text:
Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to an impartial decision-maker

Members are expected to approach each case with an open mind and, at all times, must be, and must be seen to be, impartial and objective. A decision of the tribunal is liable to be set aside for bias if a reasonable person, properly informed of the facts and having thought the matter through in a practical manner, would conclude on a balance of probabilities that the decision maker was not impartial. The following are some of the ways that these principles have emerged in refugee decision-making in Canada.

Impartiality
In Valente v. The Queen, Le Dain J. held that the concept of impartiality describes “a state of mind or attitude of the tribunal in relation to the issues and the parties in a particular case”. The Supreme Court of Canada noted in R. v. Généreux that, in a positive sense, "impartiality can be described — perhaps somewhat inexactly — as a state of mind in which the adjudicator is disinterested in the outcome, and is open to persuasion by the evidence and submissions." The Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada provides that "Members shall comply with all procedural fairness and natural justice requirements. Members are expected to approach each case with an open mind and, at all times, must be, and must be seen to be, impartial and objective." IRB members also take an oath of office publicly and formally undertake to carry out their duties impartially. A tribunal’s decision is liable to be set aside for bias if a reasonable person, properly informed of the facts and having thought the matter through in a practical manner, would conclude on a balance of probabilities that the decision maker was not impartial. Members are bound by the Code of Conduct for Members of the IRB which has a section on bias stipulating that "Members shall conduct themselves in a manner that will not cast doubt on their ability to perform their duties objectively." Furthermore, Board Members are required to be alert to any situation in which there may be a reasonable apprehension of bias and must disqualify themselves from sitting on the case in those circumstances; as provided by the Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, "Members shall disqualify themselves from any proceeding where they know or reasonably should know that, in the making of the decision, they would be in a conflict of interest, or that their participation may create a reasonable apprehension of bias. In such a case, they shall immediately inform their manager and provide the reason for their self-disqualification."

The test for a reasonable apprehension of bias
The Supreme Court in Wewaykum Indian Band v Canada endorsed the following definition of bias:"…a leaning, inclination, bent or predisposition towards one side or another or a particular result. In its application to legal proceedings, it represents a predisposition to decide an issue or cause in a certain way which does not leave the judicial mind perfectly open to conviction. Bias is a condition or state of mind which sways judgment and renders a judicial officer unable to exercise his or her functions impartially in a particular case."Most cases concerning bias do not involve actual bias being demonstrated (or admitted) but are instead cases where a party alleges that a reasonable apprehension of bias exists on the facts. The test for determining reasonable apprehension of bias is whether an informed person, viewing the matter realistically and practically and having thought the matter through, would conclude that the decision-maker, either consciously or unconsciously, would not decide fairly. This well-established test originates from the case Committee for Justice and Liberty v Canada. As stated by the Supreme Court of Canada in Arsenault-Cameron v. Prince Edward Island, “The test for apprehension of bias takes into account the presumption of impartiality. A real likelihood of bias must be demonstrated.” The Supreme Court reiterated this principle in Wewaykum v. Canada: “The standard refers to an apprehension of bias that rests on serious grounds, in light of the strong presumption of judicial impartiality.” In this way, bias allegations “cannot rest on mere suspicion, pure conjecture, insinuations or mere impressions [of a party or their counsel]”. The burden of proof where an allegation of bias is made is on the party making the allegation and “the threshold to be met is high.” The allegation must be supported by material evidence demonstrating conduct that derogates from the standard. Alleging bias is “a serious step" "that challenges the integrity of the decision-maker" and "should not be undertaken lightly”.

In applying this test and deciding whether a panel’s conduct gives rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias, a holistic view of the proceeding should be taken. As the Ontario Court of Appeal noted in a decision on this issue, it is normally necessary to examine the record in its entirety in order to assess whether a decision-maker’s conduct gave rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias. Factors to assess when considering the record include:

 * Any relationship, past or present, between the decision-maker and the party/parties or those who may benefit from the decision;
 * Whether or not a full and fair opportunity is provided to present arguments and evidence;
 * Whether there is a pattern of decisions that suggests influences other than the applicable law and available evidence;
 * Statements or conduct that might indicate a predisposition on the part of the decision-maker;
 * The tone and tenor of the decision-maker’s involvement in the hearing; and
 * The institutional arrangements that pertain to the freedom and independence of the decision-maker.

Additional comments on each of these factors follow. A reasonable apprehension of bias regarding one member of a panel may be sufficient to disqualify the entire panel, even if the one member did not assume an active role.

Allegations of an apprehension of bias must be raised at the earliest opportunity
A person alleging an apprehension of bias on the part of the decision-maker must raise it at the earliest opportunity to allow the decision-maker to recuse themselves, if necessary. Failure to do so will generally amount to an implied waiver of the right to invoke bias in subsequent proceedings, such as an appeal or an application for judicial review. See also: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing.

Any relationship, past or present, between the decision-maker and the party/parties or those who may benefit from the decision
The fact that the decision-maker has (or has had) a relationship with one of the parties who may benefit from the decision can mean, in appropriate cases, that there is a reasonable apprehension of bias regarding them presiding over the case. The Code of Conduct for Members of the IRB also provides that "Members shall not, during the course of a proceeding, have any social contact with a party, counsel, witness, interpreter or other non- IRB participant, if such social contact may create a reasonable apprehension of bias." Furthermore, it stipulates that Members may only take part in outside activities that are not inconsistent or incompatible with their official duties and responsibilities, or that do not cast doubt on their ability to perform their duties objectively. Members are also bound by the terms of the Conflict of Interest Act.

The predecessor to the RPD at the IRB, the Refugee Status Advisory Committee, used to include members included from the Department of Immigration and the Department of External Affairs. All were part time, while also maintaining regular departmental responsibilities. This arrangement was criticized, and a report was issued in 1982 recommending that those affiliated with a department sever ties therewith during their time serving on the committee. The Minister of Employment and Immigration announced in 1982 that departmental appointees would be required to serve full time and be free of departmental responsibilities during the term of their appointment.

The fact that a member of the Board previously worked for a party, whether it be a law firm appearing before the Board, CBSA, or IRCC does not automatically mean that the Member should not sit on cases where that organization is a party. In Ahumada v. Canada the Federal Court of Appeal considered this question. Specifically, they considered the following certified question: "would a reasonable apprehension of bias be created by the fact that a member of the Convention Refugee Determination Division (CRDD) of the Immigration and Refugee Board is an employee on leave of absence from a position as an immigration officer in the Enforcement Branch of CIC?" They held that such a member should not be restricted from sitting on cases where the Minister intervenes:"The Minister's role in the refugee determination process is primarily oriented towards detecting and opposing claims that the Minister or her officials believe should not be allowed. Accordingly, cases holding that an employment relationship between a member of an adjudicative tribunal and a party may give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias were in principle relevant. The suggestion that an employee of CIC would only be disqualified from sitting on a CRDD panel when the Minister intervened would enable the Minister to ensure the exclusion of the employee from the panel by exercising the power to intervene. To enable the Minister to so influence the composition of a panel would clearly compromise the CRDD's independence from CIC in a manner inconsistent with the scheme of the Act."That said, the ultimate holding in that case was that a reasonable apprehension of bias was made out where an appeals officer on temporary leave from the Branch of Citizenship and Immigration Canada that advises the Minister on whether an intervention is appropriate and represents the Minister when the Minister does intervene in IRB proceedings became an IRB member. That employee was obliged to resign from their employment with CIC if they wished to continue working as a decision-maker at the IRB.

Similarly, the fact that a Member had a previous professional connection with the case has been held to give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias on the part of the decision-maker.

Exposure to political and bilateral relations considerations
IRB Members are not answerable to the government and have no competing priorities like protecting the country’s alliances or conserving its resources. Decision-makers in refugee matters must not be beholden to any political or bilateral relations considerations. As Neil Yeates writes in his report on the Board, “decision makers must be able to hear cases in an environment within which their decisions are not seen to be fettered by external considerations, such as the foreign policy positions of the government of the day.” The importance of an independent mechanism for asylum adjudication is illustrated when considering other countries’ systems that are said to be subject to the vicissitudes of politics and hence to “[leave] people seeking protection promised by international treaty to the whims of a politically responsive enforcement agency”. Refugee lawyer David Matas recounts the example of Belgian refugee policy in the 1980s, wherein government authorities apparently had a tacit policy that Zairois were not to be recognized as refugees. He writes about the apparent basis for this policy as follows: “for political and economic reasons, Belgium does not want to incur the anger of the present regime governing Zaire, a former a Belgian colony. There remain substantial economic ties between Belgium and Zaire. The countries are on friendly terms politically. [Hence,] UNHCR representatives in Belgium presumed that Zairois were not bona fide refugees.”

