text:
Ritual act of placing a dead person into the ground
This article is about human burial practices. For other uses, see Burial (disambiguation). "Inhume" and "Entombment" redirect here. For other uses, see Inhume (band) and The Entombment (disambiguation). "Interment" redirects here. It is not to be confused with internment.
Underwater funeral in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea from an edition with drawings by Alphonse de Neuville and Édouard Riou
Burial or interment is a method of final disposition wherein a dead person or non-human animal is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. A funeral is a ceremony that accompanies the final disposition. Humans have been burying their dead since shortly after the origin of the species. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones, and in many cultures it has been seen as a necessary step for the deceased to enter the afterlife or to give back to the cycle of life.
Methods of burial may be heavily ritualized and can include natural burial (sometimes called "green burial"); embalming or mummification; and the use of containers for the dead, such as shrouds, coffins, grave liners, and burial vaults, all of which can retard decomposition of the body. Sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the way the body is positioned may have great significance.
The location of the burial may be determined by taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep the dead close to provide guidance to the living, while others "banish" them by locating burial grounds at a distance from inhabited areas. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries. Most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones, which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons. Sometimes multiple bodies are buried in a single grave either by choice (as in the case of married couples), due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once.
Alternatives to burial may include cremation (and subsequent interment), burial at sea, promession, cryopreservation, and others. Some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals. Humans are not the only species which bury their dead; the practice has been observed in chimpanzees, elephants, and possibly dogs.
2 Reasons for human burial
3 Burial methods
3.1 Burial depth
3.2 Natural burial
3.2.1 Types of natural burial
3.2.1.1 Conservation burial
3.2.1.2 Memorial reef
3.2.1.3 Alkaline hydrolysis
3.2.1.4 Mushroom burial
3.2.1.5 Tree pod burials
3.3 Prevention of decay
3.4 Inclusion of clothing and personal effects
4 Traditions
4.1 Body positioning
4.1.1 Orientation
4.1.2 Inverted burial
4.2 Burial traditions throughout the world
4.2.2 Tana Toraja
4.2.3 Australian Aboriginals (Northern Territory)
4.3 Burial among African-American slaves
4.4 Burial in the Bahá'í Faith
5.1 Where to bury
5.2 Marking the location of the burial
5.2.1 Unmarked grave
5.2.2 Anonymous burial
5.2.3 Secret burial
5.2.4 Multiple bodies per grave
5.3 Cremation
5.4 Live burial
5.5 Burial at cross-roads
5.6 Burial of animals
5.6.1 By humans
5.6.2 By other animals
6 Exhumation
6.1 Changing burial location
6.2 Cultural aspects of exhumation
7 Reinterment
8 Secondary burial
9 Alternatives to burial
9.1 Adapting traditions
9.1.1 Burial
9.1.2 Funeral ceremonies
11 Notes and references
Reconstruction of the Mesolithic tomb of two women from Téviec, Brittany.
See also: Ancient Egyptian funerary practices, Burial in Anglo-Saxon England, Chinese burial, Greek burial, and Roman burial
Further information: Paleolithic burial, Megalithic tomb, Grave field, Tumulus, Chariot burial, and Ship burial
Intentional burial, particularly with grave goods, may be one of the earliest detectable forms of religious practice since, as Philip Lieberman suggests, it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life."[1] Evidence suggests that the Neanderthals were the first human species to practice burial behavior and intentionally bury their dead, doing so in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones.[2][3] Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that these bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons.[4]
Though there is ongoing debate regarding the reliability of the dating method, some scholars believe the earliest human burial dates back 100,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained with red ochre were discovered in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh, Israel. A variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons.[5]
In ancient Egypt, customs developed during the Predynastic period. Round graves with one pot were used in the Badarian Period (4400-3800 B.C.E.), continuing the tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures.[6]
Prehistoric cemeteries are referred to by the more neutral term grave field. They are one of the chief sources of information on prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age.
Reasons for human burial[edit]
See also: Health risks from dead bodies and revenant
After death, a body will decay. Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial.[7][8]
Human burial practices are the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead". Cultures vary in their mode of respect.
Some reasons follow:
Respect for the physical remains. If left lying on top of the ground, scavengers may eat the corpse, considered disrespectful to the deceased in many (but not all) cultures. In Tibet, sky burials deliberately encourage scavenging of human remains in the interest of returning them to nature, just as within Zoroastrianism, where burial and cremation were often seen as impure (as human remains are polluted, while the earth and fire are sacred).
Burial can be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceased's family and friends. Psychologists in some Western Judeo-Christian quarters, as well as the US funeral industry, claim that by interring a body away from plain view the pain of losing a loved one can be lessened.
Many cultures believe in an afterlife. Burial is sometimes believed to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife.
Many religions prescribe a particular way to live, which includes customs relating to disposal of the dead.
A decomposing body releases unpleasant gases related to decomposition. As such, burial is seen as a means of preventing smells from expanding into open air.
Burial methods[edit]
In many cultures, human corpses were usually buried in soil. The roots of burial as a practice reach back into the Middle Palaeolithic and coincide with the appearance of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, in Europe and Africa respectively. As a result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. Through time, mounds of earth, temples, and caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors. In modern times, the custom of burying dead people below ground, with a stone marker to indicate the burial place, is used in most cultures; although other means such as cremation are becoming more popular in the West (cremation is the norm in India and mandatory in big metropolitan areas of Japan[9]).
Some burial practices are heavily ritualized; others are simply practical.
Burial depth[edit]
It is a common misconception that graves must be dug to a depth of six feet (1.8 metres). This is reflected in the common euphemism for death of six feet under.[10]:1 In fact, graves are rarely dug to this depth except when it is intended to later bury a further coffin or coffins on top of the first one. In such cases, more than six feet may be dug in order to provide the required depth of soil above the top coffin.[11]:56
In the United States, there is no nationwide regulation of burial depth. Each local authority is free to determine its own rules. Requirements for depth can vary according to soil type and by method of burial. California, for instance, requires only 19 inches of soil above the top of the coffin, but more commonly 30 to 36 inches are required in other places.[11]:56 In some areas, such as central Appalachia, graves were indeed once dug to a depth of six feet to prevent the body being disturbed by burrowing animals. However, this was unnecessary once metal caskets and concrete vaults started to be used.[10]:62
In the United Kingdom, soil is required to be to a depth of three feet above the highest point of the coffin, unless the burial authority consider the soil to be suitable for a depth of only two feet.[12]
The earliest known reference to a requirement for a six-foot burial occurred in 1665 during the Great Plague of London. John Lawrence, the Lord Mayor of London,[13]:131 ordered that the bodies of plague victims "...shall be at least six foot deep." The city officials apparently believed this would inhibit the spread of the disease, not realising that the true vector was fleas living on rats in the streets. In the event, there were so many victims that very few were buried in individual graves. Most were placed in massive plague pits so it is unlikely that this event alone gave rise to the "six feet" tradition.[11]:56[14]
Natural burial[edit]
Natural burial—also called "green burial"[15]—is the process by which a body is returned to the earth to decompose naturally in soil, and in some cases even protect native and endangered wildlife.[16] Natural burial became popularized in the United Kingdom in the early 1990s by Ken West, a professional cremator operator for the city of Carlisle, responding to the U.K's call for changes in government that aligned with the United Nations' Environmental Program Local Agenda 21. In addition, there are multiple green burial sites in the United States. Green burials are developing in Canada (Victoria, BC, and Cobourg, Ontario), as well as in Australia and Ireland.[17]
The increase in popularity of alternative burials can be seen as a direct choice of the individual's want to distance him/herself from religious practices and spiritual locations as well as an opportunity to exercise their act of choice.[18] The desire to live through nature as well as concern for the environment have been the backbone of the green burial movement. The use of coffins made from alternative materials such as wicker and biodegradable materials as well as trees and other flora are being used in place of headstones. Both practices provide sustainable alternatives to traditional burial practices.[18]
Natural burials have been attracting people for reasons outside of environmental and sustainability factors as well. With the expansion of urban centres, ecological corridors gradually disappear. Cemeteries for burial plots preclude alternative uses of the land for a long time. By combining these two aspects (need for connectivity and land take imposed by cemeteries), two positive results can be achieved: protecting memories of the past and connecting ecosystems with multiple-use corridors.[19] Green burials appeal to people for economic reasons. Traditional burial practices can be a financial burden causing some to turn to green burials as a cheaper alternative. Some people view green burials as more meaningful, especially for those who have a connection to a piece of land, such as current residence or other places that hold meaning for them.[18]
Types of natural burial[edit]
Conservation burial[edit]
Conservation burial is a type of burial where burial fees fund the acquisition and management of new land to benefit native habitat, ecosystems and species.[16] This usually involves a legal document such as a conservation easement. Such burials go beyond other forms of natural burial, which aim to prevent environmental damage caused by conventional burial techniques, by actually increasing benefits for the environment.[20] The idea is for the burial process to be a net positive for the earth rather than just neutral. Scientists have argued that such burials could potentially generate enough funds to save every endangered species on the planet.[16] The Green Burial Council certifies natural and conservation burial grounds in the United States and Canada.[21]
Memorial reef[edit]
The memorial reef is a natural, alternative approach to burial. The cremated remains of a person are mixed in with concrete and then placed into a mold to make the memorial reef or eternal reef.[22] After the concrete sets, family members are allowed to customize the reef with writing, hand prints and chalk drawings. After this, the eco-friendly reefs are placed into the ocean among other coral reefs where they help to repair damage to the reefs while also providing new habitats for fish and other sea communities.[22] It has become a new way to memorialize the passing person while also protecting the marine environment. The high cost of the memorial reefs has caused this alternative form of burial to remain minimal and uncommon. This kind of natural burial is practiced in permitted oceans in the United States specifically in locations around Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, Texas and Virginia.[citation needed]
Alkaline hydrolysis[edit]
Alkaline hydrolysis, also referred to as resomation, is another approach to natural burial. It uses high temperature water mixed with potassium hydroxide to dissolve human remains.[23] During this process, the body is put into an enclosed, stainless steel chamber. The chamber fills with the chemical and water solution and is then lightly circulated. After a couple of hours, the body is worn down and bone is the only thing that remains. The bones are then pressed down into a powder and returned to the associated family. The outcome is comparable to cremation but results in an environmentally friendly process that does not release chemical emissions and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, as was confirmed after a review by the Health Council of the Netherlands. After this process, the water used goes to a regular water treatment facility where it is filtered and cleaned and returned to the water cycle. At this time, resomation is permitted for commercial use in areas throughout the United States. However, several other countries, including the United Kingdom are considering using this technology within their medical schools and universities.[23]
Mushroom burial[edit]
Mushroom burial has been developed by Jae Rhim Lee and her colleagues to address the impact traditional burial approaches have on the environment. It is an eco-friendly process which consists of dressing the cadaver in a bodysuit with mushroom spores woven into it, nicknamed the Infinity Burial Suit.[24] Rhim developed her own mushrooms by feeding them her hair, skin, and nails to create a mushroom variety that will best decompose human remains. As the mushrooms grow, they consume the remains within the suit as well as the toxins that are being released by the body. Rhim and her colleagues created this suit as a symbol of a new way for people to think about the relationship between their body after death and the environment.[24]
Tree pod burials[edit]
