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User:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC0001/2020-21/Thursday11-12/Week2TheHistoryofEugenics

The History of Eugenics
Eugenics, as James noted in his lecture, is dead. However, for a period in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a relatively popular discipline. What was eugenics? Why did the discipline rise and fall? What, if any, impact has its History had on academia, institutions, or society more broadly? And, fundamentally, what happens to the currents of thought that underpin a discipline when that discipline dies?

Over to you all...

Introduction to Eugenics
Eugenics derives from the Greek word eugenes, that can be translated to mean "good in birth". The term was coined by Francis Galton in 1883, half-cousin of Charles Darwin, who was influenced by Social Darwinism and believed that Eugenics was required to give “the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance of prevailing speedily over the less suitable”. It rose to popularity at a time of great scientific advancement (such as the emerging discipline of genetics), however it was still a time when social prejudice undermined scientific objectivity, leading to such conclusions.

Eugenics aimed to improve the human race, by eliminating undesirable qualities and enhancing desirable ones. Francis Galton listed the following qualities based on which the best models of a particular class can be differentiated and identified — "health, energy, ability, manliness, and courteous disposition."

Eugenics was a discipline that was studied to enhance humans through artificial selection, with people with desirable characteristics and traits asked to reproduce more, and consequently reduce population with diseases or disabilities. It was enforced through 'sterilisation', preventing humans with 'undesirable characteristics' from mating. Further undesirable characteristics in the discipline of Eugenics included but were not limited to: criminal tendencies, homosexuality, race and disability as they were thought to be hereditary.

Eugenics in the 20th century
Sterilisation, or differentiation based on eugenics criteria, was first introduced to the law by the United States of America in 1896, and continued to be practised legally until the Supreme Court overturned the various legislations in 1927 in the Buck v. Bell case. However by then, it had pervaded the European mindset and Adolf Hitler's cabinet passed an Eugenics Sterilisation Law in 1933 which went beyond the American tactics or intentions. On the basis of Eugenics, the Nazi movement proclaimed superiority of the Aryan race.The Nazi sterilisation programs ran without Jewish discrimination for years. It was not until Hitler's proclaimed hatred for Jews worsened that Nazi's racial and eugenics practice began. The downfall of Germany paired with the heinousness of Nazi policies elicited an anti-eugenic reaction from around the world, stigmatising the discipline entirely. It was heavily criticised and its multiple theories were disproved.

In 1896, in Connecticut, USA, marriages became illegal for people with mental illnesses, epilepsy. There were several sterilization programs in different states of America in the 20th century.

University College London and Eugenics
UCL developed the first laboratory and centre for the newly born discipline of Eugenics which was spearheaded by Francis Galton and Karl Pearson. Although Galton was neither a professor nor a student at the university, his monetary contributions helped establish the First Chair of Eugenics and consequently started the first department in the world that studied Eugenics as a discipline.

UCL faced criticism regarding its ties to Eugenics when it was revealed that the London Conference on Intelligence (LCI), a conference for research on Eugenics and other similar controversial topics, was hosted on UCL campus on multiple occasions in an investigation conducted by London Student in 2018. The conferences were hosted by James Thompson, a honorary psychology lecturer at UCL at the time. In response, UCL stated they were unaware of the content discussed in the conferences or the speakers involved and launched an investigation into their room booking process. However, this controversy sparked further discussion about UCL’s historical links with Eugenics such as its ties with Galton. In response, on the 5th of December, 2018, Professor Iyiola Solanke lead inquiry into the institution's historical and current associations with Eugenics, which was published on the 28th of February, 2020. UCL also took further action on the 19th of June, 2020, when they removed the names of prominent eugenicists like Galton and Pearson from its properties, including the Galton Lecture Theatre (now named Lecture Theatre 115), the Pearson Building (now named North-West Wing) and the Pearson Lecture Theatre (now named Lecture Theatre G22). Pearson was the first holder of the Galton Chair of Eugenics.

Historical Impact on Academia, Institutions and Society
Eugenics was formalized as an academic discipline to learn about and research forward on at multiple colleges and universities and its field received funding to further its research. The founder of Eugenics that developed its name is Francis Galton. He established a laboratory to further research in the discipline at University College London. Many other prestigious universities including Oxford, Cambridge, and Glasgow had places in the Eugenics Education Society which was a society that included campaigns for forced sterilizations and martial restrictions.

There was a lot of distress in the society as their rights were taken away as a result of Eugenic ideology. A Government Accountability Office investigation in 1976 in the United States says that 25 to 50 percent of American citizens were sterilized in a 6 year period and a few sterilizations occurred without consent of the individual during medical procedures for a different surgery such as an appendectomy. Sterilizations were also forced through denying health care for living children until their mothers would provide consent for sterilization. This resulted in distress by being forced to do something they do not properly consent to. Another impact on society would be the consequence of less financial problems during an economic crisis as families had less members to fend for. Additionally, there was the development of a class system of superior and inferior people and this resulted in the increase in abuse of power. Furthermore, racial bias developing due to Eugenic ideology formed a difference in the availability of quality education for different classes and races due to budgeting higher for superior class education as it was determined as more important due to Eugenic ideology.

Impact of the Discipline's Existence
Only as the discipline existed for a period, its consequences of its practice and impacts in the short and long term are known. If the discipline did not exist, then there would be many proposals prompting Eugenic ideology to be implemented because of its main purpose of enhancing human life. After the discipline died, it is known of the effects it had in developing a class system and holding racial bias, however, these consequences were not known at the start of the discipline. These negative impacts on the society were caused without prediction of its possibility, and due to the discipline's existence, educators know of such consequences and do not revive the discipline. The existence of the discipline also started the ideology of the importance and value of individual human rights as society could witness the extreme of not having said rights. Due to experiencing forced sterilization and consequent discrimination, individual human rights became valued important, leading to the development of many movements for human rights and the development of a Human Rights Committee in the United Nations.

The Fall of Eugenic Ideology
Between the first and the second world war, Eugenics was criticized based on scientific discovery as eugenics guided segregation of class and instigated racial bias. Through further research, it was discovered that many mental disabilities, which were considered as 'undesirable characteristics' in the discipline of Eugenics, had no relation to genes and were not hereditary in nature. It was also studied as there was a growth into the field of Neuroscience and Psychology, that multiple tendencies exhibiting criminal behaviour or any 'undesirable' behaviour is not definitely the consequence of genes or biological hereditary, but is attributed to environmental factors that a child grows up in. Eugenics was also criticized based on social perspectives against Hitler's concentration camps, as they gained awareness that the Holocaust was a result of Eugenic ideology.

Human rights became very important that it resulted in the United Nations developing a Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and later establishing a Human Rights Committee in 1976. From the opportunity of the recognition of the importance of human rights and the awareness of its importance, multiple movements by the public took place which were against forced sterilization and eugenic ideology and strived for women's rights and the freedom of reproduction. With these movements and recognition, there was a shift in ideology and priorities towards individual human rights being more important and more valuable, consequently guiding that individual human rights hold priority in any knowledge production or research about humans and medical genetics.


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User:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC0001/2020-21/Thursday2-3/Week2TheHistoryofEugenics

The History of Eugenics
Eugenics, as James noted in his lecture, is dead. However, for a period in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a relatively popular discipline. What was eugenics? Why did the discipline rise and fall? What, if any, impact has its History had on academia, institutions, or society more broadly? And, fundamentally, what happens to the currents of thought that underpin a discipline when that discipline dies?

Over to you all...

Introduction
Eugenics was a practice based on the selective breeding of humans with traits perceived to be desirable and genetically-determined, such as intelligence, wealth and integrity. The purpose of eugenics was to improve the general genetic fitness of the population, based on the notion that certain groups of people (notably criminals, Blacks, homosexuals, the poor and the uneducated) are genetically inferior and the population should be cleansed of these undesirable traits by preventing their propagation and instead encouraging the preservation and propagation of desirable traits.

The rise and fall of eugenics
Eugenics was first practiced in Ancient Greece and Rome; during the Roman Republic, by law, children would have to be killed by their fathers if they were deemed unfit to live. Some historians even argue that Eugenics dates back to the first hominids, where children with disabilities were killed by its tribes because of the physical and economical cost they involved, preventing the tribe to grow and develop at faster rates. The peak of the eugenics movement was during the late 19th to early 20th century starting in the United Kingdom, eventually spreading to the United States and much of Europe. The movement was initiated by Francis Galton based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection, however, it became strongly based upon the fundamental ideas of genetic determinism, suggesting that one’s character is innate, unaffected by environmental factors such as access to education.