Whether or not a full and fair opportunity is provided to present arguments and evidence
Questions about impartiality tend to come into play where a reviewing body is persuaded that the decision-maker has mistakenly come to a conclusion without giving due regard to the possibility that a full consideration of the evidence might lead to a different result, for example where a matter is pre-judged. Where parties are not provided a full and fair opportunity to present arguments and evidence, this may point towards a conclusion that the matter was pre-judged, and hence that there is a reasonable apprehension that the decision-maker did not approach the case impartially. The opposite is also true - evidence which indicates that the parties had such a full and fair opportunity to present evidence and provide submissions tends to indicate that the matter was not pre-judged and that it is not reasonable to apprehend bias in the circumstances. For example, where over-intrusive questioning by a Board member, including "constant interruptions", amounts to a “hijacking” of the case and grossly interferes with the orderly presentation of a claimant's case, the panel may have interfered with a claimant's right to be heard and it may be concluded that the panel did not approach the case impartially. For further discussion of this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to a hearing and the right to be heard.

Whether there is a pattern of decisions that suggests influences other than the applicable law and available evidence
A pattern of decisions that suggests influence other than the applicable law and available evidence may serve to establish a reasonable apprehension of bias in a particular case. Furthermore, a decision maker simply making adverse findings against a party—even adverse findings that are not justified on the record—does not mean they are biased against them, though an accumulation of unsubstantiated findings might be indicative of bias. That said, this is but one factor that should be assessed along with the totality of the evidence and caution is appropriate in drawing any conclusions of this sort. The corollary of this principle is that complying with legal obligations, for example those imposed by the Access to Information Act, does not constitute evidence of bias or a reasonable apprehension of bias.

Deciding against a claimant on an interlocutory matter does not, in and of itself, create a reasonable apprehension of bias
Niyonkuru v. Canada was a case in which the panel provided notice to the Minister that the claimant was possibly excluded from refugee protection. The claimant argued that, by adjourning the hearing to allow the Minister to intervene and present arguments regarding the applicant's possible exclusion, the panel had demonstrated bias and loss of impartiality. The court rejected this argument, stating that it is well settled that the mere fact that in an earlier proceeding a decision-maker rendered judgment against the party does not compromise his or her ability to be impartial. However, sitting on appeals from one’s own decisions has been found to be improper.

Statistics about a member's past refusal rate do not in and of themselves establish a reasonable apprehension of bias
No claimant (or, indeed, Minister's representative) has succeeded on bias motions based on statistics alone. Fenanir v. Canada was a case in which the claimant noted that the average number of refugee claim refusals by the member hearing his matter (99%) was higher than the average of 45% for all of the other members. The claimant submitted that there was a reasonable apprehension of bias on this basis. The court held that the data filed did not in itself support a finding of bias. It noted that the data can be "explained by a certain number of factors which are unrelated to any bias". The comments of Justice Zinn in Turoczi v. Canada are illustrative of the judicial approach to such applications: Although the statistical data presented by the applicants may raise an eyebrow for some, the informed reasonable person, thinking the matter through, would demand to know much more, including:

• Were all of the figures, including, importantly, the weighted country origin averages, properly compiled?

• Did the RPD randomly assign cases within each country of origin? If not, how did the RPD assign cases?

• Can factors affecting the randomness of case assignment be reliably adjusted for statistically?

• If so, what are the adjusted statistics, and what is their significance?

• If the RPD did randomly assign cases, what is the statistical significance of the Member’s rejection rate?

• Beyond the Member’s relative performance within the RPD, is there anything objective impugning the Member’s decisions (i.e. that suggests they are wrongly decided)?

• Accounting for appropriate factors (if that is possible), are the Member’s decisions more frequently quashed on judicial review than would be expected?

• Has the Member made recurring errors of a certain type, e.g. on credibility, state protection, etc., that bear a semblance to the impugned decision?

In short, the informed reasonable person, thinking the matter through, would demand a statistical analysis of this data by an expert based upon and having taken into consideration all of the various factors and circumstances that are unique to and impact on determinations of refugee claims before he or she would think it more likely than not that the decision-maker would not render a fair decision. In Arrachch v. Canada, the court dismissed such an argument as follows: "Counsel in this matter was clearly seeking not just a fair and impartial tribunal but one that would more likely be favourable to his clients as measured on a statistical basis. This was blatant forum shopping." That said, in that decision the court went on to allow consel's argument that there was a reasonable apprehension of bias for other reasons related to how the Member had responded to counsel's application.

Statements or conduct that might indicate a predisposition on the part of the decision-maker
A Board member must approach each case impartially. The Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada provides that "Members shall comply with all procedural fairness and natural justice requirements. Members are expected to approach each case with an open mind and, at all times, must be, and must be seen to be, impartial and objective." Statements or conduct that might indicate a predisposition on the part of the decision-maker may point towards a conclusion that there is a reasonable apprehension of bias in a particular case.

Opening comments might give rise to an apprehension of bias. In De Freitas v. Canada, the chairperson of an Immigration Appeal Board panel began a refugee determination hearing by indicating that he had read the file twice and that after 20 years on the bench, he found the claim to be so frivolous that he wondered about the abuse of the system. The Federal Court was of the view that these intemperate comments created a reasonable apprehension of bias and the Court sent the case back for rehearing by a differently constituted IAB panel.

Similarly, in Hernandez v Canada the court held that the Member seemed to have "a preconceived idea of the outcome of the case, ... cutting Ms. Hernandez's explanations short." The court concluded that the member had aggressively dismissed justified objections from counsel regarding the member's questions and errors in the translation. Similarly, issues can arise where a decision-maker has previously expressed strong views regarding a matter on which they must decide.

That said, the inquisitorial nature of refugee hearings must be considered when interpreting this type of requirement. The Board's procedures should not be restricted to the judicial paradigm. Refugee hearings are not adversarial; instead, the generally involve a panel of the Board appropriately investigating a particular case. In an inquisitorial proceeding, it is the role of the Member to investigate and/or probe factual matters. This means that a member of the Board will have a more active role in the hearing than is common in other judicial contexts. As the Federal Court held in Gebreyesus v. Canada, raising or renewing the consideration of a potential issue based on evidence that arises during a hearing, without more, is simply an indicator that a panel is performing this appointed function, not that the panel is biased. For a more fulsome discussion of this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate. Similarly, as the court concluded in Habimana v. Canada, the fact that a tribunal member evidently became frustrated with a claimant's manner of presenting their testimony does not mean that they have prejudged the outcome before hearing all of the evidence.

A Member considering prior testimony during a redetermination of a claim is not, in itself, indicative of bias
An RPD panel is not required to have regard to the transcript from a prior hearing on reconsideration: Huang v. Canada. However, its choice to do so is not generally indicative of bias or of having pre-judged a matter. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Reopening a Claim or Application.

A Member rendering an oral decision at the end of the hearing is not, in and of itself, indicative of bias
A Member should approach a case impartially and not with an open mind. This does not mean that the Member is required to reserve their decision after a hearing and consider the case for days afterwards. In fact, Rule 10(8) provides that a Division member must render an oral decision and reasons for the decision at the hearing unless it is not practicable to do so. In Pajarillo v. Canada, the claimant argued that the RPD was biased against her because the member made up her mind to reject the Applicant’s claim prior to hearing. The sole basis for making this allegation against the member was that the member returned after a lunch break and proceeded to render a lengthy oral decision. The court rejected this argument, noting that the claimant had failed to establish that the facts or issues in the case were so substantial or complex it was not reasonably practicable to comply with Rule 10(8) of the RPD Rules. The court stated: "The mere fact that the RPD was able to draft a decision and render it orally shortly 50 minutes after the conclusion of the hearing does not prove bias. A review of the transcript of the hearing discloses that the RPD member took into account the Applicant’s testimony and counsel’s arguments in reaching her decision." For more details about this rule, see Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided.

A Member's past employment with a government that a claim is against does not per se raise a reasonable apprehension of bias
The Federal Court has cautioned against categorical findings of bias based solely on a decision maker’s past employment, without any other evidence. For example, in Chan v. Canada, the RPD Member had previously worked for the government of Hong Kong SAR, which the refugee protection claim was against. The Federal Court declined to find that the Member’s previous employment per se raised a reasonable apprehension of bias, noting that "RPD members are presumed to be impartial and are required to swear an oath of impartiality. This presumption applies regardless of the members’ prior employment." The court went on to note that in this case the employment had ended more than 6 years prior to the hearing in question, and that the conclusion could have been different if the employment history was more recent or was with an entity more directly related to the specific agent of alleged persecution in the claim.

A Member's ethnicity, religion, or other protected factors are not relevant to an assessment of bias
The Federal Court has held that "the Board, like a corporation, acts through its members. They are flesh and blood. [The Member] may be a man of religion, an agnostic or an atheist. He may be Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim, Jewish, Roman Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Protestant, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or an adherent of any other number of religions. The Court does not know. It is irrelevant."

