text:
Module:Unicode data/names/0E0

return { [ 0xE0001 ] = "LANGUAGE TAG", [ 0xE0020 ] = "TAG SPACE", [ 0xE0021 ] = "TAG EXCLAMATION MARK", [ 0xE0022 ] = "TAG QUOTATION MARK", [ 0xE0023 ] = "TAG NUMBER SIGN", [ 0xE0024 ] = "TAG DOLLAR SIGN", [ 0xE0025 ] = "TAG PERCENT SIGN", [ 0xE0026 ] = "TAG AMPERSAND", [ 0xE0027 ] = "TAG APOSTROPHE", [ 0xE0028 ] = "TAG LEFT PARENTHESIS", [ 0xE0029 ] = "TAG RIGHT PARENTHESIS", [ 0xE002A ] = "TAG ASTERISK", [ 0xE002B ] = "TAG PLUS SIGN", [ 0xE002C ] = "TAG COMMA", [ 0xE002D ] = "TAG HYPHEN-MINUS", [ 0xE002E ] = "TAG FULL STOP", [ 0xE002F ] = "TAG SOLIDUS", [ 0xE0030 ] = "TAG DIGIT ZERO", [ 0xE0031 ] = "TAG DIGIT ONE", [ 0xE0032 ] = "TAG DIGIT TWO", [ 0xE0033 ] = "TAG DIGIT THREE", [ 0xE0034 ] = "TAG DIGIT FOUR", [ 0xE0035 ] = "TAG DIGIT FIVE", [ 0xE0036 ] = "TAG DIGIT SIX", [ 0xE0037 ] = "TAG DIGIT SEVEN", [ 0xE0038 ] = "TAG DIGIT EIGHT", [ 0xE0039 ] = "TAG DIGIT NINE", [ 0xE003A ] = "TAG COLON", [ 0xE003B ] = "TAG SEMICOLON", [ 0xE003C ] = "TAG LESS-THAN SIGN", [ 0xE003D ] = "TAG EQUALS SIGN", [ 0xE003E ] = "TAG GREATER-THAN SIGN", [ 0xE003F ] = "TAG QUESTION MARK", [ 0xE0040 ] = "TAG COMMERCIAL AT", [ 0xE0041 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A", [ 0xE0042 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B", [ 0xE0043 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C", [ 0xE0044 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D", [ 0xE0045 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E", [ 0xE0046 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F", [ 0xE0047 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G", [ 0xE0048 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H", [ 0xE0049 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I", [ 0xE004A ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J", [ 0xE004B ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K", [ 0xE004C ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L", [ 0xE004D ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M", [ 0xE004E ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N", [ 0xE004F ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O", [ 0xE0050 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P", [ 0xE0051 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q", [ 0xE0052 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R", [ 0xE0053 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S", [ 0xE0054 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T", [ 0xE0055 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U", [ 0xE0056 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V", [ 0xE0057 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W", [ 0xE0058 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X", [ 0xE0059 ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y", [ 0xE005A ] = "TAG LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z", [ 0xE005B ] = "TAG LEFT SQUARE BRACKET", [ 0xE005C ] = "TAG REVERSE SOLIDUS", [ 0xE005D ] = "TAG RIGHT SQUARE BRACKET", [ 0xE005E ] = "TAG CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT", [ 0xE005F ] = "TAG LOW LINE", [ 0xE0060 ] = "TAG GRAVE ACCENT", [ 0xE0061 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER A", [ 0xE0062 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER B", [ 0xE0063 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER C", [ 0xE0064 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER D", [ 0xE0065 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER E", [ 0xE0066 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER F", [ 0xE0067 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER G", [ 0xE0068 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER H", [ 0xE0069 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER I", [ 0xE006A ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER J", [ 0xE006B ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER K", [ 0xE006C ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER L", [ 0xE006D ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER M", [ 0xE006E ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER N", [ 0xE006F ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER O", [ 0xE0070 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER P", [ 0xE0071 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER Q", [ 0xE0072 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER R", [ 0xE0073 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER S", [ 0xE0074 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER T", [ 0xE0075 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER U", [ 0xE0076 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER V", [ 0xE0077 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER W", [ 0xE0078 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER X", [ 0xE0079 ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER Y", [ 0xE007A ] = "TAG LATIN SMALL LETTER Z", [ 0xE007B ] = "TAG LEFT CURLY BRACKET", [ 0xE007C ] = "TAG VERTICAL LINE", [ 0xE007D ] = "TAG RIGHT CURLY BRACKET", [ 0xE007E ] = "TAG TILDE", [ 0xE007F ] = "CANCEL TAG", --[=[	-- The names for codepoints U+E0100 to U+E01EF are generated by a rule in -- Module:Unicode data. [ 0xE0100 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-17", [ 0xE0101 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-18", [ 0xE0102 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-19", [ 0xE0103 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-20", [ 0xE0104 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-21", [ 0xE0105 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-22", [ 0xE0106 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-23", [ 0xE0107 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-24", [ 0xE0108 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-25", [ 0xE0109 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-26", [ 0xE010A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-27", [ 0xE010B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-28", [ 0xE010C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-29", [ 0xE010D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-30", [ 0xE010E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-31", [ 0xE010F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-32", [ 0xE0110 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-33", [ 0xE0111 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-34", [ 0xE0112 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-35", [ 0xE0113 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-36", [ 0xE0114 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-37", [ 0xE0115 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-38", [ 0xE0116 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-39", [ 0xE0117 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-40", [ 0xE0118 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-41", [ 0xE0119 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-42", [ 0xE011A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-43", [ 0xE011B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-44", [ 0xE011C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-45", [ 0xE011D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-46", [ 