During the Holocaust, eugenics was practiced on a mass scale, however, in the following years, its practice was questioned, predominantly from an ethical perspective as there became a greater focus on human rights within society. This resulted in the start of the death of eugenics as a movement; various countries began to abolish their existing eugenic policies, specifically those which were underlined by negative eugenics such as sterilization, as this was directly violating the human right to reproduce. Eugenics was also criticized in relation to the genetic health of the human population; selective breeding would reduce genetic diversity, leading to inbreeding depression and the loss of general fitness, resulting in an increased susceptibility to disease and lack of ability to adapt to the environment.

The impact on institutions, academia and society
As eugenics became an established academic discipline, it grew vastly as a topic of interest, with colleges and universities receiving much funding for their research - a prominent research body in eugenics was the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics. Multiple worldwide academic conferences were held, academic texts on eugenics were published and eugenic policies were implemented in many countries. Preservation and propagation of “superior” genetic traits were applied in eugenic policies; positive eugenics would consist of encouraging those with desirable traits to marry and reproduce, while negative eugenics resulted in those with undesirable traits to often encounter marriage prohibitions or be forced to undergo sterilization as a means of preventing the propagation of unfit traits.

What happens to the currents of thought that underpin a discipline once it dies?
The practice of eugenics faces much criticism from society, and although it is no longer an officially practiced discipline, the underlying ideas still influence the pursuit of certain disciplines and practices, notably biological anthropology and new reproductive technology. When investigating human biological diversity, some scientists continue to search for genetic differences between different races with no consideration of its underlying social construction. Without careful phrasing, these publications may be interpreted as a justification for eugenics and used to legitimize and reproduce racial inequality. Furthermore, eugenic ideas appear to resurge when concerning the controversial practice of new reproductive technologies, including human cloning and prenatal screening, as these often result in desirable traits being selected for a child, or the abortion of a foetus with undesirable traits.

Gene Editing and the New Eugenics
Genome editing is a technique that allows scientists to change, add or remove segments of DNA to precisely modify its sequence, changing the characteristics of an organism. The most efficient and developed technique during the last years is (CRISPR Cas9). This field has brought back the debate about the benefits and ethical implications of perfecting a human being and the idea of physical and psychological correction.

An example of the application of this technique is the case of the Chinese biophysicist Jiankui He, who claimed the 25 of November of 2018 to have created genetically engineered babies designed to resist HIV, smallpox, and cholera. This was a very controversial case in the scientific community, and at last, he was sentenced to three years in prison for his experiment. The argument against Genome editing that links this experiment to Eugenics is that it did not have a therapeutic purpose, but a eugenic one. Skeptical scientists claim that the use of genome editing techniques such as CRISPR Cas9 will eventually lead to embryological enhancement, which would result in medical, social, and economic disparity. In addition to that, genome editing proposes a debate about disability and ableism, where the genetic erasure of a disability could be seen as counterproductive to the promotion of the acceptance and integration of disabled citizens

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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English-Hanzi/We used to think that stretching muscles is necessary to warm the muscles and prepare for exercise

We used to think that stretching muscles is necessary to warm the muscles and prepare for exercise. However, more and more studies have shown that stretching muscles before warming up can actually damage muscles. When everything gets cold, the muscle fibers are not ready and may be damaged. If you exercise first, blood will flow to the area, which will make the tissue softer and easier to stretch.

我们曾经认为，伸展肌肉对于温暖肌肉和准备锻炼很必要. 但是，越来越多的研究表明，在热身之前伸展肌肉实际上会损害肌肉. 当一切变冷时，肌肉纤维尚未准备好，可能会受损. 如果您先运动，血液将流到该区域，这将使组织更柔软，更容易拉伸.


text: Category:Book:Onondaga

title: Category:Book:Onondaga


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Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Beauxbatons Academy of Magic

Mysogyny?
That's a curious thought, which I (as it happens) hadn't heard of before. A few thoughts on how one ought to go about working it into the analysis. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 11:49, 13 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Although interpretation is inevitably part of such analysis, we ought to phrase things so as to discuss the books rather than the fans.
 * Looking at it from the other side, is there actual evidence that this is a common interpretation? Poking around on the internet, I found someone defending Fleur against supposed criticisms of that sort, but never actually found any such criticisms as they were supposedly rebutting.
 * It seems to me, for this to become a smoothly presented element of the analysis, one ought to remark on some reasoning for and against it.


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Anarchist Theories and Practices/Author List

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Anarchist Theories and Practices/Appendix 1: Glossary

Praxis
N.
 * Practice, as distinguished from theory
 * "Both theory and praxis are crucial to an intelligent political philosophy"


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where is my text???

kasjfalhöjen hääää

ich hass die ufgab mannnnn

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User talk:64.251.58.35

Welcome!
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User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC0001/2020-21/Thursday11-12/Week2TheHistoryofEugenics

Talk ideas through with one another here...

Hi, I've added the definition, headings and some general facts. Feel free to correct or expand those) Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 17:55, 14 October 2020 (UTC)


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User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC0001/2020-21/Thursday2-3/Week2TheHistoryofEugenics

Talk ideas through with one another here...


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User talk:Owittnan

Welcome, Seemplez!

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User:PerpetualMisfit/sandbox

=History=

The History Computer Science as a discipline
Though advances in computing go back to the work of Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace in the 1830s, the birth of computer science as a discipline occurred in the 1940s. Spurred by the work of Alan Turing and the construction of the Turing-complete computer, ENIAC, in 1945, computing as an academic interest rose to prominence. In 1961, George E. Forsythe coined the term ‘computer science’. Forsythe identified the study of computer science as the study of the theory of programming, numerical analysis, data processing, and the design of computer systems, setting apart computer science’s disciplinary identity from fields it was historically intertwined with such as mathematics and engineering. In this period there was an increased demand for instruction in computing, thus, the first degree programs and academic departments dedicated to computer science were established. In 1962, the first computer science department was officially formed at Purdue University and in 1965, Richard Wexelblat from the University of Pennsylvania became the first person to receive a Ph. D. from a computer science department.

Until the mid 1980s, the focus of the computer science field was making advances in the power of computers and increasing their efficiency and effectiveness. However, as the personal computer and the Internet became more ubiquitous, questions about how computers interact with other fields of study arose and demanded academic attention. As computers became tools used for study, and not just objects of study, ethical discussions started to take place.

Ethics in the Computer Science discipline
Though work in computing has been around for nearly two centuries, the discussion around computer ethics is relatively newer, only being founded in the 1940s. Computer ethics as a concept originated during WW2 when MIT professor Norbert Wiener was investigating the science of information feedback systems that enabled different parts of a cannon to communicate with each other. This new branch of science, which Wiener termed “cybernetics”, would later influence artificial intelligence. In 1950, Wiener warned against the negative consequences of technology on society and encouraged the development of technology that enhances the well-being of humans in his book The Human Use of Human Beings.

There was little academic interest in this new area of applied ethics until the mid 1960s, during which there was a series of computer-enabled bank robberies and privacy invasions by authoritarian government agencies. As the social consequences of technology became apparent in society, there was an increased academic interest in computer-related ethical issues. The term ‘computer ethics’ was conceived in 1976 by Walter Maner when he noticed that the use of computers in the medical field created a whole new branch of ethical considerations. He deemed this new branch of applied ethics as “computer ethics” and defined it as the study of ethical problems “aggravated, transformed or created by computer technology.” He made efforts to encourage the teaching of computer ethics in university, developing university courses and conducting workshops. By the early 1980s, the concept of computer ethics quickly caught the attention of other scholars who began to contribute to this new field.

With infamous controversies such as the Cambridge Analytica scandal that have gained widespread mainstream attention, the importance of the systematic instruction of computer ethics has become an integral part in the computer science discipline its importance will only be emphasized

Evidence in Public Policy
The study of public policy is interdisciplinary, combining fields such as political science, economics, law and public management to understand the relevant concepts and methods involved in policymaking. In UCL, the Social Policy and Social Research MSc also focuses on the links between research and policy.

Evidence-Based Policymaking
Evidence-based policymaking is a concept that advocates for the use of qualitative and quantitative evidence to inform policy decisions. It proposes that when scientific evidence and scientific methods are used comprehensively to understand ‘what works’, policy makers can better craft policies that achieve their goals to improve public well-being. Proponents of evidence-based policymaking establish that ideally there is a wide breadth of evidence used to inform policy. Quantitative data, data that is in numerical form such as statistics and percentages, is unbiased and can enable policymakers to have a better understanding of the facts surrounding an issue. Qualitative evidence is evidence collected through interviews with the public, focus groups, surveys etc. While policies shaped by evidence mainly rely on quantitative evidence, qualitative research adds a human perspective to the numbers. Currently, evidence-based policymaking is most common when it comes to public health, an example being the Government of Tanzania basing their health service reforms on the results of household disease surveys.

