text:
Epoka przedpiśmienna w historii  języka polskiego trwała od połowy X w. do połowy XII wieku. Z okresu tego znane są jedynie zapisy nazw własnych z terenu Polski, zawarte głównie w tekstach łacińskich.

Ramy czasowe
Za początek samodzielnego rozwoju języka polskiego przyjmuje się drugą połowę X wieku, kiedy to zaczęła powstawać polska państwowość. Powstanie państwa polskiego jest we wszystkich periodyzacjach historii języka polskiego uznawane za istotny czynnik narodzin polszczyzny. Początki języka polskiego można jednak przesunąć na przełom IX i X wieku, kiedy to prawdopodobnie zaszły takie procesy, jak: dyspalatalizacja samogłosek przednich, wokalizacja jerów mocnych i wokalizacja spółgłosek sonantycznych.

Ze względu na kryterium filologiczne (czyli fakt niewystępowania lub występowania zabytków pisanych) za koniec epoki przedpiśmiennej polszczyzny uznaje się połowę XII wieku. Umowną datą jest rok 1136, kiedy to prawdopodobnie została wystawiona Bulla gnieźnieńska. Dokument ten został sporządzony w języku łacińskim poza obszarem Polski, zawiera jednak 410 polskich nazw osobowych i miejscowych, na podstawie których można zrekonstruować system fonetyczny ówczesnej polszczyzny, a także typy onomastyczne. Dlatego też Bullę gnieźnieńską można potraktować jako pierwszy zabytek filologiczny polszczyzny oraz cezurę między epoką przedpiśmienną i piśmienną języka polskiego.

Należy jednak pamiętać, że cezury między etapami rozwoju języka polskiego mają charakter umowny. Na pograniczu okresów występują stadia przejściowe, charakteryzujące się stopniowym zanikaniem starych cech i narastaniem nowych.

Źródła

Piśmiennictwo w Polsce

Epoka przedpiśmienna polszczyzny to z samej definicji okres, z którego nie zachowały się teksty pisane w języku polskim. Z tego czasu znane są jedynie zapisy nazw własnych z terenu Polski, zawarte głównie w tekstach łacińskich.

Nie oznacza to jednak, że przed połową XII w. nie zapisywano po polsku żadnych tekstów. Do czasów współczesnych zachowała się jedynie cząstka dorobku polskiego piśmiennictwa średniowiecznego; nieznane są liczba i charakter tekstów bezpowrotnie zaginionych na przestrzeni wieków, zaś część zachowanych źródeł oczekuje jeszcze na dokładne przebadanie.

Być może pewne elementy przedpiśmiennej twórczości w języku polskim zachowały się w przysłowiach, porzekadłach, zawołaniach czy fragmentach pieśni ludowych, notowanych od XV wieku. Według niektórych badaczy datę powstania Bogurodzicy można umieszczać już w XI/XII w., nie jest to jednak powszechnie przyjęte datowanie, najstarsze bowiem zachowane zapisy tej pieśni pochodzą dopiero z początku wieku XV.

Zabytki piśmiennictwa

Geograf Bawarski

Najstarszym zabytkiem notujących wyrazy słowiańskie z obszaru dzisiejszej Polski (nazwy plemion: Wiślanie, Goplanie, Wiercanie, Lędzicy, Ślężanie, Dziadoszanie, Opolanie, Golęszycy) jest Geograf Bawarski z IX wieku. Zapis nazwy Dziadoszanie jest najstarszym świadectwem występowania przegłosu lechickiego.

Dagome iudex

Prawdopodobnie około 990 został sporządzony dokument określany jako Dagome iudex (zachowały się jednak tylko kopie jego streszczeń z przełomu XI i XII wieku). Zawiera on zniekształcone nazwy miejscowe jak Kraków, Gniezno, Szczecin, Odra, Prusowie, Rusowie.

Kronika Thietmara

Kolejnym zabytkiem zawierającym nazwy polskich plemion (Dziadoszycy, Ślężanie), grodów (Głogów, Krosno, Niemcza, Wrocław), rzek (Odra, Bóbr) oraz imiona (Bolesław) jest Kronika Thietmara z początku XI wieku.

Kronika Galla Anonima

Stosunkowo dużo polskich nazw własnych, osobowych i miejscowych, zawiera Kronika Galla Anonima z początku XII wieku.

