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United States Radio Act of 1927, Public Law 632, 69th Congress, February 23, 1927.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act is intended to regulate all forms of interstate and foreign radio transmissions and communications within the United States, its Territories and possessions; to maintain the control of the United States over all the channels of interstate and foreign radio transmission; and to provide for the use of such channels, but not the ownership thereof, by individuals, firms, or corporations, for limited periods of time, under licenses granted by Federal authority, and no such license shall be construed to create any right, beyond the terms, conditions, and periods of the license. That no person, firm, company, or corporation shall use or operate any apparatus for the transmission of energy or communications or signals by radio (a) from one place in any Territory or possession of the United States, or from the District of Columbia to another place in the same Territory, possession or District; or (b) from any State, Territory, or possession of the United States, or from the District of Columbia to any other State, Territory, or Possession of the United States; or from any place in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States, or in the District of Columbia, to any place in any foreign country or to any vessel; or (d) within any State when the effects of such use extend beyond the borders of said State, or when interference is caused by such use or operation with the transmission of such energy, communications, or signals from within said State to any place beyond its borders, or from any place beyond its borders to any place within said State, or with the transmission or reception of such energy, communications, or signals from and/or to places beyond the borders of said State; or (e) upon any vessel of the United States; or (f) upon any aircraft or other mobile stations within the United States, except under and in accordance with this Act and with a license in that behalf granted under the provisions of this Act.
SEC. 2. For the purposes of this Act, the United States is divided into five zones, as follows: The first zone shall embrace the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands; the second zone shall embrace the States of Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, and Kentucky; the third zone shall embrace the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma; the fourth zone shall embrace the States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri; and the fifth zone shall embrace the States of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, California, the Territory of Hawaii, and Alaska.
SEC. 3. That a commission is hereby created and established to be known as the Federal Radio Commission, hereinafter referred to as the commission, which shall be composed of five commissioners appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and one of whom the President shall designate as chairman: Provided, That chairmen thereafter elected shall be chosen by the commission itself.
Each member of the commission shall be a citizen of the United States and an actual resident citizen of a State within the zone from which appointed at the time of said appointment. Not more than one commissioner shall be appointed from any zone. No member of the commission shall be financially interested in the manufacture or sale of radio apparatus or in the transmission or operation of radiotelegraphy, radio telephony, or radio broadcasting. Not more than three commissioners shall be members of the same political party.
The first commissioners shall be appointed for the terms of two, three, four, five, and six years, respectively, from the date of the taking effect of this Act, the term of each to be designated by the President, but their successors shall be appointed for terms of six years, except that any person chosen to fill a vacancy shall be appointed only for the unexpired term of the commissioner whom he shall succeed.
The first meeting of the commission shall be held in the city of Washington at such time and place as the chairman of the commission may fix.
The commission shall convene thereafter at such times and places as a majority of the commission may determine, or upon call of the chairman thereof. The commission may appoint a secretary, and such clerks, special counsel, experts, examiners, and other employees as it may from time to time find necessary for the proper performance of its duties and as from time to time may be appropriated for by Congress.
The commission shall have an official seal and shall annually make a full report of its operations to the Congress.
The members of the commission shall receive a compensation of $10,000 for the first year of their service, said year to date from the first meeting of said commission, and thereafter a compensation of $30 per day for each day's attendance upon sessions of the commission or while engaged upon work of the commission and while traveling to and from such sessions, and also their necessary traveling expenses.
SEC. 4. Except as otherwise provided in this Act, the commission, from time to time, as public convenience, interest, or necessity requires, shall--
(a) Classify radio stations;
(b) Prescribe the nature of the service to be rendered by each class of licensed stations and each station within any class;
(c) Assign bands of frequencies or wave lengths to the various classes of stations, and assign frequencies or wave lengths for each individual station and determine the power which each station shall use and the time during which it may operate;
(d) Determine the location of classes of stations or individual stations;
(e) Regulate the kind of apparatus to be used with respect to its external effects and the purity and sharpness of the emissions from each station and from the apparatus therein;
(f) Make such regulations not inconsistent with law as it may deem necessary to prevent interference between stations and to carry out the provisions of this Act: Provided, however, That changes in the wave lengths, authorized power, in the character of emitted signals, or in the times of operation of any station, shall not be made without the consent of the station licensee unless, in the judgment of the commission, such changes will promote public convenience or interest or will serve public necessity or the provisions of this Act will be more fully complied with;
(g) Have authority to establish areas or zones to be served by any station;
(h) Have authority to make special regulations applicable to radio stations engaged in chain broadcasting;
(i) Have authority to make general rules and regulations requiring stations to keep such records of programs, transmissions of energy, communications, or signals as it may deem desirable;
(j) Have authority to exclude from the requirements of any regulations in whole or in part any radio station upon railroad rolling stock, or to modify such regulations in its discretion;
(k) Have authority to hold hearings, summon witnesses, administer oaths, compel the production of books, documents, and papers and to make such investigations as may be necessary in the performance of its duties. The commission may make such expenditures (including expenditures for rent and personal services at the seat of government and elsewhere, for law books, periodicals, and books of reference, and for printing and binding) as may be necessary for the execution of the functions vested in the commission and, as from time to time may be appropriated for by Congress. All expenditures of the commission shall be allowed and paid upon the presentation of itemized vouchers therefor approved by the chairman.
SEC. 5. From and after one year after the first meeting of the commission created by this Act, all the powers and authority vested in the commission under the terms of this Act, except as to the revocation of licenses, shall be vested in and exercised by the Secretary of commerce; except that thereafter the commission stall have power and jurisdiction to act upon and determine any and all matters brought before it under the terms of this section.
It shall also be the duty of the Secretary of Commerce--
(A) For and during a period of one year from the first meeting of the commission created by this Act, to immediately refer to the commission all applications for station licenses or for the renewal or modification of existing station licenses.
(B) From and after one year from the first meeting of the commission created by this Act, to refer to the commission for its action any application for a station license or for the renewal or modification of any existing station license as to the granting of which dispute, controversy, or conflict arises or against the granting of which protest is filed within ten days after the date of filing said application by any party in interest and any application as to which such reference is requested by the applicant at the time of filing said application.
(C) To prescribe the qualifications of station operators, to classify them according to the duties to be performed, to fix the forms of such licenses, and to issue them to such persons as he finds qualified.
(D) To suspend the license of any operator for a period not exceeding two years upon proof sufficient to satisfy him that the licensee (a) has violated any provision of any Act or treaty binding on the United States which the Secretary of commerce or the commission is authorized by this Act to administer or by any regulation made by the commission or the Secretary of Commerce under any such Act or treaty; or (b) has failed to carry out the lawful orders of the master of the vessel on which he is employed; or (c) has willfully damaged or permitted radio apparatus to be damaged; or (d) has transmitted superfluous radio communications or signals or radio communications containing profane or obscene words or language; or (e) has willfully or maliciously interfered with any other radio communications or signals.
(E) To inspect all transmitting apparatus to ascertain whether in construction and operation it conforms to the requirements of this Act, the rules and regulations of the licensing authority, and the license under which it is constructed or operated.
(F) To report to the commission from time to time any violations of this Act, the rules, regulations, or orders of the commission, or of the terms or conditions of any license.
(G) To designate call letters of all stations.
(H) To cause to be published such call letters and such other announcements and data as in his judgment may be required for the efficient operation of radio stations subject to the jurisdiction of the United States and for the proper enforcement of this Act.
The Secretary may refer to the commission at any time any matter the determination of which is vested in him by the terms of this Act.
Any person, firm, company, or corporation, any State or political division thereof aggrieved or whose interests are adversely affected by any decision, determination, or regulation of the Secretary of Commerce may appeal therefrom to the commission by filing with the Secretary of Commerce notice of such appeal within thirty days after such decision or determination or promulgation of such regulation. All papers, documents, and other records pertaining to such application on file with the Secretary shall thereupon be transferred by him to the commission. The commission shall hear such appeal de novo under such rules and regulations as it may determine.
Decisions by the commission as to matters so appealed and as to all other matters over which it has jurisdiction shall be final, subject to the right of appeal herein given.
No station license shall be granted by the commission or the Secretary of Commerce until the applicant therefor shall have signed a waiver of any claim to the use of any particular frequency or wave length or of the ether as against the regulatory powers of the United States because of the previous use of the same, whether by license or otherwise.
SEC. 6. Radio stations belonging to and operated by the United States shall not be subject to the provisions of sections 1, 4, and 5 of this Act. All such Government stations shall use such frequencies or wave lengths as shall be assigned to each or to each class by the President. All such stations, except stations on board naval and other Government vessels while at sea or beyond the limits of the continental United States, when transmitting any radio communication or signal other than a communication or signal relating to Government business shall conform to such rules and regulations designed to prevent interference with other radio stations and the rights of others as the licensing authority may prescribe. Upon proclamation by the President that there exists war or a threat of war or a state of public peril or disaster or other national emergency, or in order to preserve the neutrality of the United States, the President may suspend or amend, for such time as he may see fit, the rules and regulations applicable to any or all stations within the jurisdiction of the United States as prescribed by the licensing authority, and may cause the closing of any station for radio communication and the removal therefrom of its apparatus and equipment, or he may authorize the use of control of any such station and/or its apparatus and equipment by any department of the Government under such regulations as he may prescribe, upon just compensation to the owners. Radio stations on board vessels of the United States Shipping Board or the United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation or the Inland and Coastwise Waterways Service shall be subject to the provisions of this Act.
SEC. 7. The President shall ascertain the just compensation for such use or control and certify the amount ascertained to Congress for appropriation and payment to the person entitled thereto. If the amount so certified is unsatisfactory to the person entitled thereto, such person shall be paid only 75 per centum of the amount and shall be entitled to sue the United States to recover such further sum as added to such payment of 75 per centum which will make such amount as will be just compensation for the use and control. Such suit shall be brought in the manner provided by paragraph 20 of section 24, or by section 145 of the Judicial Code, as amended.
SEC. 8. All stations owned and operated by the United States, except mobile stations of the Army of the United States, and all other stations on land and sea, shall have special call letters designated by the Secretary of Commerce.
Section 1 of this Act shall not apply to any person, firm, company, or corporation sending radio communications or signals on a foreign ship while the same is within the jurisdiction of the United States, but such communications or signals shall be transmitted only in accordance with such regulations designed to prevent interference as may be promulgated under the authority of this Act.
SEC. 9. The licensing authority, if public convenience, interest, or necessity will be served thereby, subject to the limitations of this Act, shall grant to any applicant therefor a station license provided for by this Act.
In considering applications for licenses and renewals of licenses, when and in so far as there is a demand for the same, the licensing authority shall make such a distribution of licenses, bands of frequency of wave lengths, periods of time for operation, and of power among the different States and communities as to give fair, efficient, and equitable radio service to each of the same.
No license granted for the operation of a broadcasting station shall be for a longer term than three years and no license so granted for any other class of station shall be for a longer term than five years, and any license granted may be revoked as hereinafter provided. Upon the expiration of any license, upon application therefor, a renewal of such license may be granted from time to time for a term of not to exceed three years in the case of broadcasting licenses and not to exceed five years in the case of other licenses.
