's wings. Once the giant fell to the gound the Aesir killed him. Afterwards, his daughter Skadi came to avenge his death.
There is debate as to whether or not Idun's apples were a late addition to the mythology, something inspired by Greek or Irish legends. In an early form of the tale in the Haustlong which was composed by Thjodolf of Hvin the court poet of Harold Fairhair who lived ca 860 Idun's absence causes the Aesir to age but there is no mention of apples.
A giant. He became a member of the Aesir when Odin made Loki his blood brother. He is the god of mischief, a trickster, and very cunning. After causing the death of Balder, he was bound by the gods until the Ragnarok, at which time, he will be freed.
Some books list Sataere as a Germanic god of agriculture and suggest that the name is another name for Loki. Guerbers' Myths of the Norsemen is one of these books, stating:
Loki was confounded with Saturn, who had also been shorn of his divine attributes, and both were considered the prototypes of Satan. The last day of the week, which was held sacred to Loki, was known in the Norse as Laugardag, or wash-day, but in English it was changed to Saturday, and was said to owe its name not to Saturn but to Sataere, the thief in ambush, and the Teutonic god of agriculture, who is supposed to be merely another personification of Loki.
Of course, Guerber does not provide us with a source. If we look at the Norse sources there are no references to Sataere or Saturn. Jan De Vries lists the Old English word Sataere as being derived from the word Saturn, thus not a separate deity, and it seems that Njord not Loki is the Norse god that more closely resembles Saturn. Could an association between Njord and Saturn be the cause of Scandinavians using Laugurdag -- bath or wash day -- in place of Saturday?
Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology reasons that Saturn was originally a Germanic deity and this is probably Guerber's source. Prof. E.G. Stanley in The Search for Anglo-Saxon Paganism states that Saturn is erroneously included among the gods of the Anglo-Saxons by some scholars (Grimm included) because of his appearence in an early Old English poem Solomon and Saturn. Moreover, Stanley relates the opinion of other scholars that the Saturn appearing in the poem represents the Chaldean god Saturn and not some Germanic deity.
There are quite a few sites dealing with Loki including a wonderful site by Johannes Persson, and an article by Eric A. Anderson regarding Loki's offspring.
Old Norse Njörð variant Niord.
God of the wind and sea, also called god of chariots and the giving god. It was to him that those wishing for protection on travels or desiring a good catch while fishing were supposed to pray. He was said to be so rich that he could bestow wealth on any who prayed to him for it.
A member of the Vanir, he was sent with his son to the Aesir as a hostage after the war between the two races of deities and was to return to the Vanir at Ragnarok. After becoming a member of the Aesir, Odin made Njord a priest of sacrifices according to the Ynglinga Saga. It further states that the Swedish people believed Njord ruled over the growth of seasons and prosperity.
His home was called Noatun [harbour] and his wife was the giantess Skadi who married him because he had beautiful feet. She later left him because they couldn't decide in whose dwelling they should live.
Njord was the father of Frey and Freya, we are never directly given their mother's name, however, Leach states Ingun was their mother - maybe he does so because Frey is referred to as Ingunar-Frey. In Lokasenna Loki taunts Njord by saying that he fathered Frey on his own sister. We again hear that Frey and Freya were the children of Njord and his sister in the Ynglinga Saga and that sibling marriage was allowed amongst the Vanir but prohibited by the Aesir.
Snorri tells us that Frey and Freya were born after Skadi left Noatun for Thrymheim. However, in the Poetic Edda Skadi is frequently called Njord's wife even when Frey and Freya are grown. Snorri's Edda has Njord as the one who sends for Skirnir to ask Frey why he is angry yet in the Skírnismál, Skadi is the one who calls Skirnir. She also refers to Frey as her son.
We hear about an older aspect of Njord (as the opposite sex) in Tacitus' Germania where he describes the worship of Nerthus by the Danish. Nerthus is the latin equivalent of the Old Norse word Njord.
Tacitus calls her Mother Earth and relates the ritual surrounding her. Nerthus' sanctuary was in a sacred grove on an island and within the grove was a cart under a covering. When the goddess came to her sanctuary the priest was aware of it and would walk alongside her cart pulled by cows as Nerthus visited places.
While the goddess was among people no war was allowed and all weapons were put away. Once the goddess was brought back to her shrine, she, her cart, and its covering, were all washed in a lake by slaves (maybe this is the origin of the Norwegians using wash day in place of Saturn's day - see the section on Loki regarding Sataere). The slaves were supposedly "swallowed" by the lake afterwards.