The tone and tenor of the decision-maker’s involvement in the hearing
The tone and tenor of the decision-maker’s involvement in the hearing may be considered as part of a holistic assessment of whether there is a reasonable apprehension of bias in any particular case. As a starting point, the role of RPD is an inquisitorial one, and Members have to ask the “hard questions” that may be inappropriate for a judge to ask. This is expanded upon in the text Judicial Review of Administrative Action in Canada, which notes that particular latitude is given to tribunals to question where the matter is not adversarial, as with most refugee proceedings:"Extensive and 'energetic' questioning alone by tribunal members will not in itself give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias. And particular latitude is likely to be given to tribunals operating in a non-adversarial setting, such as refugee determination hearings, where there is no one appearing to oppose the claim. Nor will an expression of momentary impatience or loss of equanimity by a tribunal member result in disqualification, particularly where it was merely an attempt to control the manner of proceeding. Similarly, a sarcastic comment when a party refused to give evidence, or an ill-chosen and insensitive phrase, will not, without more, lead to disqualification."For example, where a Member's use of profanity during a break in the hearing was recorded on a recording device that was left on, this did not in itself establish a reasonable apprehension of bias.

However, there are limits on this latitude, including in the types of circumstances that follow. Where there are allegations that the RPD member’s manner of questioning gave rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias, a decision-maker, for example the RAD, is generally expected to listen to the recording of the RPD hearing, not just a transcript of the proceeding (setting aside situations where the application about bias is made to the Member who presided over the hearing). This is so only if such a review could reveal whether the RPD member’s manner of speaking, as opposed to their specific words, disclosed a reasonable apprehension of bias.

Where a member pursues questioning with a discriminatory attitude
The Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada provides that "Members shall exercise their duties without discrimination." The Federal Court affirms that a member may not pursue questioning derived from a discriminatory attitude. Members must exhibit appropriate sensitivity and the Federal Court holds that the member must at all times be attentive and sensitive to claimants. UNHCR writes in their document on Procedural Standards for Refugee Status Determination that "RSD applications must be processed on a non-discriminatory basis". In Baker v. Canada, for example, an apprehension of bias was found to have arisen from the stereotypical assumptions about persons suffering from mental illness in the officer's notes. In Yusuf v. Canada, the Federal Court of Appeal set aside a decision because of the Member's discriminatory comments: "In my opinion, these sexist, unwarranted and highly irrelevant observations by a member of the Refugee Division are capable of giving the impression that their originator was biased."

Relatedly, the Federal Court holds that it is an error for IRB adjudicators to make inferences based on stereotypes. For additional commentary on this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Principles for the interpretation of refugee procedure.

Where a member pursues questioning with a hostile or antagonistic attitude, or where the member takes on the role of a prosecutor
As the Federal Court stated in Aloulou v Canada, "the inquisitorial process [can] give rise to sometimes extensive and energetic questioning, expressions of momentary impatience or loss of equanimity, even sarcastic or harsh language, without leading to a reasonable apprehension of bias”. However, the Federal Court holds that a member crosses the line into impermissible conduct where they pursue questioning in a manner that is inconsistent with their proper role. For example, as Waldman puts it in his text Canadian Immigration & Refugee Law Practice, if, during the course of the hearing, the tribunal “descends into the arena” to such an extent that the decision-maker assumes the role of a prosecutor, they risk of losing their impartiality. The Refugee Appeal Division has held that "constant interruption" and "flagrant intervention in the presentation of a claimant’s case" can amount to procedural unfairness. This may also occur where questioning is derived from an actually hostile attitude. The Federal Court overturned a decision of the RPD where “from the outset…the member was not at all interested in hearing the applicant's testimony”, where the hearing “was more like a police interrogation than a hearing before a tribunal” and where the Member went on “long tirades … on peripheral aspects having no real relevance (except that they eloquently demonstrated the member's prejudices and biases)”.

That said, as stated in Mahmoud v Canada, "intrusive and intimidating interventions by a Board member may be found to interfere with an applicant's ability to present his case. However, if the interruptions are made for the purpose of clarifying testimony or an issue, they will not raise a reasonable apprehension of bias, even if the manner of questioning or interruption is 'energetic'." Furthermore, the court has held that the fact that counsel created a confrontational atmosphere at the hearing does not call into question the impartiality of the member.

International standards recommend that state officials adopt a collaborative, non-adversarial approach in investigating a person’s claim. Furthermore, social science research notes that where hearings are hostile or confrontational, claimants may be discouraged from providing information that may be crucial to their claim. That said, the lack of this will not necessarily establish unfairness or bias: in Fadhili v. Canada, the RPD admonished the Applicants for their misrepresentation during the hearing and in the decision, but the court held that this did not rise to the level of unfairness or bias. For additional detail about the appropriate limits of a Board member's questioning in this inquisitorial process, see Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate and also the following discussion of limits on questions that the Board may pose: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing.

A passive or distant countenance is not required of Board members
The Board states that Members’ questions must be posed in a moderate tone. It may be noted that it is common for government officials conducting asylum interviews to have a passive and distanced countenance during hearings. For example, in one empirical study of Finish asylum officers, the researchers noted that the officers did not detectably react to the claimants’ narrations of events. The researchers stated that although an officer may think that a passive and distanced attitude guarantees neutrality, from a claimant’s perspective it can be interpreted as negative feedback. They argue that:"Traumatised individuals are prone to feel threatened and perceive the other’s intentions as intimidating, unless they receive clear and constant messages of the safety of a situation. A successful narration of traumatic events, for instance, is known to require a safe atmosphere characterized by a feeling of being connected to another person. [citations omitted]"Indeed, the legal academic Hathaway has gone as far as to say that “the maintenance of 'judicial distance' is for some members a convenient way of concealing a tendency to cynicism and negativism.”

As such international guidelines, such as those from the EU, prescribe that asylum interviews should be marked by trust, respect, and empathy. The Member may consider this advice in order to have an appropriately trauma-informed approach to hearings. Indeed, the Refugee Appeal Division has held that "insensitivity to the claimant’s particular situation and disinterest in the claim" can constitute procedural unfairness. The IRB's gender guidelines provide that Members should respond to the individual’s verbal cues and body language in a way that creates a safe space to facilitate the giving of testimony. They state that a calm and sensitive approach can enhance the flow of communication, build trust, and assist in the recollection of details. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Chairperson Guidelines.

Conversely, the fact that a Member is engaged and may be encouraging a claimant's testimony should not be taken as the Member having accepted the credibility of that testimony, lest it leave Members with the impression that only a detached demeanour is permissible. Additionally, while Members should adopt a trauma-informed approach marked by trust, respect, and empathy, they must also maintain the proper role of a tribunal. For example, referring to a claimant by their first name in a decision has been held to be "inappropriate" and an indicia of lack of respect for the claimant.

Institutional bias
Decisions are liable to be set aside for bias if a reasonable person would conclude, a balance of probabilities, that the decision-maker was not impartial. Such partiality can occur either because of factors specific to a particular decision-maker of the sort discussed above (e.g. statements they have made or their past actions or relationships) or for institutional reasons. Specifically, the test for institutional bias, introduced in R v Lippé, asks whether a well-informed person would have a reasonable apprehension of bias in a substantial number of cases. The test for institutional (im)partiality is generally stated as follows:"The determination of institutional bias presupposes that a well‑informed person, viewing the matter realistically and practically—and having thought the matter through—would have a reasonable apprehension of bias in a substantial number of cases. In this regard, all factors must be considered, but the guarantees provided for in the legislation to counter the prejudicial effects of certain institutional characteristics must be given special attention."Institutional bias will be found where a well‑informed person would have a reasonable apprehension in a substantial number of cases. Failing that, allegations of an apprehension of bias cannot be brought on an institutional level but must be dealt with on a case‑by‑case basis.

In and of itself, legal review of members' decisions does not create a reasonable apprehension of bias
In Weerasinge v. Canada the Federal Court of Appeal considered whether Members of the Board having their reasons reviewed by a legal advisor created a reasonable apprehension of bias. The court rejected this argument, commenting as follows: The Refugee Division consists of such number of full and part-time members as the Governor in Council may decide. They are appointed for terms of up to seven years. A minimum of one-tenth are required to be barristers or advocates of at least five years' standing. It would be pure coincidence if either member of a panel hearing a particular claim were legally qualified.

The Refugee Division is a lay tribunal required to decide claims which, as I have observed, involve the life, liberty and security of the person. It must do so within the framework of extensive, confusing, and sometimes confused, jurisprudence. It is required to give written reasons for decision not favourable to claimants. The desirability of legal review of those reasons is manifest. Having come to a decision on what is essentially a question of fact: whether the claimant has a well-founded fear of persecution for a reason that engages the Convention refugee definition, a tribunal does not, in my opinion, offend any tenet of natural justice by taking advice as to legal matters contained in its reasons.

While the reasons review process, both in the more limited format described in the memorandum and the full review format suggested, could be abused and result in the reviewing lawyers influencing the decisions to which the reasons relate, there is, in my opinion, simply no foundation for a conclusion that it has been, in fact, abused, either in the case before us or generally. Any consultation by a decision maker before publishing a decision, including consultation by a judge with a law clerk, could be abused. As to whether there is an appearance offensive to our notions of natural justice, it seems to me that the question to be asked is, as in dealing with an assertion of a reasonable apprehension of bias, namely, whether an informed person, viewing the matter realistically and practically and having thought it through, would think it more likely than not that the tribunal's decision that a claimant was, or was not, a Convention refugee had been influenced by the review of its reasons by its staff lawyers. In my opinion, that person would not think it likely. Furthermore, to the extent that members of the tribunal receive legal advice, legal advisors are not to attempt to influence the factual findings, but may have access to the facts and files of the claims in question and offer legal advice in relation to them: Bovbel v. Canada. That said, the interpretation of these questions is fraught and the relevant principles are, in the mind of this author, far from clear. This is illustrated by the fact that in Bovbel v. Canada the Federal Court had initially found that the IRB process was problematic, only for this conclusion to be overturned on appeal to the Federal Court of Appeal. For further discussion of legal review, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to an independent decision-maker.