No renewal of an existing station license shall be granted more than thirty days prior to the expiration of the original license.
SEC. 10. The licensing authority may grant station licenses only upon written application therefor addressed to it. All applications shall be filed with the Secretary of Commerce. All such applications shall set forth such facts as the licensing authority by regulation may prescribe as to the citizenship, character, and financial, technical, and other qualifications of the applicant to operate the station; the ownership and location of the proposed station and of the stations, if any, with which it is proposed to communicate; the frequencies or wave lengths and the power desired to be used; the hours of the day or other periods of time during which it is proposed to operate the station; the purposes for which the station is to be used; and such other information as it may require. The licensing authority at any time after the filing of such original application and during the term of any such license may require from an applicant or licensee further written statements of fact to enable it to determine whether such original application should be granted or denied or such license revoked. Such application and/or such statement of fact shall be signed by the applicant and/or licensee under oath or affirmation.
The licensing authority in granting any license for a station intended or used for commercial communication between the United States or any Territory or possession, continental or insular, subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, and any foreign country, may impose any terms, conditions, or restrictions authorized to be imposed with respect to submarine-cable licenses by section 2 of an Act entitled "An Act relating to the landing and the operation of submarine cables in the United States," approved May 24, 1921.
SEC. 11. If upon examination of any application for a station license or for the renewal or modification of a station license the licensing authority shall determine that public interest, convenience, or necessity would be served by the granting thereof, it shall authorize the issuance, renewal, or modification thereof in accordance with said finding. In the event the licensing authority upon examination of any such application does not reach such decision with respect thereto, it shall notify the applicant thereof, shall fix and give notice of a time and place for hearing thereon, and shall afford such applicant an opportunity to be heard under such rules and regulations as it may prescribe.
Such station licenses as the licensing authority may grant shall be in such general form as it may prescribe, but each license shall contain, in addition to other provisions, a statement of the following conditions to which such license shall be subject:
(A) The station license shall not vest in the licensee any right to operate the station nor any right in the use of the frequencies or wave length designated in the license beyond the term thereof nor in any other manner than authorized therein.
(B) Neither the license nor the right granted thereunder shall be assigned or otherwise transferred in violation of this Act.
(C) Every license issued under this Act shall be subject in terms to the right of use or control conferred by section 6 hereof.
In cases of emergency arising during the period of one year from and after the first meeting of the commission created hereby, or on applications filed during said time for temporary changes in terms of licenses when the commission is not in session and prompt action is deemed necessary, the Secretary of Commerce shall have authority to exercise the powers and duties of the commission, except as to revocation of licenses, but all such exercise of powers shall be promptly reported to the members of the commission, and any action by the Secretary authorized under this paragraph shall continue in force and have effect only until such time as the commission shall act thereon.
SEC. 12. The station license required hereby shall not be granted to, or after the granting thereof such license shall not be transferred in any manner, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to (a) any alien or the representative of any alien; (b) to any foreign government, or the representative thereof; (c) to any company, corporation, or association organized under the laws of any foreign government; (d) to any company, corporation, or association of which any officer or director is an alien, or of which more than one-fifth of the capital stock may be voted by aliens or their representatives or by a foreign government or representative thereof, or by any company, corporation, or association organized under the laws of a foreign country.
The station license required hereby, the frequencies or wave length or lengths authorized to be used by the licensee, and the rights therein granted shall not be transferred, assigned, or in any manner, either voluntarily or involuntarily, disposed of to any person, firm, company, or corporation without the consent in writing of the licensing authority.
SEC. 13. The licensing authority is hereby directed to refuse a station license and/or the permit hereinafter required for the construction of a station to any person, firm, company, or corporation, or any subsidiary thereof, which has been finally adjudged guilty by a Federal court of unlawfully monopolizing or attempting unlawfully to monopolize, after this Act takes effect, radio communication, directly or indirectly, through the control of the manufacture or sale of radio apparatus, through exclusive traffic arrangements, or by any other means or to have been using unfair methods of competition. The granting of a license shall not estop the United States or any person aggrieved from proceeding against such person, firm, company, or corporation for violating the law against unfair methods of competition or for a violation of the law against unlawful restraints and monopolies and/or combinations, contracts, or agreements in restraint of trade, or from instituting proceedings for the dissolution of such firm, company, or corporation.
SEC. 14. Any station license shall be revocable by the commission for false statements either in the application or in the statement of fact which may be required by section 10 hereof, or because of conditions revealed by such statements of fact as may be required from time to time which would warrant the licensing authority in refusing to grant a license on an original application, or for failure to operate substantially as set forth in the license, for violation of or failure to observe any of the restrictions and conditions of this Act, or of any regulation of the licensing authority authorized by this Act or by a treaty ratified by the United States, or whenever the Interstate Commerce Commission, or any other Federal body in the exercise of authority conferred upon it by law, shall find and shall certify to the commission that any licensee bound so to do, has failed to provide reasonable facilities for the transmission of radio communications, or that any licensee has made any unjust and unreasonable charge, or has been guilty of any discrimination, either as to charge or as to service or has made or prescribed any unjust and unreasonable classification, regulation, or practice with respect to the transmission of radio communications or service: Provided, That no such order of revocation shall take effect until thirty days' notice in writing thereof, stating the cause for the proposed revocation, has been given to the parties known by the commission to be interested in such license. Any person in interest aggrieved by said order may make written application to the commission at any time within said thirty days for a hearing upon such order, and upon the filing of such written application said order of revocation shall stand suspended until the conclusion of the hearing herein directed. Notice in writing of said hearing shall be given by the commission to all the parties known to it to be interested in such license twenty days prior to the time of said hearing. Said hearing shall be conducted under such rules and in such manner as the commission may prescribe. Upon the conclusion hereof the commission may affirm, modify, or revoke said orders of revocation.
SEC. 15. All laws of the United States relating to unlawful restraints and monopolies and to combinations, contracts, or agreements in restraint of trade are hereby declared to be applicable to the manufacture and sale of and to trade in radio apparatus and devices entering into or affecting interstate or foreign commerce and to interstate or foreign radio communications. Whenever in any suit, action, or proceeding, civil or criminal, brought under the provisions of any of said laws or in any proceedings brought to enforce or to review findings and orders of the Federal Trade Commission or other governmental agency in respect of any matters as to which said commission or other governmental agency is by law authorized to act, any licensee shall be found guilty of the violation of the provisions of such laws or any of them, the court, in addition to the penalties imposed by said laws, may adjudge, order, and/or decree that the license of such licensee shall, as of the date the decree or judgment becomes finally effective or as of such other date as the said decree shall fix, be revoked and that all rights under such license shall thereupon cease: Provided, however, That such licensee shall have the same right of appeal or review as is provided by law in respect of other decrees and judgments of said court.
SEC. 16. Any applicant for a construction permit, for a station license, or for the renewal or modification of an existing station license whose application is refused by the licensing authority shall have the right to appeal from said decision to the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia; and any licensee whose license is revoked by the commission shall have the right to appeal from such decision of revocation to said Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia or to the district court of the United States in which the apparatus licensed is operated, by filing with said court, within twenty days after the decision complained of is effective, notice in writing of said appeal and of the reasons therefor.
The licensing authority from whose decision an appeal is taken shall be notified of said appeal by service upon it, prior to the filing thereof, of a certified copy of said appeal and of the reasons therefor. Within twenty days after the filing of said appeal the licensing authority shall file with the court the originals or certified copies of all papers and evidence presented to it upon the original application for a permit or license or in the hearing upon said order of revocation, and also a like copy of its decision thereon and a full statement in writing of the facts and the grounds for its decision as found and given by it. Within twenty days after the filing of said statement by the licensing authority either party may give notice to the court of his desire to adduce additional evidence. Said notice shall be in the form of a verified petition stating the stating the nature and character of said additional evidence, and the court may thereupon order such evidence to be taken in such manner and upon such terms and conditions as it may deem proper.
At the earliest convenient time the court shall hear, review, and determine the appeal upon said record and evidence, and may alter or revise the decision appealed from and enter such judgment as to it may seem just. The revision by the court shall be confined to the points set forth in the reasons of appeal.
SEC. 17. After the passage of this Act no person, firm, company, or corporation now or hereafter directly or indirectly through any subsidiary, associated, or affiliated person, firm, corporation, or agent, or otherwise, in the business of transmitting and/or receiving for hire energy, communications, or signals by radio in accordance with the terms of the license issued under this Act, shall by purchase, lease, construction, or otherwise, directly or indirectly, acquire, own, control, or operate any cable or wire telegraph or telephone line or system between any place in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States or in the District of Columbia, and any place in any foreign country, or shall acquire, own, or control any part of the stock or other assets of any such cable, wire, telegraph, or telephone line or system, if in either case the purpose is and/or the effect thereof may be to substantially lessen competition or to restrain commerce between any place in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States or in the District of Columbia and any place in any foreign country, or unlawfully to create monopoly in any line of commerce; nor shall any person, firm, company, or corporation now or hereafter engaged directly or indirectly through any subsidiary, associated, or affiliated person, company, corporation, or agent, or otherwise, in the business of transmitting and/or receiving for hire messages by any cable, wire, telegraph, or telephone line or system (a) between any place in any State Territory, or possession of the United States or in the District of Columbia, and any place in any other State, Territory, or possession of the United States, or the District of Columbia, and any place in any foreign country, by purchase, lease, construction, or otherwise, directly or indirectly acquire, own, control, or operate any station or the apparatus therein, or any system for transmitting and/or receiving radio communications or signals between any place in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States or in the District of Columbia, and any place in any foreign country, or shall acquire, own, or control any part of the stock or other capital share or any interest in the physical property and/or other assets of any such radio station, apparatus, or system, if in either case the purpose is and/or the effect thereof may be to substantially lessen competition or to restrain commerce between any place in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States or in the District of Columbia, and any place in any foreign country, or unlawfully to create monopoly in any line of commerce.
SEC. 18. If any licensee shall permit any person who is a legally qualified candidate for any public office to use a broadcasting station, he shall afford equal opportunities to all other such candidates for that office in the use of such broadcasting station, and the licensing authority shall make rules and regulations to carry this provision into effect: Provided, That such licensee shall have no power of censorship over the material broadcast under the provisions of this paragraph. No obligation is hereby imposed upon any licensee to allow the use of its station by any such candidate.
SEC. 19. All matter broadcast by any radio station for which service, money, or any other valuable consideration is directly or indirectly paid, or promised to or charged or accepted by, the station so broadcasting, from any person, firm, company, or corporation, shall, at the time the same is so broadcast, be announced as paid for or furnished, as the case may be, by such person, firm, company, or corporation.
SEC. 20. The actual operation of all transmitting apparatus in any radio station for which a station license is required by this Act shall be carried on only by a person holding an operator's license issued hereunder. No person shall operate any such apparatus in such station except under and in accordance with an operator's license issued to him by the Secretary of Commerce.
