text:
A record-setting number of women will serve in state legislatures in 2023
BY: Jennifer Shutt - December 1, 2022
WASHINGTON — A record number of women will soon serve in state legislatures, breaking the previous cap of female lawmakers by at least 69 seats and bringing total representation to more than 32%, according to the Center for American Women and Politics. States will have at least 2,376 female lawmakers in 2023, including both women […]
Alaska certifies final election results, but three state House races face further hurdles
BY: James Brooks - November 30, 2022
The Alaska Division of Elections uneventfully certified the results of the state's Nov. 8 general election on Wednesday, becoming the 26th state to finalize its election. None of Alaska's 62 legislative and statewide races changed leaders as members of the multipartisan state review board examined unofficial results for accuracy, then signed an oath on Tuesday. […]
In new bipartisan Alaska Senate majority of 17, members vow compromise and consensus
BY: Yereth Rosen - November 25, 2022
Seventeen of Alaska's 20 state senators and senator-elects have banded together to form a bipartisan majority coalition that members promise will be moderate and consensus-focused. Gary Stevens, a Kodiak Republican and veteran lawmaker known as a moderate, will be president, returning to the role he held from 2009 to 2012. "It's a pleasure for me […]
Republicans hold majority in Alaska House after two candidates benefit from ranked choice voting
Republicans hold 21 of the 40 seats in the Alaska House of Representatives after the first full run of Alaska's new ranked choice voting system, but their ability to form a governing majority isn't certain. The 21-person total includes two candidates who had been trailing before votes were tabulated Wednesday evening. Incumbent Republican Rep. Tom […]
Murkowski, Peltola and Dunleavy projected to win Alaska elections
All three incumbents likely clinched final victory in Alaska's statewide elections Friday, as the Alaska Division of Elections updated results with thousands of additional absentee, questioned and early ballots from this fall's general election. Final unofficial results will not be available until 4 p.m. Wednesday, when the division implements the state's new ranked choice sorting […]
Judge dismisses eligibility lawsuit against Anchorage Democrat, but the suit may return
Anchorage Superior Court Judge Herman Walker on Friday dismissed a lawsuit challenging the eligibility of Democratic state House candidate Jennie Armstrong, citing the timing of the lawsuit. The dismissal may be temporary: Walker said the suit — which questioned whether Armstrong lived in Alaska long enough before she registered as a candidate — may be […]
A Facebook campaign and dividend memories influenced Alaska's closest legislative election
As votes are slowly counted in Alaska's 59 legislative elections, no race is closer than the head-to-head election in far-west House District 39. In the Uruguay-sized area that includes Nome and the Bering Sea coast, Democratic Rep. Neal Foster, D-Nome, leads Alaskan Independence Party candidate Tyler Ivanoff by just 10 votes out of 3,317 cast, […]
Republicans win control of the U.S. House with 218th seat
BY: Jacob Fischler - November 16, 2022
Republicans clinched a majority in the U.S. House on Wednesday night after a Republican won reelection to a California seat that put the GOP over the top, according to Associated Press projections. Though not as decisive a victory as GOP leaders had hoped, Republican candidates flipped key seats in New York, Virginia, Oregon and Arizona […]
With more votes counted, Alaska House races are split 20-20 between Republicans and others
Democratic candidate Donna Mears overtook Republican candidate Forrest Wolfe in a closely watched Alaska House race as the Alaska Division of Elections counted 27,178 early, absentee and questioned ballots, about three-fifths of the number outstanding from the Nov. 8 general election. Additional absentee ballots are expected to arrive in the coming days, and the Division […]
In first nationwide election since Roe was overturned, voters opt to protect abortion access
BY: Linda C. McClain and Nicole Huberfeld - November 14, 2022
The first major election since the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade saw abortion rights on the ballot in a record number of states. The outcomes of these initiatives suggest that when Kansas voters in August 2022 rejected a proposed constitutional amendment declaring there is no state right to abortion, it was not a fluke. […]
Congress heads back to D.C. for a hectic lame-duck session
BY: Jennifer Shutt - November 11, 2022
WASHINGTON — Congress returns to Capitol Hill and a lengthy to-do list next week, following a six-week midterm elections break that saw Democrats outperform expectations and Republicans barely inch toward the U.S. House majority. On the agenda are same-sex marriage legislation, a huge defense bill, changes in how presidential electoral votes are counted and more. […]
Young Black and Latino voters seen as key in turning back midterm 'red wave'
BY: Ariana Figueroa - November 10, 2022
WASHINGTON — Young Black and Latino voters were critical in holding off the Republican "red wave" in several battleground states for U.S. Senate seats and in tight U.S. House races in the midterm elections, according to analyses by researchers and grassroot organizations. Young, diverse voters between the ages of 18 and 29 had the second-highest […]
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text:
/**
 * @file
 * This is the IPv4 layer implementation for incoming and outgoing IP traffic.
 *
 * @see ip_frag.c
 *
 */

/*
 * Copyright (c) 2001-2004 Swedish Institute of Computer Science.
 * All rights reserved.
 *
 * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification,
 * are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
 *
 * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice,
 *    this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
 * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
 *    this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
 *    and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
 * 3. The name of the author may not be used to endorse or promote products
 *    derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
 *
 * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
 * WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
 * MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT
 * SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
 * EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT
 * OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS
 * INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN
 * CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING
 * IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY
 * OF SUCH DAMAGE.
 *
 * This file is part of the lwIP TCP/IP stack.
 *
 * Author: Adam Dunkels <adam@sics.se>
 *
 */

#include "lwip/opt.h"
#include "lwip/ip.h"
#include "lwip/def.h"
#include "lwip/mem.h"
#include "lwip/ip_frag.h"
#include "lwip/inet.h"
#include "lwip/inet_chksum.h"
#include "lwip/netif.h"
#include "lwip/icmp.h"
#include "lwip/igmp.h"
#include "lwip/raw.h"
#include "lwip/udp.h"
#include "lwip/tcp.h"
#include "lwip/snmp.h"
#include "lwip/dhcp.h"
#include "lwip/stats.h"
#include "arch/perf.h"

/**
 * Finds the appropriate network interface for a given IP address. It
 * searches the list of network interfaces linearly. A match is found
 * if the masked IP address of the network interface equals the masked
 * IP address given to the function.
 *
 * @param dest the destination IP address for which to find the route
 * @return the netif on which to send to reach dest
 */
struct netif *
ip_route(struct ip_addr *dest)
{
  struct netif *netif;

  /* iterate through netifs */
  for(netif = netif_list; netif != NULL; netif = netif->next) {
    /* network mask matches? */
    if (netif_is_up(netif)) {
      if (ip_addr_netcmp(dest, &(netif->ip_addr), &(netif->netmask))) {
        /* return netif on which to forward IP packet */
        return netif;
      }
    }
  }
  if ((netif_default == NULL) || (!netif_is_up(netif_default))) {
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("ip_route: No route to 0x%"X32_F"\n", dest->addr));
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.rterr);
    snmp_inc_ipoutnoroutes();
    return NULL;
  }
  /* no matching netif found, use default netif */
  return netif_default;
}

#if IP_FORWARD
/**
 * Forwards an IP packet. It finds an appropriate route for the
 * packet, decrements the TTL value of the packet, adjusts the
 * checksum and outputs the packet on the appropriate interface.
 *
 * @param p the packet to forward (p->payload points to IP header)
 * @param iphdr the IP header of the input packet
 * @param inp the netif on which this packet was received
 * @return the netif on which the packet was sent (NULL if it wasn't sent)
 */
static struct netif *
ip_forward(struct pbuf *p, struct ip_hdr *iphdr, struct netif *inp)
{
  struct netif *netif;

  PERF_START;
  /* Find network interface where to forward this IP packet to. */
  netif = ip_route((struct ip_addr *)&(iphdr->dest));
  if (netif == NULL) {
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_forward: no forwarding route for 0x%"X32_F" found\n",
                      iphdr->dest.addr));
    snmp_inc_ipoutnoroutes();
    return (struct netif *)NULL;
  }
  /* Do not forward packets onto the same network interface on which
   * they arrived. */
  if (netif == inp) {
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_forward: not bouncing packets back on incoming interface.\n"));
    snmp_inc_ipoutnoroutes();
    return (struct netif *)NULL;
  }

  /* decrement TTL */
  IPH_TTL_SET(iphdr, IPH_TTL(iphdr) - 1);
  /* send ICMP if TTL == 0 */
  if (IPH_TTL(iphdr) == 0) {
    snmp_inc_ipinhdrerrors();
#if LWIP_ICMP
    /* Don't send ICMP messages in response to ICMP messages */
    if (IPH_PROTO(iphdr) != IP_PROTO_ICMP) {
      icmp_time_exceeded(p, ICMP_TE_TTL);
    }
#endif /* LWIP_ICMP */
    return (struct netif *)NULL;
  }

  /* Incrementally update the IP checksum. */
  if (IPH_CHKSUM(iphdr) >= htons(0xffff - 0x100)) {
    IPH_CHKSUM_SET(iphdr, IPH_CHKSUM(iphdr) + htons(0x100) + 1);
  } else {
    IPH_CHKSUM_SET(iphdr, IPH_CHKSUM(iphdr) + htons(0x100));
  }

  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_forward: forwarding packet to 0x%"X32_F"\n",
                    iphdr->dest.addr));

  IP_STATS_INC(ip.fw);
  IP_STATS_INC(ip.xmit);
  snmp_inc_ipforwdatagrams();

