text:
Concerns and mental health of teachers from digitally underdeveloped countries regarding the reopening of schools after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic
Authors: Milić, Sanjaa; * | Marić, Nadab; 1
Affiliations: [a] Faculty of Education, University of East Sarajevo, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina | [b] Institute of Occupational Health and Sports Medicine of the Republic of Srpska – Center Bijeljina, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Correspondence: [*] Address for correspondence: Dr. Sanja Milić, Faculty of Education, University of East Sarajevo, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. E-mail: [email protected]; ORCID ID 0000-0001-6182-4917.
Note: [1] ORCID ID 0000-0001-7750-0781
Keywords: COVID-19, teachers, mental health, concerns, anxiety
DOI: 10.3233/WOR-210885
Journal: Work, vol. 71, no. 1, pp. 53-64, 2022
Received 2 June 2021
Accepted 28 July 2021
Supplementary Materials:
Torn between the decision to return to school classrooms or continue holding online classes during COVID-19, teachers around the world feel great uncertainty.
Bearing in mind that the study of mental health during the pandemic is of great importance for vulnerable categories, and given the role of teachers in society, the aim of this research is to assess teachers' concerns and anxiety before the start of the school year, and also to examine the factors related to them and propose measures in line with the results.
The study was conducted as a cross-sectional study before the start of the 2020/2021 school year. The research sample consisted of 286 teachers. For the purposes of this research, a special questionnaire was constructed consisting of a general questionnaire and a Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item scale (GAD-7).
The strongest predictor of a teacher's answer that they were concerned about the reopening of schools was their concern for their own life and health and for the life and health of their family members, followed by the amount of information received about COVID-19, and, finally, older age. Only 2% of teachers had mild anxiety.
This research indicated that it is necessary to examine in more detail the degree of teachers' concern and its impact on their functionality and work process. It is also necessary to repeat the research on the mental health status of teachers and implement procedures in the form of a regular screening program of the mental health status of teachers or implement procedures of support in concern management.
The situation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic is unique in the history of the world so far in terms of both the manner and speed of its occurrence, as well as in terms of its global scope and consequences. The outbreak of the virus has dramatically impacted people's everyday lives, their family lives, political situations, and safety [1]. The pandemic has created a new crisis of human development by hitting all its constituent elements: the economy, health, education. In a situation that poses an obstacle and effects a significant change that interferes with normal work and causes another phenomenon as its consequence [2], the question of providing a minimum for the functioning of society and its institutions arises. What is certain is that the pandemic has had disproportionately greater consequences for unstable and underdeveloped countries [3], in all other areas of social policy and economics as well as in education [4, 5].
In situations of crises, no social institution, including the school, is spared from destruction. One of the priorities is to secure the teaching process in educational institutions with strict and mandatory protection of students, teachers and staff. The basic role of educational institutions is to ensure stability because both students and staff experience difficult situations outside the teaching context [6]. In times of social crises, educational institutions must achieve the planned goals and outcomes at least to a minimal extent. Teachers are required to model the teaching process and act beyond their traditional understandings of the overall teaching process organization, causing the emergence of a range of problems primarily related to curriculum transformation and training in the use of IT technologies [7]. Torn between the decision to return to school classrooms or continue holding online classes, teachers around the world feel great uncertainty. The former endangers health and life and the latter violates the autonomy of teachers. In addition to health concerns about returning to classrooms, teachers are also concerned that coronavirus safety measures will interfere with teaching and learning [8]. Teachers feel that they are not responsible for key questions about how schools will implement sanitary and epidemiological measures and how they will ensure physical and social distancing among students and prevent the further spread of the virus. A national survey of the second largest teachers' union, the American Federation of Teachers, shows that 3 out of 4 teachers said they were comfortable returning to school if certain precautions were met [9]. In this pandemic context, people with jobs that put them in physical contact with others are at the greatest risk of contracting COVID-19 [10].
Although there are currently many observational studies from several countries, such as models or meta-analyses that allow determining the low level of virus transmission in children compared to adults [11], age differences in infectivity have not been fully investigated [12]. Findings from several studies investigating contact among the infected suggest that children may be less contagious than adults [13], but the strength of this evidence is weak and some of the relevant studies were conducted when schools were closed [12]. It was also difficult for researchers to initially study virus transmission in children, as most schools switched to online learning when many states launched locking measures [14]. Furthermore, teachers' concerns are also caused by switching to online learning because it means that many teachers spend much more energy figuring out how to work with new technologies and adapt their curriculum, instead of focusing on the content they teach [14]. Another issue in a series of problems is that teachers had to prepare for both scenarios before the start of the school year. The fact that younger school-age children cannot reliably maintain physical distance and that teachers cannot apply distance and teach at the same time, and the fact that classes that require students to sit in one place, look straight ahead, and work independently violate good evidence-based teaching practices [12] further strengthen teachers' concern about reopening schools. Goldstein and Shapiro warn that school systems struggling to address the financial and logistical challenges of safe reopening must carefully investigate and address teacher concerns [13].
To date, a large number of studies have been con-ducted on the emotional consequences of the pandemic and its impact on the mental health of workers and the general population [15–21], whereas significantly fewer studies have been conducted with regard to the teacher population [22]. However, there is scientific evidence to suggest that mental strain is significant in the teacher population [23].
For elementary and secondary school teachers working in the distance education system impleme-nted during the pandemic, it might also be supposed that musculoskeletal system and psychosocial problems may be experienced, as seen in studies conducted with people working at computers for a long time [24].
According to previous data from the literature, the factors related to psychological burdens, concern and anxiety are not fully known. Some studies have indicated that women, people of poorer socioeconomic status, from rural areas, as well as those at higher risk for COVID-19, have a higher prevalence of anxiety, but these results are not consistent in the literature [20].
Bearing in mind that the study of mental health during the pandemic is of great importance for other activities and vulnerable categories [25, 26], and given the role of teachers in society, the aim of this research is to assess teachers' concerns about reopening schools and their anxiety before the start of the school year, as well as to examine the factors related to teachers' concerns and anxieties about reopening schools and to propose measures in line with the results.
2Methods
The study was conducted in August 2020 as a cross-sectional study before the start of the 2020/2021 school year. According to the Law on Primary Education and Upbringing and the Law on Secondary Education and Upbringing in the Republic of Srpska, before the beginning of the school year, all teachers are obliged to report for a preventive medical examination to the occupational medicine services. The research was conducted in the Institute for Occupational and Sports Medicine of the Republic of Srpska (Banja Luka) and the regional centres during preventive examinations. The consent of the director of the Institute for Occupational and Sports Medicine of the Republic of Srpska was obtained for conduc-ting the research.
2.1Study population and sample
The aim of the research was explained to the teachers, and the research was conducted anonymously and voluntarily, and the teachers who participated in the research signed the informed consent for participation.
According to the latest data from the Institute of Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, the total number of teachers in the Republic of Srpska is 12078, of which 8334 (69%) are female, and 5994 (49.63%) are under the age of 40. 8134 (67.35%) are employed in primary schools, of which 5848 (71.90%) are female. The total number of teachers in primary schools under the age of 40 is 4182 (51.41%). 3944 (32.65%) teachers are employed in secondary schools, of which 2486 (63.03%) are female. The total number of teachers under the age of 40 in secondary schools is 1821 (46.17%). Classroom teaching is held by primary school teachers in lower grades I-V and the total number of teachers in these grades is 3247 (26.88%), of which 2850 (87.77%) are female. All teachers in secondary schools have subject teaching classes [27, 28].
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the decision of the relevant Ministry extended the period of preventive examinations for teachers, so instead of reporting for examinations in September, teachers had a period until the end of December 2020 to do this. Therefore, in the period in which this research was conducted, a smaller number of teachers applied for a preventive examination, and a total of 400 questionnaires were distributed, of which 286 (71.5%) were filled out in their entirety.
2.2Material
For the purposes of this research, a special questionnaire was constructed consisting of a general questionnaire and a standardized scale for self-ass-essment of the degree of anxiety –General Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7; Supplementary Materials). The general questionnaire consisted of standard socio-demographic data (gender, age, place of residence, type of teaching), data on the household, personal health and health status of family members. Also, the questionnaire contained questions related to the data on COVID-19, i.e., whether they or any of their family members were in contact with the infected or were infected, whether they followed the recommendations for control of the infection issued by the authorities, whether they followed the information, whether they were satisfied with the available information on COVID-19, and whether they had any concerns for their life and health and the life and health of their family members because of the pandemic. As a special variable, teachers' concern about the reopening of schools was examined. One of the questions referred to their opinion on how classes should take place in the upcoming school year in pandemic conditions. With the permission of the author, we used a GAD-7 scale that had already been translated into Serbian and validated. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses have confirmed the exceptional psychometric properties of the GAD 7-item scale [29]. The GAD-7 scale consists of seven theses expressing personal views in the last two weeks, and the answers are presented in the form of a four-point Likert scale. A score of 5 or higher indicates the presence of anxiety and is graded as mild [5–9], moderate [10–14], and severe anxiety (15 and higher) [30].
