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Fullerene Nanomaterials Inhibit the Allergic Response
John J. Ryan, Henry R. Bateman, Alex Stover, Greg Gomez, Sarah K. Norton, Wei Zhao, Lawrence B. Schwartz, Robert Lenk and Christopher L. Kepley
J Immunol July 1, 2007, 179 (1) 665-672; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.179.1.665
John J. Ryan
*Department of Biology, [s]
Henry R. Bateman
‡Department of Internal Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University Health Systems, Richmond, VA 23294; and
Alex Stover
Greg Gomez
Sarah K. Norton
†Department of Pediatrics, and [s]
Lawrence B. Schwartz
Robert Lenk
§Luna Innovations, Danville, VA 24541
Christopher L. Kepley
Fullerenes are a class of novel carbon allotropes that may have practical applications in biotechnology and medicine. Human mast cells (MC) and peripheral blood basophils are critical cells involved in the initiation and propagation of several inflammatory conditions, mainly type I hypersensitivity. We report an unanticipated role of fullerenes as a negative regulator of allergic mediator release that suppresses Ag-driven type I hypersensitivity. Human MC and peripheral blood basophils exhibited a significant inhibition of IgE dependent mediator release when preincubated with C60 fullerenes. Protein microarray demonstrated that inhibition of mediator release involves profound reductions in the activation of signaling molecules involved in mediator release and oxidative stress. Follow-up studies demonstrated that the tyrosine phosphorylation of Syk was dramatically inhibited in Ag-challenged cells first incubated with fullerenes. In addition, fullerene preincubation significantly inhibited IgE-induced elevation in cytoplasmic reactive oxygen species levels. Furthermore, fullerenes prevented the in vivo release of histamine and drop in core body temperature in vivo using a MC-dependent model of anaphylaxis. These findings identify a new biological function for fullerenes and may represent a novel way to control MC-dependent diseases including asthma, inflammatory arthritis, heart disease, and multiple sclerosis.
Nanotechnology, the use of nanomaterials at the molecular level, is a multidisciplinary scientific field undergoing exponential growth and has broad applications among all divisions of science (1, 2, 3). One form of nanomaterials, fullerenes, are soccer ball-shaped, carbon cages (C60) that can be functionalized and derivatized with a wide array of molecules (3, 4). Given their unique structure, inertness, and characteristic stability, fullerenes are being investigated as a novel way to improve upon modalities used to diagnose, monitor, and treat certain conditions.
Type I hypersensitivity is the result of B cell-produced, specific IgE Ab to common, normally innocuous Ags. The allergen-specific IgE sensitizes mast cells (MC)3 and peripheral blood basophils (PBB). Re-exposure to the allergen triggers an allergic response through the release of inflammatory mediators from MC and PBB. Indeed, many allergy medications are aimed at neutralizing (antihistamines, H1-receptor blockers) or preventing (anti-IgE; Omalizumab) this response.
No studies have examined the effects that C60 fullerenes have on the MC and PBB allergic responses. Previous studies in other cellular systems demonstrated that these molecules can inhibit various cellular pathways. We used human skin and lung MC, PBB, and an in vivo model for MC-dependent anaphylaxis to investigate the effects these molecules have on the allergic response.
Water-soluble fullerene derivatives (polyhydroxy C60, N-ethyl-polyamino C60) referred to as "poly" or "N-ethyl" were obtained from BuckyUSA. Stem cell factor was acquired from BD Biosciences. The human IgE anti-NP Ab (used for in vitro studies) was purified from the JW8 cell line. Mouse anti-DNP IgE (used for in vivo studies) was obtained from Dan Conrad (Virginia Commonwealth University Health Systems, Richmond, VA). Anti-fullerene Abs (5) were a gift from Bernard F. Erlanger (Columbia University, New York, NY). All Western blotting Abs were purchased from Cell Signalling.
Skin MC and PBB
Human skin/lung MC and PBB were purified and cultured as described (6, 7, 8). The majority of the experiments were performed using human MC. Skin MC cultures were maintained for up to 2 mo and were ∼100% skin MC. Lung MC were used within 1 wk after purification from tissue. PBB obtained from buffy coats were purified to >85%. All studies were approved by the Human Studies Committee at Virginia Commonwealth University Health Systems. For some experiments, bone marrow-derived MC from mice were obtained as described (9).
MC and PBB viability
PBS was added to water-soluble fullerenes to achieve a final concentration of 10 mg/ml. Skin MC and PBBs were incubated with varying concentrations up to 72 h. Cells were washed, collected, and stained with trypan blue (0.04%) for assessing viability. Cell counting was accomplished with an improved Neubauer hemocytometer.
Activation of skin MC and PBB
Human skin MC and PBB were sensitized with anti-NP IgE Abs (50 ng/ml for at least 24 h). All experiments were performed in duplicate or triplicate. Varying concentrations (0.001–1000 ng/ml) of fullerenes were added to the cells in minimal medium. After 24 h, the cells were centrifuged and 100 μl of medium was removed for β-hexosaminidase and histamine measurement. The cells were washed and exposed to 100 ng/ml NP-BSA (Biosearch Technologies) with 50 μg/ml soybean tissue inhibitor in X-Vivo medium. In some experiments, the anti-FcεRI Ab (3B4) was used to activate non-IgE-sensitized cells. After incubation at 37°C for 30 min, the cells were centrifuged and 100 μl of medium was removed for degranulation and PGD2 assessment using a kit from Cayman Chemical. The cells were suspended in the remaining medium and placed back in an incubator. After 24 h, the cells were centrifuged and 50 μl of medium was removed for cytokine (GM-CSF, TNF-α, IL-13) measurement as described (7).
Kinex Ab array
The Kinex Ab microarray service tracks the phosphorylation (with phospho-site-specific antibodies) of ∼600 proteins in dye-labeled cell lysates. For these experiments, cells were activated with or without prior incubation with 10 ng/ml poly C60 or N-ethyl C60 under the same conditions where maximal inhibition of mediator release was observed. Cells treated under the four conditions were lysed and cell lysates prepared according to the company protocol. Complete quantitation information for all detected spots was analyzed and data presented as the percentage of change from control, which measures of the change in normalized signal intensity averages between the treated sample and the control sample. Data was filtered such that only those signals that were inhibited greater than 50- and 100-fold are presented. All data are normalized to correct for systematic errors such as the difference in total protein amount between the control and experimental samples.
Measurement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by FACS
ROS production was measured using dichlorofluorescein (DCF), a cell-permeant indicator that becomes fluorescent upon oxidation by H2O2. Skin MC or PBB were sensitized, exposed to fullerenes, and activated as above. After washing, cells were resuspended in X-Vivo medium containing 5 μM DCF and incubated at 37°C for 45 min. Cells were washed twice with skin MC medium, suspended in PBS and the mean fluorescence measured by FACS analysis. The data are presented as the mean intensity fluorescence in which the negative control (DMSO only; see below) was adjusted to approximately the same value (125–150 mean intensity fluorescence) for each experiment. All experiments were performed in duplicate.
Immunohistochemical staining of fullerenes
Skin MC were incubated with different concentrations of fullerenes at various time intervals (4, 8, and 24 h). Cytospins were made and each slide fixed in methanol/acetone/formalin (19:19:4) for 5 min and methanol/hydrogen peroxide (40:1) for 30 min. After washing in Tris-buffered saline with 0.2% Tween (TTBS) three times, the cells were placed in blocking buffer (TTBS with 1% BSA, human serum, and goat serum) for 1 h. The slides were washed three times in TTBS, and 200 μl of an Ab specific for fullerenes (5) was added to each slide. After washing the slides as before, peroxidase conjugated goat anti-mouse Abs was added. After washing, the substrate 3-amino-9-ethyl-carbazole was added and the reaction visualized and photographed with a Zeiss microscope with an Olympus digital camera.
Mouse model of anaphylaxis
Mice (C57BL/6, aged 16–20 wk) were injected i.p. with 50 μg of anti-DNP IgE or PBS. Mice then received 50 ng of poly C60 fullerene in 100 μl of PBS. Twenty four hours later, mice were challenged with an i.p. injection of 100 μg of DNP-albumin (Sigma-Aldrich) in 100 μl of PBS. Body temperature measurements were recorded with a digital rectal thermometer every 10 min for 30 min. Peripheral blood was harvested by cardiac puncture 30 min after Ag injection, and serum histamine measurements were determined by ELISA.
No studies have examined the effects fullerenes have on human MC and basophils. Thus, we first tested the effects fullerene derivatives have on cell growth and viability of skin MC and PBB. Cells incubated with up to 1000 ng/ml either polyhydroxy C60 or N-ethyl C60 for up to 72 h did not demonstrate any significant changes in cell numbers or viability (data not shown). These results suggest fullerenes are not toxic to human MC and PBB.
We next investigated the effects of fullerenes on MC and PBB Ag-induced mediator release. NP-IgE-sensitized MC and PBB were incubated with varying concentrations of fullerenes before challenge with NP-BSA. Fullerenes alone did not induce MC or PBB mediator release (data shown not shown). However, when cells were incubated with water-soluble fullerenes before challenge with optimal concentrations of Ag (100 ng/ml) there was a significant inhibition of both degranulation (Fig. 1⇓, A and C) and cytokine production (Fig. 1⇓, B and D) compared with skin MC and PBB not incubated with the fullerenes. Similar inhibition was observed when cells were challenged with anti-IgE receptor Abs (Fig. 1⇓E).
The effects of fullerenes on skin MC and PBB. Skin MC (A and B) or PBB (C and D) were sensitized with NP-IgE. Fullerenes (white, poly C60; striped, N-ethyl-C60) were added for 24 h at the indicated concentrations. For comparison, equal number of cells did not receive C60 (indicated by the (−)). The cells were washed and activated with or without (spontaneous; spon) optimal concentrations of NP-BSA (100 ng/ml) for 0.5 (degranulation) or 30 h (cytokine production), centrifuged and the supernatants examined for mediator release. In F, MC or PBB were incubated with or without the indicated concentrations of fullerenes. The next day cells were washed and activated with optimal concentrations of 3B4 and the supernatants assayed for degranulation. The results represent the average release with each condition and the SD. ∗, statistically significant changes in mediator levels comparing the treated cells with the untreated cells (−) using the Student t test (p < 0.05). All experiments were performed at least four times with separate donors.
MC found in the skin are phenotypically different from those found in the lung. For this reason we investigated the effects fullerenes had on freshly isolated human lung MC mediator release. As seen in Fig. 2⇓, A and B, lung MC also exhibited inhibited IgE responses when cells were first exposed to fullerenes compared with cells not treated with fullerenes. The inhibitory effect was also observed from non-IgE/FcεRI-mediated stimulation using calcium ionophore and substance P, a potent neuropeptide (Fig. 2⇓, C and D) and when PGD2 release was measured (Fig. 2⇓E). Fullerene-treated skin MC also had inhibited PGD2 release compared with nontreated and IgE-activated cells (data not shown).
A and B, The effects of fullerenes on lung MC. Lung MC (73–86% purity) were cultured with fullerenes (10 ng/ml) overnight. The next day the cells were washed and activated with or without (spontaneous; spon) the indicated concentrations of the anti-FcεRI-α Ab 3B4 for 0.5 (degranulation; A) or 30 h (cytokine production; B), centrifuged and the supernatants examined for mediator release. ∗, Significant changes (p < 0.05). C and D, The effects of fullerenes on non-IgE-mediated degranulation Cells were cultured with (white, poly C60; striped, N-ethyl C60) or without (black) the fullerenes at the indicated concentrations. Cells were washed and activated with or without (spontaneous; spon) A23187 (1000 ng/ml; C) or substance P (100 μM/ml; D) for 30 min and the supernatants examined for mediator release. ∗, Statistically significant changes (p < 0.05). E, The effects of fullerenes on PGD2 release. DNP-IgE-sensitized lung MCs were cultured with (white, poly C60; striped, N-ethyl C60) or without (black) fullerenes at the indicated concentrations. Cells were washed and activated with or without (spontaneous; spon) anti-FcεRI-α Ab 3B4 (3 μg/ml) for 30 min, centrifuged and the supernatants examined for PGD2. ∗, Statistically significant changes in mediator levels (p < 0.05). All experiments above were performed at least three times with separate donors.
We next investigated the effect fullerenes had on IgE binding to MC and levels of FcεRI expression on MC because the inhibitory effect observed above could be due to steric hindrance of IgE binding and/or reduced FcεRI expression. As seen in Fig. 3⇓A, MC incubated with or without fullerenes demonstrated similar IgE binding. The expression levels of FcεRI were not changed when cells were incubated with fullerenes. In addition, fullerenes were not detected on the cell surface when cells were analyzed by FACS analysis after fullerene incubation and staining with fullerene-specific Abs (Fig. 3⇓B). These results, along with those in Figs. 1⇑F and 2⇑, A and B, strongly suggest that the inhibitory effect seen with fullerene preincubation is not simply due to steric hindrance of IgE binding to Ag, IgE binding to FcεRI, nor to reduced FcεRI levels. Thus, fullerene derivatives inhibit the signaling pathways leading to human MC and PBB mediator release through mechanisms that do not involve Ag-Ab or Ab-anti-FcεRI receptor inhibition.
A, Fullerenes do not inhibit IgE binding to MC or reduce FcεRI levels. Left, Mouse MCs were incubated with IgE for 24 h, after which fullerenes were added at the indicated concentrations (ng/ml) for 24 h. Cells were then stained with IgE plus anti-IgE, and mean fluorescence intensity was measured by flow cytometry. Right, A second group of MCs received fullerenes alone for 24 h and was then stained for surface IgE receptors using anti-FcεRIa. Data shown are mean ± SEM of six samples. B, Fullerenes are not detected on the cell surface under conditions that inhibit mediator release. SMC were incubated with 10 ng/ml poly (top), N-ethyl (middle), or no (bottom) fullerenes overnight. The next day, cells were washed and incubated with anti-fullerene Abs (blue), anti-FcεRI Abs (black), or nonspecific mouse IgG isotype-matched control Abs (red) followed by fluorescent-labeled anti-mouse F(ab′)2 Abs. After washing, cells were subjected to FACS analysis.
To assess the cellular localization of fullerenes within human MC and PBB, we incubated these cells with water-soluble fullerenes and detected fullerenes with imunohistochemistry using an anti-fullerene Ab. As seen in Fig. 4⇓, both skin MC and PBB incubated with the fullerenes for at least 4 h reacted with the fullerene Abs. The staining was mostly within the cytoplasm of the cells further indicating that the fullerenes exert their inhibitory affect inside the cell.
Carbon fullerenes localize within the cytoplasm of MC and PBB. Skin MC (A–D) or PBB (E and F) were incubated with poly C60 (10 ng/ml; A, B, C and F) or N-ethyl C60 (10 ng/ml; D and F) for 4 h, washed and cytocentrifuged onto slides. The cytocentrifuge preparations were incubated with anti-C60 fullerene Abs (C–F) or with an isotype-matched control (A and B) overnight. The cytospins were washed and incubated with a 1/50 dilution of peroxidase-conjugated, anti-mouse Abs and developed with 3-amino-9-ethyl-carbazole as described. Photographs A and B are the same field taken under phase-contrast (A) or light (B) at a magnification of ×400. C–F, ×1000.
To determine the mechanisms of fullerene inhibition, we used protein microarray to provide detection and quantitation of ∼600 known phospho-activated signaling molecules. As seen in Table I⇓, ∼35 Ag-induced signaling intermediates were inhibited by greater than 50-fold when cells were preincubated with the fullerenes and Ag activated compared with those nontreated and Ag activated. Of these, ∼12 signaling intermediates were affected greater than 100-fold compared with Ag-only affected cells (Table I⇓, underlined). For example, the tyrosine hydroxylase enzyme was up-regulated greater than 100-fold following IgE receptor stimulation (and was the signaling molecule up-regulated the highest by Ag stimulation). However, in cells first treated with fullerenes, this molecule was not up-regulated following Ag stimulation as detected using the Kinexus assay system. This analysis also revealed several signaling intermediates previously shown in other cellular systems to be associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS; Table I⇓, italics).
Table I.
The effects of fullerenes on SMC signaling intermediates; protein array of signaling molecules affected by fullerenes in SMCa
