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Public International Law/Sources of International Law/Customary Law

Author: Victor Stoica "Required knowledge: Public International Law/History of International Law ; Public International Law/Nature and Purpose of International Law; Consent; Enforcement""Learning objectives: After studying this Chapter, students will be able to understand what customary international law as a source of international law is, and who directly and indirectly contributes towards its formation and identification."

A. Introduction
Customary international law is unwritten; it is tacit agreement. Prior to World War II, customary international law represented the main mechanism through which international law was created and, during those days, the repeated behaviors of states (or practice) were sufficiently capable of creating legal norms, which, once emerged, contained rights and obligations. In this context, certain opinions exist in the sense that 'a careful examination of history suggests that to a large degree publicists and powerful nations ignored inconvenient state practice and generated customary international law norms based on prior assumed values or perceived self-interests irrespective of the general acceptance of a norm'. It could, therefore, be argued that what the current framework of customary international law is, to a certain degree, the result of a rather regionalized state practice which, in time and in part, became general. In this regard, from a historical perspective, modern customary international law emerged in the 19th century in Europe as a direct result of European philosophy and the traditions of civil Roman law. This practice 'became general' by colonial domination and by the way in which European states resisted the efforts of newly independent states in the 1950s and 1960s to participate in the custom-making and codification process on their own terms.

Today, customary international law is no longer the primary source of international law, but remains one of the most important sources, along with treaties, its importance renewed in recent times of classic treaty-making. In this regard, customary international law offers binding rules of public international law irrespective of hyperpolitical treaty negotiations. Article 38 (1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice ( 'the ICJ' ),  is essential for understanding the meaning and content of customary international law. This provision is not necessarily clear, and has been subject to the interpretation of the ICJ and of the International Law Commission of the United Nations ( 'the ILC' ). Even so, what is currently clear is that the binding force of international customary law rests on the implied consent of states.

The generally accepted interpretation of customary international law confirms that a two-pronged test must be performed in order to determine the existence and content of a rule. First, practice among states must exist and, second, this practice must be accepted as law. In other words, for customary international law to exist, practice must be performed out of a sense of an existing legal obligation. In this sense, a norm of customary international law may bloom if a sufficient number of states perform actions or knowingly abstain from performing an act. States must perform these actions or abstentions in a generally consistent manner, which is sufficiently widespread and representative. They must also do so with the sense that they have an international legal obligation to act in such a way. Framing customary international law in these terms has been labeled as the orthodox perspective on the formation of customary international law. This view is not without controversy, especially because the interaction between practice (referred to as the objective or material element) and its acceptance as law (referred to as the subjective element or opinio iuris) is not easily distilled.

The question regarding who creates customary international law is also rather controversial. The traditional limitations regarding the exclusion of other entities from the formation of customary international law (for example, international organizations or international courts and tribunals) may place customary international law, as a source, on its fringes. For this reason, the legitimacy of customary international law is sometimes considered to be under threat. The practice of international courts and tribunals, including the ICJ, or the manner in which international organizations act, do not necessarily provide profound clarifications regarding a coherent interpretation of this source of international law.

One of the main reasons for this rather seemingly convoluted understanding of customary international law is that, as opposed to treaties, the formation of customary international law does not follow a predictable path, or an exact and regulated procedure. It may seem that customary international law blooms slowly and appears abruptly, at a particular point in time, while it is created behind the curtains of international relations, with no precise indication regarding its appearance. While the traditional view is that the creation of custom essentially entails a substantial amount of time to pass for its creation, recent doctrine has also acknowledge the possibility for the creation of an 'instant custom', in certain emerging domains such as space law. The United Nations General Assembly, through is Resolutions, is also regarded as a main contributor to the creation of instant customs.

International scholarship, addressing the understanding of customary international law, is yet to reach common ground. A notable mentioned must be given to the efforts on the codification of customary international law. The codification of international law, in general, involves identifying and systematising the rules of public international law. This represents an effort on the part of the relevant institutions to provide a greater degree of transparency and certainty to the international law system. International institutions involved in the codification and progressive development of international law, such as the ILC or the International Law Association ('the ILA') have included the identification of customary international law and, respectively, the Formation of Customary (General) International Law, on their agenda. The ILC issued, in 2018, the Draft conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law ('the Draft Conclusions') and the ILA has issued, in 2000, the Statement of Principles Applicable to the Formation of General Customary International Law.

The strict identification of practice and the distinctions between actions and declarations of states contribute to the difficulties in identifying the subjective element, which can be assimilated to beliefs of states, is noticeable when looking towards the direction of the ICJ or the ILC. It has been argued, in this sense, that 'it would be a mistake to believe that power is the only relevant factor in the emergence of CIL. The role of ideas and beliefs is significant'. Further, the ICJ also referred to the beliefs and feelings of states, which crystallize opinio juris as a constituent element of customary international law, throughout its jurisprudence, in cases such as the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases or in the Asylum Case, respectively. Illustratively, in the North Sea Continental Shelf, the Court concluded that belief is needed for the existence of opinio iuris to be demonstrated. Even so, the ICJ has failed to clearly indicate what constitutes opinio iuris and how it interacts with the practice of states in order to determine the content of customary international law. This contributes to the lack of clarity and consensus that revolves around the formation and identification of customary international law. It is still not clear, as 'different meaning and weights are often assigned to the two elements of states practice and opinio iuris'.

This chapter does not endeavor to suggest a new conceptual framework regarding the identification and formation of customary international law. Nor does it intend to resolve the apparent controversies regarding the subject. It rather intends to describe the contemporary manner in which customary international law is formed and identified, by referring, mainly to what is generally accepted.

B. Constitutive Elements of Customary Law
For customary international law to be formed, two elements must exist: I. A general practice, usually regarded as the objective element and II. Opinio iuris, known as the subjective element. The following sections shall address the content of the two elements.

I. General Practice
Article 38 of the Statute of the ICJ prescribes that, when deciding the disputes that are submitted to it, the ICJ will apply 'international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law.' The first issue that should be determined when addressing the existence of customary international law is, thus, the indispensable element of general practice.

General practice is considered as the material (or objective) element of customary international law, because its existence does not depend on the intention of states, international organizations or other entities that exist in today's international society. In other words, when practice is performed, it may, usually, be observed. For example, when a state repeatedly transits with its naval ships a certain maritime zone, that is practice.

1. What may count as 'practice'?
It is generally accepted that state practice is primarily relevant for the creation of customary international law, not the practice of international organizations, transnational corporations, not even the practice of international courts and tribunals. Draft Conclusion 4 of ILC's Draft Conclusions confirms this view when concluding that 'the requirement of a general practice, as a constituent element of customary international law, refers primarily to the practice of States that contributes to the formation, or expression, of rules of customary international law.' The ICJ, in the judgment it issued in the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua concluded in the same terms, that 'to consider what are the rules of customary international law applicable to the present dispute … it has to direct its attention to the practice and opinio iuris of States'.

This finding has led commentators, and certain states, to conclude that only and exclusively states may create practice relevant for the formation of customary international law. However, some entities (such as international courts and tribunals) are relevant for the creation of customary international law while others (such as international organizations) are directly involved in the creation process.

States are abstract entities, with no material form through which they could manifest their activities. States behave through various mechanisms, created and disseminated by multiple stakeholders. Generally speaking, the executive branch of a State is regarded as the primary and most relevant actor in the international law scene.High officials, such as Heads of State or Ministers, municipal courts and tribunals or legislative bodies may be viewed as the limbs, through which states act and through which they have the possibility of developing practice. Not all actions performed by states are capable of creating the material element of customary international law. Scholars have concluded, in this sense, that a distinction should be made between actions and statements/declarations. It is often the case that actions involve a predominantly legal perspective, while statements and declarations involve a predominant political perspective, the latter being less capable of creating practice. This should not lead to the conclusion that statements never contribute to practice, or that they are always political, as unilateral acts have the potential to create international obligations.

a) Actions or doing
State practice is generally understood by looking at the acts or actions performed by the executive branch and other executive and legislative bodies. It is also generally accepted that certain high officials have the vocation to represent the state in the international arena. Usually, Heads of States, Prime Ministers or Ministers of Foreign Affairs (usually referred to as 'the Big Three') ( have the power, without the need of full powers, to act on behalf of the state. But not only the actions performed by these official may represent practice. If a national court maintains its jurisprudence regarding a particular aspect, that has international implications, that body of judgments may contribute to the crystallization of state practice on a certain topic.

The ILC confirms, in Draft Conclusion 5, that practice may manifest in situations in which states exercise multiple activities, including through their 'executive, legislative, judicial or other functions.' This list, provided by the ILC, is open ended and implies that any act or action of states, through their organs, may constitute state practice. This is to say that practice is usually analyzed holistically, on a case by case basis, by looking in the direction of the state as a whole, with all its relevant institutions and officials. Illustratively, diplomatic correspondence on a certain issue, along with political declarations of a high official or the positions maintained throughout the negotiation of a treaty on the same subject matter, may also constitute practice.

It is worth mentioning, at this juncture, that states and their organs are abstract concepts which exercise their functions through people, mandated in this respect by the state (for example, through the Constitution), which is, in turn, structured and mandated by its citizens, through the voting process. Consequently, it is the individual/s which represent the organs of states or states themselves, which is/are capable of creating customary international law. Who qualifies as an individual which may represent the State in its external affairs depends on the national legislation of each State. What is essential is that these individuals, who may represent the state and, consequently, who may generate practice, act in their official capacity.