2.3Statistical data analysis
Data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics 25 software, and statistical significance was shown for p < 0.05. The methods of descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the article. From the methods of descriptive statistics, we used measures of central tendency (arithmetic mean and median), measures of variability (standard deviation) and relative numbers. The Pearson Chi-square test or Fisher's test was used to assess the difference between categorical variables. Logistic regression was used in the paper to estimate the predictive value of the dichotomous categorical variable of concerns about reopening schools.
286 teachers participated in the research, of which the larger faction consisted of female teachers (71%). More than half of the teachers were aged 31–50 (65.1%). Male teachers were more often over 40 years of age (68.7%) and this is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). Subject teachers (60.1%) mainly participated in the research. Female teachers more often performed the class type of teaching (p < 0.05). Socio-demographic characteristics of teachers are shown in Table 1.
Socio-demographic characteristics of teachers
Socio -demographic characteristics Sex Type of teaching
All Male Female Classroom teaching Subject teaching
N (%) N (%) N (%) p N (%) N (%) p
Male 83 (29) / / 22 (19.3) 61 (35.3) .003
Female 203 (71) / / 92 (80.7) 111 (64.5)
Age (years)
< 30 19 (6.6) 3 (3.6) 16 (7.9) 0. 040 5 (4.4) 14 (8.1) 0.266
31– 40 92 (32.2) 23 (27.7) 69 (34) 33 (28.9) 34.3)
41– 50 94 (32.9) 24 (28.9) 70 (34.5) 44 (46.1) 29.1)
> 51 81 (28.3) 33 (39.8) 48 (23.6) 32 (28.1) 49 (28.5)
Rural 120 (42.0) 28 (33.7) 92 (45.3) 0.086 49 (43.0) 71 (41.3) 0.807
Urban 166 (58.0) 55 (66.3) 111 (54.7) 65 (57.0) 101 (58.7)
Alone 21 (7.3) 8 (9.6) 13 (6.4) 0.330 6 (5.3) 15 (8.7) 0.356
With family 265 (92.7) 75 (90.4) 190 (93.6) 108 (94.7) 157 (91.3)
Type of teaching
Classroom teaching 114 (39.9) 22 (26.5) 92 (45,3) 0. 003 / /
Subject teaching 172 (60,1) 61 (73.5) 111 (54.7) / /
A higher percentage of teachers stated that they were healthy (89.2%) as well as their family members (88.5%). Also, a higher percentage of teachers did not have COVID-19 until the research period (95.1%). The largest number of teachers complied with all measures and recommendations for the prevention and control of COVID-19 (95.2%) and followed the information on COVID-19 (94.1%). In most cases, teachers were dissatisfied with the measures taken by the authorities to prevent and control COVID-19 (93%). Compared to the available information on COVID-19, a higher percentage of teachers reported that they were dissatisfied with the available data on COVID-19 (90.9%). A higher percentage of teachers were concerned for their life and health and for the life and health of their family members due to the COVID-19 pandemic (76.9%). Female teachers were more often concerned (84.7%) and this is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001). More than half of the teachers expressed concern about reopening schools (76.9%). Female teachers were more often concerned about reopening schools compared to male teachers (80.8% compared to 59%) and this is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001). However, the largest percentage of teachers believe that the school year should be organized in the form of regular classes (81%). However, a statistically significant difference was found in relation to gender (p < 0.05). Male teachers compared to female teachers more often thought that classes should be organized online (7.2% compared to 3%) or combined (20.5% compared to 12.3%). Table 2 shows data on the health status of respondents and family members, satisfaction and compliance with preventive measures, available information, and satisfaction with information about COVID-19.
Health status, preventive measures and information on COVID-19
Health condition, preventive measures and information about COVID-19 Sex Type of teaching
Healthy 255 (89.2) 72 (86.7) 183 (90.1) 0.346 105 (92.1) 150 (87.7) 0.325
Existence of disease 25 (8.8) 9 (10.8) 16 (7.9) 9 (7.9) 21 (12.3)
The health of the family
Existence of disease 33 (11.5) 8 (9.6) 25 (12.3) 11 (9.6) 22 (12.8)
Contact with the COVID-19
No 270 (94.4) 79 (95.2) 191 (94.1) 0.482 107 (93.9) 163 (94.8) 0.468
Yes 16 (5.6) 4 (4.8) 12 (5.9) 7 (6.1) 9 (5.2)
Earlier COVID-19 status
Negative 272 (95.1) 81 (97.6) 191 (94.1) 0.224 109 (95.6) 166 (96.5) 0.759
Positive 12 (4.2) 1 (1.2) 11 (5.4) 5 (1.7) 6 (3.5)
Compliance with measures
No 7 (2.4) 4 (4.8) 3 (1.5) 0.111 2 (1.8) 5 (1.7) 0.706
Yes 279 (95.2) 79 (95.2) 200 (98.5) 112 (98.2) 167 (97.1)
Satisfaction with preventive
measures by the authorities
Dissatisfied 266 (93.0) 74 (89.2) 192 (94.6) 0.087 108 (94.7) 158 (91.9) 0.246
Satisfied 20 (7.0) 9 (10.8) 11 (5.4) 6 (5.3) 14 (8.1)
Informed about COVID-19
No 17 (5.9) 8 (9.6) 9 (4.4) 0.082 4 (3.5) 13 (7.6) 0.121
Satisfaction with information
Dissatisfied 260 (90.9) 71 (85.5) 189 (93.1) 0. 040 108 (94.7) 152 (88.4) 0. 049
Satisfied 26 (9.1) 12 (14.5) 14 (4.9) 6 (5.3) 20 (7.0)
Way of teaching
Online 12 (4.2) 6 (7.2) 6 (3.0) 0. 042 5 (4.4) 7 (4.1) 0.645
Face-to-face 232 (81.1) 60 (72.3) 172 (84.7) 95 (83.3) 9.7)
Combined 42 (14.7) 17 (20.5) 25 (12.3) 14 (12.3) 28 (16.3)
Table 3 shows data on the respondents' concern for their life and health and the life and health of their family members, and it also shows the respondents' concerns about reopening schools in the time of the pandemic.
Teacher concerns
Teacher concerns Sex Type of teaching
Concerns for life and health of themselves and family members
No 66 (23.1) 35 (42.2) 31 (15.3) 0 .000 25 (21.9) 41 (23.8) 0.410
Yes 220 (76.9) 48 (57.8) 172 (84.7) 89 (78.1) 131 (76.2)
Concerns for reopening schools
Yes 213 (74.5) 49 (59.0) 164 (80.8) 86 (75.4) 127 (3.8)
On the GAD-7 scale, the arithmetic mean of the examined population is 0.64 (SD 1.22, rank 0–9), which indicates a normal degree of anxiety in the examined population. Only 2% of teachers had mild anxiety. Moderate and severe anxiety was not rep-orted. Table 4 shows anxiety in the study population.
Anxiety Sex Type of teaching
Low 6 (2.1) 1 (1.2) 5 (2.5) 2 (1.8) 4 (2.3)
Moderate 0 0 0 0 0
High 0 0 0 0 0
Binary logistic regression was conducted to assess the impact of multiple factors on the likelihood that respondents would say that they were concerned about reopening schools during the pandemic. Following previous research, the initial variables obtained from the empirical and theoretical approach in the previous part of this article were selected for the model. All selected variables are of the dichotomous type, with the exception of the variable 'age'.and are shown in Table 5. Before being included into the model for the purpose of a more adequate interpretation of results, the variable 'age' was turned into a dichotomous variable (under the age of 50 = 0, over the age of 50 = 1).
Variable (↑-increases/probability) Variable selection Theoretical approach (T) Empirical approach (E) Tolerance VIF
Sex (female) T 0.866 1.55
Age (50 and above) T 0.903 1.107
Residence (urban) E 0.964 1.037
Household (with family) E 0.914 1.094
Type of teaching (subject teaching) E 0.937 1.067
Personal health (existence of disease) T, E 0.936 1.068
The health of the family (existence of disease) T, E 0.871 1.148
Contact with the COVID-19 E 0.687 1.455
positive (close contact)
Earlier COVID-19 status (negative) T, E 0.678 1.474
Compliance with measures (yes) E 0.681 1.469
Satisfaction with preventive measures E 0.681 1.468
by the authorities (dissatisfied)
Satisfaction with information E 0.648 1.543
about COVID-19 (dissatisfied)
Concerns for life and health of themselves E 0.755 1.325
and family members
(the existence of concerns)
The model contained 14 variables. Before the start of the data analysis, the correctness of the data was checked and it was determined that no data disturbed the correctness of the final result. It was also determined that there was no multicollinearity, or in other words, there were no strong intercorrelations of predictor variables. Given the fact that, in formal terms, the procedure of SPSS logistic regression did not have a collinearity test, we used collinearity diagnostics from the linear regression.
The values of the Tolerance indicator ranged from 0.65 to 0.96, and the VIF from 1.03 to 1.47, which indicates that the variables do not have high correlations with other variables in the model. The results of the first step of logistic regression are shown in Table 6.
Logistic regression step 1: impact of multiple factors on the likelihood that respondents would respond to concern about reopening school in a pandemic
Variables B S.E. Wald df Sig. EXP(B) 95% C.I.for
Sex (female) 0.680 0.386 3.101 1 0.078 1.974 0.926 4.206
Age (50 and above) 1.236 0.621 3.953 1 0.047 3.440 1.018 11.628
Residence (urban) 0.314 0.353 0.788 1 0.375 1.369 0.685 2.736
Type of teaching (subject teaching) 0.255 0.362 0.494 1 0.482 1.290 0.634 2.624
Household (with family) 0.693 0.621 1.245 1 0.264 2.000 0.592 6.756
Personal health (existence of disease) 0.073 0.601 0.015 1 0.903 1.076 0.331 3.497
The health of the family – 0.464 0.565 0.675 1 0.411 0.629 0.208 1.902
(existence of disease)
Contact with with the COVID-19 0.702 0.950 0.545 1 0.460 2.017 0.313 12.982
Earlier COVID-19 status (negative) – 0.556 0.892 0.389 1 0.533 0.573 0.100 3.295
Compliance with measures (yes) 1.733 1.484 1.363 1 0.243 5.659 0.309 103.788
Satisfaction with preventive measures – 0.264 0.709 0.139 1 0.709 0.768 0.191 3.081
Infotmation about COVID-19 (yes) 2.253 0.846 7.092 1 0.008 9.519 1.813 49.982
Satisfaction with information – 0.533 0.636 0.702 1 0.402 0.587 0.169 2.040
Concerns for life and health of 2.413 0.390 38.202 1 0.000 11.170 5.197 24.011
themselves and family members
Logistic regression step 11: Impact of multiple factors on the likelihood that respondents would respond to concern about reopening school in a pandemic
Concerns for life and health of themselves and family members (the existence of concerns) 2.601 0.351 55.040 1 0.000 13.480 6.780 26.800
Informed about COVID-19 2.315 0.746 9.621 1 0.002 10.121 2.344 43.695
The whole model with all predictors was statistically significant c2 (13, N = 286) = 97.94, p < 0.001, which shows that the model distinguishes between respondents who did and those who did not answer that they were concerned about reopening schools. Based on the Cox and Snell R Square (,290) and Nagelkerke R Square (,472) we calculated that the model with all predictors explains between 29.0% and 42.7% of the variance and accura-tely classifies 83.6% of cases. The Omnibus test showed that the tested model of prediction variables gives a good explanation of the outcome variable (Sig = 0.000, H2 = 92,15, df-3). In addition, the Hosmer-Lemeshow test enabled us to establish the significance of the model (Sig. = 0.921, H2 = 0.492, df-3).