Cabinet members are prohibited from attempting to influence the outcomes of tribunal decisions except as permitted by statute
Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries may not, under any circumstances, attempt to intervene in the decision-making process of an administrative tribunal on behalf of any constituent or expedite the processing of an application as such contact may be considered an attempt to influence a decision, which is contrary to section 9 of the Conflict of Interest Act. The role of parliamentary secretaries and the principle of non-intervention in quasi-judicial decisions are also outlined in the Prime Minister's Open and Accountable Government guideline. Although much of the guideline is directed to ministers, I believe that the advice applies equally to parliamentary secretaries, in light of their role in supporting the government agenda. The guideline notes specifically that broadcasting decisions are “considered sensitive and vulnerable to political interference." Accordingly, the guideline advises that members of the executive branch “must not intervene, or appear to intervene, with tribunals on any matter requiring a decision in their quasi-judicial capacity, except as permitted by statute." For greater certainty, the guideline adds that “it is inappropriate to attempt to influence the outcome of a specific decision of a quasi-judicial nature."

Bias issues may be cured on appeal to the RAD
The Refugee Appeal Division may cure bias arising in a previous decision in a matter.


text:
A hand book of life sciences/CLASSICAL GENETICS

AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT
Ex: Huntington's chorea,Neurofibromatosis,Achondroplasia,Familial hypercholesterolemia
 * Each affected person has an affected parents.
 * It occurs in every generation.
 * There is male to male transmission.

AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE
Ex:Sickle cell anemia,Cystic fibrosis,Phenylketonuria,Tay-Sachs disease
 * Most affected individuals have unaffected parents.
 * Both parents of unaffected persons are carriers but offsprings are affected.
 * Trait often skips generations.

X-LINKED DOMINANT
Ex:Hypophatemic rickets (vitamin-D resistant rickets), Ornithine Transcarbamylase deficiency
 * Females are more frequently affected from mothers.
 * Affected females comes from affected mothers or fathers.
 * If the male is affected then all of his daughters would be affects but non of his sons are affected.
 * If the female is affected then about half of her sons are affected.
 * It present in each generation.

X-LINKED RECESSIVE
Ex:Hemophilia A,Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy,Colour blindness, Night blindness,Fragile X-syndrome
 * Most affected individuals are male.
 * Affected males comes from mother who are affected or carriers.
 * Affected females comes affected father and affected or carrier mother.
 * Affected males present in each generation.

Y-LINKED INHERITANCE
Ex:Flatfoot and hair loss
 * It is also known as holandric inheritance.
 * Affects only Males.
 * Affected males always have an affected father.
 * If the fathers will affected,all of his sons will be affected.

MITOCHONDRIAL DISORDERS
Ex:Mitochondrial myopathy, Diabetes mellitus and deafness(DAD)
 * This inheritance can affect both males and females.But only passed on by females.
 * It can appear in every generation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
English-Hanzi/White bread and closely related foods made from white flour

White bread and closely related foods made from white flour (including biscuits, pastries and cereal breakfast) is one of the main white foods to be eliminated.

白面包和由白面粉制成的密切相关的食品（包括饼干，糕点和谷物早餐）是要消除的主要白色食品之一.


text:
Talk:End-user Computer Security/Main content/Software based

Improvements/additions for "Sandboxing and cloud computing" section
Perhaps mention that sand-boxing might work well for you if the following condition is met:
 * 1) any malicious modification of the user files you use in such computing, is automatically tamper-evident.

This might be the case when doing certain graphics work. Perhaps examining the produced graphics files is enough of a quality-control mechanism, such that we don't need to worry about malware and the like so long as the produced files look okay?

Can additionally mention that cloud computing might be good for you if in addition to the just-mentioned sand-boxing condition applying (cloud computing in some sense is also a kind of sand-boxing), the following condition is also met:
 * 1) whether or not the files are stolen is of no concern to you.

In some cases of cloud computing, you may have faith that the software functions as advertised, but be unsure as to whether your user files may be stolen. In such cases, the first sand-boxing condition above, perhaps can be ignored.

More broadly, safe and unsafe systems can be used together, where the safe system can be used to verify the output/work of an unsafe system. Such would only be advantageous if the work of the safe-system verification and the unsafe-system work, cost less than simply doing the work on the safe system. Such might be the case where a user has access to extremely powerful computing resources that are considered to be unsafe, who then also has a safe, but not powerful, system that can be used for verification. The type of work is relevant. For certain things, like perhaps 3D-rendering a scene, perhaps verification must take on the aspect of simply performing the work a second time on the safe system and then comparing for correctness. Writing articles might also belong to this class of activity. Bitcoin mining on the other hand, probably is computationally expensive to do, but cheap to verify, so perhaps such a 'safe-unsafe systems' set-up would work for such mining.

Part of the security risk in preinstalled software is....
Part of the security risk in preinstalled software is that it isn't shrink-wrapped and has no holographic security seal? Should such thoughts be incorporated into the text?

MarkJFernandes (discuss • contribs) 08:06, 13 May 2020 (UTC)

Origin of the idea behind the "Malicious sneaky replacement of FDE system with historic clone of system ... " attack
I initially thought that this attack was described by Trammell Hudson in his 2016 33c3 talk, hosted at https://media.ccc.de/v/33c3-8314-bootstraping_a_slightly_more_secure_laptop. But when trying to find the relevant part of the talk later on, I found I couldn't find it. Class of attack probably has a name specially designated to it by the security community.

MarkJFernandes (discuss • contribs) 13:59, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

Mention 'www.offidocs.com" & "www.onworks.net" in "Sandboxing and cloud computing" section?
Can make specific mention of https://www.offidocs.com and https://www.onworks.net that provide many very powerful and useful free cloud-based software (under 'easy' software licences) free of charge (including Linux installations).

Add info about ReactOS, to §"Which OS?"❓
The ReactOS operating system, is an alternative way to run Windows programs when compared with WINE over Linux, that is either more secure than Windows, or constitutes a path to more security when compared with Windows. See https://reactos.org/wiki/ReactOS#Secure and https://reactos.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=17226 for more info. Windows 10 is in the Windows NT family.

Catacomb's note about Tails Linux working on reproducible builds
Qubes-user "Catacombs"'s note (paraphrased by MarkJFernandes) :

 * "Tails Linux is working on reproducible builds, but it isn't yet implemented. Instead, Tails Linux's current verification scheme is by a Firefox add-on extension. It works by verifying that the file I downloaded of the Tails Linux OS is the one that matches the image signatures provided by the extension. This puts trust in the Firefox system, and in a connected way in the HTTPS system (to the extent of deeming the HTTPS system as being infallible). My thoughts are that we could generate an additional encryption layer on top of the HTTPS system, for items requiring greater security than simply HTTPS alone. The added layer would have more sophisticated encryption than the HTTPS system, and would use another set of security cryptographic certificates (other than the TLS certificates that HTTPS uses). Using some kind of encrypted token might be an idea, where only those users possessing the token are able to pass through the security."

MarkJFernandes 's current response in respect of having an additional encryption layer:
 * "Hmmm. I think that usernames and passwords already add the second-level of security you're outlining (unless I'm misunderstanding you). As for encrypted token, two-factor authentication and two-step authentication probably effectively facilitate such second factors. Such authentication is dealt with in the book here ."

Catacombs's note about what is perhaps Catacombs's most secure laptop/tablet/smartphone
Qubes-user "Catacombs"'s note (paraphrased by MarkJFernandes) :

 * "Curiously, I bought an old Android device, and then used the MrChromebox.tech script to put coreboot/SeaBIOS on it to enable me to boot Linux on the device. Now if I boot Tails Linux on the device, rebooting each time I have a different computing purpose in mind, it is perhaps the most secure computing device I have, although I do worry about having to trust Google won't find a way to feed all of my internet typing actions back to their servers."

MarkJFernandes 's current response to note:

 * "This note can perhaps be integrated into the main content, but it might be best to build-up some more information on these issues, before doing any such integration. It's important to add insights to the book, that are gathered from the practice of security concepts."

Add mention of Puppy Linux to "Which OS?" section?
The Qubes-user "Catacombs" has highlighted Puppy Linux amongst just a few operating systems also mentioned by "Catacombs", as particularly providing certain security features, features that "Catacombs" appears to imply are distinct to a certain extent, and that are not present in Qubes.

