text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1951 09

Front Cover
Australian Radio and Electronics

incorporating

Australasian Radio World

Registered at G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical.

SEPTEMBER, 1951 - Vol. 16., No. 2.

1/6

P.01 - Contents Banner
AUSTRALIAN RADIO AND ELECTRONICS

and incorporating

(AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD)

A MONTHLY PUBLICATION

Providing National Coverage for the Advancement of Radio and Electronic Knowledge.

Vol. 16. - SEPTEMBER, 1951 - No. 2.

P.01 - Contents
CONTENTS

Our Cover. . . . 1

Editorial. . . . 2

A Simple and Inexpensive Vacuum Tube Voltmeter (Part 2). . . . 4

The R. & E. T/V. Project (Part 6). . . . 8

In Tune with the Trade. . . . 10

Novice Set Building (a Section for the Beginner). The All Wave One — Part 2. . . . 12

International Broadcasting and Shortwave Review (a Special Section for Old and New Australians). . . . 15

Amateur Radio Section — Eliminate that Hum. . . . 23

"Ham" Activities. . . . 26

Our Cover
OUR COVER

RADIOTRON VALVES UNDER FINAL TESTING. The scene on this month's front cover depicts Radiotron Converter type valves undergoing a series of routine tests, some of which must be carried out in the screen room in the background.

P.01 - Publication Notes
Subscription Rates: 12 Issues 18/- Post Free

Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephones: BU3879 - BW7746 Telegrams and Cables: "Cranlay," Sydney

'''When making purchases or enquiries please mention Aust. Radio & Electronics. IT HELPS US BOTH'''

Managing Editor: '''LAY. W. CRANCH''', AMIRE (Aust.), M.W.I.A., VK2XC

Short-wave Editor: L. J. KEAST, 7 Fitzgerald Rd., Ermington, N.S.W. Phone: WL1101.

"Ham" Activities: J. A HAMPEL, 503 Radium Street, Broken Hill, N.S.W.

Advertising Representative for Victoria: David Robertson, C/o Duplications, 175 William St., Melbourne, C.1. Phone: MU4571.

Sole Wholesale Distributors - Gordon & Gotch (A/asia) Ltd.

Printed by ACACIA PRESS, 171 Parramatta Road, Annandale (Footnote P.40)

P.02 - Editorial
'''EDITORIAL. . .'''

THE AMATEUR EXPERIMENTER

In these days of high scientific achievement is there anything the amateur can do that is likely to be of lasting value to radio? There have always been amateur experimenters in many branches of pure and applied science, and no doubt there always will be. In days gone by, when the universities and learned societies knew no more about some phenomena than did the man in the street, scientific discovery was open to anyone with the inclination, time and disposition to study such phenomena in a logical and scientific manner. In fact, many important discoveries were made by men who today would certainly be classed as amateurs. Now, however, the situation is different. The sum of human knowledge is so vast that no single brain can compass it. Not only must scientists or engineers specialise in a particular subject, but in a branch or even sub-branch of that subject, in order that new fields may be explored. On the face of things, the day has gone when the amateur with limited resources in equipment and scientific training, can pursue a line of experiment and produce results that will ever interest the expert scientist or engineer.

The face of things, however, is no more a reliable guide to truth than ever it has been; human knowledge may be vast, but what remains to know is always vaster.

The day of the amateur experimenter is not past, and never will be — we trust. There are doubtless many experimenters who would like nothing better than to feel that, by their own efforts, they were advancing in some measure our knowledge of radio. For them will be a real incentive to apply the knowledge they have gained in creating more. In our next issue is a short article describing a co-ordinated series of practical constructional articles which are to be presented in these pages under the collective title of the A.R. & E.-V.H.F. Programme. This scheme is a new departure, not only for this journal, but also, it is thought, for any technical periodical. The idea behind the series, and the scope of the articles will be described in the article referred to above. On the receiver side, it is thought that our own ideas will in all probability be quite adequate, but apart from this, there is a great deal of room for difference of opinion and, in particular, for different requirements. This applies more particularly to transmitting circuits. In addition to straight-out receiving and transmitting gear, there is the interesting problem of ancillary equipment. For V.H.F. bands, it is no less necessary than at lower frequencies to have available absorption frequency meters, modulation monitors, and the other small but invaluable pieces of equipment that enable one to work with so much more sureness, speed, and satisfaction. In fact, it is really more necessary to have these things on the V.H.F. bands than at lower frequencies. The main idea behind the V.H.F. programme, is to assist those amateur transmitters who feel that with a little help in the way of suitable published articles, they could make a start in this new and intriguing territory. They will also, we hope, be of some value to those who have been put off by the difficulties, imagined, or real, of V.H.F. gear; from this it should not be inferred that the articles, or the equipment described in them, are elementary only. It is our theory that the amateur can build just as good transmitters and receivers for very high frequencies as he often does for the lower ones, and, what is more important, that the one is no more difficult than the other. To this end, we would hereby invite any of our readers who expect to be taking an interest in the V.H.F. Programme, to send us their suggestion for any V.H.F. equipment they would like to see incorporated. We cannot, of course, guarantee to fall in with all suggestions, but will do our best to make the series as interesting and useful as possible to the greatest number of V.H.F. enthusiasts. In this way we too can play our small part in the advancement of Radio and Electronic knowledge.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1951 10

Front Cover
Australian Radio and Electronics

incorporating

Australasian Radio World

Registered at G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical.

Vol. 16. - OCTOBER, 1951 - No. 3.

1/6

P.01 - Contents Banner
AUSTRALIAN RADIO AND ELECTRONICS

and incorporating

(AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD)

A MONTHLY PUBLICATION

Providing National Coverage for the Advancement of Radio and Electronic Knowledge.

Vol. 16. - OCTOBER, 1951 - No. 3.

P.01 - Contents
CONTENTS

Our Cover. . . . 1

Editorial. . . . 2

A New High Quality Local Station Tuner. . . . 4

Novice Set Building — The Progressive Batt. Three, Part 1. . . . 12

International Broadcasting and Shortwave Review (a Special Section for Old and New Australians). . . . 15

Amateur Radio Section — The A.R. & E. 1951. - V.H.F. Programme. . . . 23

"Ham" Activities. . . . 28

Wave Forms and How to Make Them, Part 3. . . . 29

Our Cover
OUR COVER

Apart from the correct alloying of the various metals used in its composition one of the most important phases in the manufacture of Anisotropic Alnico magnet steels is that of heat treatment. Our cover illustration shows one of Rola Company's physicists removing a white hot magnet from the laboratory furnace (left) and placing it between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet in which it will be cooled and made Anisotropic.