Tendencje rozwojowe
Z powodu braku tekstów w języku polskim sprzed połowy XII w. opis ówczesnej polszczyzny może opierać się jedynie na rekonstrukcji i metodach językoznawstwa historyczno-porównawczego. Przyjmuje się, że zjawiska językowe, których nie ma w rekonstruowanym języku prasłowiańskim, a które są w najstarszych tekstach zapisanych po polsku, zaszły właśnie w epoce przedpiśmiennej polszczyzny. Łatwiejsze do zrekonstruowania są zjawiska fonologiczne (uwidaczniają się nawet w pojedynczych wyrazach) niż morfologiczne czy składniowe, zauważalne dopiero w całych zdaniach.

Głównymi zjawiskami w polszczyźnie przedpiśmiennej były:

 przegłos lechicki
 wokalizacja sonantów r, ŕ, l, l'
 zanik i wokalizacja jerów
 wzdłużenie zastępcze
 ściągnięcie samogłosek rozdzielonych głoską j

Słownictwo

Zasób

Według badań Tadeusza Lehra-Spławińskiego do czasów współczesnych zachowało się w polszczyźnie około 1700 wyrazów prasłowiańskich (ponad 1000 rzeczowników, 400 czasowników, 170 przymiotników, 80 wyrazów należących do innych części mowy), przekształconych jednak w wyniku późniejszych zmian fonetycznych. W epoce przedpiśmiennej było ich jednak znacznie więcej, gdyż wiele wyszło z użycia w późniejszych wiekach.

Wśród wyrazów odziedziczonych z prasłowiańskiego można wyróżnić grupy:

 życie duchowe człowieka – duch, rozum, pamięć, gniew, radość
 pojęcia religijne i moralne – bóg, kara, prawda, raj
 pogląd na świat i życie – życie, śmierć, osoba, imię
 właściwości duchowe człowieka – dobry, zły, mądry, głupi, łagodny, srogi
 przyroda martwa i ożywiona – ziemia, góra, brzeg, woda, rzeka, jezioro, błoto, lód
 pojęcia astronomiczne i meteorologiczne – dzień, noc, wiosna, lato, deszcz, śnieg, słońce, niebo
 rośliny – dąb, sosna, jabłoń, śliwa, brzoza, grzyb
 zwierzęta – niedźwiedź, wilk, lis, zając, bocian, wrona, mucha, pająk, wąż
 części ciała – noga, ręka, czoło, ramię, serce, żołądek, ucho, oko
 życie rodzinne – ojciec, matka, brat, siostra, stryj, wuj
 życie społeczne – chłop, sąsiad, gość, wróg, przyjaciel, wojsko, broń
 życie gospodarcze – gospodarz, żyto, pszenica, owies, sierp, kosa, ściana, ława
 właściwości ludzi, zwierząt i przedmiotów – wysoki, niski, zdrowy, chory, mały, wielki, prosty, krzywy
 nazwy czynności i stanów – być, mieć, chcieć, lubić, jeść, spać, stać, płakać
 podstawowe zaimki, liczebniki, przysłówki, przyimki i spójniki

Zapożyczenia

Zapożyczenia prasłowiańskie

Większość zasobu leksykalnego odziedziczonego przez język polski w początkach jego kształtowania się to wyrazy rdzennie prasłowiańskie. Obok nich polszczyzna odziedziczyła także zapożyczenia językowe dokonane jeszcze w epoce prasłowiańskiej:

 języki germańskie – chleb, izba, ksiądz, lek, lekarz, lichwa, miecz, myto, pieniądz, piła, pług, szkło
 łacina – bezpośrednio: wino; za pośrednictwem germańskim: cesarz, deska, kupić, misa, ocet, osioł
 języki irańskie lub sarmackie  – kur, socha, topór
 języki celtyckie – sługa

Zapożyczenia terminologii chrześcijańskiej

Po przyjęciu chrześcijaństwa przez Mieszka I słownictwo polszczyzny wzbogaciło się o wyrazy związane z chrześcijaństwem (na terenie Śląska i Małopolski, znajdujących się w orbicie wpływów Moraw i Czech, słownictwo takie mogło przenikać już od przełomu X i XI wieku). Większość tych słów trafiła za pośrednictwem języka czeskiego, do którego z kolei zostały zaczerpnięte bezpośrednio lub pośrednio z łaciny, greckiego, niemieckiego i staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiego. Mógł to być proces wieloetapowy, np. greckie εὐαγγέλιον (euangelion) przeszło do łaciny jako evangelium, następnie do czeskiego jako ewanjelium i do polszczyzny pierwotnie jako ewanjelia (współcześnie ewangelia). W języku czeskim miał miejsce pierwszy etap slawizacji obcojęzycznych terminów, kolejne zaś zmiany fonetyczne następowały na gruncie polszczyzny.