"Catacombs"'s thoughts on Puppy Linux (paraphrased and with some elaboration, by MarkJFernandes) :

 * "Puppy Linux users seem to think that what they call a multi-save optical disc, is a highly secure way to work. What they do, is they re-install the Puppy Linux operating system for each user session (even if it means re-installing an old version of the Puppy Linux OS absent of the latest Puppy Linux updates). In some ways, this is similar to the Qubes OS, in that in Qubes OS, a temporary VM is destroyed after completion of the specific use case for which the VM was created (and always by the time of reboot as well as by the time of shutdown, of the computer). With Puppy Linux the user can choose not to save any information after user sessions, which means that session-to-session use can be completely non-preserving of state. Since Puppy Linux is completely loaded into RAM for each session (without it being installed to any of the local drives), it is slow to boot, but it does run fast. The saves on the optical disc (CD or DVD) can have additional programs, program upgrades, and the user's personal files. During a user session, a user can opt not to save to their multi-save optical disc; they might choose this if they suspect the session may have been compromised in some way.

 * Puppy Linux works without requiring the distinction of the root user as being set apart for system actions, operations and procedures normally segregated due to their increased risks to OS integrity. Users feel this is just fine, as one gets a new copy of the OS with every boot."

 * It used to be that all of Puppy Linux could be started with a video-display option, where the work of the display driver would be carried out by the main processor (rather than by video chip[s] and graphics card[s]). Yes, it's true, that most of the display drivers are available for the various video chips and graphics cards around, but such driver bypassing prevents drivers from doing things considered to be anti-secure and anti-private: it makes the system more secure. The same measure could be implemented in Qubes, but then who wants a slower Qubes?"

MarkJFernandes 's thoughts on this:
 * "   Related to:
 * ‣ optical-disc info in "Conventional laptops" subsection of the "Factory resets" section.

 * ‣ security advantages outlined in the "Rewritable media vs optical ROM discs" section.

 * ‣ following excerpt from §"Regarding operating system":

 * Some general security advice in relation to using an operating system, is for users to have an administrator account that is different to the standard account users use for everyday computing. The standard account has fewer privileges. The more powerful administrator account, that also has higher associated security risks, should also have a “minimised” exposure to risk due to it being used only when needed—when not needed, the less risky standard account is instead used.

Probably a section on internet-security software and anti-malware software should be added as a gold-coloured-heading section to this chapter...
Examples of such software: Little Snitch; WireShark; Norton Internet Security; McAfee anti-virus software.

Add section called "Communication software" to this chapter?
Email is well known as not being a secure method of communication. This can be documented in a new section added to this chapter, called "Communication software". The section can mention how email can be made more secure with PGP encryption and signing. The section can then go on to mention about the different software available that offers end-to-end encryption of communications (such as Skype). Mention can also be made about how insecure mobile and telephone networks appear to be (because intermediate call centres apparently can listen-in on such communications).

Is there a security principle of "software-less hardware", and if so, should it be added...?
I'm currently working in my ideas on the idea of a software-less computer system, that you purchase or establish. The system can come with software already loaded, but it then ought to be made software-less by wiping it clean of software. This includes not having software in the firmware, especially the BIOS/UEFI firmware. Once such a system is established, the user then downloads all the software they require (using their secure communications device, as described in the §⟪Regarding how to obtain software⟫), and they then proceed to install the software for the system. The user later on, can wipe the system to a clean state again, and reinstall afresh for security reasons. The system doesn't necessarily need to be placed in a "blank" state, but any software on it must be wiped off in the process of reinstalling the software for the system.

The reason why I'm thinking there is a security principle in this, is that it splits the issue of establishing a secure system into two distinct parts that appear to be able to be dealt with individually in effective ways for the purposes of establishing security. The hardware can be verified using a variety of verification methods, many of which are documented in the ⟪Broad Security Principles⟫ chapter under §⟪Measuring physical properties for authentication⟫ (including simple visual inspection). Hardware tampering is likely much more rare simply because of the nature of hardware when contrasted with software, and it is likely easier to detect than it is for software tampering. Because software tampering may be hard to detect, and easy for adversaries to do, it is probably a good idea simply to download all the software using a secure communications device. The §⟪Regarding how to obtain software⟫ provides general information on how to obtain software securely. Splitting the task into these two distinct activities, seems to constitute a security principle for the establishment of secure systems.

If such a security principle does indeed exist, then it may be worthwhile adding information about it to this book, perhaps to this chapter.

Considered whether BIOS firmware (and also other firmware) was perhaps mostly protected by both not allowing re-flashing, and also by insisting in the update process, that updates be cryptpographically signed with a private key only known to the vendors of the firmware software. Briefly researching this, it does appear that such is officially advised, in the form of NIST guidelines (see https://cts-labs.com/secure-firmware-update). However, because the `flashrom` software appears to be very widely supported by the different motherboards available, and because of the information here, it does appear that BIOS/UEFI vendors mostly don't implement such protocol (which is perhaps quite worrying).

The concept of "software-less hardware" is related to Joanna Rutkowska's paper "State considered harmful" (subtitle "A proposal for a stateless laptop") dated December 2015.

== There are other kinds of bootloaders other than BIOSes and UEFIs, as well as similar security threats based in other kinds of firmware (such as in the firmware chips of graphics cards) so perhaps material should be extended and generalised to cover....? ==

There are other kinds of bootloaders other than BIOSes and UEFIs, so perhaps material in this chapter should be generalised to cover also the other kinds of bootloaders. The Raspberry Pi is an example of a computing device that uses a bootloader that is neither a BIOS nor a UEFI.

Similarly malware in the BIOS/UEFI firmware, isn't the only firmware point of weakness in computer systems. You get firmware for all kinds of things, from disk drives, to network cards, to graphics cards, to memory sticks, and on and on. Malware can be in all these other firmware, and may use different microchips to the BIOS/UEFI firmware microchips. Probably the "Security of BIOS/UEFI firmware" section in this chapter should be extended and generalised to cover these other threats.

Raspberry Pi device can be used to flash the ROM chips on other devices (such as a laptop)
This is another advantage of the Raspberry Pi device in relation to using it as a device for secure downloading. The only additional things that are needed appear to be wires and a SOIC-8 pomona clip; these things appear to be mostly safe to use, in the sense that hidden hardware cannot mostly be hidden in them (not the case with microchips, for example). See here for info on how a Raspberry Pi can be used in this way. It would seem that this method, effectively turns the Pi device into a USB (flash) programmer, but perhaps unlike USB programmers, you can purchase the equipment securely, i.e. can thwart MITM attacks by picking a random unit from a shelf in a physical store—not so sure you can buy USB programmers in this way. Probably this should be added as one of the advantages in the ⟪Pros vs Cons⟫ section.

== Wherever the security advantage of the principle outlined in §⟪User randomly selecting unit from off physical shelves⟫ is mentioned... ==

Wherever the security advantage of the principle outlined in §⟪User randomly selecting unit from off physical shelves⟫ is mentioned, such as in this chapter in respect of smartphones, and then again in respect of the Raspberry Pi device, as well as in other places in the book, probably mention should also be made of the principle outlined in §⟪Ordering many units of same product⟫ especially when the item to be purchased is cheap. For example, ten Pi devices can be bought from the same store, and then nine random units returned, to ensure better that the one you have bought hasn't undergone any tampering. The security advantage derived from this second principle, seems to be significant.

Include implementing extra sandboxing for closed-source blobs, under the §⟪Sandboxing and cloud computing⟫?
Closed-source blobs, as pondered in the discussion under the Raspberry Pi forum topic "Secure computing using Raspberry Pi for business purposes", can be perceived as particular security concerns of a computer system. One potentially novel approach to dealing with them, is to reverse engineer them, and then implement extra sandboxing in-code on the extracted source code, to limit their potential harm. It seems that it is probably legal to do this under UK law, so long as it is done privately and the user isn't under a contract preventing him from doing so—see section 50C of the Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. Additionally, it might also be legal for such users to release the source code modifications (not the modified source code) in the form of a patch so long as the patch doesn't constitute an infringing "copy" of part or all of the closed-source blob, for others also to be able to patch their closed-source blobs in the same way (thus saving on the work done for implementing such sandboxing across the entire user-base). The sandboxing doesn't necessarily only need to take the form of code additions and code rewriting; it can also take the form of simply deleting portions of the closed-source source code, portions deemed unnecessary for some users, where leaving them in would only increase the attack surface and/or potential vulnerabilities in the closed-source blobs (see ⟪Do avoiding "bells and whistles", trying to be "barebones", and reducing power & capability, constitute a broad security principle?⟫ note for more about this).

The open-source software me_cleaner appears to implement this principle, by modifying the Intel ME closed-source firmware blob (a closed-source firmware that is controversial due to perceptions of it being a potential security vulnerability) to reduce its scope for inflicting or enabling damage to a user's computing activities.