P.01 - Publication Notes
Subscription Rates: 12 Issues 18/- Post Free

Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephones: BU3879 - BW7746 Telegrams and Cables: "Cranlay," Sydney

'''When making purchases or enquiries please mention Aust. Radio & Electronics. IT HELPS US BOTH'''

Managing Editor: '''LAY. W. CRANCH''', AMIRE (Aust.), M.W.I.A., VK2XC

Short-wave Editor: L. J. KEAST, 7 Fitzgerald Rd., Ermington, N.S.W. Phone: WL1101.

"Ham" Activities: J. A HAMPEL, 503 Radium Street, Broken Hill, N.S.W.

Sole Wholesale Distributors - Gordon & Gotch (A/Asia) Ltd.

Printed by ACACIA PRESS, 171 Parramatta Road, Annandale (Footnote P.36)

P.02 - Editorial
'''EDITORIAL. . .'''

THE IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRONICS

FOR too many years now has the importance of electronics been overshadowed in the public mind by the entertainment value of one of its greatest manifestations — radio broadcasting. It is only natural that this, one of the marvels of the century, should capture the public imagination to the extent that it has done, but at the same time there is no reason why kindred, and even more important branches of electronics, should be relatively so little known. The vast part played in the world's economy by radio communication (as distinct from broadcasting) is hardly even guessed at by the layman. Radio communication itself is now only one item in an ever-growing list of electronic applications, the importance of which, is daily increasing. In the last decade, uses have been developed for electronic techniques which were previously undreamed of. Industrial men, doctors, engineers and workers in all branches of pure and applied science, have been provided with powerful new tools for investigating and solving their problems — problems which, in many cases, have defied solution till electronics supplied the key to them. To some, this may seem a sweeping statement, and so it is, but it is nonetheless true, and in direct proportion to its truth is the importance of electronics to the world at large and to this country in particular. This being the case, the importance of having a sufficiently large body of men trained in electronics engineering can hardly be overestimated. At present a vicious circle exists, whereby the full exploitation of electronic techniques is hindered by the lack of men with good enough qualifications and sufficiently advanced training. The incentive to suitable young men to study advanced electronics is likewise hindered by the lack of positions for them once they are fully trained. However, there is certainly no lack of appreciation in Great Britain or America, either of scientific development generally, or of electronics in particular. It is recognized that in defence alone electronics will, in the future, play a part bigger by far than its share in the last war. For this reason alone, quite apart from any other, Australia should take care to keep in the forefront of peace-time electronics, just as she did during the war. For, whether peace or war is to be our future lot, we now live an electronic age, when none can say that this branch of applied science will not ultimately exceed all others in its effects upon mankind.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:Naimur Rahman47.bd

My name is Naimur Rahman.

Religion: Islam.

Language: Bengali.

Nationality: Bangladeshi.

There is a place - not your own.

Hobby:Waking up at night, watching Jochna, counting them, making friends, wanting to see the whole world.

Sports:Cricket, Football.

I like it

* Green nature

* Open field

* Toxic air

* River bank

* Boat

* Fog

* Sunrise

* The sun sets

* Dewdrops

* The sound of rain

* The roar of the sea

* Sea shore

* The call of birds

* Rain

* White clouds

* Blue sky

* Watercolor

* Twilight

* Kashaban

* Rainbow

* Methopath

* My 'I am alone'

Dear Flower:

* Roses (white, black, blue)

Color Safe

* Blue

* White

* Black

Season:

* Rain

* Winter

* Spring

Insects

* Butterflies

* Beech

* Scorpion.

* Wakes up in the morning.

* There is no such thing as smartness.

* He may have a tear in his head.

* Can't quarrel - in pure language.

* No experience bothering friends.

* When writing, the pen is broken.

* Not good to see?

* Can't smile (correctly)

* I stay later with the phone.

* In a word, I am lazy.

Mother says - I am a simple fool, but the truth of the word is not known. It is good to think negatively about people. Because, if you don't think negatively, you can't find out the positive aspects.I think a lot about trivial matters, and I blow up urgent matters.I have a little different interest in that mystery.Love loneliness extreme, Because the taste of loneliness is not over yet.

(There's another reason I'm alone. I don't have a partner.)

I want to believe a little.Bad language does not come out of my mouth.By The way 'I thought I would be unsmart! Because I can't be smart.

oh! I forgot. I love spending time with friends !!!

title: User:Naimur Rahman47.bd


text:
Arabic/Parts of speech

There are three parts of speech in the Arabic language:

-	Nouns أَسمَاءٌ

-	Verbs أَفعَالٌ

-	Particles حُرُوفٌ

Nouns أَسمَاءٌ
Nouns are words that are not affected by tense. Nouns include, in addition to what is typically considered a noun, adjectives and adverbs. Nouns generally have three elements: the word الكَلِمَةٌ, the i3raab اَلإِعرَابُ, and the tanween اَلتَنوِينُ. The actual noun is the biggest element and denotes the meaning of the noun. The i3raab gives the grammatical case of the noun. It is the final vowel in the noun. This will be further explained in future lessons. And finally, the tanween is the indefinite article.

Examples:

The noun (كِتَابٌ) is comprised of the three elements.

1-	كِتَاب

2-	ُ

3-	Tanween

The first element is the actual noun. This is the element that gives the meaning of “book.” The second element, اَلإِعرَابُ, is the vowel ُ in the end of the actual noun. Generally, the vowel is ُ but can also be َ or ِ, depending on the grammatical case. The last element is the tanween. Orthographically, the tanween is part of the i3rab. It is a dent in ُ to make it ٌ. Notice that these two are different. The i3rab and tanween will become more important in the following lessons. For now, it is important to recognize them as separate entities. The i3rab and tanween complex can have three main types: ٌ, ً, and ٍ. They have the sounds -un, -an, and -in respectively. The tanween is removed when adding the definite article, which will be explained in the next lesson.

Verbs أَفعَالٌ
Verbs are words that are affected by tense. There are three main tenses in the Arabic language. The past tense اَلمَاضِيُ that describes the past. The present اَلمُضَارِعُ that describes the present and the future. The imperative tense اَلأَمرُ which describes the imperative verbs. Notice that the future tense is part of the present. The word اَلمُضَارِعُ actually means present and future, though there is no word to describe it in English.

Note that the verbs also have an i3raab. As you can see, the i3raab changes depending on the tense. It can also change in other circumstances. The verbs do not have a tanween, as they cannot be undefined.