Only three variables made a unique statistically significant contribution to the model (age of respondents, concerns for their life and health and the life and health of their family members, and available information on COVID-19). We further applied the stepwise analysis backward, i.e., we gradually rem-oved the independent variables from the model. Rem-oval was performed in 11 steps. In each step, one variable with the lowest contribution to the model was removed. Removal proceeded in the following order: personal health (sig. 903), satisfaction with preventive measures (sig. 713), previous COVID-19 status (sig. 564), contact with COVID-19 positive persons (sig. 616), workplace (sig. 490), satisfaction with information about COVID-19 sig. 540), family health (sig. 411), residence (sig. 335), compliance with measures (sig. 277), household (sig. 242), sex (sig. 104).
The final model with three predictors was statistically significant c2 (3, N = 286) = 89.53, p < 0.001. Based on the Cox and Snell R Square (,269) and Nagelkerke R Square (,396), we calculated that the model as a whole explains between 26.9% and 39.6% of the variance and accurately classifies 83.2% of the cases. The final model with three predictors, which was checked with the Omnibus test, was statistically significant (Sig. = 0.000, H2 = 89.53, df-3), and it was also checked with the Hosmer-Lemeshow test (Sig. = 0.661, H2 = 0.829, df-2). The strongest predictor of a teacher's answer that they were concerned about the reopening of schools was their concern for their own life and health and for the life and health of their family members, followed by the amount of information received about COVID-19, and, finally, older age (50 and above).
4Discussion
This is the first study in the Republic of Srpska to assess the mental health of teachers during a pandemic. The study was conducted as a cross-sectional study in August before the start of the school year 2020/2021. Having in mind the COVID-19 pandemic, due to which the working conditions of teachers have changed, and bearing in mind that, during their work, teachers are inevitably exposed to contact with a large number of people, from children to colleagues and even parents, thus being at a higher risk of infection, it was assumed that they would be worried about the beginning of the new school year, that is, that they would show a higher degree of anxiety. Therefore, a survey was conducted before the beginning of the school year to assess the concerns and anxiety of teachers, as well as to suggest further measures to preserve and improve the mental health of this vulnerable population.
Female teachers participated in the research more often (71%) (Table 1), which corresponds to the population count of teachers in the Republic of Srpska (Institute of Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, 2020a, 2020b). A slight difference was observed in relation to the age and type of teaching of teachers in the sample and in the teacher population in the Republic of Srpska. Teachers over the age of 40 participated more often in the survey (56.7%) (Table 1), while according to the Institute of Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, the percentage of teachers over the age of 40 is 49.63% (Institute of Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, 2020a, 2020b). 60% of subject teachers participated in the research (Table 1), and in the population of subject teachers in the Republic of Srpska they had a slightly higher percentage (73.12%) (Institute of Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, 2020a, 2020b). The reasons why a higher percentage of older teachers accepted the invitation to participate in the research are unknown. The results of this research indicate that teachers older than 40 were more likely to report that they were concerned about their life and health and the life and health of their family members (61.2%), and the same percentage of teachers showed concern about reopening schools. It is possible that a higher percentage of them underwent the preventive examination precisely because they were concerned for their own life and health.
A substantial number of teachers reported that they were concerned about reopening schools during the pandemic (74.5%), with female teachers reporting concern more often (80.8%), which is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001) (Table 3). A statistically significant difference was not found in the concerns of teachers relating to the type of teaching they were engaged in (Table 3). We did not find data from other countries to compare these results with, while studies in the general population showed a moderate degree of concerns in the studied populations, and they also showed that women are more prone to concerns, their concerns being mainly related to the possibility of getting infected, their loved ones dying, becoming isolated, or being discriminated against (31–33). Female teachers were statistically significantly more dissatisfied with the information (Table 2) from the media about COVID-19, which may be the result of differences in concerns between the sexes, or simply because females are more prone to emotional reactions. Similar results revealing that females are more prone to anxiety as well as stress and other mental disorders can be found in other items of literature [20, 34, 35], and therefore, in the following period, it follows naturally that special attention should be paid to the mental health of this sensitive group.
Bearing in mind that a significant number of teachers reported that they were concerned about their life and health and the life and health of their families (76.9%) (Table 3), we assume that the reported concern about reopening schools is the result of concerns about the possibility of getting infected and their loved ones dying. However, despite that, a higher percentage of teachers gave the information that they wanted classes to be held regularly (84.7%) (Table 2). Similar results were obtained by the authors in a survey conducted in the population of teachers in high schools, where more than half of teachers expressed a desire to return to work [22]. Stachteas and Stachteas, for instance, provided such results, which is expected given that online teaching requires teachers to act beyond their traditional understandings of the teaching process, and further questioned the ability to use IT technology [7].
According to the results, 93% of teachers are dissatisfied with the measures taken by the authorities in order to combat the pandemic (Table 2), while the concerns for life and health proved to be a significant variable associated with concerns about reopening schools (Table 6). Research in the following period should be conducted on measures and available means of protection in schools; i.e., in accordance with the results, protection measures should be improved, which would inevitably reduce the level of teachers' concerns and their psychological burden.
Another variable in this study, which had a statistically significant contribution to the outcome variable of concerns about reopening schools, is also exposure to information from the media about COVID-19 (Table 6). The results of this research showed that the largest percentage of teachers followed the information on COVID-19 (94%) (Table 2). They were generally dissatisfied with the available information (90.9%), with female teachers (93%) and primary school teachers (94.7%) stating that they were more dissatisfied than male and subject teachers (p < 0.05) (Table 2). Regarding the type of teaching, this result is probably related to the percentage share of the female teacher population in the number of primary school teachers in the examined sample (80.7%), since women teachers were significantly more dissatisfied (Table 2). According to these results, research on the impact of the media should be conducted in the future, and if these results are confirmed, it is necessary to take measures to reduce media exposure to COVID-19.
Teacher age (> 50 years) is a variable that also had a statistically significant contribution to the concerns about reopening schools (Table 6). This can be explained by the fact that mortality from COVID-19 is higher in the elderly population, although data from other studies have indicated that younger people are more worried. The authors explained this by possibly better emotional regulation and coping mechanisms in the elderly population [32].
Given that there is evidence that concerns are associated with consequences in the form of increased risk of cardiovascular disease, poorer physical health, decline in learning and memory [32], depressive symptoms [36] and other negative effects on mental health [35], and that a significant predictor of concern is the existence of dysfunctional coping mechanisms [31], and that the study indicated a significant prevalence of concerns in the teacher population, it follows naturally that additional research on concern-related factors in this population is needed. Results of this research indicate that teachers need more support in concern management. One of the interventions could be to provide online psychological support to teachers.
However, a study is worth mentioning which indicated that the concern is related to the protective tendency of citizens to respect preventive measures and thus protect themselves and the environment [33, 37], and therefore it is also necessary to examine in more detail the degree of concern in teachers and its impact on their functionality, life and work. That is, it is necessary to implement procedures that would regularly monitor the mental health of teachers, for a timely preventive response.
In the examined sample, teachers did not show anxiety; only 2% of teachers had a mild degree of anxiety. We found one study conducted in China that examined anxiety in a large population of teachers and the prevalence of anxiety was about 13% [38]. However, the results cannot be compared because, by the research period, China had already been significantly affected by the pandemic. The results of the research showed that mental disorders during the pandemic were related to the measures taken, loss of control, and the number of the infected and dead [39]. Bearing in mind that, by the research period, the spread of infection in the Republic of Srpska had been partially under control, one of the assumptions is that because of this, teachers showed a lower degree of anxiety. The results of this study are in line with this assumption: only 5.6% of teachers and their family members had contact with COVID-19 positive persons, and 4.2% were positive (Table 2). Also, the difference in mentality between the populations should be taken into account. However, it should be mentioned that the results of the study in the Republic of Srpska are contradictory to the results of the study in the general population. According to the data, the prevalence of anxiety associated with COVID-19 in the general population is 15%, which is a significant difference compared to the general population under normal conditions (3.6%) [39]. The results of the second meta-analysis showed that the prevalence of anxiety in the general population is as high as about 28–39% [20]. However, the results of this research should be taken with caution. It can be assumed that teachers who have impaired mental health refused to participate in the research because the response rate was 71.5%. Also, having in mind that the period of preventive examinations was extended until December, it can be assumed that anxious teachers did not report immediately for the examination, avoiding contact with the health service, and that they were therefore not included in this research. Also, it should be emphasized that teachers are university-educated people and that they are therefore capable of recognizing socially "desirable" answers, which is why it can be assumed that the tendency to write socially desirable answers could also influence the result of anxiety self-assessment. Teachers who are healthy (89.2%) and whose family members are healthy (88.5%) participated in the research, and it can be assumed that this could have had an impact on the research results, given that they are not a vulnerable category for COVID-19. It is possible that teachers who are ill or whose family members are ill did not participate in this research, because they prolonged their attendance at the periodic examination. Also, a higher percentage of teachers before the research did not have contact with a patient or someone tested positive for COVID-19 (94.4%) and were not ill. Due to the low prevalence of anxiety in the examined sample, we did not conduct statistical tests to examine the correlation of the examined variables with anxiety. Bearing in mind that the peak of the epidemic in the Republic of Srpska was during the autumn months, when there was a sudden interruption in online learning, which resulted in protests by teachers and parents, there is a need to repeat this research as soon as possible and compare the results.