SEC. 21. No license shall be issued under the authority of this Act for the operation of any station the construction of which is begun or is continued after this Act takes effect, unless a permit for its construction has been granted by the licensing authority upon written application therefor. The licensing authority may grant such permit if public convenience, interest, or necessity will be served by the construction of the station. This application shall set forth such facts as the licensing authority by regulation may prescribe as to the citizenship, character, and the financial, technical, and other ability of the applicant to construct and operate the station, the ownership and location of the proposed station and of the station or stations with which it is proposed to communicate, the frequencies and wave length or wave lengths desired to be used, the hours of the day or other periods of time during which it is proposed to operate the station, the purpose for which the station is to be used, the type of transmitting apparatus to be used, the power to be used, the date upon which the station is expected to be completed and in operation, and such other information as the licensing authority may require. Such application shall be signed by the applicant under oath or affirmation.
Such permit for construction shall show specifically the earliest and latest dates between which the actual operation of such station is expected to begin, and shall provide that said permit will be automatically forfeited if the station is not ready for operation within the time specified or within such further time as the licensing authority may allow, unless prevented by causes not under the control of the grantee. The rights under any such permit shall not be assigned or otherwise transferred to any person, firm, company, or corporation without the approval of the licensing authority. A permit for construction shall not be required for Government stations, amateur stations, or stations upon mobile vessels, railroad rolling stock, or aircraft. Upon the completion of any station for the construction or continued construction for which a permit has been granted, and upon it being made to appear to the licensing authority that all the terms, conditions, and obligations set forth in the application and permit have been fully met, and that no cause or circumstance arising or first coming to the knowledge of the licensing authority since the granting of the permit would, in the judgment of the licensing authority, make the operation of such station against the public interest, the licensing authority shall issue a license to the lawful holder of said permit for the operation of said station. Said license shall conform generally to the terms of said permit.
SEC. 22. The licensing authority is authorized to designate from time to time radio stations the communications or signals or which, in its opinion, are liable to interfere with the transmission or reception of distress signals of ships. Such stations are required to keep a licensed radio operator listening in on the wave lengths designated for signals of distress and radio communications relating thereto during the entire period the transmitter of said station is in operation.
SEC. 23. Every radio station on shipboard shall be equipped to transmit radio communications or signals of distress on the frequency or wave length specified by the licensing authority, with apparatus capable of transmitting and receiving messages over a distance of at least one hundred miles by day or night. When sending radio communications or signals of distress and radio communications relating thereto the transmitting set may be adjusted in such a manner as to produce a maximum of radiation irrespective of the amount of interference which may thus be cause. All radio stations, including Government stations and stations on board foreign vessels when within the territorial waters of the United States, shall give absolute priority to radio communications or signals relating to ships in distress, shall cease all sending on frequencies or wave lengths which will interfere with hearing a radio communication or signal of distress, and, except when engaged in answering or aiding the ship in distress, shall refrain from sending any radio communications or signals until there is assurance that no interference will be caused with the radio communications or signals relating thereto, and shall assist the vessel in distress, so far as possible, by complying with its instructions.
SEC. 24. Every shore station open to general public service between the coast and vessels at sea shall be bound to exchange radio communications or signals with any ship station without distinction as to radio systems or instruments adopted by such stains, respectively, and each station on shipboard shall be bound to exchange radio communications or signals with any other station on shipboard without distinction as to radio systems or instruments adopted by each station.
SEC. 25. At all places where Government and private or commercial radio stations on land operate in such close proximity than interference with the work of Government stations can not be avoided when they are operating simultaneously such private or commercial stations as do interfere with the transmission or reception of radio communications or signals by the Government stations concerned shall not use their transmitters during the first fifteen minutes of each hour, local standard time.
The Government stations for which the above-mentioned division of time is established shall transmit radio communications or signals only during the first fifteen minutes of each hour, local standard time, except in case of signals or radio communications relating to vessels in distress and vessel requests for information as to course, location, or compass direction.
SEC. 26. In all circumstances, except in the case of radio communications or signals relating to vessels in distress, all radio stations, including those owned and operated by the United States, shall use the minimum amount of power necessary to carry out the communication desired.
SEC. 27. No person receiving or assisting in receiving any radio communication shall divulge or publish the contents, substance, purport, effect, or meaning thereof except through authorized channels of transmission or reception to any person other than the addressee, his agent, or attorney, or to a telephone, telegraph, cable, or radio station employed or authorized to forward such radio communication to its destination, or to proper accounting or distributing officers of the various communicating centers over which the radio communication may be passed, or to the master of a ship under whom he is serving, or in response to a subpoena issued by a court of competent jurisdiction, or on demand of other lawful authority; and no person not being authorized by the sender shall intercept any message and divulge or publish the contents, substance, purport, effect, or meaning of such intercepted message to any person; and no person not being entitled thereto shall receive or assist in receiving any radio communication and use the same or any information therein contained for his own benefit or for the benefit of another not entitled thereto; and no person having received such intercepted radio communication or having become acquainted with the contents, substance, purport, effect, or meaning of the same or any part thereof, or use the same or any information therein contained for his own benefit or for the benefit of another not entitled thereto: Provided, That this section shall not apply to the receiving, divulging, publishing, or utilizing the contents of any radio communication broadcasted or transmitted by amateurs or others for the use of the general public or relating to ships in distress.
SEC. 28. No person, firm, company, or corporation within the jurisdiction of the United States shall knowingly utter or transmit, or cause to be uttered or transmitted, any false or fraudulent signal of distress, or communication relating thereto, nor shall any broadcasting station rebroadcast the program or any part thereof of another broadcasting station without the express authority of the originating station.
SEC. 29. Nothing in this Act shall be understood or construed to give the licensing authority the power of censorship over the radio communications or signals transmitted by any radio station, and no regulation or condition shall be promulgated or fixed by the licensing authority which shall interfere with the right of free speech by means of radio communications. No person within the jurisdiction of the United States shall utter any obscene, indecent, or profane language by means of radio communications.
SEC. 30. The Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized unless restrained by international agreement, under the terms and conditions and at rates prescribed by him, which rates shall be just and reasonable, and which upon complaint, shall be subject to review and revision by the Interstate Commerce Commission, to use all radio stations and apparatus, wherever located, owned by the United States and under the control of the Navy Department (a) for the reception and transmission of press messages offered by any newspaper published in the United States, its Territories or possessions, or published by citizens of the United States in foreign countries, or by any press association of the United States, and (b) for the reception and transmission of private commercial messages between ships, between ship and shore, between localities in Alaska and between Alaska and the continental United States: Provided, That the rates fixed for the reception and transmission of all such messages, other than press messages between the Pacific coast of the United States, Hawaii, Alaska, the Philippine Islands, and the Orient, and between the United States and the Virgin Islands, shall not be less than the rates charged by privately owned and operated stations for like messages and service: Provided further, That the right to use such stations for any of the purposes named in this section shall terminate and cease as between any countries or localities or between any locality and privately operated ships whenever privately owned and operated stations are capable of meeting the normal communication requirements between such countries or localities or between any locality and privately operated ships, and the licensing authority shall have notified the Secretary of the Navy thereof.
SEC. 31. The expression "radio communication" or "radio communications" wherever used in this Act means any intelligence, message, signal, power, pictures, or communication of any nature transferred by electrical energy from one point to another without the aid of any wire connecting the points from and at which the electrical energy is sent or received and any system by means of which such transfer of energy is effected.
SEC. 32. Any person, firm, company, or corporation failing or refusing to observe or violating any rule, regulation, restriction, or condition made or imposed by the licensing authority under the authority of this Act or of any international radio convention or treaty ratified or adhered to by the United States, in addition to any other penalties provided by law, upon conviction thereof by a court of competent jurisdiction, shall be punished by a fine of not more than $500 for each and every offense.
SEC. 33. Any person, firm, company, or corporation who shall violate any provision of this Act, or shall knowingly make any false oath or affirmation in any affidavit required or authorized by this Act, or shall knowingly swear falsely to a material matter in any hearing authorized by this Act, upon conviction thereof in any court of competent jurisdiction shall be punished by a fine of not more than $5,000 or by imprisonment for a term of not more than five years or both for each and every such offense.
SEC. 34. The trial of any offense under this Act shall be in the district in which it is committed; or if the offense is committed upon the high seas, or out of the jurisdiction of any particular State or district, the trial shall be in the district where the offender may be found or into which he shall be first brought.
SEC. 35. This Act shall not apply to the Philippine Islands or to the Canal Zone. In international radio matters the Philippine Islands and the Canal Zone shall be represented by the Secretary of State.
SEC. 36. The licensing authority is authorized to designate any officer or employee of any other department of the Government on duty in any Territory or possession of the United States other than the Philippine Islands and the Canal Zone, to render therein such services in connection with the administration of the radio laws of the United States as such authority may prescribe: Provided, That such designation shall be approved by the head of the department in which such person is employed.
SEC. 37. The unexpended balance of the moneys appropriated in the item for "wireless communication laws," under the caption "Bureau of Navigation" in Title III of the Act entitled "An Act making appropriations for the Departments of State and Justice and for the judiciary, and for the Departments of Commerce and Labor, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1927, and for other purposes," approved April 29, 1926, and the appropriation for the same purposes for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1928, shall be available both for expenditures incurred in the administration of this Act and for expenditures for the purposes specified in such items. There is hereby authorized to be appropriated for each fiscal year such sums as may be necessary for the administration of this Act and for the purposes specified in such item.
SEC. 38. If any provision of this Act or the application thereof to any person, firm, company, or corporation, or to any circumstances, is held invalid, the remainder of the Act and the application of such provision to other persons, firms, companies, or corporations, or to other circumstances, shall not be affected thereby.
SEC. 39. The Act entitled "An Act to regulate radio communication," approved August 13, 1912, the joint resolution to authorize the operation of Government-owned radio stations for the general public, and for other purposes, approved June 5, 1920, as amended, and the joint resolution entitled "Joint resolution limiting the time for which licenses for radio transmission may be granted, and for other purposes," approved December 8, 1926, are hereby repealed.
Such repeal, however, shall not affect any act done or any right accrued or any suit or proceeding had or commenced in any civil cause prior to said repeal, but all liabilities under said laws shall continue and may be enforced in the same manner as if committed; and all penalties, forfeitures, or liabilities incurred prior to taking effect hereof, under any law embraced in, changed, modified, or repealed by this Act, may be prosecuted and punished in the same manner and with the same effect as if this Act had not been passed.
Nothing in this section shall be construed as authorizing any person using or operating any apparatus for the transmission of radio energy or radio communications or signals to continue such use except under and in accordance with this Act and with a license granted in accordance with the authority hereinbefore contained.
SEC. 40. This Act shall take effect and be in force upon its passage and approval, except that for and during a period of sixty days after such approval no holder of a license or an extension thereof issued by the Secretary of Commerce under said Act of August 13, 1912, shall be subject to the penalties provided herein for operating a station without the license herein required.
SEC. 41. This Act may be referred to and cited as the Radio Act of 1927.
United States Early Radio History > Early Government Regulation > Radio Act of 1927