Przykłady:

 polski < czeski < łacina:
 anioł (dawn. ańjoł) < anjel < angelus
 ewangelia (dawn. ewanjelia) < ewanjelium < evangelium
 kolęda < kolęda (dziś kolada) < calendae
 pacierz < pateř < pater noster
 poganin < pogan (dziś pohan) < pāgānus
 polski < czeski < niemiecki < łacina:
 chrzest (dawn. krzest) < krst < Krǐst < Christus
 kościół (dawn. *kost'oł) < kostel < kástel < castellum
 ołtarz < oltář < altâri < altāre
 polski < czeski < niemiecki < języki romańskie
 papież < papiež < bâbes < papes

(wyrazy poprzedzone gwiazdką * są formami zrekonstruowanymi)

Kolejna grupa zapożyczonej terminologii chrześcijańskiej to neologizmy znaczeniowe, czyli istniejące już w polszczyźnie wyrazy słowiańskie, które, na wzór języka czeskiego, przyjęły nowe znaczenie:
  ksiądz (dawn. kniądz) – "książę" → "duchowny"
 bóg – "bóstwo" → "najwyższa istota"
 niebo – "firmament" → "miejsce pobytu Boga i świętych"
 święty –  "mocny" → "osoba kanonizowana"
 piekło – "smoła" → "miejsce pobytu potępionych"

Jeszcze inna droga wchodzenia słownictwa religijnego do wczesnej polszczyzny to kalki językowe:
 pol. sumienie (dawn. sąmnienie) – czes. svědomi – łac. conscientia
 pol. czyściec – czes. čistec – łac. purgatorium
 pol. błogosławić ze staro-cerkiewnego-słowiańskiego za pośrednictwem czeskim

Inne zapożyczenia

W polszczyźnie przedpiśmiennej zapożyczenia niezwiązane z chrześcijaństwem lub związanie z nim pośrednio stanowiły mniej liczną grupę. Prawdopodobnie do polszczyzny trafiły wtedy z łaciny takie słowa, jak łacina, sobota, marzec, maj, szkoła, a za pośrednictwem czeskim lub niemieckim np. berło, olej, pieprz. Z języka niemieckiego (wprost lub za pośrednictwem czeskim) weszły m.in. wyrazy barwa, bławat, bursztyn, chwila, herb, izba, jedwab, perła, rycerz, świadczące o kontaktach handlowych oraz wpływach niemieckich w zakresie życia społecznego.