Several acts or actions may illustrate the formation of practice as an element of customary international law. The classic example regarding the formation of customary international law is maritime law, which, when it first emerged, was 'almost entirely customary international law'. Other examples include 'actively seizing foreign vessels, actually expropriating foreign property or sending satellites into orbit', as elements of practice. The North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, in which the exercise of certain fishing rights in economic zones of the coastal states was addressed by the Court, is relevant from this perspective. Not only physical acts (exercising fishing by states or seizing foreign vessels) may constitute practice as an element of customary international law, but legal acts may have serve the same purpose. Illustratively, if states enact legislation through which fish are protected within 200 miles off their coasts, there is potential for the creation of a rule of customary international law in this respect.

However, the distinction between the actions of the State as forming state practice and the actions that prove opinio juris are not always clear and, as a result, there is no universally accepted and applicable theory to rely upon when determining which actions should be regarded as state practice and which should be considered proof of opinio juris.

To summarize, action as an element of customary international law encompasses a multitude of possibilities. This open-ended character should not be regarded as negative, especially since the manner in which states act has diversified and continues to diversify.

b) Inactions or not doing
Sometimes, omissions may also represent state practice. In other words, it may happen that silence produces legal effects and, among these, the creation of legal norms. Draft Conclusion 6 issued by the International Law Commission regarding the identification of customary international law confirms that practice may, 'under certain circumstances, include inaction'. Not every inaction constitutes practice for the purposes of creating customary international law and certain distinctions should be made in this sense. The question that would need an answer is therefore: "which omissions may constitute practice"?

It is first relevant to point out that the ICJ has dealt with this question throughout its jurisprudence. One of the more relevant findings in this respect is to be found in the Temple of Preah Vihear Case, in which the Court concluded in the following terms:  "It has been contended on behalf of Thailand that this communication of the maps by the French authorities [note: the sovereignty of Cambodia was under French protectorate at the relevant time] was, so to speak, ex parte, and that no formal acknowledgment of it was either requested of, or given by, Thailand. In fact, as will be seen presently, an acknowledgment by conduct was undoubtedly made in a very definite way; but even if it were otherwise, it is clear that the circumstances were such as called for some reaction, within a reasonable period, on the part of the Siamese authorities, if they wished to disagree with the map or had any serious question to raise in regard to it. They did not do so, either then or for many years, and thereby must be held to have acquiesced. Qui tacet consentire videtur si loqui debuisset ac potuisset."The ICJ confirmed its finding from the Temple of Preah Vihear Case in other judgments, such as the one in the Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore), in which it held that 'silence may also speak, but only if the conduct of the other State calls for a response.' The Commentary of the Draft Conclusions further provides examples in this sense: 'abstaining from instituting criminal proceedings against foreign State officials; refraining from exercising protection in favor of certain naturalized persons; and abstaining from the use of force', may lead to the creation of customary international law through inaction. The answer that seems to be confirmed by the doctrine is that only the omissions which are clear in their scope may fulfil the role of practice as an element of customary international law. In this sense, omissions must be carefully interpreted so as to determine what was the true intention of the State that did not perform a particular action. The caution needed for addressing omissions as practice used for the creation of customary international law is demonstrated by the practice of international courts and tribunals. In this respect, the Permanent Court of International Justice, in the Lotus Case, did not address the formation of customary international law because the abstention in question was ambiguous. The International Court of Justice was braver in its analysis of inaction as evidence of practice. In the Temple of Preah Vihear Case, the Court concluded that inaction may generate rights and obligations only if that state must and can act, but it does not. The Court decided that 'it is clear that the circumstances were such as called for some reaction, within a reasonable period, on the part of the Siamese authorities, if they wished to disagree with the map or had any serious question to raise in regard to it. They did not do so, either then or for many years, and thereby must be held to have acquiesced.'

To summarize, as opposed to actions, all of which may constitute practice for the purposes of creating customary international law, not all inactions may contribute to this process. Only clear inactions, which call for a response, may represent practice.

c) Statements
As initially concluded by Anthony D'Amato and further confirmed by Anthea Roberts statements are rather included under the subjective element of international law, opinio iuris. Draft Conclusion 10 issues by the ILC confirms that 'public statements made on behalf of States' represent one of the multiple forms of evidence as acceptance as law. As such, the relevance of public statements for the creation of customary international law will be treated below, under the section entitled 'Accepted as Law (opinio iuris)'.

Different opinions also exist. Illustratively, Mendelson concludes that statements may constitute either state practice or opinio iuris and that 'whether we classify a particular verbal act as an instance of the subjective or of the objective element may depend on circumstances'. For example, a statement of a Head of State of that of a Foreign Minister, should constitute practice rather than opinio iuris while the one of a junior diplomat should not. What is important, he argues, is that the same statement is not treated as both practice and opinio iuris, in order to avoid double counting and to place an unjustified weight on such statements.

As such, the traditional perspective regarding statements is that they may not constitute state practice and that they should rather be treated under the expression on opinio iuris, or the belief of states that a conduct is mandatory under international law. However, a more progressive view, which is justified, is that statements (especially those of high officials) may constitute state practice. In support of this, certain scholars point out that there are 'important acts of state behaviour, such as recognition of another state, do not need a physical act'.

2. What does ' general' mean?
Part of the international scholarship accepts that generality of practice means that 'all or almost all of the nations of the world engage in it'. Even if this conclusion has certain merit, the same authors conclude that it is impossible to determine if more than 190 states have engaged in a certain practice, which, as seen above, is complex and can be manifested through a wide range of activities or abstentions. Further, practice is rarely virtually homogenous.

This is the reason for which Draft Conclusion 8 provides that for practice to be general is must be 'sufficiently widespread and representative as well as consistent'. This three pronged standard provided by the ILC is, thus, lower than the one related to the unanimity or majority of practice. As such, generality implies three different tests that should be met cumulatively. The Commentary of the Draft Conclusions does not further qualify what these three concepts mean but mentions that 'no absolute standard can be given for either requirement', argument that leads to the conclusion that their content is addressed on a case by case basis, leaving international courts and tribunals with a wide degree of appreciation for the consideration of the existence of a rule of customary international law.

a) Sufficiently widespread
Widespread practice is generally understood as 'existing or happening in many places and/or among many people'. The ICJ confirmed the relevance of the concept in the Case Concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain, in which it concluded that it was not aware of the existence of uniform and widespread practice that could lead it to conclude that a customary rule regarding the appropriation of low-tide elevations exists. In Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite the ICJ concluded, with respect to the imperative norm regarding the prohibition of the use of torture, that it is 'grounded in a widespread international practice and on the opinio iuris of States'.

Even so, the ICJ has not endeavored to define the concept, nor does the Commentary of the Draft Conclusions. It just quotes the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, in which the ICJ concluded that the practice in question must be 'both extensive and virtually uniform' , or 'settled practice'. These standards are not universal, nor were they relevant in all cases in which the application of customary international law was at stake. The Commentary goes even further and mentions that 'no absolute standard can be given for either requirement'. The only clarification provided is that practice is sufficiently widespread when it is not 'contradictory or inconsistent'.

It would seem that the first standard is defined through what it is not. In other words, practice may be widespread as long as it is not limited. This manner of determining the content of a concept is usually designed by international courts and tribunals in order to allow a certain degree of appreciation.

b) Sufficiently representative
Representative practice is generally understood as 'typical of, or the same as, others in a larger group of people or things'. At first glance, it might seem that the concept of 'representative' has common features with the concept of 'widespread', especially because the number of entities participating in the creation of customary international law is relevant in both cases. However, certain distinctions should be drawn between the two. Representative practice is rather qualitative in nature, as opposed to widespread practice, which is rather quantitative in nature.

The ICJ has not necessarily addressed what 'representative' means. In North Sea Continental Shelf, the ICJ concluded that 'a very widespread and representative participation' would be sufficient to demonstrate the existence of customary international law resulting from a convention. The Commentary of the Draft Conclusions provides that for the practice to be representative it must take into consideration the 'various interests at stake and/or the various geographical regions.' This approach confirms the quantitative/qualitative distinction mentioned above. Therefore, for practice to be representative, the approach of certain states has more weight while the approach of other less so.

c) Consistency
Consistency is generally understood as 'the quality of always behaving or performing in a similar way, or of always happening in a similar way'. This standard implies that practice should manifest stability over time. As such, if the behaviors of states fluctuate over time, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to identify a general practice. The question, here, is whether there is a need for uniformity of practice (complete consistency) for the formation of customary international law or whether a lower standard should be applied.

The ICJ has not provided any clarification regarding the content of this concept, but rather discussed the level of consistency necessary for the formation of customary international law. In Military and Paramilitary Activities the ICJ concluded in the following terms: "It is not to be expected that in the practice of States the application of the rules in question should have been perfect in the sense that States should have refrained, with complete consistency [...]. The Court does not consider that, for a rule to be established as customary, the corresponding practice must be in absolutely rigorous conformity with the rule. In order to deduce the existence of customary rules, the Court deems it sufficient that the conduct of States should, in general, be consistent with such rules"This finding was confirmed in the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, in which the court did not refer to 'consistency' but to 'uniformity', as a similar concept. The Court concluded that:"Although the passage of only a short period of time is not necessarily, or of itself, a bar to the formation of a new rule of customary international law on the basis of what bras originally a purely conventional rule, an indispensable requirement would be that within the period in question, short though it might be, State practice, including that of States whose interests are specially affected, should have been both extensive and virtually uniform in the sense of the provision invoked."So, consistency means virtual uniformity, in accordance with the practice of the ICJ, in the sense that there is no need for global practice for the formation of customary international law.

II. Accepted as Law (Opinio Iuris)
For customary international law to exist, first, general practice must be present, as provided above, under Section I. But practice should also be performed out of a sense of a legal obligation. This perception, that states have a legal obligation, is qualified as the subjective element of customary international law, or opinio iuris, which has been labeled as belief.