text:
May 5, 2018 / 7:52 PM / 2 years ago
Catalan secessionists again back absent ex-leader for president
Elsa Artadi and former Catalan leader Carles Puigdemont attend a meeting of Catalan political leaders in Berlin, Germany, May 5, 2018. REUTERS/Axel Schmidt
BERLIN (Reuters) - Pro-independence Catalan politicians aim to nominate former leader Carles Puigdemont to head their regional government, in defiance of Spain and despite his self-imposed exile in Germany, a spokesman said on Saturday.
After meeting Puigdemont in Berlin, where he is currently waiting for Germany to rule on a Spanish request to extradite him, a spokesman for the secessionist group in the regional parliament said they wanted to install him by May 14.
"We want to vote on the investiture of @KRLS (Puigdemont), a legitimate president, the one who emerges from the polls with the mandate ... before May 14," Eduard Pujol tweeted after addressing reporters in Berlin.
Madrid called regional elections in Catalonia in December in a bid to curb the independence movement, which plunged Spain into its biggest crisis in decades, but the plan backfired and the secessionists kept a slim majority.
Puigdemont had fled Spain in October after Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy sacked his government. Rajoy has since repeatedly dismissed the suggestion by Puigdemont's allies that he could rule from a distance.
Time is running out for Catalan lawmakers to pick a leader - if they fail to form a government by May 22, a new election must be held.
This will be the fifth attempt to install a new regional president since Madrid imposed direct rule on Catalonia, but Spain has already said it will contest a new law, passed in the Catalan parliament on Friday, that allows members to vote for an absent leader.
Reporting by Reuters TV in Berlin and Emma Pinedo in Madrid; writing by Isla Binnie