Przypisy

Bibliografia

Język polski


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Pasta has always been one of my all time favorite foods. I would eat it at every single meal if I could, but after suffering from a variety of digestive issues prior to as well as after going through Breast Cancer treatment, my body can no longer handle that much wheat and gluten as it used to.
Spaghetti squash is a healthy alternative to pasta, and we've used it quite a lot in our own home cooked recipes, so when I saw the Factor 75 Spaghetti Squash with Grassfed Ragu in the list, I figured it would be a great way to get a pasta-type dish into our diet, without the guilt.
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If you have been following along with my weekly recipe posts, you probably know that Mac & Cheese is another one of my favorite meals, our homemade version specifically. But it's another one of the dishes that I can't eat all the time, so when I found this dish, I knew I had to add it to the list.
As the name implies, the Factor 75 Grilled Chicken & Mac features a grilled chicken breast, and the sides are grilled zucchini, squash, cauliflower and mushrooms. The pasta is actually gluten free, and made from a mix of corn and rice flour, with a cheese sauce. Having been on a gluten free diet in the past, these pastas are actually quite tasty. Most times you won't even know that it's not traditional pasta, except for the fact that they tend to absorb more dressing, like those in pasta salads, than their traditional counterparts.
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One of our favorite crock pot meals was slow cooker pork carnitas, and this dish uses pasture raised pork with a side of corn and sweet potatoes. We normally serve ours in taco shells, slathered with salsa, sour cream, lettuce, cheese and taco sauce. I'm really curious to see how this healthier version works out. I particularly like the fact that it's pasture raised pork, and all the ingredients in this dish, as well as the others are organic.
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text:
The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 A Misnomer
Though the Act is Hindu Succession Amendment Act, it appears to be a misnomer as there is nothing new qua daughters' rights of succession. Equal rights by way of succession were already given to daughters as that of sons by Section 8 of Hindu Succession Act, 1956 r/w The Schedule.
Section 8 : General rules of succession in the case of males –
The property of a male Hindu dying intestate shall devolve according to the provisions of this Chapter –
(a) Firstly, upon the heirs, being the relatives specified in class I of the Schedule;
THE SCHEDULE
CLASS – I
Son; daughter; widow; mother; son of a pre-deceased son; daughter of a pre-deceased son; son of a pre-deceased daughter; daughter of a pre-deceased daughter; widow of a pre-deceased son; son of a pre-deceased son of a pre- deceased son; daughter of a predeceased son of a pre- deceased son; widow of a predeceased son of a pre- deceased son.
CLASS – II
(1) Son's daughter's son, (2) son's daughter's daughter, (3) brother, (4) sister.
(1) Daughter's son's son, (2) daughter's son's daughter, (3) daughter's daughter's son, (4) daughter's daughter's daughter.
Only addition is conferring succession rights on great grandson and great granddaughter through daughter/female. However, while amending the Schedule only four such descendants are included in Class-I, who are in entry No.II S.No.2 and entry No.III S.No.2 to 4 of Class-II, whereas there are six such descendants, two are in entry No.II and four are in entry No.III of Class-II. Those are at S.No.1 entry No.II and S.No.1 entry No.III of Class-II are not mentioned in amended Class-I of Schedule.
Chance of getting such right is very very less i.e. remote. However, before amendment great grandson/daughter through son i.e. only through male descendants were included in Class-I of the Schedule. Now, by way of amendment, great grandson / great granddaughter even through female descendants are included in the Schedule so as to grant them right of succession.
Birth Rights in The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005
Major amendment is qua substitution of new Section 6 for Section 6 of Principal Act of 1956. New Section 6 (1) is qua conferring birth right on the daughter of a coparcener. Hence, no right of succession is conferred by that sub-section 1 of Section 6.
Sub-section 2 of Section 6 is qua nature of the property acquired by the said daughter under sub-section 1. Hence, not concerned with succession.
Sub-section 3 of Section 6 is in respect of succession.
Sub-section 3 reads as "Where a Hindu dies after the commencement of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, his interest in the property of a Joint Hindu family governed by the Mitakshara law, shall devolve by testamentary or intestate succession, as the case may be, under this Act and not by survivorship, and the coparcenary property shall be deemed to have been divided as if a partition had taken place and –
(a) the daughter is allotted the same share as is allotted to a son;
(b) the share of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as they would have got had they been alive at the time of partition, shall be allotted to the surviving child of such pre-deceased son or of such pre-deceased daughter; and