Particles حُرُوفٌ
A particle is any speech that is not a word. Particles do not have meaning on their own. An example of a particle in English is the preposition “in.” When said, it does not have a meaning except when it is combined with a word, as in “in the book.” There are various types of particles and they will be introduced as needed.

title: Arabic/Parts of speech


text:
User:Sarbashis Kumar Paul

Sarbashis Kumar Paul is a bilingual poet, editor, author, and teacher of Mathematics at Kshudirampally Sukanta Smriti Bidyapith, Islampur, Dt. Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal, India. His editorials, book reviews, and writing on various issues have been published in Indian's leading newspapers and magazines. His poems and articles have been published in many national and international books. He is an author of anthologies in English entitled " Gravity: A collection of poems "," Immortal Imagination " anthology in Bengali " Sasim Theke Asime".He has compiled and edited international anthologies entitled " Versatile Verses ", Heart of Lightness, and anthology in Bengali "Alor Pathe". He has compiled and edited international books of articles entitled " Peace: A pathway to love and Harmony " and "Trajectory: A global voice of Science and Literature", Apart from that, he has successfully organized the International literary festival and International seminar on peace. He is a teacher of Mathematics. He passed B.Sc Mathematics ( Hons). He is an Indian. His poems and articles are published in many international books. He is the editor of " Message of Humanity ". He is a regular writer of Newspaper. He is a reputed teacher in Mathematics. His father's name is Late Prafulla Kumar Paul and his mother's name is ' Amiya Rani Paul. His date of birth is 20 th February 1967. He is editor of Mathematics Magazine entitled ' Crawl to the Mathematical World '.

title: User:Sarbashis Kumar Paul


text:
User:محمد آلخالد/sandbox

( ومن أوتي الحكمةَ فقد أوتي خيراً كثيراً )

title: User:محمد آلخالد/sandbox


text:
Planet Earth/6j. Earth’s History Preserved in its Rocks: Stratigraphy and Geologic Time

The Discovery of Earth's Eons
The horse drawn carriage bounced over the rocky road as Charlotte Murchison keenly observed the landscape they passed on her grand tour of the European countryside. Open at her side was a sketchbook, in which she roughly illustrated the craggy rocks and pillowing trees they passed on their journey east. She was born Charlotte Hugonin, the same year that James Hutton published his grand book on the Theory of the Earth in 1788. Her parents were wealthy and well educated and she grew up with an interest in natural history. At the age of 27, she caught the attention of a handsome soldier returning from the Peninsular War, Roderick Murchison, a military man who served in the British military during the Napoleonic Wars in Portugal and Spain. Well respected for his successful military career, he struggled to settle into the domestic life with his marriage to Charlotte. Charlotte acutely understood that the best way to keep him occupied was to engage him in a pursuit of science, in particular the study of minerals, rocks and fossils. Charlotte Murchison befriended many of the early natural historians of the day, who ventured out into the countryside to observe the natural landscape under a scientific appreciation. She met and befriended the early geologist Henry De la Beche and the paleontologist Mary Anning, two central figures in the study of rocks and fossils along the southern coast of England. Mary Anning had discovered bizarre fossils of aquatic dolphin-like reptiles called ichthyosaurs, and flying reptiles called pterosaurs from the ancient rocks along the coast. These fossils, as well as the terrible gigantic lizards illustrated by Mary Buckland and described by William Buckland at Oxford University (later named dinosaurs), revealed a deep and rich prehistoric history for the Earth. Such collection of rocks and bizarre fossils became a fashionable endeavor for the couple, and the venturing out into the countryside to collect and describe these rock layers in the sequences as they had been laid down over the eons represented a new endeavor that would keep her husband occupied. In 1816, a year after their marriage, she arranged a grand tour of France, the Swiss Alps, and Italy. The trip was highly enjoyable for the couple and they continued such trips across Europe in the peaceful years that followed the defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. They visited famous scientists of the day, including Mary Somerville, who had retired to Italy, and was currently working on her own description of the Earth in her classic book Physical Geography, a book that went beyond rocks and sediments, to include the geographic distribution of animals and plants on the surface of the Earth. They met with the famed French anatomist Georges Cuvier who had published a book in 1813 entitled Essay on the Theory of the Earth proposing that species of animals went extinct in the ancient past, and that the rock layers preserved extinct life forms punctuated by catastrophic events. There were major extinctions of ancient species that no longer lived on the Earth, such as an extinct elephant-like animal he named the Mastodon, the fossilized bones of which were sent to him from the United States, and compelled Thomas Jefferson to send Lewis and Clark westward to Oregon in a failed search for living examples of this extinct creature.

The Origin of the Geological Time Scale
These travels and visits were all captured by Charlotte in her sketchbooks, illustrating the many observations of fossils, rocks and the various layers of sedimentary rocks. She discovered similarities between rocks observed in England and Scotland, to those in the Italian and French Alps. They visited Germany, Italy, Prussia and even as far as Russia. In 1828, the couple invited a young aspiring geologist named Charles Lyell, whom they meet in Paris, and he too joined their horse drawn carriage traveling over the mountainous Alps. Charles Lyell was working on his important multivolume book entitled the Principles of Geology, which would be carried, read and later inspire Charles Darwin on his journey around the world. What Charlotte discovered in her travels was that there was an order and apparent sequence of fossils discovered within each strata or layer of sedimentary rocks, and each of these layers represented unique divisions of time. Her ideas made their way into the writings of her husband, but also mingled from the many scientists she interacted with on her travels through Europe.

Her husband would often adjourn to a tavern or inn to drink and there discuss the naming of these series of rock layers. The early Italian geologist Giovanni Arduino had divided sedimentary rock layers into four types in 1774, which he named Primary for rocks found in the central core of mountains, Secondary for tilted rocks next to mountains with unrefined and imperfect fossils, Tertiary for more horizontal rocks laid on top of secondary layers with fossils that were similar to those seen in the modern environment and Quaternary of loose sands and gravels that rest atop of tertiary rocks. However, these rock layers could be further subdivided, based on their lithological characteristics as well as their preserved fossils. The English geologist William Smith produced the first map of England showing the various exposures of the rock layers of the country in 1815, referred to as stratigraphy; the study of sedimentary rock layers. Smith’s adopted son, John Phillips published an early geological time scale in 1841, dividing the layers of rock based on the fossils they exhibited into Paleozoic (English spelling Palaeozoic) (ancient life), Mesozoic (middle life), and Cenozoic (modern life), which was, at that time called the Cainozoic. These three divisions were further divided. For example, Charlotte’s husband, Rodrick, coined a period of time called Silurian recognized as a subdivision of the Paleozoic, for a series of rock layers in England, and wrote that the fossils found in these rock layers formed during a distant ancient time and represented species of extinct marine animals. Fossils when coupled with their order of superposition (in other words their relative position in the sequence of stacked rock layers and recognizing the youngest layers at the top and oldest layers at the bottom) was the major criteria for determining their ancient geological age. Other ages were proposed based on each layer’s unique assemblage of fossils; the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene. These collaborative efforts gave rise to a geological time scale that geologists use today, without any of the scientists knowing, at that time, the actual dates and lengths in terms of the number of years of each of these divisions of Earth’s history. In North America geological mapping became a major driving force with the westward expansion of railways that needed local sources of coal within these rock layers to run. Such investment into the understanding of the nature of sedimentary rock layers also decoupled the rock layers from their corresponding times. Hence these sedimentary rock layers could be named (as Formations) based on their lithological characteristics (a red sandstone versus a gray shale), while time was divided (as Periods) based on their fossil occurrences. The Mesozoic became known for its dinosaur fossils, while the Devonian was noted for its occurrence of early fossil fish. These divisions were temporal, a result of key extinction events in Earth’s history.