The modern debate about using evidence to shape public policy was popularized by the UK Labour government in the 1990s, with their party manifesto in 1997 being ‘what counts is what works’. The Modernising Government white paper published in 1999 noted that the government "must produce policies that really deal with problems, that are forward-looking and shaped by evidence rather than a response to short-term pressures; that tackle causes not symptoms”. Though the idea of using evidence to inform policy seems to be common sense for the general public, the concept of evidence-based policymaking can be controversial.

Limitations of Evidence-Based Policymaking
Some political theorists are of the opinion that policymaking is principally the discussion of an ideal society, something science and evidence alone cannot answer.

Some have even taken the extreme stand to dismiss the entire idea of evidence-based policymaking as a concept that will never be fully applied in reality, with political scientist Jenny M Lewis saying it’s nothing more than a ‘technocratic wish in a political world’. She argues that basing policy on science and evidence simplifies the complex nature of policymaking, as the process is inherently political.

However, even from this perspective, evidence is not irrelevant. Proponents of evidence-based policymaking argue that evidence is a tool that serves to identify the possible outcomes of a policy. It informs the policy, altering the minor details to improve its effectiveness, instead of of aiming to directly influence the goal of the policy. They recognize that in a democracy, transparency and debate about social concerns are necessary, as well as how different social outcomes are valued compared with one another. This is something evidence cannot answer, as these discussions have to consider social values.

An example of this is the debate about abortion in the United States. The debate is not solely about creating an abortion policy that does the best for women’s health, something evidence can heavily inform. Instead, the debate is primarily discussed in terms of rights, whether the rights of an unborn outweighs the rights of women over their bodies. This is something based on the fundamentals of human rights, something science and evidence cannot answer.

Science in Post-Truth Politics
Scientists often have a positivist approach to truth and see it as an understanding of the world, something that is based on clear observations of reality or experiments using the scientific method. Results of experiments are verified through replication studies by other scientists that attempt to prove if the original results can be replicated under similar experimental conditions. Though scientists will never be able to verify if their scientific findings are truly ‘true’, the rigorous application of the scientific method and replication reduce uncertainty increase the credibility of the findings.

In the era of post-truth politics
Post-truth politics is a political culture where public opinion is largely shaped by a politician’s ability to appeal to emotion and personal belief rather than scientifically proven facts. Recently in the United States, this has also meant that facts backed by science are open to contestation by politicians when they do not support their political views. An example is how 45% of self-identified Republican voters deny the existence of man-made climate change, despite 97% of scientists agreeing that climate exists and humans are causing it.

The distrust about science is attributed mainly to the rising prevalence of misinformation on social media and politicians questioning the legitimacy of mainstream media outlets that disagree with their political views. As a result, there is a dichotomy between what’s seen as truth from the scientific viewpoint and for the general public.

title: User:PerpetualMisfit/sandbox


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User talk:PerpetualMisfit

Welcome, PerpetualMisfit!

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User talk:Valerio Bozzolan

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User talk:2605:A000:1306:E38E:515A:AFEC:C8E:98BC

Warning
—Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 15:46, 13 October 2020 (UTC)


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User:Sunnday/sandbox

User sunnday sandbox

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Template:Is empty/doc

Returns true if the first parameter is assigned no value. It can be useful in de-obfuscating wiki markup. It was created to facilitate adding tracking categories.

Usage

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Fijian/Pronouns

Personal pronouns

 * I 'm Gengis Kan : O yau Gegis Kan
 * you are from Kadavu : O iko mai Kadavu
 * He/she is teacher : O koya na qasenivuli
 * We are from the village : O keda mai na koro
 * You are brunettes : O kemunī na uludamu
 * They are blonds : O irá na uluvula

Demonstrative pronouns

 * This mango : maqo yai
 * This is a dress :  oqo dua na vinivo
 * That room : rumu yā

Interrogative pronouns

 * What is this? : Na cava oqo?
 * Where is the bank? : I vei na baqe?
 * Where is the beach? : I vei na matasawa?
 * Where are you from? : O iko mai vei ?

title: Fijian/Pronouns


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User:GCooper316/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 8/History

Geo-graphing: History of Modern Geography
--Granosyenite (discuss • contribs) 05:17, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

Kant, Humboldt and Ritter
In line with his philosophies of space, Immanuel Kant was a key figure in providing a theoretical base for geography. From 1757 to 1797, he lectured in physical geography at Konigsberg University. The course was popular among students, but Kant did not have a professorship in geography - the first chair of geography was given to Carl Ritter in 1820.

It was the works of Carl Ritter and Alexander von Humboldt that marked the birth of modern geography. In Ritter's book Die Erdkunde, he used a regional approach to depict the earth as the home of humans. Humboldt established the methodologies of geographical measurement and observation in his numerous explorations around the world, most notably in South America, recorded in the thirty volumes of his Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales du Nouveau Continent. A more comprehensive view of the discipline was evident in his Kosmos: a sketch of a physical description of the Universe. The works of Humboldt and Ritter were seen as evidence for geography's 'ever-increasing factual base' in the nineteenth century.

Disciplinary societies were also founded during the nineteenth century, such as the Geographical Society of Paris (1821) and the American Geographical Society (1851). Chairs of geography were being created in universities in Paris and Berlin. In 1874, the first departments of geography were established in Prussian universities, followed by other European universities, and in the United States from 1903 onwards.

Jared Diamond and Neo-determinism
--Granosyenite (discuss • contribs) 02:03, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

The History of History as a Discipline - Amanda
--AmandaZCX (discuss • contribs) 02:03, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

Emergence of History as a Discipline
The starting point of which a subject emerges can be defined by different kinds of possible criteria: when the discipline leads to a very specific kind of job, when there is a formalisation of teacher-student relationship, or when there is publications regarding in the field. History as an area of study can be dated back to as early as human beings had written language.

China
The alleged person who had invented the earliest characters Cang Jie, was also believed by many modern ancient historians as the “official historian” for the first emperor in China, Huang Di which dates back to 2698–2598 BCE. The post of being the “official historian” existed in China in every dynasty and for every emperor. Their job was the organise the history documents and write the history for previous dynasties, as well as document the events happening in their time that can later be used to write the history of their dynasty. Later, the writings such as “Shang Shu”, Zuo Qiuming’s “Zuo Zhuan”, Confucious’ “Chun Qiu”, or Sima Qian’s “Shi Ji” base heavily on primary sources from earlier time which shows that there were properly documented history long before the writing of these major works. These writings in ancient China or not only show that history already had been formally existed as an area of study for quite a period, they also opened the traditions of the first kind of historical writing, chronicles, which could be considered as the first kind of publication that demonstrate the formalisation of the discipline.

Greece
On the other hand, in ancient Greece, the start of history as a formal discipline was clearly marked by Herodotus’ “The Histories”. The work consisted of an elaborately written history based of the Greco-Persian war which Herodotus travelled throughout the country to collect oral documentation relating to the event. Because of the loss of the primary works accompanied with Herodotus’ writing of “The Histories”, currently it is not able to determine how much Herodotus based his historical research on previously existing writings. What is known is that this piece of work was the first literature on the topic of history, and therefore it marks the beginning of history being regarded as a formal discipline in the West.

How History of History Shaped History? —— Exploring Key Changes in the Discipline
Historiography is the study of how historians write history and the methods they use to study history. Looking at the changes in historiography reflects the changes in history as an academic discipline. The “history” of the study of history can shape this discipline because the changing political and social context often propel a change in the historian’s method and the lens of studying history. Therefore, the turning points in the discipline of history are influential historical events or period that changed the predominant way of thinking of the people.

Into the Enlightenment Period: The Shifting Methods of Studying History
The enlightenment period sparked the beginning of a new method in studying history emphasising on logic and scrupulous methods.

19th Century: Emerging New Branches Within History
The French Revolution inspired many new branches within history. For example, historians started to examine the history of the psychology of the people participating in the revolutions and thus contributed to the emergence of psychohistory.

20th Century: The Modern Ways of Studying History
The two world wars were a turning point in the study of history. The world wars led to a dramatic advancement of technology and modernisation of society and education. Researches, including in the discipline of history, in different areas in the 20th century were characterised by the heavy focus on universities. Most researchers and leading scholars in the field have completed formal university degrees from undergraduate, postgraduate, to even PhD studies at universities. Therefore, their method of interpretation of history is rather very systematically trained. The criticisms of history in the twentieth century shifted into the focus on historiography in which historians recognises the underlying ideas of how people have perceived history. Besides, the criticisms of history shifts into evaluating the strengths of weaknesses of the historian’s argument based on corroboration of evidence and critically evaluating their interpretation.