Since Skadi is a gender neutral name and even given in the Volsunga Saga as a masculine name, one wonders if Njord was originally the wife and Skadi the husband; note the similarities between she and Ull.
Even into Viking times the worship of Njord was widely spread in Norway as evident by the number of place names which incorporated his name - over twice as many as those for Odin.
Old Norse Óðinn
Leader of the Aesir. Odin had a myriad of names including Allfather, Ygg, Bolverk [evil doer], and Grimnir. He also had many functions including being a god of war, poetry, wisdom, and death. His halls were called Gladsheim Valaskjalf and Valhalla. Odin's high seat, Hlidskialf, was in Valaskjalf. It was from this throne that he could see over all the world. Valhalla is where he gathered his portion of the slain warriors, Einheriar (Einherjar), whom the valkyries had chosen.
The valkyries would serve mead which forever flowed from the udder of Odin's goat, Heidrun. They also served the warriors meat that came from the boar Saehrimnir, which the cook Andhrimnir would prepare for eating by boiling it in the cauldron Eldhrimnir. The boar magically came back to life before the next meal. After eating, the warriors would go outside the hall and fight each other to the death. They were, of course, brought back to life before the next feast. All of this fighting was practice for when Odin would lead the Einheriar in the final battle, Ragnarok.
Odin had a spear named Grungir which never missed its mark and a bow which unleashed ten arrows with every pull. He also owned a magic ring called Draupnir which created nine of itself every night. It was this ring that Odin laid on his son Balder's funeral pyre and which Balder returned to Odin from the underworld. Another one of Odin's prized possesions was his wonderful steed named Sleipnir which had eight legs.
The horse was the offspring of Loki, who in mare form seduced a giant's horse named Svadilfari. Sleipnir could travel to the underworld and through the air. Odin also had two wolves, Geri and Freki, and two ravens, Hugin [thought] and Munin [memory]. He sent his ravens out every day to gather knowledge for him.
Odin sacrificed himself for knowledge by hanging on the world tree, Yggdrasil, which means Ygg's horse. Ygg is a name for Odin and horse is a metaphor for the gallows. He thereby learns the runes. Another sacrifice he made for wisdom was his eye. He gave it up in order to drink from the Well of Mimir which bestowed great knowledge. Because of this, he is typically depicted as having one eye. He is also depicted as wearing a cloak, being old, having a long grey beard, and wearing a wide brimmed hat down low over his face to conceal his one-eyed visage.
Odin was destined to die at Ragnarok; Fenris-Wolf swallowed him. Knowing his fate, he still chose to embrace it and do battle. Showing the true warrior ethic. He was the god of warriors and kings, not the common man. Many heroes genealogies start with Odin, including Sigurd. His name is not found in many place names and therefore it is believed that not many people worshipped him. He was thought to be a traitorous god, as shown in the sagas, who would strike down a warrior at his whim.
The wife of Aegir, she was the sea goddess of storms. She collects drowned people in her net.
Old Norse Skaði, variant Skade
Frequently referred to as the goddess of skis or snow shoes, she travelled on skis, carried a bow, and hunted. She was the daughter of the giant Thiazi [Old Norse Þjázi, variant Thiassi].
Thiazi was the son of a very rich giant named Alvaldi [Olvaldi]. When Alvaldi died Thiazi and his brothers Idi and Gang divided their inheritance by each taking a large mouthful of gold.
After Thiazi was killed by the Aesir as related in the section on Idun, Skadi took up arms and went to Asgard for vengence. The Aesir offered her compensation for the death of her father - she was allowed to choose a husband from among the gods.
There was only one small catch, she had to pick her new husband based only on the appearance of his feet. She picked Njord by mistake, assuming the best looking feet must have belonged to the god Balder.
As further compensation Skadi demanded that one of the Aesir make her laugh. Hence, Loki tied one end of a rope around the beard of a goat and the other end of the rope around his testicles, he then pulled on the rope making both the goat and himself bellow.
As a final form of appeasement Snorri tells us that Odin threw Thiazi's eyes into the sky turning them into stars. This contradicts a passage in the Poetic Edda in Hárbarzljóð which has Thor claiming to have been the one to kill Thiazi and fling his eyes into the sky.
After their marriage, Njord and Skadi could not agree on where to live so they took turns going to Thrymheim (Skadi's abode after Thiazi's death) in the mountains for nine nights and then Noatun on the shore for nine nights. Skadi didn't like Njord's home, and he didn't like her's, so they split up.