Earth's Photo Album

A good analogy to understanding the geological time scale is to view it as a photograph album of Earth’s history, similar to a personal photograph album of your own life. There are photographs taken of your birth, as a baby, others while you were a child learning to walk, some photographs of family members that have passed, a high school graduation photograph, a marriage, a new home, a car you once owned, each photograph lacking a precise date or time that it was taken, but you are able to assemble the order (in part because each page contains photographs taken at the same time in your life). Such a photograph album would serve as a chronology of your own life, even if you did not know the precise dates that were recorded. Such is the fossil record of life on Earth. It records the events, fragmentary for sure, but like a photograph album able to preserve enough for someone to understand those events, or at least interpret them. James Hutton viewed Earth’s history both as never ending and unchanging through its history, what Charlotte Murchison uncovered with her numerous colleagues in the early 1800s was that Earth’s history was long, but always changing, as life seemed to respond to environmental, climatic, and ecological changes as they were preserved as fossils chiseled and dug up from the countryside. Each fossil revealing a fragment to a story of Earth’s history. Major extinctions, great origins, and breakthroughs, such as when life conquered land, the ever-changing world, not only dictated by Earth’s surface processes, but by the biological events that altered those events, such as the advent of terrestrial plants and animals, of monstrous creatures and the strange and beautiful beasts that evolved, changed, conquered, and then perished from the Earth, only to be preserved as fossilized skeletons for eons in the subsurface of this planet.

Hadean Eon (4,543 million to 4,000 million years ago)
The Hadean Eon is a long period of time lacking any representative rocks and fossils, as the Earth was likely molten during this early time. The existence of such a nearly unknown period of Earth’s early history is only inferred from radiometric ages of meteorites that extend the age of the solar system back 4,543 million years ago, but the oldest terrestrial rocks formed on Earth are dated only back as far as 4,000 million years ago. These ancient terrestrial rocks are individual grains of hard zircon crystals preserved in the most ancient metamorphic rocks that are found in the cratons of continents, like the Canadian Shield.

Archean Eon (4,000 Million to 2,500 Million years ago)
The Archean Eon is the long period of time in which life arose as unicellular, single celled lifeforms, such as bacteria. Earth’s atmosphere and oceans lacked significant free oxygen atoms. All life on the planet was microbial living in an ocean were oxygen was rare (anoxic). Photosynthesizing lifeforms that utilized carbon dioxide from the atmosphere arose during this time, as cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Fossils of these bacterial mats, called stromatolites, appear in the rocks deposited during this time, with more abundance of fossils seen near 2,500 million years ago. The eon ended with the Great Oxygen Event, where oxygen increased to such levels in the atmosphere to result in the first open combustion of flames on Earth’s surface, as well as the possible extinction of many types of microbial life.

Proterozoic Eon (2,500 million to 541 million years ago)
The Proterozoic Eon is the long period of the second half of the Precambrian, lasting nearly 2 billion years. It has been subdivided, but is a long period represented by mostly single celled life. During this long eon of time, the first eukaryotic celled animals and plants arose. It was a period in which Earth’s atmosphere was rich in free oxygen. The abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere lead to the dramatic cooling of the Earth multiple times, resulting in periods of the nearly complete freezing of the Earth’s oceans, a particularly episodic climatic event during the last 300 million years of the Eon. Earth’s oceans nearly froze and thawed multiple times during this long episode in Earth’s history, but life remained mostly unicellular during this major expanse of time. Despite an eon of time in which life was only represented by single cells, these unicellular organisms continued to adapt and change to ever changing environments, and slowly become more complex. In the final millions of years of this long episode of Earth’s history, the first multicellular organisms arose, a period called the Ediacaran (635-541 Million years ago) which preserves soft-tissue impressions of animal-like and plant-like fossils.

Cambrian Period (541 million to 485.4 million years ago)
The Cambrian Period is the first period of the Paleozoic Era, and Phanerozoic Eon, represented by the earliest multicellular lifeforms that are preserved with hard skeletons. One of the commonly occurring fossils in marine rock layers of this age are trilobites, small insect-like arthropods that scurried across the ocean floor. Many unusual and strange marine fossils are known, including early fossilized shelled organisms and marine sponges. An early swimming group of animals called the chordates lived during this time, and would later give rise to fish. Green and brown algae, examples of multicellular plant-life appear at this time in marine and freshwater environments, and the first major carbonate reefs were deposited in shallow seas that covered western Utah, laying down the rock layers in Cache Valley and along the Wasatch Range.

Ordovician Period (485.4 million to 419.2 million years ago)
Rocks from the Ordovician Period were laid down above the older Cambrian rocks, and are known for their abundance of rugosa horn-corals, and graptolites, as well as some of the earliest jawless fish. Rocks from the Ordovician Period are preserved in the topographically high Wasatch Mountain Range, which at one time represented a shallow marine carbonate reef during this period of Earth’s history.

Silurian Period (443.8 million to 419.2 million years ago)
The Silurian Period was a time of the first major diversification of life on land, with the first terrestrial vascular plants and insects appearing, while fish continued to diversify in the oceans and rivers.

Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago)
The Devonian Period is often called the Age of Fish, as the seas and rivers hosted a wide diversity of fossil sharks, placoderms (armored fish), and fast-moving jawed fish. Toward the end of the period the first terrestrial vertebrates (animals with back bones) appeared like the transitional fossil Tiktaalik.

Mississippian Period (358.9 million to 323.2 million years ago)
The Mississippian Period is the first part of the Carboniferous, a time of dense forests and swamps, rich insect life, and early reptiles and amphibians. Marine life was particularly diverse with abundant brachiopods (shelled organisms) and echinoderms like crinoids (ancient sea lilies).

Pennsylvanian Period (323.2 million to 298.9 million years ago)
The Pennsylvanian Period saw the first divisions between egg-laying reptiles, as vertebrate animals were able to lay eggs outside of the water. In coastal Utah, major deserts and a warmer climate appeared, while dense forests continued in the Eastern Utah States, preserved as major coal deposits. A mountain range called the Ancestral Rocky Mountains and Antler Orogeny appeared in the western Utah States. The Pennsylvanian Period is the second half of the Carboniferous.