Another method of natural burial is being developed to plant the human body in fetal position inside an egg shaped pod.[25] The pod containing the body will form a biodegradable capsule that will not harm the surrounding earth. The biodegradable capsule doubles as a seed which can be customized to grow into either a birch, maple, or eucalyptus tree. The goal of this method is to create parks full of trees that loved ones can walk through and mourn, as opposed to a graveyard full of tombstones. This method aims to return the body to the earth in the most environmentally friendly way possible.[25]
The tree pod method originated in the United Kingdom but is now becoming a more popular method of burial.[26] The definition of natural burial grounds suggests that people are being buried without any kind of formaldehyde-based embalming fluid or synthetic ingredients, and that the bodies that are being returned to the earth will also be returning nutrients to the environment, in a way that is less expensive than other available burial methods. Not only are tree pods a more cost effective and environmentally friendly way to memorialize loved ones, this method also offers emotional support. The memories of loved ones will be immortalized through the concept of a deceased person having a medium (trees) that will continue to live and grow.[26]
Prevention of decay[edit]
A naturally mummified body in the British Museum.
Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further delaying the decay process.
Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin (or in some cases, a casket). A larger container may be used, such as a ship. In the United States, coffins are usually covered by a grave liner or a burial vault, which prevents the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.
These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a flood or some other natural process then the corpse will still not be exposed to open air.
Inclusion of clothing and personal effects[edit]
The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects of the deceased, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, may be included with the body. This practice, also known as the inclusion of grave goods, serves several purposes:
In funeral services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his or her finest. Others dress the deceased in burial shrouds, which range from very simple to elaborate depending on the culture.
The inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the afterlife.
The inclusion of personal effects may be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife people will wish to have with them what was important to them on earth. Alternatively, in some cultures, it is felt that, when a person dies, their possessions (and sometimes people connected to them such as wives) should go with them out of loyalty or ownership.
Although not generally a motivation for the inclusion of grave goods with a corpse, it is worth considering that future archaeologists may find the remains (compare time capsule). Artifacts such as clothing and objects provide insight into how the individual lived. This provides a form of immortality for the deceased. In general, however, clothing buried with a body decays more rapidly than the same buried alone.[27]
Traditions[edit]
Body positioning[edit]
A Muslim cemetery in Sahara, all graves point across the desert placed at right angles to Mecca
Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Bodies with the arms crossed date back to ancient cultures such as Chaldea in the 10th century BC, where the "X" symbolized their sky god. Later ancient Egyptian gods and royalty, from approximately 3500 B.C. are shown with crossed arms, such as the god Osiris, the Lord of the Dead, or mummified royalty with crossed arms in high and low body positions, depending upon the dynasty. The burial of bodies in the extended position, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect like in the case of the Sioux.[28] Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the body is placed in supine position, hands along the sides and the head is turned to its right with the face towards the Qibla. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible.
In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space.
Orientation[edit]
Historically, Christian burials were made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian churches, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day (Eschaton). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at the General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people.
In Islam, the grave should be aligned perpendicular to the Qibla (i.e. Mecca) and the face turned to the right and facing Qibla. (see Islamic funeral)
Inverted burial[edit]
For humans, maintaining an upside down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides and assassins were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead.
In Gulliver's Travels, the Lilliputians buried their dead upside down:
They bury their dead with their heads directly downward, because they hold an opinion, that in eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again; in which period the earth (which they conceive to be flat) will turn upside down, and by this means they shall, at their resurrection, be found ready standing on their feet. The learnèd among them confess the absurdity of this doctrine; but the practice still continues, in compliance to the vulgar.
—  Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels, Part I, Chapter VI
Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English millenarians the idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency. There is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labilliere of Dorking (d. 4 June 1800) lies thus upon the summit of Box Hill.[29][30] Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with a foundation in truth.[31]
Burial traditions throughout the world[edit]
South Korea[edit]
South Korea's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park.[32] Park states that around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a 'good death', while dying away from home was considered a 'bad death'. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population to hold funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class then followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of the upper classes. With this change, the practice of cremation became viewed more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism, but was banned in 1470.[32] It wasn't until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was re-introduced in 1945 and later lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity.[32]
Tana Toraja[edit]
A Ted Talk done by Kelli Swazey[33] discusses how Tana Toraja, a Sulawesi province in Eastern Indonesia, experiences death as a process, rather than an event. The culture of Tana Toraja views funerals as the most important event in a person's life. Because of this importance placed on death, Tana Toraja landscape is covered in the rituals and events transpired after death. The hierarchy of an individual's life is based on the sacrifices of animals made after their death. Funerals tend to be celebrated by Tana Toraja people, typically lasting days to even weeks long. Death is seen as a transformation, rather than a private loss.[33] A Torajan is not considered 'dead' until their family members are able to collect the resources necessary to hold a funeral that expresses the status of the deceased. Until these funerals are upheld the deceased are held in Tongkonan, built to house corpses that are not considered 'dead'.[33] The deceased can be held in Tongkonan for years, waiting for their families to collect the necessary resources to hold a funeral. The Tongkonan represents both the identity of the family and the process of birth and death. The process of birth and death is shown by having the houses that individuals are born in be the same structure as the Tongkonan, houses that individuals die in. Up until the funeral the deceased being housed in the Tongkonan are symbolically treated as members of the family, still being cared for by family members.[33]
Australian Aboriginals (Northern Territory)[edit]
Northern Territory Australian Aboriginals have unique traditions associated with a loved one's death. The death of a loved one sparks a series of events such as smoking out the spirit, a feast, and leaving out the body to decompose.[34] Immediately after death, a smoking ceremony is held in the deceased's home. The smoking ceremonies purpose is to expel the spirit of the deceased from their living quarters. A feast is held where mourners are covered in ochre, an earthy pigment associated with clay, while they eat and dance. The traditional corpse disposal of the Aboriginals includes covering the corpse in leaves on a platform. The corpse is then left to decompose.[34]
Burial among African-American slaves[edit]
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In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.
At death, a slave's body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site.
Slaves were buried oriented East to West, with feet at the Eastern end (head at the Western end, thus raising facing East). According to Christian doctrine, this orientation permitted rising to face the return of Christ without having to turn around upon the call of Gabriel's trumpet. Gabriel's trumpet would be blown near the Eastern sunrise.
Burial in the Bahá'í Faith[edit]
In the Bahá'í Faith, burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate". The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead[35] is ordained. The body should be placed with the feet facing the Qiblih. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[36]
Locations[edit]
Where to bury[edit]
Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations.
Thus in some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; others keep remains close to help surviving generations.
Religious rules may prescribe a specific zone, e.g. some Christian traditions hold that Christians must be buried in consecrated ground, usually a cemetery; an earlier practice, burial in or very near the church (hence the word churchyard), was generally abandoned with individual exceptions as a high posthumous honour; also many existing funeral monuments and crypts remain in use.
Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral; see examples on Heraldica.org.
In North America, private family cemeteries were common among wealthy landowners during the 18th and 19th centuries. Many prominent people were buried in private cemeteries on their respective properties, sometimes in lead-lined coffins. Many of these family cemeteries were not documented and were therefore lost to time and abandon; their grave markers having long since been pilfered by vandals or covered by forest growth. Their locations are occasionally discovered during construction projects.
Marking the location of the burial[edit]
Kanji inscriptions engraved on headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in Broome, Western Australia
Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a headstone. This serves two purposes. First, the grave will not accidentally be exhumed. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of immortality, especially in cases of famous people's graves. Such monumental inscriptions may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians.
In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a necropolis, a "city of the dead" paralleling the community of the living.
Unmarked grave[edit]
In many cultures graves are marked with durable markers, or monuments, intended to help remind people of the buried person. An unmarked grave is a grave with no such memorial marker.
Anonymous burial[edit]
Another sort of unmarked grave is a burial site with an anonymous marker, such as a simple cross; boots, rifle and helmet; a sword and shield; a cairn of stones; or even a monument. This may occur when identification of the deceased is impossible. Although many unidentified deceased are buried in potter's fields, some are memorialized, especially in smaller communities or in the case of deaths publicized by local media. Anonymous burials also happen in poorer or disadvantaged populations' communities in countries such as South Africa, where in the past the Non-white population was simply too poor to afford headstones. At the cemetery in a small rural town of Harding, KwaZulu-Natal, many grave sites have no identification, and just have a border of stones which mark out the dimensions of the grave site itself.
Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The United Kingdom's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Westminster Abbey, France's is buried underneath the Arc de Triomphe, Italy's is buried in the Monumento al Milite Ignoto in Rome, Canada's is buried at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Australia's Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, New Zealand's Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in Wellington, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Russia is in Alexander Garden in Moscow and the United States' Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located at Arlington National Cemetery.
Many cultures practice anonymous burial as a norm, not an exception. For instance, in 2002 a survey for the Federal Guild of German Stonemasons found that, depending on the location within Germany, from 0% to 43% of burials were anonymous.[37] According to Christian Century magazine, the perspective of the Roman Catholic Church is that anonymous burials reflect a dwindling belief in God.[38] Others claim that this trend is mainly driven by secularism and the high costs of traditional burials.[39]
Secret burial[edit]
In rare cases, a known person may be buried without identification, perhaps to avoid desecration of the corpse, grave robbing, or vandalism of the burial site. This may be particularly the case with infamous or notorious figures. In other cases, it may be to prevent the grave from becoming a tourist attraction or a destination of pilgrimage. Survivors may cause the deceased to be buried in a secret location or other unpublished place, or in a grave with a false name (or no name at all) on the marker.
When Walt Disney was cremated his ashes were buried in a secret location in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, California. Some burial sites at Forest Lawn, such as those of Humphrey Bogart, Mary Pickford and Michael Jackson, are secluded in private gated gardens or mausoleums with no public access. A number of tombs are also kept from the public eye. Forest Lawn's Court of Honor indicates that some of its crypts have plots which are reserved for individuals who may be "voted in" as "Immortals"; no amount of money can purchase a place. Photographs taken at Forest Lawn are not permitted to be published, and their information office usually refuses to reveal exactly where the remains of famous people are buried.
