text:
OpenSCAD Tutorial/Chapter 5

Creating and utilizing modules as separate scripts
In the previous chapter you learned one of the most powerful features of OpenSCAD, the module, and how it can be used for parametric design. You also had the chance to separate the car into different modules and then recombine them to create a different type of vehicle. Using modules can be also seen as a way to organize your creations and to build your own library of objects. The wheel module could potentially be used in a plethora of designs, so it would be great to have it easily available whenever desired without having to redefine it inside the script of your current design. To do so you need to define and save the wheel module as a separate script.

Now it’s time to utilize this saved module in another design. First you need to create a new design.

There are two ways in which the simple_wheel.scad script can be utilized in your car design. It can be either included or used. To include the script, you have to add the following statement at the top of car’s script.

You should notice that something unexpected happened. A wheel has been created at the origin. This is the object of the simple_wheel script. When you use include, OpenSCAD treats the whole external script that you are including as if it was a part of your current script. In the simple_wheel.scad script, aside from the simple_wheel module definition, there is also a call to the simple_wheel module which creates a wheel object. As a result of using the include command this object is also created in the car’s model. This is something that you are going to change by using the use instead of the include command, but don’t bother about it for a moment.

From the above examples you should keep in mind that when you include an external script in your current script, the modules of the external script become available in your current script, but additionally any objects that were created in the external script are also created in the current one. Since the wheel at the origin is not desired in this case, it’s time to use the use command instead of the include.

You should notice that a wheel is no longer created at the origin. You should keep in mind that the use command works like the include command with the only difference being that the use command doesn’t create any objects, but rather just makes the modules of the external script available in the current script.

Using a script with multiple modules
In the previous example, the simple_wheel.scad script had only one module. The simple_wheel module. This doesn’t have to always be the case.

With this example it should be clear that the name of the script doesn’t have to be the same as the name of the module as well as that a script can contain multiple modules. There is no right or wrong way on how you should go about organizing your library of modules. In the last example a wheels.scad script which defines the different wheel modules was used. Alternatively you could have saved each module as a separate *.scad script.

Using the MCAD library
The MCAD library (https://github.com/openscad/MCAD) is a library of components commonly used in mechanical designs that comes with OpenSCAD. You can utilize objects of the MCAD library by using the corresponding OpenSCAD script and calling the desired modules. For example, there is a boxes.scad script which contains the model of a rounded box. The boxes.scad script contains one module, which can be used to create the corresponding box. You can open this script to check what the parameters of this module are and then use it to add rounded boxes in your design. You can create a fully rounded box with side lengths of 10, 20 and 30 units as well as fillet radius of 3 units using the following script.

By setting the sidesonly parameter equal to true you can create a box of similar dimension that has only 4 rounded sides.

The boxes.scad script is located in the MCAD directory which is under the libraries directory. The latter can be found in OpenSCAD’s installation folder. Should you wish to have any of your own libraries accessible from any directory, you can add it in the libraries directory. You can also browse other available OpenSCAD libraries at https://www.openscad.org/libraries.html. Though, you should be aware that there are a very wide number of libraries available on GitHub and Thingiverse that far exceed those linked at OpenSCAD’s libraries page.

Creating even more parameterizable modules
So far, the only input to the modules that have been created was through the module’s input parameters that were defined for each case. The complex_wheel module for example was able to create a plethora of parameterized wheels according to the chosen input parameters such as wheel_radius, hub_thickness etc.

In your vehicle designs you have been using body, wheel and axle modules which when combined can produce various types of vehicles. In all the vehicle designs, two wheels along with an axle have been used together to form a set of wheels. You may have considered the need for an axle_wheelset module to simultaneously define all three objects with a single statement. And you would have been right to consider it! But there is a reason this module hasn’t been created yet, and you are now going to find out why.

Throughout the previous chapters you have created two different wheel designs (simple_wheel and complex_wheel) and a single axle design. You can use your existing knowledge to combine the simple_wheel and axle modules in the following way.

If you simply wanted to only use the above set of simple_wheels, that approach would be just fine. The problem though is that this axle_wheelset module is not really flexible and parameterizable to the desired degree. On one hand you can customize all input parameters, but on the other hand, could you swap the simple_wheel design with the complex one? The fact is that with the above approach in order to do so you would have to define a completely new module.

If you can’t see yet how this is a problem, imagine the case where you had six different wheel designs and two different axle designs in your library. If you wanted to implement the axle_wheelset module you would need to define 12 different modules to cover all combinations of wheel and axle designs. Furthermore, if you were to add a new wheel or axle design in your collection, you would need to define a number of additional axle_wheelset modules which would make maintaining your library very hard.

The good thing is that the two modules above look very similar. If you could keep the structure of the module the same but have the specific choice of wheel design parameterized, then the problem could be solved. Fortunately, OpenSCAD supports this functionality and parameterizing the specific choice of wheel design can be achieved in the following way.

The wheel design can now be effortlessly changed, making this module a truly parametric one.

There is a very important concept that you should grasp here. The first thing you should notice is the definition of this new module. This new module is similar to the previous ones with the difference that the command children(0) is used in place of a call to a specific wheel module. The second thing you should notice is the call to the axle_wheelset module. The call to the axle_wheelset module contains a pair of curly brackets inside of which the specific wheel design to be used by module is defined each time. OpenSCAD keeps an ordered list of the objects that have been defined inside the curly brackets and numbers them starting from zero. These objects can then be referenced by the children command. The number that is passed inside the children command corresponds to the first, second, third etc. object that was defined inside the curly brackets, counting from zero. In the above example, only one object is defined inside the curly brackets. That is either a simple_wheel or a complex wheel object. This object is created every time the children(0) command is used. The children command is in essence a way to pass objects as input to a module.

The next examples can help make this concept more concrete. In the previous example there is no way to use the axle_wheelset module and end up creating an axle that has different wheels on each side. This would not happen even if you passed/defined two different objects inside the curly brackets when calling the axle_wheelset module, because only the first one, children(0), is referenced for both sides of the axle.

In order to create an axle with different wheels on each side, the definition of the of the axle_wheelset module would need to be modified. Instead of referencing the first object, children(0), for both sides, the axle_wheelset module would need to reference the first object, children(0), for one side and the second object, children(1), for the second side.

By defining two different wheel objects inside the curly brackets, the following model would be created.

Challenge
The material you have been learning in the last two chapters gives you a powerful set of tools to start creating your own library of objects that can be flexibly combined and customized to create new designs.

title: OpenSCAD Tutorial/Chapter 5


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/December 2

Today is World Computer Literacy Day.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 1

Today in 1999 was the first release of Napster, the iconic pioneer of peer-to-peer file-sharing.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 1


text: Category:Subject:JavaScript scripting language


text: Category:Shelf:JavaScript scripting language


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 8

Today in 1995 version 1.0 of the Personal Home Page Tools (PHP) was released.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 8


text: Shelf:JavaScript scripting language

title: Shelf:JavaScript scripting language


text: Category:Shelf:JavaScript scripting language/all books


text: Shelf:JavaScript scripting language/ancestry


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 11

Today in 2000 United Nations Economic and Social Council ordered the establishment of the United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force (UN ICT TF), tasked with bridging the digital divide.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 11


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 12

Today in 1562 Spanish Roman Catholic bishop Diego de Landa burns most of Mayan scripture to eliminate pagan rites. The Mayas had the most advanced writing system in Mesoamerica.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 12


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 15

Today in 1454 the Malatestiana Library opened in Italy. It is credited as the first public library in Europe.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 15


text:
User:Pasang tamang

Pasang Tamang

title: User:Pasang tamang


text:
User talk:กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง

--กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง (discuss • contribs) 20:51, 2 November 2019 (UTC)

authors: กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง

title: User talk:กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง


text:
User:กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง

♀

authors: กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง

title: User:กิ๊ฟ สายแข็ง


text:
User talk:TheSandDoctor

Welcome, TheSandDoctor!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 22:15, 2 November 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:TheSandDoctor


text:
Samarpan

Introduction to this textbook
The basic point of this wikibook is to allow anyone surfing the web to be able to use a reliable text about Hinduism. Hinduism is difficult to be defined and understood. This short book presents an overview of the fundamentals of Hinduism. Perfect for self study. A must read for all those interested in Hinduism.
 * Why this Wikibook?

How to Edit this Book
Hindu scriptures are vast in number and quite impossible to grasp the whole of it, in this fast pacing age. Any one who wishes to edit it must keep the originality of Vedas pertaining to class lectures intact.

This book is based on transcribed class lectures by the author (Samarpan) delivered at Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University (RKMVERI, Belur Math) on the Vedas. These are available in archive.org under Creative Commons license.

Author
Samarpan is the Pen name of Swami Samarpanananda. This text is available as an open source document in archive.org under Creative Commons license.

Contents

 * /Basics/
 * Hinduism-The religion and the society
 * Fountain Head of Hinduism : The Vedas
 * /Other Sacred Books/
 * /Milestones of Spiritual Life/

title: Samarpan


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 1

-BEGIN PGP MESSAGE- Version: 2.6.3i iQCVAwUAOxNzDa7Kq3f+7KrtAQEk5AQAvRjBzoxWnxv7vGxovsl5BXm2jwMwKmtz 3HF/I/zlyGvzfl+Gox/kbkuxrmKM0q0Gj+WIIcJ6gBRH+eAL3tAo9syPdOa7qXg0 P5zuEzA0O5TB4MV/m/B4prOF8WNsrfhffuqBCg2ehhQmtDD5YzTommYvXrMt3+M7 Fe4YPTAK6aQ= =/GWV -END PGP MESSAGE- Today in 1996 the Internet Engineering Task Force standardized the eMail encryption scheme of the Pretty Good Privacy software. The publication of PGP had put strong cryptography into the hands of ordinary people for the first time. Since publication on the Internet was criminalized under U.S. export restrictions for weapons, it had to be exported in book form for the international market (with no viable OCR software yet..). There was a decade of policy debate for free access to strong cryptography for everyone, known as the (first) Crypto Wars. Although the system is clearly showing its age and difficult to use securely by today’s standards, no one has yet managed to establish a better system for eMail encryption.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/February 10

Today in 2005 Biological Innovation for Open Society (BiOS) was launched, an international initiative to democratize innovation with the patentleft royalty-free BiOS License.


text:
User talk:MrJaroslavik

Welcome, MrJaroslavik!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 11:04, 3 November 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:MrJaroslavik


text:
Talk:Samarpan

Hindu scriptures are vast in number and quite impossible to grasp the whole of it, in this fast pacing age. Any one who wishes to edit it must keep the originality of Vedas pertaining to class lectures intact.