Permian Period (298.9 million to 251.9 million years ago)
The Permian Period was a time of warming climates, more oxidizing red beds, and the rise of early mammals, which still closely resembled reptiles, but others may have had fur. It was also a period of time during the formation of the Super Continent Pangea, where all the continents had come together on one side of the Earth. This strange configuration resulted in a climate that oscillated from wet to dry, leaving thick red beds of sandstone and mudstone. Early English geologist confused red sandstones from the Devonian Period (called the Old Red Sandstone) with red sandstones from the Permian Period (called the New Red Sandstone), noting that fossils were different from these similar looking layers of sedimentary rocks. The end of Permian Period saw the largest mass extinction on Earth, resulting from the major release of carbon dioxide and other volcanic gasses from the eruption of the Siberian Traps. The intense hot climate and de-oxygenation of the quickly acidified oceans, resulted in a major turnover of life on the planet. Major groups of animals and plants vanished from the fossil record after the Permian, including trilobites, and most brachiopods.

Triassic Period (251.9 million to 201.3 million years ago)
The Triassic Period is the first of the three periods of the Mesozoic Era, when dinosaurs first arose to dominate the Earth. Early flying pterosaurs appear for the first time, as well as fast moving bipedal ancestral dinosaur-like reptiles. Animals and plants slowly recovered during this span of time, but the climate oscillated between extremes, as the Super Continent begin to break apart with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The oldest dates from basaltic sea floor igneous rocks are known from this time, meaning nearly all igneous rocks from the ocean floor are younger than the Paleozoic. The end Triassic extinctions resulted in a new era of a stable humid warm climate, and rise of gigantic dinosaurs.

Jurassic Period (201.3 million to 145.0 million years ago)
The Jurassic Period is iconic for its dinosaurs, like Apatosaurus that roamed across eastern Utah, but also large predatory dinosaurs like Allosaurus. The Jurassic Period was also the time that mammals became tiny, and birds first appeared with flight feathers. Conifer forests, ferns and horse tails covered the land, with major rivers flowing over a warmer Earth.

Cretaceous Period (145.0 million to 66.0 million years ago)
The Cretaceous Period marks a major diversification in plant life, with the origin of flowering plants, fruit and nuts, with the major group of plants called angiosperms first appearing in the fossil record. These plants use pollinating insects and other animals to carry pollen between plants, rather than wind. To help with seed dispersal these plants also produced endosperm, as fleshy tasty fruits that animals feed on and carried seeds with them, and to be fertilized once digested with their excrement. The major plant diversification resulted in mammals specialized in eating fruit and nuts, as well as the continued diversification of large dinosaurs, including Triceratops and Tyrannosaurus. Modern teleost fish, ancestors of the gold fish and perch first appear. The end of the Cretaceous witnessed a major extinction, with evidence that a large meteorite struck the Earth near the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, resulting in the extinction of the large non-avian dinosaurs. This extinction (sometimes called the K-T boundary, as K is used to abbreviate Cretaceous, and T to mark the beginning of the Tertiary, or K-Pg boundary) resulted in a new era, that brought a rapid diversification of mammals.

Cenozoic Era (The Time of Modern Life)
The Cenozoic Era has traditionally been divided into the Tertiary and Quaternary, but new discussions have divided the Tertiary into two periods called the Paleogene and Neogene, while retaining the term Quaternary for rocks and sediment 2.58 million years or younger. Most geologists divide this time using the term Epoch (pronounced Epic in American English, and EE-Pock in England), first proposed by Charles Lyell.

Paleocene Epoch (66.0 million to 56.0 million years ago)
The Paleocene Epoch was the first ten million years after the extinction of the dinosaurs. The time presents a world still recovering from the latest mass extinction, with a rapid diversification of terrestrial mammals and birds. Many strange and archaic mammals are known during this time, including the ancestors that would become primates. The Paleocene Epoch ended with a major global warming event called the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, that was brought about by the opening of the Arctic Ocean through mid-ocean rifting and the massive release of methane hydrate from the deep ocean.

Eocene Epoch (56.0 million to 33.9 million years ago)
The Eocene Epoch was a long epoch of warm climates, when great forests grew across the Earth, filled with arboreal animals, such as early primates that leaped between the high canopy trees. Tiny horses running through the dense bush, chased by hooved predators. An ice-free world of lush crocodile filled lakes, and well drained rivers, with isolated continents of South America, Australia and Africa, while North America, Europe and Asia shared a land bridge in the temperate high arctic, allowing wandering large mammals to roam between the northern continents, leaving the southern continents isolated, with endemic faunas of strange beasts, like the earliest elephants, and bizarre horned mammals. The end Eocene saw a major cooling of the Earth, as South America and Australia broke away from Antarctica, allowing the return of great ice sheets in the southern pole.

Oligocene Epoch (33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago)
The Oligocene Epoch witnessed a drier, and slightly cooler time period, as the great forests changed into open woodlands, with expanding grasslands, and running hooved mammals, like early deer, and the first sabretooth cats that chased them. The ancestor of wolves and dogs appear, while rabbits and rodents were more common. Primates lost their tails, with a group specific to Africa that began to dominate in the more open habitat of that large continent. At the end of the Oligocene, horses nearly went extinct, and the landscape became drier with vast tree-less grasslands appearing.

Miocene Epoch (23.03 million to 5.333 million years ago)
The Miocene Epoch is the time of the apes, as a small group of primates in Africa moved into these more open grasslands and hunted for food as omnivores. Large elephant-like creatures journeyed out of Africa, and across the northern continents, while herds of antelope, even toed ungulates raced across savannahs. The climate was warm, but rise of the Himalayan Mountains of the Tibet Plateau rose to great heights, with the continued collision of India into Asia, and the Mediterranean Sea dried up at the end of the Miocene Epoch during the Messinian Event.

Pliocene Epoch (5.33 million to 2.58 million years ago)
The Pliocene Epoch was the age of Australopithecus, the early hominid, and member of your family. A small tail-less bipedal creature who roamed across Africa, and climbed trees when confronted with a predator. They moved in groups, and may have used tools. The climate continued its cooling, resulting in ice sheets across Europe, Asia and North America that would continue into the Great Ice Ages of the last Epoch.

Pleistocene Epoch (2.58 million to 0.0117 million years ago)
The Pleistocene Epoch is often placed within the last series of rocks, the loose unconsolidated soil and dirt not yet lithified into rocks, the Quaternary, which also includes the modern age. The Pleistocene Epoch is the great period of Ice Ages, in which ice sheets covered North America, Europe and Asia, lowering sea level. Wooly rhinos and mammoths roamed these frozen steppes. Early humans ventured out of Africa for the first time tracking the warming climates first, but later learning to hunt these large beasts with spears and tools. The epoch was characterized by cyclic ice ages, punctuated by interglacial warmer times, it was during the last of these great interglacial warm periods, when humans descended into North America, South America, Australia and beyond that marks the end of the Pleistocene Epoch, because this incursion of humans brought a major extinction of the great megafauna, the gigantic beasts that they hunted.