5Limitations
The results of this study should be interpreted following the methodological limitations of the study. One of the limitations of this research is the design of the study –a cross-sectional study that prevents the formation of a cause-and-effect relationship. Therefore, future research should be longitudinal. Also, a weakness of this research is the number of teachers who participated in the research, that is, 2.37% of the teacher population. A significant limitation of this research is the use of self-reported measures, and more objective measures should be used in future studies to minimize bias. Also, the initial variable of concern about reopening schools was measured using only one question, so in the next research a standardized scale should be used.
Despite these limitations, given that the number of studies in the teacher population has been limited so far, the results of this study offer some input to researchers in understanding the psychological and mental health status of teachers at the time of the pandemic. This research primarily indicated the high prevalence of concern due to work in pandemic conditions, and following the results of other research, it suggested the importance of timely and regular monitoring of the mental health status of this population. It partially indicated factors associated with a high prevalence of concern, such as exposure to media information, and the results could be used in planning further research and interventions. Also, one of the strengths of this research is an adequate response rate, over 70%, as well as the use of a standardized and validated companion to assess the degree of anxiety.
6Conclusion
Having in mind the high prevalence (74.5%) of teacher concern about reopening schools, this res-earch indicated that in the following period it would be necessary to examine in more detail the degree of teachers' concern and its impact on their functionality and work process. It is also necessary to repeat the study on the mental health status of teachers and possibly, due to the results of other studies, to repeat the study on the impact of the pandemic on mental health in order to be able to implement procedures in the form of a regular screening program of teachers' mental health, for a timely preventive response. Screening could be carried out by the psychological and social services of schools, which would regularly monitor the mental health of teachers, for example, at least at the beginning and at the end of each semester over the course of the epidemic, or it would be possible to introduce anonymous online psychological support, which would be available all the time.
In accordance with the results stating that 93% of teachers are dissatisfied with the measures taken by the authorities in order to combat the pandemic, and given the fact that teachers' concern for their life and health and for the life and health of their family members has proven to be a significant variable related to concerns about reopening schools, a survey on measures and available means of protection in schools is needed, and once the survey results are obtained, it is necessary to increase the safety and satisfaction of teachers, which would reduce their psychological burden.
This work was supported by the grant "IMP002 - Research on educational activities and educational work in the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic - online teaching, distance teaching, hybrid teaching. Analysis of digital competencies of educators and digital maturity of schools", which is generously supported and financed by the Teacher Training Faculty in Prizren - Leposavic, University of Pristina - Kosovska Mitrovica.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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If your camera is not set-up for external access, you will not be able to set Motion Alerts.
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008 – Paul Akers On Banishing Sloppiness With Japanese Precision
February 12, 2020 November 12, 2021
What is Japanese precision?
If you've ever been to Japan, you've probably been astounded at how Japanese people carry out tasks with great accuracy. Other cultures are often fascinated by the Japanese ways of doing things -- but this same precision can also be attained by people from elsewhere.
In this episode of the Ikigai Podcast, Nick speaks with Paul Akers as they discuss what Japanese precision is, and how it can help make life better.
Podcast highlights:
Eliminating waste. At 1:43, Paul talks about his pursuit of eliminating waste.
Lean manufacturing in Japan. At 6:04, Paul shares his experience learning about Toyota Production System and Lean Manufacturing in Japan.
Passion to help others. At 7:13, Paul talks about his book 2 Second Lean, and his passion for helping others.
Good thinking. At 8:40, Paul explains why he describes his book as "a walk through a Japanese garden of good thinking."
Satori moments. Paul shares his deep understanding of the Japanese culture and its service industry.
Focusing on the process. At 15:51 Nick and Paul talk about how Japanese people pay great attention to detail and focus more on process.
The big twins. Paul explains 'the big twins' at 23:04: deep respect for people and deep respect for resources.
Survival thinking. At 26:51, Paul shares how Japanese thinking, or what he calls 'survival thinking', impacts his life.
Paul's ikigai. Paul shares his ikigai at 30:39: to treat people who serve him with deep respect.
Paul Akers
Paul Akers is the founder and president of Fastcap, a product development company specializing in woodworking tools and hardware for professional builders. He also travels the world as a speaker and champion of lean marketing and lean thinking. He is host of the weekly podcast The American Innovator and the author of five books, including Banish Sloppiness (discussed in this episode).
Eliminating waste
One of Paul's ikigai is his pursuit of eliminating waste. Paul shares that it all started when some Japanese consultants came to look at his company's processes and procedures and indicated that they felt he didn't sufficiently understand manufacturing; this was a surprise because his company does well and has won awards. Rather than be offended, Paul wanted to learn from them and asked for their advice. They helped him pinpoint 'non-value-added' activities that were a waste of time and could be removed in order to save not just time but also money. By eliminating waste, Paul was able to enjoy his work more -- it gave him more time to think and solve more complex problems.
Paul first went to Japan in 2000 to learn more about lean manufacturing; he went to Toyota and Lexus and saw the huge contrast between their operations and those at his company.
Passion to help others
Paul has written several books about lean manufacturing. One of these is 2 Second Lean, which he wrote partly to get all his thinking down on paper, and partly because it is his passion to help other people and he wanted to share his knowledge to and hopefully help improve other people's lives. He tries to articulate the concepts simply and effectively so that they can reach and be understood by more people.
Paul has also written Banish Sloppiness, a book he describes as "a walk through a Japanese garden of good thinking." Paul explains that while Japanese people may not do everything right, they do manage to do a lot of things at a very high level; he thinks that Japanese culture is far above everyone else because Japanese people know how to slow down and think deeply: They think about the matrix, the whole sphere of what's going on in their realm, and how it affects everything around them.
Nick agrees, having experienced this himself: he saw how the Japanese really embrace the idea of looking after their customers, even in the smallest situations.
Satori moments
Paul had his satori "enlightenment" moments in Japan, where he had instances of deep understanding that so much of the Japanese culture and service industry is about precision. He shared one incident where he was in a convenience store and there was a line of about four or five people who each stood very precisely according to lines demarcated on the floor; when it was his turn, the cashier gestured very calmly and politely to walk him through the process of handing over the items he wished to buy and paying for these with his card. This transaction highlighted for Paul the precision, calmness, and politeness that the Japanese people manifest.
Nick says that in the West, people tend to focus on big ambitions and goals; in Japan, on the other hand, people aren't as boastful and instead value and focus on the little things.
Focusing on the process
Paul says that Japanese people focus on the process rather than the outcome, and he shares his experience with learning about 'big eyes, big ears, and small mouths'. To illustrate this concept, he shares an experience he had when visiting a Japanese factory: Upon entering their office and taking off his shoes to put on slippers, he was asked by the tour guide why he was wearing mismatched socks; he had put on two different colours by accident, and the difference between them was very small, but the tour guide noticed this because of how attentive Japanese people are to details, and how much use they make of their five senses.
Nick shares the conversation he had with Ken Mogi, where Ken talked about the importance of harmony and how Japanese people realize that when they voice their opinions or express something, whether it's right or wrong, that can still impact other people. 'Conscientious' is one of the words that best describe Japanese people.
The big twins
Paul introduces the concept of 'the big twins': deep respect for people and deep respect for resources. Paul says that he has learned to be grateful for the resources that he has and everything that has been made available for him; as an expression of his gratitude, he makes sure to take care of the resources that are available for him.
He remembers using the bathroom of a sewing store in the United States; it was untidy, with paper all over the floor. Instead of complaining, Paul focused on how lucky he was to be able to use the store's bathroom, and as a demonstration of thanks he cleaned the toilet and sink, and left the bathroom very clean. This allowed him to show respect for the resource that was given to him.
Survival thinking
In his book, Paul describes Japanese thinking as long-term survival thinking, and relates it to precision -- with precision comes quality, which results in trust, and if a company has customer trust, that results in survival. He shares that everything that he does is not about how it will affect today, tomorrow, five years from now, but what's going to happen 100 years from now, when he's gone.