Multiple bodies per grave[edit]
Some couples or groups of people (such as a married couple or other family members) may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins (or urns) may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first. In many states in Australia all graves are designated two or three depth (depending of the water table) for multiple burials, at the discretion of the burial rights holder, with each new interment atop the previous coffin separated by a thin layer of earth. As such all graves are dug to greater depth for the initial burial than the traditional six feet to facilitate this practice.
Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting genocide often employ mass burial for victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a natural disaster, an act of terrorism, an epidemic, or an accident. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of genetic testing, but even in the 21st century remains which are unidentifiable by current methods may be buried in a mass grave.
Individuals who are buried at the expense of the local authorities and buried in potter's fields may be buried in mass graves. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was once believed to have been buried in such a manner, but today it is known that such burials were never allowed in Mozart's Vienna whose Magistrate refused to agree to the burial regulations decreed by Joseph II. In some cases, the remains of unidentified individuals may be buried in mass graves in potter's fields, making exhumation and future identification troublesome for law enforcement.
Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, U.S. Navy policy declares such wrecks a mass grave (such as the USS Arizona Memorial) and forbids the recovery of remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles may leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony.
Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves. Douaumont ossuary is one such mass grave, and it contains the remains of 130,000 soldiers from both sides of the Battle of Verdun.
Catacombs also constitute a form of mass grave. Some catacombs, for example those in Rome, were designated as a communal burial place. Some, such as the catacombs of Paris, only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.
Judaism does not generally allow multiple bodies in a grave. An exception to this is a grave in the military cemetery in Jerusalem, where there is a kever achim (Hebrew, "grave of brothers") where two soldiers were killed together in a tank and are buried in one grave. As the bodies were so fused together with the metal of the tank that they could not be separately identified, they were buried in one grave (along with parts of the tank).
Cremation[edit]
Honor Oak Crematorium, Camberwell New Cemetery, London. Architect Maurice Webb – geograph.org.uk – 45058
Main article: Cremation
There are several common alternatives to burial. In cremation the body of the deceased is burned in a special oven. Most of the body is burnt during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of bone fragments. Bodies of small children and infants often produce very little in the way of "ashes", as ashes are composed of bone, and young people have softer bones, largely cartilage. Often these fragments are processed (ground) into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called ashes. In recent times, cremation has become a popular option in the western world.
There is far greater flexibility in dealing with the remains in cremation as opposed to the traditional burial. Some of the options include scattering the ashes at a place that was loved by the deceased or keeping the ashes at home. Ashes can also be buried underground or in a columbarium niche.
A method with similar benefits is freeze-drying the corpse.
Live burial[edit]
Main article: Premature burial
Live burial sometimes occurs, in which individuals are buried while still alive. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by asphyxiation, dehydration, starvation, or exposure to climate. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways;
Intentional: buried alive as a method of execution or murder, called immurement when the person is entombed within walls. In ancient Rome, Vestal Virgins who broke their vows were punished in this way.[40]
Accidental: A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an earthquake, cave in, or other natural disaster or accident. Live burial may also occur due to avalanches on mountain slopes.
Inadvertent: People have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced dead by a coroner or other official, when they were in fact still alive.
Writer Edgar Allan Poe wrote a number of stories and poems about premature burial, including a story called "The Premature Burial." These works inspired a widespread popular fear of this appalling but unlikely event. Various expedients have been devised to prevent this event, including burying live telephones or telemetry sensors in graves.
Burial at cross-roads[edit]
Historically, burial at cross-roads was the method of disposing of executed criminals and suicides.[41] In Great Britain this tradition was altered by the Burial of Suicide Act 1823, which abolished the legal requirements of burying suicides and other people at crossroads. Cross-roads form a crude cross shape and this may have given rise to the belief that these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. Another possible explanation is that the ancient Teutonic (Germanic) ethnic groups often built their altars at the cross-roads, and since human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of Christianity, criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the pagans. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Roman road to Edgware and beyond met the Roman road heading west out of London.[41]
Superstition also played a part in the selection of crossroads in the burial of suicides. Folk belief often held such individuals could rise as some form of undead (such as a vampire) and burying them at crossroads would inhibit their ability to find and wreak havoc on their living relations and former associates.
Burial of animals[edit]
By humans[edit]
Main article: Pet cemetery
Soldiers' dog cemetery at Edinburgh Castle
In addition to burying human remains, many human cultures also regularly bury animal remains.
Pets and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with a shoe box or any other type of container served as a coffin. To bury a pet at home you must own the property, the property must be classified as a place of residence and the pet must have been living at that property before their death. Pets whose bodies could be classed as hazardous waste cannot be buried at home. A veterinarian will advise if this is the case.[42] The ancient Egyptians are known to have mummified and buried cats, which they considered deities.
By other animals[edit]
Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. Chimpanzees[citation needed] and elephants are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups. In a particularly odd case, an elephant which trampled a human mother and child buried its victims under a pile of leaves before disappearing into the bushes.[43] In 2013, a viral video caught a dog burying a dead puppy by pushing sand with its own nose.[44] It is presumed, however, that since dogs retain the instinct to bury food, this is what is being depicted in the video.[45] In social insects, ants and termites also bury their dead nestmates depending on the properties of the corpse and the social context.[46]
Exhumation[edit]
Exhumation, or disinterment, is the act of digging up, especially a corpse. This is most often done to relocate a body to a different burial spot. Families may make this decision to locate the deceased in a more pertinent or convenient place. In shared family burial sites (e.g. a married couple), if the previously deceased person has been buried for an insufficient period of time the second body may be buried elsewhere until it is safe to relocate it to the requested grave. In most jurisdictions a legal exhumation usually requires a court order or permission by the next of kin of the deceased. Also in many countries permits are required by some governing agency like the board of health in order to legally conduct a disinterment.[47]
Exhumation of human remains occur for a number of reasons unrelated to the burial location, including identification of the deceased or as part of a criminal investigation. If an individual dies in suspicious circumstances, the police may request exhumation in order to determine the cause of death. Exhumations may also occur as part of grave robbing, or as an act of desecration to show disrespect. In rare, historical cases (e.g. Pope Formosus or Oliver Cromwell), a body may be exhumed for posthumous execution, dissection, or gibbeting. Notable individuals may be exhumed to answer historical questions. Many Ancient Egyptian mummies have been removed for study and public display. Exhumation enables archaeologists to search the remains to better understand human culture.
In folklore and mythology, exhumation has also been frequently associated with the performance of rites to banish undead manifestations. An example is the Mercy Brown Vampire Incident of Rhode Island, which occurred in 1892.
Changing burial location[edit]
Remains may be exhumed in order to be reinterred at a more appropriate location for various reasons.
The passing of time may mean political situations change and a burial can take place in different circumstances. Roger Casement was executed at Pentonville Prison in London on 3 August 1916 and buried in the prison grounds but his body was exhumed and given a state funeral in Dublin on 1 March 1965.[48]
Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may be reburied if survivors so wish.[49] For example, when the remains of MIA soldiers are discovered, or the case of Nicholas II of Russia and his family, who were exhumed from unmarked graves near Yekaterinburg to be reinterred in the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.
Cemeteries sometimes have a limited number of plots in which to bury the dead. Once all plots are full, older remains may be moved to an ossuary to accommodate more bodies, in accordance with burial contracts, religious and local burial laws. In Hong Kong where real estate is at a premium, burials in government-run cemeteries are disinterred after six years under exhumation order. Remains are either collected privately for cremation or reburied in an urn or niche. Unclaimed burials are exhumed and cremated by the government.[50] Permanent burial in privately run cemeteries is allowed.
Remains may be exhumed and reburied en masse when a cemetery is relocated, once local planning and religious requirements are met.[51] It also enables construction agencies to clear the way for new constructions. One example of this is cemeteries in Chicago next to O'Hare International Airport to expand the runways.*The remains of the Venerable or the Blessed are sometimes exhumed to ensure their bodies lie in their correctly marked graves, as their gravesites usually become places for devotees to gather, and also to collect relics. The bodies may also be transferred to a more dignified place. It also serves the purpose to see if they are supernaturally Incorrupt. An incorrupt corpse is no longer considered miraculous, but it is a characteristic of several known saints. Exhumation is no longer a requirement in the beatification process, but still may be carried out.
For ethical and cultural reasons, repatriation and reburial of human remains may be carried out when museums return remains to their place of origin.
Cultural aspects of exhumation[edit]
Frequently, cultures have different sets of exhumation taboos. Occasionally these differences result in conflict, especially in cases where a culture with more lenient exhumation rules wishes to operate on the territory of a different culture. For example, United States construction companies have run into conflict with Native American groups that have wanted to preserve their burial grounds from disturbance.
In Southern Chinese culture, graves are opened after a period of years. The bones are removed, cleaned, dried, and placed in a ceramic pot for reburial (in Taiwan), or in a smaller coffin and to be reburied in another location (in Vietnam). The practice is called jiǎngǔ in Taiwan, or boc mo in Vietnam '揀骨 "digging up bones" and is an important ritual in the posthumous "care" of children for their deceased parents and ancestors. Failure to carry out this ritual is considered a failure of filial piety.[citation needed]
Jewish law forbids the exhumation of a corpse.[52]
In England and Wales once the top of a coffin has been lowered below ground level in a burial if it raised again, say for example the grave sides are protruding and need further work, this is considered an exhumation and the Home Office are required to be notified and a full investigation undertaken. Therefore, grave diggers in England and Wales are particularly careful to ensure that grave sites are dug with plenty of room for the coffin to pass.[53]
Reinterment[edit]
Reinterment refers to the reburial of a corpse.[54]
Secondary burial[edit]
Main article: Secondary burial
Secondary burial is a burial, cremation, or inhumation that is dug into a pre-existing barrow or grave any time after its initial construction. It is often associated with the belief that there is a liminal phase between the time that a person dies and finally decays.[55]
Alternatives to burial[edit]
Adashino Nembutsuji in Kyoto, Japan stands on a site where Japanese people once abandoned the bodies of the dead without burial
Alternatives to burial variously show respect for the dead, accelerate decomposition and disposal, or prolong display of the remains.
Burial at sea is the practice of depositing the body or scattering its ashes in an ocean or other large body of water instead of soil. The body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one.
Funerary cannibalism is the practice of eating the remains. This may be done for many reasons: for example to partake of their strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life into the family or clan, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The Yanomami have the practice of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with banana paste.
Cremation is the incineration of the remains. This practice is common amongst Hindus and is becoming increasingly common in other cultures as well. If a family member wishes, the ashes can now be turned into a gem, similar to creating synthetic diamonds.[56]
Whether cryonics constitutes a method of interment, rather than a form of medical treatment, remains under debate. See also information-theoretic death and clinical death.