This book is based on class lectures by the author(Samarpan) delivered at Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University (RKMVERI, Belur Math) on the Vedas. These are available in archive.org under creative commons license.

The quality and content of the book will be improved with time. Thank You. Shui8 (discuss • contribs) 13:11, 3 November 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Samarpan


text:
Python book of magic/04.Lists

Contents |  Previous  |  Next

Basics of list
List in python just look the same as ordinary lists you know.You have previously learned about variables which store single value. So what is special about lists. Lists allow you as a programmer to store multiple values inside a single variable. Instead of having to make many variables, you can get away with a single variable.

So what are building blocks of lists ? Lists are made up of values  and index numbers(position of value). Values are those things stored in the list while index no are numetrical values starting from zero representing the position of values in the list.

Let look at Example 01 This is a simple list called countries which contain names of three countries. Countries is the name of variable containing our list, USA, South Africa, India are our values stored inside the list. So were is index numbers, index numbers are invisible but what you should know is that first value starting from left of list is 0 and second value 1 so on. The square brackets are used to create list in python and the commas between the values are used to separate the values.

Now I think you understand how list work in python, let try to manipulate them.

List manipulation
Our list is useless if we can't change or retrieve information inside it. List manipulation usually involves replacing, adding, identifying, getting values and getting index numbers. Most of these commands are performed by buit-in functions such as print. Functions are identified by the fact that they end with parentheses. Let's say we want the value stored at index no1, look at example below.

Example 02 Output To get values using index no's use list_name[index_no], this will ongly work if you know list_name and index_no. Our output from previous example is South Africa- 2019 Japan rugby world cup winners. Now let replace index no0 with Japan.

Example 03 Output That was easy, you only had to change value using list_name[index_no]= value and value in index no1 was replaced with the new value.

Let explore more functions related to lists.

Example 04

Output In the first line we have created list calle d Anything which stores strings and integers. Usually lists store almost all data types. Strings are characterised by quotation marks and integers are found free as numbers as they are.

Second line slices through the list from index nuumber0 to 3. Index no4 is excluded but index no0 is included. The values in those index are stored and printed on screen.

The append function is used to add a values into the end of list(right-most side). The value passed to it is the value to be added to the end of that specified list.

insert work the same as append but this allow you to add value at certain index. The first parameter(values passed to function) is the index value while second parameter is the value to be placed at the end of list.

The index function gets you the index no of that particular value passed to it.

The last lines have to do with for loop, necessary for scanning through variables, lists, ductionaries, tuples, e.t.c. The loop scans from first to the last value of the list storing each value inside i and printing the values of i until the loop stops.

Contents |  Previous  |  Next

title: Python book of magic/04.Lists


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/February 8

 Today in 2008 GitHub was founded. The platform was based on Git, which was relatively new at the time. It was intended to make merging individual code contributions, and thus distributed development, less complicated. It was hyped already before Github. Github combined the command-line tool with a graphical user interface and continuous integration tools and successfully marketed itself as a convenient all-in-one service that enabled a smoother software development workflow. This goes hand in hand with the trend towards liberal licensing (= non-Copyleft, mostly MIT), emphasizing frictionless license compatibility rather than freedom values. So much so that some years-long contributors of highly visible Open Source projects state that they “really had no idea what Open Source was” (Jacob Thornton, Bootstrap). Code sharing became a kind of natural default, and stripped of ideology; FLOSS became more about its productivity benefits than user rights.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/September 10

Today in 2001 the Invisible IRC Project released the first official version of its software, the precursor of the Invisible Internet Project (I2P).


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/September 11

Today in 1995 the HP SureStore CD-Writer 4020i was announced. It was the first CD writer available for less than 1000 US dollars. CD recorders came within the reach of average consumers with prices eventually dropping below 100 dollars.


text:
Samarpan/Basics

Hinduism is based on the spiritual principles and realizations of the sages, which over a great length of time got recorded in the books called the Vedas. Unlike other religions, it has no human founder, and hence its date of origin can never be fixed; it has existed since the dawn of spiritual thoughts in the world. Although the term "Hindu" is of relatively late origin, it has been accepted to signify the  religion of the ethnic Indians.

Hinduism does not claim any exclusive right over the spiritual truths it preaches, and it believes that a person can reach the spiritual goal through any path. So it recognizes every faith and religion with respect, and at the same time does not approve of religious conversion.

title: Samarpan/Basics


text:
Samarpan/Hinduism-The Religion and the Society

Hinduism is both a religion and a society, and their practices get overlapped. For example, caste is essentially a social system to safeguard the interests of particular groups with common ancestry. But over the years it has been identified as an integral part of Hinduism, the religion. Similarly, putting on the sacred thread was a religious practice. But later got transformed into a social custom for the upper caste Hindus.

Who is a Hindu?

Religion and Hinduism are synonymous, and hence Hinduism cannot be defined the way Islam or Christianity can be. However, for the sake of convenience, a Hindu is expected to have these basic beliefs and practices:

 * Acceptance of the spiritual truths as preached in the Vedas, and elaborated in any of its sacred books.
 * The belief in the transmigratory nature of the individual soul till it attains mukti, the absolute freedom from every kind of bondage and duality. This is the most important philosophical concept of the Vedas.
 * Acceptance of the law of karma, according to which every action produces its result, and does not allow the soul to get liberated till there is any residue of them left, good or bad.
 * Acceptance of oneness as the fundamental truth of existence.


text:
Samarpan/Fountain of Hinduism-The Vedas

Hinduism is based on the teachings of the Vedas. These sacred books are the most ancient preserved literature of the world, and it is difficult to say when exactly these works were composed. According to educated guess, these are more than seven to eight thousand years old, with the last additions made well before 1500 B.C.E.

The contents of these books are the records of the spiritual realization of the sages of that period. Some of the mantras of the Vedas, including the Gaytri mantra are quite popular and are recited regularly by millions. However, very few Hindus read the Vedas, and fewer still understand them. Yet, the Hindu view of existence is shaped wholly by these sacred books only.

The Vedas are also called Shruti(lit. heard), since they were passed down from the teacher to the disciple orally, and were considered too sacred to be written down. They are four in number: Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharva Veda. The Mahabharata mentions that earlier there used to be only one Veda, but Vyasa divided them into four for easy memorization. This division is based on poeticmetres: Rigveda is in rik metre (a particular Vedic metre), Samaveda can be sung, Yajurveda is in Yajusmetre, and Atharva Veda has composition both in prose and poetry.

title: Samarpan/Fountain of Hinduism-The Vedas


text:
Samarpan/Other Sacred Books

For thousands of years Hindus have been discussing and explaining various aspects of religion. This has resulted in a huge mass of religious literature whose variety and depth leaves one awestruck. Most of these books are in Sanskrit, but every Indian language has its own version and translation of the important works. Because of the sheer volume of the literature, it is difficult for anyone to study them entirely.

The more important ones of these books are:

Upanishads: These are the last sections of the Vedas, but because of their special philosophical nature and importance, they are treated separately. These books contain the philosophical truths realized by the sages, which form the philosophical base of Hinduism. The most important of these truths is the Oneness of everything, Sarvam Khalu idam Brahma, and that the individual is one with the universal, Aham Brahma Asmi.

It is believed that there are one hundred and eight Upanishads, but ten of them are more famous.

Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata: These are the two great epics that have served as the hope, ideal and inspiration of the Hindus. These works are not mere stories of the kings and queens, but highlight the struggle of an individual to hold on to religious principles in good times and also during crisis. In addition, they contain information regarding nearly everything that a person may need to lead a healthy life. The Mahabharata is also famous for its sheer volume of one hundred thousand verses that makes it the largest epic of the world.

Many classics have been composed in Indian and other South East Asian languages centering the lives of Sri Rama and Sri Krishna. Every Hindu child learns, reads, and knows the main stories of Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, and the Pandava brothers, and even illiterate Hindus recite regularly from these classics.

The Gita is the most popular Hindu sacred book, and can be treated as the handbook of Hinduism. Composed in mere seven hundred verses, it is a small part of the Mahabharata, but stands in its own majesty of poetry, philosophy and spirituality. Devout Hindus recite it daily as a source of inspiration, and also read it aloud when someone dies. With seven hundred verses in eighteen chapters, it contains practically everything of religion, and also the complete philosophy of the Hindus. The Puranas are eighteen in number and form the mythological base of the Hindus. In total these have around 5.5 lakh verses, through which the popular stories of gods and goddesses are described. The most popular of these books is Srimad Bhagavata Purana which deals mainly with the story of Sri Krishna. Shiva Maha Purana is another popular work centering Lord Shiva.

The Puranas were composed to suit the needs of the masses for an easy understanding of the spiritual truths. Despite their mythological nature, they discuss philosophy, ethics and rituals of the Hindus in detail, and hence are considered to be complete scriptures in themselves.

The Smritis are the law books of the Hindus which prescribe the personal and social code. The rules laid down in these books cover practically everything --starting from the most trivial daily acts of an individual, through the duties of a king, to the highest philosophical wisdom that one may require to lead a good life. They are not like the constitution of a country, or the criminal procedure code, but are a means to take an individual to the highest spiritual realization.

The Smritis are based on the principles of the Vedas, but have been written for that particular period of time. So, there are innumerable smritis, of which the most famous is Manu Smriti, written around the second century B.C.E.

The sages knew that a society ruled by archaic laws becomes stagnant. So new smritis were codified from time to time according to the need of the age. Unfortunately, no new smriti has been written in the last thousand years or so. This has rusted the vitality of Hinduism.

The Tantras are the expansive growth of the ritualistic aspect of religion. Most of these books are devoted to Lord Shiva,or Shakti, the female principle of God. Some of the practices mentioned in these books do not meet social approval, and hence they are not as popular as other books. However the books on Tantra are innumerable, and dictate the rituals of Hinduism. In every ritualistic worship of the Hindus, the practices are drawn either directly from the Vedas, or from the Tantras.

Like every other class of literature discussed above, The Tantras are a complete system of thought with a distinct philosophy, mythology and rituals. Even without referring to the Vedas, a follower of Tantra can learn everything that is to be known in religion.

The Chandi,or Durga Saptasati is devoted to Shakti, the Cosmic female principle behind the universe. Composed in seven hundred verses, it is a part of the Markandeya Purana, and is considered to be an extremely sacred work. It is believed that a daily recital of this sacred book brings safety and success.