Besides shifting focus on methodology, study of history in the 20th century is strongly influenced by the rapidly changing political and social context. For example, during the Cold War era, the political context led historians in the USSR and the US to have opposing historiographical lenses. Along with the political changes in the Cold War context, the historiography in both countries evolved. Take the US as an example. When Cold War tensions just started to build up, there was the traditional interpretation. US historians during this era would see that it was the aggressive and expansionist actions of Stalin and the Soviet Union that caused the breakup of the Grand Alliance, and that US foreign policy in the 1940s and early 1950s was passive to the Soviet actions1. After the Vietnam War, it was clear that the event have contributed to the rise of revisionist historiography in Cold War America. Historians started to think that the Soviet Union and Stalin was not solely responsible for the Cold War and the US had its own economic and political agenda. The Vietnam war also led US scholars to think that the policies of Roosevelt and Truman were not as advocated as to have an “disinterested power intent” and solely meant to preserve international justice2. Socially, after the two world wars, there were increasing number of women rights movements. Therefore, the 20th century historical studies also sees a new historiographical lens, the feminist perspective. For example, historians started to view the history of the Second World War from a feminist perspective and started to evaluate their contributions and the impact of the wars on women3. The historiographical changes demonstrate that the discipline of history is constantly influenced by the evolving political and social changes.

Exception? Chinese historiography, a continuous trend
However, Chinese historiography is rather an exception. Some scholars in history also believed that Chinese historiography lies independently of transient social changes. This could be interpreted as the result of the penetrating Confucius thinking. Some argues that once China adopted Confucianism as its fundamental orthodox philosophy, Chinese people were not able to be truly removed from such perspective. Therefore, the study of history remained as being esteemed to be “the guiding principles”4 and thus history studies in China has the long tradition of having an explicit moral purposes.

The History of Redology: conflicting between literary criticism and natural history
Redology is the academic study of Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of China. There is Hongloumeng Institute in Chinese National Academy of Arts, established in 1979.

There are numerous researchers in this field; most can be divided into four general groups, namely the commentators, the index group, the textual critics, the literary critics. The commentators and the index group are the two most prestige groups of Redology researchers.

The History of Commentators and Methods of literary criticism
The commentators adhere to the literary principle, interpret the original works from the perspectives of art, thought, encyclopedic culture, social life, philosophical understanding, emotional experience, etc., and study the ideological themes, artistic features, characters, cultural values, writing methods of "Dream of Red Mansions" and so on. In the times of old-Redology, the Redology before May 4th Movement，In the 19th century, the critics were very active, and the booksellers published 120 times "Dream of the Red Mansions" after criticism, approval and new reviews. Lu Xun put forward many incisive opinions on "Dream of Red Mansions" in "The History of Chinese Novels" (1924), "The Change of the History of Chinese Novels" and other articles. Li Chendong's "Dream Study of Red Mansions" (1934, French text) holds that Cao Xueqin's attitudes towards life is philosophical and predestine and his book aims to express the feeling that "life is no more than a dream".

The History of the Index Group and Methods of Natural History
The index group is the first major group of Redology, adhere to the historical principle, the use of Dewey's empirical methods, committed to the examination of Cao Yuqin’s family affairs, "Dream of the Red Mansions" version and into the book. Hu Shi's "Dream Test of Red Mansions" (1921) opened up a new world for the study of "Dream of Red Mansions" and brought fresh air. According to the novel itself and the Qing people's notes, biographies, poems and other materials, Hu Shi confirmed that the author of "Dream of Red Mansions" is Cao Xueqin, and Cao Xueqin is the grandson of Cao Qi, "Dream of Red Mansions" is Cao Xueqin's "autobiography", the last forty times is Gao E to make up. Since then, Cao Xueqin by the vast majority of redology researchers recognized as the "Dream of Red Mansions" author.

History of Disciplines: Forensic Linguistics, Conflicts and Incorporation of Law and Linguistics. - Kiseki101
Forensic Linguistics is an interdisciplinary discipline that utilised the scientific method of linguistics in a legal context. In present times, forensic linguists are often called on to provide evidence to the authorship of written evidence within cyber-attacks, homicide, and other legal cases.

History of Disciplines: Biology as a discipline --[User:GianaVBlake]
Biology is the science of life and of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution (Biology, 2020). Biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco - Roman world. The 19th century was a notably important turning point for the individualisation of biology as a sub discipline of 'Science' as a whole. Prior to this period, the focus in biology was mostly of zoology and botany. The two decades either side of 1960 brought a world-wide interest in curriculum renewal that led to attempts at reform in both the developed and the developing world (Jenkins EW,2016). In 1967, the 'Journal of Biology' was first published. In the UK in particular, this encouraged the institutionalisation/ expansion of biology education as a field of teaching within higher education. From here, Biology began to include more than just botany and zoology - it included genetics, living organisms, evolution etc. As the subject expanded, so did the opportunity for study and interest.

=Bibliography:= ScienceDaily. 2020. Biology. [online] Available at:  [Accessed 16 October 2020]

2016, Taylor & Francis. This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in Journal of Biological Education on 8 July 2016 available online: https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2016.1202484==


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 18

The first picture on the Web was taken of a parodistic music group before it performed today in 1992 at the CERN Hardronic Festival and was published by Berners-Lee soon after. With this picture he hinted at another potential future for his young hypertext information system, after it had previously only been pitched for more serious matters like scientific collaboration.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 18


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Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2020/August

Vandalism by
After this user was given they consequently  and. - Aranya (discuss • contribs) 12:04, 24 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Blocked. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 12:47, 24 August 2020 (UTC)


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User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 9/History

Formatting
I thought I'd ask if we should go through our subheadings and headings and make sure everything is the same size and format? It might help to make the sandbox look more 'professional' and organised. Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 08:41, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I made all subheadings the same size, and will do the same with main headings too. Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 13:51, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

I just made a few formatting changes to the Evidence in Philosophy and The Evidential value of Mythology in Antiquity to make sure everything is the same format. A.ren01 (discuss • contribs) 15:43, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

Moving content
I moved the work on Artificial Intelligence onto the main sandbox page from the discussion page, so it's in the right place. Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 07:38, 16 October 2020 (UTC)

The History of Marketing
I removed the word "well" from first History of Marketing section, as this seems to take the first sentence in a more biased direction rather than give a purely descriptive, or objective, read.

 * In the History of Marketing section, well done for getting an image on there - I struggled to do this, even after the training. Any tips would be greatly received.Tsarina Catarina (discuss • contribs) 16:37, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Thank you!
Thank you for adding in the reference to Freakonomics by Steven Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner!! --Hithertoundreamt (discuss • contribs) 13:39, 16 October 2020 (UTC)

History of Economics: paradigm shift section edits - Behavioural Economics
Thank you so much to whoever contributed to the 'History of Economics - Paradigm shifts in the 20th & 21st century' section! I have integrated your research/findings about Behavioural Economics and how other social sciences have been combined together to solve global issues into the final paragraph of the section; please do let me know if it accurately conveys your message still. If not, feel free to edit the section or reformat the paragraph! -  Hithertoundreamt (discuss • contribs) 21:04, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I have also formatted the History of Economics section to break up the text, and your contributions about Behvioural Economics, social sciences solving global issues etc. are now part of the 'Further Developments in Economics Today' sub-section! -   Hithertoundreamt (discuss • contribs) 21:20, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

Science Communication Sections
I noticed someone had added another section on science communication under mine. I wasn't sure if this was an add-on to my original section or if you wanted to start your own, so I made it into it's own section to structure the page more. Please do leave a comment if you wanted it as a part of the original section and I can integrate them together! Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 17:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Yes! This was intended as an add on to yours.Tsarina Catarina (discuss • contribs) 08:23, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Great, thank you! Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 04:14, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I've just made a small edit to the end of your addition to my section, to help link it to History as an issue and draw the section to a close - I hope that's okay but please let me know if you have any more thoughts or want to make some more edits. Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 08:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Fully fleshed out section on artificial intelligence
As discussed in a post-seminar discussion, I decided to add additional information to the section on Artificial Intelligence. I feel like there may need to be some greater focus on history in the section, so feel free to make further edits if this is an area you're interested in.