JTAG interfaces (perhaps through a JTAG port) can possibly be leveraged to flash more easily firmware into ROM chips on systems that support JTAG
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAG#Storing_firmware. JTAG has been identified as a security risk because of such ability, but actually, it could in fact be an advantage. Being able to reinstall firmware is appearing to be a very good security precaution, and without JTAG this is perhaps more difficult especially when malware is already in the target firmware chips. The standard firmware upgrade utilities may not be capable of removing malware when it is already in the pre-existing firmware. In such cases, it is prudent to wipe clean the pre-existing firmware, to get rid of any pre-existing malware. The JTAG interface might more easily facilitate such wiping as well as the re-installation afterwards of genuine firmware code. Having unpluggable BIOS firmware ROM chips may not help, as if you swap out the existing chips with blank chips, the system without JTAG or a USB programmer, may be incapable of facilitating the re-installation of the firmware code—without a BIOS due to having only blank BIOS-firmware ROM chip(s) after swapping out the chip(s) , your computer system perhaps won't start nor get to the point where new firmware can be installed. An alternative to JTAG is to use a USB programmer where you "manually" wire-up the programmer to the pins of the ROM flash chips. However, such alternative may not be as easy as using any preexisting JTAG port, in consideration of the "manual" wiring that seems to be required when using USB programmers.

In light of these thoughts, it may be a good idea to use hardware that has a JTAG port.

Using firmware-chip sockets may be a good idea, for security reasons; mainboards with built-in mechanisms for 'properly' wiping pre-existing firmware stored on chips, may also be good
The Coreboot documentation indicates that if desoldering flash firmware chips for the purpose of installing Coreboot, it is recommended that the soldered-on chips be replaced with a flash socket that instead uses pluggable-and-unpluggable flash chips. Particular mainboards that "off-the-shelf" have such sockets and socketable chips, can be used to save on the work involved in doing such replacement yourself (the ASRock H81M-HDS, ASUS F2A85-M, and Foxconn D41S mainboards, all use socketable flash). From a security perspective, such socketable flash may be a good idea, in terms of being better able to ensure the integrity of the firmware. For example: you can go about creating several back-up firmware chips, that you securely store in different remote locations; if ever intrusion is detected, you can then simply replace your socketed firmware chip with one of your trusted backup chips. Without a socket, the alternative process may involve the labour of desoldering the present chips, and/or fiddling with a USB programmer at the "point in time" when intrusion is detected; with a socket, you can potentially do the work beforehand, and save on labour at the "point in time" when intrusion is detected.

Some mainboards have built-in mechanisms for 'properly' wiping pre-existing firmware stored on chips. This again may be good for security, and it doesn't seem that all systems have this facility. Some systems, appear only to have mechanisms in place for updating and upgrading pre-existing firmware code (rather than a proper wiping); unfortunately, if malware is already in the code needing updating, such mechanisms may not remove such pre-existing malware. Apparently, most Linaro boards have such mechanisms for properly wiping pre-existing firmware stored on chips—see here.

== Add info to §⟪Security of BIOS/UEFI firmware⟫ about write-protect physical switches potentially being useful for protecting firmware....? ==

Because firmware may be able to be altered during normal OS operation, or during boot time, by other software, it could be a good idea to employ write-protect physical switches to prevent such from happening. In my Chromebook C720, there is, for example, a write-protect screw ostensibly for making the firmware, or portions of it, read-only.

== Info for §⟪Security of BIOS/UEFI firmware⟫; might be easier to secure firmware on mobile devices, when compared with securing firmware on larger, more conventional kinds of computers ==

It might be easier to reinstall, in a proper way, the firmware for mobile devices (such as smartphones and tablets), than for other computing devices, due to it perhaps being the case that for mobile devices, all the firmware is usually located within a single ROM chip on such devices. With other computers (including laptops), there may be several different chips each containing its own separate firmware where malware may be present. I have personally found this to be the case with my Chromebook and my laptop: there's the network card firmware to consider, the firmware of the SSD or HDD also, the BIOS firmware also, the graphics card firmware also, etc.) Whilst such easy reinstallation is desirable, it perhaps means that the single firmware chip is also a more potent point of attack for adversaries (due to the highly integrated nature of the computer system that constitutes the mobile device). Have asked question concerning this paragraph @ https://security.stackexchange.com/q/244266/247109

It appears that there is a convenient mechanism for faithfully reinstalling the firmware of certain Lenovo tablets, such that pre-existing malware gets wiped, simply by installing via the tablet's USB socket with connection to another uncompromised computer. See https://androidmtk.com/download-lenovo-stock-rom-models.

Raspberry Pi used as a secure downloader perhaps doesn't have much of a disadvantage based in needing to acquire a secure VDU...
The con listed in the Wikibooks book regarding whether a Raspberry Pi can be used as a secure downloader, in respect of needing to acquire a secure VDU, perhaps isn't so much of a con. If you are just running the Raspberry Pi OS for downloading files over public HTTPS URLS to an SD card, probably little to worry about if someone is fiddling with your VDU images so long as you enter no confidential information. The same may also be true if after downloading such files, you are writing data images to removable media. The OS run on the Rasp Pi device can be hardened so that it is more resistant to attacks focused on meddling with VDU images.

== Re. §⟪How to ensure installed operating system is not compromised via an evil maid attack, during periods when machine is not meant to be on⟫ ==

It might be worthwhile being explicit that the risk of the hardware being or becoming compromised, also includes the risk of firmware modification. The distinction between software and hardware is somewhat blurry. So it might be worthwhile changing "the risk of the hardware being or becoming compromised is very low" to "the risk of the hardware and firmware being or becoming compromised is very low". Protecting the BIOS firmware might entail simple measures such as the use of a BIOS password. However, removing the CMOS battery would probably wipe the password (I would have thought). Using the Heads BIOS/UEFI boot firmware system such that the TPM is used to secure the firmware code, would probably be better for securing the BIOS/UEFI firmware.

Probably the often touted way for securing the installed operating system, is to use the Secure Boot protocol (where the system disk is locked to the particular BIOS/UEFI firmware by means of cryptographic signing). Documenting this as another method might be worthwhile. However, Secure Boot may not be all that secure. According to the document at http://www.c7zero.info/stuff/DEFCON22-BIOSAttacks.pdf, attacks do exist against 'Secure Boot'-enabled UEFI set-ups. In fact, it might be that Secure Boot is quite weak in some regards. In this respect, the advice of this Wikibooks book that the bootloader be physically secured separate from the computer system, seems likely still to hold true in spite of any perceived security benefits from 'Secure Boot'. More generally, basic security principles seem likely to provide much better security than certain 'technical computer wizardry'. A 'back to basics' security approach is perhaps needed, and perhaps "missing from the vocabulary" of people coming from a background strongly based in the technical side of computer things.


text:
Talk:End-user Computer Security/Main content/What to do when you discover your computer has been hacked

Book-section relative link not possible for icon in heading
When this book is finally published, the link set for the heading "When to change digital passwords and keys?" should be converted into an icon-based absolute-address link (or perhaps a link that uses the "Wikibooks:" prefix [using such prefix still results, in some respects, in an absolute address]). Unfortunately, relative links for images (such as icons), do not seem possible, which would have been ideal.

The current method of linking is something of a temporary workaround. It has the disadvantage of somewhat ruining the visual aesthetics on the page.

When this book is finally published in its permanent address location, the absolute link set in the heading "When to change digital passwords and keys?" will need to be accordingly updated.

A text-based link is now being used such that a relative URL is being used, meaning that there are no concerns when moving this book to a different location.

MarkJFernandes (discuss • contribs) 15:22, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

Add information about using a Faraday cage/shield with a potentially security-compromised computer?
A Faraday cage/shield can be used to shield unwanted EM communications from and to your computer, such communications perhaps arising due to malware or other kinds of hacking. This sounds like worthwhile information to add to this chapter somewhere.

Electrical conductors are used in Faraday shields. Metal is such a conductor and specifically, aluminium foil has been used for such shields (in respect of RFID blocking for mobile phones).

A potentially cheap solution, that also might not require purchasing anything new, for building a Faraday shield for a computing device such that you can still use the device whilst the shield is on, is as follows:

 * 1) Take your computer with you into a metal car.
 * 2) Shut all the openings of the car.
 * 3) Add foil to cover-up those window areas where radio signals can get through.
 * 4) Then use the computing device in the car.

Hopefully, Bluetooth and WiFi will be blocked by doing these things, during your use of the computing device in the car. The just striked-through idea is unlikely to work since slight gaps in metal shielding cause such shielding to fail.

Perhaps a cheap alternative is to use an emergency thermal metallic disposable sleeping bag. You can place your laptop in the bag, and then have the bag extend over your head and at least such that it covers part of your body. Most likely, radio signals would be blocked by taking such measures. Again, this idea is unlikely to work because gaps in metallic shielding cause shielding to fail. Metal apparently reflects RF communications, and in some cases, it seems it has the potential of increasing signal strength rather than decreasing it. If this idea were modified so as to include saline water, perhaps saline water in a foot bath, with the computer user covered in the sleeping bag from head to toe, and with their feet in the foot-bath water, then perhaps this idea might work. The saline water apparently absorbs RF radiation instead of reflecting it. In fact, this attribute of saline water can probably be used in the drawing-up of other solutions to this general problem.