In addition to these, there are thousands of books which serve as the basis for various sampradaya (religious sects) of Hindus.

title: Samarpan/Other Sacred Books


text: Category:Book:Samarpan

title: Category:Book:Samarpan


text:
SPARQL/Subqueries

SPARQL allows one SELECT query to be nested inside another. The inner SELECT query is called a subquery and is evaluated first. The subquery result variable(s) can then be used in the outer SELECT query.

Simplest example:

The example below calculates the population of each country in the world, expressing the population as a percentage of the world's total population. In order to calculate the world's total population, it uses a subquery.

The syntax of a query with a subquery is shown below. A subquery is basically the same as a simple query and is enclosed within { brackets }.

SELECT ... query result variables ... WHERE {       ... query pattern ...

{ # subquery SELECT ... subquery result variables ... WHERE {                 ... subquery pattern ... }                 ... optional subquery modifiers ... } # end of subquery

}       ... optional query modifiers ...

Subqueries can be used, often with a, to avoid a query timeout by fractioning the task. As an example, this query is timing out :

but the same query putting the limit on the selected items in a subquery and the label service outside it didn't timeout :

title: SPARQL/Subqueries


text:
Visual Basic for Applications/Get Array Data Stats

Summary
This VBA code module is intended for MS Excel, since it prints a basic set of statistics onto the worksheet. It assumes that there is well behaved numerical data in a 1D array as an input. A frequency distribution is produced and associated statistics for the set.

Notes on the code

 * Copy the entire code listing into an Excel Standard module, save it, then run the top procedure.


text:
Visual Basic for Applications/Discrete Data Bin Stats

Summary
This code module is intended for MS Excel, since it writes a set of statistics to the worksheet. It assumes that there is discrete data in a 1D array, either string or numeric. A set of statistics is printed, not for the raw data on the array, but for the bin-count of discrete values found on it. It includes a listing of the bin counts and other statistics. For example, if the array contained only elements with a one or a zero value, the results would list the overall counts of each, and produce other statistics.

Notes on the code

 * Copy the entire code listing into an Excel Standard module, save it, then run the top procedure.


text:
Visual Basic for Applications/Compare Shuffle Methods for Bias

Summary
This VBA code module shows how bias can affect a shuffle algorithm, even when a random generator is used. The module is intended for MS Excel and prints two statistics panels on the worksheet to show how the selected methods differ. The good version is the Knuth shuffle algorithm, and the other is one that makes methodical swaps, sometimes multiple swaps, throughout the length of the array.

Notes on the code

 * Copy the entire code listing into an Excel Standard module, save it, then run the top procedure.
 * The shuffle algorithms run for many cycles, (user set), and the bin count of discrete outcomes is presented in statistics. Notice that a very small number of elements, (3 or 4), has been used to keep the display and run time manageable.   It may be of interest to know that the number of discrete outcome combinations is equal to the factorial of the number of elements. That is; using just six elements, say A,B,C,D,E,and F, would result in 6! = 120 discrete combinations, and a corresponding increase in the time to run.
 * In particular, it should be noted that a small coefficient of variation (CV) denotes a method that is close to random whereas one with a higher CV shows that there is bias in the method.
 * The method that uses multiple swaps is biased, whereas the Knuth method is not.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 11

[Open Source] is long-term credible ... FUD tactics can not be used to combat it. Today in 1998 Vinod Valloppillil of Microsoft sent an internal memorandum that got leaked as the first of the so-called Halloween documents. They certainly provided proof and dirty detail on how Microsoft ruthlessly fought for its monopoly and dealt with competition, but also revealed their actual understanding of the reality they were trying to deceive the world about. This one is about their analysis that “OSS poses a ... threat to Microsoft”. It acknowledges the viability of the open source software development model, even competitive disadvantage for their traditional model. In contrast to Gates’ rhetorical questions in his Open Letter to Hobbyists of →January 31, 1976, this was the surreptitious admission twenty years later that he was wrong.


text: Wildlife Gardening/Location/West Virginia/Mammalia


text: Wildlife Gardening/Location/West Virginia/Reptilia


text:
Wildlife Gardening/Location/West Virginia/Lepidoptera

Achalarus lyciades (hoary edge)

 * Desmodium- preferred
 * Baptisia tinctoria- possible
 * Lespedeza- possible

Nectar et al:

Trifolium pratense Trifolium repens Apocynum Asclepias syriaca All pref^

Lonicera japonica

Amblyscirtes hegon (pepper and salt skipper)
Glyceria striata Poa pratensis Sorghastrum nutans Uniola latifolia

Nectar et al:

Viburnum Rubus Erigeron soil dung

Amblyscirtes vialis (common roadside-skipper)
Poa Uniola latifolia Agrostis Cynodon dactylon

Nectar et al:

low flowers

Viola pedata Phlox Potentilla Verbena hastata Prunella vulgaris Draba Blephilia

Anatrytone logan (Delaware skipper)
Andropogon Panicum virgatum Possibly other grasses

Nectar et al:

prefs white or pink flowrs Asclepias Cephalanthus occidentalis Mentha Cirsium

Ancyloxypha numitor (least skipper)
Leersia oryzoides Poa

Nectar et al:

low plants w small flowers Oxalis Cichorium Trifolium Apocynum Cephalanthus

Atalopedes campestris (sachem)
Digitaria- pref Eleusine indica- pref

Cynodon dactylon

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Trifolium Mentha Cirsium Vernonia Eupatorium Aster Tagetes-pref

Atrytonopsis hianna (dusted skipper)
Andropogon scoparius-pref Andropogon gerardii

Nectar et al:

Trif red and white Fragaria Rubus Phlox

Autochton cellus (golden-banded skipper)

 * Amphicarpa bactreata

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Rubus Hydrangea arborescens

Epargyreus clarus (silver-spotted skipper)

 * Robinia pseudoacacia- young shoots, preferred host
 * Gleditsia triacanthos
 * Desmodium
 * Apios americana
 * Lespedeza
 * Pueraria lobata

Nectar et al:

prefs pink red or purp flowers and white to lessr degre prefs: Vernonia Eupatorium Trifolium Apocynum

E baptisiae
Baptisia tinctoria preferred Coronilla varia B australis Lupinus

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Rubus Trif red white

Erynnis brizo (sleepy duskywing)
Quercus ilicifolia- preferred other Q species less preferred Castanea dentata

Nectar et al:

soil Vaccinium Rhododendron Cercis canadensis Rubus Taraxacum

Erynnis horatius (Horace's duskywing)
Quecus rubra- preferred Q ilicifolia- preferred Q stellata- preferred other white oaks

Nectar et al:

prefs white yellow flowers Apocynum Mentha Cephalanthus occidentalis Solidago

Erynnis icelus (dreamy duskywing)
Salix Populus possibly Robinia

Nectar et al:

Cercis canadensis Vaccinium Fragaria Claytonia Vicia Viola pedata Rubus Brassica Apocynum Daucus carota Rudbeckia hirta

Erynnis juvenalis (Juvenal's duskywing)
Quercus alba preferred other Q species both white and red

Nectar et al:

Vicia Viola pedata Potentilla Claytonia Prunus Cercis canadensis Elaeagnus umbellata Crataegus Rubus Vaccinium ^pref

Erynnis lucilius (columbine duskywing)
Aquilegia canadensis Aquilegia vulgaris

Nectar et al:

prefs pink white yellow flowers

Phlox Viola Arenaria Draba Blephilia Hieracium

Erynnis martialis (mottled duskywing)
Ceanothus americanus other C species

Nectar et al:

Houstonia Lithospermum Apocynum Ceanothus americanus soil and dung and carrion

Erynnis persius (persius duskywing)
Willow Aspen Lupinus Baptisia tinctoria

Nectar et al:

low early spring flowers

Euphyes bimacula (two-spotted skipper)
Carex spp Carex stricta

Nectar et al:

Asclepias incarnata Vernonia Spiraea Lyonia lygustrina

Euphyes conspicua (black dash)
Carex spp

Carex stricta- pref

Nectar et al:

large wetland flowering plants Asclepias incarnata Cirsium Vernonia Eupatorium

Euphyes vestris (dun skipper)
Carex Carex stricta Cyperus spp

Nectar et al:

pref white pink or purple flowers all pref: Asclepias Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Prunella vulgaris Mentha Echium vulgare

Hesperia leonardus (Leonard's skipper)
Panicum- preferred Danthonia spicata- pref Agrostis- pref

Andropogon Poa

Nectar et al:

Liatris pref purple or pink flowers Vernonia-pref Eupatorium-pref Aster-pref Cirsium-pref Dipsacus-pref

Hesperia metea (cobweb skipper)
Andropogon scoparius- pref Andropogon gerardii

other A species

Nectar et al:

Viola pedata Claytonia Fragaria Trifolium

Hesperia sassacus (Indian skipper)
Panicum- preferred Andropogon scoparius- pref Festuca rubra- pref Poa Danthonia spicata

Nectar et al:

Lamium Hieracium orange and yellow Lithospermum Phlox Echium vulgare Rubus

Hylephila phyleus (fiery skipper)
Digitaria-preferred Agrostis- preferred

Cynodon dactylon

Nectar et al:

Cirsium Asclepias Vernonia Eupatorium Centaurea Aster Tagetes

Lerema accius (clouded skipper)
Erianthus alopecuroides Echinochloa- possible

Nectar et al:

Cephalanthus occidentalis Prunella vulgaris Verbena Trifolium Tagetes Buddleja Liatris

Nastra lherminier (swarthy skipper)
Andropogon scoparius Poa other grasses

Nectar et al:

low growing flowers pref fav colors white pink or blue Mentha Vicia Trif red white Desmodium Ceanothus americanus

Panoquina ocola (ocola skipper)
Saccharum spp- pref Poaceae Leersia oryzoides

Nectar et al:

Cephalanthus occidentalis-pref Asclepias-pref Vernonia-pref Eupatorium-pref

Pholisora catullus (common sootywing)
Chenopodium album- preferred Amaranthus- occasion Celosia- occasion

Nectar et al:

Trifolium Apocynum Oxalis Mentha Asclepias Cucurbita

Poanes hobomok (Hobomok skipper)
Panicum preferred Panicum microcarpon- pref Panicum clandestinum- normal Poa Andropogon scoparium Danthonia spicata Leersia oryzoides

Nectar et al:

Rubus Ligustrum Asclepias Echium vulgare Lamium

P zabulon
Triodia flava- pref Eragrostis- pref Panicum microcarpon Leersia virginica Poa

Nectar et al:

Lonicera japonica Ligustrum Rubus Cephalanthus occidentalis Vicia Vernonia Viola Asclepias Trifolium Eupatorium

Polites mystic (long dash skipper)
Poa

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Desmodium Kalmia latifolia Hieracium Apocynum Trifolium pratense

Polites origenes (crossline skipper)
Glyceria medicaria Poa Andropogon scoparius Triodia flava Carex scabrata other c species

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Vicia Trifolium Ironweed Asclepias Echium vulgare

Polites peckius (Peck's skipper)
Leersia oryzoides Poa rice cutgrass

Nectar et al:

red clover- pref Apocynum Asclepias Cirsium Eupatorium Vernonia Vicia Ceanothus americanus Prunella vulgaris Echium vulgare Verbena hastata

Polites themistocles (tawny-edged skipper)
Panicum- preferred esp small species Panicum microcarpon chck size Poa Glyceria Carex scabrata other c species

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Trifolium Cirsium Asclepias Echium vulgare Cichorium intybus

Polites vibex (whirlabout)
Paspalum setaceum- pref Paspalum spp possible Panic grasses poss

Nectar et al:

Erigeron Apocynum Echium vulgare

Pompeius verna (little glassywing)
Triodia flava- pref

Nectar et al:

white pink purple flowers preffed Asclepias Apocynum Mentha Vernonia Echium vulgare ^ all pref

Pyrgus centaureae (grizzled skipper)
Potentilla canadensis- preferred Fragaria- preferred other Cinquefoils

Nectar et al:

low flowers Potentilla canadensis Fragaria spp Claytonia Viola pedata Phlox subulata

Pyrgus communis (common checkered-skipper)
Malva Abutilon theophrasti Althaea Sida

Nectar et al:

small white flowers

Erigeron-pref Aster-pref Trifolium Desmodium Centaurea

Staphylus hayhurstii (Hayhurst's Scallopwing)
Chenopodium album

Nectar et al:

Trifolium Apocynum Mentha Polygonum Tagetes

Thorybes bathyllus (southern cloudywing)
Desmodium Lespedeza Strophostyles helvola Phaseolus polystachios Apios americana Clitoria mariana Amphicarpa bactreata Astragalus canadensis

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Asclepias syriaca Trifolium pratense Coronilla varia Echium vulgare Eupatorium Vernonia

Thorybes confusis (confused cloudywing)
Possibly Lespedeza and Desmodium

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Trifolium pratense Asclepias Vicia Lonicera Cirsium

Thorybes pylades (northern cloudywing)
Desmodium- preferred Lespedeza- preferred Trifolium Medicago Vicia

Nectar et al:

Trifolium pratense Apocynum Asclepias Vicia Lonicera japonica Cirsium

Thymelicus lineola (European skipper)
Dactylis glomerata Holcus lanatus Phleum pratense other grasses

Nectar et al:

Trifolium pratense-pref Erigeron Chrys leuc Hieracium Asclepias Cirsium Apocynum Trifolium repens

Urbanus proteus (long-tailed skipper)

 * Desmodium
 * Amphicarpa bactreata
 * Phaseolus
 * Clitoria mariana
 * Wisteria

Nectar et al:

composites

Wallengrenia egeremet (northern broken dash)
Panicum pref Panicum clandestinum- preferred Panicum virgatum- preferred

Nectar et al:

prefs purple pink white flowers

Trifolium red white Centaurea Ceanothus americanus

Atlides halesus (great purple hairstreak)
Phoradendron flavescens male flowers and leaves

Nectar et al:

Solidago Clethra acuminata Aralia spinosa

Callophrys augustinus (brown elfin)
Heaths Vaccinium spp Gaulussacia brachyceral

Nectar et al:

Cercis canadensis Vaccinium Elaeagnus umbellata Gaylussacia Phlox Barbarea vulgaris

Callophrys irus (frosted elfin)
Lupinus perennis-pref Baptisia tinctoria-pref esp in WV

Nectar et al:

Lupinus Rubus

Callophrys gryneus (juniper hairstreak)
Juniperus virginiana

Nectar et al

spring

Claytonia Phlox Viola pedata Lepidium campestre Barbarea vulgaris Cercis canadensis

summer Asclepias Apocynum Melilotus alba

Callophrys henrici (Henry's elfin)
variable by location

Cercis canadensis-pref in WV Ilex opaca Vaccinium spp Gaylussacia spp

Nectar et al:

Cercis canadensis Erigeron puddle

Callophrys niphon (eastern pine elfin)
Pinus virginiana-pref esp young trees P rigida P echinata P sylvestris

Nectar et al:

Phlox Taraxacum Potentilla canadensis Comandra umbellata Vaccinium Rubus Cercis canadensis

Callophrys polios (hoary elfin)
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi-pref Epigaea repens

Nectar et al:

Vaccinium Salix

Calycopis cecrops (red-banded hairstreak)
Rhus typhina R copallina leaf detritus-pref Lactuca sativa var crispa- pref

Nectar et al

Rhus Apocynum Prunus serotina Rubus Asclepias Ellaeagnus umbellata Ceanothus americanus Achillea

Celastrina ladon (spring azure)
Type I and lucia auctorum

cornus florida flowers black cherry fruit

Violacea type II black cherry leaf galls from eriophyid mites

Neglecta uses flower buds of ceanothus americana cimicifuga racemosa Rhus glabra Spiraea spp Actinomeris alternifolia

Females will lay eggs on the buds of the following, but the caterpillars won't survive

Hydrangea arborescens Sambucus spp Viburnum spp

Nectar et al:

Malus Prunus Prunus serotina Amelanchier Cercis canadensis Viburnum Lindera benzoin Rubus

Late spring and summer: Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Ligustrum Asclepias Melilotus officinalis M alba

Males puddle and scavenge carrion

Celastrina neglectamajor (Appalachian azure)
Cimicfuga racemosa

Nectar et al:

Rubus pref Viburnum

Males puddle

Celastrina nigra (dusky azure)
Aruncus dioicus

Nectar et al:

females drink more nectar males drink from soil Cercis canadensis Geranium Dentaria Claytonia

Cupido comyntas (eastern tailed blue)
Fabaceae Lespedeza spp-pref Trifolium pratense-pref T arvense medicago sativa Vicia spp Desmodium spp Melilotus officinalis

Nectar et al:

plants w short corollas Potentilla Barbarea vulgaris Melilotus alba Trifolium red a white Apocynum Mentha Aster

Erora laeta (early hairstreak)
fagus grandifolia fruits corylus spp fruits Betula spp catkins Salix spp

Nectar et al:

Claytonia Erigeron Achillea Chrys leuc Daucus carota Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Asclepias tuberosa

females drink at puddles

Feniseca tarquinius (harvester)
Aphids: Prociphilus Melirhizophagus Neoprociphilus Schizoneura Pemphigus

Aphid host plants: Alnus spp Hamamelis virginiana Fagus spp Fraxinus spp Crataegus spp Acer saccharinum Smilax spp

Nectar et al:

aphid honeydew moist soil animal dung

Glaucopsyche lygdamus (silvery blue)
Vicia caroliniana-pref Lathyrus venosus other vetches

Nectar et al:

Cercis canadensis Vicia caroliniana Claytonia Potentilla composites

Lycaena epixanthe (bog copper)
Vaccinium oxycoccos V macrocarpon

Nectar et al:

cranberry flowers

Lycaena hyllus (bronze copper)
Rumex verticillatus-pref R cripus-pref Polygonum spp

Nectar et al

males don't drink as much nectar as females

Trifolium Rubus Chrys leuc Eupatorium Apocynum Polygonum Aster

Lycaena phlaeas (American copper)
Rumex acetosella- pref R crispus- non

Nectar et al:

Ranunculus Potentilla canadensis Chrys leuc Trifolium Achillea Asclepias Aster

Parrhasius m-album (white M hairstreak)
Quercus alba-pref Tilia spp

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Eupatorium Cornus Viburnum Rhus Oxydendrum arboreum Prunus serotina Solidago Apocynum Rubus

Satyrium calanus (banded hairstreak)
Quercus alba Q prinus Juglans nigra J cinerea Carya spp

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Achillea Rhus typhina Melilotus alba Sambucus canadensis

Satyrium caryaevorum (hickory hairstreak)
Carya cordiformis C glabra C ovata

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Cirsium Daucus carota Rhus typhina Melilotus alba Ceanothus americanus

Satyrium edwardsii (Edwards' hairstreak)
Quercus ilicifolia- pref Q marilandica Q velutina

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Rhus typhina Solidago Melilotus alba

Satyrium favonius (southern hairstreak)
Quercus alba Q stellata Q velutina Q rubra Q ilicifolia-poss

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Vaccinium

Satyrium liparops (striped hairstreak)
Ericaceae Rosaceae Vaccinium spp Rhododendron calendulaceum Prunus serotina Crataegus spp Amelanchier spp Rubus spp Pyrus spp Malus spp Carpinus caroliniana

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Rhus typhina Ceanothus americanus Viburnum Solidago

Satyrium titus (coral hairstreak)
Prunus serotina-pref P virginiana Rosaceae- poss

Nectar et al:

Asclepias-pref A tuberosa- pref Apocynum Ceanothus americanus Melilotus alba Achillea

Strymon melinus (gray hairstreak)
Fabaceae Malvaceae Lespedeza spp Desmodium spp Vicia spp Trifolium spp Malva spp Phaseolus spp

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Barbarea vulgaris Cercis canadensis Cirsium Solidago Mentha Melilotus alba Trifolium

Aglais milberti (Milbert's tortoiseshell)
Urtica dioica U gracilis

Nectar et al:

Cirsium Asclepias Vernonia Trifolium Verbesina alternifolia Aster

also

ferm fruit damp soil probably sap

Asterocampa celtis (hackberry emperor)
Celtis tenuifolia C occidentalis

Nectar et al:

sap rotting fruit dung carrion moist soil

ans Sweat salt

Asterocampa clyton (tawny emperor)
Celtis tenuifolia C occidentalis

Nectar et al:

soil dung rotting fruit tree sap

rarely milkweed

Boloria bellona (meadow fritillary)
Viola soraria V papilionacea

Nectar et al:

esp composites Achillea millefolium Daucus carota Chrys leuc Taraxacum offinale Apocynum Trifolium Verbesina alternifolia Cirsium Vernonia Solidago Aster