  PERF_STOP("ip_forward");
  /* transmit pbuf on chosen interface */
  netif->output(netif, p, (struct ip_addr *)&(iphdr->dest));
  return netif;
}
#endif /* IP_FORWARD */

/**
 * This function is called by the network interface device driver when
 * an IP packet is received. The function does the basic checks of the
 * IP header such as packet size being at least larger than the header
 * size etc. If the packet was not destined for us, the packet is
 * forwarded (using ip_forward). The IP checksum is always checked.
 *
 * Finally, the packet is sent to the upper layer protocol input function.
 *
 * @param p the received IP packet (p->payload points to IP header)
 * @param inp the netif on which this packet was received
 * @return ERR_OK if the packet was processed (could return ERR_* if it wasn't
 *         processed, but currently always returns ERR_OK)
 */
err_t
ip_input(struct pbuf *p, struct netif *inp)
{
  struct ip_hdr *iphdr;
  struct netif *netif;
  u16_t iphdr_hlen;
  u16_t iphdr_len;
#if LWIP_DHCP
  int check_ip_src=1;
#endif /* LWIP_DHCP */

  IP_STATS_INC(ip.recv);
  snmp_inc_ipinreceives();

  /* identify the IP header */
  iphdr = p->payload;
  if (IPH_V(iphdr) != 4) {
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 1, ("IP packet dropped due to bad version number %"U16_F"\n", IPH_V(iphdr)));
    ip_debug_print(p);
    pbuf_free(p);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.err);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
    snmp_inc_ipinhdrerrors();
    return ERR_OK;
  }

  /* obtain IP header length in number of 32-bit words */
  iphdr_hlen = IPH_HL(iphdr);
  /* calculate IP header length in bytes */
  iphdr_hlen *= 4;
  /* obtain ip length in bytes */
  iphdr_len = ntohs(IPH_LEN(iphdr));

  /* header length exceeds first pbuf length, or ip length exceeds total pbuf length? */
  if ((iphdr_hlen > p->len) || (iphdr_len > p->tot_len)) {
    if (iphdr_hlen > p->len)
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("IP header (len %"U16_F") does not fit in first pbuf (len %"U16_F"), IP packet dropped.\n",
                               iphdr_hlen, p->len));
    if (iphdr_len > p->tot_len)
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("IP (len %"U16_F") is longer than pbuf (len %"U16_F"), "
                               "IP packet dropped.\n",
                               iphdr_len, p->tot_len));
    /* free (drop) packet pbufs */
    pbuf_free(p);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.lenerr);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
    snmp_inc_ipindiscards();
    return ERR_OK;
  }

  /* verify checksum */
#if CHECKSUM_CHECK_IP
  if (inet_chksum(iphdr, iphdr_hlen) != 0) {

    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("Checksum (0x%"X16_F") failed, IP packet dropped.\n", inet_chksum(iphdr, iphdr_hlen)));
    ip_debug_print(p);
    pbuf_free(p);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.chkerr);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
    snmp_inc_ipinhdrerrors();
    return ERR_OK;
  }
#endif

  /* Trim pbuf. This should have been done at the netif layer,
   * but we'll do it anyway just to be sure that its done. */
  pbuf_realloc(p, iphdr_len);

  /* match packet against an interface, i.e. is this packet for us? */
#if LWIP_IGMP
  if (ip_addr_ismulticast(&(iphdr->dest))) {
    if ((inp->flags & NETIF_FLAG_IGMP) && (igmp_lookfor_group(inp, &(iphdr->dest)))) {
      netif = inp;
    } else {
      netif = NULL;
    }
  } else
#endif /* LWIP_IGMP */
  {
    /* start trying with inp. if that's not acceptable, start walking the
       list of configured netifs.
       'first' is used as a boolean to mark whether we started walking the list */
    int first = 1;
    netif = inp;
    do {
      LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_input: iphdr->dest 0x%"X32_F" netif->ip_addr 0x%"X32_F" (0x%"X32_F", 0x%"X32_F", 0x%"X32_F")\n",
          iphdr->dest.addr, netif->ip_addr.addr,
          iphdr->dest.addr & netif->netmask.addr,
          netif->ip_addr.addr & netif->netmask.addr,
          iphdr->dest.addr & ~(netif->netmask.addr)));

      /* interface is up and configured? */
      if ((netif_is_up(netif)) && (!ip_addr_isany(&(netif->ip_addr)))) {
        /* unicast to this interface address? */
        if (ip_addr_cmp(&(iphdr->dest), &(netif->ip_addr)) ||
            /* or broadcast on this interface network address? */
            ip_addr_isbroadcast(&(iphdr->dest), netif)) {
          LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_input: packet accepted on interface %c%c\n",
              netif->name[0], netif->name[1]));
          /* break out of for loop */
          break;
        }
      }
      if (first) {
        first = 0;
        netif = netif_list;
      } else {
        netif = netif->next;
      }
      if (netif == inp) {
        netif = netif->next;
      }
    } while(netif != NULL);
  }

#if LWIP_DHCP
  /* Pass DHCP messages regardless of destination address. DHCP traffic is addressed
   * using link layer addressing (such as Ethernet MAC) so we must not filter on IP.
   * According to RFC 1542 section 3.1.1, referred by RFC 2131).
   */
  if (netif == NULL) {
    /* remote port is DHCP server? */
    if (IPH_PROTO(iphdr) == IP_PROTO_UDP) {
      LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | LWIP_DBG_TRACE | 1, ("ip_input: UDP packet to DHCP client port %"U16_F"\n",
        ntohs(((struct udp_hdr *)((u8_t *)iphdr + iphdr_hlen))->dest)));
      if (ntohs(((struct udp_hdr *)((u8_t *)iphdr + iphdr_hlen))->dest) == DHCP_CLIENT_PORT) {
        LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | LWIP_DBG_TRACE | 1, ("ip_input: DHCP packet accepted.\n"));
        netif = inp;
        check_ip_src = 0;
      }
    }
  }
#endif /* LWIP_DHCP */

  /* broadcast or multicast packet source address? Compliant with RFC 1122: 3.2.1.3 */
#if LWIP_DHCP
  if (check_ip_src)
#endif /* LWIP_DHCP */
  {  if ((ip_addr_isbroadcast(&(iphdr->src), inp)) ||
         (ip_addr_ismulticast(&(iphdr->src)))) {
      /* packet source is not valid */
      LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | LWIP_DBG_TRACE | 1, ("ip_input: packet source is not valid.\n"));
      /* free (drop) packet pbufs */
      pbuf_free(p);
      IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
      snmp_inc_ipinaddrerrors();
      snmp_inc_ipindiscards();
      return ERR_OK;
    }
  }

  /* packet not for us? */
  if (netif == NULL) {
    /* packet not for us, route or discard */
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | LWIP_DBG_TRACE | 1, ("ip_input: packet not for us.\n"));
#if IP_FORWARD
    /* non-broadcast packet? */
    if (!ip_addr_isbroadcast(&(iphdr->dest), inp)) {
      /* try to forward IP packet on (other) interfaces */
      ip_forward(p, iphdr, inp);
    } else
#endif /* IP_FORWARD */
    {
      snmp_inc_ipinaddrerrors();
      snmp_inc_ipindiscards();
    }
    pbuf_free(p);
    return ERR_OK;
  }
  /* packet consists of multiple fragments? */
  if ((IPH_OFFSET(iphdr) & htons(IP_OFFMASK | IP_MF)) != 0) {
#if IP_REASSEMBLY /* packet fragment reassembly code present? */
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("IP packet is a fragment (id=0x%04"X16_F" tot_len=%"U16_F" len=%"U16_F" MF=%"U16_F" offset=%"U16_F"), calling ip_reass()\n",
      ntohs(IPH_ID(iphdr)), p->tot_len, ntohs(IPH_LEN(iphdr)), !!(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr) & htons(IP_MF)), (ntohs(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr)) & IP_OFFMASK)*8));
    /* reassemble the packet*/
    p = ip_reass(p);
    /* packet not fully reassembled yet? */
    if (p == NULL) {
      return ERR_OK;
    }
    iphdr = p->payload;
#else /* IP_REASSEMBLY == 0, no packet fragment reassembly code present */
    pbuf_free(p);
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("IP packet dropped since it was fragmented (0x%"X16_F") (while IP_REASSEMBLY == 0).\n",
      ntohs(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr))));
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.opterr);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
    /* unsupported protocol feature */
    snmp_inc_ipinunknownprotos();
    return ERR_OK;
#endif /* IP_REASSEMBLY */
  }

#if IP_OPTIONS_ALLOWED == 0 /* no support for IP options in the IP header? */

#if LWIP_IGMP
  /* there is an extra "router alert" option in IGMP messages which we allow for but do not police */
  if((iphdr_hlen > IP_HLEN &&  (IPH_PROTO(iphdr) != IP_PROTO_IGMP)) {
#else
  if (iphdr_hlen > IP_HLEN) {
#endif /* LWIP_IGMP */
    LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("IP packet dropped since there were IP options (while IP_OPTIONS_ALLOWED == 0).\n"));
    pbuf_free(p);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.opterr);
    IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
    /* unsupported protocol feature */
    snmp_inc_ipinunknownprotos();
    return ERR_OK;
  }
#endif /* IP_OPTIONS_ALLOWED == 0 */