0xE011E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-47", [ 0xE011F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-48", [ 0xE0120 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-49", [ 0xE0121 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-50", [ 0xE0122 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-51", [ 0xE0123 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-52", [ 0xE0124 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-53", [ 0xE0125 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-54", [ 0xE0126 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-55", [ 0xE0127 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-56", [ 0xE0128 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-57", [ 0xE0129 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-58", [ 0xE012A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-59", [ 0xE012B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-60", [ 0xE012C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-61", [ 0xE012D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-62", [ 0xE012E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-63", [ 0xE012F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-64", [ 0xE0130 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-65", [ 0xE0131 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-66", [ 0xE0132 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-67", [ 0xE0133 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-68", [ 0xE0134 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-69", [ 0xE0135 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-70", [ 0xE0136 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-71", [ 0xE0137 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-72", [ 0xE0138 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-73", [ 0xE0139 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-74", [ 0xE013A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-75", [ 0xE013B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-76", [ 0xE013C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-77", [ 0xE013D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-78", [ 0xE013E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-79", [ 0xE013F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-80", [ 0xE0140 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-81", [ 0xE0141 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-82", [ 0xE0142 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-83", [ 0xE0143 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-84", [ 0xE0144 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-85", [ 0xE0145 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-86", [ 0xE0146 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-87", [ 0xE0147 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-88", [ 0xE0148 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-89", [ 0xE0149 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-90", [ 0xE014A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-91", [ 0xE014B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-92", [ 0xE014C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-93", [ 0xE014D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-94", [ 0xE014E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-95", [ 0xE014F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-96", [ 0xE0150 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-97", [ 0xE0151 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-98", [ 0xE0152 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-99", [ 0xE0153 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-100", [ 0xE0154 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-101", [ 0xE0155 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-102", [ 0xE0156 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-103", [ 0xE0157 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-104", [ 0xE0158 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-105", [ 0xE0159 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-106", [ 0xE015A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-107", [ 0xE015B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-108", [ 0xE015C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-109", [ 0xE015D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-110", [ 0xE015E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-111", [ 0xE015F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-112", [ 0xE0160 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-113", [ 0xE0161 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-114", [ 0xE0162 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-115", [ 0xE0163 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-116", [ 0xE0164 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-117", [ 0xE0165 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-118", [ 0xE0166 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-119", [ 0xE0167 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-120", [ 0xE0168 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-121", [ 0xE0169 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-122", [ 0xE016A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-123", [ 0xE016B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-124", [ 0xE016C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-125", [ 0xE016D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-126", [ 0xE016E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-127", [ 0xE016F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-128", [ 0xE0170 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-129", [ 0xE0171 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-130", [ 0xE0172 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-131", [ 0xE0173 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-132", [ 0xE0174 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-133", [ 0xE0175 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-134", [ 0xE0176 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-135", [ 0xE0177 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-136", [ 0xE0178 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-137", [ 0xE0179 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-138", [ 0xE017A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-139", [ 0xE017B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-140", [ 0xE017C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-141", [ 0xE017D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-142", [ 0xE017E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-143", [ 0xE017F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-144", [ 0xE0180 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-145", [ 0xE0181 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-146", [ 0xE0182 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-147", [ 0xE0183 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-148", [ 0xE0184 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-149", [ 0xE0185 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-150", [ 0xE0186 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-151", [ 0xE0187 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-152", [ 0xE0188 