Syk levels correlate with MC/PBB secretion and is a critical kinase in the FcεRI signaling cascade (10). The protein microarray data suggested that the tyrosine kinase Syk was inhibited greater than 50-fold following Ag stimulation when cells were first incubated with fullerenes. We performed Western blotting of Syk following Ag stimulation with or without fullerene preincubation. As seen in Fig. 5⇓A, Syk phosphorylation was dramatically inhibited when cells were preincubated with fullerenes before activation. Similar observations were observed with Lyn and total cellular tyrosine phosphorylation (not shown) further suggesting that fullerenes inhibit MC/PBB mediator release through the reduction in FcεRI-associated kinase activation.
A, Fullerenes inhibit tyrosine phosphorylation of Syk. NP-IgE-sensitized MC were incubated overnight with or without polyhydroxy-C60 or N-ethyl-polyamino-C60 (10 ng/ml). Cells were washed and activated for 10 min with or without NP-BSA (100 ng/ml). Western blotting was performed as described previously (60 ). B, Fullerenes inhibit ROS production in skin MC and PBB. Skin MC (▪) or PBB (▪) were sensitized overnight with NP-IgE. Cells were washed and activated for 30 min with NP-BSA (100 ng/ml) with or without preincubation with polyhydroxy-C60 (top panel) or N-ethyl-polyamino-C60 (bottom panel) at the indicated concentrations or NAC (10 mmol). Supernatants were assayed for degranulation and cellular ROS levels were detected by incubating the cells in DCF and detecting the fluorescence by FACS analysis. The results are representative of three separate MC or PBB cultures. ∗, Statistically significant changes in ROS levels for MC and PBB, respectively (n = 3; p < 0.05).
The protein microarray data also suggested that the fullerenes inhibited several molecules involved in the regulation of cellular ROS levels. We measured ROS levels in Ag-challenged cells with or without preincubation with fullerenes. As seen in Fig. 5⇑B, preincubation of skin MC and PBB with fullerenes significantly reduced the Ag-induced increase in ROS levels within the cells. This effect was comparable to that observed with N-acetylcysteine; a powerful antioxidant. These data suggest that the inhibition of MC and PBB mediator release observed with fullerene preincubation may be due to reductions in ROS levels after Ag challenge.
Systemic anaphylaxis is predominately driven by the activation of MC and PBB through IgE-FcεRI cross-linking (11). We showed these cell types were inhibited by preincubation with fullerene derivatives. Thus, we hypothesized that fullerenes could inhibit MC- and PBB-induced anaphylaxis in vivo using IgE-sensitized mice. As shown in Fig. 6⇓, animals injected i.p. with fullerenes 24 h before systemic Ag challenge had a significant decrease in the MC/PBB-derived histamine response when the animals were challenged with Ag. In addition, fullerenes injected 24 h before systemic Ag challenge significantly reduced the anaphylactic-induced drop in core body temperature. Of note, the fullerene injection did not noticeably affect the behavior in any of the mice tested (n = 35).
Fullerenes inhibit IgE-induced anaphylaxis in vivo. Mice were sensitized with or without (black) DNP-IgE overnight. The mice were then given vehicle alone (▪) or fullerenes (▴) i.v. (50 ng/ml) overnight. The next morning the animals were challenged with DNP-BSA (100 μg/ml) and the core body temperature measured for up to 30 min. Serum histamine levels were measured by ELISA (A, 3–5 per group; n = 3 separate experiments, p < 0.05, B. n = 10 control, 13-poly-treated).
Fullerenes or "Bucky-balls" represent the third allotrope of carbon. In this form, 60 or 70 carbon molecules are arranged in a cage structure and are water insoluble unless derivatized with various compounds. The small size of fullerenes, their inertness, and their ability to be manipulated with a host of drugs, polymers, and ligands make them attractive for the use as new therapeutics and improving the efficacy of drugs already developed. Our studies have clear implications for their use as a new way to "turn off" MC and PBB and, in turn, those disease in which these cells have a critical role.
The fullerene core can react with free radical species given its capacity to absorb electrons and disperse them through the 20 benzene rings distributed over its surface. In fact it is one of the most potent free radical scavengers known with the potential for being "sponges" in diseases involving ROS (4). This property makes them attractive therapeutic options in acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson, Alzheimer, and Lou Gehrig, which involve ROS, probably due to the over-excitation of glutamic acid receptors (12, 13, 14). To this end fullerenes derivatized with OH species have been shown to prevent ischemia (poisoning due to lack of oxygen) which is initiated and propagated through sudden increases in ROS as tissues react to energy depletion (15, 16, 17). Derivatized fullerenes also reduce ROS-induced neuronal apoptosis and have been proposed as a potential therapeutic for neurodegenerative disorders (14). Other derivatives of fullerenes include hexosulfobutyl and C3, the Tris malonate derivative, and polyethylene glycol.
The mechanism of inhibition by the fullerenes in MC and PBB appears to be, in part, through the inhibition of cellular ROS levels. As seen in Table I⇑, fullerenes inhibited several signaling pathways previously been shown to be involved in ROS generation (18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26). For example inhibiting procaspase 9 prevents mitochondrial uncoupling and ROS production (27). Procaspase 9 was inhibited over 50-fold in MC incubated with fullerenes before Ag activation and could help explain the reduced ROS levels within the cells treated with fullerenes. Thus, fullerenes appear to act as an antioxidant that can absorb the free radical electrons of ROS. Our results are similar to previous studies demonstrating that fullerenes are powerful antioxidants in a variety of cell types (4).
The role of ROS in human MC and PBB-induced responses has not been investigated thoroughly. Work in rat basophil leukemic cells (RBL) has shown that stimulation through the high-affinity IgE receptor induces the production of ROS which regulate various MC responses, including degranulation, leukotriene secretion, and cytokine production (28). Conversely, antioxidants that quench intracellular ROS in rodent MC inhibit degranulation (29). Several secretogogues induced intracellular increases of ROS levels in rodent MC (30, 31, 32, 33), PBB (33), and human blood-derived MC (34). We demonstrated ROS generation in human PBB that had released significantly more mediators when challenged with diesel exhaust particles compared with nonchallenged cells (35). Some evidence indicates that allergic and inflammatory skin diseases like atopic dermatitis, urticaria and psoriasis are mediated by MC-initiated oxidative stress (36) while recent studies suggest antioxidants can reduce asthma symptoms in mice (37, 38). Previous studies have demonstrated that ROS, possibly from MC, play a significant role in the pathogenesis of a number of disorders such as inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, psoriasis, urticaria, and contact dermatitis (39). Our studies further suggest a critical role for ROS in human MC mediator release and inhibiting ROS levels by fullerenes leads to a blunted Ag-induced response.
We found that both Lyn and Syk were inhibited by fullerene preincubation. These 2 kinases have been shown to be linked to FcεRI-regulated mediator release in MC and PBB (40, 41). These are the first studies linking the inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation of these kinases to the activity of fullerenes. However, in B cells, Syk has a crucial role in intracellular signal transduction induced by oxidative stress as well as Ag receptor engagement (42). These studies found that that oxidative stress-induced Syk activation triggers the activation of several pathways, such as proapoptotic and survival pathways, and the balance among these various pathways is a key factor in determining the fate of a cell exposed to oxidative stress. Although a direct link between oxidative stress and up-regulation of Syk has not been demonstrated in MC our studies are similar to that reported in the B cell where Ag activation induces oxidative stress as well as Syk activation. The area of ROS/oxidative stress signal transduction mechanisms (secretion of ROS, ROS dependent mediator release, etc) in human MC/PBB has simply not been investigated thoroughly and represents an area of research that remains to be explored.
Given the relative infancy of the field, the studies examining the toxicity of fullerenes on biological systems are still emerging. Toxicological studies using a wide range of nanomaterials have been conflicting and inconclusive (1, 2, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48). Water solubility, dose, exposure time, and similar parameters all appear to influence the cytotoxicity of the fullerenes. For example, unfunctionalized C60 appears to be cytotoxic in certain systems given its highly charged core structure but as functional side chains are added to the carbon skeleton the level of cytotoxicity appears to diminish (45, 49). Previous studies have demonstrated that fullerenes have no cytotoxic effects on keratinocytes or fibroblasts and can protect blood mononuclear cells and macrophages from oxidative stress (50, 51, 52). The level of cytotoxicity also depends on the concentration of fullerenes exposed to cells. Yamawaki showed the cytotoxic effects of hydroxyl C60 fullerenes on endothelial cells using 100 μg/ml while Chen demonstrated that polyalkylsulfonated caused renal damage with an LD50 of 600 mg/kg in rats (53, 54). In addition, high concentrations of fullerene-based amino acid nanoparticles were cytotoxic to epidermal keratinocytes, while low concentrations displayed no cytotoxic effects (55).
We show that an injection of 50 ng into mice weighing ∼25 g (0.002 mg/kg) significantly inhibits anaphylaxis and does not affect the mice adversely. We have also injected five-fold higher (250 ng) with no toxicity (data not shown). Hence, the concentrations of fullerenes that are capable of inhibiting anaphylaxis and MC/PBB mediator release are 400–300,000-fold lower than the concentrations observed to have in vivo toxicity. More studies are needed to determine their effects on cell and cellular systems before they can be used as a therapeutic intervention.
In conclusion, fullerenes are capable of inhibiting MC and PBB allergic responses in vitro and anaphylaxis in vivo and suggests these molecules have previously unrecognized antiallergic properties. Fullerenes may represent a new way to control diseases largely influenced by these cells including type I hypersensitivity (anaphylaxis, hay fever, etc) (11), asthma (56), arthritis (57), multiple sclerosis (58), and other autoimmune diseases (59). For future applications, fullerenes could be modified with functional groups to specifically target their uptake to MC and PBB. For example we are investigating the effects fullerene-coated stem cell factor and IgE Fc peptide, molecules that will specifically target MC and PBB, have on mediator release.
The authors have no financial conflict of interest.
↵1 This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health Grants R01-AI27517 (to L.B.S.) and K08-AI057357 (to W.Z.) and by the Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (to C.L.K.).
↵2 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Chris Kepley, PhD, MBA Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, P.O. Box 980263 MCV Station, Richmond, VA 23298. E-mail address: clkepley{at}vcu.edu
↵3 Abbreviations used in this paper: MC, mast cell; PBB, peripheral blood basophils; ROS, reactive oxygen species; DCF, dichlorofluorescein.
Received January 26, 2007.
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Chen, S., J. Gong, F. Liu, U. Mohammed. 2000. Naturally occurring polyphenolic antioxidants modulate IgE-mediated mast cell activation. Immunology 100: 471-480.
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Matsui, T., Y. Suzuki, K. Yamashita, T. Yoshimaru, M. Suzuki-Karasaki, S. Hayakawa, M. Yamaki, K. Shimizu. 2000. Diphenyleneiodonium prevents reactive oxygen species generation, tyrosine phosphorylation, and histamine release in RBL-2H3 mast cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 276: 742-748.
Swindle, E. J., J. A. Hunt, J. W. Coleman. 2002. A comparison of reactive oxygen species generation by rat peritoneal macrophages and mast cells using the highly sensitive real-time chemiluminescent probe pholasin: inhibition of antigen-induced mast cell degranulation by macrophage-derived hydrogen peroxide. J. Immunol. 169: 5866-5873.
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Kepley, C. L., F. T. Lauer, J. M. Oliver, S. W. Burchiel. 2003. Environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzo(a) pyrene (BaP) and BaP-quinones, enhance IgE-mediated histamine release and IL-4 production in human basophils. Clin. Immunol. 107: 10-19.
Okayama, Y.. 2005. Oxidative stress in allergic and inflammatory skin diseases. Curr. Drug Targets Inflamm. Allergy 4: 517-519.
Lee, K. S., H. S. Park, S. J. Park, S. R. Kim, K. H. Min, S. M. Jin, L. Li, Y. C. Lee. 2006. An antioxidant modulates expression of receptor activator of NF-κB in asthma. Exp. Mol. Med. 38: 217-229.
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Bowler, R. P., J. D. Crapo. 2002. Oxidative stress in allergic respiratory diseases. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 110: 349-356.
Tkaczyk, C., A. M. Gilfillan. 2001. FcεRI-dependent signaling pathways in human mast cells. Clin. Immunol. 99: 198-210.
Nadler, M. J., S. A. Matthews, H. Turner, J. P. Kinet. 2000. Signal transduction by the high-affinity immunoglobulin E receptor FcεRI: coupling form to function. Adv. Immunol. 76: 325-355.
Takano, T., K. Sada, H. Yamamura. 2002. Role of protein-tyrosine kinase syk in oxidative stress signaling in B cells. Antioxid. Redox Signal 4: 533-541.
Fenoglio, I., M. Tomatis, D. Lison, J. Muller, A. Fonseca, J. B. Nagy, B. Fubini. 2006. Reactivity of carbon nanotubes: free radical generation or scavenging activity?. Free Radical Biol. Med. 40: 1227-1233.
Fiorito, S., A. Serafino, F. Andreola, A. Togna, G. Togna. 2006. Toxicity and biocompatibility of carbon nanoparticles. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 6: 591-599.
Sayes, C. M., F. Liang, J. L. Hudson, J. Mendez, W. Guo, J. M. Beach, V. C. Moore, C. D. Doyle, J. L. West, W. E. Billups, et al 2006. Functionalization density dependence of single-walled carbon nanotubes cytotoxicity in vitro. Toxicol. Lett. 161: 135-142.
Mori, T., H. Takada, S. Ito, K. Matsubayashi, N. Miwa, T. Sawaguchi. 2006. Preclinical studies on safety of fullerene upon acute oral administration and evaluation for no mutagenesis. Toxicology 225: 48-54.
Worle-Knirsch, J. M., K. Pulskamp, H. F. Krug. 2006. Oops they did it again! Carbon nanotubes hoax scientists in viability assays. Nano. Lett. 6: 1261-1268.
Nakamura, E., H. Isobe. 2003. Functionalized fullerenes in water: the first 10 years of their chemistry, biology, and nanoscience. Acc. Chem. Res. 36: 807-815.
Sayes, C. M., A. M. Gobin, K. D. Ausman, J. Mendez, J. L. West, V. L. Colvin. 2005. Nano-C60 cytotoxicity is due to lipid peroxidation. Biomaterials 26: 7587-7595.
Fumelli, C., A. Marconi, S. Salvioli, E. Straface, W. Malorni, A. M. Offidani, R. Pellicciari, G. Schettini, A. Giannetti, D. Monti, et al 2000. Carboxyfullerenes protect human keratinocytes from ultraviolet-B-induced apoptosis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 115: 835-841.
Monti, D., L. Moretti, S. Salvioli, E. Straface, W. Malorni, R. Pellicciari, G. Schettini, M. Bisaglia, C. Pincelli, C. Fumelli, et al 2000. C60 carboxyfullerene exerts a protective activity against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 277: 711-717.
Porter, A. E., K. Muller, J. Skepper, P. Midgley, M. Welland. 2006. Uptake of C60 by human monocyte macrophages, its localization and implications for toxicity: studied by high resolution electron microscopy and electron tomography. Acta Biomater. 2: 409-419.
Castells, M. C., A. M. Irani, L. B. Schwartz. 1987. Evaluation of human peripheral blood leukocytes for mast cell tryptase. J. Immunol. 138: 2184-2189.
Chen, H. H., C. Yu, T. H. Ueng, S. Chen, B. J. Chen, K. J. Huang, L. Y. Chiang. 1998. Acute and subacute toxicity study of water-soluble polyalkylsulfonated C60 in rats. Toxicol. Pathol. 26: 143-151.
Rouse, J. G., J. Yang, A. R. Barron, N. A. Monteiro-Riviere. 2006. Fullerene-based amino acid nanoparticle interactions with human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicol. In Vitro 20: 1313-1320.
Bradding, P., A. F. Walls, S. T. Holgate. 2006. The role of the mast cell in the pathophysiology of asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 117: 1277-1284.
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Gregory, G. D., A. Bickford, M. Robbie-Ryan, M. Tanzola, M. A. Brown. 2005. MASTering the immune response: mast cells in autoimmunity. Novartis Found. Symp. 271: 215-225. ; discussion 225-31..
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Though almost every sound has had a microphone pointed in its direction at one point or another, the interior monologue has gone as the principle unrecorded sound of the electronic age. While often depicted in literature, film, and other forms of narrative, its status as a sound sans external source prevents it from having a mechanical inscription the mediascape. In Shuffleboardwalking this absence is used as a launching point for several short audio meditations that attempt to emulate the condition of the interior monologue by creating personal stream-of-consciousness soundscapes. Over binaurally-recorded, real-time, audio-verite scenes are layered bits of spoken text, fragments of music, and occasional displaced sounds. A fabricated glimpse into the thoughts of another, Shuffleboardwalking offers a simulation of an audio mind.