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


A Very Happy Monday morning to you all. When in Alabama, the weather is ever changing.
This past week I was invited to submit some of my architectural photographs for an international magazine competition. The cool thing about the photo submissions are they have to be in black and white and of a very artistic nature. I was truly excited to look back through some of the images I have captured during my travels and even more so to see how they would translate from color to black and white. It started out to be somewhat of a daunting task but I decided to focus on some of my more recent trips and images that I felt would hopefully lend themselves to a more definitive artistic statement.
Looking through one of my more recent trips to San Diego, I came across a capture of a building downtown where the clouds where being reflected in its mirrored windows. Once I translated it to black and white it took on a totally ominous and different appearance. You can literally see clouds mimicking faces and figures.
During a second trip to the west coast, my friends Tom and Nancie took me up to Ramona, CA to hike around Southerland Dam. The Dam is visually impressive with its seventeen curved arches between eighteen buttresses that extends 161 feet over the creek and is 1240 feet wide. The repetitive nature and water markings on the buttress make for a very visual and iconic black and whites artistic photograph.
Thinking back to my first trip to Austin TX, I remembered that my dear friend Don, took me on a tour to the Texas State Capital and just how amazing the architectural design was. The entire complex is extremely impressive and known for its documentary portrayal of the rich history of Texas. I was in total amazement viewing the outside until we ventured in and saw the magnificent rotunda with the Star of Texas at the center point. I stood there in awe looking at the structure and complexity. It was truly breathtaking and when translated to black and white takes on a totally different perspective with an extremely artistic flare.
One of the great things about this walk down memory lane is a reminder to me of just how blessed I have been to have experienced all the wonderful things I have seen and been able to capture over my career as a professional photographer. I hope you have enjoyed the journey as much as I have enjoyed sharing it with you. I also hope you will continue to enjoy my Miss-Adventures along with me as we travel down the highways and byways together. All of my art is available for private and corporate collection. I would be proud to share it with you.


text:
From: "Tom Fine" <[log in to unmask]>
> George, I hear what you're saying, but there is no such thing as "unedited
> history" beyond what is processed in an individual's brain, and then it's
> only that individual's unedited history. Everyone chooses what to keep and
> what not to keep, what face they show the world and what they take to
> their grave. And history gets rewritten all the time. You are seeking an
> unreachable (if noble) goal if you are advocating saving "examples of
> everything" or thinking there's such a thing as "unedited raw history." I
> would suggest part of the reason that humans are doomed to repeat history
> forever is that it's impossible to ever "preserve" history beyond the
> first-person experience. What we're preserving are biased interpretations
> and "sampling" of first-person experiences and calling it history.
Nonetheless, there DOES exist such a thing as "history," on several levels!
For example, my
many 78's stand as examples of the "popular music" (and popular taste as
well!) of their
eras! Of course, they are NOT unique (although they may soon be?!) examples;
they still represent and exemplify what people were listening to in
the1900-194? period!
As well, the house in which I live was built c.1869...and as such represents
an important
part of the history of Oshawa, Ont'o., Canada (I rather suspect that most
are unaware of this importance and prefer to stay that way...?!)!
> When you get into recorded music, it's even more of a false premise that
> what's being preserved is "history." I always keep in mind a conversation
> I had with a classical pianist once, when the man was in his 70's. Somehow
> we got on the subject of how he'd be remembered and he glumly noted that
> his recordings would stand far longer than the experience of seeing him in
> concert. Yet, he had spent thousands more hours performing in concert --
> and he believed he had performed every single work he had done best in
> concert -- than in front of microphones making records. So you can see how
> this is the classic example of "sampling" first-person experiences and
> calling it history. The same can be said of much recorded music. I think
> where the argument gets trickier is for the few albums and genres that are
> completely creations of the studio, that they stand as music and also
> performance art, as a stand-alone work rather than an edited summary of
> what the artist performs numerous times and possibly in very different
> ways in front of live audiences.
NOT true! Live performances, if not recorded, are NOTa permanent thing; they
live only (more
or less) in the minds and memories of the witnesses! I agree that a live
performance MAY
surpass the commercial recording of the same event; however, there is no way
to compare
the former (now vanished!) entity to anything! I have (or used to...I hope I
still do...?!) about
40-50 cassette tapes I made of my blues band (I used to tape all my
performances!); since
the band only recorded once, and then only ten songs, the live recordings
stand (stood?!)
as the audible evidence of our existence?! In that sense, they are (were?)
part of the musical
history of Toronto!
Also, recording the reminisences of elderly folks DOES preserve important
which would otherwise not be preserved. I learned a lot of the history of my
when I was able to speak to an elderly (probably now dead?!) citizen whose
wife had been born and raised in the house. As well, there still exist both
records, and unofficial ones (i.e. city directories and the like) relating
to the house...?!
My thoughts, in any case...
Steven C. Barr


Send a text message to your friends and family in Sint Maarten / Saint Martin. Enter your Sint Maarten / Saint Martin mobile number and sms text message and click send. Your Free SMS sending to Sint Maarten / Saint Martin will be delivered instantly! No Registration Required! We deliver Fast SMS to Sint Maarten / Saint Martin for FREE. Enjoy using this Free SMS to Sint Maarten / Saint Martin.


Taking the closing of the Follow exhibition as inspiration, this session explored themes of post-humanism and post-internet networks.
Reading for this session included texts by Dorion Sagan, Bonnie Bassler, Bret Victor and Stafford Beer.
The discussion session started with short physical rituals for clearing the mind and reseting the body, collectively proposed by every participant.


text:
STS-81 — 81-й старт MTKk в рамках програми Космічний човник і 18 й космічний політ «Атлантіса»  здійснений 12 січня 1997. У програму польоту входили: п'ята стиковка шатлу з російською орбітальною станцією «Мир», доставка і повернення вантажів, ротація екіпажу стації, різні експерименти. Астронавти провели в космосі близько 11 діб і благополучно приземлилися на летовищі авіабази Едвардс 20 січня 1997.

Екіпаж
  (НАСА): Майкл Бейкер (4) — командир.
  (НАСА): Брент Джетт (2) — пілот;
  (НАСА): Пітер Вайсофф (3) — фахівець польоту;
  (НАСА): Джон Грансфелд (2) — фахівець польоту;
  НАСА: Марша Айвінс () (4) — фахівець польоту;
  (НАСА): Джеррі Ліненджер (2) — фахівець польоту;
  (НАСА): Джон Блаха (5) — фахівець польоту;