Paul discusses how people influence their society, culture, and country, from one generation to another. As an example, he mentions something he learned from his father: long-term thinking and sustainability. Seeing how his father invested in real estate, Paul also started investing in real estate when he got to college. This decision was influenced by his father, and we can all influence each other in similar ways.
Nick thinks of it as good quality. People do get caught up in their daily lives and immediate needs or wants, and a long-term, deep-thinking, sustainable approach would benefit people and others they care about -- and the world more generally.
Paul's ikigai
Paul's ikigai is to treat people who serve him with deep respect. He says that he loves to find people who are seemingly in a lowly position and give them respect; it's caring about the people that don't have the abundance that other people have. He believes that he is lucky for what he has right now, and that's why he wants to give back to those people who are in need.
Each one of us would benefit from cultivating a deep respect for the people and resources that we have. It is all too easy to overlook these things and fail to realize their importance in our lives. We can learn from how Japanese people apply precision and respect even when doing the simplest tasks, the way they value every relationship, and how they express gratitude for their surroundings.
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The best hotels in Leeds
Read on to find the very best hotels in Leeds, one of England's most underrated cities
Posted: Friday June 1 2018
Looking for a hotel room in Leeds? It's becoming an increasingly popular spot for city-breakers and visitors. With its bustling student atmosphere, vibrant cultural scene, incredible attractions, ceaselessly friendly locals and top hotels, this west Yorkshire city can offer as much as any other provincial city, but with a whole heap of charm to boot. Maybe that's why it was ranked fifth on Lonely Planet's Best In Europe 2017 list. Naturally, it doesn't exactly hurt that it's home to some corking hotels and other places to stay, either. Here are our recommendations for the best hotels in Leeds.
Recommended: The best hotels in London
The best Leeds hotels
Dakota Leeds
This highly reputed luxury hotel is located dead in the centre Leeds, just minutes from the city's foremost venues, bars and shopping streets. Its style runs along the lines of classic luxury and modern sleekness, and it's pervaded throughout by a curiously warm and welcoming character. If the nearby destinations aren't enough, there's an on-site brasserie and cocktail bar too.
The Met Leeds
Pass through the astounding exterior of this Grade II-listed building, which is just across the road from Leeds train station, and you'll find an equally impressive interior, and a range of unpretentious yet stylish and spacious rooms. The conference rooms, dining areas and ballroom are just as georgeous too, making this a fantastic choice for hosting large events in a convenient location.
Like country grandeur? And a bit of blissful solitude? They're both on offer at the Woodlands Hotel, which is just ten minutes' drive from central Leeds and is surrounded by acres of land. Inside, you'll find spacious, ornate rooms and an award-winning restaurant. For all the splendour, it's still terrific value for money. And a good spot for weddings, lovebirds!
Hotel Quebecs
As ausicious as the Victorian facade of Hotel Quebecs is, it still doesn't do justice to the decor inside. Yes, it's at the higher end of the price spectrum, but those prices will get you some of the most gorgeously decorated hotel rooms in Leeds. It's in a top location in the heart of the city, and has a truly spectacular dining space. Actually, it's not entirely unlike staying in a castle.
Malmaison Hotel
As with the wider Malmaison chain, no two rooms are they same here: they each have their own individual character. This refurbished set of offices for a bus and tram company boast a set of chic, east London-ish rooms: think neon, pendant lightbulbs, plus quirky wall art in the restaurant and bar. Style doesn't come cheap, though – this rooms can be a little costly.
Weetwood Hall Hotel
Even though it resides in a seventeeth-century manor house within several acres of woodland, Weetwood Hall is still proudly contemporary in attitude. If the arty Mediterranean restaurant and fitness centre – which is available free to guests – is all too much though, you could always head to the separate little pub-style bar located on the hotel's grounds. And believe it or not, this really isn't going to break the bank.
Hinsley Hall
It's located a little distance out of the city centre of Leeds, but we listed Hinsley Hall as it boasts a sizeable array of impressively affordable rooms in a beautifully ornate Victorian listed building. It's surrounded by green land in the midst of Headingley, which is one of the city's trendier areas, and one popular with students.
Cosmopolitan Hotel
The Cosmopolitan is one of Leeds's oldest hotels. It offers a series of simple, well-priced rooms with an intimate, cosy communal atmosphere. You'll find it in the middle of Leeds's business district. The restaurant-bar on the lower floor, of the same name, can be pretty rowdy, but it makes for a great place to begin – or perhaps end – a fun night out in the city.
DoubleTree by Hilton Leeds
The DoubleTree offers pretty much all you'd expect from a hotel of the worldwide Hilton chain: style, simplicity and relatively affordability. But unique to this place are 360-degree panoramas of the city from the Skylounge, an al-fresco dining terrace and a top canalside location. Plus, it's close to the train station, so great for those travelling this way in and out of Leeds.
New Masons Arms
The New Masons Arms is a small, friendly pub located in Oulton, which is just a short drive outside of Leeds. What it lacks in convenience it more than makes up for in the charming decor of its rooms, its exemplary service and the chance to stay in a proper, ales-and-pies, friendly Yorkshire pub. It's the ultimate northern experience.
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Daejeon and Montgomery County
By Chang Se-moon
I was blessed enough to be on a team from Montgomery County in Maryland, USA, that traveled late in October to Daejeon, Korea, for the fruitful ceremonies of the sister cities relation between the two places.
Daejeon is located 90 miles south of Seoul, and is the fifth-largest metropolis in Korea with over 1.5 million residents. Daejeon serves as a hub of transportation at the crossroads of major transport routes.
Daejeon is unique on two fronts. One is that Daejeon is the home of more than 10 national administration offices, which include Korea Customs Service, Small and Medium Business Administration, National Statistical Office, Korea Forest Service, Korean Intellectual Property Office, and more.
The other is that Daejeon is the home of INNOPOLIS Daedeok, one of five designated science and technology growth centers in Korea, hosting a super-high concentration of top-class scientific and technical human resources. More than 11.8 percent of Korean researchers with a Ph.D. degree in science and engineering are working within the Daedeok ecosystem. The well-known Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) and the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) are located here.
Montgomery County with more than a million population is adjacent to Washington DC, and is included in the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria Metropolitan Statistical Area. Montgomery County has the highest percentage (29.2%) of residents over 25 years of age who hold post-graduate degrees in the United States. It was ranked by Forbes as the 10th richest in the United States. Like Daejeon, Montgomery County also is the home of many major U.S. government offices, scientific research and learning centers, and business campuses.
Some may wonder why Montgomery County, which is not a city, has a sister cities relation with Daejeon. This is because most residents in Montgomery County live in unincorporated clusters such as Silver Spring and Bethesda, making the County function more as a large city than a typical county which is often dominated by large cities inside.
The delegation of Montgomery County for the new sister cities relation with Daejeon was led by likable Hon. Ike Leggett who is the County Executive, and his wife Catherine who is not only beautiful but very graceful as well.
The delegation also included Bruce Adams of the County Office of Community Partnerships, Spiros Balntas of the County Business Recruitment, David Petr of the County Economic Development Corporation, Hon. Craig Rice who is a Council member of Montgomery County, Dr. DeRionne P. Pollard who is President of the Montgomery College, Attorney Joy C. West who is a video guru, and more dignitaries.
The efficient and friendly organizer of the US delegation was Diane Vu, who is the Asian Liaison and Language Access Coordinator of the County Office of Community Partnerships. Diane made travel arrangements in cooperation with Korean-American, Wonro Lee of the JG Business Link International who also participated as a delegate. Mr. Lee's parents, Junghee Lee and Gun Seon Lee who have their own development projects in Maryland, assisted delegates during the tour of Seoul.
There were three other Korean-American delegates. One is the always smiling Eunmee Shim, who is Senior Vice President of Ambulatory Networks and Chief Strategy Office of the Adventist Healthcare. Ms. Shim handled interpretation like an expert. The other is the competent Matthew Lee, who is Chief Executive Officer of the FASTech, Inc. While so many people told me to install Kakao Talk on my cell phone, Lee is the one who actually volunteered to install it and did it within about 5 minutes. The third one is myself, who was just happy to be on the delegation.
To be honest, I have experienced in the past how fragile sister cities programs could be. When a mayor who pushed hard for the program becomes no longer a mayor, the program simply disappears because of no activities. I, therefore, asked someone closely related to the Daejeon and Montgomery County program whether the relation is sustainable. Answer I heard was yes.
First of all, the program between Daejeon and Montgomery County is multi-faceted, encompassing sister city, sister school, and sister business. Secondly, Hon. Mr. Leggett appears determined to make sure the program survives the end of his tenure as County Executive. Although not a reliable indicator, everyone on both sides seems very excited about the relation.
I have to mention one event that really impressed me. On Oct. 22, the entire US delegation was invited to the performance by the Hanbat National Traditional Musical Group in Daejeon. The show included a number of Korean folk songs such as Arirang and folk dancing in beautiful Korean dresses, all accompanied by around fifty players of Gayageum, Daejanggeum, and other traditional musical instruments of Korea.
I was happily surprised that all players in the performance were very young, making me feel optimistic that the rich Korean musical tradition will continue. I have no doubt that the wonderful performance was made possible by such conscientious leaders as President of the Group Shin Eung-jae, Coach and Director of the Orchestra Lee Tai-baek, and Conductor of the Orchestra Jung Yoon-hae.
Chang Se-moon (changsemoon@yahoo.com) is the director of the Gulf Coast Center for Impact Studies.