text:
Man City will be stronger next season, says Guardiola
Manchester City remains on course for a domestic treble but manager Pep Guardiola expects his team to become even stronger next season.
Manchester City boss Pep Guardiola - Getty Images
Manchester City is on the brink of claiming back-to-back Premier League titles, but Pep Guardiola believes his team can be even better next season.
City is on course to become the first Premier League side to retain the title since 2008-09, as it sits on 95 points, one clear of Liverpool heading into the final round of matches.
The defending champion travels to Brighton and Hove Albion on Sunday, while Liverpool hosts Wolves, and victory for the EFL Cup winner will keep alive its hopes of a domestic treble – a feat never before achieved by an English side.
However, Guardiola is demanding even more from his squad in 2019-20.
"Next season we will be stronger, I am sure. We will be stronger. We will be better," he told a news conference.
READ | How a playoff could decide the Premier League champion
"This season we understand what we want to do quicker [compared to last season]. We don't change too much our patterns, our way we want to play, so that is why everyone is more comfortable in what we want to do, in how we want to defend.
"I think we attack much better. Teams when they face us that have a low, low block, an incredible low block, that means 11 playing in the box, so how we attack them, we concede not too many counter-attacks, the set-pieces we defend well.
"In general, especially in the Premier League we were so consistent. In the Champions League we were a little bit more vulnerable, for the quality of the opponents and the tension of the desire to do well, but I think that is the process.
"We have done quite similar things to last season, but we repeat every three days so at the end we do many things better."
ALSO READ | Brighton determined to spoil City's party, says Duffy
City has been pushed all the way by Liverpool in a thrilling title race, but Guardiola insists he will not feel anxious ahead of the final-day showdown with Brighton.
"I am so happy. No nerves at all," he said. "I was nervous before the Liverpool game [on January 3], seven points behind and we could be 10 points behind. It was 'Aah', it will be so difficult. But I'm not nervous now, no way. I sleep like a little boy.
"It is a dream, a privilege. I love it. The whole of England will be watching, probably Europe."
Either City or Liverpool face finishing as runners-up with a record amount of points, and Guardiola acknowledges his side still has work to do if it is to avoid making unwanted history.
"It is in our hands now," he said. "We have to deserve to win the game. The players know it. It is not necessary to tell them. Most of the time we played after Liverpool, but it didn't matter.
"In two months, every game, win or we are out because Liverpool show the quality they have. The way we have played in every action, every defensive set-piece, when we have the ball, every single game it is like this, even if we can play better or worse.
"We have not spoken for two or three days about the Premier League title or back-to-back [titles], or what happens if we lose, about celebrations if we win, zero. It is just about Brighton, how they defend, their strengths and weak points, what we have to do. And on Sunday, 'Guys, go out and play.' That is all."