Excarnation is the practice of removing the flesh from the corpse without interment. The Zoroastrians have traditionally left their dead on Towers of Silence, where the flesh of the corpses is left to be devoured by vultures and other carrion-eating birds. Alternatively, it can also mean butchering the corpse by hand to remove the flesh (also referred to as "defleshing").
Gibbeting was the semi-ancient practice of publicly displaying remains of criminals.
Hanging coffins are coffins placed on cliffs, found in various locations, including China and the Philippines.
Ossuaries were used for interring human skeletal remains by Second Temple Jews and early Christians.
Promession is a method of increasing the rate of decomposition in order to help fertilize the soil.
Resomation accelerates disposal through the process of alkaline hydrolysis.
Sky burial places the body on a mountaintop, where it decomposes in the elements or is scavenged by carrion eaters, particularly vultures.
Promession freeze dries human remains before burial.
Adapting traditions[edit]
Burial[edit]
As the human population progresses, cultures and traditions change with it. Evolution is generally slow, sometimes more rapid. South Korea's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park[32]. Around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a 'good death', while dying away from home was considered a 'bad death'. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This quickly resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class quickly followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of the upper classes. With this change, cremation also practice more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism, and was quickly banned in 1470. It wasn't until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was re-introduced in 1945 and later on lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity.
Funeral ceremonies[edit]
According to Margaret Holloway,[57] funerals are believed to be driven by the consumer's choice, personalisation, secularization, and stories that place individual traditional meta-narratives. It has been studied that funeral homes in the United Kingdom are most concerned with comforting the grieving, rather than focusing on the departed. This study found that modern day funerals focus on the psycho-social-spiritual event. Modern day funerals also help the transition of the recently passed transitioning to the social status of 'the deceased'.[clarification needed] The article found that funeral homes do not adhere to traditional religious beliefs, but do follow religious traditions.
Bed burial
Burial Act 1857 (A United Kingdom law about exhumation)
Burial mound
Burying Your Dog at Home
Corpse road
Health risks from dead bodies
Museum of Funeral Customs
State funeral
Superburial
Notes and references[edit]
^ Philip Lieberman. (1991). Uniquely Human. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-674-92183-2.
^ Wilford, John Noble (16 December 2013). "Neanderthals and the Dead". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
^ Chris Scarre, The Human Past
^ "Evolving in their graves: early burials hold clues to human origins – research of burial rituals of Neanderthals". Findarticles.com. 15 December 2001. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ Philip Lieberman (1991). Uniquely Human: The Evolution of Speech, Thought, and Selfless Behavior. Harvard University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-674-92183-2.
^ Bleiberg, Edward (2008). To Live Forever: Egyptian Treasure from the Brooklyn Museum. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. pp. 71–72.
^ "04—ARTI—Morgan—307–312" (PDF). Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ Claude de Ville de Goyte (2004). "Epidemics Caused by Dead Bodies: A Disaster Myth That Does Not Want to Die" (PDF).
^ Nakata, Hiroko (28 July 2009). "Japan's funerals deep-rooted mix of ritual, form". The Japan Times. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
^ a b James K. Crissman, Death and Dying in Central Appalachia: Changing Attitudes and Practices, University of Illinois Press, 1994 ISBN 9780252063558.
^ a b c Mary LaCoste, Death Embraced: New Orleans Tombs and Burial Customs, Lulu, 2015 ISBN 9781483432106.
^ ICCM, "Policy Relating to Shallow Depth Graves", Institute of Cemetery & Crematorium Management, May 2004, accessed and archived 6 July 2019.
^ A. Lloyd Moote, Dorothy C. Moote, The Great Plague: The Story of London's Most Deadly Year, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006 ISBN 9780801892301.
^ Chris Raymond, "Why Are Graves Dug 6 Feet Deep?", Verywell Health, accessed and archived 21 July 2019.
^ "greenburialcouncil.org". greenburialcouncil.org. 26 August 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
^ a b c Holden, Matthew H.; McDonald-Madden, Eve (2018). "Conservation from the Grave: Human Burials to Fund the Conservation of Threatened Species". Conservation Letters. 11: n/a. doi:10.1111/conl.12421. ISSN 1755-263X.
^ "CINDEA (Canadian Integrative Network for Death Education and Resources) maintains resources on green burial and other topics relevant to the pan-death movement". Cindea.ca. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
^ a b c Yarwood, Richard; Sidaway; Kelly; Stillwell (2014). "Sustainable deathstyles? The geography of green burials in Britain" (PDF). The Geographical. 181 (2): 172–184. doi:10.1111/geoj.12087. hdl:10026.1/3241.
^ Scalenghe, R., Pantani, O.L. (2020). "Connecting existing cemeteries saving good soils (for livings)". Sustainability. doi:10.3390/su12010093. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Harker, A (2012). "Landscapes of the Dead: An Argument for Conservation Burial". Berkeley Planning Journal. 25: 150–159.
^ "Our Standards". Green Burial Council.
^ a b Frankel, George. "What is an Eternal Reef?". Eternal Reefs. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
^ a b "Resomation: Like Cremation, but Green". ABC News. 6 September 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
^ a b MacDonald, Fiona. "This Mushroom Suit Digests Your Body After You Die". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
^ a b "Biodegradable burial pods will turn you into a tree when you die". Global News. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
^ a b "Be a Tree; the Natural Burial Guide for Turning Yourself into a Forest". Be a Tree; the Natural Burial Guide for Turning Yourself into a Forest. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
^ O'Connor, Kim (October 2013). "Corpse Couture". Wired (paper): 50.
^ Thornton Parker, William. "Concerning Indian Burial Customs". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Lander, J (2000). Peter Labilliere: The Man Buried Upside Down on Box Hill. Chertsey: Post Press. ISBN 978-0-9532424-1-2.
^ Simpson, Jacqueline (August 2005). "The Miller's tomb: facts, gossip, and legend [1]". Folklore. 116 (2): 189–200. doi:10.1080/00155870500140230. JSTOR 30035277.
^ Simpson, Jacqueline (January–March 1978). "The World Upside down Shall Be: A Note on the Folklore of Doomsday". The Journal of American Folklore. 91 (359): 559–567. doi:10.2307/539574. JSTOR 539574.
^ a b c d Park, Chang-Won (2010). "Funerary transformations in contemporary South Korea". Mortality. 15 (1): 18–37. doi:10.1080/13576270903537559.
^ a b c d Swazey, Kelli, Life that doesn't end with death, retrieved 28 April 2017
^ a b McGrath, Pam; Phillips, Emma (1 October 2008). "Insights on end-of-life ceremonial practices of Australian Aboriginal peoples". Collegian. 15 (4): 125–133. doi:10.1016/j.colegn.2008.03.002. ISSN 1322-7696. PMID 19112922.
^ "Bahá'í Reference Library – The Kitáb-i-Aqdas, pp. 101–2". Reference.bahai.org. 31 December 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ "Bahá'í Burial". Bahai-library.com. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ "Stonereport News for your natural stone business". Stonereport.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ ""Europeans Seek the Grave's Anonymity" – The Christian Century, Vol. 113, Issue 17, May 15, 1996 | Online Research Library: Questia". www.questia.com. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
^ (www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. "Germans opt for alternative burials for individual touch | Culture | DW.COM | 31 October 2013". DW.COM. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
^ Smith, William (1 January 1846). A School Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Abridged from the Larger Dictionary. Harper. p. 353.
^ a b One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cross-roads, Burial at". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 510.
^ Burying Your Dog at Home https://www.dfordog.co.uk/blog/pet-dog-home-burial.html
^ "Kenya elephant buries its victims". 18 June 2004 – via news.bbc.co.uk.
^ Brown, Emily (25 June 2013). "Dog buries puppy in viral video". USA Today. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
^ "Why Dogs Dig and What You Can Do". WebMD. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
^ López-Riquelme, Germán & Fanjul-Moles, Maria. (2013). "The funeral ways of social insects. Social strategies for corpse disposal". Trends in Entomology. 9. 71–129.
^ Exhumation of the remains of a deceased person. Citizens Information Ireland. Retrieved on 29 June 2014.
^ National Archives, London, CAB 128/39
^ "Accident victim's body is exhumed". BBC News. 6 July 2006. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
^ "Coffin Burial". Fehd.gov.hk. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
^ "Cemetery Relocation". Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
^ Lamm, Maurice. "The Grave". Chabad.org.
^ "Apply for an exhumation licence". Gov.uk. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
^ "Man Andrew Jackson killed in duel to be reburied". Associated Press. 24 June 2010.
^ 1991 Metcalf, Peter & Richard Huntington. Celebrations of Death: The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual. Cambridge Press, New York. Print.
^ Roberts, Brian (10 August 2016). "Turning The Dead into Diamonds: Meet The Ghoul Jewelers of Switzerland".
^ Holloway, Margaret; Adamson, Susan; Argyrou, Vassos; Draper, Peter; Mariau, Daniel (2013). ""Funerals aren't nice but it couldn't have been nicer". The makings of a good funeral". Mortality. 18 (1): 30–53. doi:10.1080/13576275.2012.755505.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Burials.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Burial and Burial Acts.
Look up burial in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Video depicting the exhumation of missing German soldiers killed in 1944 from a mass grave
Avascular necrosis
Coagulative necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Gangrenous necrosis
Caseous necrosis
Fibrinoid necrosis
Temporal lobe necrosis
AICD
Intrinsic apoptosis
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The Goodbye Family
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A lasting memory of my secondary school education is our teacher asking the class, "How many of you have parents that are divorced?" Bar one, the entire room raised their hands. Now I was a typical teenager, interested in boys and make up rather than social economics, but even so, it still stuck me as a bit sad.
Apparently 42% of marriages now end in divorce. That's a staggering amount and something I had previously assumed was just a made up figure that Bridget Jones' singletons might throw into conversation to annoy 'smug marrieds'. Now before I get lynched by a mob of angry single mothers I want to clarify at this point that I was in the majority group of 'divorced parents' raising my hand. This is not an article against divorce, nor a statement against parents that separate. There are often valid reasons for divorce, as in the case of my parents, where staying together would have been to my detriment as I would have grown up in a household full of hate, whereas separately, I was loved by each of my parents. So single mothers, single fathers… I am not against you. I have respect that you made the difficult choice you had to make and I appreciate the way thousands of separated people make things work for them and their families.
My reason for writing however is about the ease at which couples seem to divorce nowadays. It seems that just as a puppy is for life and not just for Christmas, a wedding should be for life and not just for the gift list at John Lewis. Are we too ready as a culture to just pack it in and walk away from our betroved without a backwards glance?
Celebrity marriages do nothing for the reputation of marriage with Britney Spears' marriage to Jason Alexander in 2004 lasting just 55 hours. How are young couples expected to believe in the sanctity of marriage when Zsa Zsa Gabor (married 9 times) was married for less than 24 hours to Felipe DeAlba? It seems that some modern marriages are carried out on a whim and there is no intention of death till us part. Moreover, it appears there is a lack of effort in making things work, with a throwaway attitude of 'if it's difficult it's not worth trying'. Now I know this is not the case with all divorces, please don't get me wrong. So don't take offence if you've tried for years to keep your marriage together, only to realise divorce is the best option for everyone. That's an entirely different thing. I am only thinking about those people who walk away at the first sign of trouble.
My grandparents were married in the 1950s, in a time when divorce was still frowned upon (except perhaps by Elizabeth Taylor) and marriage was for life. The total number of divorces was recorded as 30,870, whereas in 2012 it is noted as 118140. Now I can assure you my grandparent's marriage wasn't all sunshine and belly fluff, they experienced their share of hardships, disagreements and heartache, but they worked through it and made their marriage work. They were together till the end, married over 50 years.
I'm in my 5th year of marriage and I like to think we will go the distance. If we do however, it seems well be bucking the trend with figures showing a staggering 13 divorces an hour in 2012. Both mine and hubby's parents are divorced so it seems a tall order to beat the odds. I'm not naive enough to believe in fairy tale marriages but I'll certainly work hard to achieve our happy ever after if that's what it takes. And if not? Perhaps I'll remarry a divorce lawyer; they must be raking it in!
An Old Rooster and a Young Chick Live Here!
How to make a man love you, in twelve easy steps!
Love your article so true we just don't try hard enough, I have been married for twenty years, we have our ups and down it's not easy but it can be done. Thank god I still love my husband although sometimes I really hate his guts and he makes me so mad but that's all part of it. Compromise, laughter, a glass of wine (not too much that's when the arguments start) and lots of *** even if sometimes you don't really feel like it, you'll make it through.