 * I would also like to mention, in relation to citations for this section, a large majority of the information regarding modern developments in AI are either mentioned in very techy papers, or on blogs and digital news sites. I believe that due to the very online nature of this topic, it is suitable to use websites like TechCrunch as citations. I would like to hear your opinion on this matter. 5050clown (discuss • contribs) 21:31, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

International Relations
I have fleshed out a little this entry. Tsarina Catarina

 * I think it might be important to distinguish that although international relations started with the Peace of Westphalia's introduction of the state system, the study of the relations and the theory in and around the discipline came quite considerably later (in response to WWI from a cursory wiki glance). I am about to add a mention of Sun Tzu's Art of War as it precedes the Thucydides text, and it might also be useful to provide a non-Western example.

5050clown (discuss • contribs) 15:47, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * You make very valid points here. While I appreciate the addition of non-Western examples, it might be more fitting to include such an example in a separate section dedicated to criticisms of IR as a discipline with one of IR's more common criticisms being its Eurocentrism.

Lamplight360 (discuss • contribs) 20:41, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I have just attempted to split apart mention of IR as a discipline and IR as a phenomenon. Let me know if you think this is clear enough now.

5050clown (discuss • contribs) 16:18, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

The Communist Manifesto in IR
Do you think it is worth including mention of The Communist Manifesto in the IR section? I'll admit this subject is not an area of expertise to me so I thought I would ask the group first.

5050clown (discuss • contribs) 16:17, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Thats a good point - if you think it might change the perception on when IR started as a discipline, I'd definitely include it. Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 16:38, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I would argue giving The Communist Manifesto a mention in the IR section as potential subject matter of the discipline would be appropriate, though I think including the work to suggest it was a possible starting point of the discipline would be conflating subject matter with the discipline itself. I do not believe the Communist Manifesto sparked the same sort of push toward a structured framework for academic study, and in turn the establishment of a so-called discipline, as did the formalization of a distinct teaching faculty of IR at Aberystwyth University in 1919. Of course, I welcome any input from other contributors.

Lamplight360 (discuss • contribs) 20:16, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I think the real question we need to look at here is what specifically is the subject matter of IR. Is IR as a discipline the study of the relations between nations, or is it also the study of analysis of these relations?

5050clown (discuss • contribs) 09:55, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

As I understand the discipline from my own research and brief time in my introductory international relations module this term, IR is more concerned with the interactions between nation-states and non-state actors (to varying degrees depending on strain of IR being studied). There is likely a strand of academic study within IR which focuses on meta-analysis of these relations, but this seems a peripheral area of focus rather than the core of the discipline itself. Please let me know if I have not fully understood the distinction you are making.

Lamplight360 (discuss • contribs) 16:11, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

Banksy in Street Art
Is it worth including mention of Banksy in the street art section? I feel personally that his influence on the world of fine art is overstated, and that Basquiat's work was more influential, especially as he was part of both graffiti and fine art culture.

 * Inclusion of Banksy in my opinion would be mainly in relation to the public's perception of street art (especially in the UK), rather than the perception of it in the art world.

5050clown (discuss • contribs) 10:00, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

The History of Artificial Intelligence
I just added a picture to this section A.ren01 (discuss • contribs) 15:43, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

The History of Culinary Arts
This was really interesting to read, and not something you often get to read about! I made a few minor corrections in terms of grammar and the order of punctuation and referencing, but also wanted to suggest adding in a few sentences in the final paragraph, to sum up when you thought culinary arts started as a discipline. From what I can see, I think you're suggesting that the emergence of culinary arts as a discipline was in the late 19th century, when schools and universities began to formally teach it as as an academic subject, but I just wanted to make sure before I added any extra sentences to your work. Inorganic-Yogi (discuss • contribs) 04:17, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * I too edited a little grammar ! I also added a small paragraph about Ayurveda - the Indian traditional health system that uses food as medicine and has done for over 5000 years. I put it in the first section as I thought it suited that best. if you don't like it, please take it out but I really loved this topic and think Ayurveda is a great tradition alongside others that still exists today. Tsarina Catarina (discuss • contribs) 09:45, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Thank you so much for your feedback!! Will go back in and add that. Wasn't too sure if I could put a conclusion because wanted to stay as impartial as possible. Please edit again if you think it needs it. Also Tsarina thank you for adding about the Ayurveda, really interesting to add another perspective. Basciscool44826 (discuss • contribs) 13:34, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

^ Ignore my last message Inorganic-Yogi. Yes, I do think it emerged as a full discipline in the late 19th century, I meant to distinguish between that and the apprentice-master relationship before that time, but didn't in the end. Basciscool44826 (discuss • contribs) 13:39, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi! the subject was super interesting. I just added some more informations about the modern era of this discipline! June1965Parias (discuss contribs) 13:21, November, 9 2020 (UTC)


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 27

Today in 2012 Defense Distributed was founded. It published the first downloadable, fully 3D-printable gun in 2013.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 27


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5/History

= History =

Origins of the term
Psychology is defined as "the scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of a particular person's character on their behaviour". The word itself is derived from Greek, as it combines the two Greek words psyche, meaning "breath, spirit, soul" and logia, meaning "study of". It was first used in 1520 by Marko Marulić, a Croatian humanist and poet, whose interests stemmed in history and poetry. Although Marulić was the first scholar to utilise the term, two other scholars included the term in their works: Calvinist Johann Thomas Frieg, in 1575, and German scholar, Rudolf Göckel, in 1590, as he titled his tractate, 'Yucologica hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu'. Although the term was implemented by the three scholars in three different contexts, they all considered the concept of the soul and their lack of substantial knowledge on this particular entity.

Founding of the discipline
The foundation of Wilhelm Wundt’s laboratory for psychological research in 1879 is a marker in establishing Psychology as a discipline. By creating a space where scientific methodology could be applied, and psychological processes observed, Wundt hoped to develop a better understanding of the human mind and consciousness. He is often referred to as the "father of experimental psychology" due to his role in the facilitation of this scientific discipline being recognised as such. Prior to this, the disciplines of psychology and philosophy appeared to be inextricably linked; this was due to the curiosity of Ancient Greek philosophers -as well as members of other cultures- as they questioned the nature of the mind and the self. Between 600 and 300 B.C., Aristotle, Socrates and Plato all contemplated themes which are commonly studied in psychology today, such as rationality, mental illness, motivation, pain and pleasure. Additionally, they considered whether human beings had innate qualities, or were instead a product of their empirical experiences- this question is still discussed in modern psychology, as reflected through the nature versus nurture debate. Although there is a clearer distinction between the two disciplines, it is evident that they share common themes: in Robert M. Farr's book in which he discusses the history of the psychology, in relation to Wundt, it is described as a "hybrid discipline", one which applied methods and concepts were "derived largely from physiology to problems derived largely from philosophy".

The History of Environmental Science
Whereas one may view Environmental Science as a subdiscipline of natural sciences, it is a discipline of its own as it draws on the research of specialists across natural sciences, such as physics, biology and geology, and humanities including economics, law and sociology.

By studying environmental issues and anthropic effects on the environment, this interdisciplinary academic field aims to understand how environmental alteration and human actions are intertwined, but also how to tackle these pressing issues.

This discipline arose from natural history and medicine during the Age of Enlightenment following the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. At the time, this new discipline relied heavily on the Comte de Buffon’s encyclopaedic collection, L’Histoire Naturelle, but also on John Walker’s, a well-known chemist, academic research. Both men collected material on geology and mineralogy to study the phenomenon of volcanos and earthquakes.

However, the missing link between environmental issues and human actions challenges this date. The beginning of environmental science could hence also arguably be marked by the numerical revolution that took place in the 1960s. The increasing public awareness of the need to move towards more sustainable solutions and the need of broadening people’s mindsets by taking an interdisciplinary approach to address growing environmental issues lead officially to the emergence of this discipline. Indeed, pressing issues like pollution, ageing population and natural resources were slowly emerging, growing and required solutions.

Notable literary works also facilitated the emergence of environmental science as a discipline, like Rachel Carson’s environment book Silent Spring, published in 1962. Her work, by highlighting how the use of pesticides poisoned the population and devastated the biosphere, gave more importance to environmental problems. It also underlined the necessity to study the impact of human actions on ecosystems. To this can also be added key environmental catastrophises which became publicly known, including the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill where 235000 gallons of oil were spilled or nuclear proliferation during the Cold War. These events resulted in a global awareness by the population and helped envisage lasting solutions, which are today part of a new movement also known as sustainable development.

The History of Translation
Derived from the Latin translatio, which means "carrying or bringing across", translation is defined as "the process of translating words or text from one language into another."

The earliest evidence of translation is of the Sumerian poem Gilgamesh into Asian languages during the Mesopotamian era but the Septuagint - the translation of the Bible into Greek - is widely regarded as the first major translation. However, it's likely that translation has been around since the beginning of interactions between early civilisations.