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text:
Wolfgang Suschitzky (ur. 29 sierpnia 1912 w Wiedniu, zm. 7 października 2016 w Londynie) – brytyjski fotograf i operator filmowy pochodzenia austriackiego. Współpracował z Paulem Rothą w latach czterdziestych XX wieku oraz z Mikiem Hodgesem w 1971 przy filmie Get Carter.

Andrew Pulver opisał Suschtizky'ego jako "żywy związek z dniami przedwojennej chwały brytyjskiej grupy Documentary Film Movement". Steve Chibnall pisze, że Suschitzky "był znany jako ekspert planu zdjęciowego łączonego z umiejętnością dokumentalistycznego zachowania atmosfery warunków naturalnych", Jego zdjęcia zostały wystawione w National Gallery w Londynie, w Austriackim Forum Kulturalnym w Londynie i w The Photographers' Gallery w Londynie i pojawiają się w wielu międzynarodowych zbiorach fotograficznych. Jest ojcem operatora filmowego Petera Suschitzky'ego (1940), muzyka klasycznego i pisarza Mishy Donata i Julii Donat. W sierpniu 2012 roku stał się stulatkiem.

Życiorys

Wczesne lata
Ojciec Suschitzky'ego był wiedeńskim socjaldemokratą żydowskiego pochodzenia. Odstąpił od swojej wiary i stał się ateistą, lub bezwyznaniowcem. Otworzył pierwszą socjal-demokratyczną księgarnię w Wiedniu (później stając się wydawcą). Wolfgang Suschitzky urodził się w mieszkaniu nad księgarnią. Jego siostra Edith Tudor-Hart (1908-1973) była fotografką. Suschitzky powiedział o swoim ojcu: "był wspaniałym człowiekiem. Zdałem sobie sprawę, że dalej w moim życiu, nie będzie go tak wiele, jak gdy widziałem go na co dzień. Ale poznałem ciekawych ludzi, niektórych z jego autorów, którzy przychodzili i jedli z nami obiad lub spotykałem ludzi, którzy przychodzili do jego sklepu".

W wywiadzie, w wieku 95 lat, we wrześniu 2007 roku, Suschitzky przypomniał dzieciństwo, wspominał przede wszystkim podniecenie rosyjską rewolucją w 1917 roku. Został wychowany bez wiary. Suschitzky przypomniał sobie, że jego koledzy zazdrościli, że mógł opuszczać lekcje religii i siedzieć na zewnątrz czytając książki. Suschitzky opisał siebie jako "bardzo złego chłopca. Każdego popołudnia robiliśmy różnego rodzaju psoty z... moimi kumplami w parku". Często miał kłopoty w szkole i w domu. Po poradzie konsultanta edukacyjnego w Wiedniu, jego ojciec wysłał go pewnego dnia do szkoły z internatem, aby nauczyć go jakiejś dyscypliny. Jednak nadal był złośliwy i często zatrzymywany po lekcjach w szkole.

Pierwszą miłością Suschitzky'ego była zoologia, ale zdał sobie sprawę, że nie będzie mógł utrzymać się jako zoolog w Austrii, więc zamiast tego, pod wpływem swojej siostry, studiował fotografię. W tym czasie klimat polityczny w Austrii zmienił się z socjaldemokratycznego na austrofaszyzm. Będąc socjalistą i żydowskiego pochodzenia, Suschitzky stwierdził, że nie ma dla niego przyszłości w Austrii i w 1934 wyjechał do Londynu, gdzie mieszkała jego siostra. Podczas gdy Suschitzky był w Londynie jego ojciec popełnił samobójstwo. Suschitzky ożenił się z Holenderką Heleną Wilhelminą Marią Elżbietą (Puck) Voûte w Hampstead i przeniósł się do Holandii. Jego żona odeszła od niego po roku, Suschitzky powiedział: "to było wielkim szczęściem, bo gdybym z nią został, nie byłbym żywy, jestem tego pewien". Wrócił do Anglii w 1935 i w 1939 ożenił się z Iloną Donat, z którą miał troje dzieci.