(c) the share of the pre-deceased child of a pre-deceased son or of a pre-deceased daughter, as such child would have got had he or she been alive at the time of the partition, shall be allotted to the child of such pre-deceased child of the pre-deceased son or a pre-deceased daughter, as the case may be.
Explanation :- For the purposes of this sub-section, the interest of a Hindu Mitakshara coparcener shall be deemed to be the share in the property that would have been allotted to him if a partition of the property had taken place immediately before his death, irrespective of whether he was entitled to claim partition or not.
However, what is provided by sub-section 3(a) & (b) was already provided by proviso to Section 6 of Principal Act and by Section 8 & Schedule of Principal Act. Hence, nothing new is in clause (a) & (b) of sub-section 3 of Section 6 of the Act of 2005.
Clause (c) of sub-section 3 of Section 6 provides right of succession to great grandson / great granddaughter through female descendants. This clause only provides new right of succession. Schedule is accordingly amended, however, two categories of descendants who are coming under Clause (c) sub- section 3 of Section 6 are not included in Class-I of amended Schedule.
Important right conferred by Amendment Act on the daughter of a coparcener is the birth right and not right by succession.
It is germane to note that the coparcenary birth right is conferred on the daughter of a coparcener and not on all the daughters. The words "the daughter of a coparcener" are very important for interpreting the provision. Wording "the daughter of a coparcener" is used in the provision. Only the daughter or a daughter is not used in the provision. It means all daughters shall not by birth become coparceners, but only the daughter of a coparcener shall by birth become coparcener.
Now the question remains who is "the daughter of a coparcener" under the Hindu Succession Act?
For that it is to be seen who is a coparcener? Son, grandson and great grandson of a male hindu form the coparcenary and they all inclusive of said male hindu are coparceners. 5th generation is not part of coparcenary and the person of 5th generation is not a coparcener. When the person of 1st generation dies then he ceases to be a coparcener and person of 5th generation will be included in the coparcenary and he will be coparcener. It means as soon as person dies he ceases to be a coparcener.
The wording used in the Amendment Act is the daughter of a coparcener. It means what is contemplated in the provision is the daughter of a person who is coparcener. Unless a person is alive he cannot be a coparcener. On his death he ceases to be a coparcener. Hence, the daughter of a person, who ceased to be a coparcener, is not the daughter of a coparcener. Such daughter is the daughter of the deceased coparcener. Thus, it is very clear that the daughter whose father is alive on the date of commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005 is the daughter as contemplated in the provision. The daughter whose father is not alive on the commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005 is not the daughter of a coparcener as her father ceased to be a coparcener on his death.
Thus, only the daughter whose father is alive on the date of commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005 shall by birth become a coparcener. Hence, the only daughter whose father is alive on the date of commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005, acquires birth right as coparcener.
The question, Whether the Amendment Act is retrospective or prospective in operation? is often raised. In view of the wordings of the provision, there is no question of retrospective or prospective operation. Operation of the Amendment Act, 2005 particularly amended Section 6 depends upon the facts of the case.
On commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005 operation of the Amendment Act, 2005 starts. It will apply to some cases which are covered by provision of Section 6 of The Amendment Act, 2005 and not to other cases. It can be explained properly by way of illustrations.
Illustration :-
The father of the girl 'X' was alive on the commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005. Hence, 'X' being the daughter of a coparcener acquires status of coparcener on the commencement date of the Act, hence acquires birth right in ancestral / coparcenary property on that day.
The father of the girl 'Y' was not alive on the commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005. Hence, 'Y' being "not the daughter of coparcener' (whose father ceases to be a coparcener due to death prior to commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005) does not and cannot acquire status of coparcener, hence, does not and cannot acquire birth right in ancestral / coparcenary property.
Thus, the Amendment Act, 2005 is operative since the date of commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005 qua the property contemplated in the Act and the daughters contemplated in the Act.
Equal rights to daughters in Hindu Succession Act
Intent of Legislature appears to give equal rights as that of son in the coparcenary property to the daughter of a coparcener. However, the rights given to the daughter are much more than the son. It is clear from the position that when son gets any property as a coparcener then that property does not remain his exclusive property but his children get equal share in it in view of the nature of the property and effect of the law. Whereas, if the daughter gets any property as a coparcener that will be her exclusive property. Her children will not get any share in it. The position can be explained properly by way of illustration.