Boloria selene (silver-bordered fritillary)
Viola cucullata V pallens V striata V primulifolia V papilionacea

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Asclepias Vernonia Achillea millefolium Chrys leuc Trif pratense Mentha Solidago

Cercyonis pegala (common wood-nymph)
c p pegala

Danthonia spicata Triodia flava Andropogon spp Poa spp

Nectar et al:

prefs sap ferm fruit dung

Asclepias Chrysanthemum leuc Rudbeckia hirta Daucus carota Trifolium Dipsacus Vernonia Eupatorium Monarda fistulosa

SUBSPECIES

c pegala nephele

host is "grasses"

Nectar et al:

sap ferm fruit moist soil

reg Chrys leuc Asclepias

Chlosyne gorgone (gorgone checkerspot)
Helianthus Ambrosia Lysimachia

Nectar et al:

yellow composites preferred Solidago Coreopsis

reg Melilotus alba Asclepias Erigeron

Chlosyne harrisii (Harris' checkerspot)
Aster umbellatus

Nectar et al:

Erigeron Hieracium Chrys leuc Taraxacum officinale

Chlosyne nycteis (silvery checkerspot)
Verbesina alternifolia- pref Helianthus spp H tuberosus H. strumosus Aster puniceus

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Asclepias Erigeron Barbarea vulgaris Trifolium Taraxacum officinale Cirsium arvense Pastinaca sativa

Cyllopsis gemma (gemmed satyr)
Cynodon dactylon

Nectar et al:

damp soil dung fungi tree sap fermenting fruit

Enodia anthedon (northern pearly-eye)
Leersia virginica Panicum spp Hystrix patula Uniola latifolia Erianthus alopecuroides Brachyelytrum erectum

Nectar et al:

prefs willow sap ferm fruit dung carrion fungi damp soil

Euphydryas phaeton (Baltimore checkerspot)
Chelone glabra- pref Plantago lanceolata Viburnum recognitum Pedicularis canadensis Lonicera japonica Aureolaria flava other A spp

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Chrys leuc Trifolium Rudbeckia hirta Viburnum

puddle

also dung

Euptoieta claudia (variegated fritillary)
Viola- pref cultivated pansies-pref Podophyllum peltatum Sedum spp. Portulaca spp Menispermum spp Desmodium spp

Nectar et al:

prefs:

Asclepias Cirsium Apocynum Vernonia Eupatorium Aster red white clover

reg:

Mentha Echium vulgare

Hermeuptychia sosybius (Carolina satyr)
Poa spp Poa pratensis Cynodon dactylon

Nectar et al:

sap ferm frut dung

puddle

Junonia coenia (common buckeye)
Scrophulariaceae Plantaginaceae Acanthaceae Plantago lanceolata- pref P rugelii- pref Linaria vulgaris-pref Aureolaria spp Agalinis spp Ruellia spp

Nectar et al:

Daucus carota Helianthus Aster Asclepias Vernonia Trifolium

Libytheana carinenta (American snout)
Celtis occidentalis C tenuifolia

Nectar et al:

like 2 puddle

reg

Apocynum Solidago Aster Daucus carota Rubus Asclepias Eupatorium

Limenitis archippus (viceroy)
Salix spp- pref Populus tremuloides- pref P alba- nonpref P deltoides- non P nigra- non

Nectar et al:

prefs dung carrion fermenting fruit moist sand soil

reg Asclepias Cirsium Eupatorium Dipsacus Aster

Limenitis arthemis (red-spotted purple)
Prunus serotina P virginiana Amelanchier spp Populus grandidentata P tremuloides P alba P deltoides Pyrus malus Quercus velutina Quercus ilicifolia Salix spp

Nectar et al:

prefs sap ferm fruit damp soil dung carrion

nonpref

Prunus serotina Viburnum Cornus

Megisto cymela (little wood satyr)
Poa spp Dactylis glomerata

Nectar et al:

prefs sap fermenting fruit fungi aphid honey dew dung wet soil

non pref:

Asclepias Chrys leuc Melilotus alba Rubus spp Viburnum spp Rhus typhina

Nymphalis antiopa (mourning cloak)
Salix nigra- pref S babylonica- pref Ulmus americanus Populus tremuloides P grandidentata Celtis spp

Late instar Quercus ilicifolia

Nectar et al:

tree sap

rotting fruit

rarely: Asclepias Apocybum Ceanothus

Nymphalis vaualbum (Compton tortoiseshell)
Populus spp Salix spp Betula spp

Nectar et al:

prefs rotting fruit sap moist soil

Phyciodes batesii (tawny crescent)
Aster undulatus A simplex

Nectar et al:

variety of june bloomers

Phyciodes cocyta (northern crescent)
slash selenis

Compositae Aster simplex

Nectar et al:

Apocynum Erigeron Trifolium repens Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

Phyciodes tharos (pearl crescent)
Many Compositae Aster simplex A pilosus A laevis A novae-angliae

Nectar et al:

almost any flower, esp if flat

prefs Taraxacum officinale Hieracium Chrysanthemum Rudbeckia hirta Asclepias Apocybum Aster Achillea millefolium Solidago

Polygonia comma (eastern comma)
Urtica spp Boehmeria cylindrica Laportea canadensis Ulmus spp Humulus spp Celtis- nonpref

Nectar et al:

moist soil tree sap rotting fruit dung carrion

rare Eupatorium Rubus

Polygonia faunus (green comma)
Salix Betula Alnus Ribes- poss

Nectar et al:

damp soil tree sap rotten fruit dung carrion flower nectar

Polygonia interrogationis (question mark)
Ulmus spp- pref Celtis spp- pref Urtica spp Boehmeria cylindrica

Nectar et al:

prefs rotting fruit tree sap dung carrion damp soil

reg Asclepias Aster Cornus Trifolium pratense

Polygonia progne (gray comma)
Ribes rotundifolia- pref Ulmus- non Rhododendron nudiflorum

Nectar et al:

prefs sap ferm fruit dung

Arctium minus Dipsacus

Satyrodes appalachia (Appalachian brown)
Carex lacustris C stricta- pref Glyceria striata

Nectar et al:

prefs Sap Ferm fruit rotting fungi dung

Satyrodes eurydice (eyed brown)
Carex lacustris C lupulina C stricta C bromoides C trichocarpa

Nectar et al:

prefs Sap ferm fruit fungi

reg: Asclepias incarnata Eupatorium Monarda fistulosa

Speyeria aphrodite (Aphrodite fritillary)
Viola papilionacea V cucullata V soraria V striata

Nectar et al:

prefs: Asclepias Arctium Eupatorium Vernonia Apocynum Cirsium Echium vulgare Chrysanthemum Pycnanthemum flexuosum

Speyeria atlantis (Atlantis fritillary)
Viola papilionacea V cucullata V soraria V blanda V pennsylvanica V canadensis V striata

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum Spiraea Arctium Chrys leuc Achillea millefolium Erigeron Trifolium pratense Mentha Prunella vulgaris Monarda clinopodia

Speyeria cybele (great spangled fritillary)
Viola papilionacea V cucullata V soraria V striata

Nectar et al:

prefs Asclepias Cirsium Eupatorium Apocynum Pycnanthemum flexuosum

regular: Trifolium Echium vulgare

Speyeria diana (diana fritillary)
Viola

Nectar et al:

Asclepias syriaca-pref A tuberosa-peef A incarnata-pref Cirsium- pref Monarda fistulosa Eupatorium Vernonia

Speyeria idalia (regal fritillary)
Viola

Nectar et al:

Jul Asc syriaca A incarnata A tuberosa

Aug-sep Vernonia Eupatorium Cirsium Aster

Eupatorium perfoliatum-nonpref

Trifolium

Vanessa atalanta (red admiral)
Urtica dioica- pref U gracilis-pref Boehmeria cylindrica Parietaria pensylvanica Laportea canadensis

Nectar et al:

sap-pref ferm fruit-pref dung-pref carrion-pref

cirsium Asclepias Apocynum Trifolium pratense Chrys leuc Daucus carota Syringa

Vanessa cardui (painted lady)
Cirsium spp- pref Asteraceae Malvaceae Althaea spp- pref Malva neglecta Boraginaceae Fabaceae cultivated Artemisia

Nectar et al:

esp fond of composites Cirsium vernonia Eupatorium Asclepias Trifolium pratense Aster Zinnia Tagetes

Vanessa virginiensis (American painted lady)
Antennaria spp A neglecta A viginica A plantaginifolia Anaphalis margaritacea Gnaphalium spp

Nectar et al:

Asclepias Apocynum red clover white clover Cirsium Taraxacum officinale Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Solidago Aster

Battus philenor (pipevine swallowtail)
Aristolochia macrophylla- pref A serpentaria

Nectar et al:

Pink and purple flowers pref Phlox Asclepias Eupatorium Vernonia Cirsium Lilium superbum

Papilio canadensis (Canadian tiger swallowtail)
Liriodendron tulipifera- activeley toxic

Populus tremuloides P. grandidentata Betula spp. Prunus serotina

Nectar et al:

males puddle same as eastern tiger Nectar et al:

Asclepias-pref Cirsium-pref Vernonia-pref Eupatorium-pref Rhododendron-pref Apocynum-pref Albizia julibrissin-pref Lilium spp-pref Trifolium pratense-pref

Papilio cresphontes (giant swallowtail)
Zanthoxylum americanum Z clava-herculis Ptelea trifoleata Citrus spp

Nectar et al: Asclepias, especially small woodland species Solidago Saponaria officinalis Lonicera japonica

Papilio glaucus (eastern tiger swallowtail)
Liriodendron tulipifera- pref Prunus serotina- pref Fraxinus-poss Lindera benzoin-poss Syringa vulgaris-poss Ptelea trifoliata-poss

Nectar et al:

Asclepias-pref Cirsium-pref Vernonia-pref Eupatorium-pref Rhododendron-pref Apocynum-pref Albizia julibrissin-pref Lilium spp-pref Trifolium pratense-pref

Papilio polyxenes (black swallowtail)
Umbelliferae Daucus carota D c var. sativa Anethum graveolens Petroselinum crispum Ruta graveolens

Nectar et al:

Trifolium Asclepias Cirsium Vernonia Eupatorium

Papilio troilus (spicebush swallowtail)
Sassafras albidum-pref Lindera benzoin-pref Liriodendron tulipifera- poss Zanthoxylum americanum- poss