Примітки

Космонавтика 1997
NASA
Шатли
Січень 1997

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Dozens of quakes rattle Hawaii volcano, eruption possible
by Caleb Jones
This April 30, 2018 photo provided by the U.S. Geological Survey shows shows a layer of red ash on top of an active lava flow with surface breakouts in Kilauea Volcano near Honolulu, Hawaii. Dozens of earthquakes are rattling Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano as magma flows into a new area east of the Puu Oo vent. Officials with the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory say the increased activity Wednesday, May 2, 2018, is associated with the collapse of the crater floor at the Puu Oo vent. (U.S. Gelological Survey via AP)
Dozens of earthquakes were rattling Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano on Wednesday as underground magma moved into a new area east of the Puu Oo (POO'-oo OH'-oh) vent.
Officials with the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory said the increased activity is associated with the collapse of the crater floor at Puu Oo, which is an open vent below Kilauea's summit crater and lava lake.
There were about 50 small quakes detected in the area on Wednesday morning alone.
Scientists say the activity could trigger a new eruption and people are being told to stay away. USGS is sending two ground crews into the area Wednesday to install new monitoring equipment.
The Hawaii Department of Education said a school near the volcano has been closed due to the ongoing seismic activity.
The Puu Oo crater floor began to collapse Monday, triggering a series of earthquakes and pushing the lava into new underground chambers.
Lava has moved down the east slope of the volcano and into the Big Island's Puna District. USGS geologist Janet Babb said the magma may have already gone under Highway 130, which leads to a popular volcano access point.
"Overnight it continued to push farther to the east, and so it's still very much an ongoing situation," Babb said. "Highway 130 crosses right over the East Rift Zone, so our best estimate is that it has extended beyond the area of Highway 130."
This April 23, 2018 photo provided by the U.S. Geological Survey shows the extent of the large overflow of a lava lake in Kilauea Volcano near Honolulu, Hawaii. Dozens of earthquakes are rattling Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano as magma flows into a new area east of the Puu Oo vent. Officials with the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory say the increased activity Wednesday, May 2, 2018, is associated with the collapse of the crater floor at the Puu Oo vent. (U.S. Gelological Survey via AP)
USGS crews have not seen any changes to the ground or roads in the area where the lava is flowing below the surface. A new crack with some seeping lava was found west of the Puu Oo vent Tuesday, but Babb said the opening did not take much pressure off the situation to the east. "Very, very little lava was issued from that crack."
Hawaii County Civil Defense Agency closed the area to visitors on Tuesday and ordered private tour companies to stop taking people into the region.
"Residents should heed all advice offered by Civil Defense and take the actions recommended by Civil Defense to prepare for a possible eruption," Babb said. "An eruption is possible because magma is clearly moving through the East Rift Zone and it could come to the surface. The possibility is definitely there, I can't give you a probability."
Babb said similar activity has been recorded prior to previous eruptions in the area. In mid-April the observatory issued an alert when scientists noticed Puu Oo was inflating and becoming pressurized.
If the magma breaks through the ground, lava fountains could shoot skyward and spread rock and other volcanic debris around the area. "Typically when an eruption first starts it's pretty vigorous," Babb said.
This May 1, 2018, photo provided by the U.S. Geological Survey shows a small lava flow (lighter in color) and spatter that erupted from a section of the crack on the west flank of Puu Oo vent of Kilauea Volcano near Honolulu, Hawaii. Dozens of earthquakes are rattling Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano as magma flows into a new area east of the Puu Oo vent. Officials with the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory say the increased activity Wednesday, May 2, 2018, is associated with the collapse of the crater floor at the Puu Oo vent. (U.S. Gelological Survey via AP)
Most of Kilauea's activity has been nonexplosive, but a 1924 eruption spewed ash and 10-ton (9-metric ton) rocks into the sky, leaving one man dead.
Puu Oo's 1983 eruption resulted in lava fountains soaring over 1,500 feet high. In the decades since, the lava flow has buried dozens of square miles (kilometers) of land and destroyed many homes.
This May 1, 2018 photo provided by the U.S. Geological Survey shows the eruption at the summit of Kilauea Volcano near Honolulu, Hawaii. Dozens of earthquakes are rattling Hawaii's Kilauea Volcano as magma flows into a new area east of the Puu Oo vent. Officials with the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory say the increased activity Wednesday, May 2, 2018, is associated with the collapse of the crater floor at the Puu Oo vent. (U.S. Gelological Survey via AP)
In 2008, after a series of small earthquakes, Kilauea's summit crater opened and gushed lava and rock over 75 acres (30.35 hectares) of the mountain, damaging a nearby visitor overlook.
Last week, the lava lake at the volcano's summit rose and spilled over the crater edge, marking the largest lava inflation since it erupted in 2008. The latest activity at Puu Oo does not appear to have changed the summit lava lake.
In 2016, lava from Puu Oo crept down the east side of the volcano and reached the ocean for the first time in several years. The flow created new land along the shoreline, some of which later collapsed, opening a giant "firehose " lava stream.
In this April 23, 2018 photo provided by the U.S. Geological Survey, Kilauea Volcano's Puu Oo vent is shown in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Big Island. A series of earthquakes and the collapse of the crater floor at the Puu Oo vent could trigger a new eruption of lava. Officials from the U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory said Tuesday, May 1, 2018 that activity over the past 24 hours could lead to a new breakout on the east side of the Big Island volcano. (U.S. Geological Survey via AP)
Gurgling lava splashes up Hawaii volcano walls in rare video
© 2018 The Associated Press. All rights reserved.
Citation: Dozens of quakes rattle Hawaii volcano, eruption possible (2018, May 2) retrieved 18 January 2020 from https://phys.org/news/2018-05-dozens-quakes-rattle-hawaii-volcano.html
Hydrogen in the gas grid
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More from Earth Sciences
Crater collapse causes lava explosion on Hawaii's Kilauea
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text:
The Save River, or Sabi River (Portuguese: Rio Save) is a  river of southeastern Africa, flowing through Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The river has its source in Zimbabwe, some  south of Harare, then flows south and then east, from the Zimbabwean highveld to its confluence with the Odzi River. It then turns south, drops over the Chivirira ("Place of Boiling") Falls, and flows down the western side of Zimbabwe's Eastern Highlands forming a dry river valley in the rain shadow of these mountains. It is joined by the Runde River or Lundi at the Mozambique border, forming a dramatic confluence at Mahenya. It then crosses Mozambique to flow into the Indian Ocean at about 21°S.

The Save River provided irrigation for sugar plantation, but now supports the cultivation of citrus, cotton, rice, and wheat. It is also a source of small-scale fishing for the local population.

It divides Mozambique administratively, politically, ethnically and ecologically:

 During the colonial era, the administrative units of the area south of the Save changed over time, but the longer lasting were the districts of Gaza and Inhambane; presently, the Save separates the provinces of Gaza and Inhambane to the south, from those of Manica and Sofala to the north:
 Politically, the "south-of-the-Save" can be considered the stronghold of Frelimo, while the region immediately to the north is, in general, more supportive of Renamo;
 The Save separates the ethnic groups that are native speakers of  Shangaan (or Xi-Tsonga), to the south, from those that speak languages of the Shona group in the north;
 Ecologically, as the Save flows into the Indian Ocean, its mouth corresponds to the separation of tropical marine ecosystems, to the north, from the subtropical; the terrestrial ecosystems show less variation along the coastal plain north and south of the river, but inland where the Chimanimani Mountains start, a montane forest develops, which is completely different from the forests found in the south.

The delta of the Save River includes mangrove forests which span approximately  on the Indian Ocean coast. Villagers in the delta basin use the mangrove forests for timber and as a place for small-scale fishing. The ecology of the lower Save River basin has been affected by cyclones, flooding, erosion, and sea level rise.

Historically it was a transport route for gold and trade goods between the coast and the hinterland occupied by the civilisation of Great Zimbabwe in the 13th and 14th centuries AD.

References

Rivers of Zimbabwe
Rivers of Mozambique
International rivers of Africa
Geography of Gaza Province
Geography of Inhambane Province
Geography of Manica Province
Geography of Sofala Province


I am a resident of the United Kingdom on Saturday 15th February I placed an order through order.store.yahoo.net to dogflags.com for a garden flag. The amount I was charged through my paypal account was $15.95. No shipping or tax was indicated at the time of purchase.
On the 20th February I received an email from imi-man saying that postage hadn't been added by the yahoo store and that I had to send $9.95 to them before they could dispatch my parcel.
On Thursday 28th February I receive a letter from the Royal Mail saying import duty had not been paid and that unfortunately they were unable to deliver my parcel. I now have to pay a further £13.97 if I wish to receive my flag.
Submit a Complaint to Yahoo!


text:
Mirjana Đurica (Cyrillisch: Мирјана Ђурица) (Sombor, 11 maart 1961) was een handbalspeler uit Joegoslavië.

Đurica speelde drie maal met Joegoslavië op de Olympische Zomerspelen.
In 1980 behaalde Joegoslavië daarbij de zilveren medaille, en op de Olympische Zomerspelen van Los Angeles in 1984 de gouden medaille. Op de Olympische Zomerspelen van Seoul in 1988 werd Joegoslavië vierde.

Joegoslavisch olympisch kampioen

Joegoslavisch handballer


text:
AudioQuest - Cable Manufacturers
Since 1980, AudioQuest, headquartered in Irvine, California, has been a leading developer, manufacturer, and distributor of high-performance audio/video products and custom-install solutions. Although best known for its comprehensive range of analog, digital, and AC power cables, the company has expanded its portfolio to offer a diverse assortment of state-of-the-art products, including the multi-award-winning DragonFly DACs, Lyra phono cartridges, and Niagara and PowerQuest power products. Most recently, The Quest Group, AudioQuest's parent company, acquired the highly regarded loudspeaker company, GoldenEar Technology. All AudioQuest products, regardless of price, are meticulously designed to deliver outstanding performance and exceptional value. Learn more at www.audioquest.com.
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From MP3 to MQA and High-Res: Naturally Beautiful Sound at Your Fingertips—Whenever and Wherever You Want It
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All AudioQuest cables are designed to efficiently dissipate noise and significantly reduce distortion, enabling clean, clear, naturally beautiful sound.
Info@audioquest.com


Istanbul Ataturk Airport is the main international airport of Istanbul, Turkey and the biggest airport in Turkey and is the busiest airport in turkey deals with the high percentage of International flights from Istanbul International Airport (IST). Right now 90 airlines are operated from Istanbul International Airport, offers nonstop flights to 271 cities. At least 1,971 domestic and 4,742 International flights depart from Istanbul Ataturk International Airport (IST).
Flight Fare Deals offers you the amazing booking tool to secure great flights deals on Cheap Flights to Istanbul, Turkey. Use our easiest airline tickets booking engine to browse nonstop, convenient flights and suitable departure points every day of the year. Search & select from the top airlines to book your perfect Istanbul flights. You can always rely on Flightfaredeals.com to help you find Cheap Flights to Istanbul.
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Selling or buying a home is the largest business transaction most of us will ever make. No matter what your circumstances are, whether you are a first time buyer or a seasoned investor, purchasing real estate is always an exciting experience. Each transaction is unique in itself. Although the variables can be altered by the size of the financial investment or type of property involved, the buying and selling process is similar. There are a consistent number of tasks that must be followed in a logical step by step manner, from finding the property to closing the transaction.


text:
Home Article Should We Ignore The Quran Burning?
Should We Ignore The Quran Burning?
Dave Weigel thinks so:
Let's step away from the news cycle and realize the full stupidity of what he's doing. He has a church of, at most, 50 congregants. He decorates a bus with the message "International Burn A Koran Day" (the celebration will take three hours according to this sign). He waits for attention. He gets it! And he gets to hold the country, or at least the part of the country that pays attention to such news, hostage, with reporters getting the Secretary of State and our general in Afghanistan on the record to condemn this nobody. Instead of dying in obscurity, he'll die a has-been. Good work.
I mean, I'd like to ignore the guy too. But as uncomfortable as I was with Gen. David Petraeus weighing in the way he did, the fact is that what this guy is doing is going to appear in extremist propaganda all over the world. So it's important that American civilian leadership stand up and say they disapprove of what this guy is doing, even if they're not going to prevent him from doing it because that's not how a free society works. For international-relations purposes, they can't really afford to ignore it, especially not when everyone is reading about a rash of anti-Muslim incidents coinciding with widespread opposition to the construction of an Islamic community center near the site of the 9/11 attacks, as though all of Islam were responsible.
Meanwhile, John Boehner has adopted the rhetorical strategy of equating the consciously malicious act of burning the Koran with Muslims violating the ephemeral Muslim free zone around Ground Zero. You can sort of imagine Boehner in 1964, saying, sure, segregation is wrong, but it's just as wrong to go where you're not wanted.