Pharmaseed ‣ Company Overview ‣ Management ‣ Yoram Sela PhD.
Dr. Yoram Sela joined Pharmaseed in 2009 after being involved in corporate pharmaceutical research and development for the last two decades. He was Vice President for R&D at Nesher Solutions (2008-2010) and LycoRed (2004-2008) as well as a Co-Founder and Head of R&D at Karma Pharm (2000-2004). In the 1990s, Dr. Sela set up and managed the drug-delivery unit at Teva Pharmaceuticals and has since continuously served as director for several early-stage biotechnology companies. He holds a Ph.D. and MSc. from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Casali Institute of Applied Chemistry.


For his strategic investments across African countries and creating thousands of jobs, the Global Organised Labour, under the aegis of African Industrial Global Union, has commended the President of Dangote Group, Aliko Dangote, for his patriotism and investment in Africa.
The body, at a meeting in Lagos, called for special recognition for the African entrepreneur, describing him as a success story from African soil for which African countries must be proud.
Speaking at a network meeting on unionisation in Dangote Group, organised by Industrial Global Union, Africa Region in Lagos, the union leaders, one after another, said Dangote has offered a relief to Africa from the negative narratives the western countries latched on to discredit Africa and her people.
They stated that much as an African could so patriotic as to be dotting African soil with billion of dollars investments to create jobs and reduce poverty, he needs to be given special recognition to motivate others to tow similar line.
Relishing on the prospective of an African country hosting the single largest Refinery and Petrochemicals train project, the union leaders said it was planning in their next African meeting to bring the business mogul to address global union leaders.
Regional Secretary, sub-Sahara Africa, Fabian Nkomo said the body cherished the business acumen of Dangote and would like to work closely with him so that as he creates jobs, the union could also partner to ensure job quality is maintained.
He said he has moved round Africa and discovered no one else has invested so much in Africa as an Africa and therefore Dangote should be encouraged.
"He has help governments across African states to create vital jobs and reduce poverty among our people, the unions are very proud of him," Nkomo stated.
In his remark, the Africa Regional Chairman of Industrial Global Union, Issa Aremu, who is also the General Secretary of Textile Workers Union commended Aliko Dangote for leading industrialisation in the Africa continent.
Aremu acknowledged the remarkable efforts of Aliko Dangote at re-industrialisation of the continent, stimulating the continent's growth and creating more jobs for its huge population.
The labour leader lauded the commitment of Dangote to sustainable industrial development and urged government to provide favourable environment for investments as well as improvement in infrastructural development.
Dangote Group was commended for the strong network of branches across the Africa continent; Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d' Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Senegal, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania, Congo, Cameroun, Kenya, Ethiopia among others.
Aremu added that it was time Dangote group entered into mutually rewarding engagement with relevant unions with a view to unionisation even as he called on trade unions to support business through improved productivity.
He alluded to the $12 billion refinery, petrochemicals and fertilizer projects which he said would be a revolution of the Nigerian industrial space when completed.
As partners in progress, Aremu pledges the support and cooperation of Industrial Global to ensure business-friendly unionisation of the Dangote workers.
He nevertheless cautioned the unions involved to be proactive and strategic in approaching the exercise saying: "We need to show that we are partners to improve on the businesses of Dangote because we are talking of unionisation because there is an investment in which workers are engaged. If there are no businesses, we can't be talking of unionism.
"So first and foremost, we must be seen to be part of forces that are protecting investments. We are not business killers, if anything we are adding value. So, we cherish him as one of the few Nigerians making a good story out of Nigeria and Africa and would like to collaborate with him.
Industrial Global Union with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, represents 50 million workers in 140 countries in the cement, mining, energy and manufacturing sectors. It is a force in global solidarity taking up the fight for better working conditions and trade union rights around the world.
In attendance were the leadership and organisers of industrial affiliate unions in Nigeria; National Union of Textile Garment and Tailoring Workers of Nigeria (NUTGTWN), Nigeria Union of Petroleum and Natural Gas (NUPENG), Chemical and Non Metallic Products Senior Staff Association of Nigeria (CANMPSSAN), National Union of Chemical, Footwear, Rubber, Leather and Non Metallic Products Employees (NUCFRLAMPE), Petroleum and Natural Gas Senior Staff Association of Nigeria (PENGASSAN), Steel and Engineering Workers Union of Nigeria (SEWUN) and National Union of Electricity Employees (NUEE). The Africa Regional Secretary of Industrial Global Union, Comrade Fabian Nkomo, attended the meeting with a representative of Dangote Group.