Illustration :- A person 'X' has wife 'Y', son 'S' and daughter 'D'. 'X' has 40 acres ancestral land. Prior to the amendment Act, 2005; 'X' & 'S' were having equal rights in the land being coparceners. On commencement of the Amendment Act, 2005, 'D' also becomes coparcener and acquires birth right in that land equal to as that of 'S'. Thus, 'X', 'S' & 'D' being coparceners have equal rights in the land. On the demand of partition by 'S', the land will be equally divided amongst 'X', 'Y', 'S' & 'D'. The reason is that as per law mother gets equal share as that of son in case of partition of ancestral property. Thus, out of 40 acres land 'X', 'Y', 'S' & 'D' each will get 10 acres land. That prima-facie shows equality between son & daughter. However, there is no equal rights of 'S' & 'D'. Reason is that 10 acres land acquired by 'S' on said partition is not his exclusive property but his children acquire birth right in that 10 acres land. If 'S' has wife 'W', son 'S1' and daughter 'D1', then 'S1' & 'D1' acquire equal birth rights in that 10 acres land and on partition, 'S', 'W', 'S1' & 'D1' each will get 21⁄2 acres land. As far as 10 acres land acquired by 'D' remains her exclusive property as her children are not her coparceners and hence, cannot acquire birth right in that 10 acres land. Thus, the son 'S' will be exclusive owner of 21⁄2 acres land whereas the daughter 'D' will be exclusive owner of 10 acres land. The Act of 2005 confers birth right on the daughter of a coparcener and no new right by way of succession was conferred on the daughters. Hence, the name of the Act "The Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005" is A Misnomer. The name of the Act should have been "The Hindu Daughters' Birth Right to Coparcenary Property Act".
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text:
Non-syndromic genetic deafness
Deafness is the most frequent form of sensorial deficit. In the vast majority of cases, the deafness is termed nonsyndromic or isolated and the hearing loss is the only clinical anomaly reported. In developed counties, 60-80% of cases of early-onset hearing loss are of genetic origin.
ORPHA:87884
Isolated genetic deafness
Isolated genetic hearing loss
Non-syndromic genetic hearing loss
Inheritance: Autosomal dominant or Autosomal recessive or X-linked recessive
ICD-10: H90.5
OMIM: -
UMLS: -
GARD: -
Between 1 in 1,000 and 1 in 700 children were born with profound or severe hearing loss.
Clinical description
The majority of cases presenting at birth concern perceptive deafness (with a neurosensory origin associated with the inner ear) rather than conductive deafness (anomalies in the amplification of sound waves between the middle ear - tympanum and auditory ossicles - and the outer ear). Autosomal dominant forms are characterised by very early onset and bilateral hearing loss with varying degrees of severity (ranging from mild to profound). No malformations of the inner ear can be detected by CT scan. Mutations in the PDS gene are responsible for 7% of cases of childhood deafness. In these cases, the deafness is marked by early-onset, usually bilateral (but sometimes asymmetric) hearing loss with autosomal recessive transmission. This form of deafness is always associated with malformations of the inner ear that can be detected by CT scan. In rare cases, thyroid gland disease may also be present. For the autosomal dominant forms of deafness, mutations in the COCH gene result in progressive postlingual deafness associated with severe attacks of vertigo and subjective tinnitus. This form of deafness should be distinguished from Meniere's disease (see this term). Autosomal dominant mutations in the WFS1 gene cause either a form of hearing loss affecting mainly low frequency sounds or deafness associated with optic atrophy.
To date, 86 causative genes for sensorineural deafness have been identified and localised and 37 of these genes have been cloned. Eleven of these genes have been implicated in both isolated and syndromic forms of deafness. Mutations in the gene encoding connexin 26 appear to be responsible for the majority of cases of childhood perceptive deafness.
Hearing loss can be evaluated by audiogram and grouped as either mild (loss between 20 and 40 dB), moderate (loss between 41 and 70 dB), severe (loss between 71 and 90 dB), profound (loss between 91 and 120 dB) or as cophosis (loss beyond 120 dB).
In 85% of cases, the deafness is transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait (DFNB type). Autosomal dominant inheritance accounts for between 10 and 15% of cases (DFNA type), whereas only 1% of cases are inherited as an X-linked trait (DFN type).
Management and treatment
Management should be multidisciplinary (involving a paediatrician, general practitioner, ORL specialist, speech therapist and hearing aid specialist). Hearing aids (either implanted or external) generally provide the only management option for improving hearing loss, although surgical treatment may sometimes be proposed for some forms of conductive hearing loss.
Expert reviewer(s): Dr Sandrine MARLIN - Last update: July 2007
Japanese (2019, pdf)
Clinical genetics review
Gene(s) (118)
Publications in PubMed
Expert centres (90)
Diagnostic tests (369)