The Commentary of the ILC mentions that customary international law cannot exist in the absence of opinio juris, by arguing that 'the presence of only one constituent element does not suffice for the identification of a rule of customary international law.'

The ICJ referred to the perceptions that states have, in order to determine how opinio iuris forms, as a constituent element of customary international law, throughout its jurisprudence, in cases such as the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases or in the Asylum Case, and it confirmed that opinio iuris must exist in order to determine that customary international law exists. Illustratively, the Court concluded that:             "Not only must the acts concerned amount to a settled practice but they must also be such, or be carried out in such a way, as to be evidence of a belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the existence of a rule requiring it. The need for such a belief, i.e., the existence of a subjective element, is implicit in the very notion of opinio iuris sive necessitatis. The States concerned must therefore feel that they are conforming to what amounts to a legal obligation."The ILC refers to the above mentioned conclusion, but does not shed much light into what exactly may serve as a tool in order to determine what are the perceptions, beliefs or feelings of states. As such, Draft Conclusion 10 firstly provides that opinion iuris 'may take a wide range of forms' and that 'public statements made on behalf of states; official publications; diplomatic correspondence; decisions of national courts; treaty provisions; and conduct in connection with resolutions adopted by an international organisation or intergovernmental conference' can be used as elements through which opinio iuris may be identified. The ILC also provides that lack of action in circumstances in which states "were in a position to react" may also indicate the presence of opinio iuris.

How does one determine what a state believes, or considers, to be mandatory and what not? Scholars conclude that this element of custom is controversial, and that 'no one dares question that its verification is necessary for a customary rule to exist'. The distinction between acts (such as the ones enumerated above) that confirm the perception of states of binding international legal obligations and the perception of states according to which they are acting out of courtesy is also not clear. In other words, the list of acts that may crystalize opinio iuris is uncertain, to the degree that the same act may or may not lead to its formation. The International Court of Justice, in the North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, confirmed that 'there are many international acts, e.g. in the field of ceremonial and protocol, which are performed almost invariably, but which are motivated only by considerations of courtesy, convenience or tradition, and not by any sense of legal duty". As such, "it is difficult to determine what states believe as opposed to what they say.'

These uncertainties regarding a precise manner in which opinio iuris should be determined have led certain authors to conclude that the subjective element should be less relevant, and that practice should be at the forefront of identifying customary international law. Nevertheless, it is rather generally accepted that 'while opinio juris confers the legal bindingness of custom, practice, it is argued, can be understood as what provides custom with normative content.' In other words, while practice provides what the norm contains, opinio iuris is what confers to that norm its binding character. In this context, opinio iuris is essential for the creation of customary international law.

C. Who is bound by custom?
The clarification on the issue of the creation of international custom isn't the only aspect of international customary law which entails complexity. In particular, the problem of the binding character of such rules in relation to certain category of States is also one which needs further analysing, in particular, the issue of the silence of a State in relation to a custom (also known as aquiesence), the persistent objector and the special case of States particularly affected by a certain rule of customary international law, issues which will be discussed below.

I. Aquiesence
Silence in relation to the formation of customary international law is often labelled as acquiescence. In addition to all the elements of practice, including the one related to the capacity of the individual which partakes in its formation, representing the state, commentators have concluded that acquiescence exists in situations in which several conditions are met: if the facts were known or should have been known, if these facts were in the interest of the state and if these facts were consistent. Other standards have been described by commentators concluding that inaction may generate customary international law if there exist 'intention and deliberateness'.

II. The persistent objector
Inconsistent practice sometimes manifests itself through the persistent objector doctrine. Conclusion 15 of the ILC Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law provides that if a State expressly objects to a rule of customary international law when that rule is in the process of formation, the said rule will not be applicable to that state.

The distinction is relevant, because potential objections of states which are performed after customary international law was formed are no longer relevant. In other words, states that did not object during the formation of customary law do no longer have the right to object when they must comply with the created rules. The role of the consistent objector doctrine is that it respects States’ sovereignty and protects them from having new law imposed on them against their will by a majority; but at the same time, if the support for the new rule is sufficiently widespread, the convoy of the law’s progressive development can move forward without having to wait for the slowest vessel.'

III. The case of specially affected States
The Commentary of the ILC Draft Conclusions sheds light into the relevance of this concept, in the following terms:"In assessing generality, an important factor to be taken into account is the extent to which those States that are particularly involved in the relevant activity or most likely to be concerned with the alleged rule have participated in the practice. It would clearly be impractical to determine, for example, the existence and content of a rule of customary international law relating to navigation in maritime zones without taking into account the practice of coastal states and major shipping states."For example, the rise of the level of seas and oceans imply significant threads to small island developing States for multiple reasons, including geographical, related to the concentration of people and infrastructure present in coastal areas. These States may be considered as specially affected for the creation and identification of customary international law related to sea level rise. The current work of the International Law Commission on Sea Level Rise in Relation to International Law confirms that the Pacific Island States are specially affected and that their practice is relevant. This is not to argue that the specially affected states are the only ones that contribute to the creation of international law in a particular field but that their practice should carry more weight than the practice of states that do not have this status. In other words, states that are affected indirectly, states that are not at the forefront of danger, should observe the practice of specially affected states.

D. Who creates custom?
Article 38 (1) b. of the Statute of the ICJ prescribes that the Court will decide in accordance with international law by applying „international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law”. The mentioned provision does not explicitly mention that states, or international governmental organizations, or both, are the only entities that can participate in or influence the formation of customary international law. Nevertheless, what is traditionally accepted is that states and international governmental organizations are the main subjects of international law. Certain authors confirm that the two entities are the only subjects of international law, strictly speaking and, as such, the only ones that can contribute to the formation of customary international law.

I. States
The practice of the ICJ confirms that states are the entities that contribute to the formation of customary international law. In the Asylum Case, the ICJ found that customary international law did not exits because the practice of states was not uniform and constant. In the North Sea Continental Shelf, the ICJ concluded that 'State practice, including that of States whose interests are specially affected' is relevant for the formation of customary international law. Further, in Military Activities in and Against Nicaragua, the Court referred to the practice of States and to opinio iuris of States while in Jurisdictional Immunities it also determined that 'State practice of particular significance is to be found in the judgments of national courts faced with the question whether a foreign State is immune, the legislation of those States which have enacted statutes dealing with immunity, the claims to immunity advanced by States before foreign courts and the statements made by States'.

Thus, the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice confirms that states are involved in the formation of customary international law. The former President of the Court, Judge Yusuf concluded in his Statement before the Sixth Committee that customary international law, at least in accordance with the ' old approach' was primarily based on the consent of states, while other entities, such as the United Nations provide states with a forum through which they engage on different issues, including the formation of customary international law.

The ILC, within its Draft Conclusions regarding the identification of customary international law confirms that states contribute to its formation. In this respect, Draft Conclusion 4 paragraph 1 provides that practice primarily refers to States while the Commentary of the Draft Conclusion further clarifies that States have a pre-eminent function for the formation of customary international law. The wording does not exclude other enteritis that might contribute to the formation of international law. Thus, international organizations may also influence the formation process.

II. International Organizations
Not only States may contribute to the formation of customary international law. As secondary subjects of international law, international organizations may also influence the manner in which customary international law is generated. Out of all the subjects of international law, the international organization is the only one that manifests a double role: direct and indirect. As such, first, international organizations may influence how state contribute to the formation of international law (indirect influence) or, in situations in which international organizations behave like states they directly contribute to the formation of customary international law.

1. Indirect influence
International organization may influence the formation of customary international law by impacting the conduct of their member states. As such, international organizations may be considered as 'catalysts of state practice'. In other words, it has been argued that international organizations shape what states do and think. Illustratively, the European Union regularly participates in international legal forums, such as the Sixth Committee of the United Nations or the International Law Commission, bodies of the UN which address and discuss the norms of international law.

The ILC Articles on State Responsibility confirms this possibility through the Commentary of the Draft Conclusions which provides that 'resolutions adopted by international organization or at intergovernmental conferences, even when devoid of legal force of their own, may sometimes play an important role in the development of customary international law'. The issue of indirect influence is not necessarily controversial and is recognized by the international community. This is not the case with direct influence.

2. Direct influence
The International Law Commission, through Draft Conclusion 4 para. 2 confirms that international organization may directly influence the formation of customary international law. As such, the mentioned Conclusion provides that international organisations, through their practice, contribute to the expression of customary international law. Further, the Commentary of the Draft Conclusions clearly delineates direct influence from indirect influence, as it mentions that the above mentioned paragraph concerns 'practice that is attributed to international organizations themselves, not practice of States acting within or in relation to them'. The European Union is often considered as being such an organization which, in certain circumstances, or for certain competences, acts in the international arena like a State.

The direct influence of international organizations regarding the formation of customary international law is not as clear cut as the indirect influence. Illustratively, the United States of America have criticized the approach of the International Law Commission and mentioned that 'it is axiomatic that customary international law results from the general and consistent practice of States followed by them out of a sense of legal obligation'.

Even so, the doctrine rather supports the view that international organizations have the possibility to directly influence the formation of customary international law. Further, the majority of states endorsed the approach of the ILC and 'affirmed that at least some international organizations can sometimes contribute directly to the formation of customary international law'.

III. International Courts and Tribunals
International Courts and Tribunals do not contribute, directly, to the formation of customary international law. Draft Conclusion 13 of the ILC confirms that 'Decisions of international courts and tribunals, in particular of the International Court of Justice, concerning the existence and content of rules of customary international law are a subsidiary means for the determination of such rules'. This means that the jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals are not part of the objective element (practice) or of the subjective element (opinio iuris).