Praca fotografa i operatora
Pierwszą pracą Suschitzky'ego były fotografie Holandii na kartkach pocztowych dla kiosków. Praca ta trwała kilka miesięcy. W 1935 udał się do Anglii i został operatorem filmowym Paula Rothy, z którym długo współpracował. Ich pracą w czasie wojny był film World of Plenty (1943) i sponsorowane przez państwo krótkie informacje filmowe. Z Rothą ukończył film fabularny, pracując przy No Resting Place (1951), który był jednym z pierwszych brytyjskich filmów fabularnych wykonanych całkowicie w plenerze. Film był nominowany do Nagrody Brytyjskiej Akademii Filmowej za najlepszy film w 1952 roku. Następnie filmował komedię The Oracle (1953) Colina Leslie, a następnie jeszcze film Rothy Cat and Mouse (1958). Pracował również z Jackiem Claytonem przy filmie krótkometrażowym The Bespoke Overcoat, który zdobył w 1956 Oscara. Robił także zdjęcia do Oxford-Don C.S. Lewisa, około 1959.

W latach 1960. prace Suschitzky'ego obejmowały ekranizację Ullisesa Jamesa Joyce`a (Józef Strick, 1967), i w Hammer Film Productions film Vengeance of She (Cliff Owen, 1968). W 1963 robił zdjęcia do brytyjskiego filmu kryminalnego The Small World of Sammy Lee reżyserii Kena Hughesa. Ten film miał wpływ na scenarzystę Mike'a Hodgesa, z którym Suschitzky później pracował przy Get Carter (1971). Jego ostatnim filmem przed wykonaniem zdjęć do Get Carter była 1970 adaptacja Joego Ortona Entertaining Mr. Sloane, reżyserii Douglasa Hicoxa.

Jego filmografia obejmuje dwa filmy w reżyserii Jacka Couffera, Ring of Bright Water i Living Free, który był kontynuacją filmu Born Free. Wydanie 12 magazynu Lid prezentowało liczące dwadzieścia osiem stron portfolio ze zdjęciami Suschitzky'ego oraz portretem i szkicem Gerarda Malangi. Jego syn Peter Suschitzky ASC/BSC jest również filmowcem. Wolf (lub Su, jak również był nazywany) jest opisywany w książce Conversations with Cinematographers Davida Ellisa, opublikowanej przez amerykańskiego wydawcę Scarecrow Press.

Suschitzky zmarł 7 października 2016 roku w wieku 104 lat w Londynie.

Częściowa filmografia
 World of Plenty (Paul Rotha, 1943)
 The World Is Rich (1947)
 No Resting Place (Paul Rotha, 1951)
 The Oracle (S. M. Pennington-Richards,1953)
 Cat and Mouse (Paul Rotha, 1958).
 The Bespoke Overcoat (1956)
 Snow (Geoffrey Jones, 1963)
 Sands of Beersheba (1966)
 Ulysses (Joseph Strick, 1967)
 Vengeance of She (Cliff Owen, 1968)
 Les Bicyclettes de Belsize (1968)
 The Small World of Sammy Lee (Ken Hughes 1963),
 Ring of Bright Water  (Jack Couffer, 1969)
 Entertaining Mr. Sloane (Douglas Hicox, 1970)
 Get Carter (Mike Hodges, 1971)
 Living Free (Jack Couffer, 1972)
 Some Kind of Hero (1972)
 Theatre of Blood (1973)
 Moments (1974)
 Something to Hide (1976)
  Falling in Love Again (1980)
 Good and Bad at Games (TV-serial, 1983)
 The Young Visiters (1984)
 The Chain (Jack Gold, 1984)

Przypisy

Linki zewnętrzne

 Wybór zdjęć Suschitzkyego [dostęp 2016-10-15]
 Wolf Suschitsky – zdjęcia w Galerii Lumiere (ang.) [dostęp 2016-10-15]
 Wspomnienie o Suschitzkym na stronie BAFTA (ang.) [dostęp 2016-10-15]

Austriaccy fotografowie
Brytyjscy fotografowie
Brytyjscy operatorzy filmowi
Brytyjscy stulatkowie
Austriaccy Żydzi
Brytyjscy Żydzi
Austriaccy stulatkowie
Ludzie urodzeni w Wiedniu
Urodzeni w 1912
Zmarli w 2016

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Q: approach to limit/continuity problem with multiple variables
Let $g: \Bbb{R^2} \backslash \{(0,0)\} \to \Bbb{R}$
with
$$g(x,y)=\dfrac {\cos x - \cos y}{5(x^2+y^2)}$$
Determine $G(x)=\lim\limits_{y \to 0}g(x,y) \;\; x \in \Bbb{R} $

This is the problem and my work so far. I am unsure if the Taylor approach is needed or if I can use use LL'Hôpital's rule to make the problem more simple.

A: You are correct for $G(x)$ and you can also apply L'Hôpital's rule twice to obtain $$\lim_{x\rightarrow 0}\frac{\cos(x)-1}{5x^2}=\lim_{x\rightarrow 0}\frac{-\sin(x)}{10x}=\lim_{x\rightarrow 0}\frac{-\cos(x)}{10}=-\frac{1}{10}.$$
Since $G(x)$ has a removable discontinuity at $x=0$, if we define $$G(x)=\begin{cases}-\frac{1}{10}\space\space\space\text{for $x=0$}\\\frac{\cos(x)-1}{5x^2}\space\space\space\text{otherwise}\end{cases}$$
then $G(x)$ becomes continuous.

Note that $$\lim_{y\rightarrow 0}g(0,y)=\lim_{y\rightarrow 0}\frac{1-\cos(y)}{5y^2}$$
$$=\lim_{y\rightarrow 0}\frac{\sin(y)}{10y}=\lim_{y\rightarrow 0}\frac{\cos(y)}{10}=\frac{1}{10}$$
so it follows that the $\lim_{(x,y)\rightarrow(0,0)}g(x,y)$ does not exist.

Your numerator for $g(0,y)$ should be $$g(0,y)=\frac{\frac{y^2}{2!}-y^2t(y)}{5y^2}$$

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Home Local Can the bones of Grand Bahama live again? A City taken into...
Can the bones of Grand Bahama live again? A City taken into captivity!
People on Grand Bahama on long lines in search for door. The city of Freeport is dying a painful death while leaders sit mum to the depression overtaking the island.
Jones Town, Eight Mile Rock — Bahamas Press continues to witness the slow death of Grand Bahama and wonders when will someone rescue the dying community from the jaws of depression. Grand Bahama, and the City of Freeport, in particular, are lifeless; crawling on its belly like a half dead reptile in search for food. Sir Lynden once described the city as "Having no Soul".
We all remember the disastrous Hurricanes of Frances and Jean, which began the slide into the state of depression, and today, following the win of the Free National Movement grip to power in 'FNM Country', the slide has gone from stable to serious.
Everywhere you turned on the island, there are the signs of growing abject poverty, rising unemployment and desolation. Christie's PLP government had attempted to bring resurrection to Grand Bahama, but that dream did not last long under Hubert Ingraham. The Ginn anchor project on the island has run aground, many workers sent home, and the current WUTLESS government says not a word.
Hundreds upon hundreds are today unemployed in that community, and for the past three years have found Hope and TRUST only in the risen Lord. FNM Country is as if it has been cursed by the spell of a demoniac, who has taken control over the city. Five FNM MPs and one PLP represent the people on the northern island and none appear able to bring relief to the people of that community.
No MP from Grand Bahama has told the story of how people in West End, Eight Mile Rock, Lucaya, High Rock, Marco City and Pineridge have found chopped wood a blessing to food. NO one addresses how homes are in thick darkness because of no electricity supply, or how water supplies for many have long been shut off. Grand Bahama is suffering and this time it's under the Free National Movement Government.
Information coming from the judiciary on that island tells us, caseloads for Tribunal matters are back up to the roof, and not one damn MP or member of the WUTLESS MEDIA WOULD TELL THE PUBLIC HOW A JUDGE HANDLING THOSE MATTERS REFUSES TO RULE ON A SINGLE CASE. Many labour disputes on the island go back as far as 2003 to the present; allowing employers to pack their bags and leave slaves fighting among themselves. WHERE IS JUSTICE FOR GRAND BAHAMIANS?
Let's look at just a few of the business closures on Grand Bahama in the last few months:
• The Window Factory, open by Hubert Ingraham, but closed earlier this year under an FNM Government.
• Rick Hayward three Restaurants in Port Lucaya – Pussers English Pub all opened since 1988, but all three-closed Sept. 30 2010.
• La Dolsivata Italian Restaurant, opened for the past 10 years, closed its doors on Sept. 30th 2010.
• The East Restaurant opened for two years has closed its doors on Sept 30th 2010 under the FAILED FNM GOVERNMENT. We are advised some 130 TO 150 PERSONS WERE PUT OUT OF WORK and to date SOME 85 OF THEM HAVE STILL NOT BEEN PAID. THE WUTLESS MEDIA'S LIPS ARE HUSHED!
• The Stone Crab Restaurant a popular 5-star eatery located in the High Rock Constituency of Kenneth 'Sunday Cadillac' Russell has closed under the FNM.
• The Bowling Alley on GB is now closed under The FNM.
• The Native Hut Restaurant is now closed under The FNM.
• THE Home Center and Freeport Concrete both closed under the FNM WHERE MANY PERSONS WERE PUT OUT OF WORK and not a word said by the WUTLESS MEDIA.
• Papa Johns Pizza now closed under The FNM.
• McDonalds, 'MICKY Ds' is no more in Grand Bahama, closed under THE FNM.
• And the Great The Yamaha dealership ON West Settlers Way, is closed under Hubert Ingraham and The FNM.
WHERE IS THE VOICE FOR THE GRAND BAHAMIAN PEOPLE? Where is the deaf, and blind leadership of PAPA? Where is the promised Cabinet Miniter to look after Grand Bahama Affairs? And can anyone tell us where is the WUTLESS leadership in media who refuse to tell this story to the Bahamian people?
Bahamas please pray for Grand Bahama. Pray for the people of those communities. Pray that the ALMIGHTY Hand of the universe will remove from power every seated political leader on that island and that HE will restore the people of that community. His promised joy.
Bahamas please pray for CHANGE in Grand Bahama. Pray, Pray, Pray, Pray, Pray, Pray, Pray!
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Carlton King is homicide victim #2 gunned down in Bozine Town tonight!
Mac Nov 19, 2010 at 9:24 am
@Charles and Lady how dare you people talk such rubbish. Grand Bahamians are not all like the way you say. It is not true that if you don't come from a certain family or have certain amount of money that you don't exist as Lady puts it. As far as I know wicked is not a ifestyle,not in Grand Bahama, I will agree with one thing that she wrote, the Port Authority and Government needs to do more. Charles is writing that Grand Bahamians are full with grudge and greed like he hasn't seen anywhere in the Bahamas I wonder if he has been to all the isands to be able to make such a remark. Grand Bahamians are not to blame for what has happened there, 2 hurricanes the the reccession, and it all went down hill from there.
charles Nov 18, 2010 at 12:17 pm
yes BP, the people of grand bahama are their own worst enemy, they are filled with grudge and greed i have not seen in any island of the Bahamas. they are crooked and wicked, and always crying Oh lord, the christians will rob you blind even in the church…my my what a place. I wish I could leave here now and go back to the bush of andros and hunt crabs
Grouper Mouth Wisdom Nov 18, 2010 at 10:49 am
Maybe that $200 Million from the Chinese can go into helping Freeport?
lady Nov 18, 2010 at 7:38 am
BP you forgot International distributors and Pegasus, or were they ever open?
People in Grand Bahama just need to change their attitudes. I lived in Grand Bahama for a few years and I feel they need to get rid of that clique mode of survival – people at the bottom sphere of things have alot to offer, but how would anyone know? If you don't come from a certain family and/or have a certain amount of $$$ you really don't exist. The more qualified you are or you are able to do a good job (especially don't let someone else notice that and compliment you) the more insecured they are. Needless to say, alot of wickness go on untouched. While you find stuff like that everywhere you go, it seems to be the lifestyle there. The government has done little if anything to help, but The Port Authority has to also share that blame, along with the fact that the people there are their own worse enemy. Those bones can live again, but 4 winds are needed to blow some things into perspective.