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text:
Top 10 Richest Banks in Africa (2021)
Richest Banks in Africa
Which banks are the richest banks in Africa? Home to over 1.3 billion individuals, the continent of Africa is home to practically 17% of the world's entire populace. As per the United Nations, the continent is home to 54 nations.
Every one of them is special and different, showcasing their own economic and cultural contrasts. As far as banking, the locale overall has different remarkable players that cater to its enormous populace.
We have collated the best ten richest banks in Africa and positioned them (in view of asset). Put together, our top ten rundown would be esteemed at more than $600 billion USD. A noteworthy fact would be that just South Africa alone holds four positions on the list.
Compiled below is our rankings of the Top 10 Richest Banks in Africa:
Top 10 Richest Banks in Africa
10. BANQUE EXTERIEURE D'ALGERIE (ALGERIA)
9. BANQUE NATIONALE D'ALGERIE (ALGERIA)
8. BANQUE MISR (EGYPT),
7. BANQUE CENTRALE POPULAIRE (MOROCCO)
6. FIRSTRAND BANK (SOUTH AFRICA)
5. ATTIJARIWAFA (MOROCCO)
4. NEDBANK GROUP (SOUTH AFRICA)
3. ABSA GROUP (SOUTH AFRICA)
2. NATIONAL BANK OF EGYPT (EGYPT)
1. STANDARD BANK GROUP (SOUTH AFRICA)
Tumbling down the ranks from 9 to 10 with $3.2 billion, the External Bank of Algeria (BEA) is an Algerian business bank. It was set up in 1967, and is situated in Bir Mourad Rais. In 1970, all financial operations with foreign nations completed by the most significant national organizations in Algeria were assigned to the BEA.
In 1989, the bank substituted its status to be a joint stock organization.
This bank has fallen on the ranks from number 8 to number 9 with $3.4 billion. The bank, otherwise called National Bank of Algeria (BNA), is Algeria's top commercial bank.
Established on June 13, 1966, it completes every one of the activities of a deposit bank, offering monetary types of assistance for professional organizations and groups. It manages all banking, change and credit activities inside the legislation system and the regulations of banks.
Banque Misr is the eighth richest bank in Africa. Banque Misr scaled down from number 11 to number 8 and was set up in 1920 as the premier entirely Egyptian -owned bank. It boasts of a resource base of $54.62 billion.
Banque Misr has financed numerous organizations crossing across various domestic areas, for example, materials, insurance, transportation, entertainment, aviation and filmmaking.
At present, BM possesses shares in 157 organizations across various fields going from finance, the travel industry, lodging, horticulture and food, and communication and data innovation.
Banque Centrale Populaire (BCP) remains at number 7 with a level 1 capital of $4.7bn.
Situated in France, the Banque Centrale Populaire is an collective of banks established in 1878. The bank is available in more than 40 nations and funds more than 20% of the French economy.
South Africa's FirstRand bank descends from number 3 to number 6 with tier 1 capital down 9% to $5bn (a big part of this is because of FX). FirstRand is, as yet, the most profitable in the best 10 estimated by return on equity (ROE) with an extremely amazing 17% (down from a gigantic 30% in last year's positioning).
With operations in South Africa, India and United Kingdom, FirstRand bank is one of the biggest financial organizations in Africa.
With a history of extremely superior returns to its shareholders, the bank gives a widespread arrangement of transaction-based, investment, loaning and insurance products and services.
Attijariwafa Bank climbs up one spot to number 5 with a tier 1 capital of $6 billion. This makes it the fifth wealthiest bank in Africa.
With north of 10 million customers being catered to in 25 nations, Attijariwafa Bank is a main player in the Moroccan and African financial area.
Established in 1904, "Believe in you" is the bank's motto, and assumes a functioning part in Morocco's social advancement by supporting communities with disadvantages.
Nedbank has climbed higher from number 5 to number 4, with capital likewise up 6% to $5.5 billion. Nedbank Group zeroes in its market on South Africa, with 692 branches and proceeding to grow to the remainder of the African continent.
They proffer a scope of retail and wholesale services in banking, as well as developing insurance and asset and wealth management services.
South Africa's Absa Bank goes down to number 3. Its capital had only gone up 6% to $6.3 billion, mostly hauled back as the South African rand slipped to 4.6% against the US dollar in the year to December 2020.
Absa Group has at least a branch in 12 nations across the African continent and values being an African brand. With employees numbering around 42,000, the bank was established in 1991 and was in the past referred to as Barclays Africa Group Ltd.
They offer individual and commercial banking, credit cards, investment and wealth management along with corporate services.
The National Bank of Egypt climbs up two spots to come in number 2 with a 26% growth in capital propelling it to $6.7 billion. However, it actually has quite a long way to go to challenge the Ruler of Africa's financial savannah.
Established in 1898, the National Bank of Egypt is the most seasoned business bank in Egypt. Since its commencement, NBE has ceaselessly evolved to stay aware of the diverse political and financial stages in Egypt, accepting the national banks obligations during the 50s.
With 510 branches cross country serving 14 million clients, the bank additionally has a global presence.
Standard Bank has kept up with its position as Africa's biggest loan specialist on the continent — a position it has clung to for more than 20 years — with a 5.8% increase in its Tier 1 capital base. It is the only one of South Africa's enormous four to record such an expansion.
The Standard Bank group is a financial organization, offering banking and monetary services to people, businesses, organizations and partnerships both in Africa and globally. With a solid client focal point, the bank's course depends on client and customer experience as the scene of the African economy changes.
With the most recent rankings, North Africa presently has 45 banks in Africa's best 100, up from 42 last year and Egypt and Tunisia each have two more highly-rated banks. Southern Africa's portion falls back from 25 to 22, with South Africa and Namibia each losing banks from the highest ranking, albeit this could somewhat be because of currency fluctuations.
South Africa has 28% of the entire financial tier 1 capital, beating Egypt's 20%, Morocco's 13.5% and Nigeria's 10.6%. Nonetheless, by area, North Africa is ahead, with 45% of the complete capital (on the up from 44% last year), contrasted with 34% in Southern Africa (down from almost 36%).
There are as yet 12 Nigerian banks in the best 100.
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Para otras personas del mismo nombre, véase Ranuccio Farnesio.