Nevertheless, they have a role in the identification of the rules of customary international law. In other words, it may be said that international court and tribunals may serve as a magnifying glass through which custom is seen. But, this should not lead to the conclusion that  ' his is customary international law because the ICJ said so '. Consent is one of the fundamental pillars of the formation of customary international law. In this context, if the International Court of Justice concludes that there exists a norm of customary international law and states (including the parties to the dispute) accept this norm, either implicitly or explicitly, it may evolve into customary international law.

I. Jus Cogens Norms
One of the limits is represented by jus cogens norms which are globally widespread, and are part of the concept of general customary international law. Jus cogens norms or the peremptory norms of public international law are rules 'accepted and recognized by the international community as a whole (...) from which no derogation is permitted'. The reside at the top of the hierarchy of international law norms. These customary norms 'are considered so vital that they cannot be contracted out of by individual states'; they have the highest degree of generality.

II. Regional Customary International Law
At the opposing end of the spectrum rests regional (or particular) customary international law. In this regard, the ICJ recognized the possibility of a custom to exist on a regional or even a bilateral basis, practice which may be based upon a need for 'respect for regional legal traditions'. In 1950, in the Judgment issued in the Asylum Case the Court did not exclude the general possibility of regional customs to exist, even if it concluded that the Colombian Government did not prove the existence of such a custom. In 1960, in the Right of Passage over the Indian Territory case, the ICJ held that 'where therefore the Court finds a practice clearly established between two States which was accepted by the Parties as governing the relations between them, the Court must attribute decisive effect to that practice for the purpose of determining their specific rights and obligations'. In 1984, in the judgment issued in the Case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua, the Court appeared to agree that regional customary international law, 'particular to the inter-American legal system', exists. Conclusion 16 of the Draft Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law qualified regional customary international law as part of the particular customary international law that applies only to certain States.

F. Conclusion
There are no clear, universally applicable, strictly rigorous and fixed rules for the creation of customary international law. However, the lack of such parameters is not in itself a disadvantage given the ever-evolving nature of public international law. Customary international law is characterised by agility, and has the potential to address multiple legal frameworks: it may be regional or global, it may be confirmed through treaties or detached from them, it may be general or special. Consequently, flexibility in the identification of customary law may appear suitable, as it reflects the ever changing developments of international law and policy. This is the reason for which historical approaches are useful for addressing the content of customary international law. As the ICJ held, 'It is, thus, not important for the Court to develop a coherent methodology of identifying customary international law. Instead, identification strategies may differ depending on the circumstances of each individual case and the preferences of the affected parties'.

Moreover, the role of the Court in identifying customary law is essential: 'Customary law, being vague and containing gaps compared with written law, requires precision and completion about its content. This task, in its nature being interpretative, would be incumbent upon the Court. The method of logical and teleological interpretation can be applied in the case of customary law as in the case of written law'. Even if customary international law is created by states and international governmental organisations and influenced by other entities acting on the stage of international law, this source is fragile and should be carefully addressed by international courts and tribunals.

Summary

 * Customary international law may form and may be identified if two elements are observed: practice and opinio iuris. Practice is generally understood as practice of states, but the practice of international organisations is also relevant for the creation of customary international law. Further, even if to the same degree, and not as directly, other entities that play in the field of international relations, lato sensu, such as individuals or non-governmental organisations, contribute to the creation and interpretation of customary international law through their actions and inactions.
 * Practice may take a variety of forms. Currently, there is no clear and exact determination of what counts as practice. However, actions or inactions performed or omitted by states through their legislative or executive bodies are generally accepted as generators of practice. The Big Three (President, Prime-minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs) represent states internationally and consequently, their actions/inactions are especially relevant.
 * Practice must be general, in order to contribute to the formation of customary international law. Generality implies that practice is sufficiently widespread, sufficiently representative and consistent. However, this should not lead to the conclusion that only global customary international law exists but that these elements should also be regionally calibrated and, further, that specially affected states (or states that have a direct and serious interest) should be deferred to in certain circumstances.
 * Opinio iuris is represented by the perception of states regarding the nature of a certain practice; if states perform practice out of a sense of an existing international legal obligation customary international law may bloom.
 * Customary international law is agile, flexible and sometimes vague. This may lead to the conclusion that custom is not a 'serious' source of international law. However, this argument has several fallacies. Customary international law was, is and will be at the core of international law. Several existing treaties, such as the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea or the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, confirm that customary international law is the headspring of what may become, in time, and with the fulfilment of certain conditions, a river.

Further Readings

 * James Crawford, Chance, Order, Change: The Course of International Law, General Course on Public International Law, Brill, 2014
 * Jean D'Aspremont, International Law as a Belief System, Cambridge University Press, 2017
 * Anthea Roberts, Is International Law International, Oxford University Press, 2017
 * Hersch Lauterpacht, The Function of Law in the International Community, Oxford Public International Law, 2011


text:
American Football in the National Football League

Table of Contents

 * /The Basics/

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Category:Book:American Football in the National Football League


text:
Talk:American Football in the National Football League

Rename Page
Can this page please be renamed to American Football in the National Football League. Wikiwolf12345 (discuss • contribs) 19:03, 28 September 2021 (UTC)
 * Done! --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 17:11, 29 September 2021 (UTC)

Rename Page 2
Can the page please be renamed to The National Football League. Wikiwolf12345 (discuss • contribs) 17:06, 27 October 2022 (UTC)

Delete Page
Can this page please be deleted. Wikiwolf12345 (discuss • contribs) 14:37, 1 May 2023 (UTC)


text:
American Football in the National Football League/The Basics

Words To Know

 * Offense - The team that has possession of the ball
 * Center - This player snaps the ball to the quarterback
 * Offensive Linemen - These players are in front of the quarterback, and they protect him from being sacked by the defensive linemen
 * Quarterback - The player on the offense that throws the ball to the receivers
 * Running Back - The main offensive player that runs with the ball
 * Tight End - This player catches the ball, and they also help protect the running back from being tackled
 * Wide Receiver - The offensive players that catch the ball after it's thrown
 * Defense - The team that is trying to stop the offense from scoring
 * Cornerback - Cornerbacks cover receivers, and they try to block or intercept passes
 * Defensive Linemen - These players try to sack the quarterback, and they also try to strip the ball from the quarterback's hands
 * Special Teams - This is any play that is not an offensive play
 * Kicker - This player kicks the field goals, kickoffs, and on-side kicks
 * Punter - This player punts the ball to the other team

Offense
The goal on offense is to advance the football until you reach the opponent's endzone. Normally, you will have 4 downs or tries to move the ball 10 yards. Once the ball has gone 10 yards, you will get a new set of downs. A quarterback can advance the ball by throwing the ball or handing the ball to a player who then tries to run for yards.

Defense
The goal for the defensive players is to stop the offense from advancing the ball. They do this by blocking passes, tackling rushers, and trying to make the offense lose possession of the ball. The ways the defense can force the offense to lose possession are forcing fumbles, or they could intercept a pass.


text:
World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Quartz

Quartz is composed of silica and oxygen.

Here is a 3D model of a quartz crystal.

Attributes

 * Quartz is usually totally transparent, with a glassy luster.
 * It often forms beautiful crystals, like in geodes.
 * It is hard to scratch and hard to dissolve, but it can break if you smash it.
 * The reason for this strength is the regular crystal structure within the mineral.
 * The silicon and oxygen atoms help form this structure.
 * The atoms maintain a repeating structure throughout 3D space.
 * The atoms are joined by covalent bonds.
 * Quartz can be broken with something like a hammer and the pieces will look like broken glass.

 * The process of weathering, erosion, and transportation can break down quartz crystals that then build up on beaches as sand. These later form sandstone layers.

Where to find Quartz and how it's formed
Quartz forms naturally without help from life.

 * Quartz can form in large and beautiful crystals in caves or geodes.
 * If the crystal has color it has chemical impurities in its structure that cause light to bend through the crystal.
 * These colored variations can have their own gemstone names such as: smokey quartz, amethyst, citrine, etc.
 * Quartz can form as crystals in magma or lava.
 * In lava rocks that cool quickly the quartz crystals will not have observable crystals.
 * Examples include obsidian and pumice.
 * In magma that cools slowly the crystals can grow large enough to be seen.
 * Examples include granite, diorite, etc.
 * Quartz can also be dissolved in water.
 * If this water has specific chemical then quartz can form:
 * in cracks between other minerals or sand grains;
 * or by dissolving other minerals and then using their parts to make quartz elsewhere;
 * or it can replace whole seashells, leaving incredibly detailed glass-like fossils.

Importance of Quartz

 * Quartz is incredibly important for sedimentary rocks.
 * For example, sandy beaches in California, Oregon, and Washington include lots of quartz grains.
 * These grains were formed by:
 * weathering the original rocks the quartz came from (maybe a granite);
 * transporting the quartz pieces a long distance, possibly through a river;
 * eroding the quartz pieces as they collide and break for years as they move along the riverbed;
 * further eroding the quartz as they collide on the beach.

In the right conditions, sand can eventually form sandstone.

title: World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Quartz


text:
World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Mica

Mica is made of oxygen silicon and lots of tiny cations like calcium, potassium, etc.

Here is a 3D model of a dark mica. Here is a 3D model of a light mica.

Attributes

 * Mica is usually a little bit transparent.

 * It has a shine and texture like new plastic.
 * One chemical form makes the sheets almost black, with a little bit of a metallic, bronze look.
 * The other form makes the sheets a yellow color like an old glass bottle.

 * It forms sheets when stacked together.
 * Big sheets are hard to find in nature, where they are usually seen in shiny flakes in rocks or sand.
 * Large sheets are easy to buy at stores because they are sold commercially.

 * It is easy to break, scratch and dissolve.
 * Like quartz, it is made of silicon and quartz bound with strong covalent bonds.
 * The sheets themselves are only bound with weak ionic bonds.
 * This makes it easy for water to strip the ions out from in between the sheets.