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-153", [ 0xE0189 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-154", [ 0xE018A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-155", [ 0xE018B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-156", [ 0xE018C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-157", [ 0xE018D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-158", [ 0xE018E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-159", [ 0xE018F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-160", [ 0xE0190 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-161", [ 0xE0191 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-162", [ 0xE0192 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-163", [ 0xE0193 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-164", [ 0xE0194 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-165", [ 0xE0195 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-166", [ 0xE0196 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-167", [ 0xE0197 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-168", [ 0xE0198 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-169", [ 0xE0199 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-170", [ 0xE019A ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-171", [ 0xE019B ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-172", [ 0xE019C ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-173", [ 0xE019D ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-174", [ 0xE019E ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-175", [ 0xE019F ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-176", [ 0xE01A0 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-177", [ 0xE01A1 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-178", [ 0xE01A2 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-179", [ 0xE01A3 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-180", [ 0xE01A4 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-181", [ 0xE01A5 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-182", [ 0xE01A6 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-183", [ 0xE01A7 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-184", [ 0xE01A8 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-185", [ 0xE01A9 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-186", [ 0xE01AA ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-187", [ 0xE01AB ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-188", [ 0xE01AC ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-189", [ 0xE01AD ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-190", [ 0xE01AE ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-191", [ 0xE01AF ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-192", [ 0xE01B0 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-193", [ 0xE01B1 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-194", [ 0xE01B2 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-195", [ 0xE01B3 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-196", [ 0xE01B4 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-197", [ 0xE01B5 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-198", [ 0xE01B6 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-199", [ 0xE01B7 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-200", [ 0xE01B8 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-201", [ 0xE01B9 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-202", [ 0xE01BA ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-203", [ 0xE01BB ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-204", [ 0xE01BC ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-205", [ 0xE01BD ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-206", [ 0xE01BE ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-207", [ 0xE01BF ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-208", [ 0xE01C0 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-209", [ 0xE01C1 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-210", [ 0xE01C2 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-211", [ 0xE01C3 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-212", [ 0xE01C4 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-213", [ 0xE01C5 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-214", [ 0xE01C6 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-215", [ 0xE01C7 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-216", [ 0xE01C8 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-217", [ 0xE01C9 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-218", [ 0xE01CA ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-219", [ 0xE01CB ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-220", [ 0xE01CC ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-221", [ 0xE01CD ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-222", [ 0xE01CE ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-223", [ 0xE01CF ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-224", [ 0xE01D0 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-225", [ 0xE01D1 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-226", [ 0xE01D2 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-227", [ 0xE01D3 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-228", [ 0xE01D4 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-229", [ 0xE01D5 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-230", [ 0xE01D6 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-231", [ 0xE01D7 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-232", [ 0xE01D8 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-233", [ 0xE01D9 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-234", [ 0xE01DA ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-235", [ 0xE01DB ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-236", [ 0xE01DC ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-237", [ 0xE01DD ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-238", [ 0xE01DE ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-239", [ 0xE01DF ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-240", [ 0xE01E0 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-241", [ 0xE01E1 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-242", [ 0xE01E2 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-243", [ 0xE01E3 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-244", [ 0xE01E4 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-245", [ 0xE01E5 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-246", [ 0xE01E6 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-247", [ 0xE01E7 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-248", [ 0xE01E8 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-249", [ 0xE01E9 ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-250", [ 0xE01EA ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-251", [ 0xE01EB ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-252", [ 0xE01EC ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-253", [ 0xE01ED ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-254", [ 0xE01EE ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-255", [ 0xE01EF ] = "VARIATION SELECTOR-256", --]=] }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Module:Unicode data/names/0E0