Cicero and Horace(1st century B.C.) arguably came up with the first translation theories regarding metaphrase (word-for-word) and paraphrase (sense-for-sense) translation. But, by defining a discipline through the establishment of an institutional authority regarding said discipline, it can be said that translation became a discipline in the latter half of the 20th century. This period outlined a significant increase in translation research, societies, and journals such as Babel and the Canadian Translators' Journal, both of which were set up in 1955.

Throughout its history, translation has been viewed as an interdiscipline. James S. Holmes’ The Name and Nature of Translation Studies was the first paper to recognise translation as a discipline on its own merits rather than a sub-discipline of comparative literature, history, and language studies, among others. To this day, however, translation still serves a purpose in nearly all other disciplines. For example, although history and literature became disciplines before translation, translated texts were and still are essential to the study of both of them. On the other hand, translation studies have also been influenced by other disciplines. In the 90s, translation studies faced a ‘cultural turn’ in which the cultural context of the source was considered just as much as its linguistics as well as a re-analysis of its role in colonialism in light of developments in post-colonial research.

The History of Sustainable Architecture
Since the beginning of the 21st century, the building sector, which is directly influenced by architecture, has been responsible for the use of more than half of the world's resources. In particular, building structures uses vast amounts of freshwater resources, energy supplies, raw materials, all while generating 40 to 50 percent of the world's landfill deposits, and 20 to 30 percent of greenhouse gases. Beyond just the building process, the sustainability of a structure in use is also an aspect green architecture takes into account. The ecological impact of architecture has been particularly of interest since the 1960s when the general public, and specifically the youth, started becoming more aware and critical of the negative impacts humans are having on the planet.

A few major figures are associated with this first surge of green architecture; architectural critic and social philosopher Lewis Mumford, landscape architect Ian McHarg with his foundational book 'Design With Nature' in 1969, and scientist James Lovelock. McHarg and Lovelock's ideas were later studied by physicist Amory Lovins and his wife Hunter Lovins when they created the Rocky Mountain Institue in 1982. Later, in the 1980s and early 1990s, architect Malcom Wells created the idea of underground, buildings which were integrated to the earth, and used little energy. Although this was not realistically an absolute replacement for concrete structures, it illustrated the principle of green architecture being respectful of the local environment of a building. The study of these various figures uncover an important aspect of green architecture, which is its need for expertise from a range of different disciplines, covering arts, humanities and sciences. Architect William McDonough, with his creation of the Environmental Defense Fund Building in New York City in 1985, established 'ecologically intelligent design' which places particular importance on the collaborative aspect of architecture, where scientists and corporate leaders are essential to an architect's process.

We can also note that many of these first actors in green architecture were inspired by techniques and buildings which had been around for millenium. In the 12th century AD, a Cambodian temple complex by the name of Angkor Wat was created following concepts of sustainability, not only in its building but also in its daily functioning. Other sources of inspiration were the ways of Native Americans, who lived in harmony with nature, and whose architecture reflected that. With the relatively recent surge in urbanisation, and the growth of cities, it has become important to look back on ancient architectural concepts, to incorporate them into ecological design as we know it today.

In 1990, the first building rating system called the Building Research Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) was put in place to assess the environmental footprint of architectural endeavours. In 1994, in the United States, this became subject to official standards with the US Green Building Council formulating the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards. Today, rating methods and standards like LEED are used all over the world.

Sustainable Architecture and Design as a discipline can be traced back to the 1996 release of 'Charter For Architectural Education' by UIA/UNESCO. This charter establishes "an ecologically balanced and sustainable development of the built environment as a goal for architecture education. This had been a response to the 1993 'Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future' by UIA, which argued that architecture as a discipline had a responsibility to act towards the slowing down of climate change. Therefore, universities have since then gradually adapted their teaching to cover themes of sustainability, and offer interdisciplinary courses such as the Engineering and Architectural Design MEng at the UCL Bartlett, which combines science with architecture.

The History of Modern Geography
In 1887, Halford Mackinder was the first person to introduce the teaching of modern geography as a discipline at university, specifically in the University of Oxford.

Initially, (physical) geography was predominantly focused with the importance of regions and environment, while human geography, which focused of human activity was seen as being too similar to a social science and thus unnecessary to be a sub-discipline of geography. However, the discipline evolved and the study of physical nature also linked with social, economic and political findings in populations to form a new subject matter - human geography.

In the 19h century, geographical determinism – the theory that the physical environment controls and shapes human action, characterised geography. However, in the 1920s, geographical possibilism – the idea that human culture is not completely defined by the limits placed by the environment, emerged and by the 1950s, replaced determinism, which was interpreted as politically racist.

Meanwhile, in the 1930s, there was a crisis of disciplinary definition, due to the extensive subject matter, variety of methods of study and lack of clear identity. Influenced by Alfred Hettner’s idea that the discipline of geography is unified by its method of focusing on spatial relationships, Richard Hartshorne, in his publication ‘The Nature of Geography’ in 1939, encouraged geographers to concentrate on space, geographic features and how human activity impact them, instead of on temporal variation.

Prior to the 1960s, research in the discipline mainly centred around physical geography and regional analysis, and was criticised for being too descriptive, but this was overcome by a quantitative revolution, which encouraged a more statistical and technical methodology to be employed in order to give explanations of why natural events occurred. This proceeded for a decade and in the 1970s, advancements in physical geography led to the development of models to analyse spatial relationships and compare it with census and fieldwork data, during which human geography had a more humanistic and phenomenological focus.

The History of Religious Studies
Religious Studies is concerned with researching and analysing religious beliefs, behaviours, frameworks and institutions. There is a complex history to the study of religion which makes it difficult to determine when the discipline started. It is generally accepted that Max Müller founded what he called the 'science of religion' in the late 19th century as he did valuable translation work of religious texts from the East that enabled different religions to be studied effectively by making the texts more accessible. He was also the first Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford University, and believed comparative religious studies should be considered in the ways in which a science would be. The beginning of a professorship in the subject area indicates that the academic discipline started here.

On the other hand Müller was not the first to compare religions with various scholars doing this in the past including Herodotus (ca. 484 BCE- 425) who noted similarities between the names of figures in Greek and Egyptian religions at the time of the Persian war. As well as this, religion was studied by Islamic scholars in the Middle Ages who focused on Persian, Jewish, Christian and Indian religions. Examples of these scholars include Ibn Hazm who wrote about Christianity in terms of sense perception, mentioning its historical sects.

It is important to note that a discipline is defined as 'a particular area of study, especially a subject of study in a college or university' by the Collins Dictionary. Thus, it is logical to assume that the discipline began with the first professor in the area.

Not only are the roots of the discipline complex, but it could be argued the nature of religious studies is too. There are both masters and professorships in religious studies itself, at an undergraduate level is often studied with other disciplines to supplement. It is almost always found in the department of Theology and Religion (or some variant of this name) such as in Oxford University, Durham University and King's College London. This shows that it is tied inherently to Theology, and is not seen independently. As well as this many of the influential people in the formation of the discipline have been a part of the disciplines such as sociology and anthropology. It seems as though the history of Religious Studies being a discipline formulated and contributed to by multiple other disciplines has reflected in its current state where it rarely stands alone in general study. For instance, Cardiff University offers Religious Studies paired with 12 other disciplines in multidisciplinary degree programmes, many of them including the social sciences that were integral to building the discipline.

History of Architectural Research
Architecture, by definition, is the artistic process of planning, designing, and constructing buildings. It is a complex assemblage of regions and places that have evolved in their way over the years. Architecture, from the Latin word “architectus” ἀρχιτέκτων (architéktōn) is divided into two parts: Archi (the one who leads) and Tecton (the builder).

The origins of architectural theory take their roots in De architectura, the first manuscript on architecture written by the roman architect Vitruvius. Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas (durability, utility, and beauty) are, according to Vitrivus, the three main objectives to achieve during an architectural work. Architectural research studies a large panel of material and ideological aspects such as design methods, building technologies, labour process, availability of materials, associated creative practices, representation techniques, economic systems, cultural beliefs, social formations, aesthetics values, and everyday lived practices.