text:
Q: Format vsto listobject before linked to datatable I have a vsto application that populates an Excel sheet.
First I populate the datatable. The next function is to create a vsto listobject:
// Populate the sheet
XlsInterop.Excel.Worksheet worksheet = (XlsInterop.Excel.Worksheet)Globals.ThisAddIn.Application.ActiveWorkbook.Worksheets.Add();
extendedWorksheet = Globals.Factory.GetVstoObject(worksheet);
XlsInterop.Excel.Range cell = extendedWorksheet.Range["A1"];

excelItemsList = extendedWorksheet.Controls.AddListObject(cell, sheetName);
excelItemsList.AutoSetDataBoundColumnHeaders = true;
excelItemsList.DataSource = dt;
excelItemsList.ListColumns[5].Range.NumberFormat = "@";

Now the problem is that in column "5" I have values like 005, 004. In Excel, the values display as 5 and 4. How can I make sure that the values in Excel show the same values as in my database?
If I change my code like:
excelItemsList.SetDataBinding(dt);
excelItemsList.ListColumns[5].Range.NumberFormat = "@";
excelItemsList.SetDataBinding(dt);

It is doing what I want, but I don't think that this is the way to go.

A: If you know how many leading zeros you need, you can then format the column with that.
.NumberFormat = "000";

The column would then still be evaluated as a number.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Prepare to approach life with a renewed sense of curiosity and wonder, knowing that there's a story behind every person you meet, and every experience you encounter, from which you can profit greatly.
While the term flâneur originally connoted an idle stroller, indeed even a loafer, often seen as someone prone to wasting time, the term gradually developed a more complex and richer meaning throughout 19th century France concurrent with the accompanying industrialization of French society.
Eventually the idleness of the flâneur in the context of modern urban living was viewed in a more positive light when it became apparent that the ever-increasing pace and impersonal character of industrialized society was changing the very nature of the relationships people had with one another.
In general, they had less time. They became more self-focused. They often developed a cultural cynicism, and their notions of freedom and their very being were altered. Sound familiar? In the 20th century we would come to call this, "the Daily Grind," among other things.
The flâneur is not really part of all this. He makes for himself the luxury of time – but he wastes none of it. He uses this time – to take time – to engage with those around him. To savor those with whom he engages, along with the best the current culture has to offer – the most eclectic food, drink, accouterments, and the most compelling intellectual concepts and thought.
In short, he takes the time to savor life itself and in the process, tries to figure out what it's all about.
So what does this have to do with anything? Particularly here in 21st century America?
There appears to be an emptiness, and a longing on the part of many of us, here in this post-modern age, to find substantive meaning and fulfillment in our lives.
So many of us are on this treadmill of modern life in a manic effort to acquire success, stuff and stature - only to find that the real fulfillment we desire continues to elude us, regardless of our perceived progress. Like the proverbial mirage in the desert that can never be reached.
I believe that many in prior generations had the answer - and the pursuit of the answer is what this website and Blog are all about.
The purpose of this website is to serve as a practical companion to The American Flâneur Blog.
The Blog provides some philosophical context and guideposts for becoming a flâneur in post-modern America, based on my own life experiences.
This website will provide you with resources you can utilize in order to assist in beginning your own journey in hopefully enhancing the quality of your life.
Within the pages of the Blog, as they unfold, you will find extraordinary people, both historical and contemporary, along with establishments who understand fully how life is well-lived, and how to improve its quality for others, both socially and experientially.
Life is short. Tomorrow is not guaranteed. Every day not savored and experienced to its fullest is a day wasted.