 * Mica can erode and weather into little flakes or dust as it travels with sediment and sand.
 * It is easy to see due to its glitter look.
 * It is easy to removed from a natural system by breaking and dissolving it completely.

Where to find Mica and how it's formed
Mica forms naturally without help from life in two main ways:

 * It can form crystals from magma
 * Magma that cools slowly, under the surface of the earth, can allow mica sheets to form.
 * Examples include granite and diorite.
 * Mica is the glittery sections in these rocks.
 * Mica also forms in metamorphic rocks.
 * If the parent rock has the right atoms, the heat and pressure of the Earth's crust can shift them into mica.
 * Examples include schist and gneiss (pronounced "nice").
 * These rocks are valuable as building materials due to the shimmery look tiny mica sheets give them.

Importance in sedimentary rocks
Sandy beaches in California, Oregon, and Washington include lots of quartz grains, and SOME of these beaches also have lots of tiny mica sheets.

These tiny mica sheets were formed by:

 * Weathering the original rock where the mica formed, maybe an igneous granite or metamorphic gneiss.
 * Transporting the pieces of mica a long distance, possibly via a river, where they then broke into smaller pieces.
 * Further breaking the mica pieces as they shift along the beach.

Mica can be destroyed through enough weathering and erosion.

 * "Mature" sand will have no mica, because it has been weathered and eroded so much.
 * Sand with mica is "immature" because not all the mica has been destroyed.

Observing mica in sand or sedimentary rocks helps paleontologists determine:

 * How long the sand had been moving;
 * How far the sand travelled;
 * Or how active the depositional environment was.
 * Mica flakes drift easily in water.
 * If there are mica flakes in sandstone the water must have been calm enough to let the mica settle.
 * A lack of mica might mean that the sediment is more mature.
 * A lack might also mean the water was not calm enough for it to settle.

Sand can make sandstone in the right conditions.

Mica is also very common in cosmetics, especially eye shadow, because:

 * It is shimmery.
 * It occurs naturally so it's cheap to gather and can be marked as "all natural".
 * Naturally-occurring dark mica is a good source of rich, dark color.
 * Naturally-occurring bright mica is easy to dye brighter colors.
 * Mica doesn't react chemically with skin or soak into it.

title: World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Mica


text:
Template:GitHub links

 * Project Info : https://github.com///
 * Download    : https://github.com///releases

title: Template:GitHub links


text:
World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Feldspars

Feldspar is made of oxygen, silica, and lots of little cations, like calcium, potassium, etc.

Here is a 3D model of a feldspar. This is another example of a slightly different feldspar.

Attributes

 * Feldspar is opaque with a greasy luster.
 * One chemical form is a dusty pink.
 * The other form is a dirty white.

 * It forms as a trapezoid prisms - like cubes, but with a little bit of a lean.
 * You can find big chunks - the size of a golf ball or racketball - while hiking in the mountains.
 * Usually we see feldspar as the opaque bits of granite, as the opaque grains in sand, or as the dull and orange-y bits in sandstone.

 * Feldspar is hard to scratch, hard to dissolve, and will break if a hammer hits it.
 * It has a mix of ionic and covalent bonds.
 * Dissolving or breaking feldspar is easier than dissolving or breaking quartz, but harder than mica.

 * Broken feldspar will keep making smaller and smaller trapezoid prisms
 * This is because there are lines of weakness formed by ionic bonds.
 * The weak planes break, leaving crisp sides to the little baby trapezoids.

 * Feldspar chunks can get sloppy edges.
 * Chemical weathering can attack the edges of feldspar chunks.
 * It's easier to dissolve feldspar than quartz.
 * Tiny sand grains made of feldspar mineral might look a little bit more rounded off than their quartz neighbors.

Where to find Feldspar and how it's formed
Feldspar forms naturally without help from life in igneous rocks.

 * It can form in magma that cools slowly, deep within Earth's crust.
 * Examples include granite and diorite.
 * Feldspar crystals are the opaque sections that look like white chocolate or have a pink hue.

Importance in sedimentary rocks
Sandy beaches in California, Oregon, and Washington include lots of quartz grains, and often an equal number of feldspar chunks.

Feldspar forms by:

 * Weathering the original rock where the feldspar formed, possibly an igneous granite;
 * Transporting and breaking the feldspar in a river;
 * Further breaking the feldspar as they shift at a beach.

Feldspar CAN get destroyed by enough weathering and erosion.

 * Extremely "mature" sand will have no feldspar, because it's been weathering and eroding for so long.
 * You can tell how "mature" a sand, or the grains in a sandstone, are by:
 * The minerals present
 * How rounded-off the grains of feldspar and quartz look.
 * More angular chunks means fresher grains, less travel, etc.
 * More rounded-off means longer time or space traveled.

Sand can make SANDSTONE in the right conditions

title: World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Feldspars


text:
World of Dinosaurs/Mineralogy/Carbonates

The two most common carbonate minerals are calcite and aragonite.

Calcite is made of oxygen, carbon, and calcium.

Here is a 3D model of shells made of organic carbonates. Here is a 3D model of inorganic calcite.

Attributes

 * Calcite can be clear or opaque.
 * It can be bright white or a range of dusty warm colors (pink, orange, etc.)

It forms as trapezoid prisms - like cubes, but with a distinct lean.
 * You can find big chunks of calcite in the desert mountains around Utah.
 * You can spot cracks in rocks that are filled with calcite mineral pretty much all over the place in Utah.

 * Calcite is easy to scratch and dissolve, and will break if hit with a hammer.
 * Calcite is made and destroyed by ionic bonding action!
 * One ingredient is a carbonate ion.
 * It's a covalent-bonded meatball of 1 carbon and 3 oxygens
 * Together, this meatball is sharing TWO extra electrons that they stole from some hapless hydrogen atoms.
 * The extra electrons give the whole meatball a negative charge, so we call it an ion (a charged particle).
 * The other ingredient is a calcite ion.
 * This is just one atom of calcium,
 * but it's missing TWO electrons because some other atom or molecule or mineral tore them off.
 * By keeping its protons and neutrons in the nucleus,
 * the calcium is still acting like calcium,
 * but the protons now outmatch the electrons.
 * So the calcium now has a POSITIVE charge of +2,
 * and we call it an ion.
 * Due to the equal but opposite charges the carbonate ion and calcite ion attract each other to form calcite.

 * Broken calcite will usually keep making little trapezoid prisms!
 * This is because there are lines of weakness formed by ionic bonds.
 * The weak planes break, leaving crisp sides to the little baby trapezoids.
 * Calcite chunks can get sloppy edges.
 * Chemical weathering peels ions off the edges and corners most easily.
 * If you put acid on calcite, it will fizz.
 * This is why you can clean your sink or humidifier with vinegar to remove crusty build-up from tap water.
 * The fizzing happens because the calcium ions get stripped off, the carbonate ions interact with water, and carbon dioxide goes zipping into gas phase as bubbles.

Calcite can dissolve completely, but the ions can also travel in water and rebuild the mineral some place else!

Where to find Calcite and how it forms
Calcite forms naturally without help from life in sedimentary environments.

 * Ions of carbonate and of calcite can travel in water, then join and form calcite wherever they reach a high enough concentration.
 * Examples include:
 * Caves
 * In between grains of sand in a sandstone
 * cracks in other rocks

However, life is usually around when calcite is formed.

Sometimes life is definitely the thing making the calcite.

 * Most "seashells" are made of carbonate minerals, calcite and/or aragonite.
 * Clams build shells out of the carbonate and calcium ions they harvest from seawater.
 * Land snails build shells from the carbonate and calcium ions they harvest from water, soil, air, and their food.
 * Hermit crabs STEAL shells from dead snails, but the crab exoskeleton is crunchy because it, too, harvests carbonate and calcium ions from seawater!
 * Lots of microscopic drifting sea plankton make tiny carbonate frisbees that build up on the sea floor.

Other times life is sort of around and it can be difficult to tell what is happening

 * Calcite forms layers, piles, spheres, or goo in watery places.
 * These places are usually teaming with bacteria, cyanobacteria, and various gross stuff.
 * It's often hard to tell whether the microbes are making the mineral form, or they're just enjoying the show.
 * Examples:
 * The Great Salt Lake has big crunchy domes, and sand made of tiny calcite spheres called "ooids".
 * Mono Lake exposes big spooky tufa towers made of low-density calcite from when the lake used to be deeper.
 * Any chunks of coral reef or broken shell sand might have carbonate goo forming in the cracks.

Aragonite is probably ALWAYS made by life when it forms on the Earth's surface. It will only form without life if the chemistry and physics are different, like in metamorphic rocks.

Importance in sedimentary rocks
Sandy beaches in Hawai'i and Florida include lots of carbonate, usually bits of broken sea shells and coral.

Carbonate sand grains can form by:

 * animals make the mineral for their shell;
 * shells get broken by waves;
 * shell pieces get more broken as they shift along the beach.

LIMESTONE is what we call rocks mostly made of carbonate, whether they were sandy or gooey originally.

Limestone can metamorphose into MARBLE.


text:
User:Gffsgeys/Books by Gffsgeys

 * Learning anatomy
 * Human brain
 * Palate

title: User:Gffsgeys/Books by Gffsgeys


text:
Learning anatomy/Epidermis

Anatomy
The parts of the epidermis are:
 * Stratum basale
 * Stratum spinosum
 * Stratum granulosum
 * Stratum lucidum
 * Stratum corneum

Function
The epidermis prevents microbes from entering the body. The epidermis is also waterproof, preventing the ingress of liquids which would otherwise wreck havoc on the chemistry body. After all, how would you wash your hands if they were not waterproof?

title: Learning anatomy/Epidermis


text:
User:Inductiveload/sandbox

This page collects SPARQL queries by function and type, and includes an explanation of how they work, as opposed to presenting examples specifically based on the syntax of the SPARQL.