Holocene Epoch (0.0117 million years ago to today)
The Holocene is a tiny sliver of time in which we have written words, but characterized by the end of the ice ages, and a warm period that resulted in a massive increase in a single species that would dominate Earth, Homo sapiens, humans. The Earth underwent a major change as ice and forests were carved into asphalt and concrete, the planet warmed with increased carbon dioxide and grasslands were altered to massive agricultural regions of crops planted to feed a single species. The Holocene Epoch is the time we live within, although some argue that even this tiny sliver of time, only 11,700 years long should be even further subdivided.

When Charlotte Murchison bounced along in a horse drawn carriage two hundred years ago, she may have understood only a tiny aspect of the great vastness of time preserved in the rock layers she sketched, like the sense of emptiness when one views far away stars in the night sky. The Earth and its ages seem immense, an endless journey of time, filled not only with the small daily processes of erosion and transport of individual sediments, but of cataclysmic events that altered whole sets of organisms and ecologies of the planet. Great periods on Earth when it resembled a frozen white planet, or periods when it was a red yellow planet of vast sand deserts, or times it was a green planet of prodigious forests encompassed by blue oceans, oceans ever changing in their composition of life. This is Earth’s story, vast, dynamic, and without a real end. It is also the story of life on Earth. Life that one part of Earth that makes this planet so unique, maybe the only planet in the universe with this strange occurrence of intelligence, and conscious thought. How did this come to be?


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Printers

1936 08
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney  (Footnote P.56)

1936 11
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1936 12
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1937 02
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1938 01
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1939 01
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1939 07-08
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1939 10
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)

1939 11
Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)

1939 12
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 214 George Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 214 George Street, Sydney (Footnote P.40)

1940 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)

1940 02
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)

1940 03
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)

1940 04
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.48)

1940 07
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.42)

1941 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.60)

1942 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

1943 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.28)

1944 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.28)

1944 07
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.28)

1944 10
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.28)

1944 11
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

1944 12
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

1945 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

1946 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

1946 03
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

1946 05
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.52)

Ten Years of Printing Service

THIS tenth birthday issue would hardly be complete without tribute being paid to the printers who have done the actual job of mechanical production of the issues. For the whole ten years the work has been done by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., under the personal supervison of Mr. Fred Wales and his son Noel. As any publisher will readily agree with us, one of the biggest problems in the publishing game is to get a printer with a conscience who will get your magazine out on time, without too many errors and at a reasonable price. In our particular case the printing problem has been further aggravated by war-time circumstances which made it necessary for the editorial work to be done in Melbourne with the printer more than 500 miles away in Sydney. Even when you can sit on the printer's doorstep it is difficult enough, but to supervise a printer by mail — well, most experienced editors will tell you that it would be an impossibility. That it was managed, and highly successfully, too, is a splendid testimonial for the Bridge Printery. The wrapping of subscribers' issues and the bulk postage of them is also carried out by the Bridge Printery and the fact that complaints about non-delivery don't amount to one-twentieth part of a percent, indicate that this job is also done thoroughly.

1946 06
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.44)

1946 07
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 336 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

1946 10
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 336 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

1946 11
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 336 Waverley Road, East Malvern, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

1946 12
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.36)

1947 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.36)

1947 06
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

1947 07
Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

1947 08
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

1947 09
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.52)

1948 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.51)

1948 07
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.35)

1948 08
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.35)

1948 09
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.60)

1949 01
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.51)

1949 02
Printed by the Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.36)

1949 03
Printed by Crusader Press, 631 Burwood Road, Auburn, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.52)

1949 04
Printed by Crusader Press, 631 Burwood Road, Auburn, for the Proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World", Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.42)

1949 05
Printed by "Post" Newspapers Pty. Ltd., for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.44)

1949 06
Printed by "Post" Newspapers Pty. Ltd., Mornington, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.44)

1949 07-08
Printed by "Post" Newspapers Pty. Ltd., Mornington, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.3)

1950 01
Printed by "Post" Newspapers Pty. Ltd., Mornington, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.35)

1950 03
Printed by "Post" Newspapers Pty. Ltd., Mornington, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Balcombe Street, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.35)

1950 04
No issue published

1950 05
No issue published

1950 06
Printed by The Clyde Press, 608 High St., Thornbury, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Box 13, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.36)

1950 07
Printed by The Clyde Press, 608 High St., Thornbury, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Box 13, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.35)

1950 10
Printed by The Clyde Press, 608 High St., Thornbury, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Box 13, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.35)

1950 11
Printed by The Clyde Press, 608 High St., Thornbury, for the Proprietor of the Australasian Radio World, A. G. Hull, Box 13, Mornington, Victoria (Footnote P.35)

1950 12
Clyde Press, 608 High St., Thornbury, JW2902 (Footnote P.1)

1951 01
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (N.Z.) Ltd. (Publishers - Incorporated in N.Z.) 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by R. V. Byers, 9 Wetherill St., North Lidcombe. 'Phone: UX6681 (Footnote P.1)

1951 02
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (N.Z.) Ltd. (Publishers - Incorporated in N.Z.) 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by R. V. Byers, 9 Wetherill St., North Lidcombe. 'Phone: UX6681 (Footnote P.1)

1951 03
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (N.Z.) Ltd. (Publishers - Incorporated in N.Z.) 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by R. V. Byers, 9 Wetherill St., North Lidcombe. 'Phone: UX6681 (Footnote P.1)

1951 04
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (N.Z.) Ltd. (Publishers - Incorporated in N.Z.) 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by R. V. Byers, 9 Wetherill St., North Lidcombe. 'Phone: UX6681 (Footnote P.1)

1951 05
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (N.Z.) Ltd. (Publishers - Incorporated in N.Z.) 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W.