The 18th edition of the English book Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture (1975) provides a global view of architectural history with few non-western contributors. Until 1975 and in Western countries, the study of architecture was mainly conservative through the visual representation of Westerns culture as the recipients of architecture’s long tradition. Today’s perception of architecture is seen as an open networked system recently influenced by globalisation through the rise of "starchitects", international multi-nodal architectural firms, trans-spatial digital methods, and an increased level of mobility of labour among architects. In the 1980s, globalization introduced the term hyper-modernism in architectural research with concepts such as digitalization, urbanization, sustainability, post-structuralist theory, trans-spatial communication systems, and post-colonial theory. These concepts promote a more globally distributed and networked architectural history. The environmental awareness developed among the Anthropocene age leads to recognition of the detrimental impact of humans upon the natural world and brings architecture into a paradigm with new conceptions of architecture. What used to be craft workers, master masons, renaissance artists and entrepreneurs now have become large design teams engaged in research-driven innovation, in large collaboration initiatives.

History
Data science is a rather recent discipline. Combining fieldworks across computer science, mathematics and statistics, it uses artificial intelligence and machine learning in order to expect upcoming behaviours. In 1974, Peter Naur wrote “The science of dealing with data” in Concise Survey of Computer Methods, but the term was first used in 1996 by the International Federation of Classification Societies during a conference on “Data science, classification, and related methods”. In 2001, the publication of “Data science: An Action Plan for Expanding the Technical Areas of the Field of Statistics” by William S. Cleveland defined this "new science", later called by two researchers, Yangyong Zhu and Yun Xiong in “Introduction to Dataology and Data Science” in 2009. Since then, journals have taken hold of the subject, such as the Data Science Journal initiated in April 2002, and the demand for data scientists in business has grown sharply.

Data science first developed in scientific fields, but lately has opened up its field to social sciences, as Human Rights. Following the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens of 1789 in France, the United Nations published in December 1948 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. As defined by the UN, Human Rights meet a variety of rights – among others, liberty, freedom of speech and from slavery, right to have access to an education and a job – that all human beings without discriminations share equally.

Pros and Cons of Data science in relation to Human Rights
Nowadays, data science can be used in order to evaluate Human Rights and give them objective accountability, whether they are respected or violated. The Human Rights Data Analysis Group defines itself as “Statisticians for Human Rights” since 10 December 1991. Its objective is to provide accurate information about people living in places without "basic civil liberty". However, with the rise of technology, social networks, the media, and the Internet, it became essential to regulate the use of data science in order to protect their subject privacy. Created in April 2016, the General Data Protection Regulation launched in 2018 is a law applied for EU citizens which assures their data privacy and gives them rights to know how their data is being used, by whom and what for.

Conclusion
Data science can benefit from an interdisciplinary approach, as it was first related to disciplines in science and then applied to disciplines in humanities, such as Law and the Human Rights. We no longer only think about how to create data, but also about the ethical right to manipulate data.

The History of musical sound recording's impact on the music industry
When looking back at the History of music, there is one moment of pivotal influence on the way we listen to music: The invention of the phonautograph in 1857 by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville, which permitted music to be recorded for the first time in a physical format. It drastically improved the amount of music we could store and listen to and was responsible for new waves of technological improvements to sound recording that defined the way we consume music today.

Martinville’s invention changed the entire music industry’s business model: After the phonautograph was successfully introduced commercially by Thomas Edison, the first record labels were created: Columbia Records (1889), The Gramophone Company (1898),  Decca Records (1929). It is also only in the 20th century, that a vast array of new musical genres were created such as Rock and Roll (1950s), Reggae (1960s) and Hip-Hop (1970s). The newfound recording techniques is what enabled those emerging genres to spread to a wider audience and gain popularity rapidly around the world. This would not have been possible the century before. Therefore, the technological improvements of sound recording also facilitated new music genres to be born.

This combination of newfound recording techniques and emergence of new genres proved to be very successful for the music industry, as it witnessed a growth in sales from 2.0$ billion in 1973 to 14.6$ billion in 1999 (U.S. sales).

The introduction of illegal file-sharing services such as Napster is what put a halt to this growth and it decreased until 2015, where U.S. sales were at 6.7$ billion. In recent years, the industry has started recovering through new music streaming services like Spotify, Apple Music and Deezer. In 2019, 56.1% of all music sales came from streaming services ( https://www.ifpi.org/our-industry/industry-data/ ) and U.S revenues were back up to 11.1$ billions.

The History of Behavioral Economics: Merging Economics and Psychology
The evolving study of behavioral economics, becomes ever more important in the developing market system of our society and demonstrates, how so many new insights can be gained through the collaborative work of two completely opposing disciplines with the same goal, to understand a humans interaction. One from a human point of view and an opposing sciences point of view. The study of behavioral economics is a domain of applications that lies at the intersection between economics and psychology. It involves adding the insights of Psychology, in the aspects of empirical research on human cognition and emotional biases, to the rational economic models, in order to predict economic decisions made in the market system of our society. In around 1979, the two psychologists Kahneman and Tversky proposed the first considerable idea of behavioral economics. Since the beginning of the latter, many insightful theories have emerged. One main finding was the challenge of the rational choice theory with the prospect theory, for which Kahneman won the the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, in 2002.

The rational choice theory holds, as one of the pillars of economics, the assumption that humans know exactly what they are looking for and will strive to maximise their utility. The opposite flow of thinking, is discussed by the prospect theory of Kahneman and Tversky. They published the idea of human nature, which led them to the explanation that the decisions made are not always optimal. This came from their investigation about risk taking decisions, by which the outcome explained that different type of problems human nature faces will inevitably lead to different types of decisions made.

Economics and Psychology as disciplines
Economics only exists as the discipline it is, since the late 19th century, when it was renamed. Firstly, economics has different directions, such as the neoclassical view, which sees economics as the creation, consumption and administration of wealth. Thus, a second direction focuses more on the macro aspect of economics (Keynesian economics), therefore, put the main focus onto price and wage rigidity. Psychology, on the other hand, is split into different pillars, however, as a generic guideline, it is concerned with the scientific study of a humans mind and behaviour. It pillars differ in its approaches to the economists approach to the world, as the discipline investigates the fields of biology, sociology and culture through the lens of theoretical and empirical research.

Behavioral Economics: Interdisciplinary Approach
Until this date, both disciplines still exist as an individual approach, but the interdisciplinary approach of behavioral economics has become a significant part of both disciplines and by itself. The debate of economists and psychologists about the beginnings of the developing discipline and the actual area of knowledge (AOK) is still ongoing. However, with Richard Thaler having developed several theories and underlining statements, how both disciplines can provide different approaches to create new and valid insights. Thaler developed the ideas and theories of Kahneman and Tversky, leading up to the foundations of the Endowment effect, which was first used in the sociocultural approach in psychology but is now a permanent segment in economics.

Thaler first gathered facts and evidence against the efficient market theory, and in collaboration with Ernst Fehr, they showed that human behaviour is actually much more thoughtful that homo economics states. The endowment effect, which explains why people place a higher value on a good if they own it than they do if they are considering purchasing it, is fundamental to understand the introduction to the field of behavioral economics. Richard Thaler brought forward one more major important theory. In his research about the nudge theory he argues, that in a free market, we can find any form of nudges, which can alter humans behaviour predictably, without removing any alternative options or changing their economic preferences. Such nudges could be limited information, mental accounting, choice overload or the psychology of price, with the implications of those sub-theories, the foundations of behavioral economics as a discipline were formed and created a base for other social economists to continue the research.

History of Disciplines– History of Art
Although heavily ambiguous, the term “art” may be loosely defined as objects that communicate and symbolize fundamental truths about their creators. History of art as a discipline, thus aims to interpret and analyze such artworks to enhance our understanding of the ethics and social history of all past civilizations.

Chapters of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History (c. AD 77-79) are the earliest surviving evidence of art history. It is believed that he was influenced by the work of Greek sculptor and writer Xenocrates, who supposedly explained artworks through technical criteria (symmetry, rhythm, workmanship, aesthetics). However, it is difficult to justify Xenocrates as the founder of History of Art in a modern sense as he did not recognize subject matter and moral value in his descriptions.

Meanwhile, it is largely accepted that the emergence of History of Art as a discipline is traced to Giorgio Vasari, a Tuscan sculptor and painter. His encyclopaedic book Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects saw the first attempt at creating a theoretical framework of the development of art. Vasari described how the artistic skills and techniques of the Greeks and Romans were lost during the Dark Ages and progressively rediscovered throughout the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, the period which is now recognized as the Renaissance.

History of Art was one among many disciplines that was reshaped with the coming of the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century. German art historian and archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann is another prominent figure commonly considered as “the father of art history”. He famously inaugurated the distinction between ancient art periods; later art historians developed on this by making distinctions of style through comparison, eventually forming the “canon" of art history.