text:
//
// Diese Datei wurde mit der JavaTM Architecture for XML Binding(JAXB) Reference Implementation, v2.3.2 generiert
// Siehe https://javaee.github.io/jaxb-v2/
// Änderungen an dieser Datei gehen bei einer Neukompilierung des Quellschemas verloren.
// Generiert: 2020.03.13 um 12:48:52 PM CET
//

package net.opengis.ows._1;

import javax.xml.bind.annotation.XmlAccessType;
import javax.xml.bind.annotation.XmlAccessorType;
import javax.xml.bind.annotation.XmlElement;
import javax.xml.bind.annotation.XmlType;

/**
 * Identification of, and means of communication with, person responsible for the server. At least one of IndividualName, OrganisationName, or PositionName shall be included.
 *
 *
Java-Klasse für ResponsiblePartyType complex type.
 *
 *
Das folgende Schemafragment gibt den erwarteten Content an, der in dieser Klasse enthalten ist.
 *
 *

 * <complexType name="ResponsiblePartyType">
 *   <complexContent>
 *     <restriction base="{http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema}anyType">
 *       <sequence>
 *         <element ref="{http://www.opengis.net/ows/1.1}IndividualName" minOccurs="0"/>
 *         <element ref="{http://www.opengis.net/ows/1.1}OrganisationName" minOccurs="0"/>
 *         <element ref="{http://www.opengis.net/ows/1.1}PositionName" minOccurs="0"/>
 *         <element ref="{http://www.opengis.net/ows/1.1}ContactInfo" minOccurs="0"/>
 *         <element ref="{http://www.opengis.net/ows/1.1}Role"/>
 *       </sequence>
 *     </restriction>
 *   </complexContent>
 * </complexType>
 *

 *
 *
 */
@XmlAccessorType(XmlAccessType.FIELD)
@XmlType(name = "ResponsiblePartyType", propOrder = {
    "individualName",
    "organisationName",
    "positionName",
    "contactInfo",
    "role"
})
public class ResponsiblePartyType {

    @XmlElement(name = "IndividualName")
    protected String individualName;
    @XmlElement(name = "OrganisationName")
    protected String organisationName;
    @XmlElement(name = "PositionName")
    protected String positionName;
    @XmlElement(name = "ContactInfo")
    protected ContactType contactInfo;
    @XmlElement(name = "Role", required = true)
    protected CodeType role;

    /**
     * Ruft den Wert der individualName-Eigenschaft ab.
     *
     * @return
     *     possible object is
     *     {@link String }
     *
     */
    public String getIndividualName() {
        return individualName;
    }

    /**
     * Legt den Wert der individualName-Eigenschaft fest.
     *
     * @param value
     *     allowed object is
     *     {@link String }
     *
     */
    public void setIndividualName(String value) {
        this.individualName = value;
    }

    public boolean isSetIndividualName() {
        return (this.individualName!= null);
    }

    /**
     * Ruft den Wert der organisationName-Eigenschaft ab.
     *
     * @return
     *     possible object is
     *     {@link String }
     *
     */
    public String getOrganisationName() {
        return organisationName;
    }

    /**
     * Legt den Wert der organisationName-Eigenschaft fest.
     *
     * @param value
     *     allowed object is
     *     {@link String }
     *
     */
    public void setOrganisationName(String value) {
        this.organisationName = value;
    }

    public boolean isSetOrganisationName() {
        return (this.organisationName!= null);
    }

    /**
     * Ruft den Wert der positionName-Eigenschaft ab.
     *
     * @return
     *     possible object is
     *     {@link String }
     *
     */
    public String getPositionName() {
        return positionName;
    }

    /**
     * Legt den Wert der positionName-Eigenschaft fest.
     *
     * @param value
     *     allowed object is
     *     {@link String }
     *
     */
    public void setPositionName(String value) {
        this.positionName = value;
    }

    public boolean isSetPositionName() {
        return (this.positionName!= null);
    }

    /**
     * Ruft den Wert der contactInfo-Eigenschaft ab.
     *
     * @return
     *     possible object is
     *     {@link ContactType }
     *
     */
    public ContactType getContactInfo() {
        return contactInfo;
    }

    /**
     * Legt den Wert der contactInfo-Eigenschaft fest.
     *
     * @param value
     *     allowed object is
     *     {@link ContactType }
     *
     */
    public void setContactInfo(ContactType value) {
        this.contactInfo = value;
    }

    public boolean isSetContactInfo() {
        return (this.contactInfo!= null);
    }

    /**
     * Ruft den Wert der role-Eigenschaft ab.
     *
     * @return
     *     possible object is
     *     {@link CodeType }
     *
     */
    public CodeType getRole() {
        return role;
    }

    /**
     * Legt den Wert der role-Eigenschaft fest.
     *
     * @param value
     *     allowed object is
     *     {@link CodeType }
     *
     */
    public void setRole(CodeType value) {
        this.role = value;
    }

    public boolean isSetRole() {
        return (this.role!= null);
    }

}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


You'll earn 20 HealthyRewards points.
Take 3 softgels with meals one to three times daily, or as recommended by your healthcare professional.
Other Ingredients: gelatin, vegetable glycerin, soy lecithin (antioxidant), tocopherol complex (antioxidant), extract of rosemary (antioxidant), ascorbyl palmitate (antioxidant), and lime flavor.


Studio Foursaken Media, which created Heroes and Castles and Noblemen: 1896, has finally released its new project Game of Gods.
In this game, you will become a god to save the Earth. This can be done in several ways: kind, caring for people, or evil, destroying everyone in their path.
In any case, you will find dynamic gameplay in which you will use spells and combine them with each other to achieve unusual results.
The game has both a single-player campaign and multiplayer mode. In the latter to fight with the same gods.
It is also interesting that the studio has chosen a vertical orientation for its project, so despite the scale of what is happening, you can play with one hand.
The project is distributed free of charge, but with in-game purchases.


text:
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FUNDRAISER FOR ROCKINGHAM FREE PUBLIC LIBRARY: David Rosane & The Zookeepers, Chard diNiord, Owen Nied, Verandah Porche, Patty Carpenter, World Under Wonder Playhouse cast members, and perhaps more TBA
Stage 33 Live
Bellows Falls, VT
This concert featuring David Rosane & The Zookeepers, Vermont's poet laureate Chard diNiord, Owen Nied, Verandah Porche, Patty Carpenter, World Under Wonder Playhouse cast members, and perhaps more TBA caps off the Zookeeper's annual library fundraising tour this year. This is a fundraiser for the Rockingham Free Public Library! They will receive 100% of the funds raised.
Saturday, August 31. Door at 6:00 PM, show at 7:00 sharp.
Tickets are available at the Rockingham library, and online at stage33live.com
This summer, libraries across the country are celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon Landing and America's achievements in space research. Library professionals chose the slogan "A Universe of Stories" for their summer reading programs to inspire people of all ages to dream big, believe in themselves, and create their own story.
Also this summer, David Rosane & the Zookeepers (whose latest album, "Book of ZOO", won the 2019 Tammie Award for best Vermont rock album), will be touring in support of rural libraries. A self-described 'fringe' band known for delivering humor, intellectualism, and drama in equal doses, The Zookeepers have dubbed the tour "Across the ZOO-niverse: a 2019 Library-Space Odyssey and Benefit Tour, Rockin' Vermont for Literacy, Democracy and Free Speech."
The band's frontman, David Rosane, said, "What started out last year as a grassroots effort led by a trio of crazed bookworms has blossomed. We now have the full-fledged support of the Vermont Department of Libraries, lots of media attention, a recent appearance at the Vermont State Legislature, a bunch of local business sponsors, and towns inviting us to play for them!"
The band's first library-fundraising tour received considerable media coverage — from VPR to WCAX and Seven Days and many local papers — which helped shine a light on the issues facing libraries as these legendary institutions see their revenue decrease across the country at a time when they are becoming increasingly crucial to the public interest. The tour caught the eye of the Vermont Department of Libraries, which is now helping the band to reiterate and expand their efforts.
The concert in Bellows Falls will be the last stop on the Zookeepers' 2019 Library Benefit Tour. This year's tour, featuring Don Sinclair on bass and guitar, and Jennifer Grossi on vocals, synthesizer, and percussion, will also pass through Burlington, Cabot, Enosburg, Rochester, Peacham, Bradford, Derby Line, Barre, Middletown Springs, Weston, Groton, Marshfield, Hardwick, Chelsea, and East Fairfield.
"All donations raised at the door of each show go to the local library and their programs and needs", said Rosane. "In addition to fundraising, we really want to draw attention to the role that libraries play in our towns and villages. They aren't just a place for books — they're community centers, an open space for public events and life-long learning. Or people can just hang and socialize… a cool place for the lonely, the elderly, and special populations."
Band member Jennifer Grossi adds, "The collective awareness on how vital libraries are to our lives and liberty is growing. In many communities in Vermont, libraries are the only places some people can access the internet — imagine how crucial that factor can be in making voting decisions, for example, or even getting inspired to vote."
The tour's finale in Bellows Falls on August 31st at Stage 33 Live will fundraise for the Rockingham Free Public Library.
Vermont has the highest number of libraries per capita in the United States, ranging from beautifully historic to tiny, and from cutting-edge to make-do. All of them are pillars of the common good, a place to gather and network, access ideas and resources.
In raising funds for libraries, the Zookeepers help answer needs ranging from the purchase of new computers, facility improvement, financing kid's programs involving health awareness and event-based citizen science, to the purchase of environmentally friendly materials. As frontman Rosane says, "A little help can go a long way."
www.davidandthezoo.com
www.facebook.com/davidrosaneandthezookeepers/
www.stage33live.com/2019/08/the-zookeepers/
The Mid-River Bulletin Board is facilitated by WOOL-FM.
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facilitated by WOOL-FM.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The vegetable cover on the island of Silba is mainly consisted of unique mediteranian flora, which varies from scraper to very compact and dense Mediteranian oak (also known as Evergreen oak - lat. Quercus ilex) woods. Furthermore, on Silba you can find about fifty small Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) groves.
Silba scraper is usually made of Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), Myrte (Myrtus communis), Prickly juniper (Junuperus oxycedrus), Spanish broom (Spartum junecum) and many other types of this unique mediteranian vegetable cover. The vegetable cover also includes famous mediteranean fruit cultures as well as numerous curative, aromatic, flavour and decorative mediteranean plants.
As far as fruit cultures are concerned, the most widely known are certainly olives (Olea europea), fig-trees and almonds. The less represented sorts are vine, pomegranate, lemon and mandarine.
Aromatic plants are most commomly Marjoram (Origanum vulgaris), Sweet bay tree (Laurus nobilis), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare).