"If the software doesn't have to work, you can always meet any other requirement."
29 Define enums within a method in C#?
21 Why isn't this causing an infinite loop of events?
14 How to show different pages when app launches time in windows phone 7?


text:
Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support
In June, the thin, transparent plastic trays that fit over her leading and bottom teeth came in the mail. McKinney is resolving the series slowly, switching the very first set for the next, and the next, as her teeth move. It'll take about 9 months in all. But after three months of using these trays nearly every day and night, McKinney is excited about showing off her new smile (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support).
Danny Menendez/ BuzzFeed News Inside among SmileDirectClub's New york city City locations. SmileDirectClub's company design seems working. Align Innovation– the company that makes Invisalign, SmileDirect's main rival– invested $46.7 million to end up being SmileDirect's exclusive provider last year, and this year invested another $12.8 million, to own an overall of 19% of the business.
Meanwhile, lookalikes have launched with similar services: Orthly, introduced by 2 University of Pennsylvania students, now offers services to consumers in Philadelphia, and Candid Co. introduced in New York this summer season. A SmileDirect client can be matched with one of 225 affiliated dental practitioners or orthodontists in all 50 states. These dental professionals from another location review client cases and after that develop the aligners that SmileDirect sends out in the mail.
The business declined to name any of the physician within its network, and would not offer information about its financial relationships with them. "Essentially they are gathering payments and paying us marketing costs," Fenkell stated."I think that claim is rather fake," AAO's basic counsel Dillard stated. "The customers don't even see a dentist.
(SmileDirectClub has a two-star score on Yelp.) And lots of professional dentists are alarmed that customers never see a licensed doctor prior to or throughout their treatment."It blew my mind," Casi Stubbs, a Florida orthodontist and member of the American Association of Orthodontists, informed BuzzFeed News. Like typical orthodontists, SmileDirect's dental professionals base their prescriptions on computer simulations of mouth scans.
"The teeth do not move biologically like they do on the computer system," Stubbs said. Among her clients, 60-year-old Charlene Burnham, is a SmileDirect consumer whose too-tight aligners cut her gums, exposing part of her tooth near the root. Burnham informed BuzzFeed News she invested a week trying– and failing– to consult with a SmileDirect dental practitioner on the phone, then went to Stubbs for aid."They were bleeding, they were cut to the root," Burnham said.
"I was horrified."A SmileDirect representative told BuzzFeed News by e-mail that company-affiliated dental professionals "track the patient's progress throughout treatment at regular intervals."The company "assists in the communications" of consumers and dental service providers, the agent said. "Dental companies interact straight with clients through the client portal and by means of SMS or phone when suitable or suggested."In a YouTube video that's been seen over 21,000 times because June, Baltimore orthodontist Jeffrey Miller alerted individuals far from the service, saying that no orthodontist would ever prescribe aligners without very first taking the X-rays that SmileDirect avoids.
(The video was gotten rid of after this story published.)Grant Olson, a dentist in Springfield, Missouri, told BuzzFeed News that the business's product marketing, which compares itself with orthodontist-fitted Invisalign, is misleading. Unlike Invisalign trays, which orthodontists can optimize by sticking special accessories on a tooth, SmileDirect's product is limited to extremely slight corrections: The aligners can remedy a tilt, however can't move a tooth's orientation or position in addition to its root.
He discussed that SmileDirect-affiliated orthodontists just authorize cases that appropriate for a remote assessment and do not need follow-up dental visits (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support). Laws for dental practitioners vary across states, but there are some common themes in the 36 problems sent out by the AAO: Some states consider making impressions and offering retainers to be the role of a certified physician, however SmileDirectClub usually offers those services.
AAO basic counsel Dillard likewise told BuzzFeed News that the company's company design incentivizes dentists affiliated with SmileDirect to recommend the trays even if they aren't needed. Danny Menendez/ BuzzFeed News Although the company hasn't drew in the attention of regulators yet, client problems abound online. TL; DR: Prepare for a bumpy trip.
The vast majority of customers in these groups resign themselves to dealing with the snags due to the fact that there are merely no other choices (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support)."If you can be patient, desire a budget friendly strategy, SDC IS properly to go! Having a positive mindset and being patient goes a LONG method," Melanie Masso wrote to BuzzFeed News.
For many other consumers, the ride is a bust. Seattle resident Melissa Gulick told BuzzFeed News that at the end of practically a year of treatment, the aligners have actually ruined her bite: Her front teeth touch before her molars can make contact (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support). "I'm quite frustrated– food is tough to chew now and they won't fix it!"Gulick stated that after complaints to the business, SmileDirectClub concurred to continue treatment for free.
When inquired about complaints that the trays destroyed clients' bites, a SmileDirect agent told BuzzFeed News: "Over 95% of our customers complete treatment and approve their completed brand-new smile. It is necessary to keep in mind that with any orthodontic treatment, bites will continue to move until the treatment is ended up."Another customer, 24-year-old Drexel College student Kacie Durham, told BuzzFeed News that SmileDirectClub sent her a simulated treatment plan that made her teeth look even worse."It in fact made my teeth appear more uneven at the bottom," she said.
Durham returned her trays and looked for a refund. Later, an orthodontist not connected with the business told her that her teeth would need to be submitted and formed prior to they could be aligned. Durham felt duped: SmileDirect had actually approved her for a treatment that would never have worked."If a potential client is dissatisfied with the 3d sneak peek of his or her smile, there is no obligation to purchase aligners," the SmileDirectClub agent said (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support).
Minelle Tendler, a Boca Raton orthodontist, joined one of the greatest Facebook groups, the 11,800-member SmileDirectClub Support, after two of her clients asked about the product. In perusing the posts that appear in her Facebook feed, Tendler said that she's not seen anybody say they have actually been able to speak to a dental expert at the company.
"You're asking somebody who has no oral background, 'Is this going to work?'"More than as soon as, Tendler has actually stopped short of responding to threads on the forum. She sits on her hands since the clients are not hers. "I'm looking at the images and thinking, Oh my god, you require to get teeth secured, do not do it."Mostly, she is worried that people who are charmed by SmileDirectClub's low cost aren't fully knowledgeable about the disadvantages of skipping a dental see.
A previous version of this short article misidentified him as an orthodontist. Align Innovation owns 19% of SmileDirectClub. A previous variation of this story specified it was 17%. Also, SmileDirectClub began running in North Carolina in early October. A previous variation of this story, based on an August interview with cofounder Alex Fenkell, stated that the business was not operating in North Carolina.
Mail-in aligners might look like a good alternative for a minor repair. However remember you're not the expert on how minimal a repair your teeth require. "It's tough to go from something that's 90% excellent to make it 100% perfect; in my experience, I find that these are the more difficult cases," Dr.
The results of using invisible aligners can be incredibly unpredictable, because some individuals respond well to them and others won't. "It's very tough to monitor this by yourself, because– like everything in medication– not everyone responds the very same," he says. The genuine trouble includes figuring out how to correct your smile if you're not responding properly to the retainers, he states.
In June, the thin, transparent plastic trays that fit over her top and bottom teeth came in the mail. McKinney is resolving the series slowly, switching the very first set for the next, and the next, as her teeth move. It'll take about 9 months in all. However after three months of using these trays nearly every day and night, McKinney is thrilled about flaunting her brand-new smile (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support).
Danny Menendez/ BuzzFeed News Inside one of SmileDirectClub's New york city City places. SmileDirectClub's organisation model seems working. Align Technology– the business that makes Invisalign, SmileDirect's main competitor– invested $46.7 million to end up being SmileDirect's unique provider last year, and this year invested another $12.8 million, to own a total of 19% of the company.
Meanwhile, lookalikes have launched with comparable services: Orthly, released by two University of Pennsylvania students, now provides services to clients in Philadelphia, and Candid Co. launched in New york city this summer. A SmileDirect customer can be matched with among 225 associated dental practitioners or orthodontists in all 50 states. These dental professionals from another location evaluate client cases and then design the aligners that SmileDirect sends out in the mail.
The company decreased to name any of the doctor within its network, and would not supply information about its financial relationships with them. "Essentially they are gathering payments and paying us marketing charges," Fenkell said."I believe that claim is rather phony," AAO's basic counsel Dillard said. "The consumers don't even see a dental practitioner.
(SmileDirectClub has a two-star ranking on Yelp.) And many expert dental experts are alarmed that customers never ever see a certified physician prior to or during their treatment."It blew my mind," Casi Stubbs, a Florida orthodontist and member of the American Association of Orthodontists, told BuzzFeed News. Like common orthodontists, SmileDirect's dental experts base their prescriptions on computer simulations of mouth scans.
"The teeth don't move biologically like they do on the computer system," Stubbs said. Among her patients, 60-year-old Charlene Burnham, is a SmileDirect customer whose too-tight aligners cut her gums, exposing part of her tooth near the root. Burnham told BuzzFeed News she invested a week attempting– and failing– to consult with a SmileDirect dental practitioner on the phone, then went to Stubbs for assistance."They were bleeding, they were cut to the root," Burnham said.
"I was appalled."A SmileDirect agent informed BuzzFeed News by e-mail that company-affiliated dental professionals "track the client's progress throughout treatment at routine periods."The company "facilitates the interactions" of customers and oral companies, the representative said. "Oral providers communicate directly with patients through the client portal and via SMS or phone when appropriate or indicated."In a YouTube video that's been seen over 21,000 times considering that June, Baltimore orthodontist Jeffrey Miller warned individuals away from the service, saying that no orthodontist would ever recommend aligners without first taking the X-rays that SmileDirect avoids.
(The video was eliminated after this story published.)Grant Olson, a dentist in Springfield, Missouri, informed BuzzFeed News that the company's product marketing, which compares itself with orthodontist-fitted Invisalign, is deceiving. Unlike Invisalign trays, which orthodontists can enhance by sticking unique attachments on a tooth, SmileDirect's item is limited to really slight corrections: The aligners can correct a tilt, but can't move a tooth's orientation or position together with its root.
He described that SmileDirect-affiliated orthodontists just approve cases that are appropriate for a remote assessment and do not need follow-up oral sees (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support). Laws for dentists vary throughout states, however there are some common themes in the 36 problems sent by the AAO: Some states consider making impressions and supplying retainers to be the function of a licensed medical professional, however SmileDirectClub typically provides those services.
AAO basic counsel Dillard likewise informed BuzzFeed News that the business's business model incentivizes dental practitioners affiliated with SmileDirect to prescribe the trays even if they aren't needed. Danny Menendez/ BuzzFeed News Although the company hasn't drew in the attention of regulators yet, customer grievances abound online. TL; DR: Prepare for a bumpy flight.
The huge bulk of consumers in these groups resign themselves to handling the snags due to the fact that there are merely no other choices (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support)."If you can be patient, desire an inexpensive strategy, SDC IS the proper way to go! Having a positive mindset and being patient goes a LONG method," Melanie Masso composed to BuzzFeed News.
For many other customers, the ride is a bust. Seattle resident Melissa Gulick informed BuzzFeed News that at the end of nearly a year of treatment, the aligners have actually destroyed her bite: Her front teeth touch prior to her molars can make contact (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support). "I'm quite irritated– food is hard to chew now and they will not fix it!"Gulick said that after complaints to the company, SmileDirectClub consented to continue treatment free of charge.
When asked about problems that the trays messed up customers' bites, a SmileDirect representative informed BuzzFeed News: "Over 95% of our customers complete treatment and validate their finished brand-new smile. It is very important to bear in mind that with any orthodontic treatment, bites will continue to shift until the treatment is ended up."Another client, 24-year-old Drexel College student Kacie Durham, told BuzzFeed News that SmileDirectClub sent her a simulated treatment strategy that made her teeth look even worse."It actually made my teeth appear more uneven at the bottom," she stated.
Durham returned her trays and requested a refund. Later, an orthodontist not connected with the business told her that her teeth would have to be submitted and formed prior to they could be aligned. Durham felt fooled: SmileDirect had actually approved her for a treatment that would never have actually worked."If a possible consumer is dissatisfied with the 3d sneak peek of his/her smile, there is no commitment to buy aligners," the SmileDirectClub representative stated (Clear Aligners Smile Direct Club Warranty Support).
Minelle Tendler, a Boca Raton orthodontist, signed up with one of the most significant Facebook groups, the 11,800-member SmileDirectClub Assistance, after 2 of her patients asked about the product. In perusing the posts that appear in her Facebook feed, Tendler stated that she's not seen anyone say they have actually been able to speak with a dental practitioner at the business.
"You're asking somebody who has no dental background, 'Is this going to work?'"More than as soon as, Tendler has stopped short of replying to threads on the online forum. She sits on her hands because the clients are not hers. "I'm taking a look at the images and thinking, Oh my god, you require to get teeth taken out, don't do it."Mostly, she is worried that people who are wooed by SmileDirectClub's low rate aren't completely familiar with the downsides of avoiding an oral see.
A previous variation of this short article misidentified him as an orthodontist. Align Innovation owns 19% of SmileDirectClub. A previous variation of this story mentioned it was 17%. Likewise, SmileDirectClub began running in North Carolina in early October. A previous version of this story, based on an August interview with cofounder Alex Fenkell, stated that the company was not operating in North Carolina.
Mail-in aligners might appear like a great alternative for a small fix. But keep in mind you're not the expert on how very little a fix your teeth need. "It's hard to go from something that's 90% excellent to make it 100% ideal; in my experience, I find that these are the harder cases," Dr.
The results of utilizing undetectable aligners can be exceptionally unforeseeable, due to the fact that some people respond well to them and others won't. "It's really difficult to monitor this on your own, because– like everything in medicine– not everybody responds the very same," he states. The real difficulty features determining how to remedy your smile if you're not reacting correctly to the retainers, he says.