In addition, Winckelmann is credited for transforming History of Art into the interdisciplinary academic field it is today: he was the first to tell the tale of art style development in relation to world history by considering how biological, political, social factors and such contributed to the birth and development of artistic styles, as well as to introduce the methodologies of archaeology to the study of art history. Similarly, Hegel brought philosophy into the discipline while Heinrich Wöllflin intertwined art with psychology.

The History of Women's Studies
Women’s Studies is an academic discipline which expands feminist theory and underlines 'women’s contribution to culture and history alongside critical analysis and theorization of the meanings assigned to the category 'woman' in philosophical, literary, socio-cultural and historical thought'.

The creation of Women's Studies as a discipline began in the 1970s, prompted by the worldwide women's liberation movement (WLM). The movement was originally based in the United States but soon became a worldwide social movement. This "second-wave feminism" is a decisive moment in the creation of Women’s Studies; without it, Women’s Studies might not have existed.

Early research in Women's Studies primarily focused on learning more about the neglected history of working-class women, with feminist historians such as Rowbotham uncovering previously hidden accounts of women during the suffrage movement in the UK. However, the publication of British feminist historian Joan Scott's essay, 'Gender: a useful category of analysis', sparked a new development in Women's Studies as a discipline. It moved the subject away from a more simple, historical understanding of 'what women did' and more into an analysis of how gender-defined structures developed during the past and what caused them to develop in this way.

Over the past two decades, Women’s Studies has become an established academic subject, which can be taught through more than 500 programs across many different countries. The first evidence of an established professorship in this field was at Cornell University in 1969 and, a year later, the first Women’s Studies program was established at San Diego State University. There is also the first scholarly journal in interdisciplinary women’s studies, named Feminist Studies, which is the foundation of a formalized group of intellectuals working together in order to develop Women’s Studies’ knowledge. Nowadays, it's clear that Women’s Studies has become a well-established scholastic subject.


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Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/Synoman Barris

Reviewer
I have made several edits here I.e reverting vandalism/Spam, warning users, fixing typos and wiki makeup, expanding Wikijuniorbooks and Cookbooks. I believe most of them haven’t been problematic. When granted these rights, it will reduce the workload of reviewers (before I am automatically granted the reviewer permission in a few weeks) Thank you for your consideration. --Synoman Barris (discuss • contribs) 13:03, 5 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Support, making a lot of edits that probably don't need review. I've reviewed some, but its not really needed. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 10:35, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

Importer
Hello, I hope this won’t be seen as hat collecting but I am I need of this permission. I check up for current importers and administrators and apart from QuiteUnusual and Pi zero most of them haven’t been much active in the past few days. I am currently working on expanding the cook books and Wikijunior books. Our sister project Wikipedia has a lot of information I.e cuisines and geographical information that I may need to be imported. I made an urgent requests at RFI but those requests may not always be met in time since we are all volunteers here. I will be importing a lot of pages over a long period of time without having to wait a long time since I also have to weigh work and here. Copy and pasting was my next option but it’s tedious and is not compatible with Wikimedia’s copyright licenses hence the histories must be merged. Am very active here and I may also help other editors with this. Thank you all. --Synoman Barris (discuss • contribs) 14:38, 11 September 2020 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/Texvc2LaTeXBot

Bot
Request for bot permissions
 * Bot name:
 * Bot operator:
 * Automatic or manually assisted: automatic but closely monitored
 * Purpose of the bot: to replace deprecated syntax in the LaTex mathematical syntax
 * Edit period(s): A one off run affecting 200 pages.
 * Programming language(s) (and API) used: python/piwikibot
 * Other projects that are already using this bot: enwiki, dewiki many other wiki across the whole of WikiMedia sites.
 * Additional information: All ready running on the English wikipedia at en:User:Texvc2LaTeXBot. Has sucessfully run on many other wikis, the update plan is described in mw:Extension:Math/Roadmap. The bot will apply 10 regexps replacing deprecated syntax inside  tags. The code has been tested to eliminate false positives. The bot is operated by Salix alba on English language wikis and meta:User:Debenben on German and other language wikis.

 * There is no registered user with that name. Before noticing that, I was going to ask how much activity one would expect from such a bot, thus whether it would be better to allow it to run without the bot flag. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 16:18, 12 May 2019 (UTC)
 * I've now created the account, it seemed to happen automatically. The activity is going to be about 200 edits, with maybe a second run to catch pages we've missed. I'm happy to run with/without the bot flag, but thought it would be better to check. --Texvc2LaTeXBot (discuss • contribs) 14:32, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * It's been my understanding that one should get permission before running a bot, regardless of whether one wants the flag for it. Though I don't see that spelled out in policy (WB:Bots), so either I'm overlooking it, or I'm looking in the wrong place, or it's more of a matter of courtesy/etiquette. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 19:26, 13 May 2019 (UTC)
 * We will want to flag the account so that the edits autoreview. Another 200+ manual reviews will not be welcome. While the policy doesn't spell it out, it is custom and practice here to not allow bot-like processes to be run without discussion due to the additional impact of having flaggedrevisions active here. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 12:14, 14 May 2019 (UTC)
 * In which case, I do want to request bot permissions. --Salix alba (discuss • contribs) 15:47, 14 May 2019 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/Bigdelboy

Importer
Realise this is far earlier than would would normally be expected for a WikiBooks users but I am attempting to create a WikiBook, likely to be called Character Encodings. Per w:Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Computing I am trying to implement a stand-up of the result of w:Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Code page 875. This at this moment has at WB:RFI EBCDIC code pages transwiki'd from WikiPedia and Support templates from at this time awaiting awaiting import. To complete the WikiBook I anticipate there may also be some discrete pages which may require transwiki'ing from WikiPedia on a copy/nodelete basis to form an easy starting point for those pages: w:EBCDIC and w:Code page are possibles but unconfirmed at present. EBCDIC code pages are however one subset of code pages that exist and several hundred requests for import could potentially follow into the book. I normally use for most work but the bulk nature of the number of pages in the Character Encodings miniproject means I will be using automation or semi-automation and tooling (probably off wiki rather that bot) and I wish to do that under a separate user. Thankyou. Bigdelboy (discuss • contribs) 08:41, 2 August 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ seeing no opposition, but on the condition that only one of your accounts will have the import permission at any time. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 09:53, 5 August 2020 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/Dino Bronto Rex

Importer
I would like to ask for permission to import pages from Wikipedia, because I have been lately asking for imports through the request for imports page, but there are still lots of pages left to import into two books (one that I have created, and another that I’m contributing to), and I kinda feel bad to spam the requests for imports page. Could I please have permission to import? Thanks in advance, Dino Bronto Rex (discuss • contribs) 16:51, 6 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Hello? Dino Bronto Rex (discuss • contribs) 14:11, 19 December 2019 (UTC)
 * at this time for being premature, he should probably get some experience reviewing first. But I would the user getting the reviewer flag. I think he should have been autopromoted as he seems to have fulfilled the criteria, but autopromotion is currently broken at the moment per T237191. -- Jules  (Mrjulesd) 01:55, 21 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Good point about reviewer; done. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 03:27, 21 December 2019 (UTC)

Do you still need importer? Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 23:05, 18 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes please. Dino Bronto Rex (discuss • contribs) 13:25, 20 January 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ for a month. I somehow missed your ping, and you've reasonably active. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 23:01, 16 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you very much! Dino Bronto Rex (discuss • contribs) 13:20, 17 February 2020 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/Johan (WMF)

-Confirmed
Confirmed right redundant, person mentioned has autoconfirmed. Calvinkulit (discuss • contribs) 11:14, 27 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Seems like a bureaucrat will have to change this user's right group as I'm unable to. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 14:17, 7 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Can you action this one? Thanks.--Camouflaged Mirage (discuss • contribs) 10:24, 19 February 2020 (UTC)


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Cookbook talk:Biryani

What is tbs? Is it tablespoon or teaspoon? Either way, it's a typo, because both tbsp and tsp are used here as well.
 * Tbsp, tsp = tablesoon. Tbs is probably a typo, as you said. You're always free to edit it and change it. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 18:05, 14 October 2020 (UTC)
 * My understanding is that Tbsp, T, and Tbs all refer to tablespoon, while t and tsp refer to teaspoon. This is how it's been used everywhere I've encountered it! See tablespoon and teaspoon. — Nostriker (discuss • contribs) 02:20, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Biryani


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User talk:Sunnday

I love films- going through a list of classic movies at the moment. Whats your favorite film? Freeshsalmon (discuss • contribs)
 * I love films too! Are you watching like the old classics (like Casablanca/All About Eve) or more modern classics like Pulp Fiction/Thelma & Louise? My favourite film is probably Onlce Yanco by Agnès Varda! What's yours?

title: User talk:Sunnday