Using a foil emergency thermal tent may provide a cheap way to construct a Faraday cage/shield in which a hacked PC can be 'safely' used (without having to worry about successful EM communications being performed by malware on the hacked device). Their inexpensiveness is derived from the fact that they can be very cheap to buy. Worrying about MITM attacks to the material perhaps is unnecessary because tests can be performed when the tent arrives to confirm that the material is sound. Gaps in the tent might cause the shield to fail. In this respect, using aluminium tape to tape up the gaps might be a good idea although doing so might cause breathing problems to those in the tent.

Alternatively, using transparent or semi-transparent shielding material might allow the construction of a Faraday cage/shield, where only the PC needs to be inside the cage/shield (because users can see through the material to see keyboard keys and the VDU). Such materials may be mesh materials such as a copper-mesh material. See here for more information on such materials.

A variation on this, is to use EM absorbers rather than reflectors, at least for part of the shield's function. It would seem that such shields wouldn't then be called Faraday shields, but they would still be effective shields for some kinds of EM radiation. Saline water is apparently an EM absorber (due to its electrical conductivity), conveniently is also transparent, and is also cheap, meaning that it can perhaps act as an EM-shield screen filter allowing the seeing of a computer's screen whilst at the same time filtering out RF emissions, at a low price point. Getting a suitable container for the liquid is perhaps not so straight-forward: the container must not let out water, and for laptops without an external keyboard, must leave enough room to be able to use the laptop's integrated keyboard. An A4 clear pencil case might be such a suitable container and also quite cheap. If there are concerns about it leaking, perhaps thorough leak-detection testing, the use of water-proofing sealants, and the precautionary additional use of protective water-resistant computer covers, can go some way towards allaying such concerns. Also the conductive gel used for things like ultrasounds, perhaps can also be used for shielding the screen area such that you can still see the screen (again using the EM absorption principle). Such gel can be very cheap to buy, and apparently you can even easily make your own DIY gel—see here. Have tried DIY gel using Aloe Vera hand-wash with salt. Does work to block cellphone signal but quite a bit of salt needs to be added and when mixed with hand-wash, the hand-wash turns cloudy, so doesn't appear suitable (because no longer transparent nor translucent). Have also tried with saline water, and saline water does work (for cellphone signals); again, quite a bit of salt is needed. Have successfully used Dr Oetker gelatine, mixed with salt and water, to create a firm transparent gelatine layer through which one can easily see a smartphone screen, and that shields mobile-phone signals (and presumably also Bluetooth and WiFi). Such gelatine may already be available in a user's cooking cupboard, but even if it has to be bought, the cost of it in respect of the amount required for the shielding, is quite low. Being able to use it on a partly upright large computer screen is perhaps tricky. What is maybe needed, is some kind of transparent see-through plastic mould big enough to fit over such screens, for holding the gelatine. It appears that if the gelatine is too firm, the shielding doesn't work, probably because the conductivity is then not strong enough—water conductivity apparently isn't so much present when the water is solid (like ice). Bought ¼ litre bottle of Aquasonic 100 Ultrasound Transmission gel produced by Parker Laboratories Inc. from Amazon, at the low price of £3.95. The gel indeed shields a mobile-phone signal, is usefully clear, and also usefully firm. However, the gel is lumpy, such that when you look through it at a computer screen, what you see is mostly too distorted. Have tried to liquidify the gel so that it can be set without there being any lumps, but without success. I tried microwaving it, as well as thinning down a diluted solution of the gel with water, but all to no avail. Simply thinly "painting" the gel (such that there aren't any significant lumps) also doesn't seem to work— perhaps the barrier must have a thickness greater than simply a thin layer? Melting the gel using conventional heating methods (such as over a stove), might be more successful in melting the gel, such that when the gel is later cooled down, depending upon the container, it is able to be set without any lumps. If such melting and setting is possible, then perhaps a glass pane, maybe one from or even within a photo frame, can be re-purposed to construct the suitable transparent container for the gel setting. Have successfully pinned Ultrasound gel between two transparent materials, such that distortions caused by lumps in the gel disappear. However, a new issue has now been brought to light, and that is the presence of bubbles in the gel, even after such pinning, such that the shield fails because of the lack of protection at the locations of the bubbles due to their too large sizes. Have tried heating-up the gel to see whether the heating-up process might get rid of such bubbles, but found it to be ineffective. Have also tried diluting the gel, and then progressively thinning it back to its original consistency, to see whether that might get rid of the bubbles. That too didn't work. Might be possible to get rid of the bubbles if the gel is thinned to more of a watery state and used in that state but then there's the issue of leakages due to the lower viscosity of the material. Such measures might pan out as a workable solution but more investment would first need to be made in the area of preventing leaks in the container. Another solution to such issues, is probably to pin the gel between two sheets such that there is a fairly thick space between the sheets, in such fashion that the sizes of yielded bubbles are too small and hopefully not clustered enough, to cause the EM shielding to fail. Perhaps a novel way to construct an "RF absorbing gel/water" container that is used over a screen in order to shield the screen in such fashion that the screen still remains visible to users, is to use double-glazed windows for the container. The top of the windows would be sawed-off, and the water/gel would then be poured into the gap(s) of the double-glazing. Double-glazed windows appear to be available at low prices. Also, old windows, that might be otherwise thrown on the scrap heap, might be available at even lower prices (perhaps even given away for free). Information on Wikihow about how to make a Faraday cage can be found here. In particular, the Wikihow information indicates that having layers in the shielding such that the layering alternates between electrical insulation and electrical conduction, results in stronger shielding. Also another thing to consider, is that when choosing conductors, using materials with higher electrical conductivity will likely result in stronger shielding—see here for a table comparing the conductivity of different materials.

Useful comparison of different RF shielding techniques: https://mosequipment.com/blogs/news/the-results-are-in-video-comparison-of-various-competitors-shielding-effectiveness

Such information is relevant to the Wireless Communications chapter, and perhaps should also be added there (see the note about adding such info on that chapter's discussion page).

Can sell computer for spare parts, in the situation that you are unable to "clean" the entire system (which can help to recoup losses)
If you discover your computer has been hacked, or may have been hacked, you can perhaps sell the computer in order to recoup losses, perhaps in order to finance the purchase of a new system. In the case where you are unable to make sure the system is "clean" prior to selling, you can possibly sell the system in the form of spare parts, in order to avoid the ethical issue of selling on a hacked system (that could represent compromised security for the purchaser of the hacked system).


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Cookbook:Zhug I

Zhug is a hot condiment used for adding flavor and spice to foods. Its preparation varies, depending upon local use.

Ingredients

 * 1 tbsp cumin
 * 1 tsp ground black pepper
 * 1 tsp caraway seed
 * 3–4 pods of cardamom
 * 4 red, very hot dried cayenne peppers, stems removed
 * 1 head of fresh garlic, peeled
 * 1 bunch of fresh coriander (cilantro)
 * Salt

Procedure

 * 1) Grind and blend all the above ingredients together.
 * 2) Store in a sealed jar.

title: Cookbook:Zhug I


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Cookbook:Mofletta (Maghrebi Pancake)

Mofletta is a thin, crepe-like pancake made by communities in North Africa, and made popular in Israel.

Ingredients

 * 1 tsp dry yeast
 * 1 pinch of sugar
 * ½ cup warm water
 * 250 g wheat flour
 * ½ tsp sea salt
 * 2 tbsp of olive oil, plus a little extra for pan-frying
 * Butter
 * Honey

Procedure

 * 1) Dissolve the yeast and sugar in the water. Let rest in a warm place for 10–15 minutes.
 * 2) Combine flour, salt, and 1 tablespoon of oil in a bowl. Stir in the yeast mixture to make a dough.
 * 3) Knead the dough on a flat, flour-dusted surface until smooth and elastic.
 * 4) Return dough to the bowl and pour the remaining tablespoon of oil onto it, rolling the dough in the bowl until it becomes oiled.
 * 5) Cover the dough with a tea towel and leave in a warm place until it rises.
 * 6) Divide the dough into smaller equal portions, and begin to roll the rounded portions out on an oiled work-surface, making them as thin as possible.
 * 7) Heat a frying pan over medium heat, and grease the bottom with a little oil.
 * 8) Fry the rolled-out dough portions one at a time until they are lightly browned on one side. Flip over and cook until browned on the second side.
 * 9) Keep the finished mofletta in a stack, covered with a cloth to retain heat and moisture.
 * 10) Serve with butter and honey.

title: Cookbook:Mofletta (Maghrebi Pancake)


text: Internet Explorer/Print version

title: Internet Explorer/Print version


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Canadian Refugee Procedure/2-3 - Definitions, objectives, and application of the IRPA

IRPA Section 2
Section 2 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act reads: Interpretation Definitions 2 (1) The definitions in this subsection apply in this Act. Board means the Immigration and Refugee Board, which consists of the Refugee Protection Division, Refugee Appeal Division, Immigration Division and Immigration Appeal Division. (Commission) Convention Against Torture means the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, signed at New York on December 10, 1984. Article 1 of the Convention Against Torture is set out in the schedule. (Convention contre la torture) designated foreign national has the meaning assigned by subsection 20.1(2). (étranger désigné) foreign national means a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, and includes a stateless person. (étranger) permanent resident means a person who has acquired permanent resident status and has not subsequently lost that status under section 46. (résident permanent) Refugee Convention means the United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, signed at Geneva on July 28, 1951, and the Protocol to that Convention, signed at New York on January 31, 1967. Sections E and F of Article 1 of the Refugee Convention are set out in the schedule. (Convention sur les réfugiés) Act includes regulations and instructions (2) Unless otherwise indicated, references in this Act to “this Act” include regulations made under it and instructions given under subsection 14.1(1).