text:
Module:LoadData

local p = {}

-- Finds the next key key <= or >= the given i. -- operator is ±1 local function findItemRange(data, i, operator) local bestIndex = nil i = i * operator for k, v in pairs(data) do   	local kop = type(k) == 'number' and k * operator if kop and kop <= i and (bestIndex == nil or kop > bestIndex * operator) then bestIndex = k       end end if bestIndex then return data[bestIndex] else return nil end end

local function load(datamodule, frame) local args = frame.args local data = mw.loadData(datamodule) for i = 1, 20 do       if args[i] then data = data[tonumber(args[i]) or args[i]] elseif args[i .. ' lteq'] then data = findItemRange(data, tonumber(args[i .. ' lteq']), 1) elseif args[i .. ' gteq'] then data = findItemRange(data, tonumber(args[i .. ' gteq']), -1) else break end end if data == nil then return args['if_nil'] -- not a required argument, OK to return nil here. end if type(data) == 'table' then -- Put the table into another table because the return value of loadData -- is a "fake" table that only has certain metamethods. local realdata = {} for k, v in pairs(data) do   		realdata[k] = v    	end data = realdata else data = { data } end if args['template'] then return mw.text.unstripNoWiki(args['template']):format(unpack(data)) elseif args['preprocess'] then return frame:preprocess(mw.text.unstripNoWiki(args['preprocess']):format(unpack(data))) else return table.concat(data) end end

return setmetatable({}, {	__index = function(t, k)		return function(frame)			return load('Module:' .. k, frame)   	end	end })