The Official "Show Us Your Build" Thread!
This was one I just did for fun. I didn't exactly have the right gauge for the cores so I went to big and you can see you can't even fit the cap over it Lol. It was fun to do though and for a relatively simple idea I guess it looks kinda cool. Gotta keep building and keep doing work!
Sometimes in our building prowess we forget about the 28x38 tri-core alien. Still a classic.
Every once in a while you do a staggered variation where everything falls into place.
Simple Pitchfork Variant actually vapes pretty well.


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4 Legal Problems That Veterans Face Today
Micro Startups — August 6, 2020
Man and woman veterans having coffee; image by John-Mark Smith, via Unsplash.com.
The issue for many veterans is this becomes a slippery slope that, once merged with other debt and financial requirements, leads to many of the issues covered already, such as mental health concerns and even homelessness.
Despite being some of the most well-respected and regularly celebrated individuals in our society, veterans are not immune to the presence of legal problems.
Upon returning from tour, many veterans find themselves facing legal issues due to socio-economic reasons. Couple that with many struggling against the barriers in place preventing them from accessing legal aid or fighting criminal charges and you have a nationwide crisis. The injuries and psychological issues many veterans have to live with every day means that signing a contract to serve is a lifetime one for most.
Here we'll look at four common legal problems facing veterans, what their causes are, and what solutions former members of the armed forces can access to rectify their situation.
Acquiring compensation
The end of a military career can be a confusing and often challenging time.
Many veterans find it difficult to move on and find new careers. Others, unfortunately, must live with the constant reminders of war through the physical injuries and psychological harm they have accrued during their tour.
To get themselves through this period, many veterans will turn to VA compensation for financial support. A tax-free monthly payment, VA compensation is designed to help veterans who have been injured during service and hopefully get them back on their feet.
Unfortunately, often through no fault of their own, many veterans are unable to access the compensation they are entitled to. This widespread issue has led to support systems and charities such as VA Claims Pro popping up to assist veterans in the process. Many veterans will use VA Claims Pro as a launching pad to post-tour life, particularly when homeless or suffering from a lack of financial support or aid.
Veterans missing out on general and specific compensations and subsidies has been a longstanding issue throughout the United States. The coronavirus stimulus cheque was just the most recent example of this.
Victims of scams
Unfortunately, veterans are common victims of the growing issue of internet scams.
In the last five years, veterans and service family members in the United States lost over $300 billion combined to scammers. Many of these scams were conducted through phishing operations and loan deceptions that promised families "secret" compensation for their service and encouraged them to provide their details.
Veterans have become an easy target for these scams due to their age, education and lack of familiarity with the internet. With the growing dependence on government financial help (as covered above), many veterans and their families are drawn to the idea of additional support, wherever it may come from.
While places like Military Consumer and internet scam support systems exist to help veterans learn more about these common scams and how to recognize them, once they are victims they are largely still in the same legal situation as the rest of the public. Ultimately, they're on their own.
The best thing veterans can do is learn about specific military-targeted scams such as military romance and keep a vigilant eye on who they give access to their personal information and finances.
Widespread homelessness continues to be an alarmingly common issue in modern-day society. Despite the efforts of charities such as the National Coalition for Homeless Veterans, a number of former military personnel find themselves living on the street mere months after their service has ended.
In 2019, it was estimated there were tens of thousands of homeless veterans on the streets in the United States, with the vast majority being located in California. This paints a startling picture of the crisis situation many people recently and long out of the military find themselves facing in an economy that is only estimated to get worse as a recession hits.
There are numerous reasons former servicemen and women find themselves living on the street once they return home. Their relationships may break down, disability may make it hard for them to find alternative employment, and a lack of formal education may restrict their career options.
The Washington Post suggests that lack of access to legal aid is significantly stifling veterans' ability to fight for their homes. Medical bills covered with the money required to fight their case against landlords or unlawful dismissal from their jobs leaves veterans struggling for options beyond living on the streets.
Charities remain one of the best forms of support for veterans, as there continues to be a lack of genuine legislative effort to solve what is becoming a national issue.
Keeping up with child support payments is a significant issue primarily affecting male veterans once they leave the force.
While military divorce rates aren't significantly higher than many other professions (and are in some cases dropping), veterans continue to see their families break apart due to a number of mental and physical health issues. This leads to a significant number of them having to pay child support while trying to rebuild their lives after active duty.
Many veterans are finding themselves in debt and struggling to get out of it. In some cases, such debt has actually hampered many veteran's abilities to access the government stimulus cheque for the coronavirus pandemic.
Further support from charities and the government is needed to prevent the economic reasons veterans get into debt for child support. By letting this become an issue, they are harming families financially down the line.
Many supporters of veterans and former servicemen and women themselves will be shocked and disappointed to hear of these issues. However, it is important for society to be aware of how prevalent they are, and that veterans make up just part of the population suffering needlessly from the mishandling of funds and policy.
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East Blackdene is a hamlet in County Durham, in England. It is situated to the north of the River Wear, on the opposite side of Weardale from St John's Chapel.

References

Hamlets in County Durham
Stanhope, County Durham


Update: Building Forms are complete and ground . I have started to study the pattern instructions.
Shown is the negative of station 0 of the Glen 36 (wider than 8'). Technique: Line up pattern centerline of frame with the edge of plywood panel. Cut duplicate parts at the same time and join over the centerline.
Miguel Occttaviani El Paso TX.


Welcome to Mario Alba Creative! Here you can find Mario's different artistic and creative endeavors, and hire him if you would like to commission anything from him. As a Spaniard turned American, Mario speaks both English and Spanish, so don't be surprised to find some sections of this website in one language, and some in another. Don't think "sloppy" —think "multilingual"!


Sean J Nealon, MD practices as a Pediatrician in SACRAMENTO, CA.
Services Sean J Nealon, MD provides pediatric care at 4400 DUCKHORN DR STE 440, SACRAMENTO, CA 95834 in SACRAMENTO, CA.
To learn more, or to make an appointment with Sean J Nealon, MD in SACRAMENTO, CA, please call (916) 575-8000.
I am in search of a pediatrician. I called their office to schedule in some short time to ask the Dr a few questions and apparently the Dr does not do that. I would not recommend this Dr to anyone.
This office is great! I love the staff and always feel like they take their time to answer any questions I have. I never feel rushed and my kids actually like going to the doctor. They have toys in each waiting room so they stay occupied while we wait for the doc. Nurses are friendly and gentle. I'm so glad we found this office!