Simple property match
This query shows all items with the triple " →  → ". For each match,  is then presented as the result, along with its label.

The  service provides the label for   first in the your language, then falls back to English, and stores it in. The mapping from  to   is automatic.

Property match, with other mandatory properties
This query shows all items with the triple " →  → ", as well as with. For each match,  is then presented as the result, along with its label and the date.

Because not all works by Douglas Adams have a date set, this returns fewer matches than the previous query.

sorts the result by date, in ascending order (i.e. oldest first). This is the same as. Use  to reverse the order.

Property match, with other optional properties
This query shows all items with the triple " →  → ", as well as with. For each match,  is then presented as the result, along with its label and the date.

If there is no date available, it is left blank, but the result is still returned.

This query shows all items with the triple " →  → ", as well as with. For each match,  is then presented as the result, along with its label and the date.

The  statement means that if ?item has a  value, it will be stored in ?date, but if it is not, the result is still returned, but with   left blank.

Thus, this query has the same number of results as this one.

Property match, with qualifier values
This query shows all items with the triple " →  → ", as well as with. For each match,  is then presented as the result, along with the values of the  qualifier of the  statement.

Note that this returns some items twice. This is because those items have multiple official websites. Use  to collapse these:

Traversing a chain of different properties
?subclass wdt:P31/P279* wd:Q47461344.

title: User:Inductiveload/sandbox


text:
User:PritamSinghINC1/sandbox

Pritam Singh – Pritam Singh, MLA is a renowned Indian politician, a member of the Indian National Congress, is the Leader of the Opposition of Uttarakhand. Pritam Singh, Ex-Congress member and a representative of the Chakrata assembly. He has also served as the role of president of Uttarakhand Pradesh Congress Committee (UPCC). He has been a member of the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly for four terms.

When there was Congress government in Uttarakhand in 2002-2007 and 2012-2017, he served as a cabinet minister for Home, Rural Development, Food and Civil Supplies, Minor Irrigation and Panchayati Raj.

Early Life Of Pritam Singh: The early life of Pritam Singh was spent in Virnad village in Dehradun district Uttar Pradesh which is now Uttarakhand - the same place where he was born on 4 November 1958. He belongs to a Rajput family where he is the eldest son of '''Gulab Singh. Gulab Singh was also a member of the Indian National Congress, who served as the UP Member- Legislative Assembly for eight terms and served as a Congress minister when Congress was in power in Uttar Pradesh.'''

Educational & Married Life: Pritam Singh, a Congress leader is a law graduate, and he is also a member of the Bar Council of '''Uttarakhand. Pritam Singh is married to Anita Singh,''' and they have a daughter and a son.

Political History: The political history of Pritam Singh is adorned with power and glory. His political journey began in the year 1988 when he was elected as the Chakrata’s Block Pramukh. In 1993, Pritam Singh won the assembly election and then became an MLA from the assembly (Chakrata) in Uttar Pradesh- standing in the election on the ticket of Congress. After his win, he assumed the post of the Joint Secretary of the committee of Congress.

In 2002, he once again stood in the election on the Congress ticket and was re-elected as an MLA from Chakrata assembly in Uttarakhand. His victory led him to be made the cabinet minister for the following.

Ø  Panchayati Raj

Ø  Rural Engineering

Ø  Food and Civil Supplies

Ø  Sports and Youth Welfare in the Uttarakhand Government.

Pritam Singh- A Congress Politician in Uttrakhand: It was in 2007 that he was once again elected as MLA from Chakrata assembly in 2010, Pritam Singh was given the Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of Uttarakhand. In 2011 was honoured with the Best Legislator award.

In 2012, Pritam Singh was elected as an MLA from the Chakrata Assembly for the fourth time. He was made Cabinet Minister for Home, Rural Development, Panchayati Raj, Food and Civil Supplies, Minor Irrigation and Backward Area Development in the Uttar Pradesh Government.

In 2017, he was elected as MLA, Chakrata from Chakrata Assembly in Uttarakhand on the Congress ticket for the fifth time, and then he became the President of Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee.

Pritam Singh News & Uttarakhand Congress News: Presently, he holds the Leader Opposition (CLP Leader Uttarakhand) and is also the Congress Lok Sabha candidate from Tehri Garhwal LokSabha constituency.

Having so many vital roles, Pritam Singh has proved to be an able leader and a veteran in the Uttarakhand state politics. The masses love him for being approachable, solving all problems with a great deal of patience and has contributed immensely to the development of the state.

title: User:PritamSinghINC1/sandbox


text:
Yubnub/Introduction

What is YubNub?
YubNub is a web-based command line that allows users to create commands and quickly access many internet services. This command line can be integrated into web browsers such as FireFox, IE, Opera, Safari, and even those on the BlackBerry and PSP. Jump right in and try some of the commands you find here at http://www.yubnub.org/.

About this WikiBook
While the WikiBook of YubNub commands provides an overview of what you can do with YubNub, it is by no means comprehensive. The purpose here is to help the reader become familiar with the more popular commands and discover how using YubNub can improve the web browsing experience. The text is divided into sections with the first part focusing on those commands commonly used to query search engines. The latter part is dedicated to those YubNub commands for more specific applications. The Appendix contains commentary, lists of commands sorted by domain (i.e. Google, Yahoo, etc.) and references to the source code.

title: Yubnub/Introduction


text:
Yubnub/Queries

YubNub provides a few commands just to locate commands and their documentation. Readers of this Wikibook can learn more using the following commands:

 * ls
 * search for commands submitted to YubNub; list commands in reverse chronological order
 * Example: ls yahoo

 * man
 * search for manual documenting a particular command
 * Example: man gim

 * ge
 * search among recommended commands or Golden Eggs
 * Example: ge livejournal

title: Yubnub/Queries


text:
Yubnub/Utilities

These commands start small programs for YubNub users.

 * cmdline (or cmd)
 * opens frame with YubNub command line (type "brk" or "breakout" command to exit)

 * sidenub
 * initialize SideNub, an experimental YubNub sidebar

title: Yubnub/Utilities


text:
Yubnub/Search Related Commands

YubNub users save a step or two when it comes to searching the World Wide Web. By using YubNub commands, they no longer have to go to a particular search page to type in and submit their queries.

Search engine queries
A lot of search sites do not crawl the web themselves, but use an index from another search engine. The following YubNub commands provide quick access to those search engines:

 * g (google or gg)
 * search using Google

 * y
 * search Yahoo

 * ask
 * search with Ask

 * a9
 * search A9

 * alta
 * search Altavista

 * wlive
 * search Live

Special options

 * gfl (goto or ifl)
 * search Google using the "I Feel Lucky" feature

 * ggn (g2 or g9)
 * search Google in the "Browse by Name" mode, a hybrid between "I Feel Lucky" and a standard search

 * ggs
 * use Google suggest as you type, now the default for a standard Google search.

 * superg
 * does most Google searches in one command

 * ysite (or explore)
 * displays the pages indexed by Yahoo for the given site

 * ylinks
 * displays the links to a site according to Yahoo's index

Popular types of search
These include other portals to search engines as well as searching for specific types of information.

 * all (or atw)
 * search Alltheweb

 * bgo
 * search (maybe win) using Blingo

 * brain
 * search BrainBoost

 * dp
 * Dogpile search

 * mss
 * Microsoft MSN Search

 * sema
 * SearchMash

 * twin
 * search via Twingine

Image search

 * gim
 * search Google for images

 * yim (or yimages)
 * find Yahoo images

 * limg
 * search Live for images

 * flcc
 * search Flickr for photos published with a Creative Commons (CC) license

 * mashim
 * search images using a mash-up of Google, Yahoo, and Flickr

Map search

 * gmaps (gm or gm2)
 * search maps provided at Google

 * ymaps
 * search maps at Yahoo

 * geocode
 * use Geocoder to return the latitude & longitude for an address

 * topoz
 * use zip code to find a topographic map at Trails

Word search
This category includes online dictionary, encyclopedia, and thesaurus search.

 * = (define, meaning, or equals)
 * search for a word's meaning at Dictionary

 * dict
 * search for definitions at Dict.org

 * fdt
 * search TheFreeDictionary

 * mw (webster)
 * search the Merriam-Webster database

 * speak
 * Speaks a single word, via the Merriam-Webster dictionary's audio files

 * cambridge
 * Cambridge dictionary lookup

 * olrd (onelook or ol)
 * search OneLook Reverse Dictionary

 * wordref
 * consult WordReference

 * ona
 * search OneAcross dictionary

 * dfn
 * define query Google

 * wikis (wiki or wp)
 * search Wikipedia

 * search the Thesaurus
 * search the Thesaurus

 * rwords
 * see relationship between words using Lexical FreeNet

 * bartleby
 * search for references in great books online at Bartleby

 * thesaurus
 * search the Merriam-Webster thesaurus

 * gdef (gdefine or gdeff)
 * performs a Google definition search

 * wnet
 * searches online dictionaries using die.net

 * a (answer or ans)
 * searches Answers

File search

 * hype
 * search for audio tracks

 * download
 * search for files at Download

News search

 * gnews (or gnws)
 * search news at Google

 * ynews (or xny)
 * search news at Yahoo

Blog search

 * tec (or tecn)
 * search Technorati

 * ljseek
 * search LiveJournal entries

 * spht
 * search for blog posts related to a particular URL

Weather search

 * w (or weather)
 * search for local weather information at Weather

 * wu
 * use zip code to search WeatherUnderground

 * fc
 * use zip code to find forcast using AccuWeather

 * yweather (or yw)
 * find weather info from Yahoo

Directory search

 * c411phone
 * do a reverse phone search using Canada411 directory

 * phone
 * search WhitePages residential telephone listings

 * ypeople
 * find people by surname

 * zab
 * use Zabasearch to find people

Book search

 * am (amazon or ama)
 * search for books at Amazon

 * asinlookup
 * look up the ASIN number for an Amazon item, given the items URL

 * bi
 * search Wikipedia using the ISBN number

 * freebook
 * title word search for books available at Penn's online book page
 * Example: freebook beagle