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by R. V. Byers, 9 Wetherill St., North Lidcombe. 'Phone: UX6681 (Footnote P.1)

1951 06-07
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephones: BU3879 - BW7746. Telegrams and Cables: "Cranlay," Sydney

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by R. V. Byers, 9 Wetherill St., North Lidcombe. 'Phone: UX6681 (Footnote P.1)

1951 08
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephones: BU3879 - BW7746. Telegrams and Cables: "Cranlay," Sydney

Printed by ACACIA PRESS, 171 Parramatta Road, Annandale (Footnote P.40)

1951 09
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephones: BU3879 - BW7746. Telegrams and Cables: "Cranlay," Sydney

Printed by ACACIA PRESS, 171 Parramatta Road, Annandale (Footnote P.36)

1951 10
Published by the Proprietors: Radio & Electronics (Aust.) Pty. Ltd. 17 Bond Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephones: BU3879 - BW7746. Telegrams and Cables: "Cranlay," Sydney

Printed by ACACIA PRESS, 171 Parramatta Road, Annandale (Footnote P.36)


text:
Wikijunior:Visual Math/counting to 10

1=🔵 2=🔔🔔 3=🔇🔇🔇 4=😊😊😊😊 5=🍂🍂🍂🍂🍂 6=🍏🍏🍏🍏🍏🍏 7=🍍🍍🍍🍍🍍🍍🍍 8=🐈🐈🐈🐈🐈🐈🐈🐈 9=🐏🐏🐏🐏🐑🐑🐑🐑🐑 10=🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴

title: Wikijunior:Visual Math/counting to 10


text:
User talk:NTHABELENG MOFOKENG

Story of my Life

title: User talk:NTHABELENG MOFOKENG


text:
English-Hanzi/Without timely emergency medical attention, myocardial infarction may soon be fatal

Without timely emergency medical attention, myocardial infarction may soon be fatal. If diagnosed within 12 hours after the initial attack (onset), thrombolytic therapy is initiated.

没有及时的紧急医疗救护，心肌梗塞可能很快就会致命. 如果在初次发作后12小时内被诊断出，则开始溶栓治疗.


text:
Template:Judicial Yuan Interpretation

https://cons.judicial.gov.tw/jcc/en-us/jep03/show?expno= Use 1 or 2, etc. to link to each quasi-governmental translation of the Judicial Yuan Interpretation 1 or 2, etc. without leading zero.

title: Template:Judicial Yuan Interpretation


text:
Annotated Republic of China Case Law/Judicial Yuan Interpretation No. 8

Date
27 October 1952

Issue
Would the personnel of state-run enterprises be the public servants under the Criminal Code?

Holding
The personnel of the state-run enterprises with at least half of the stocks owned by the Government shall be considered public servants under the Criminal Code.

Effect
The personnel of the state-run enterprises performs governmental duties, not just businesses.


text:
Arabic/Feminine and masculine nouns

Feminine and masculine nouns اَلأَسمَاءُ اَلمُؤَنَّثَةُ وَاَلمُذَكَّرَةُ

Nouns in the Arabic language are gendered. There are two genders: Feminine and masculine. The masculine gender is the main gender. To make a noun feminine, the letter ة is added at the end. The i3raab and tanween is transferred to ة. A >َ  is added to the preceding letter. If the gender of the noun is unknown, the masculine form is used as it is the main gender.

مُدَرِّسٌ        A (male) teacher

مُدَرِّسَةٌ        A (female) teacher

كَاتِبٌ        A (male) writer

كَاتِبَةٌ       A (female) writer

There are some instances where there is no ة, yet the word is considered feminine. However, this is a special case, and should not be taken as a rule.

title: Arabic/Feminine and masculine nouns


text:
Selected Essays/Globalisation

Globalisation is the process by which the businesses or other organisations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.

Contrary to the general view, globalization dates back to many thousands of years for thousands of years, people-and, later corporation- have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages.

However, policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, migration so large that many observers believe the world has stepped into a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $827 billion.

The current rage of globalization is attributable to policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. Many international commerce- friendly policies have caused an astounding surge in world trade.

Post the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investments. These conducive measures gave birth to opportunities for global trade. Taking advantage of these new opportunities in and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure.

Globalisation is deeply controversial. However, proponents of globalisation argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefitted multinational corporations in the western world at the expanse of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and government try to manage the flow of capital, labour, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalisation;

Globalisation is a fascinating spectacle that fan be understood as global systems of competition and connectivity. However, and increase in integration has not brought increased equality. Globalisation creates winners and losers among countries and global corporations, making competition the beating heart of the globalization process.

A closed economy by choice, India formally adopted globalisation when the new economic policy of 1991 came into force. Mounting debts and pressure form IMF has been an integral part of the recent economic progress made by India. Globalisation has played a major role in export-led growth leading to the enlargement of the job market in India.

One of the major forces of globalization in India has been in the growth of outsourced IT and Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) services. The last few years have seen an increase in the number of skilled professionals in India employed by both local and foreign companies to service customers in the US and Europe in particular. Taking advantage of India’s lower cost but educated and English-speaking work force, and utilizing global communications technologies such as voice-over IP (VOIP), email and the internet, international enterprises have been able to lower their cost base by establishing outsourced knowledge-worker operations in India.

There is no denying the fact that globalisation India and its citizens have realized many gains form globalization. Access to umpteen number of brands, billons of jobs that have emanated from the establishment of multinational companies and the increase in forex reserves of the country are all effects of globalization. Indian citizens have also experienced an increase in the standard of living by opening up of the country’s trade routes to the world. However, there exists a contrary argument to that.

The domestic producers fear marginalisation and pulverisation due to the entry of foreign and often better quality products. It was to safeguard the domestic producer from foreign competition that India had initially adopted a closed economy stand with very limited access to foreign producers into Indian markets. However, despite the fact that we are a nation that had embraced globalization long ago, there is still a debate in the country over permitting FDI in some sectors. Just about a year back, FDI in retail was rolled back because of huge resistance against the move from many political parties who sought to protect the interests of domestic retailers. Globalisation has had both desirable and undesirable consequences for India and the world. Where it has accelerated progress in some countries, it has also widened the gap between the rich and the poor in others. Thus, globalization has the fair and rough share of its impacts and thus we can surely hope for more advancement in the global economy due to this process.

title: Selected Essays/Globalisation


text:
Planet Earth/7a. How Rare is Life in the Universe?

Is Life Unique to Earth?
Since the advent of radio-telescopes, scientists have been scanning the skies for messages from the depths of outer space, especially of other intelligent beings in the universe. In the endless quest to find even the simplest lifeforms on other planets scientists have gone to extraordinary lengths to send spacecraft and landing rovers to other planets in our own solar system. Only to find them empty, barren of even the simplest of single celled lifeforms. What makes life on Earth so unique and so special? And what is the possibility that there may be other planets in the universe with lifeforms like those found on Earth? Of intelligent life, like humans able to communicate between the stars using light. For Frank Drake these questions haunted him, and since the 1950s he has developed tools to try and observe radio transmissions from other planets, and listen for signals from space. So far, they have been eerily quiet. Radio waves travel at the speed of light, faster than any space craft, and listening for these signals is the best way to observe extraterrestrial intelligent life, able to produce such communications. So far only silence.