Ranuccio Farnesio (; Valentano, 11 de agosto de 1530-Parma, 29 de octubre de 1565) fue un prelado italiano, cardenal de la Iglesia católica.

Biografía
Hijo de Pedro Luis Farnesio y de Girolama Orsini, nació en Valentano.  Cuando tenía cuatro años de edad, su abuelo paterno fue elegido papa como Paulo III, y Ranuccio fue encaminado a la carrera eclesiástica, en la que ascendió rápidamente gracias a la influencia familiar.
Ese mismo año fue nombrado prior de Orden de Malta en San Giovanni dei Forlani (Venecia); a los siete, comendador de S. Maria del Tempio (Bolonia) por renuncia en su favor del cardenal Pietro Bembo; y a los quince, en el consistorio de 1545, fue creado cardenal; recibió el título de Santa Lucía en Silice, que posteriormente cambió por los de Santo Ángel en Pescheria (1546) y Sabina (1565). Por su corta edad fue llamado el cardenalino.

También fue administrador de las archidiócesis de Nápoles, Bolonia y Rávena, Patriarca de Constantinopla, penitenciario mayor, arcipreste de San Juan de Letrán y cardenal elector en los cónclaves en que fueron elegidos papas Julio III, Marcelo II, Paulo IV y Pío IV,  entre otros muchos cargos eclesiásticos.  Ranuccio protegió a Federico Commandino, traductor de diversos trabajos matemáticos del griego antiguo.

Hermano y sobrino suyo eran, respectivamente, los duques de Parma Octavio y Alejandro Farnesio.

Fallecido en Parma a los treinta y cinco años, fue sepultado temporalmente en la catedral de esta ciudad, de donde posteriormente fue trasladado al panteón familiar en la isla Bisentina.

Véase también
 Casa de Farnesio

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
 Árbol genealógico de los Farnesio de 1390 a 1766.

Ranuccio
Fallecidos en Parma
Alumnado de la Universidad de Padua
Alumnado de la Universidad de Bolonia
Cardenales de Italia del siglo XVI

Cardenales creados por Paulo III
Cardenales obispos de Sabina-Poggio Mirteto
Cardenales nepotes
Arzobispos de Nápoles
Obispos y arzobispos de Bolonia
Obispos y arzobispos de Rávena
Obispos de Italia del siglo XVI
Patriarcas latinos de Constantinopla
Caballeros de la Orden de Malta
Nacidos en Valentano

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Which teeth are you going to replace?
How are the saddles going to relate to existing teeth?
This isn't strictly part of the system, but it's needed in order to determine the rest of the design. When the model is cast up for your patient, this then needs to be placed on a model surveyor. The surveyor has a vertical arm that comes down and contacts the model. This process will be covered in more detail in another post. Various instruments are used with the surveyor including a lead marker and analysing rod. The aim is to analyse the model in the horizontal plane, and alternative planes, to identify undercuts for your denture to use and the path of insertion.
The path of insertion is the path taken by the denture from first tooth contact until it is fully seated.
Rests can be occlusal, cingulum or incisal. The state of the abutment tooth has to be considered first to see what force it can tolerate. Rests also provide a number of other functions including indirect retention, positioning the denture correctly and distribution of load.
Clasps provide direct retention and prevent this displacement. Only the final third of the clasp engages the undercut.
When something like a clasp is placed around a tooth, during disengagement from the undercut, the clasp will apply a lateral force on the tooth. Over time, this will cause the tooth to tip and weaken. Therefore, something is needed on the opposite side of the tooth the reciprocate this force i.e. a bar or a plate. So reciprocation is balancing the sideways force on a tooth. The reciprocating plate must be in contact with the tooth in order to function properly.
Demonstration of reciprocation – the reciprocating plate is on the right and remains in contact with the tooth when the clasp (left) disengages from the undercut.
Bracing is preventing sideways and anteroposterior movement of the denture. Often this occurs automatically through the extension of the denture itself. Bracing can become difficult in free-end saddle cases, where there isn't much material present. In these situations, extending the footprint of the denture can prove to be beneficial.
Connectors are the components of the denture that join everything up, which can be minor or major. Minor connectors join the smaller components to the saddles, while major connectors join the saddles up and complete attachment between the two halves on the arch.
Connectors also help in terms of support, bracing and indirect retention. Connectors need to be hygienic, rigid and tolerable to the patient.
Indirect retention prevents tipping/rotation of the denture about a fulcrum. Indirect retention is most necessary in situations such as Kennedy Class I, II and IV cases, where the main components of the denture are restricted to one part of the denture. This creates an axis which the denture wants to tip over (as shown by the image below). Therefore, components need to be placed on the opposite side of this axis to stabilise it. Indirect retention can be provided by connectors, clasps and rests.
The system of design is a method that is used to help design a partial denture in an ordered manner to ensure all components and features are covered. It is a simple and complete method to follow for partial denture design.