Nectar et al: can use long tubed flowers Lonicera japonica-pref Impatiens-pref

Asclepias Cirsium Eupatorium Apocynum Rhododendron Albizia julibrissin

Protographium marcellus (zebra swallowtail)
Asamina triloba

Nectar et al:

males like to puddle Rubus Apocynum Cercis canadensis Asclepias Echium vulgare

Anthocharis midea (falcate orangetip)
Cardamine spp Arabis laevigata A serotina A glabra Alliaria officinalis Lepidium campestre Dentaria laciniata other mustard fam spp

Nectar et al:

Claytonia Viola pedata Cardamine hirsuta Lepidium Dentaria Arabis

Colias eurytheme (orange sulphur)
Medicago sativa- pref Trifolium repens T spp Melilotus alba-non Baptisia-non Coronilla varia-non Vicia spp.-non other leg-non

Nectar et al:

non-deep tubed

Taraxacum Aster

Trifolium-pref Mentha-pref Chrysanthemum-pref Dipsacus-pref Solidago-pref Cirsium-pref Vernonia-pref

Colias interior (pink-edged sulphur)
Vaccinium angustifolium-pref other blueberries

Nectar et al:

red and blue flowers pref Trifolium pratense Prunella vulgaris Satureja vulgaris

Yellow Taraxacum officinale Lotus corniculatus

White nonpref Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Aralia hispida

Colias philodice (clouded sulphur)
Trifolium repens -pref Trifolium pratense- pref other legumes poss

Nectar et al: Taraxacum Trifolium Solidago Vernonia Eupatorium Aster Tagetes Chrysanthemum

Euchloe olympia (Olympia marble)
Arabis laevigata- pref Arabis serotina- pref other rockcresses-pref

Cardamine hirsuta-non

Nectar et al:

Claytonia Viola pedata Phlox Houstonia Stellaria Arabis

Eurema lisa (little yellow)
Cassia fasciculata C nictitans larger leaved Sennas usually avoided

Nectar et al: Aster Solidago Trifolium Prunella Liatris

Eurema nicippe (sleepy orange)
Cassia fasciculata C hebecarpa C marilandica C nictitans

Nectar et al:

Trifolium Melilotus alba Echium vulgare Aster Vernonia

Phoebis sennae (cloudless sulphur)
Cassia fasciculata C hebecarpa C marilandica-poss C nictitans- poss

Nectar et al:

long tubed flowers Lonicera Lobelia cardinalis Hibiscus syriacus Cirsium Cassia

Pieris rapae (cabbage white)
many crucifers Barbarea vulgaris Brassica spp broccoli cauliflower cabbage Alliaria officinalis

Nectar et al:

Taraxacum-spring Lepidium-spring Brassica-spring

trifolium-later Mentha-later Aster-later

Asclepias-nonpref Eupatorium-nonpref other large composites-nonpref

Pieris virginiensis (West Virginia white)
Dentaria laciniata- pref D diphylla- pref Arabis spp- nonpref Alliaria officinalis-non-pref Arabis serotina Cardamine spp Cardamine hirsuta Arabis laevigata-pref

Nectar et al: Claytonia Dentaria Sedum Viola

Pontia protodice (checkered white)
Lepidium virginicum-pref L densiflorum-pref Capsella bursa-pastoris Barbarea vulgaris other mustards

Nectar et al: Sisymbrium-pref Barbarea vulgaris-pref other mustards Asclepias Trifolium

Calephelis borealis (northern metalmark)
Senecio obovatus- pref other ragworts

Nectar et al: Achillea Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Rudbeckia hirta Erigeron


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/September 17

Today in 1991 version 0.01 of the Linux kernel was published.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 10

Today in 2001 Slyck.com was launched, a news site focused on copyright issues that sprang from the DIY activism of the copyright piracy scene.


text:
Intellectual Property and the Internet/Print version

This book looks at the history of intellectual property laws and their effects on the internet.


text: User:Unkindled/sandbox

title: User:Unkindled/sandbox


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 16

 Today in 1997 Software in the Public Interest was founded. It funds and supports its many member projects by collecting tax-exempt donations, holding assets, organizing legal advice, trademarks, and other legal matters.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 16


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 10

The first documented mention of Copyleft was made today in 1976.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 10


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Ethical Debates in Connected Culture 2019/Privacy 1: The Private Sphere

How is social media affecting the private sphere?

A new digital era has emerged, whereby digital technologies have transformed the way we communicate, interact and think as individuals and as a society. According to Zizi Papacharissi, digital technologies have created a 'virtual sphere' melting geographical boundaries and political constraints, and that the high potential of these digital platforms has questioned the traditional meanings of a private sphere and a public sphere. The private and public boundaries have now become blurred, as digital media users now are publishing their private life into these public digital media platforms - thus, creating a new 'virtual world'.

With technological innovations, users online are able to interact with other people, create, redistribute or exchange information and opinions, and also express themselves in virtual communities. All these means of interaction, along with the exchange of user-generated content, are referred to as 'social media'. With the enjoyment of using social media for many prolific reasons, come some challenges as well, especially use and misuse of private information. Thus, in this chapter we will provide information and research on the individual self on social media and explore whether private information is actually private.

The rise of social media platforms and the number of users has also impacted politics, it has changed the way campaigns are designed and run and how individuals interact with relevant political actors and consume political information. Social media has created a cost-effective and data-rich platform for political actors to monitor and influence their citizens, through having the ability to gather user data and create targeted messaging and reach millions of citizens simultaneously, having a great impact on their ultimate decisions. Political actors are now able to create their own social media pages and build their images to the wider public, sharing their political ideologies and views, undermining the people's democracies. Simultaneously, users now have a platform to voice their own political beliefs to engage more and more with the political process and connect with like-minded users from all around the world. According to author Langdon Winner, social network sites revitalise democratic society, enabling citizens to command the political and economic resources needed to become effectively self-governing. However, although social media provides a public space for people to voice their opinions and beliefs, political parties may manipulate such opinions through targeted advertisements served specifically to sway the people’s beliefs. Therefore, this gives rise to the question: What if our political opinions are not really our own?

The following chapter will focus on the different effects of social media on the private sphere. Using the Cambridge Analytica scandal as a case study, we will be looking at how social media, namely Facebook, affects the private sphere at an individual level and at a political level to address these concerns.

Is our private information private?
Nowadays it is not about on and off. We live in a world where being networked to people and information wherever and whenever you need it is just assumed. Even if we are not physically online or surfing on the Internet, we are always connected to the network, and that is what it means to be always-on. This concept of always-on is influencing the private sphere on social media. We receive information through social media constantly every single day. For example, messages from your friends and family, important milestones, political debates, or catastrophic events from around the world. People react to these pieces of information and a lot of them tend to overshare their opinions and thoughts. Each time you post on social media, you reveal a little bit more about yourself, who you are what you like, or maybe even where you live. Because of all of this, the line between the public sphere and the private sphere is very thin, almost see-through. Recently, Facebook gave people the option to make their profile and information more private with better and stronger privacy settings. However, the extent to which users are able to change their settings so that they reflect their preferences arguably also depends on their level of skill in understanding and modifying the relevant settings. danah boyd and Eszter Hargittai found that it may appear that all is fine regarding related issues on Facebook since many young adult users are actively managing their profile’s public access. However, they don't know to which extent the users understand the implemented changes or if it matches their preferences.

After reading boyd, Turkle and Pariser’s work, there is clear evidence that users on social media have a false sense of the security of their private information. People usually have the feeling of anonymity and lack of social responsibility that often develops from using text-centred telecommunications, and ends with oversharing on social media. The information then can be used by people you don't know, for example, for identity theft or stalking.

Anxiety is part of the new connectivity. Many people have a fear of missing out and can't put their phone or computer down and stop scrolling through social media. Many people, however, also have anxiety over their privacy. Technology and anxieties are very closely related. Technology helps us manage life stress but generates anxieties of its own. Sherry Turkle interviews many young people who explain their anxieties and fears over social media. They explain how all the things they say on social media are recorded and stay on the Internet, how careful they must be and how they write personal information to a diary rather than talking about it with friends on social media.

How is data being used/misused?
The web we navigate navigates us. For example, Google tracks our searches, engineering personalised results, which are tailored to our supposed needs. Facebook aggregates our likes, login times, and other metrics to target advertisements. Amazon has built a digital empire on its alchemy of stored consumer behaviour, purchase correlation research, and predictive marketing. Since the information we receive, especially on social media, is tailored in a way that validates our beliefs and opinions, can we say that our opinions are really our own? A lot of personal information is mishandled behind our browser's digital veil. The matrix of engineers, market demographers, and data aggregators are contracted third parties to our trusted hosts; they are not contractually bound to the same privacy standards that Facebook consented to in 2010. The ubiquity of data gathering on social media platforms is aimed at personalising experiences and optimising sales, ultimately affecting our culture in shaping the global economy, the flow of ideas, and access to information.

A useful example of the misuse of information on social media is the Cambridge Analytica scandal. Cambridge Analytica collected individual data from Facebook and developed the ability to micro-target individual consumers or voters with messages most likely to influence their behaviour. This micro-targeting was used to sway votes during Donald Trump’s electoral campaign. Thus the following question is raised: Were those Trump supporters actually true supporters? Or were their opinions 'encoded' in their heads? Privacy has well served our modern notions of intimacy and democracy. Without privacy, the borders of intimacy blur.

Social media as a tool for political actors

As mentioned earlier, some of the main impacts of social media on politics is the ability of these political actors to collect the data of their citizens, including demographics, browsing activities and previous voting or political engagement activities. In this way, they identify their targeted audiences and create targeted messaging to directly engage with the citizens and broadcast political messages to the masses simultaneously.

Thus far, data collection is one of the most prevalent uses of social media by political actors for their benefit, whereby user data and behaviour trends are monitored and collected by all the big technology giants that individuals widely use online, these include Google, Facebook, Twitter and Instagram to name a few. User data is categorised into specific groups in relation to demographics, psychographics, political beliefs and so on, which then in return is used by political actors to design their campaigns accordingly. One of the most recent examples of this phenomenon is the not so long ago scandal of Cambridge Analytica and Donald Trump's campaign victory, which will be elaborated in more detail in the following section of this chapter.