text:
Un modelo de base de datos es un tipo de modelo de datos que determina la estructura lógica de una base de datos y de manera fundamental determina el modo de almacenar, organizar y manipular los datos.

Ejemplos de modelos de base de datos:

 Modelo jerárquico
 Modelo en red
 Modelo relacional
 Modelo entidad-relación
 Modelo entidad–relación extendido
 Base de datos orientada a objetos
 Modelo documental
 Modelo entidad–atributo–valor
 Modelo en estrella

Los modelos físicos de datos incluyen:
 Índice invertido
 Fichero plano

Otros modelos lógicos pueden ser:
 Modelo asociativo
 Modelo multidimensional
 Modelo multivalor
 Modelo semántico
 Base de datos XML
 Grafo etiquetado
 Triplestore

Relaciones y funciones
Un sistema de gestión de base de datos puede implementar uno o varios modelos. La estructura óptima depende de la naturaleza de la organización de los datos de la aplicación y de los requisitos de esta, que incluyen ritmo de transacciones, fiabilidad, mantenibilidad, escalabilidad y coste. La mayor parte de los sistemas de gestión de bases de datos están construidos sobre un modelo de datos concreto, aunque es posible que soporten más de uno.

Sobre los distintos modelos físicos de datos se puede implementar cualquier modelo lógico. La mayoría del software de base de datos ofrece al usuario cierto control sobre la implementación física, dado el impacto que tiene en las prestaciones.

Un modelo no es solo un modo de estructurar los datos: también define el conjunto de operaciones que se pueden realizar con los datos. Por ejemplo el modelo relacional define operaciones como SELECT y JOIN. Aunque esas operaciones no se ofrezcan explícitamente en un lenguaje de consultas dado, proporcionan la base sobre la que un lenguaje de consultas se diseña.

Modelo fichero plano

El modelo de fichero plano consiste en una sola matriz bidimensional de elementos, donde todos los miembros en una columna dada tienen valores del mismo tipo, y todos los miembros de la misma fila están relacionados entre ellos. Por ejemplo, las columnas para nombre y clave pueden ser usadas para la seguridad de un sistema; cada fila indicará el nombre y su correspondiente clave para un individuo. Las columnas en la tabla suelen tener un tipo asociado, que la define como cadena de caracteres, fecha u hora, entero o número de coma flotante. Este modelo tabular fue el precursor del modelo relacional.

Modelos tempranos
Estos modelos que se describen a continuación fueron populares en las décadas 1960-1970, pero hoy en día se encuentran solo en sistemas heredados. Se caracterizan principalmente por tener características de navegación con fuertes conexiones entre la estructura física y la lógica, y poseen alta dependencia en los datos.

Modelo jerárquico

En un modelo jerárquico, los datos están organizados en una estructura arbórea (dibujada como árbol invertido o raíz), lo que implica que cada registro solo tiene un padre. Las estructuras jerárquicas fueron usadas extensamente en los primeros sistemas de gestión de datos de unidad central, como el Sistema IMS por IBM, y ahora se usan para describir la estructura de documentos XML. Esta estructura permite relaciones 1:N entre los datos, y es muy eficiente para describir muchas relaciones del mundo real: tablas de contenido, ordenamiento de párrafos y cualquier tipo de información anidada.

Sin embargo, la estructura jerárquica es ineficiente para ciertas operaciones de base de datos cuando el camino completo no se incluye en cada registro. Una limitación del modelo jerárquico es su incapacidad para representar de manera eficiente la redundancia en datos.

En la relación Padre-hijo: El hijo solo puede tener un padre pero un padre puede tener múltiples hijos. Los padres e hijos están unidos por enlaces. Todo nodo tendrá una lista de enlaces a sus hijos.

Modelo de red

El modelo de red expande la estructura jerárquica, permitiendo relaciones N:N en una estructura tipo árbol que permite múltiples padres. Antes de la llegada del modelo relacional, el modelo en red era el más popular para las bases de datos. Este modelo de red (definido por la especificación CODASYL) organiza datos que usan en dos construcciones básicas, registros y conjuntos. Los registros contienen campos que puede estar organizados jerárquicamente, como en el lenguaje COBOL. Los conjuntos definen relaciones N:N entre registros: varios propietarios, varios miembros. Un registro puede ser un propietario de varios conjuntos, y miembro en cualquier número de conjuntos.