  /* send to upper layers */
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_input: \n"));
  ip_debug_print(p);
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_input: p->len %"U16_F" p->tot_len %"U16_F"\n", p->len, p->tot_len));

#if LWIP_RAW
  /* raw input did not eat the packet? */
  if (raw_input(p, inp) == 0)
#endif /* LWIP_RAW */
  {

    switch (IPH_PROTO(iphdr)) {
#if LWIP_UDP
    case IP_PROTO_UDP:
#if LWIP_UDPLITE
    case IP_PROTO_UDPLITE:
#endif /* LWIP_UDPLITE */
      snmp_inc_ipindelivers();
      udp_input(p, inp);
      break;
#endif /* LWIP_UDP */
#if LWIP_TCP
    case IP_PROTO_TCP:
      snmp_inc_ipindelivers();
      tcp_input(p, inp);
      break;
#endif /* LWIP_TCP */
#if LWIP_ICMP
    case IP_PROTO_ICMP:
      snmp_inc_ipindelivers();
      icmp_input(p, inp);
      break;
#endif /* LWIP_ICMP */
#if LWIP_IGMP
    case IP_PROTO_IGMP:
      igmp_input(p,inp,&(iphdr->dest));
      break;
#endif /* LWIP_IGMP */
    default:
#if LWIP_ICMP
      /* send ICMP destination protocol unreachable unless is was a broadcast */
      if (!ip_addr_isbroadcast(&(iphdr->dest), inp) &&
          !ip_addr_ismulticast(&(iphdr->dest))) {
        p->payload = iphdr;
        icmp_dest_unreach(p, ICMP_DUR_PROTO);
      }
#endif /* LWIP_ICMP */
      pbuf_free(p);

      LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("Unsupported transport protocol %"U16_F"\n", IPH_PROTO(iphdr)));

      IP_STATS_INC(ip.proterr);
      IP_STATS_INC(ip.drop);
      snmp_inc_ipinunknownprotos();
    }
  }

  return ERR_OK;
}

/**
 * Sends an IP packet on a network interface. This function constructs
 * the IP header and calculates the IP header checksum. If the source
 * IP address is NULL, the IP address of the outgoing network
 * interface is filled in as source address.
 * If the destination IP address is IP_HDRINCL, p is assumed to already
 * include an IP header and p->payload points to it instead of the data.
 *
 * @param p the packet to send (p->payload points to the data, e.g. next
            protocol header; if dest == IP_HDRINCL, p already includes an IP
            header and p->payload points to that IP header)
 * @param src the source IP address to send from (if src == IP_ADDR_ANY, the
 *         IP  address of the netif used to send is used as source address)
 * @param dest the destination IP address to send the packet to
 * @param ttl the TTL value to be set in the IP header
 * @param tos the TOS value to be set in the IP header
 * @param proto the PROTOCOL to be set in the IP header
 * @param netif the netif on which to send this packet
 * @return ERR_OK if the packet was sent OK
 *         ERR_BUF if p doesn't have enough space for IP/LINK headers
 *         returns errors returned by netif->output
 *
 * @note ip_id: RFC791 "some host may be able to simply use
 *  unique identifiers independent of destination"
 */
err_t
ip_output_if(struct pbuf *p, struct ip_addr *src, struct ip_addr *dest,
             u8_t ttl, u8_t tos,
             u8_t proto, struct netif *netif)
{
  struct ip_hdr *iphdr;
  static u16_t ip_id = 0;

  snmp_inc_ipoutrequests();

  /* Should the IP header be generated or is it already included in p? */
  if (dest != IP_HDRINCL) {
    /* generate IP header */
    if (pbuf_header(p, IP_HLEN)) {
      LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG | 2, ("ip_output: not enough room for IP header in pbuf\n"));

      IP_STATS_INC(ip.err);
      snmp_inc_ipoutdiscards();
      return ERR_BUF;
    }

    iphdr = p->payload;
    LWIP_ASSERT("check that first pbuf can hold struct ip_hdr",
               (p->len >= sizeof(struct ip_hdr)));

    IPH_TTL_SET(iphdr, ttl);
    IPH_PROTO_SET(iphdr, proto);

    ip_addr_set(&(iphdr->dest), dest);

    IPH_VHLTOS_SET(iphdr, 4, IP_HLEN / 4, tos);
    IPH_LEN_SET(iphdr, htons(p->tot_len));
    IPH_OFFSET_SET(iphdr, 0);
    IPH_ID_SET(iphdr, htons(ip_id));
    ++ip_id;

    if (ip_addr_isany(src)) {
      ip_addr_set(&(iphdr->src), &(netif->ip_addr));
    } else {
      ip_addr_set(&(iphdr->src), src);
    }

    IPH_CHKSUM_SET(iphdr, 0);
#if CHECKSUM_GEN_IP
    IPH_CHKSUM_SET(iphdr, inet_chksum(iphdr, IP_HLEN));
#endif
  } else {
    /* IP header already included in p */
    iphdr = p->payload;
    dest = &(iphdr->dest);
  }

#if IP_FRAG
  /* don't fragment if interface has mtu set to 0 [loopif] */
  if (netif->mtu && (p->tot_len > netif->mtu))
    return ip_frag(p,netif,dest);
#endif

  IP_STATS_INC(ip.xmit);

  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("ip_output_if: %c%c%"U16_F"\n", netif->name[0], netif->name[1], netif->num));
  ip_debug_print(p);

  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("netif->output()"));

  return netif->output(netif, p, dest);
}

/**
 * Simple interface to ip_output_if. It finds the outgoing network
 * interface and calls upon ip_output_if to do the actual work.
 *
 * @param p the packet to send (p->payload points to the data, e.g. next
            protocol header; if dest == IP_HDRINCL, p already includes an IP
            header and p->payload points to that IP header)
 * @param src the source IP address to send from (if src == IP_ADDR_ANY, the
 *         IP  address of the netif used to send is used as source address)
 * @param dest the destination IP address to send the packet to
 * @param ttl the TTL value to be set in the IP header
 * @param tos the TOS value to be set in the IP header
 * @param proto the PROTOCOL to be set in the IP header
 *
 * @return ERR_RTE if no route is found
 *         see ip_output_if() for more return values
 */
err_t
ip_output(struct pbuf *p, struct ip_addr *src, struct ip_addr *dest,
          u8_t ttl, u8_t tos, u8_t proto)
{
  struct netif *netif;

  if ((netif = ip_route(dest)) == NULL) {
    return ERR_RTE;
  }

  return ip_output_if(p, src, dest, ttl, tos, proto, netif);
}

#if IP_DEBUG
/* Print an IP header by using LWIP_DEBUGF
 * @param p an IP packet, p->payload pointing to the IP header
 */
void
ip_debug_print(struct pbuf *p)
{
  struct ip_hdr *iphdr = p->payload;
  u8_t *payload;

  payload = (u8_t *)iphdr + IP_HLEN;

  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("IP header:\n"));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("+-------------------------------+\n"));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("|%2"S16_F" |%2"S16_F" |  0x%02"X16_F" |     %5"U16_F"     | (v, hl, tos, len)\n",
                    IPH_V(iphdr),
                    IPH_HL(iphdr),
                    IPH_TOS(iphdr),
                    ntohs(IPH_LEN(iphdr))));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("+-------------------------------+\n"));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("|    %5"U16_F"      |%"U16_F"%"U16_F"%"U16_F"|    %4"U16_F"   | (id, flags, offset)\n",
                    ntohs(IPH_ID(iphdr)),
                    ntohs(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr)) >> 15 & 1,
                    ntohs(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr)) >> 14 & 1,
                    ntohs(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr)) >> 13 & 1,
                    ntohs(IPH_OFFSET(iphdr)) & IP_OFFMASK));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("+-------------------------------+\n"));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("|  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  |    0x%04"X16_F"     | (ttl, proto, chksum)\n",
                    IPH_TTL(iphdr),
                    IPH_PROTO(iphdr),
                    ntohs(IPH_CHKSUM(iphdr))));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("+-------------------------------+\n"));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("|  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  | (src)\n",
                    ip4_addr1(&iphdr->src),
                    ip4_addr2(&iphdr->src),
                    ip4_addr3(&iphdr->src),
                    ip4_addr4(&iphdr->src)));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("+-------------------------------+\n"));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("|  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  |  %3"U16_F"  | (dest)\n",
                    ip4_addr1(&iphdr->dest),
                    ip4_addr2(&iphdr->dest),
                    ip4_addr3(&iphdr->dest),
                    ip4_addr4(&iphdr->dest)));
  LWIP_DEBUGF(IP_DEBUG, ("+-------------------------------+\n"));
}
#endif /* IP_DEBUG */

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Our volunteers get to work in a variety of climates. The Tonto National Forest spans almost 3 million acres. With projects all over the forest, expect to visit deserts with saguaro cactus, mountains with pine trees and everything in between.