Social media as a tool for the public

Not only did the rise of social media platforms impact the success of political actors, but it also provided an effective tool for individuals to create political change and influence the political decisions of their followers and create social change across the world. According to independent educational UK charity Demos, in 2018, nearly two-thirds of young people (64%) see social media platforms as an essential part of achieving social change, and over half of 35-50 year olds agree (55%). Social media has made it easier for users to engage with politics and social issues, as it has provided a platform to practice their freedom of speech and in most cases catalyse social change and at most times change the course of history.

Over the years, we have witnessed social change around the world through the power of the people and social media platforms. A new wave of online activists emerged and facilitated social movements and political awareness. Some of the most prevalent examples of social change catalysed by social media platforms include the Arab Spring, which was a series of anti-government protests that took place in the early 2010s around the Middle East. Another example includes the #MeToo social movement, sparked in 2006, on social media against sexual harassment and sexual assault which has gained global momentum in recent years. The decentralised nature of social movements on social media has made them very effective in terms of wide accessibility and the power to share messages and reach wider audiences all over the world, facilitating transnational communication and mobilising global action. Furthermore, social media also empowers users to urge new activations in a horizontal civic space in comparison to the constraints of traditional means. . Thus, we may look at social media in both a positive and negative light in relation to democracy and politics. Yet, in relation the the private sphere, social media gives rise to serious privacy concerns as mentioned earlier and shall be explored in further detail below.

Who was Cambridge Analytica?
According to its former website, Cambridge Analytica sold itself as a political consulting firm for electoral campaigns. The company would source relevant online data to create key messages designed to target specific audiences with the goal of influencing their attitudes and behaviours to win votes, appealing to the client’s demands. Cambridge Analytica’s questionable services raised alarms in early 2018, when it was discovered that the little-known consulting firm covertly collected personal data from more than 50 million Facebook user profiles which they used to influence and manipulate target groups through specially designed advertisements. Subsequently, Facebook’s data practices were also heavily attacked.

What went wrong?

In March of 2018, the New York Times and The Observer published candid interviews with a whistle-blower named Christopher Wylie. The former director of research at Cambridge Analytica detailed the firm’s data mining practices, including the mass harvesting of millions of Facebook user profiles. Wylie also leaked information relating to Donald Trump’s electoral campaign, saying that the company played a key role in manipulating Facebook users into voting for the presidential candidate. Through Trump's victory, Cambridge Analytica’s efforts were successful.

Cambridge Analytica harvested personal data from over 50 million Facebook users through a specially built app. Normally, when an app user gives consent to the collection of personal data, the app will only collect the information of that one user. However, it was revealed that this particular app collected the personal information of the user and their Facebook friends without them knowing. More than 270,000 individual people used the app. Facebook received enormous criticism for this, facing major questions surrounding the misuse of personal data. Cambridge Analytica then used this enormous pool of data to target potential Trump voters through the use of persuadable advertisements, using tailored creative content to send their messages across.

The after-math
The Cambridge Analytica scandal sparked serious concerns amongst millions of Facebook users. People became increasingly sceptical of the ways in which their personal information was being collected and given away. More than a year later, the scale of the issue has not diminished. The repercussions of the scandal have given rise to questions relating to online privacy, as well as questions relating to control of information.

Social media and the private life

According to published literature, as social network sites mature, it is becoming increasingly difficult to treat the public and private spheres as separate. This is because the line between the two spheres is largely unclear. Literature asserts that there was a time in which the public and private sphere were easily distinguishable, and therefore considered to be dichotomous. However, as a result of social network sites, the boundaries between the public and private spheres are blurred. This relates heavily to the notion of always-on, as identified earlier.

According to boyd, being always-on is not just about consumption and production of content but also about creating an ecosystem in which people can stay peripherally connected to one another through a variety of micro-data. It’s about creating networks and layering information on top. Thus, each time we carry out an action online, including every click, like, tag, message and more, we hand-over personal information about ourselves to the organisations that run such platforms, thereby blurring the line between the public and private sphere even further. In addition, as outlined earlier, Turkle identifies anxiety as part of the new connectivity, which is a result of the looming uncertainty felt surrounding the security and privacy of personal information online. The Cambridge Analytica scandal demonstrates such anxieties: People reacted by deleting their Facebook accounts as a form of protest through the #DeleteFacebook campaign. It voiced the worldwide concerns of a public who felt that digital environments have become more involved with financial goals rather than the privacy and care of their users.

Following the Cambridge Analytica scandal, Mark Zuckerberg announced a series of changes intended to make Facebook a more secure and private platform. However, no matter how many new privacy features the social media giant introduces, user information still remains highly valuable to such organisations. According to Opsahl, when Facebook started it was a private space for communication with a group of your choice. Soon, it transformed into a platform where much of your information is public by default. Today, it has become a platform where you have no choice but to make certain information public, and this public information may be shared by Facebook with its partner websites and used to target ads. In this way, the user becomes to product, not the customer, whereby users seem to be airing much of their ‘private’ lives in the ‘public’ realm. This is how Facebook and other social network sites are able to provide a free service: they collect user information which is then used by advertisers to run targeted and personalised campaigns.

Social media and the political life
It is evident that social media could be used as a tool by both political parties and individuals to both undermine and empower democracy. According to Tucker et al., social media have often been described as the site for conflict between 'good' democratic forces who use social media to make their voices heard and 'bad' autocratic and repressive forces who aim to censor this channel to silence these liberal elements.

However, the rise of personalisation raises many concerns relating to politics in the private sphere. Pariser states that the more personalised the content we receive becomes, the less democratic our society becomes. According to Wetherell, the right to vote comes with a right to a unique political opinion. The personalisation of online content takes that away from us, as was the case with Cambridge Analytica during Donald Trump’s electoral campaign.

According to Dahlgren, in a democracy, individuals may interact with one another and communicate their interests freely, including their political stance. This definition assumes that our political interests and opinions are formed through an unrestricted flow of information. Yet, the Cambridge Analytica scandal prompts the following question: What if our political opinions are not really our own?

According to Pariser, democracy requires citizens to see things from one another’s point of view, but instead we're more and more enclosed in our own bubbles. In response to the ever-increasing flow of information in today’s digital world, information is no longer a “pull” phenomenon but a “push” one. We don’t go to it, it comes to us. In other words, it is media organisations, such as Facebook and Google, that determine the kind of content we are exposed to as users through the personalisation of content. As a result, these platforms create a unique world of information for each of us. This is what Pariser refers to as the filter bubble: an online world in which users are exposed to other people who are similar to themselves, and content that reinforces their existing interests. In this way, the filter bubble can be used describe the effects personalisation of content is having on democracy within our society as it fundamentally alters the way we encounter ideas and information.

This is exactly why the news surrounding Cambridge Analytica quickly became a scandal: because the political consulting company used the data it harvested from millions of Facebook users to serve political advertisements that would benefit the Trump electoral campaign, either by reinforcing users’ political opinions, or steering them to start thinking differently. Thus, the information being served to these users was filtered in a way that would ultimately manipulate their vote. Therefore, it can be argued that the collection of data in today’s world may result in major social consequences, giving rise to ethical considerations surrounding the privacy of our personal data and our right to a free opinion.


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Ethical Debates in Connected Culture 2019/Sensitive Topics 1: Violence

Introduction
In today's web 2.0 era, people use Internet constantly in all spheres of their life. The rapid transmission of information also shortens the distance between people, so that various industries have fast development. Because of the Internet, work efficiency is improved, communication is facilitated, as well as many other aspects of everyday life are facilitated (Castells et al., 2009). At the same time, Internet information networks have brought about many challenges that have multi-angle and multi-level impact (Graham and Dutton, 2019).

While Internet brings convenience, it is impossible to ignore its two sides with such negative phenomenon as cyber violence being worth thinking about. It is a common phenomenon and a new problem in today's society. The network violence can be targeted at all people, hence nobody may fee secure and protected. The power of Internet violence is very strong. This kind of violence has always existed in the Internet, and even has been promoted in recent years. After the widespread generation and development of social software and mass media, the problem of Internet violence has become more serious, having evolved into a behavioral patter in online communities. Because the netizens know they would hardly bear any responsibility for inappropriate behavior, such irresponsible behavior catalyzed the spread of Internet violence. It also has a profound impact on people's psychology, cognition, and behavior (Flüchter and Schöttli, 2014). At the same time this kind of network phenomenon also reflected the development of societies and overall cultural codes and norms. At the same time, the reasons for this phenomenon are also related to the regulatory system of online media. Within the context outlined, the main aim of the present paper is to critically review and analyse the nature of cyber violence as phenomenon, its types, reasons, and consequences to highlight the importance of dealing with it in modern online and offline arenas.

Main discussion
Definition and Nature of Cyber Violence

Violence online is commonly associated with bullying which is a pattern of physical behavior transferred into relationships between people online (McGuire and Holt, 2017). As it is explained by McGuire and Holt (2017), bullying in the physical world refers to aggressive behavior against others, which is intentional and could stem from the power imbalance between individuals. This means that the victim of bullying generally should be weaker in terms of social status or physically, or in any other terms.

While bullying in cyberspaces is similar to the violence in the physical environment, it has several differences and specific manifestations that should be noted. First of all, it should be mentioned that violence is a broader term as such. Internet violence is defined as physical, psychological, emotional or verbal acts that constitute aggression in web communication and may take the form of posting of defamatory, reputational or inflammatory remarks online that cause significant harm to the victim, intentionally or unintentionally (Reyes et al., 2011).

The difference between cyber violence and traditional violence is that cyber violence comes from the Internet and brings online violence into real life, which is actually a kind of offline violence. Although cyber violence is not the real violence on the victim's body, its psychological and emotional damage to them is immeasurable. This is often accompanied by tort and criminal acts, people can use education, moral restraint, law, and other means to regulate (Reyes et al., 2011). So network violence is also an extension of social violence. Internet users should treat Internet violence objectively and rationally.

Classification of Cyber Violence

At the same time, Cassidy, Faucher, and Jackson (2018) differentiate between cyber violence and cyberbullying at large as these are two different types of actions. This leads to the need to outline the main types of cyber violence, as it was already mentioned that it is a broad term covering different types of aggressive intentional or unintentional behavior online.

Graham and Smith (2019) outline four types of online violence that include cyberbullying, cyberstalking, flaming, and trolling.

Cyberbullying refers to repeated and intentional behavior online when hostile and aggressive messages about a victim are communicated to such victim and others with the aim to cause harm, discomfort, and negative emotions. As in the case of violence in the real-life, cyberbullying is the most harmful when it is committed by a person or a group of people who have larger power than their victims (Graham and Smith, 2019).