El modelo en red es una generalización del modelo jerárquico, en tanto está construido sobre el concepto de múltiples ramas (estructuras de nivel inferior) emanando de uno o varios nodos (estructuras de nivel alto), mientras el modelo se diferencia del modelo jerárquico en que las ramas pueden estar unidas a múltiples nodos. El modelo de red es capaz de representar la redundancia en datos de una manera más eficiente que en el modelo jerárquico.

Las operaciones del modelo de red se realizan por de navegación: un programa mantiene la posición actual, y navega entre registros siguiendo las relaciones entre ellos. Los registros también pueden ser localizados por valores claves.

Aunque no es una característica esencial del modelo, las bases de datos en red implementan sus relaciones mediante punteros directos al disco. Esto da una velocidad de recuperación excelente, pero penaliza las operaciones de carga y reorganización.

Entre los SGBD más populares que tienen arquitectura en red se encuentran Total e IDMS. IDMS logró una importante base de usuarios; en 1980 adoptó el modelo relacional y SQL, manteniendo además sus herramientas y lenguajes originales.

La mayoría de bases de datos orientadas a objetos (introducidas en 1990) usan el concepto de navegación para proporcionar acceso rápido entre objetos en una red. Objectivity/DB, por ejemplo, implementa 1:1, 1:N, N:1 y N:N entre distintas bases de datos. Muchas bases de datos orientadas a objetos también soportan SQL, combinando así la potencia de ambos modelos.

Modelo de fichero invertido
En un fichero invertido o de índice invertido, los datos contenidos se usan como claves en una tabla de consulta (lookup table), y los valores en la tabla se utilizan como punteros a la localización de cada instancia. Esta es también la estructura lógica de los índices de bases de datos modernas, los cuales introducen solo el contenido de algunas columnas en esa tabla de consulta. El modelo de fichero invertido puede poner los índices en ficheros planos para acceder a sus registros de manera eficiente.

Implementaciones notables de este modelo de datos la realizó Adabas de Software AG, aparecida en 1970. Adabas logró una importante base de usuarios y está soportada aún hoy. En la década de 1980 adoptó el modelo relacional y SQL, manteniendo sus propias herramientas y lenguajes.

Modelo relacional

El modelo  fue introducido por E.F. Codd en 1970 con el objetivo de querer hacer los SGBD más independientes de las aplicaciones. Es un modelo matemático definido en términos de lógica de predicados y teoría de conjuntos, y se han implementado con él SGBDs para mainframe, ordenadores medios y microordenadores.

Los productos referidos como base de datos relacional de hecho implementan un modelo que es solo una aproximación al modelo matemático definido por Codd. Existen tres términos usados con profusión en el modelo relacional de bases de datos: relaciones, atributos y dominios. Una relación equivale a una tabla con filas y columnas. Las columnas de una relación se llaman con rigor atributos, y el dominio es el conjunto de valores que cada atributo puede tomar.

La estructura básica de datos del modelo relacional es la relación (tabla), donde la información acerca de una determinada entidad (p. ej. "empleado") se almacena en tuplas (filas), cada una con un conjunto de atributos (columnas). Las columnas de cada tabla enumeran los distintos atributos de la entidad (el nombre del "empleado", dirección y número de teléfono, p. ej.), de modo que cada tupla de la relación "empleado" representa un empleado específico guardando los datos de ese empleado concreto.

Todas las relaciones (es decir, tablas) en una base de datos relacional han de seguir unas mínimas reglas:
 el orden de los atributos es irrelevante
 no puede haber tuplas repetidas
 cada atributo solo puede tener un valor.

Una base de datos puede contener varias tablas, cada una similar al modelo plano. Una de las fortalezas del modelo relacional es que un valor de atributo coincidente en dos registros (filas) –en la misma o diferente tabla– implica una relación entre esos dos registros. Es posible también designar uno o un conjunto de atributos como "clave", que permitirá identificar de manera única una fila en una tabla.

Dicha clave que permite identificar de manera unívoca una fila en una tabla se denomina "clave primaria". Las claves son habitualmente utilizadas para combinar datos de dos o más tablas. Por ejemplo, una tabla de empleados puede contener una columna denominada "departamento"", cuyo valor coincida con la clave de una tabla denominada "departamentos". Las claves son esenciales a la hora de crear índices, que facilitan la recuperación rápidas de datos de tablas grandes. Una clave puede estar formada por cualquier columna o por una combinación de varias columnas, denominándose clave compuesta. No es necesario definir todas las claves por adelantado; una columna puede usarse como clave incluso si no estaba previsto en origen.

Una clave que tenga un significado en el mundo físico (tal como un nombre de persona, el ISBN de un libro o el número de serie de un coche) a veces se denomina clave "natural". Si no existe una clave natural viable, se puede asignar un sucedáneo arbitrario (como dar a una persona un número de empleado). En la práctica la mayor parte de las bases de datos tienen a la vez claves sucedáneas y naturales, dado que las claves sucedáneas pueden usarse internamente para crear enlaces íntegros entre filas, mientras que las claves naturales tienen un uso menos fiable a la hora de buscar o enlazar con otras bases de datos.

El lenguaje de interrogación más común utilizado con las bases de datos relacionales es el Structured Query Language (SQL).

Modelo dimensional
El modelo dimensional es una adaptación especializada del modelo relacional usada para almacenar datos en depósitos de datos, de modo que los datos fácilmente puedan ser extraídos usando consultas OLAP. En el modelo dimensional, una base de datos consiste en una sola tabla grande de datos que son descritos usando dimensiones y medidas. Una dimensión proporciona el contexto de un hecho (como quien participó, cuando y donde pasó, y su tipo). Las dimensiones se toman en cuenta en la formulación de las consultas para agrupar hechos que están relacionados. Las dimensiones tienden a ser discretas y son a menudo jerárquicas; por ejemplo, la ubicación podría incluir el edificio, el estado y el país. Una medida es una cantidad que describe el dato, tal como los ingresos. Es importante que las medidas puedan ser agregados significativamente -por ejemplo, los ingresos provenientes de diferentes lugares puedan sumarse.

En una consulta OLAP, las dimensiones y los hechos son agrupados y añadidos juntos para crear un informe. El modelo dimensional a menudo es puesto en práctica sobre el modelo relacional usando un esquema de estrella, consistiendo en una tabla que contiene los datos y tablas circundantes que contienen las dimensiones. Dimensiones complicadas podrían ser representadas usando múltiples tablas, usando un esquema de copo de nieve.

Un almacén de datos (data warehouse) puede contener múltiples esquemas de estrella que comparten tablas de dimensión, permitiéndoles ser usadas juntas. El establecimiento de un conjunto de dimensiones estándar es una parte importante del modelado dimensional.

Modelos post-relacionales
Los productos que ofrecen un modelo de datos más general que el relacional se denominan a veces post-relational. Como términos alternativos se oyen incluyen "bases de datos híbridas", "bases de datos relacionales potenciadas con objetos" entre otros. El modelo de datos de esos productos incorpora relaciones pero no limitadas por las restricciones del principio de información de E.F. Codd, que requiere que toda información en la base de datos debe ser modelada en términos de valores en relaciones nada más

Algunas de estas extensiones al modelo relacional integran conceptos de tecnologías que preceden el modelo relacional. Por ejemplo permiten representar un grafo dirigido con árboles en los nodos. La compañía sones implementa este concepto en su GraphDB.

Algunos productos post-relacionales amplían los sistemas relacionales con características no relacionales. Otros han llegado al mismo punto añadiendo características relacionales a modelos pre-relacionales. Paradójicamente esto ha permitido a productos históricamente pre-relacionales, como por ejemplo PICK y MUMPS, razonar su esencia post-relacional.

El Resource Space Model es un modelo de datos no relacional basado en clasificación multi-dimensional.

Modelo de grafo
Las bases de datos de grafos permiten incluso una estructura más general que una base de datos en red, cualquier nodo puede estar conectado a cualquier otro.

Modelo multivaluados

Las bases de datos multivaluadas contienen datos arracimados, en el sentido de que pueden almacenar los datos del mismo modo que las bases de datos relacionales, pero además permiten un nivel de profundidad al que las relacionales solo se pueden aproximar utilizando subtablas. Esto es prácticamente igual al modo en que XML representa los datos, donde un campo/atributo dado puede contener múltiples valores a la vez. El multivalor se puede considerar una forma de XML comprimida.