text:
CGS Minnesota Issues
GlobalSolutionsMN.org works with our national organization on a number of issue areas. Below, you can read about these issues and find links to more information.
GlobalSolutions.org is a nationwide organization that inspires America to engage the world. Our members recognize that in today's interconnected world, our lives, our jobs and our families are increasingly affected by global problems. Challenges like terrorism, climate change, failed states and infectious diseases cannot be addressed by any one country alone, not even the United States.
Global Solutions believes that countries can best solve global problems by working together to find global solutions. We believe that achieving a secure, connected, just and livable world requires effective international law and institutions, as well as a U.S. foreign policy that makes us safer and stronger through cooperation.
Some of CGS National's issues are different from CGS Minnesota's. To see a list of CGS National's issues, click here.
Global Solutions envisions and advocates:
A Secure World in which we work together with our friends and allies to tackle global problems that no one nation can solve alone, like terrorism, genocide and failed states;
A Connected World in which Americans recognize the link between global issues and local concerns in communities at home;
A Just World in which terrorists, human rights abusers and war criminals are held responsible for their crimes and deterred from future attacks; and,
A Livable World in which global collaborative efforts effectively confront environmental and health threats.
Climate Security
Citizens for Global Solutions-Minnesotamembers recognize that in today's interconnected world, our lives, our jobs and our families are increasingly affected by global problems.
Climate change and related environmental degradation are good examples of problems that can't be solved by one country and therefore will require enforceable International law.
Catastrophic climate change could decimate the global economy and lead to political instability, social strife and mass migration on a historic scale with unknown consequences forour global civilization. In this sense climate change is as pressing an issue as are nuclear issues.
Nuclear non-Proliferation
Unregulated nuclear weapons systems continue to pose a threat to our global civilization. Since our founding, CGS has sought to reduce nuclear weapons and promote binding international regulation of nuclear materials. Today's changing global security environment, hacking of national security systems, and rise in terrorism reinforce the need to abolish Cold War-era weapons that fail to provide genuine global security.
TPP, or Trans Pacific Partnership,
s an example of what can go wrong when no attempt is made to democratize decision making in global governance. On-going rounds of trade negotiations are taking place under a self-imposed gag pact even though 600 corporate leaders (with the help of their lobbyists?) are involved. So it seems that citizens around the world have been locked out of affecting the "rules of the road" for the near future of globalization but only "corporate citizens" have an inside track.
he silver lining in this on-going controversy is that many people may come to realize that global governance continues to take shape (UN, WTO, IMF, TPP, etc.) but people will be poorly served unless they work for citizen representation in these institutions.
Un Parliamentary Assembly
The United Nations system is the core of a larger system of global governance that has evolved since the end of World War II. But neither system includes an agency that directly represents the people of the world. Rather, people are represented indirectly, if at all, through their country's UN delegations. This would be as if the House of Representatives did not exist in the United States, with the legislative branch consisting exclusively of the hundred-member Senate.
The Campaign for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly seeks to establish an advisory parliamentary body as a logical early step toward the long-term goal of creating a democratic and truly representative system of global governance.
CONTACT US: Nancy Dunlavy, President, (651)785-4243, cfgsmn@gmail.com

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Technical analyst Anil Singhvi maintained 'buy' rating on Tata Motors Limited stock with an intra-day target of Rs 1140.
According to analyst, the stock can be bought with a stop loss of Rs 1055.
The stock of the company, on Feb 09, closed at Rs 1077.35 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
The share price has seen a 52-week high of Rs 1381.40 and a low of Rs 668.70 on BSE.
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 44.89 and 24.38 respectively.
Tata Motors dispatches for the month of January 2010 were better than our estimates due to strong performance of the passenger car division. However, sales mix was poor due to higher proportion coming from low profit cars division. MHCV segment grew by 10% to 16.5K units while LCV sales were up by 17% to 24k units.
Passenger cars sales were up by 13% to 26k units with `Nano' sales growing by 68% to 6,703 units. Indigo dispatches were higher by 17% at 8,456 units. Indica dispatches improved significantly on a sequential basis to 10,591 units.
Technical analyst Prabir Kumar Sarkar of SPA Securities has maintained 'buy' rating on Tata Motors Limited stock with a target of Rs 1148.
According to analyst, the stock can be purchased above Rs 1116 with a stop loss of Rs 1097.
The analyst said that the said target can be attained in 1-2 trading sessions.
The stock of the company, on February 02, closed at Rs 1110.85 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
Technical analyst Ambareesh Baliga of Karvy Stock Broking has maintained 'sell' rating on Tata Motors Limited stock with a target of Rs 1000-975.
Mr. Baliga added that it is better to sell the stock at this time as it looks weak.
He also said the investors can re-enter the stock at the same level (Rs 1000-975) with a long-term view.
As per recent reports, Tata Motors stock is declining and the gains are dissolving.
At this time, investment in auto sector looks risky.
Labeled as the world's cheapest car, Tata Nano is all set to launch its diesel version by September this year. The Nano sales had been affected adversely recently due to reasons, like increase in price and safety concerns. The brand has also been hit as some of the cars caught fire.
However, the brand Nano has again managed to catch up a bit by providing extended warranty on the car. Tata Nano will now soon be rolling out the diesel version of the car, in August or September and will be in all probability a 600-700 cc engine. The new Nano will not only prove to be more economical on the running costs but will also be safer.
Two years ago, after a lot of controversy in Singur, Ratan Tata decided to move out of the site for his Tata Nano production. Gujarat eventually benefited from the loss of Bengal, as Tata Motors then decided to set up the new plant over there.
Bengal Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee at a rally promised people of Bengal to get a car manufacturing unit at the disputed site. He also said that the people should not be losing hearts so early.
Mahindra & Mahindra (M&M) reported impressive dispatches for the month of December '10 across various categories. In the automotive segment, the passenger UVs segment grew by 24%. Pick-up & SCVs had a growth of 46% due to success of `Maximmo'. Logan clocked volumes of 896 units. 3-wheeler dispatches doubled to 5.9K units. Overall domestic automotive dispatches increased by 43% to 32.5K units as against our expectation of 26K units.
Technical analyst Kunal Bothra of LKP Shares has maintained 'hold' rating on Tata Motors Limited stock with a short term target of Rs 1500.
The analyst said that the stock can be purchased with a stop loss of Rs 1100.
The stock of the company, on December 28, closed at Rs 1267.70 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 44.89 and 28.46 respectively.
Technical analyst Imtiaz Qureishi has maintained 'buy' rating on Tata Motors Limited with a short-term target of Rs 1420.
Today, the stock of the company opened at Rs 1354on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 44.89 and 29.55 respectively.
Tata Motors is doing well in both its Indian and overseas operations. Medium and heavy commercial vehicle (MHCV) which is the mainstay of domestic operations is on a strong turf due to robust economic growth. Despite cost pressures, truck operator's profitability remain strong due to increase in freight rates and easy availability of freight. LCV segment continues in secular growth trend due to requirement of last mile connectivity.
The ranking agency Moody's blessing has discovered that the sector of Tata camp this moment with the latter's ranking improved with the sale of JLR products. Moody's has owed the Ba3 ranking for Tata Motors, shifting from B2 with the effect of dazzling accomplishment in the Q3 of 2009 fiscal.
Tata Motors today expressed that its worldwide sales elevated up by 19 % in September, to 86,996 units on vigorous demand for both commercial and passenger vehicles.
Sales of luxury product by Jaguar Land Rover were at 19,528 units throughout September, up 16 % by the same month past year, Tata Motors stated in a report.
Whereas the sales of luxury sedans of Jaguar brand elevated by 10 % past month to 4,861 units, Land Rover sales were increased by 19 per cent at 14,667 units, it further stated in a report.
Stock market analyst Rajeev Agarwal of Dynamix Research has maintained 'buy' rating on Tat Motors Limited stock with a short term target of Rs 1120.
According to analyst, the interested investors can buy the stock with a stop loss of Rs 1065.
The stock of the company, on Sep 29, closed at Rs 1106.65 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
The share price has seen a 52-week high of Rs 1109.85 and a low of Rs 530.10 on BSE.
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 51.12 and 21.29 respectively.
Stock market analyst Salil Sharma has maintained 'buy' rating on Tata Motors Ltd stock with a target of Rs 1100.
According to analyst, the interested investors can buy the stock with strict stop loss of Rs 1075.
The stock of the company, on Sep 24, closed at Rs 1070.35 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
The share price has seen a 52-week high of Rs 1089.30 and a low of Rs 530.10 on BSE.
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 51.12 and 21.17 respectively.
Stock market analyst Salil Sharma has maintained 'buy' rating on Maruti Suzuki India Limited stock with a target of Rs 1088.
The strict stop loss for the stock is Rs 1060.
The stock of the company, on Sep 22, closed at Rs 1412.75 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 51.12 and 20.98 respectively.
The country's biggest auto company is making attempts to strengthen its popular small car brand 'Nano' to diesel.
Stock market analyst Salil Sharma has maintained 'sell' rating on Tata Motors Limited stock with a target of Rs 1005.
The strict stop loss for the stock is Rs 1040.
Mr. Sharma said that if the stock fell below Rs 1000, it may see more weakness.
Stock market analyst Ashwani Gujral has maintained 'buy' rating on Tata Motors Limited stock with a target of Rs 1080.
The strict stop loss for the stock is Rs 1045.
The stock of the company, on Sep 14, closed at Rs 1065 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
The share price has seen a 52-week high of Rs 1067.50 and a low of Rs 530.10 on BSE.
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 51.12 and 20.52 respectively.
Tata Motors is ready to roll out 0.5 tonne truck by the last quarter of the subsisting financial year.
Stock market analyst Devang Visaria has maintained 'buy' rating on Tata Motors stock with a target of Rs 1150.
According to analyst, the interested investors can buy the stock with strict stop loss of Rs 1027.
The stock of the company, on Sep 08, closed at Rs 1031.80 on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).
The share price has seen a 52-week high of Rs 1060.70 and a low of Rs 530.10 on BSE.
Current EPS & P/E ratio stood at 51.12 and 20.20 respectively.