Temple Grandin has been a pioneer in improving the handling and welfare of farm animals. Facilities she has designed for handling livestock are used by many companies around the world. She has also been instrumental in implementing animal welfare auditing programs that are used by McDonalds, Wendy's, Whole Foods, and other corporations. Temple has appeared on numerous TV shows such as 20/20. Larry King Live, and Prime Time. Her books include: Thinking in Pictures, Livestock Handling and Transport and The Autistic Brain. Her book Animals in Translation has been on the New York Times Bestseller List.
She was born in Boston, Massachusetts. Temple's achievements are remarkable because she was an autistic child. At age two she had no speech and all the signs of severe autism. Many hours of speech therapy, and intensive teaching enabled Temple to learn speech. As a teenager, life was hard with constant teasing. Mentoring by her high school science teacher and her aunt on her ranch in Arizona motivated Temple to study and pursue a career as a scientist and livestock equipment designer.
Dr. Grandin has received numerous awards including the Meritorious Achievement Award from the Livestock Conservation Institute, named a Distinguished Alumni at Franklin Pierce College and received an honorary doctorate from McGill University, University of Illinois, Texas A&M, Carnegie Mellon University, and Duke University. She has also won prestigious industry awards including the Richard L. Knowlton Award from Meat Marketing and Technology Magazine and the Industry Advancement Award from the American Meat Institute and the Beef Top 40 industry leaders and the Lifetime Achievement Award from The National Cattlemen's Beef Association. In 2011, Temple was inducted into the Cowgirl Hall of Fame. In 2015 she was given the Distinguished Service Award by the American Farm Bureau Federation and Meritorious Award from the OIE. HBO has premiered a movie about Temple's early life and career with the livestock industry. The movie received seven Emmy awards, a Golden Globe, and a Peabody Award. In 2016, Temple was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 2017 she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York.


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This Week | Coming Soon | Now Showing | 3D | All | Most Popular | Premieres | Festivals | Documentaries | By Date
Dying Laughing
6.0 / 57 votes
UK Premiere
[more details...]
Contains strong language and sex references. Suitable for 15 years and over.
None. Last shown in UK cinemas on 15th July 2017.
Use our reminder system to get a e-mail when Dying Laughing is next showing in a UK cinema near you.
Lloyd Stanton and Paul Toogood
Suli McCullough, Samantha Phillips, Lloyd Stanton, Paul Toogood and Daphne Wayans
Stephen K. Amos, Dave Attell, Sandra Bernhard, Frankie Boyle, Jo Brand, Neal Brennan, Cedric the Entertainer, Billy Connolly, Steve Coogan, Omid Djalili, Mike Epps, Jamie Foxx, Gilbert Gottfried, Tiffany Haddish, Kevin Hart, Eddie Izzard, Sean Lock, Lee Mack, Chris Rock, Amy Schumer, Jerry Seinfeld, Garry Shandling, Sarah Silverman, Frank Skinner and Victoria Wood
Comedy, Documentary
Whilst painters, writers, musicians even dancers are talked about as Artists, stand-up comedians are often regarded as mere entertainers - yet their work has possibly more direct effect on an audience than any other art form. These are social and cultural commentators who at their best can change the way we think about important matters whilst making us howl with laughter. A stand-up comedian must be the writer, the director and the star performer, and unlike any other performance there is no rehearsal, no practice, no safety net, the stand-up can only work in front of a live audience - with feedback being instantaneous and often brutal. For most people baring their soul to then have an audience boo or heckle them would be a life-changing trauma, for stand-ups it's a weekly challenge. Dying Laughing is a unique glimpse into the agony and ecstasy of performance along with an singular examination into the day-to-day life of a professional stand-up.
Use our reminder system to get an e-mail alert when Dying Laughing is showing in a UK cinema near you.
Having problems with the video? Try watching the video on YouTube.
Click here to review/comment on Dying Laughing.
Dying Laughing Cast
Stephen K. Amos
Dave Attell
Jo Brand
Neal Brennan
5' 11" (1.8 m)
5' 10½" (1.79 m)
Recent/Upcoming Films:
Limited PartnersThe Kitchen
Jumanji: The Next LevelFatherhood
Untitled Saw Project
Frank Skinner


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Aircraft camouflage is the use of camouflage on military aircraft to make them more difficult to see, whether on the ground or in the air. Given the possible backgrounds and lighting conditions, no single scheme works in every situation. A common approach has been a form of countershading, the aircraft being painted in a disruptive pattern of ground colours such as green and brown above, sky colours below. For faster and higher-flying aircraft, sky colours have sometimes been used all over, while helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft used close to the ground are often painted entirely in ground camouflage. Aircraft flying by night have often been painted black, but this actually made them appear darker than the night sky, leading to paler night camouflage schemes. There are trade-offs between camouflage and aircraft recognition markings, and between camouflage and weight. Accordingly, visible light camouflage has been dispensed with when air superiority was not threatened or when no significant aerial opposition was anticipated.

Aircraft were first camouflaged during World War I; aircraft camouflage has been widely employed since then. In World War II, disruptive camouflage became widespread for fighters and bombers, sometimes combined with countershading. Some air forces such as the German Luftwaffe varied their paint schemes to suit differing flight conditions such as the skyglow over German cities, or the sands of the Mediterranean front.

During and after World War II, the Yehudi lights project developed counter-illumination camouflage using lamps to increase the brightness of the aircraft to match the brightness of the sky. This was abandoned with improvements in radar, which seemed to render visible light camouflage redundant. However, aircraft continue to be painted in camouflage schemes; recent experiments have again explored active camouflage systems which allow colours, patterns and brightness to be changed to match the background, and some air forces have painted their fighters in digital camouflage patterns. Stealth technology, as in the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, aims to minimize an aircraft's radar cross-section and infrared signature, effectively providing multi-spectral camouflage at the price of reduced flying performance. Stealth may extend to avoiding or preventing vapour contrails.

History

World War I

The French were among the first to introduce camouflage, starting with Nieuport fighters with which they tested a variety of schemes during the Battle of Verdun in early 1916. A light blue-grey Nieuport 11 was flown by Georges Guynemer which he named Oiseau Bleu (Blue Bird) while some Voisin IIIs were also painted in the same colour. At the same time, disruptive schemes using several colours were also tried out. By mid-1916 a silver-grey aluminium dope became the norm for Nieuports until the French introduced a standardized disruptive camouflage scheme  for combat aircraft in 1917. This was used widely on such aircraft as the Breguet XIV and SPAD XIII that consisted of dark and light green, dark and light brown, black (sometimes omitted) and an underside of grey or beige.

In mid-1916, the Germans experimented with a transparent cellulose acetate covering on several aircraft, including a Fokker E.III, that rendered the aircraft nearly invisible from most angles, however the sun reflecting off it defeated it even before its lack of durability did.
When the Germans fielded the Albatros D.III biplane, pilots readily confused them with similarly-shaped Nieuports which used the same combination of colours. The solution the Germans came up with was to replace the red-brown with purple, which from a distance still worked well as a camouflage colour, but could readily identify the aircraft as German. As in France, individual manufacturers applied a variety of camouflage finishes, dependent on their own interpretations of what was required. Light grey (LFG Roland C.II), patches of greens and browns (Fokker D.II) and streaky olive green finish over a turquoise base (Fokker Dr.I) were all used until April 1917, when pre-printed lozenge camouflage (Lozenge-Tarnung) was introduced with up to 5 colours.

Aircraft of the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service were either coloured on top and sides with a protective dope called PC.10 (a mixture of yellow ochre and lampblack) or PC.12 (iron oxide and lamp black) while the undersides were given a clear dope. These colours were not intended originally as camouflage but were developed to prevent the fabric from being damaged by UV radiation from the sun, and their camouflage effect was an added bonus. Both services also used black for night bombers, while a wide variety of experimental camouflages were tried out for specific roles such as trench strafing, with multiple colours. Alternatives were tested in late 1917 at Orfordness Experimental Station, resulting in the introduction of NIVO (Night Invisible Varnish Orfordness) in early 1918; this was used for all external surfaces on night bombers until superseded by World War II colours. Ship-style dazzle camouflage was tested on aircraft such as Sopwith Camels, but was not used on operational aircraft.

World War II

During the Munich Crisis of 1938, the Royal Air Force implemented plans to camouflage its aircraft in its disruptively patterned Temperate Land Scheme of "Dark Earth" and "Dark Green" above and "Sky" (similar to a duck egg blue) below. This scheme was known colloquially as "Sand and Spinach" when the pattern was painted on at the factory, large rubber mats serving as guides. For many types of aircraft, particularly fighters, the rubber mats were reversed for even and odd serials, named A and B patterns. The undersides, and lower half of the fuselage, of night bombers were painted black.
Variations on fighters at the start of the war included painting the underside of one wing black. Later in the war the dark earth was replaced with "ocean grey" and the underside was "Sea Grey". Naval aircraft used two tones of grey over sky. Coastal Command, which carried out patrols for enemy vessel over the open sea, used white instead of sky. In the North Africa campaign a combination of "Dark Earth" and "Middle stone" were used for the top surfaces, the underside was "Azure blue". The same azure was used on day bombers overseas. High flying RAF
Photographic Reconnaissance Unit aircraft were given an all over blue colour, but they were given "licence in the camouflaging" of their aircraft.

Some United States Army Air Forces aircraft used a variation of the British camouflage schemes (mostly on aircraft originally built to RAF orders) but most USAAF aircraft did not use multiple shades on the top side of the aircraft. Instead, most were camouflaged in olive drab above and neutral gray below, though some had the edges of flying surfaces painted in medium green. In the later stages of the war, camouflage was often dispensed with, both to save time in manufacturing and to reduce weight, leaving aircraft with a natural metal finish.

Soviet Air Forces aircraft were painted with shades of green, either plain or in disruptive patterns above, and blue-grey on the undersurfaces.

The basic German (Luftwaffe) camouflage during most of the war was based on a light blue undersurface and a two tone splinter pattern of various greens for the upper surfaces. In the first year of the war, the top colours were dark green and black-green; later, lighter and more greyish colours were used for fighters, though bombers mostly maintained the dark green/black green camouflage. The side of the fuselage on fighters and some light bombers often had irregular patches sprayed on, softening the transition from the upper to the lower surface. The undersides of night bombers and night fighters were painted black early in the war, but by 1943 switched to lighter base colours of their usual light blue undersurfaces for aircraft flown by day, and a light gray base coat over the upper surfaces to match the skyglow over the German cities they were tasked with defending. A special pattern was devised for the Mediterranean front, consisting of a sand yellow that often faded to tan, with or without olive green patches. As Germany lost air supremacy, ground camouflage became increasingly important, and late war fighters received a two tone scheme like the British Sand and Spinach, in dark brown and light green.