From the Ynglinga Saga we learn that after Skadi left Njord she became involved with Odin and had numerous sons by him, one being Saeming who is also listed in the Prose Edda as a son of Odin. However, in the preface to Heimskringla Snorri writes "Eyvind Skaldaspiller also reckoned up the ancestors of Earl Hakon the Great in a poem called 'Haleygjatal', composed about Hakon; and therein he mentions Saeming, a son of Yngvefrey."
The last thing we know about Skadi is that she was the one who positioned the venomous snake over Loki's head after the Aesir bound him.
Old Norse Þórr
The son of Odin and a member of the Aesir, he was the god of thunder and the main enemy of the giants. He would smash their heads with his mighty hammer Mjollnir. To wield this awesome weapon he needed iron gloves and a belt of strength. Mjollnir would return to Thor's hand after being thrown and was symbolic of lightning. Thor would ride around middle-earth in his wagon drawn by two goats, His abode was Thruthheim [Land of Strength] and his hall, Bilskinir. His wife was Sif.
He was foremost of the gods to the common man, who would call on him to ensure fertility, and widely worshiped. Hammer shaped amulets, a symbol of Thor because it was his weapon, were worn about the neck well into the christianization of Scandinavia. There are molds from that time which contain both cross and hammer shapes, side by side. His name occurs in numerous place names, and it was his statue which was central in the great temple at Uppsala.
Thursday is named for him and he was associated by the Romans with Jupiter, therefore also parallel to Zeus. They were all the wielder of ligtning bolts. Some claim that Odin is the Norse equivalent to Jupiter / Zeus, however, one needs look not much further than the name given to the fourth day of the week by the Romans and then to its English equivalent to see that the ancients equated Odin with Mercury / Hermes.
Donar was an early version of Thor among the Germans and the anglo-saxons worshiped a thunder god named Thunor.
God of war. He was the only god brave enough to put his hand in the Fenris- wolf's mouth so the gods could bind it. The wolf bit off his right hand. There is much debate about his lefthandedness. In the norse culture the right hand was given for a pledge, which could be why the right hand was placed in the wolf's mouth. It has also been noted, however, that the offering of the right hand is to show that it is free of weapons. A left handed person was sometimes considered evil because he could use a weapon with his left hand even though he shook with his right hand.
Tuesday is named for Tyr who was known as Tiw, or Tiu, by the Anglo-Saxons. He must have been an important god in the pantheon prior to the mythology we were handed down in the eddas to have one of the days of the week named after him.
Since Tuesday is the English name given in place of the name of the day of the week sacred to Mars for the romans, we know that the old englishmen thought of Tyr as being smiliar to Mars.
Old Norse Ullr, variant Uller
God of archery, the hunt, skiers and snowshoes; basically a male Skadi. His weapon was a longbow made out of Yew and he lived in Ydal [Yew Dales]. He was called upon for help in duels and the skalds frequently used "Ull's ship" to mean sheild.
Ull was the son of Sif and called the stepson of Thor. Rydberg, in his Teutonic Mythology, argued that Ull's father was Aurvandil based on evidence in Saxo. However Ull's father's name is never stated.
Ull, which means glorious, was a part of many place names during the viking age (the only deities with more in Norway were Frey/Freya), therefore, he is considered to be an ancient god who was widely worshipped.
In Saxo's Danish History we learn that Oller (Ull) was put in the place of Odin who had been exiled. Oller was the head of the Aesir for ten years until the other gods decided to end Odin's exile.
The only other information Saxo gives is "he [Oller/Ull] was such a cunning wizard that he used a certain bone, which he had marked with awful spells, wherewith to cross the seas, instead of a vessel; and that by this bone he passed over the waters that barred his way as quickly as by rowing."
The Norse Cosmology
Muddled as the depiction which we are given in the Prose Edda is, we are able to discern a number of powerful cosmological ideas in the Norse vision of the universe.
Variant Yggdrasill
The Norse world tree, omnipresent, its branches extending over all the known worlds, its roots extending into three of them. The name means Odin's Horse referring to the time he "rode" upon the tree and learned the runes. It is also at times referred to as Hoddmimir, Tree of Mimir, and Lærád or Lerad. It is usually called an Ash tree.
One of Yggdrasil's roots extends into Asgard, a second root extends into the world of the frost giants while the third is in Niflheim. This is Snorri's description which, of course, differs from that in the Poetic Edda. Grimnismál has the roots extending into the giants realm, Hel's realm, and one into Midgard.