Un ejemplo puede ser una factura, la que puede ser vista como:
 Encabezado, una entrada por factura
 Detalle, una entrada por concepto
En el modelo multivaluado tenemos la opción de almacenar los datos como una sola tabla (1), con tablas imbuidas representando el detalle.

Tiene la ventaja que la correspondencia entre la factura conceptual y la de la factura como representación de datos es biunívoca. Esto redunda en menor número de lecturas, menos problemas de integridad referencial y una fuerte disminución del hardware necesario para soportar un volumen de transacciones dado.

Modelo orientado a objetos

En la década de 1990, el paradigma de la orientación a objetos se aplicó a las bases de datos creando un nuevo modelo llamado base de datos orientada a objetos. Esto tuvo el fin de reducir la impedancia objeto-relacional, la sobrecarga de convertir la información de su representación en la base de datos –como filas en tablas– a su representación en el programa –típicamente como objeto–. Incluso más, los tipos de datos usados en una aplicación pueden definirse directamente en la base de datos, preservando así la integridad de datos. Las bases de datos orientadas a objetos también introducen las ideas clave de la programación orientada a objetos –encapsulación y polimorfismo– en el mundo de las bases de datos.

Se han propuesto distintos modos de almacenar objetos en una base de datos. Algunos se han aproximado desde la perspectiva de la programación, haciendo los objetos manipulados por el programa persistentes. Esto típicamente requiere la adición de algún tipo de lenguaje de interrogación, ya que lo lenguajes tradicionales no tienen la posibilidad de encontrar objetos basados en su contenido. Otros se han aproximado al problema desde la perspectiva de la base de datos, definiendo un modelo orientado a objetos para la base de datos, y definiendo un lenguaje de programación de dicha base de datos que permite tanto capacidades de programación como de interrogación.

Las bases de datos orientadas a objetos sufren falta de estandarización; aunque han sido definidos estándares por en Object Database Management Group nunca han sido implementados con generalidad suficiente como para permitir la interoperatibilidad entre productos. Sin embargo, las bases de datos orientadas a objetos han sido empleadas eficazmente en distintas aplicaciones: generalmente en nichos especializados como ingeniería o biología molecular, pero no de forma general con soporte comercial. Sin embargo algunas de las ideas que ha aportado han sido recogidas por los fabricantes de bases de datos relacionales y se han aplicado en extensiones al lenguaje SQL.

Una alternativa a la traducción entre objetos y relaciones es la de usar una librería Object-Relational Mapping (ORM).

Referencias

Bases de datos

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


For more information about this image and its history, please see the relevant manifest file (library/orientdb). This image is updated via pull requests to the docker-library/official-images GitHub repo.
For detailed information about the virtual/transfer sizes and individual layers of each of the above supported tags, please see the orientdb/tag-details.md file in the docker-library/docs GitHub repo.
OrientDB is the first Multi-Model Open Source NoSQL DBMS that combines the power of graphs and the flexibility of documents into one scalable, high-performance operational database.
The docker image contains an OrientDB installation with basic configuration. If you need to provide your own config folder from which OrientDB will read its startup settings, simply attach a persistent volume for configuration folder. Providing a configuration folder enables integration with software configuration tools such as Ansible or Puppet.
The same applies for the databases folder which if local to the running container would go away as soon as it died/you killed it. Obviously use volumes from dedicated data container is another option.


The period piece follows a 13-year-old who befriends a group of Los Angeles skaters.
Jonah Hill shows promise as a writer-director with "Mid90s," his debut behind the camera, and there is a lot to admire in this earnest period piece about a 13-year-old who befriends a group of Los Angeles skaters — even if several key choices prevent it from achieving its fullest potential.
For one thing, rather than swimming in nostalgia and cramming the production design with vintage references, Hill keeps the movie rooted in the personal growth of protagonist Stevie (Sunny Suljic), as he seeks to escape his unhappy home life with mom Dabney (Katherine Waterston) and his older brother Ian (Lucas Hedges), who is prone to fits of violent aggression.
The emotional currents are precisely rendered — Hill shows a real understanding of why boys act out and profits immensely from his star's knack for balancing his character's intense anger and loneliness with his eagerness to be accepted by the older kids in his newfound group of friends.
A first-rate production team, including cinematographer Christopher Blauvelt (a frequent collaborator of the great director Kelly Reichardt) and music by none other than Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, allows for an authentically naturalistic depiction of rebellious youth culture on the city's gritty, wayward streets.
But other impulses lessen the dramatic impact and suggest that Hill could have used some more time with his screenplay. There are attempted comic touches that undercut entire scenes, including the decision to nickname one of the main characters something too profane to be repeated here and to then have other characters speak about him and repeat that nickname with great tenderness and concern that becomes instantly harder to take seriously.
At other key moments, the story takes abrupt and convoluted turns that dilute the drama and could have been easily smoothed out. It seems as if Hill does not fully trust his best instincts: to let his camera and perspective fully wander toward a verite sense of this world. So the movie never quite achieves the same level of transfixing, unforced power as some of its predecessors in this dramatic space.


That's how Manitoba Bisons football coach Brian Dobie described offensive lineman Geoff Gray on Thursday as news broke that the fourth-year student-athlete had ranked 11th in the CFL's scouting bureau.
The 21-year-old is the seventh-ranked CIS football player to make the list.
Gray said it doesn't come as a huge surprise to be on the list.
The 6'6, 310 lbs. 'O' lineman is also an Olympic powerlifter in local and western Canadian competitions. Gray placed fourth in his weight class two years ago while competing at nationals.
In 2015, the top-ranked CIS player on the initial scouting bureau list was Bison David Onyemata. The Nigerian native finished as the top prospect in the final list on April 2016 and was drafted by the NFL's New Orleans Saints and CFL's Saskatchewan Roughriders.
The Bisons (0-2) host the Alberta Golden Bears Friday night at Investors Group Field. Kickoff is at 7 p.m.


Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), uniting ozone and properly designed ultraviolet systems, in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide , may offer a powerful water treatment solutions for the reduction of undesirable organic compounds, COD and TOC.
AOP processes are successfully used to decompose many hazardous chemical compounds to acceptable levels, without producing additional hazardous by-products or sludge which require further handling. Advanced oxidation processes are the most reliable means of meeting the new industry standards, reduce wastes and offer substantial cost savings.
The development of AOPs is an attempt to produce the non-selective and rapid hydroxyl radical OH° to oxidize pollutants. The most widely applied conventional AOP systems has been the H2O2/UV, O3/UV, H2O2/O3 and H2O2/O3/UV processes.
The hydroxyl radical reacts with the dissolved contaminants, initiating a rapid cascade of oxidation reactions that ultimately fully oxidize (mineralizes) the contaminants.
ESCO International has introduced a new commercial advanced oxidation process for the treatment of process water for semiconductor industries, pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries as well as many other manufacturing industries. This proprietary advanced oxidation process, referred to as the CATADOX process , can efficiently reduce TOC as well as many refractory organic contaminants in feed water or process water and will consistently reduce TOC to below 1 ppm for 100% water reuse or reclaim purposes, resulting is significant cost savings.
The CATADOX process was developed, designed and tested by ESCO International. The process combines treatment by ozone, UV, hydrogen peroxide and proprietary catalyst, resulting in a powerful advanced oxidation treatment system.
This innovative advanced oxidation process includes new improvements and system design optimisation.The new AOP system creates a more effective oxidative TOC reduction process compared to known conventional AOP processes.
The CATADOX, performs excellently in challenging applications such as non-biodegradable COD removal, TOC reduction, VOCs abatement, toxicity reduction, colour & odour removal, removes refractory organic compounds such as DMSO, TMAH, NMP, IPA (iso-propanol), THMs (Trihalomethanes) and Urea found in treated water and process water used in semiconductor applications.
lower ozone, H2O2 and UV power requirements when compared to conventional H2O2/UV, O3/UV and O3/H2O2 AOP processes.
– Efficient for a wide range of contaminants types and concentrations including IPA, TMAH, NMP, DMSO, Glycols, VOCs, PAHs, PCBs, Alcohols, Ethers, TOC & COD and others..
If you are thinking of installing an on-site advanced oxidation plant for wastewater reclaim, it is sometimes necessary to carry out pilot studies to ensure that the correct design criteria are used for the full scale plant.
ESCO recommends that the pilot plant evaluation work is carried out for at least a week.


the fabric of my own breath crumple in nomadic sadness.
or so? I wonder why you cut your hair, over and over, slicing limes.
out there, your aeroplane trails through impossible zones.
sometimes I think you'll call to talk, talk about food or work or wine.
and besides, I can't build much of a future like this.