This is the French Roast brought to you by Higher Grounds Coffee. This coffee is a custom blend of Fair Trade and Organic certified coffees from Honduras and Mexico. While this is one of the most developed coffees Higher Grounds offers, this coffee is a medium dark roast by our standards. This is a bold cup with roasty and chocolate notes with a full, lingering finish.
When I received my coffee, I was worried that it would be too strong based on the description on the package( Very dark roast, smoke, pungent, lingering). I was pleasantly surprised that this made a great cup of coffee.


text:
Q: opengl how to draw a dynamic line? I want to draw a line in OpenGL which will very often receive new points.
I want to achieve an object that draws a line behind itself:

So do I have to make an array and append all new points to it (BufferData set to GL_DYNAMIC_DRAW). And then redraw the line with glDrawArrays. Tesselation + width of stroke would be inside the vertexshader?
Or is there a better way?

A: The idea is to plot a point of the current position after a given delay. The time delay defines how smooth the actual line will be. Then you will have to calculate 2 new points based on the plotted positioned point which both gets multiplied by a given width.
For those plots, you also have to get the movement direction of your object to calculate the correct normals.
On the OpenGl side, you will have to initialize a fixed-sized vertex buffer
gl.glBufferData(gl.GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 8 * self.maxPoints, None, gl.GL_DYNAMIC_DRAW)
# 8 bytes 2 points = 1 plot
# maxPoints amount of max plots

object where you will upload every frame those 2 points (gl.glBufferSubData).
My result:

Result (Controlling with wasd):

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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(Acts 8:4-8 NLT) But the believers who were scattered preached the Good News about Jesus wherever they went. (5) Philip, for example, went to the city of Samaria and told the people there about the Messiah. (6) Crowds listened intently to Philip because they were eager to hear his message and see the miraculous signs he did. (7) Many evil spirits were cast out, screaming as they left their victims. And many who had been paralyzed or lame were healed. (8) So there was great joy in that city.
どこに行っても、メッセージを運ぼう!Wherever You Go, Carry Your Message!
(Acts 8:4 NLT) But the believers who were scattered preached the Good News about Jesus wherever they went.
(Joshua 1:3 NIV) I will give you every place where you set your foot, as I promised Moses.
Jesus Wants To Give You Healing And Freedom!
(Acts 8:7 NLT) Many evil spirits were cast out, screaming as they left their victims. And many who had been paralyzed or lame were healed.
(Isaiah 53:5 NLT) But he was pierced for our rebellion, crushed for our sins. He was beaten so we could be whole. He was whipped so we could be healed.
(Psalm 147:3 NLT) He heals the brokenhearted and bandages their wounds.
(Philippians 4:4 NLT) Always be full of joy in the Lord. I say it again—rejoice!