An eagle sits in the branches of the tree and between its eyes perches a hawk. There is a squirrel called Ratatosk which scurries between the eagle and Nidhogg carrying messages. Nidhogg is the serpent which gnaws at Yggdrasil's Niflheim root.
Along with this menagerie are four stags running in the branches eating the leaves, Heidrun the goat and Eikthyrmir the hart also eating leaves. With all the munching going on the tree needs tending - that is the task of the Norns at Urd's well under one of the roots.
The Norns pour water over the tree every day keeping its bark white. The tree produces honeydew and also berries which help women with pregancy. It appears to be the giver / nourisher of life so it is not surprising when we read that the first humans Ask and Embla were created from trees (one being an Ash) or that two humans Lif and Leifthrasir will hide in the tree during Ragnarok with the tree's honeydew sustaining them until they can go on to restart humanity.
The world tree was a symbol common to many societies. The tree specifically connecting the three regions of man, heaven, and the underworld appears in eastern mythology. Also Odin's nine night suspension in the tree's branches is similar to Finnish shamanistic practices with a nine night stay in a birch tree (Puhvel, 194).
Old Norse Bifröst
Every day the Aesir, except for Thor who must wade through rivers instead, are said to travel over Bifrost - also called Asbru, the bridge of the gods - to Urd's well to hold counsel. The bridge is supposed to be covered with flame to keep those who are unworthy from gaining entry into Asgard.
Snorri explains that Bifrost is the rainbow and the red we see in it, the burning flames. He also relates that Heimdall stands watch at the point the bridge reaches heaven.
Regarded as the best of bridges, Bifrost will finally break during Ragnarok when the sons of Muspell led by Surt ride through Mirkwood and cross it.
Grimm recorded a medieval German Christian belief that the rainbow will no longer appear prior to Armageddon which seems to stem from heathen thought. However, there is also some evidence that Bifrost originally referred to the Milky Way.
According to Star Names their Lore and Meaning, the Norse knew the Milky Way as the pathway of ghosts going to Valhalla. The book also discusses the belief of various cultures that the Milky Way was the path burnt in the sky by the sun.
Whether Bifrost was thought of as the rainbow or the Milky Way, it was the path traversed by those going to and from the other world.
ON Asgarðr
Comparable to the Greek Mount Olympus, Asgard was the dwelling place of the ruling gods, the Aesir.
Following the creation of Midgard, the gods built their temples on Iðavelli, the shining plain. Here is Thor's Thrudheim or Thrudvangar where his hall Bilskirnir stands with its 540 rooms; Ull's Ydal's plains; Frey's Alfheim where the light elves dwell; Odin's hall Valaskjalf that houses the throne from which he looks over all the worlds, Odin and Saga's Sokkvabekk, Odin's Valhalla with its 540 doors in Gladheim; Skadi's Thrymheim; Baldr's Breidablik; Heimdall's Himinbjorg which stands at the edge of Asgard by Bifrost; Freya's Folkvang and her hall Sessruminir; Forseti's Glitnir; Njord's Noatun by the sea; Frigg's Fensalir and Vidar's land called Vidi.
Surrounding Asgard was a defensive wall and a forest outside the wall. In some descriptions one of Yggdrasil's roots extended into Asgard and under it, Urd's well. The Norns Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld lived in a hall by the well and the gods were said to have court at the well every day riding there "up over Bifrost".
One of the problems with certain descriptions of the cosmology is why would the gods ride up over Bifrost if Urd's well was in Asgard? It seems more logical that Urd's well was in the netherworld, that Asgard was in the branches of the world tree, and that the gods rode down Bifrost instead of up. By later redactors trying to make the norse world picture coincide with that of their present day view, such as Asgard being Troy and just a city of Earth, much of the material we have has been muddled.
Gladsheim was listed as a specific hall by Snorri instead of the area where Valhalla was built. He described it as made of gold inside and out, with 13 thrones for the gods. There was also a separate hall called Vingolf specifically for the goddesses.
In the north of Asgard the Giant Hraesvelg sat in eagle form. All wind was supposed to come from his beating wings. Gimle, which in the Volsupa is the place on the shining plain where the remaining gods will return to reign after Ragnarok, is described by Snorri as standing at the southern end of Asgard in the third heaven called Vidblain.