There were many cases when famous people killed themselves as a direct or indirect result of cyberbullying because they faced aggression online from millions of people. For instance, among the most recent cases, the two cases of suicides of the K-pop stars within the last month in Korea which are considered to be the consequence of cyberbullying and cyber violence raised the question of the impact cyberbullying might have (Yi and Cha, 2019). Such media attention and overall awareness and discussion of the cyberbullying problem make it one of the most widespread and the most easily identifying forms of online violence.

Cyberstalking refers to the intentional and repeated following of a person by using electronic means of communication and all related devices (Reyns, Henson, and Fisher, 2011). While this form of violence is not that evidently aggressive as it consists in liking or commenting on posts, sending messages and communicating online which might be perceived by others as common practice, it is the fear that the victim of stalker feels and associates with such actions by a specific person (Bocij, 2004). Hence, it is not the act of stalking itself, but its emotions impact the victim whose level of stress and anxiety increases and could cause significant harm to health and life.

Flaming is one of the most unintentional forms of cyber violence as it refers to the expressed hostility and insults a person addresses to others in online interaction when controversial issues are discussed, and such reaction is caused by emotions and inclination to deviated behaviors in general (Gordon, 2018). Some people even do not consider flaming as crime, but just as emotional fights on the web where people cross the boundaries of accepted behaviors (Graham and Smith, 2019).

Trolling might be defined as intentional and deliberation actions aimed at initiating conflict on the web which generally consists of humiliating and mocking on someone, following such person in comments and posts, and other types of intrusive aggressive interaction (Bishop, 2013). Similarly to flaming, trolling is a type of deviated cyber behavior that might not always be a crime or a manifestation of cyber violence, but still cause harm to the victim. As it is explained by Graham and Smith (2019), the difference between flaming and trolling is that the first type of actions are generally spontaneous and result from the emotional reactions of people to certain comments events, or behaviors of others, while trolling is more conscious and intentional actions aimed to generate the long-term impact (Graham and Smith, 2019).

Manifestations of Cyber Violence

The main methods and manifestations of cyber violence include postings of threats or other hurtful messages online via numerous channels, including social media, instant messengers, or other public platforms (McGuire and Holt, 2017). Evidently, the manifestations of cyber violence differ depending on the type of violence discussed above. However, the most frequent manifestations might be outlined. Cassidy, Faucher, and Jackson (2018) refer to the survey conducted among French university students to identify the main forms of cyber violence they have faced. According to the results, the most frequent forms of online aggression people become the victims of referring to the various types of intimidating and nasty messages, statistically followed y sharing personal information without any consent, intimidating emails, and sexting what means sending information or offers of unpleasant sexual nature.

As it is noted by Navarro, Yubero, and Larrañaga (2015), in some countries different types of cyberbullying are called differently and though the terms might be used interchangeably, this allows outlining the main manifestations of online violence more precisely. For instance, in South Korea, such behaviors that all fall into the category of cyberbullying are distinguished as school cyber violence, group isolation in online networks, group harassment or group abuse.

In this regard, it is interesting to mention that the prevailing types of internet violence and specifically cyberbullying as its main form differ across the countries. This might be attributed to the fact that abusers try to cause the most harm to their victims and the perception of what is the most harmful differs due to the cultural background of people and social norms. For instance, as it is reported by Navarro, Yubero, and Larrañaga (2015), the most popular form of cyberbullying in Hong Kong is excluding someone from the group online activity, ignoring and isolating such person. This might be explained by the fact, that China is a collectivist society according to Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions theory, where affiliation to the group is an important aspect of a comfortable life (Khairullah and Khairullah, 2013). Hence, being excluded from the group leads to negative emotions and overall consequences for people in their life.

Reasons of Cyber Violence

The causes of network violence are related to the subjective and objective environment of the network.

Firstly the hidden features of the network lead to the emergence of network violence, because the hidden features of the network have two levels of significance.

Users access information by observing the network time and space isolation hidden by the main text and language means. Secondly, in online networks, the user's identity is hidden by registering multiple user IDs, which makes the privacy of the network more complicated. The user can be active in the network with different identities. Due to the anonymity of the Internet, individuals do not have to take responsibility for the network activities, so the moral bottom line is easily broken. Many users can use the privacy of the network to make violent speeches to other users on the network to attack others, but if they participate in the competition as the real identity, they must think twice (Hao, 2007).

The second reason for the formation of network violence is collective behavior and entertainment desire. Collective behavior refers to the social collection, and cyber violence is a typical collective behavior; at the same time, it has the obvious function of group entertainment (Yuehua, 2008). The active participants of cyber violence are more likely to make the world fear not to fall into chaos. From the psychological point of view, the disconnection of cyber violence is to entertain the audience, attract the attention of the audience victims, and make the audience happy to pursue it. Collective behavior makes the group of network violence participate in network violence with a positive attitude, and face the problem of network violence with an irrational way of thinking. The participants have no sense of responsibility more and more. Participants make moral judgments and judge others based on simple information, easily solve participants' problems, gain pleasure and satisfaction from the process, attack others and hurt victims in subtle ways (Juanqi et. al, 2009).

The third reason for the formation of Internet violence is the dislocation of freedom. The birth of the Internet provides a platform for grassroots people. Users use the Internet to express their opinions. Most users think that free comment on the Internet is a symbol of freedom and social progress because users can freely speak on the Internet and act as masters of public opinion supervision and justice. Most Internet users think that their self-expression on the Internet is a unique view of society, and they will think that they are right and disagree with other views. When Internet users reach consensus and freedom, they will not realize that network attacks will harm others. So this kind of unrestricted freedom is a kind of dislocation freedom. In the Internet forum, this kind of dislocation freedom will lead to a lack of reflection and control of users, which leads to network violence (Juanqi et. al, 2009).

The fourth reason is the lack of law and moral restriction. The disadvantage of internet violence is that the lack of legal awareness when users use the Internet leads to social moral distortion. In real life, people will be responsible for their actions because of legal constraints. However, there are no laws to regulate users in the network, which makes the network moral lack. Once the lack of moral constraints, people will be irresponsible for their behaviour. Hao (2007) has too many unknowns in the network, so users usually don't have to take responsibility. Moreover, because the formulation of network law lags far behind the reality, when there is network violence, there is no timely establishment of reasonable laws and regulations to restrict users, which leads to the growing trend of network violence. All of these increase the possibility of cyber violence.

Consequences of Cyber Violence

While people can not harm others physically through Internet, consequences of cyber violence may be similar or even more serious to the victim, depending on many factors. As in the case of bullying in the physical world, cyber violence has detrimental consequences for the victims. McGuire and Holt (2017) list negative emotional conditions, embarrassment, anger, shame, and even depression among the main effects of continuous attacks to list a few.

The main impact of cyber violence includes four aspects. In the majority of cases, the information and accusations of the aggressor online are false, but the speed of such information dissemination on the web makes it difficult for the victim to react to such information promptly and prevent it from spreading (Khosrow-Pour, 2018). The audience that receives and transmits such information is wide so that the victim would get into trouble and danger, the inaccurate information will cause serious damage to the victim's life both online and offline.

Network violence is the transmission of false information, true and false difficult to distinguish. With the development of cyber violence, a lot of information has become untruthful and unreliable false information in the process of dissemination. This process is often the truth that is misinterpreted, which will make people misunderstand some information or the parties concerned.

When many netizens participate in Internet violence incidents, they will treat things with personal emotion. In other words, they tend to have a "first impression" on an event, and this "first impression" is a criterion that is hard to change. Many netizens who do not know the truth will also unconsciously join in the cyber violence, because they believe the content of false information, so as to virtually act as a promoter of the development of cyber violence. Therefore, the false information in network violence is not good for society, but also the lack of morality (Flüchter and Schöttli, 2014).

Cyber violence infringes upon rights and interests. In cyber violence, the parties will be hurt physically and mentally. Such irrational violence directly affects the real life of the parties. Especially through the network to the party's personal information investigation and exposure, personal privacy was leaked, and in real-life harassment. This is a serious infringement of rights. For example, many stars suffer from "depression" or even suicide because they cannot bear the criticism of cyber violence. This is enough to prove that infringement of rights is a very serious impact of cyber violence. Cyber violence will harm the moral values of Internet users, the right values are the guarantee of social harmony and normal operation. Network violence impinges on people's own defense system, and moral values will be distorted under the impact of cyber violence. The originally advocated dialectics was completely ignored in Internet violence, which led to two extremes. In the case of cyber violence, the netizens who participate in the incident blindly support one side's views and personal colors that are too absolute, doing things that violate morality while ignoring their own mistakes.

This is the expression that cyber violence distorts value. The occurrence of cyber violence makes participants strengthen their own opinions. Therefore, when other opinions invade, participants will try their best to maintain their own opinions, leading to self-deception, no longer accepting other opinions, and distorted values.

Cyber violence can cause social panic. Cyber violence infringes on the right of reputation and privacy of the parties to a certain extent, increases the risk of personal information security, and causes public panic. Some intemperate speech or behavior on the network has touched the law, make moral and good faith lose gradually. Researchers say the harassment of victims of cyber violence is on the rise globally, and that it causes more cybercrime than traditional violence. And some cyber violence can destroy a person's life. With the popularity of social media people's behavior and language can through these social media show in public life, with the development of human flesh search, private information was revealed, too many Internet users pay close attention to and criticism of the network events to expand the influence of things, cause the cyber violence, these behaviors cause serious physical and mental damage to a party. As a result, more and more people do not trust the government or other people's help because of cyber violence, and social credibility is reduced.

Concluding Remarks
Conclusion

As it stems from the analysis conducted, cyber violence is a serious negative aspect of online communication and web as such. It may take different forms, which vary based on the cyber violence manifestations, effects, and consequences. The most prevailing form of cyber violence is cyber bullying, which is generally based on power imbalance and might lead to very serious harm to psychological and physical health of a victim. At the same time, other forms of cyber violence such as cyberstalking, flaming, or trolling might also be intentional acts to cause harm to a victim, and hence all are the examples of deviated online behavior. There are many reasons and factors that foster cyberviolence, which include but are not limited to the nature of online networks that allow remaining anonymous, the pressure of collective behavior and freedom people feel they have online, as well as the lack of legal action and punishment for such behaviours. When considering the consequences of such behavior, it becomes clear that this problem is more multi-faceted than anyone can imagine, and this means that a comprehensive collective action at many levels is required to address this challenge of the modern cyber society.