Choosing the correct GPS management system for your fleet is a complex issue. In modern times there has been a market saturation of GPS systems and back-office service providers that claim to offer a complete package. Unfortunately many of these systems are technically deficient and only offer a basic functionality.
The investment into GPS based fleet management can be a costly exercise. When the time comes to make your purchase, IAE can ensure that your company's decision makers are furnished with a detailed unbiased report.
Our consultancy reports contain all relevant information that will ensure a system is selected that is capable of achieving your requirements and meeting your expectations.
The types of vehicles that are utilized as part of your fleet.
Industrial Automotive Electronics carries many years of industry experience across a broad range of hardware vendors and has developed functional and technical specifications for many of Australia's major transport organisations.
If you are considering the employment of a GPS fleet management tracking and monitoring system, talk to IAE. We can provide sound advice on a complicated issue.


Singer and composer Donald Swann once said that writing about music is like dancing about architecture. You can walk around that simile for quite a while. The writing is pointless? Music is bigger, more impressive, more lasting and hence more important? The one can't substitute for the other?
At the moment, I'm writing about architecture, and Swann's dictum haunts me. I need to take my readers into a house that is as real to me as my own. I know that each reader will blend my descriptions with her own home, her family's homes, her feelings about home in general and god knows what else. But I need her to see some parts of the house clearly, and I want her to experience much more than an architectural plan.
The fictional house in question, recently named Fallowfields by its snobbish owner, was built in the late 1800s in rural New Hampshire. It is an uneasy blend of Victorian-era ostentation and New England tradition. Both aspects are important to my plot and to the personalities of my characters. So both have to come through.
My plot requires that people sneak around the place, in and out, upstairs and down, undetected. So I designed Fallowfields on the model of 'big house, little house, back house, barn.' Farm housekeeping in the nineteenth century required more than one structure. The little house was usually built onto the back wall of the big house, which was where the humans lived. It might be a summer kitchen, a dairy, a woodshed or all three. A third structure, the back house, would share the back wall of the little house and shelter a different activity. One way or another, all the space that made up the house was formed around the chores and the home production of goods that supported the family.
The Fallowfields barn now has an apartment built into the old hay loft. My heroine has converted the tack room into a home laboratory for her botany experiments. Readers need to notice that proximity. The little house has, unusally, a second story and an internal flight of stairs. There's another flight at the front of the big house. Before we can do exciting scenes of rushing up and down and dodging round the house, I must lay the routes out for the reader in the course of their ordinary use. Needless to say, my writing group read the early drafts and scratched their heads. "Wait! She was in the barn. How did she get to the bedroom?" Time to revise.
I want much more from Fallowfields than these mechanics. My heroine is facing forced retirement from work that took her around the globe. Unless I can convey her growing contentment with a life in northern New England, she and the book will come to an unhappy end, which is not my intention. Fallowfields and the rest of her home town must convey the possibility of that contentment.
Parts of Fallowfields are based on my grandfather's house in Peacham, Vermont, purely for the pleasure I take in recalling it. To a five-year-old, its little house was Aladdin's cave. It held pairs of rubber boots tall and thick enough for Jack-in-the-Beanstalk's giant, or to survive a universal deluge. There were thin bamboo sticks as tall as my father and balls of bright green twine that would stake vines in the garden next summer. There were little, square wood boxes streaked inside with bright crimson, waiting for yet another year's raspberry crop. There was a tub of something called paraffin, which I was forbidden to touch. It felt smooth and slick.
Grandpa's back house was a chicken house. Every egg we ate in that house was less than 24 hours old. At Fallowfields, the old chicken house has been converted into a paradise for a pair of pet ferrets, but hovering sharp and dusty in the air, somewhere between a scent and a memory, is the smell of the feathers, droppings and dirt generated by a flock of healthy chickens. Even today, one breath of that scent takes a half-century off my age. Can I manage to show that? Because telling just won't do.