Snorri lists nine heavens altogether: Vindblain, Heidthornir, Hregg-Mimir, Andland, Vidblain, Vidfedmir, Hriod, Hlyrnir, Gimir, Vet-Mimir, and Skatyrnir which is said to be the highest. However, he also cautions their use saying "the following names for the heavens are written down, but we have not found all these terms in poems. But these poetical terms like others seeem to me not proper to include in poetry unless one finds similar terms already in the work of major poets."
One wonders where the practitioners of the old Scandinavian religion actually thought their gods lived.
The abode of humans. It means middle earth or middle garden.
The home of the Vanir. We are never given a description of Vanaheim or told when or how it was created. It seems to almost lie outside the mythos that has come down to us.
We know that it was considered as one of the nine worlds because of its mention in the Alivssmal and also because it is referred to as Njord's birthplace and where he will return at Ragnarok. This seems to imply that Vanaheim will not be affected by Ragnarok.
The abode of the light elfs and their ruler, Frey.
A region of cold. Hel's realm is here (in some sources).
Muspelheim
A region of fire. The fire giants -- sons of muspel -- live here, ruled by Surt.
The abode of the Jotuns -- giants.
Svartalfheim
The abode of the dark elves -- dwarves. It is underground.
The abode of the dwarves which are also called dark elves.
The land of the dead. The way to this realm was through the land of the mountain giants. The connection between this and Niflheim is often confusing. Hel is also the goddess of the underworld.
Three little ice ages will fall upon the world, known as the Fimbulvetr (translated as terrible winter by Young, also referred to as Fimbulwinter), and many other signs will come to pass. Then the time will arrive and the cocks will crow. The fire giants led by Surt will come out of Muspelheim. Naglfar, the ship made out of dead men's nails, will carry the frost giants to the battlefield, Vigrid....
Maidens who chose which warriors on a battlefield would be slain. They also served mead in Valhalla.
 Brynhild
 Geironul
 Geirskogul
 Goll
 Gondul
 Gunn
 Guth
 Herfjotur
 Hervor [Warder of the Host]
 Hild [Battle]
 Hlathguth [Necklace-Adorned Warrior-Maiden
 Hlokk
 Hrist
 Mist
 Olrun [One Knowing Ale Rune]
 Randgrith
 Rathgrith
 Reginleif
 Sigrdrifa
 Sigrun
 Skeggjold
 Skogul
 Skuld [Necessity]
 Svava
 Thruth
The Futhark
A germanic alphabet used since about 3CE. It is referred to as FUTHARK, after the first 6 letters. Each rune was a letter in the alphabet and also stood for a word (its name). The earliest use of runes was for magical purposes (this is debatable -- see R.I. Page's book listed in the sources below). There were many different Futharks. The one used here is the elder Germanic Futhark.
Fehu, F
The rune of Freya and her brother Frey. It stands for fee and gold.
Uruz, U
This rune stands for strength and health. It is associated with a horned animal called the auroch.
Thurisaz, TH
The third rune is associated with giants (thurs).
Ansuz, A
Ansuz is associated with the Aesir, Odin, and the wind.
Raido, R
This is the rune of jouneying, or rides.
Kenaz, K
Kenaz represents the torch.
Gebo, G
Gebo stands for gift.
Wunjo, W
Wunjo is the rune of joy and peace.
Hagalaz, H
This rune stands for hail.
Nauthiz, N
Nauthiz stands for the strength of need.
Isa, I
Isa is the rune associated with ice.
Jera, Y
The rune jera stands for year.
Eihwaz, EI
This rune is associated with the yew.
Perth, P
Perth means fruit to some, but scholars feel its meaning is unclear.
Algiz, Z
Algiz is a rune of protection or defence.
Sowilo, S
Sowilo is the rune associated with the sun.
Tiwaz, T
Tiwaz stands for the war god Tyr. This rune was carved on weapons to bring victory.
Berkano, B
Berkano stands for the birch goddess and is used for fertility and birthing.
Ehwaz, E
This rune means horse.
Mannaz, M
Mannaz stands for man.
Laguz, L
Laguz is the rune associated with water.
Ingwaz, NG
Ingwaz is the rune of the god Ing.
Dagaz, D
Dagaz means day.
Othila, O
Othila is the rune associated with inheritance.
A couple of very good reference books about runes are Runes, an Introduction, by R.W.V.Elliot, and Reading the Past: Runes by R.I. Page, University of California Press, 1987.
For online reading, Jennifer Smith's Runic Journey has general information on runes along with their use in divination. She also has a large collection of links to sites dealing with runes. You can also search through a database of runic inscriptions.
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name given
other gods
three classes
dwelling place
three regions
only mention
main enemy
latin equivalent


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