 * freebook-author
 * author search for books available at Penn's online book page

 * nypl
 * search the New York Public Library

 * sprk
 * search for SparkNotes guides

 * sworldcat
 * worldcat -isbn {scrapeisbn1 ${kw}} -where ${where=19460}
 * Mashes up worldcatlibraries.org and ISBNdb.com

Comics search

 * cmc
 * search Comics

 * cmcx
 * search GoComics

 * dilbert
 * read the Dilbert comic strip

 * garfield
 * read the Garfiled comic strip

Movie search

 * imdb
 * search the International Movie Database

 * imdbq (or moviequote)
 * search for movie quotes using IMDB

 * nytmovies
 * search through the New York Times movie reviews

Music search

 * sing
 * find a song with Sing365

 * tabs
 * 911tabs meta-search tabs for a song

 * discogs
 * search the Discogs database of music information

 * musipedia
 * search Musipedia.org for music by specifying if the notes goes up, down or repeats using a series of u's, d's and r's as arguments, where u=up, d=down and r=repeat
 * Example: musipedia rrrudrrrrrrrrrdrrrr Result (among others): Lennon-McCartney (Beatles): Yellow Submarine (chorus)

Television

 * ontv
 * search tv listings by zipcode and select a local provider

 * tvg
 * search for the show title via TV Guide

 * tv.com
 * TV search

 * bbctv
 * search for BBC radio and television programs

 * mtvsearch
 * search MTV

 * simpsons
 * read what TheSimpsonsQuotes serves up

Aviation

 * airport
 * find airport information using World-Airport-Codes

 * airportinfo
 * view pilot aviation information from FlightAware

 * metar
 * lookup METAR observiations via the National Weather Service

 * taf
 * get Terminal Aerodrome Forcast for any ICAO station

 * avtrack
 * track aircraft in real-time using Flight Aware

Genealogy

 * roots
 * search genealogy in the RootsWeb database.

Geography

 * cia
 * search the CIA's world factbook for information on different nations

 * nme
 * search for information on a country via NationMaster

Health

 * gweecal
 * check calories at The Daily Plate

 * clab
 * search using the Calorie Counter at CalorieLab

Mathematics

 * math (or mathworld)
 * search MathWorld

 * mathlinks (or mth)
 * search the MathLinks forum

 * mathdef
 * Lucky Google search of the Springer Online Encyclopedia of Mathematics

Physics

 * apsgoto
 * search Reviews of Modern Physics

 * hsw
 * search on How Stuff Works

 * jphys (or iop)
 * search and IOP journal

title: Yubnub/Search Related Commands


text:
Yubnub/Application Commands

Application commands
These YubNub commands provide access to web applications or services other than search. It's a fine line, but in the Read/Write spectrum of the Web, this section should be devoted to commands that write.

Email & alias

 * send
 * send a message to an email address

 * shortcut
 * create an alias for an email address

 * checkshortcut
 * check to see if the shortcut name already exists

 * echoshortcut (or pas)
 * view the value assigned to a shortcut alias

 * compose
 * open your default email client to send a message

 * sendmail
 * send a message with a subject to an email address

 * teacher
 * generate an email to send to a teacher at a particular school

 * readmail
 * read email from a temporary Mailinator address

 * 10mail
 * get a temporary email address at 10minutemail

 * gma
 * open and search GMail

Blogs and RSS-related commands

 * bspot (bst or goblogger)
 * open a web log at Blogger

 * lj
 * open a user's LiveJournal

 * postblogger
 * create a new post at Blogger

 * ljupdate
 * update your LiveJournal

 * readblogs
 * open a user's Bloglines feed

 * bl
 * goes to BlogLines subscribe page for the URI or feed

 * readrss
 * open a user's read collection at KickRSS

 * rssread
 * use Google Reader to view an RSS feed

 * grazr (or grz)
 * use Grazr to view an RSS feed

 * stdRSS
 * standardize any RSS, ATOM, hAtom, XOXO Blog Format, or Active Channel feed

 * refilter
 * use ReFilter to filter an RSS feed

 * hyperss
 * generate music rss feed using Hype Machine MP3 search output
 * Example: hyperss lucinda williams

 * rss2pdf
 * use RSS 2 PDF convert an RSS feed to a PDF file

Bookmarks

 * delime
 * search your personal Delicious bookmarks

 * myweb
 * search your Yahoo bookmarks

 * gbm
 * search your Google bookmarks

Check spelling

 * checks the spelling of the input of any Yubnub command
 * SYNTAX \\ [yubnub command] [your query to be spellchecked]
 * Example: \\ gim cmbodia
 * Example: \\ gim cmbodia

 * spllw
 * check spelling via FromRocks
 * Example: spllw confrence
 * returns conference

 * wp\
 * check spelling of a word or phrase and then search for it on the english wikipedia

 * spellchk (or spellcheck)
 * check a words spelling using SpellCheck.net

Other utilities

 * arch (or wayback)
 * try the Archive Waybackmachine

 * bark
 * play audio of a dog barking

 * clipboard
 * copy a text string to your clipboard; clipboard
 * Example: clipboard I'm in your clipboard

 * convert
 * use Google to convert units

 * pay
 * using paypal

 * fedex
 * track information on a FedEx shipment

 * upc
 * look up information on a UPC code

 * ups
 * track information on UPS packages

 * barcd
 * generate a printable and scannable barcode

 * gmt
 * find local time (and date) for a given location using TimeAndDate

 * month
 * displays a calendar for the current month (U.S.) from TimeAndDate

 * uscal
 * display US monthly calendar(s) for specified month and year

 * gaspr
 * search for gas prices by zipcode using MSN Autos

 * sirc
 * Search IRC networks and channels

 * georest
 * generate an xml file with latitude and longitude from Geocoder.us
 * Example: georest 1 Beacon Street, Boston MA

 * open
 * open one or more websites in a new window or tab

 * resolution
 * display your screen resolution

 * timer
 * interactive online timer

 * wnt
 * create a note in webnote

 * note
 * add text to yahoo notes

 * ynotes
 * search Yahoo Notes

 * yab
 * search within Yahoo Address Book

 * visual
 * display a visual representation of Wordnet's resources

 * bchart
 * displays stock and mutual fund information from BarChart

 * login
 * returns an entry from BugMeNot

 * nyt
 * paste an article URI from the NYTimes website and get a weblog-safe URL that doesn't require registration
 * Example: nyt http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/13/opinion/13krugman.html

 * pacm
 * play a game of PacMan in you browser

 * ypt
 * play a game of Yahtzee

Image related

 * clusters
 * search Flicker tag clusters for images

 * delete
 * remove a tag from all your Flickr photos

 * f2pdf
 * convert Flickr images to PDF files

 * fspell
 * use Flickr to spell words

 * flintshow
 * search Flickr and display photos; combines "flint" & "flshow"
 * Example: flintshow yubnub

 * graybit (or grayscale)
 * convert images on a web page to their grayscale equivalent using GrayBit

 * pixoh
 * open a URI in the online picture editor, Pixoh

 * rotate
 * rotate an image

 * thnl
 * web page thumbnail maker
 * Example: thnl http://www.google.com

 * websnap
 * instantly creates a thumbnail image of any web site using WebSnapr

Commands to calculate

 * dist
 * calculate the distance between two cities using Indo
 * Example: dist memphis tn ; baton rouge la

 * xe
 * convert from any currency to another

 * gray
 * use Google Calculator to do the arithmetic
 * Example: gray 0 255 100

 * yquotes
 * download stock quotes from Yahoo Finance site and open the .csv file in excel
 * Example: yquotes ACC.NS+CRBK.NS+INFY.NS+XYZ.NS

 * logs
 * calculate logarithms; natural logs by default

 * jscalc (or clc)
 * use javascript as a calculator
 * Example 1: jscalc 5+6*7
 * Output: 47
 * Example 2: jscalc Math.sqrt(25)
 * Output: 5
 * clc sqrt(25)

 * mate
 * evaluate mathematical expressions using the Mate online calculator by Tusanga

 * random
 * returns a random number from Random.org

Commands for use with mobile devices

 * figure
 * same as gim (Google Image), but optimized for mobile devices

 * gmobile (or mo)
 * view any site without images, CSS or JavaScript using mobile device version of the page; different than the gproxy command that is used to bypass proxy

 * wpm (or wpContent)
 * format Wikipedia contents for mobile phones

 * gxhtml
 * Google xhtml search page for mobiles

 * mobi
 * use Google to left justify and reformat a webpage to fit

 * ymini
 * access Yahoo Mail for mobile applications

 * tecmini
 * search blogs via Tecnorati

Commands for programmers
These may also prove useful to web designers and system administrators.

Code and Markup

 * code
 * search Koders for a codesnippet, function or class

 * html
 * use the SquareFree online HTML editor

 * html2text (or 2t)
 * use Aaronsw's Python script to convert an HTML page to plain text

 * stripHTML
 * removes HTML

 * lynx
 * display source code for a web page

 * php
 * PHP function look-up

 * script
 * run javascript.