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A-1 Handballs Are Back! Originally Made By A-1's Factory For A Major US Sporting Goods Company Many Years Ago As Well As Other Handball Associations. A-1 Has Made A Substantial Commitment To Bring Back What Is Considered By Most Top Players As Well As Amateurs, "The Best Handballs Ever Made".
As In The Past, There Will Be Two Types Of Tournament Quality Handballs. One Is Now Called The "A-1 Red-Pro" And The Other, The "A-1 White-Pro". The Difference Is The "Red-Pro" Weighs About 60g, And Are Used Primarily By The Men. The "White-Pro" Weighs About 42g And Is A Little Softer Than The "Red-Pro. The "White-Pro" Is Used Primarily By Women And Intermediate Players. Both Versions Are Packed Two Balls In The "Old Fashioned" Metal Pressurized Can, 36 Cans Per Case.


text:
Is Bipolar Disorder Becoming More Prevalent?
May 24, 2012 By Dawn McAlexander
Bipolar Disorder Prevalence –
Image Credit: Hollywood Joe
Tuesday night I watched Dateline's 20th Anniversary Special. I was particularly excited to see the interview with Michael J. Fox. Regular readers of my blog know that I have written a few articles about him and really think he sets a great example for those living with differences.
What I found really striking during his interview was when he asked his interviewer, Jane Pauley, a few questions himself. A very poignant comment was made when Pauley confessed that during a previous interview with Fox, he had helped her reach an epiphany. She had recently been diagnosed with bipolar disorder and had also turned in her resignation to The Today Show. She had been offered her own program but was unclear as to whether she would take it, given her recent diagnosis. She told Fox that during that interview, she made up her mind to persevere. Pauley took the job and, although it only lasted a year, she told Fox that that was one of the happiest years of her life and she owed that to him.
Image Credit: NBC
Another celebrity who has openly discussed her diagnosis with bipolar disorder is Catherine Zeta Jones. She is perhaps best known for her roles in Chicago, Traffic and more recently she has been seen in the T-Mobile commercials where she tells us all of the great benefits of T-Mobile android phones as opposed to their competitors.
Image Credit: ABC News
Today, far more people are open and talk about their mental health issues. Do you think that it is because the issues are more prevalent today or because we are slowly removing the stigma that used to encompass mental illness? Years ago, when actress Vivien Leigh was diagnosed with bipolar disorder, it slowly ruined her career and her life. Today, countless people are not only coping with this diagnosis, but are also thriving and living happy, successful lives.
*Brought to you by your friends at T-Mobile
Filed Under: Entertainment, Family Tagged With: bipolar disorder, Catherine Zeta Jones, Dateline, health, Jane Pauley, mental health, Michael Douglas, Michael J Fox, NBC, psychology, T-Mobile
About Dawn McAlexander
AimeeKay says:
I suffer from bi-polar disorder. I know there is A LOT of stigma attached to it. A lot of people still are ashamed to admit their diagnosis. I don't blame them. I've had heartless people in my life deny any choices I've made or feelings I've had by simply saying that it must be my bi-polar kicking in, if what I choose to do or how I feel doesn't coincide with their own opinions.
I think that it is great the big stars are coming out of the proverbial closet with their condition. It makes it easier to cope and for people to relate to the disease.
In answer to your question, no I don't think it is more common now. I just think that it is more easily diagnosed these days and since people in the media are showing it is ok to admit to being bi-polar and it isn't a weakness or some horrible abnormality. So it makes it easier to share with the rest of the world without fear of being labeled as insane or unbalanced.
Also with advances in medicine and therapy it also makes it easier to find ways to function in today's world.
I think you are right. It's not more prevalent, just more treated. Medicine has come a long way in recent years – but we have a lot further to go. Some theorize that the Salem Witch Trials was based on people's harsh judgement of people who were differently abled. It's horrible how people get treated for something they can not control.
Ronni Keller says:
My daughter is bi-polar. It was such a struggle when she was young as we really had no idea what was going on with her. And Dr's, most weren't very helpful and some even wrote her off as a 'bad kid' or we were 'bad parents'… We didn't know how to help her. We lucked into a terrific Dr who finally was able to diagnosis her and we were so relieved to finally have a plan. There's such a stigma surrounding this it's very sad to hear some things people say… you're crazy, you're a psycho on and on…
I absolutely agree. I don't think it's more prevalent but more diagnosed. And thankfully at that!
People are so quick to judge things and people that they do not understand. I am glad you finally found a doctor who listened.
http://www.cheapisthenewclassy.com
Erika @Musings From a Stay At Home Mom says:
I think it's wonderful that people are becoming more open. I've had some issues myself, due to an abusive and traumatizing childhood and I've slowly become more open. I don't tell everyone, but if a situation arises where I could encourage someone else, I will say something.
ashleigh walls says:
I think it is a lot harder to ignore the mental illnesses. Things get worse and they need to be taken care of and the more we talk about them the better they will be.
It does seem like a lot more people talk about mental illnesses these days. I think the stigma is definitely decreasing and perhaps people feel more comfortable opening up. On the other hand, it seems like a lot of doctors are very quick to diagnose now, too. I actually had a doctor diagnose me with bipolar disorder and hand me a box of pills. His technique was awful and I chose to completely ignore the whole appointment. He was so impersonal and he just read questions and checked off boxes the whole time. It seemed like he was on WebMD on his tablet. It was such an impersonal experience and completely inaccurate. I have issues, yes, but I don't think I'm full-blown bipolar. I just hope that everyone does their homework and gets a second opinion before taking heavy doses of meds. There's a lot more to this story, but I am rambling! 🙂 Overall I am glad that people talk about this topic now!
I think that a lot of general doctors do a lot of diagnosing that they may not be exactly qualified to do {just a personal opinion}.
A few years ago I went to a doctor because I kept getting bronchitis {like 4 and 5 times a year}. I went to this doc repeatedly and he sent me for all kinds of tests that were not necessary {gall bladder test, anyone?}. Finally, when he couldn't figure out why I kept getting bronchitis he told me that I "must" just be depressed. Um, no. I went to another doctor, a holistic one, and he diagnosed me with asthma – in the first visit. He listened to me, ran one test and Voila! Years later I am fine, and I rarely ever get a respiratory infection or bronchitis anymore. All it took was some asthma meds. I hope I see that first doc out somewhere so that I can tell him to kiss it. 🙂
I think a lot of doctors {not all} have a real problem accepting defeat – that they just can't figure it out. So instead of referring you elsewhere, they diagnose, with no thought as to whether it is right or not. And no thought as to how it will affect you. I am sorry that you had that experience, Jennifer.
Interesting. Thank you so much for sharing this information.