Dr. Roni Prucz, MD is a cosmetic, plastic & reconstructive surgery in Phoenix, AZ. He graduated from Johns Hopkins University School Of Medicine and specializes in cosmetic, plastic & reconstructive surgery, microvascular reconstructive surgery, and more.
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text:
SourceText.com
MarkAndreAlexander.com
Shakespeare Authorship Sourcebook
The Underground Grammarian
THIS STAR OF ENGLAND
"William Shakes-speare"
Man of the Renaissance
by Dorothy and Charlton Ogburn
Chapter Forty-Four
WHEN, IN The Tempest, Prospero finally released Ariel from his bonds, we interpreted his act as symbolic of the release of Oxford's imagination from the fetters of unpleasant subjects which had perforce, since he was serving Her Majesty, constricted it for "a dozen years": above all, the French match. Though part of his resolve pertained to a later period, this part held good in 1583. And soon thereafter he took up a youthful masque undoubtedly presented in 1572-73, as propaganda for that distasteful project, adapting it effectively and with amazing scope and wit to put a gay and flourishing period not only to l'affaire Alençon but also to his own long amatory thralldom to the Queen. With a gesture at once nonchalant and poignant, he dismisses the whole devastating conglomeration as a fantastic dream.
Our belief is that A Midsummer-Night's Dream was at this time still called A Pastorall of Phillyda and Choryn, under which title it was "presented and enacted before her maiestie by her highnes servauntes on St. Stephens daie at night [Saturday, December 26, 1584] at Grenewich," (1) that it had been partially, if not wholly, revised before Sussex's death, in July 1583, and that by the time it was recorded as presented at court, Lord Oxford had already finished the masterpiece of his prime, Hamlet. He ties up many threads in The Dream, his chief purpose being, we feel sure, to make merry with Elizabeth over some of the painful experiences of the past years, reassuring her as to his own affectionate loyalty towards her, and restoring their relationship to a sane basis, or perhaps we should say to one somewhat more sane. Theseus is Lord Oxford speaking to his Queen when he says (I.1.16-19):
Hippolyta, I woo'd thee with my sword,
And won thy love doing thee injuries;
But I will wed thee in another key,
With pomp, with triumph, and with revelling.
He had used his "sword" or words to take her severely to task for her vacillation and her injustice; but they will revel now and be gay.
The play, as we have it today, is a still later revision, made for the wedding, ten years afterward, of Oxford's daughter to William Stanley, Earl of Derby. Several commentators have suggested that it was written for the fete given at Elvetham, in 1591, by the Earl of Hertford, as propaganda for the Suffolk succession; (2) but with this notion we emphatically disagree, if only because we are quite sure that Lord Oxford was not in favor of the Suffolk succession in 1591, as we expect to show. However, it may well have been presented there, for the Elvetham fete is pointedly alluded to in the phrase, "a fair vestal throned by the west" (II.1.158); a picture of that occasion still survives showing the Queen seated upon a throne, surrounded by her maids, and the word "West" engraved on the throne. The basis of the allusion is the fact that Elizabeth de Vere and Lord Derby–we have this on Ward's authority–are believed to have fallen in love at that magnificent al fresco celebration.
Mr. Percy Allen makes an interesting statement in this connection: that
such spectacular entertainments and water-pageants continued to be extremely popular in the courts of western Europe throughout the fifteen-eighties, as witness, for example, those intensely interesting tapestries by Quesnel, of 1585, in the Long Gallery of the Uffizi Palace at Florence–a city visited by Oxford in 1575–and introducing a group of individuals who figure prominently in the Shakespearean plays, including Catherine de' Medici, Henry III, and Henry IV. One of these tapestries depicts a great water-pageant, with a dolphin-ship, and another vessel following it, filled with siren-mermaids making music–a picture that at once recalls. . . Oberon's
"Uttering such dulcet and harmonious breath"—
a phrase, indeed, that'may have been actually suggested by some such pageant, first seen by Oxford in France or Italy. (3)
Or, may we add, a picture that may have been suggested to the artist by Lord Oxford's phrase.
Few of the plays reveal more clear-cut conjunction with their various dates than does this charming melange of moonlit magic, classical-cum-personal innuendo, and sheer moonshine. Although the time of its first performance is unknown, certain topical references tie its early composition unmistakably to 1572-73; there may, however, have been a simpler, still earlier version. We shall cite only a few of the thirteen allusions mentioned by Admiral Holland, who finds–to begin with–that because the final day of the action, the day of the new moon, was May Day, and because the new moon and May Day coincided in 1573 and not again until 1592, the year 1573 is corroborated as the date of an early version.
And then the Moon, like to a silver bow
New-bent in heaven, shall behold the night
Of our solemnities. (I.1.9-11.) .
Theseus. No doubt they rose up early to observe
The rite of May. (IV.1.134-5.)
Quince's description of his play as "the most lamentable comedy" (I.2.11) refers to the title of Cambyses, a lamentable tragedy mixed full of pleasant mirth, entered on the Stationers' Register 1569-70 and published some time later.
Definite reference, embodying a favorite Elizabethan pun, is made to the hope entertained by both France and England, in 1572, that an heir to the French crown would be born, although it turned out that the child born in October was a princess:
Some of your French crowns have no hair at all. (I.2.95.)
In 1572, the Queen had been unable to take the accustomed route on her progress to Warwick because of the bad condition of the roads. Nichols records that "the weather having been very foul a long time before, Her Majesty was led another way." And Titania says (II.1.96 et seq.):
The fold stands empty in the drowned field,
And crows are fatted with the murrion flock;
The nine men's morris is fill'd up with mud. . .
The garden at Theobalds must also have been sodden, for she, adds:
And the quaint mazes in the wanton green
For lack of tread are indistinguishable.
Oberon's speech to Puck (II.1 148 et seq.) has unmistakable significance for the years 1572-73, as well as that we have mentioned for the 1590's, and also a permanent and vital meaning:
Oberon. My gentle Puck, come hither. Thou remember'st
Since once I sat upon a promontory,
And heard a mermaid on a dolphin's back
Uttering such dulcet and harmonious breath,
That the rude sea grew civil at her song,
And certain stars shot madly from their spheres
To hear the sea-maid's music.
Oxford-Oberon had sat aloof in 1572 when the negotiations for a match between Elizabeth and Henry, duc d'Anjou, were broken off, and the Queen Mother of France proposed Alençon in his stead. The "mermaid on a dolphin's [dauphin's] back" who uttered "such dulcet and harmonious breath" that the rough waters parting France and England "grew civil" was, of course, Elizabeth beguiling Alençon, the dauphin (Holinshed calls the French dauphin "prince Dolphin"), and thus smoothing the difficulties between England and France; while the "certain stars" which "shot madly from their spheres" were Hatton and Leicester, as well as other Protestant objectors to the match, whose fortunate position would have been seriously affected had the Queen really gone through with the affair.
Oberon. That very time I saw, but thou couldst not,
Flying between the cold moon and the earth,
Cupid all arm'd; a certain aim he took
At a fair vestal throned by the west,
And loos'd his love-shaft smartly from his bow,
As it should pierce a hundred thousand hearts;
But I might see young Cupid's fiery shaft
Quench'd in the chaste beams of the watery moon,
And the imperial votaress pass'd on,
In maiden meditation, fancy-free.
Yet mark'd I where the bolt of Cupid fell:
It fell upon a little western flower, .
Before milk-white, now purple with love's wound.
And maidens call it Love-in-idleness.
Undoubtedly many Elizabethans, as well as later commentators, took this passage to refer to Leicester's efforts to persuade the Queen to marry him and to her statement in 1573 to the French Ambassador that she would never condescend to marry a subject–"The imperial votaress pass'd on"–and Oxford would have been willing to have it so interpreted at that time. But it had a far deeper significance for Elizabeth and Oxford himself–the purple flower being the one which "sprung up" where Adonis lay dead, in the poem that we believe was being written 'over a lengthy period of time and long before it was published. It was, by the way, in 1573 that Gilbert Talbot wrote, "Lady Sheffield is very much in love with my lord of Leicester," and in the following year that she bore him a son, whereupon Leicester was banished from the court.
The passage,
Thus hath he lost sixpence a day during his life; he could not have 'scaped sixpence a day. . . . (IV.2.19 et seq.),
refers to the payment made to John Smith, the last of the Court Interluders, who, up to about 1573, although these men were no longer functioning in the Revels, kept up an organization of sorts and received 61/2d. a day.
Roger Ascham, one of the most learned men of the time, wrote a book called The Schoolmaster, published in 1570, which lectured the young noblemen at court upon the importance of scholarship and of languages, if they were to maintain the high status of their fathers. He had, ironically enough, died in extreme poverty two years before; and it is to this fact that reference is made (V.1.52-4):
'The thrice three muses mourning for the death
Of Learning, late deceas'd in beggary.'
That is some satire keen and critical.
We have already spoken, in the account of the Queen's progress to Warwick (Chap. Seven), of her speech to the "little recorder," to which allusion is made by Theseus (V.1.95-103). This is followed by Hippolyta's pun (122-3):
Indeed he hath played on his prologue like a child on a recorder.
Having accompanied Elizabeth on this progress, Lord Oxford had, of course, heard her words and had made poetic allusion to them in the play soon to be presented before Her Majesty. At that time, Leicester was in high favor with the queen; she visited him at Kenilworth Castle during this progress. And Leicester was indubitably the prototype of Theseus in one early version of The Dream, though Alençon, or even Anjou, may have been in another. This becomes patent in the Titania-Oberon quarrel (II.1.60 et seq.), in which reference is made to the progress of 1572 and of which we shall speak presently. There still exist in The Dream as we know it, many features common to Lord Oxford's youthful poems (some of these are noted in Chap. Six), certain verse-forms, the use "eyne," and so on.
As he so often did, Oxford drew upon Ovid's Metamorphoses for this play which can be taken to have been first entitled A Pastoral of Phillida and Choryn, since Titania's speech upbraiding Oberon for philandering gives the key:
Then, I must be thy lady; but I know
When thou hast stol'n away from fairy land.
And in the shape of Corin sat all day,
Playing on pipes of corn, and versing love
To amorous Phillida. (II.1.64-8.)
It will be noted that Oberon takes the shape of a shepherd and makes verses; and this is another key.
When we learn that Ovid gave the name Titania to the goddess Diana, and further, that during the early 1580's it was the fashion for poets to refer to Elizabeth and her maids as "nymphs and fairies" (this play having perhaps set the style), then when we read, "The cowslips tall her pensioners be" (II.1.10), and recognize the allusion to the Queen's Gentlemen Pensioners, we are bound to accept Elizabeth's identification with Titania, who—as it happens—was quite simply called "the Queen" in the original (published) stage-directions.
Oxford, then, appears in the role of Oberon (another name with the e and o sounds prominent) and is identified with the day, Auberon, as Titania is with the night. At court he had long been referred to as Phoebus; the cultured Elizabethans not only conversed in Latin, they were steeped in the classics, and they had, it must be remembered, fantastic minds.
It is Phillips who suggests, in a penetrating study of this play, (4) that Oberon implies Auberon, from the French aube, dawn. And he observes that, if this is true, "we have a link with the story of Cephalus and Procris, which may not have been noticed."
But we interrupt to point out that it has been noticed, after Mr. Phillips's hint, by us, in Pyramus' and Thisbe's dialogue (V.l.198-9):
Pyramus. Not Shafalus to Pro crus was so true.
Thisbe. As Shafalus to Procrus, I to you.
In any case, continues Mr. Phillips, Oberon says,
I with the morning's love have oft made sport;
And, like a forester, the groves may tread,
Even till the eastern gate, all fiery-red,
Opening on Neptune with fair blessed beams,
Turns into yellow gold his salt green streams. (III.2.389-93.)
Which is reminiscent of the familiar
Tithoni croceum linquens Aurora cubile
and its Homeric counterpart,
Now Aurora, the Dawn, fell in love with Cephalus; and he had by her (as some say), a son, Phaeton. It was this Phaeton who turned all the Ethiopians black, by his misfortune in driving the sun's chariot too near the earth, in order to prove that he was really the son of the Sun. Others say it was not this Cephalus, husband of Procris, who had a son by Aurora: but that he made sport with the Morning's love, and rejected her addresses,' the father of her son (they say) was another Cephalus, and the son's name was Tithonus. So, in this double Cephalus, we have a counterpart to Demetrius-Lysander, as well as to Oberon.
And in Demetrius-Lysander we have the poet again in a dual role (as in Valentine-Proteus), filling the part he took in his youthful plaintive verse:
The more I followed one,
The more she fled away.
As Daphne did full long agone,
Apollo's wishful prey;—
Apollo, of course, being another name for Phoebus.
There is layer within layer of symbolic allusion here, and nothing can be more sure than that Queen Elizabeth, to whom both the early poem and this play were addressed, apprehended the most delicate nuances of meaning. We have italicized the lines in the passage quoted from Mr. Phillips which seem to us especially significant; for in the reference to Phaeton's turning all the Ethiopians black, we seem to touch the fringes of the mystery of Aaron the Moor and his little black offspring who grew up to be "a warrior and command a camp," like Othello; further, we have a hint of Hamlet's, "I am too much i' the sun;" whereas Oberon-Cephalus's making "sport with the morning's love and rejecting her addresses" suggests the theme of Venus and Adonis, who are of course Elizabeth and Oxford. (Not to be overlooked in this connection is the Duke's angry protest to Valentine, who had dared to love Silvia, T.G.of V.: III.1.154-5:
Wilt thou aspire to guide the heavenly car
And with thy daring folly burn the world?)