 * w3
 * use the W3C CSS Validation Service

 * w3c
 * use the W3C HTML validator

 * w3s
 * use Google to search the tutorials at W3Schools

 * vh
 * use SEOpen tool to view HTTP server headers for a given URL

 * ala
 * search A List Apart archives

 * go2
 * simple substitution for URL or address bar search results

Databases

 * mysql
 * search the MySQL reference manual

 * sqlsearch
 * search for SQL commands using Google

 * sqlfind
 * search for SQL syntax in .sql files

 * sqlformat
 * search for SQL commands using Google

 * sqlrw
 * use PeteFreitag's reserved word checker

Networking

 * alexa
 * display Alexa traffic rankings and other statistics

 * cip (or where)
 * find where an IP address is located geographically.

 * netcraft
 * use NetCraft to see what a website is running

 * speed test
 * calculate the speed of the net connection

 * whois
 * check Whois Source for domain information

 * domainhelp
 * use NameBoy domain search

 * mydns
 * use DNSStuff to find your see your public IP address and information

 * glinux
 * Google special Linux search

 * psize
 * use the page size checker by Tasman-Webdesign

 * inspect
 * display info about a domain
 * Example: inspect yahoo.com

 * ip2location
 * reverse look-up of country, state, city, latitude, longitude and ISP

 * tracert
 * use Fifi's online traceroute service

 * cdns
 * use CheckDNS to tests DNS, WWW, and mail server info for a specified domain

 * rdns
 * do a reverse DNS Lookup on an IP address

 * dnstrace
 * DNS authentication trace via FreeDNS.Afraid

 * codd
 * search the CentralOps domain dossier

Commands for YubNub developers
Some commands are at best bookmarks or at worst spam. The commands listed here will help the would-be YubNub author stay clear of them and create something far more useful. Good commands are nominated to become Golden Eggs.

 * create (new or create2)
 * test, document, and submit a new command

 * CommandExists
 * To know if the argument is a YubNub command

 * split (or splitv)
 * display several webpages vertically in separate frames of same window or tab

 * splith
 * display several webpages horizontally in separate frames of same window or tab

 * two
 * view the results of two YubNub commands in the same window or tab

 * url
 * converts a YubNub command to a URL

 * man+
 * returns the YubNub manual page for a command if it exists, otherwise it returns the "create a command" page.

 * cmdData
 * Returns data from a command's man page.

 * similar
 * find YubNub commands similar to a given command or a given URL

 * kidsof
 * display a list of commands that use a given command

 * YubStats
 * Show some statistics of YubNub commands.

 * abv (or param)
 * execute a YubNub command without having to type parameter names

 * gui
 * creates a web interface for a YubNub command

 * yubsource
 * shortcut to YubNub source code repository

 * urlet
 * create a simple bookmarklet from a YubNub command

 * mash
 * applies several commands to a single word and return them in a single window or tab

 * multi
 * run multiple commands and return them in a single window or tab

 * repeat
 * repeat user entered data a specified number of times

URL-related commands

 * gotourl
 * go to a url that you construct using multiple parameters

 * CommandUrl
 * scrapes a YubNub command's 'man' page and returns the command's URL

 * scrape
 * return a snippet of text parsed from a web page.
 * scrape -tokens TOKENS -dirs DIRECTIONS -url URL [options]

 * httpstrip
 * remove the "http://" and return the rest of the URL

 * URLde
 * decode a URL

 * URLen
 * encode a URL

 * > [Yubnub command] [query]
 * Yubnub generates a URL by interpreting the 1st param as a Yubnub command, it then extracts a domain name from that URL and uses it to configure a Google Feeling Lucky search for the 2nd param.
 * Yubnub generates a URL by interpreting the 1st param as a Yubnub command, it then extracts a domain name from that URL and uses it to configure a Google Feeling Lucky search for the 2nd param.

Array-related commands

 * explode
 * break a string up into an array

 * ridx
 * removes an index from an 'array'

 * numlist
 * return a list of numbers from 1 to the input value

 * cmd2array
 * Create an 'array' from the results of a YubNub command

 * cmd2rss
 * generates RSS from the results of a YubNub command

 * oconv
 * convert outline data from one format to another

 * eatFeed
 * Pull data out of a web feed (RSS,XML,etc).

 * isoh2rss
 * produce RSS feed from isohunt torrent search

 * foreach
 * loop through an 'array' and runs a YubNub command

 * json
 * return the text,result and url of a yubnub command in a json object

String-related commands

 * ifthen
 * evaluates a conditional statement and returns a value based on the result
 * Example: ifThen -value1 100 -value2 100 -test LESSEQUAL -then http://www.google.com -redirect true
 * Redirects to google site.

 * ift
 * compares two values and returns a value based on the result

 * ifMatch
 * match a regular expression pattern and returns a value based on the result

 * ifEqual
 * determine if two values are equal and returns a result accordingly

 * ifNotEqual
 * determine if two values are NOT equal and returns a result accordingly

 * isNumeric
 * determine if an argument is numeric

 * eop
 * compares two tokens in a string and returns the whole string (minus tokens) if not empty

 * strLength
 * returns the length of the inputted string

 * strFind
 * returns the position of the first occurrence of a string or character within another string

 * strreplace
 * replace all instances of a character or string found within another string

 * strrange
 * returns a sublist of words for a given phrase

 * trim
 * trim whitespace from both sides of a string

 * match
 * Run a RegExp pattern against a string

 * cmd2setup
 * Store page-scraping RegExps for use with cmd2* functions

 * match
 * match a regular expression

 * substring
 * extract part of a given string

 * regexp
 * uses PCRE via ReReplace.com to perform find/replace routines on text

 * strWordNumber
 * strWordNumber 2 Hello! how are you?
 * Returns second word “how” from the string.

 * recursiveLast
 * returns the last word in a phrase, using a silly recursion of browser redirects
 * Example: reursiveLast one two three
 * Returns "three"

 * returns a sublist of words for a given phrase
 * returns a sublist of words for a given phrase

 * filterstring
 * performs the opposite of % by removing a word from a string based on the number given
 * Example: filterstring 1 Hello world!
 * Returns "world!"

 * var
 * set and get temporary variables

 * echovar
 * display longer variables with formatting

title: Yubnub/Application Commands


text:
Yubnub/Appendix

*nix Comparison
This comparison is focuses more on the user experience and less on the actual implementation of commands. Sure there are differences, but if you have used Surfraw then you know that it's not much of a stretch.

 * cd
 * *nix command to change directory
 * YubNub command to search CDBaby.com

 * date
 * *nix command shows date and time
 * YubNub command just shows date

 * echo
 * *nix and YubNub command will output a line of text

 * exit
 * *nix command will exit a shell or close an xterm window
 * YubNub command can be use to close the window

 * get
 * *nix command to download a file via ftp (for http see wget)
 * YubNub command can be used to go to a url.

 * ls
 * *nix command lists the contents of the current directory
 * YubNub command list the commands submitted to YubNub.org

 * home
 * *nix env variable for home directory (e.g. echo $HOME)
 * YubNub command takes you to http://yubnub.org

 * lynx
 * *nix text based web browser application
 * YubNub command to view html source of web page

 * man
 * both *nix and YubNub commands will display see the man page for a particular command

Google Commands
google

ganswers

gc

gearth

gloc

glocal

glog

gma

gm

gmaps

gmp3

gmini

gvideo

ghistory

autotr

gim

gimage

gimages

gima

 * finds you all the images on a given site
 * finds you all the images on a given site

gis

gic

grel

gmails

glabel

scholar

gnews

gn

gtalk

gsite

rtfm

gprint

gdef

gsearchblog

ggroups

yubgrub

linksto

gsuggest

ggs

gcache

 * gproxy
 * Use Google translator service (language tools) as a proxy to bypass the restriction!

gmapi

mp3find

gfi (or quo)

gtrend

gnote

gfin

gstock

gexcel

gcalendar

luckygim

gbk

gbk+

gbkl

gmapuk

googlereader

gcds (or gcod)

docs

gdox

gsheet

Yahoo Commands
yahoo

ymovies

yahoomusic

ysc

note

ynote

ynotes

yfeed

ypost

ygroup

yprofile

ymails

yab

yrss

yweather

yahoovideo

yahoostock

yquotes (or qt)

ysmb

yshop

yshopping

ypeople

ysite

ylinks

ynews

yahooradio

ys

myweb

yahoos

yim

yimages

ymini

ypool

ymh

yhf

Delicious Commands

 * deli (delicious, tag)
 * search for tags on Del.icio.us

delime

delu

 * dpop
 * find recently popular links from Delicious

dss

du

ds

deliu

 * desa
 * save a URI to your Delicious account

delurl

 * del2
 * access Delicious functions with this one command

d/

delipop

delrank

deliall

delplaymp3

mdeli

podel

dluc

dpost

delhos

bkm

dpopl

delback

delpopm

DeliThis

mydeli

deliut

descriptious

delutag

delfind

depost

desave

delu

diu

delhot

mydel

delmag

delpost

dpopf

desapr

deltag

desav

tasty

del.quick.bookmarklets

dutag

delpl

deluser

dpop>

delwork

delrand

del>

LiveJournal Commands
lj

ljf

ljupdate

friends

ljinfo

livejournal

ljrandom

lji

newlj

ljfriends

mylj

ljup

Flickr commands
flickr

flk

fspell

flcc

flku

interestingness

flshow

fgal

fcc

fccca

flkalbm

clusters

fcca

delete

rflk

flickrscout

fli_t

flickrNumber

flickrid

f2pdf

flwp

fccd

fcccd

flihot

flkr

fpt

twitter commands
Goes to your Twitter homepage
 * twi

Twitter Search
 * twits

Go to the Twitter profile of the specified user

title: Yubnub/Appendix


text: Yubnub/Printable version

title: Yubnub/Printable version