Cold War and after

During the Cold War, camouflage was partially abandoned; for example, glossy anti-flash white was used on aircraft as protection from nuclear flash, including high-flying Royal Air Force nuclear weapon-carrying V-bombers. When SAMs made high level attack too dangerous, the plans for RAF bombers changed to low level attack and camouflaged top surfaces returned.
Apart from American and Soviet strategic forces, however, camouflage continued to be applied tactically. For example in the Korean War, American B-29 bombers were switched to night flying with black undersides when Chinese fighters became a significant threat. In the Vietnam War, North Vietnamese MiG-21 fighters were painted by hand in green ground camouflage patterns, while the USAAF and US Navy both restarted experiments with painted camouflage. In the Soviet–Afghan War, Soviet Mil Mi-24 helicopters were camouflaged in a sand and spinach pattern.

In the 1970s, heat-seeking missiles were developed that had a range greater than the visual acuity of pilots. Aircraft camouflage now had two major threats that it was not able to fully defeat—radar and infrared detection. Camouflage accordingly became less important. However, by the 1980s, the human eye was again seen as sufficiently important a threat that aircraft like the ground attack A-10 Thunderbolt (Warthog) were painted in camouflage schemes that included both disruptive ground coloration and automimicry (deceptive self-imitation), in the form of a false canopy on the underside.

Methods

Camouflage for aircraft is complicated by the fact that the aircraft's background varies widely, depending on the location of the observer, the nature of the background and the aircraft's motion. For this reason, military aircraft were often painted to match the sky when viewed from below, and to either match the ground or break up the aircraft's outline when viewed from above. This is a form of countershading, likely to work best on aircraft such as heavy bombers that do not fly inverted during combat. Because of the way light hits it, patterns of dark and light will often be present on an aircraft even if it is entirely one color, making it easier to see Reflections and specular highlights can be counteracted by painting an aircraft in neutral shades with a non-reflective, matte finish. There is a trade-off between the effectiveness of camouflage and the size of recognition markings: larger markings reduce the risk of friendly fire through misrecognition, but compromise camouflage.

Ground camouflage

Ground camouflage is used to delay visual acquisition from the air of an aircraft that is on or near the ground. Light sand has been used for aircraft used over deserts, blues and greys for aircraft over the sea, and greens and browns for aircraft that are expected to operate in forested areas. However, a camouflaged aircraft either on the ground or flying low over the ground in bright sunlight remains vulnerable to being detected from above because of its own shadow cast on the ground. This can reduce an aircraft's camouflage effectiveness at altitudes up to , particularly if the ground surface is pale and relatively uniform. Helicopters are often painted in ground camouflage, sometimes in regional or seasonal forms such as snow camouflage. Fixed-wing aircraft, too, are occasionally painted with snow camouflage, as for example on Soviet fighters and Luftwaffe Stukas on the Eastern Front in winter, in Swedish trials in 1970,  and RAF Jaguars on exercise in Norway.

Air camouflage
Camouflage for an airborne aircraft may attempt to provide concealment with colours resembling the background. For example, until 1941, Royal Air Force fighters were painted in ground colours (dark green and brown) above, and sky colours below. However, aircraft were being lost, and pilots reported that the colours used made their fighters conspicuously darker than the sky. The Air Fighting Development Unit at RAF Duxford studied the problem, and in the summer of 1941 replaced the dark brown with a paler color, "ocean grey"; the sky blue on the underside was similarly replaced by a paler "sea grey" to reduce visibility against the bright sky. Similar adjustments were made by the Luftwaffe. Towards the end of the war, allied air superiority made visible light camouflage less important, and some American aircraft were flown in unpainted (silver colored) metal to save weight.

Night camouflage

Military aircraft flying at night have often been painted black or other dark colours, applied to just the underside of some aircraft and to the entirety of others, in the hope of reducing the risk of being seen in enemy searchlights or by night fighters. However, aircraft camouflaged with black paint are actually darker than the night sky, making them more visible to observers not using searchlights. The undersides of Heinkel 111 night bombers were painted black. The De Havilland Mosquito was similarly initially painted black when used as a night fighter; matte black was found to be the best at reducing the aircraft's visibility against searchlights, but the aircraft's speed was reduced by  compared to glossy black, which, being smoother, produced less drag. Since, however, black camouflage made the planes conspicuous on moonlit nights and against cloud, a variation of a day camouflage scheme was eventually chosen.

Active camouflage

In the early years of World War II, German U-boats often escaped attack by aircraft because they spotted the aircraft while it was still far away as a black dot in the sky, no matter what camouflage colours were used. To solve this problem, in 1943 the U.S. Navy, following the Canadian diffused lighting camouflage trials on warships, conducted secret experiments on counter-illumination in the Yehudi lights project. Sealed beam lights were mounted on the leading edge of the wing of a Grumman TBM-3D Avenger, and around its engine cowling, with the lamps facing forward. The intensity of the lamps was adjusted to match the background sky as seen from an observer in a surface ship. Aircraft with Yehudi lights were not detected until  away under conditions where aircraft without the lights were detected  away. Though successful, the system was not put into production because of improved radar detection.

During the Vietnam War, Yehudi lights were again tried, this time mounted to an F-4 Phantom painted in a dull blue-and-white camouflage pattern. The experiment reduced by 30% the distance at which an observer visually acquired the Phantom. In 1997, active camouflage was again investigated, this time with thin computer-controlled fluorescent panels or light-emitting polymer covering much of an aircraft's surface.

Stealth technology

Stealth technology aims to make aircraft almost undetectable by radar or other sensors, whether infrared, visible, or acoustic. This is effectively multi-spectral camouflage. Work began on stealth technology in America in 1958.

The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk was the first operational aircraft designed to use stealth technology to minimize its radar cross-section; it began operations in secrecy in 1983. Its low detectability was traded-off against performance in other areas, including reduced thrust and only subsonic speed. The aircraft's faceted shape reduced the reflection of radar back to the receiver, at the expense of making the aircraft aerodynamically unstable, requiring a fly-by-wire flight system to maintain controlled flight. The infrared signatures of stealth aircraft can be reduced by designing exhaust nozzles to mix the hot gases with cool ambient air, or by placing the nozzles above the wing to conceal them from ground-based observers, as with the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber.

Preventing contrails

Camouflage may extend beyond an aircraft's airframe. High-flying aircraft can sometimes be detected by their vapor contrails. Researchers have considered whether these might be reduced with the use of chemical additives. Work was carried out on a contrail management system for B-2 stealth bombers in 1994. From the Second World War onwards, reconnaissance pilots took care to avoid creating contrails, varying their altitude as necessary; the Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft was equipped with a mirror to enable the pilot to see if the plane was creating a contrail, and to take action accordingly.

Digital camouflage

Digital camouflage patterns, widely used for uniforms with designs such as CADPAT and MARPAT, have been applied to the aircraft of some armed forces. For example, in 2008 Slovakia repainted its MiG-29 fighters in a disruptive pattern designed by HyperStealth, "Digital Thunder". In 2017, a prototype of the Russian air force's Sukhoi Su-57 flew with a countershaded digital camouflage scheme, all dark above except for a multi-scale pattern at the edges.

See also
 Aircraft livery

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

 A series of experimental camouflage patterns  tried on the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark
 2009 Aggressor Blue camouflage on an F/A-18E Super Hornet
 German Lozenge Aircraft Camouflage

Military camouflage
Aircraft markings


text:
Home Universities ICFAI University, Dehradun
Establishment Year: 2003
Location: Dehradun
Website: www.iudehradun.edu.in
Affiliated To: Deemed University
Contact No.: +91-135-3003009 / 3003012
2003 as a private and self-financing institution set up by the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India (ICFAI). The IU is approved by the UGC, and BCI, DCE & NCTE. The faculty of law of IU offers undergraduate and postgraduate law courses.
Campus: The IU, Dehradun head quarter is situated on the Rajawala Road in Central Hope Town at Town Selaqui in Dehradun, the district of Uttarakhand. The campus is sprawled over 25 acres of land. The IU campus is 20 km away from the Dehradun City.
Programmes: The IU, Dehradun conducts 22 academic programmes (8 UG programmes, 8 PG programmes, 5 PhD programmes and an integrated programme) in the field of engineering, law, management and education including B.Tech degree programme in four engineering branches, M.Tech & PhD programme in three engineering specializations.
B.Tech (Bachelor of Technology) – 4 years
Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering.
M.Tech (Master of Technology) – 2 years
Computer Science, Communication Engineering, Microelectronics and VLSI Design.
PhD (Philosophy of Doctorate)
Law Courses:
UG Courses:
BBA.LL, B. LL.B.
PG Courses: LL.M.
Faculty: The IU, Dehradun campus has a team of more than 70 faculty members from all departments.
Facilities: The campus provides the well-equipped classrooms, central library, sound laboratories, workshops, internet, computer lab, conference hall, auditorium, indoor & outdoor sports facility, canteen, cafeteria, seminar hall, meditation hall, transportation and separate academic blocks for management, engineering, law and education study.
Activities: The campus organizes various national seminars, conferences and workshops. The campus organizes sports activities and participates in sports competitions organized by others and conducts various co-curricular and extracurricular activities.
Placement: The IU, Dehradun has a Training & Placement cell working as a joint effort of both (University & Students). The cell provides the guidance, support and network with potential employers and students put the most efforts to get this. The university has an excellent record of job placement.
The Top Recruiters of the IU are as the below: AXIS Bank, Bajaj Auto, CEAT, HCL, ICICI Bank, IDBI, IFB, Kotak Mahindra, LG Electronics, Ranbaxy, Reliance, TATA Steel, The Times of India, Vodafone, Voltas, Wipro, InfoTech.
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This is a project that was developed during my time with Michael Page International. The concept of showcasing the classic icons of Chinese society to promote our business as having a deep understanding of the Chinese recruitment market.
All these classic items were shot in studio by my good friend Zahn Pithers.