But the most realistic and outspoken evidence of all, and one bit which positively and publicly identified Oxford with "the sun," was the magnificent role he had played in the 1581 tournament, when he was the "Knight of the Tree of the Sun" and sat under a "great high Bay-tree, the whole stock, branches, and leaves whereof were all gilded over, that nothing but Gold could be discerned." Elizabeth was always the Moon, Silvia or Venus, Queen of the Night, and Lord Oxford was Phoebus, the sun-god, Auberon, god of the dawn, and so was the father of Phaeton, the "son of the sun." And Oberon was demanding "a little changeling boy" of Titania, who was his own son— though that statement takes us ahead of our story.
Fantastic, yes; but this was the time of the Renaissance in England, a time of splendor, of leisure and learning, with "scholarship a romantic passion," and of a magnificent intellectual, as well as physical, vitality. Superstitions about ghosts, Hobgoblin, a personal devil, still lingered in the subconscious mind, even when not openly acknowledged; witchcraft was widely credited, was a civil offence. Imaginations were lusty, minds eager, the world full of mystery and wonder, not the least part of which was the potency of the word.
We are indebted to Mr. Phillips for a subtle and provocative interpretation of The Dream, and if we cannot go all the way with him in his analogies and conclusions, we are none the less grateful for those which seem to us apt and illuminating. We spontaneously agree with his statement that "Robin (or Puck, or Will-o'-the-Wisp) . . . is surely the 'little Robin' of The Merry Wives of Windsor, and the 'Will' [we should say one of the Wills] of the Sonnets." In other words, we believe, the Fair Youth. Puck, by the way, was originally called Robin. We also agree that
Egeus (in mythology the father of Theseus, but here perhaps his father-in-law, and father of Hermia) is so much like old Polonius that we might be tempted to think that Hermia was another name for the daughter of Polonius.
But there we leave him and suspect that Helena, who 'is not so much an individual as a personified lure,was blended of Anne Vavasor and the Queen: Helen will stand for the Queen in Oxford's next play, Troilus and Cressida, and Helena would have been altogether Elizabeth in the early 1570's. When Mr. Phillips adds that "in fact their identities are not attached to their names," we should stipulate, not inflexibly: they are intermingled, like images reflected in water, or seen in the deceptive light of a new moon, or indeed, for that matter, in a dream; they are almost but not quite interchangeable:
Like to a double cherry, seeming parted,
But yet an union in partition. (III.2.209-10;)
For instance, this dialogue occurs (IV.I.191-4):
Hermia. Methinks I see these things with parted eye,
When everything seems double.
Helena. So methinks:
And I have found Demetrius, like a jewel.
Mine own, and not mine own.
All of which is even more provocative when compared with a stanza of that strange and lovely poem, The Phoenix and the Turtle:
So they lov'd as love in twaine,
Had the essence but in one,
Two distincts, division none,
Number there in love was slaine.
These cryptic lines did not just happen in casual coincidence; they were primed with meaning, essentially for the queen. It was an idea that appealed to Oxford. In Venus and Adonis we find (st. 178):
His face seems twain, each several limb is doubled;
For oft the eye mistakes, the brain being troubled.
Helena is transparently Elizabeth-Venus, the moon, etc.when Lysander-Oxford says (III.2.187-8):
Fair Helena, who more engilds the night,
Than all yon fiery oes and eyes of light:
which means O's and I's; in other words, the moon is brighter than such stars as O, who is also I.
Hermia is predominantly Anne Cecil; for she is small and dark, as Anne always is; she is a "burr," because she stuck so fast to her lord: she will be called so again in Troilus and Cressida; and she is partially Kate (cat) of Kate's Hall. The disaffected Lysander cries (III.2.257, 259, 263):
Away, you Ethiop!
Hang off, thou cat, thou burr!
. . . out, tawny Tartar, out!
She is also small:
Hermia. And are you grown so high in his esteem,
Because I am so dwarfish and so low? (III.2.294-5.)
Being partially Kate, of The Shrew, she is "curst"—"Kate the curst":
Helena. Let her not hurt me: I was never curst;
I have no gift at all in shrewishness;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Let her not strike me. You perhaps may think
Because she is something lower than myself,
That I can match her. (300-5.)
We are given a taste of Hermia's shrewishness in her scene with Demetrius, highlighted by a series of name-clues, including "worm" (Ver), "serpent," and "adder," which are of the worm-family; Ralegh had spoken, in befriending Oxford, of laying "the serpent before the fire"; and in Sonnet 112, Oxford himself writes of his "adder's sense."
Hermia. Out dog! out, cur! thou driv'st me past the bounds
Of maiden's patience. Hast thou slain him then?
Henceforth be never number'd among men!
O! once tell true, tell true, e'en for my sake;
Durst thou have look'd upon him, being awake,
And hast thou kill'd him sleeping? O, brave touch!
Could not a worm, an adder, do so much?
An adder did it; for with doubler tongue
Than thine, thou serpent, never adder stung. (III.2.65-73.)
In an earlier scene between Hermia and Lysander, there are many name-clues, with the question brought out again of Oxford's higher birth than Anne's, as well as an obstacle to his love for Elizabeth:
Lysander. Ay me! for aught that ever I could read,
Or ever hear by tale or history,
The course of true love never did run smooth;
But either it was different in blood,—
Hermia. O cross! too high to be enthrall'd to low.
Lysander. Or else misgraffed in respect of years. . .
(I.1.132 et seq.)
The scene continues with more "O's," "true's," and "ever's."
Since these two passages are between Hermia and Demetrius and Hermia and Lysander respectively, it is obvious that both men stand for Oxford. He is, as a matter of fact, in the 1584 version, all the male characters—Oberon and Theseus, as well as the others: he is even, partially, Bottom. The play is really like a dream. The themes, as well as to some extent the characters, merge and shift, with the same effect of unreality and enchantment that is found in certain types of modern music—in Debussy, say, where the modulations are subtle, flowing, the statements only hazily resolved.
When, at the close, Theseus says (V.I.286-7.):
This passion, and the death of a dear friend, would go near to make a man look sad,
the dramatist is referring to his own "passion" which he has just parodied and ridiculed in Pyramus and Thisbe and to the death of his "dear friend" Sussex.
Oxford is talking directly to Elizabeth. He has made a travesty, for her sake, of his own recent "passion" for Anne Vavasor, shadowed by the memory of his youthful love for Anne Cecil, which he had described with such profound emotion in Romeo and Juliet. For the Pyramus and Thisbe episode is simply a device for turning that poetic tragedy into a pathetic little comedy and saying to the Queen, "Oh well, let's laugh at it and let it all go by." Perhaps in the face of such handsome amends, Elizabeth was willing to forgive her poet the terrible affront made to her vanity in that other play, in which she had been "the envious moon. . . sick and pale with grief" because her maid was "far more fair than she."
Romeo and Juliet, like Pyramus and Thisbe, had begun with a Prologue, while another Prologue for the Second Act had frankly announced:
Now old desire doth in his death-bed lie,
And young affection gapes to be his heir;—
this being all the more trenchant since Oxford's early Desire poems had been inspired by the Queen.
In The Dream, the burden of the Prologue is that, if the play is offensive, we hope you will believe in our "good will" and know that "we come not to offend." The other time, the dramatist implies–in Romeo and Juliet–it was different: good will was not a consideration, and offense was meant to be taken. It is a masterly touch to have Quince "make periods in the midst of sentences," as Theseus puts it (V.l.96), so that there is not the faintest touch of mawkishness. One of Oxford's high qualities was a wonderful sense of proportion, of discrimination and good taste.
When Theseus declares (V.1.81-3),
I will hear that play,
For never anything can be amiss,
When simpleness and duty tender it,
Oxford is giving Elizabeth her cue: she can relax and enjoy this, because it is written in a spirit of simplicity and loyalty. Her Turk is fond and dutiful once more.
He has already shown that his temporary blindness has been dissipated and that he has returned to his wife. The little passage where Hermia appears, exhausted and spent with the ordeal of Lysander's defection, and he recognizes her at last for his legitimate love is very revealing and certainly very candid (III.2.439-64):
Puck. . . . Here she comes, curst and sad:
Cupid is a knavish lad,
Thus to make poor females mad.
Hermia. Never so weary, never so in woe,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I can no further crawl, no further go.
Puck. . . (squeezing the juice in Lysander's eyes.)
When thou wak'st,
Thou tak'st
True delight
In the sight
Of thy former lady's eye:
And the country proverb known,
That every man should take his own,
In your waking shall be shown.
That Pyramus and Thisbe is a travesty of the play which had constituted a grave offence on Oxford's part, becomes unmistakable when the scene from Romeo and Juliet in which the Nurse bewails the seeming death of Juliet (IV.5.49-54) is compared with that of Pyramus appearing for his rendezvous with Thisbe (V.1.170-7):
Nurse. O woe! O woeful, woeful, woeful day!
Most lamentable day, most woeful day,
That ever, ever I did yet behold!
O day! Oday! O day! O hateful day!
Never was seen so black a day as this:
O woeful day, O woeful day!
Pyramus. O grim-look'd night! O night with hue so black!
O night, which ever art when day is not!
O night! O night! alack, alack, alack!
I fear my Thisby's promise is forgot.
And thou, O wall! O sweet, O lovely wall!
That stand'st between her father's ground and mine;
Thou wall, O wall! O sweet and lovely wall!
Show me a chink to blink through with mine eyne.
Here again, besides many name-clues–O's and ever I's–we have the day and night contrast, to match Oberon, King of Day (Auberon, Apollo, Phoebus—or, as Bottom calls him, Phibbus, etc.), and Titania, Queen of Night (Diana, Cynthia, the Moon, Venus, etc.) It is all very rich and deep.
As Juliet stabs herself upon finding Romeo's corpse, so Thisbe does at the sight of Pyramus dead at Ninus' tomb.
Moonshine and Lion are left to bury the dead,
says Theseus sardonically (V.1.347) as the poor little play comes to a close—
No epilogue, I pray you. . . for when the players are all dead, there need none to be blamed.
Does the author mean that when the heart has been taken out of a man, when passion has been so shamed and punished that the lovers feel numb and dead, blame is merely supererogation?
When Bottom announces (V.1.350),
The wall is down that parted their fathers,
we are given to understand that Pyramus and Thisbe has ended precisely as Romeo and Juliet did. The wall is down. . . .
Lord Oxford must have written and witnessed the performance of this wistfully ludicrous parody with a twisted smile, if not with a twisted heart. But if he had yielded thus much, he had nevertheless stood his ground in certain particulars: he was not the man to humble himself or misrepresent the truth. His reference to Ninus' tomb must have given pause to the Queen in the midst of all the drollery. She would have known that Ninus was the second husband of Semiramis, Queen of Babylon, who, although she had made that city the most magnificent metropolis in the world, had coupled cruelty with lust by habitually putting her lovers to death, lest they should reveal her licentiousness. So that "Ninny's tomb" was the grave of one who had been foolish, fatuous enough to love the Queen! One can only glory in the spirit of Edward de Vere. He could be modest, but he was indomitable when it came to telling the truth.
He had also made the greeting between Oberon and Titania sufficiently plain-spoken (II.1.60 et seq.):
Oberon. Ill met by moonlight, proud Titania.
Titania. What! jealous Oberon. Fairies, skip hence:
I have forsworn his bed and company.
Oberon. Tarry, rash wanton! am I not thy lord?
Titania. Then I must by thy lady; but I know
When thou hast stol'n away from fairy land,
To amorous Phillida . . . .
Oberon. How canst thou thus for shame, Titania,
Glance at my credit with Hippolyta,
Knowing I know thy love to Theseus?
Didst thou not lead him through the glimmering night
From Perigouna, whom he ravished?
And make him with fair AEgle break his faith,
With Ariadne, and Antiopa?
We surely have here in this dialogue a poetic recapitulation of the June 1583 meeting between Oxford and the Queen when they reconciled their differences after his long banishment. For in this passage Theseus is Leicester again, who, to Oxford's disgust, was the Queen's lover off and on till the end of his life. She did all she could to make him "break his faith" with', the women he seduced or married. It is especially striking that Antiopa is mentioned; for she was the wife of Lycus, King of Thebes, and Jupiter, disguised as a satyr, led her astray. Leicester was said to have poisoned Lord Sheffield, in order to pursue his affair with Lady Sheffield, by whom he had a son in 1574, for several years unacknowledged. From his early youth through Hamlet, Oxford wrote of Leicester as a "satyr." He was, indeed, a notorious libertine and had many affairs at court.
So we are given dearly to understand here that, when Elizabeth chided Lord Oxford for his amours, he retorted with spirit, "How canst thou thus for shame?"—reminding her of her own misdeeds. Roger Manners had written of this meeting:
Her Majesty came yesterday to Greenwich from the Lord Treasurer's. . . . The day she came away. . . the Earl of Oxford came into her presence, and after some bitter words and speeches, in the end all sins are forgiven. . . .
In the passage partially quoted above, the Earl has characteristically given a report of some of the "bitter words and speeches." He could scarcely say more plainly that Elizabeth had banished him—"forsworn his bed and company"—simply because of his love affair. And though we knew this all the time (Burghley having said so too, in effect), it is gratifying to have his word for it.
Elizabeth, for all her wanton ways—Oberon calls Titania "rash wanton"—demanded chastity of her maids and fidelity of her courtiers. She, like "the moon" (III.1.196-8),
looks with a watery eye;
And when she weeps, weeps every little flower,
Lamenting some enforced chastity.
And Elizabeth, like Titania, would have ordered,
Tie up my love's tongue, bring him silently.
But it was a difficult business to tie up this love's tongue!
Which brings us to Bottom, that touching, absurd, and captivating creature.
1 E.T.C.: Hidd. All.; p. 435; cit. Feuillerat Documents; p. 365.
2 We suppose this to have been Abel LeFranc's theory.
3 The Life-Story, etc.; pp. 285-6.
4 Ld. B. in Sh.; pp. 155-69.
Contents | Chapter Forty-Five
1. Creating Your Life
2. Money and Wealth
3. Sex and Romance
4. Mozart and Great Music
About Mark Alexander
The Shakespeare Authorship Coalition
The Shakespeare Oxford Fellowship
Wikipedia on Richard Mitchell
The Gift of Fire
The Gift of Fire Chapter One
Less Than Words Can Say
The Gift of Fire Introduction
Afterword: Plus Ça Change
Volume One - 1977
Richard Mitchell's Memorial Service