The Drake Equation
In 1959, Frank Drake held a meeting of some of the top scientists of the day including Carl Sagan, to work on quantifying the possibility of life on other planets. He was likely discouraged by the lack of evidence for extraterrestrial life, but eager to encourage others to look for life beyond Earth, especially at the beginning of the Space Age of the 1960s.

A few years before, the nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi made a statement during a lunch conversation at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, among his fellow scientists, he asked them “Where are they?” Noting the lack of evidence for extraterrestrial life beyond Earth, but also remarking on the likely high probability of life existing at least somewhere in the universe, since there are so many stars and so many possible planets. This idea has been called the Fermi Paradox, a paradox that states that despite there being a high probability of life existing on other planets, there is no evidence for life found beyond that found here on Earth, even despite our best efforts in searching for it. A few years later Frank Drake wanted to estimate what this probability is for extraterrestrial life, and he prepared a mathematical equation to approximate this probability to present to his friends and colleagues at a meeting. This mathematical equation has become known as the Drake Equation. Since its first quantification in 1959, the equation has been modified and studied by those scientists who want to try and understand the rarity of life in the universe, but it is an incomplete model, and maybe in error.

The basic Drake Equation is $$ N = R* \cdot fp \cdot ne \cdot fl \cdot fi \cdot fc \cdot L $$

where $$N$$ is the number of civilizations in the universe with interstellar communication possibilities. $$R*$$ is the rate of star formation in the universe, $$fp$$ is the average fraction that have planets, $$ne$$ is the average number of planets that can support life, $$fl$$ is the fraction of planets that develop lifeforms, $$fi$$ is the fraction of planets that develop intelligent life, $$fc$$ is the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases signals of their existence, and $$L$$ is the length of time those civilizations exist in time before becoming extinct.

R*, rate of star formation
Estimated values for R* are likely very large, the Milky Way Galaxy produces between four to seven new stars a year (https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2006/milkyway_seven.html), and with a universe with an estimated 100 billion galaxies, the net increase of stars per year is about 400 to 700 billion stars per year. A very large number, and this increases the probability of life somewhere in the trillions of stars of the universe. The estimated percentage of these stars with planets is also estimated to be a fairly high percentage, as study of exoplanets have revealed that many if not most stars have planets that rotate around them, a generous 90% of stars might have planets, and hence solar systems.

ne, is the number of Earth-like planets
The next value ne is the number of Earth-like planets, a value that is much more difficult to determine. In our own solar system Earth sits in the triple junction for the presence of water as solid, liquid and gas phases. Some use this critical zone as the possible region from a star that a planet would exhibit a liquid ocean, and ice caps, with some atmospheric water, and hence necessary for life. This is a fairly narrow distance from a sun, and some planets even within this zone might be too large or too small in mass. Study of exoplanets reveals a huge variation in the configuration of solar systems, and this value is much lower than 1. Maybe an Earth-like planet is found in 1 in 1,000 solar systems, a value of 0.1%.

fl, life originating on these Earth-like planets
The next three values to estimate are fl the percentage of life originating on these planets, and fi the percentage of intelligent life originating on these planets, and fc the ability of this intelligent life to be able to send communication signals between planets. Of the three values dealing with life, fl is one of the most likely, as life on Earth originated very early in its history about 3.8 billion years into Earth’s beginnings there is indirect evidence for the existence of life, and by 3 billion years life is common. The study of other planets, although a very limited sample, suggests that life has very narrow conditions for its presence, as we have not found any organic molecules on Mars or the Moon. If the fraction is on the order of 1 in every 1,000 Earthlike planets, fl would be near 0.1%. This would mean that within the universe there are 630 billion planets with life existing on them. Unintelligent, single celled lifeforms that can’t communicate would be the dominate mode of life in the universe. Of the parameters most changing to estimate, fi and fc are the most critical.

fi, the percentage of planets with intelligent life
The percent of these planets with intelligent life and life able to communicate between stars using radio waves. Some scientists argue that these percentages are very small, as demonstrated by the long length of geological time on Earth for an intelligent species, humans, to evolve and be able to send radio signals. Donald Brownlee and Peter Ward argue for very tiny numbers for these values, making the possibility of intelligent life on other planets very unlikely, and have coined the hypotheses called Rare Earth. They view the complex series of events that has led to the advent of humans as being highly unlikely to occur on another planet. The 3.8 billion years that it took for humans to appear on Earth is a testament to the low probability of a similar series of events occurring on another planet. Life does not inherently become intelligent over time, it just survives and makes do with its environment. If fi is 1 in 3.8 billion chance (using the yearly probably since the origin of life) of intelligent life evolving, then fi is an extremely small number (0.0000000026%).

fc, capacity for interstellar communication
The next value fc is the percentage of these intelligent life planets having the capability of interstellar communication. If humans have been around for 250,000,000 years, and radio signals were discovered only in the last 150 years, a 150 years of communication divided by 250,000,000 years of human existence as a species as the intelligent life on the planet, the value for fc is 0.000006%.

L, the duration of interstellar communication on a planet
The last value is L, the length of time that interstellar communication exists on a planet. This was a value that intrigued and bothered Carl Sagan, for he worried that one of the most limiting of the variables of the Drake Equation was the length such highly intelligent species are able to maintain interstellar communication, the value of L. Global war, pandemics, extinction due to limited resources, climate change and other disasters might befall such advanced civilizations, ending their abilities to communicate beyond the stars. A fairly conservative number would be 1,000-years, although such units of time might range across widely different units of time depending on the intelligence and nature of these alien species. We can add a few years, maybe 17. But a 1,017-year length of time is a fairly long civilization on Earth, longer than most empires on Earth, and all the while maintaining the ability to detect and send these signals into space.

If we solve for N, where the number of civilizations in the universe with interstellar communication possibilities, using these estimated, guessed at, or even just jolted down based on non-existent data, we get a simple value of N, of just 1.

Is Earth unique in harboring life?
One civilization in all the universe with the ability of interstellar communication, but without any other planet to communicate with. These estimates of the Drake Equation could be, and likely are wrong, widely miss-representing the true probabilities, but they highlight something really important, the key to really getting at the sense of whether Earth is the only planet with intelligent life in the universe depends how we estimate the rarity of the existence of intelligent life through billions of years in the process that life underwent on Earth to lead to the advent of intelligent lifeforms, such as yourself. What bizarre world that we live in where you can read these words, comprehend them, and gain knowledge through them. How has life gone from a single complex molecule, to cellular organisms, to multicellular organisms, to animals that move and swim, to a tool builder, and eventually to a creature such as yourself.

This is the story of life on planet Earth, and why it is so precious, and possibly so rare. Earth is unique not because of its dimensions, atmosphere, oceans, continents, or rocky and molten interior, but it is unique because it is the only planet we know of that harbors intelligent life.