The Act's definitions section should be read in conjunction with the definitions section for the RPD Rules and related policies and documents
The RPD Rules have a definitions section: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 1 - Definitions. See also the following more general discussions of terms, acronyms, and definitions related to refugee procedure: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Glossary.

The Designated Foreign National regime is set out at section 20.1 of the Act
For more detail on the term "designated foreign national", see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/20.1-20.2 - Designated Foreign Nationals.

IRPA Section 3
Section 3(2) and 3(3) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act read: Objectives — refugees (2) The objectives of this Act with respect to refugees are (a) to recognize that the refugee program is in the first instance about saving lives and offering protection to the displaced and persecuted; (b) to fulfil Canada’s international legal obligations with respect to refugees and affirm Canada’s commitment to international efforts to provide assistance to those in need of resettlement; (c) to grant, as a fundamental expression of Canada’s humanitarian ideals, fair consideration to those who come to Canada claiming persecution; (d) to offer safe haven to persons with a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership in a particular social group, as well as those at risk of torture or cruel and unusual treatment or punishment; (e) to establish fair and efficient procedures that will maintain the integrity of the Canadian refugee protection system, while upholding Canada’s respect for the human rights and fundamental freedoms of all human beings; (f) to support the self-sufficiency and the social and economic well-being of refugees by facilitating reunification with their family members in Canada; (g) to protect the health and safety of Canadians and to maintain the security of Canadian society; and (h) to promote international justice and security by denying access to Canadian territory to persons, including refugee claimants, who are security risks or serious criminals.

Application (3) This Act is to be construed and applied in a manner that (a) furthers the domestic and international interests of Canada; (b) promotes accountability and transparency by enhancing public awareness of immigration and refugee programs; (c) facilitates cooperation between the Government of Canada, provincial governments, foreign states, international organizations and non-governmental organizations; (d) ensures that decisions taken under this Act are consistent with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, including its principles of equality and freedom from discrimination and of the equality of English and French as the official languages of Canada; (e) supports the commitment of the Government of Canada to enhance the vitality of the English and French linguistic minority communities in Canada; and (f) complies with international human rights instruments to which Canada is signatory.

Interpretation
For a discussion of these legislative provisions, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Principles for the interpretation of refugee procedure.


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Canadian Refugee Procedure/169.1 - Composition

IRPA Section 169.1
The relevant provision of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act reads: Refugee Protection Division

Composition 169.1 (1) The Refugee Protection Division consists of the Deputy Chairperson, Assistant Deputy Chairpersons and other members, including coordinating members, necessary to carry out its functions.

Public Service Employment Act (2) The members of the Refugee Protection Division are appointed in accordance with the Public Service Employment Act.


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English-Hanzi/Whole wheat bread, biscuits and cereal breakfast are made from flour

Whole wheat bread, biscuits and cereal breakfast are made from flour, which contains whole grains, including germ and bran.

全麦面包，饼干和谷类早餐均由面粉制成，其中含有全谷物，包括胚芽和麸皮.


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English-Hanzi/White bread and similar foods made from refined grains

White bread and similar foods made from refined grains have higher carbohydrate content and lower nutrient content. Try to replace them with whole grain foods.

由精制谷物制成的白面包和类似食品的碳水化合物含量较高，而营养成分含量较低. 尝试用全谷物食品代替它们.


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User:Ravipather/sandbox

Ravi st Sandbox

title: User:Ravipather/sandbox


text:
The science of finance/Introduction to economics

Economics is the science of the production and consumption of goods and services.

Goods and services
Services (labor) are consumed when they are produced.

The goods produced are consumed after a certain period, short (fresh products) or more or less long (durable goods, including stocks of non-perishable commodities).

Some durable goods are almost eternal (quality housing, jewelry, works of art ...). Others are consumed by use during their lifetime. Even near-eternal goods generally require work to be maintained.

Final consumption is the consumption of goods and services which directly improve the quality of life (in principle, because they can also deteriorate it): food, clothing, housing, health, education, transport, sport and entertainment, long distance communication ...

Intermediate consumption is the consumption of goods and services that serve in the production chain of final goods and services.

Certain goods such as means of transport, computers and smartphones can be used both as intermediate goods and as final goods.

Quality of life
The quality of life does not only depend on final consumption: having a good job and benefiting from good working conditions, feeling safe in the present, for our future, that of our children, our country and all humanity, respect and be respected, love and be loved, know how to meditate and relax, be at peace with oneself and with others, do not despair, breathe good air, benefit from a good climate and a welcoming nature ...

Real wealth and market wealth
Real wealth (capital) at any given time is the sum of all durable goods.

We can also include in the real wealth the intelligence, the competence and the health of human beings (human capital) and the natural wealth (seas, oceans, rivers, lakes and rivers, landscapes, natural fauna and flora ...).

Market wealth is the market value of real wealth. It is assessed with market prices. When goods are not sold, their market value is assessed from the market prices of equivalent goods. Since human beings are not sold as slaves, their market value cannot be assessed, except by very questionable indirect means (discounted lifetime income or risk price).

Market wealth depends on long-term expectations. Durable goods have a market value because it is anticipated that they will be used, and that they can be sold. But lifestyles, and expectations of future lifestyles, can vary. Such variations are difficult to predict. If, for example, humans give up tourism by air, all the infrastructure and equipment intended to produce and consume the planes, including the planes themselves, automatically lose their value. If fiancés lose the habit of offering diamonds, the market value of diamond stocks will be greatly diminished.

Expectations are very fluctuating. They vary with the occurrence of unforeseen events (disasters ...) and are often irrational (animal spirits) because no one can predict with certainty what the future holds for us. This is why the market value of shares can change suddenly. Billions of dollars can disappear in a day without a note being burned, simply because humans have changed their minds.

Investment and long-term vision
Investment is the change in real wealth over a period. A negative investment is a decrease in real wealth (non-renewal of durable goods consumed or deteriorated).

To invest intelligently, we need to have a long-term vision. What goods and services will human beings want to enjoy in the coming decades? Will they have the means to buy them? What intermediate goods must be produced to facilitate the production of final goods and services?

Training is an investment in human capital. Intelligent vocational training also requires a long-term vision.

The market economy is generally short-sighted. The ideal would be for all citizens to agree on the priorities to be given to the economy and for an intelligent state to correct the failings of the market economy.

Work and dignity
Work is the main source of wealth. When we consume goods and services, we give work to all those who participated in their production. Being deprived of work is generally a great suffering, at the same time economic, social and psychological. Giving work is giving dignity, provided it is a good job, in good conditions (hours, equipment, security, respect ...) and honestly paid.


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User:DButcher-laurie

Diplomatic Immunity Messenger of Love, Butcher-Laurie Daniel Marks Child Pryor (Douglass)Burgis Butcher Pearl (miller) Bell(crouch) was married to Everett C Bell(compton..Radio operator) I presume, and decent picture of my Dad Dads Howell (Married to Muriel Bell. with Queen Elizabeth in 1952. (Bixby)[O'Lowery] L(aurie) Gold. Literally Loyal Royal Blood Line.

title: User:DButcher-laurie


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English-Hanzi/White pasta is similar to white bread

White pasta is similar to white bread because white pasta is made from refined flour and has fewer nutrients than unrefined flour.

白面食与白面包相似，因为白面食是由精制面粉制成的，营养成分少于未精制面粉.


text:
Talk:9-1 Chemistry/The periodic table

What is an ion

title: Talk:9-1 Chemistry/The periodic table


text:
Talk:FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/TCMS/Cells and genetics/Micro-organism structure

Biology/Micro-organisms
A microorganism, or microbe,[a] is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its single-celled form or in a colony of cells.

Microorganisms include all unicellular organisms and so are extremely diverse. The scientific study of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax. They live in almost every habitat from the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods, treat sewage, produce fuel, enzymes and other bio-active compounds. They are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bio-terrorism. They are a vital component of fertile soils. In the human body microorganisms make up the human microbiota including the essential gut flora. They are the pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases


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User:ShakespeareFan00/Rail Transport in Britan/Early Waggonways

The earliest railways in Britain were primarily concerned with freight, coal being amongst the first and predominant cargo.

The earliest use of such railways is unclear, but by the 18th century they had been well established in some regions.


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Wikijunior:Entrepreneurial learning

  Entrepreneurial learning is a form of learning that gives you the freedom to determine how you want to learn. ''That freedom is a fantastic experience for many children. But how do you deal with that freedom? How do you ensure that your learning is successful and that others see it also that way? That seems simple, but in practice it turns out to be much more difficult. In many projects in which children at a school learn entrepreneurial, both pupils and teachers encountered this. This book is intended to help you with this.''

title: Wikijunior:Entrepreneurial learning