Profound changes are occurring in the American public's connections to nature, the outdoors, and wildlife. These pose a nationwide problem since human health and well-being depend on beneficial contact with nature.
Findings from this study are prompting nature conservation, environmental education, and outdoor recreation leaders to expand how they work to connect people with nature.
The extraordinarily insightful Nature of Americans study illuminates both the longing for and barriers to the natural world, and offers new documentation that will help those who connect children, families, and communities to the natural world. For example, the insight that nature experiences are so often intensely social activities, a reminder of a sometimes forgotten key to connecting children to nature. Congratulations to the late Steve Kellert and DJ Case for such fine work.


text:
F1: Fisichella stuns F1 with pole for Force India
The rain stayed away from Spa during qualifying for the Belgian Grand Prix – but it made no difference as the grid was turned on its head anyway, with Force India's Giancarlo Fisichella taking a shocking pole position.
Giancarlo Fisichella: rather happy, if somewhat surprised
"It's unbelievable – I didn't expect pole position," he said. "It is fantastic, I am so happy – I didn't expect that result so I am really happy and looking forward to tomorrow."
Team-mate Adrian Sutil just missed the final qualifying session, setting the 11th-best time, but Fisichella was joined at the front by the BMWs and Toyotas, two teams that have struggled in qualifying more often than they have shone this year.
Toyota's Jarno Trulli made it an all-Italian front row, while BMW's Nick Heidfeld and Robert Kubica were third and fifth. Trulli's team-mate Timo Glock was seventh, behind Kimi Raikkonen for Ferrari.
A puzzled Trulli said: "It's a mystery. We haven't done anything on the car compared to the last few races and suddenly here we are competitive."
Of the championship contenders, only the newly-resurgent Rubens Barrichello posted any sort of competitive performance. He will start fourth, well ahead of the Red Bull pair of Sebastian Vettel and Mark Webber in eighth and ninth.
The top ten was rounded out by Williams' Nico Rosberg, which meant there was no room in the final qualifying session for championship leader Jenson Button or McLaren's Lewis Hamilton. The pair were the slowest of the qualifiers from Q1 and did not shine in the second session, bracketing Fernando Alonso to take the 12th and 14th slots ahead of Heikki Kovalainen.
Button suffered on soft tyres, his team failing to heed the lesson of Fisichella's fast runs on the harder compound: "I didn't have any pace on the soft tyres and, every time I hit the brakes, the rear would move. I didn't have any confidence in the rear end.
"It's strange to be four or five tenths off Rubens – our cars are different, but they are not that different. It is pretty disastrous for tomorrow really."
Hamilton, whose expectations had been lower, was less disappointed: "We did the best job we could today. We expected that we wouldn't have as good an aero package as some of the others, we just didn't know to what extent. I guess today we found out.
"We'd always known the car would struggle in the mid-sector corners and being one second down in the mid-sector shows the true downforce level of our car.
"But I'm not too disappointed. This year has been a rollercoaster ride for everyone, but I'm enjoying it still and I love driving this track. My plan for tomorrow is a points finish."
Sebastien Buemi and Jaime Alguersuari of Toro Rosso were unfortunate to be dumped out of contention for Q2 in the final moments of the first session by Alonso and Kubica, but will still start ahead of Kazuki Nakajima and Romain Grosjean.
Luca Badoer was slowest for Ferrari, spinning off the track at the end of Q1. Rumours that he might be replaced for Ferrari's home race at Monza by Fisichella can only be encouraged by the outcome of today's remarkable qualifying.
Belgian Grand Prix grid positions
Times show the fastest lap in the last session completed.
Giancarlo Fisichella, Force India: 1.46.308 (Q1) 648kg
Jarno Trulli, Toyota: 1.46.395 (Q1) 656.5kg
Nick Heidfeld, BMW: 1.46.500 (Q1) 655kg
Rubens Barrichello, Brawn GP: 1.46.513 (Q1) 644.5kg
Robert Kubica, BMW: 1.46.586 (Q1) 649kg
Kimi Raikkonen, Ferrari: 1.46.633 (Q1) 655kg
Timo Glock, Toyota: 1.46.677 (Q1) 648.5kg
Sebastian Vettel, Red Bull: 1.46.761 (Q1) 662.5kg
Mark Webber, Red Bull: 1.46.788 (Q1) 658kg
Nico Rosberg, Williams: 1.47.362 (Q1) 670kg
Adrian Sutil, Force India: 1.45.119 (Q2) 678.5kg
Lewis Hamilton, McLaren: 1.45.122 (Q2) 693.5kg
Fernando Alonso, Renault: 1.45.136 (Q2) 684.4kg
Jenson Button, Brawn GP: 1.45.251 (Q2) 694.2kg
Heikki Kovalainen, McLaren: 1.45.259 (Q2) 697kg
Sebastien Buemi, Toro Rosso: 1.45.951 (Q3) 685kg
Jaime Alguersuari, Toro Rosso: 1.46.032 (Q3) 704.5kg
Kazuki Nakajima, Williams: 1.46.307 (Q3) 706.1kg
Romain Grosjean, Renault: 1.46.359 (Q3) 704.7kg
Luca Badoer, Ferrari: 1.46.957 (Q3) 691.5kg
Categorised under F1, tagged under Belgian Grand Prix, Force India, Formula One, Giancarlo Fisichella, Jarno Trulli, Jenson Button, Lewis Hamilton.
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Indy Lights: Hildebrand wins title in wheel-to-wheel thriller »
F1: Belgian Grand Prix liveblog
F1: Hockenheim practice and qualifying photo gallery
F1: Raikkonen holds off Force India charge to win in Spa