title: Module:LoadData


text:
Module:Numcr2namecr

return { [9]='&Tab;', [33]='&excl;', [34]='&quot;, &QUOT;', [35]='&num;', [36]='&dollar;', [37]='&percnt;', [38]='&amp;, &AMP;', [39]='&apos;', [40]='&lpar;', [41]='&rpar;', [42]='&ast;, &midast;', [43]='&plus;', [44]='&comma;', [46]='&period;', [47]='&sol;', [58]='&colon;', [59]='&semi;', [60]='&lt;, &LT;', [61]='&equals;', [62]='&gt;, &GT;', [63]='&quest;', [64]='&commat;', [91]='&lbrack;, &lsqb;', [92]='&bsol;', [93]='&rbrack;, &rsqb;', [94]='&Hat;', [95]='&lowbar;, &UnderBar;', [96]='&DiacriticalGrave;, &grave;', [123]='&lbrace;, &lcub;', [124]='&verbar;, &vert;, &VerticalLine;', [125]='&rbrace;, &rcub;', [160]='&nbsp;, &NonBreakingSpace;', [161]='&iexcl;', [162]='&cent;', [163]='&pound;', [164]='&curren;', [165]='&yen;', [166]='&brvbar;', [167]='&sect;', [168]='&uml;, &die;, &Dot;, &DoubleDot;', [169]='&copy;, &COPY;', [170]='&ordf;', [171]='&laquo;', [172]='&not;', [173]='&shy;', [174]='&reg;, &REG;, &circledR;', [175]='&macr;, &strns;', [176]='&deg;', [177]='&plusmn;, &PlusMinus;, &pm;', [178]='&sup2;', [179]='&sup3;', [180]='&acute;, &DiacriticalAcute;', [181]='&micro;', [182]='&para;', [183]='&middot;, &CenterDot;, &centerdot;', [184]='&cedil;, &Cedilla;', [185]='&sup1;', [186]='&ordm;', [187]='&raquo;', [188]='&frac14;', [189]='&frac12;, &half;', [190]='&frac34;', [191]='&iquest;', [192]='&Agrave;', [193]='&Aacute;', [194]='&Acirc;', [195]='&Atilde;', [196]='&Auml;', [197]='&Aring;, &angst;', [198]='&AElig;', [199]='&Ccedil;', [200]='&Egrave;', [201]='&Eacute;', [202]='&Ecirc;', [203]='&Euml;', [204]='&Igrave;', [205]='&Iacute;', [206]='&Icirc;', [207]='&Iuml;', [208]='&ETH;', [209]='&Ntilde;', [210]='&Ograve;', [211]='&Oacute;', [212]='&Ocirc;', [213]='&Otilde;', [214]='&Ouml;', [215]='&times;', [216]='&Oslash;', [217]='&Ugrave;', [218]='&Uacute;', [219]='&Ucirc;', [220]='&Uuml;', [221]='&Yacute;', [222]='&THORN;', [223]='&szlig;', [224]='&agrave;', [225]='&aacute;', [226]='&acirc;', [227]='&atilde;', [228]='&auml;', [229]='&aring;', [230]='&aelig;', [231]='&ccedil;', [232]='&egrave;', [233]='&eacute;', [234]='&ecirc;', [235]='&euml;', [236]='&igrave;', [237]='&iacute;', [238]='&icirc;', [239]='&iuml;', [240]='&eth;', [241]='&ntilde;', [242]='&ograve;', [243]='&oacute;', [244]='&ocirc;', [245]='&otilde;', [246]='&ouml;', [247]='&divide;, &div;', [248]='&oslash;', [249]='&ugrave;', [250]='&uacute;', [251]='&ucirc;', [252]='&uuml;', [253]='&yacute;', [254]='&thorn;', [255]='&yuml;', [256]='&Amacr;', [257]='&amacr;', [258]='&Abreve;', [259]='&abreve;', [260]='&Aogon;', [261]='&aogon;', [262]='&Cacute;', [263]='&cacute;', [264]='&Ccirc;', [265]='&ccirc;', [266]='&Cdot;', [267]='&cdot;', [268]='&Ccaron;', [269]='&ccaron;', [270]='&Dcaron;', [271]='&dcaron;', [272]='&Dstrok;', [273]='&dstrok;', [274]='&Emacr;', [275]='&emacr;', [278]='&Edot;', [279]='&edot;', [280]='&Eogon;', [281]='&eogon;', [282]='&Ecaron;', [283]='&ecaron;', [284]='&Gcirc;', [285]='&gcirc;', [286]='&Gbreve;', [287]='&gbreve;', [288]='&Gdot;', [289]='&gdot;', [290]='&Gcedil;', [292]='&Hcirc;', [293]='&hcirc;', [294]='&Hstrok;', [295]='&hstrok;', [296]='&Itilde;', [297]='&itilde;', [298]='&Imacr;', [299]='&imacr;', [302]='&Iogon;', [303]='&iogon;', [304]='&Idot;', [305]='&imath;, &inodot;', [306]='&IJlig;', [307]='&ijlig;', [308]='&Jcirc;', [309]='&jcirc;', [310]='&Kcedil;', [311]='&kcedil;', [312]='&kgreen;', [313]='&Lacute;', [314]='&lacute;', [315]='&Lcedil;', [316]='&lcedil;', [317]='&Lcaron;', [318]='&lcaron;', [319]='&Lmidot;', [320]='&lmidot;', [321]='&Lstrok;', [322]='&lstrok;', [323]='&Nacute;', [324]='&nacute;', [325]='&Ncedil;', [326]='&ncedil;', [327]='&Ncaron;', [328]='&ncaron;', [329]='&napos;', [330]='&ENG;', [331]='&eng;', [332]='&Omacr;', [333]='&omacr;', [336]='&Odblac;', [337]='&odblac;', [338]='&OElig;', [339]='&oelig;', [340]='&Racute;', [341]='&racute;', [342]='&Rcedil;', [343]='&rcedil;', [344]='&Rcaron;', [345]='&rcaron;', [346]='&Sacute;', [347]='&sacute;', [348]='&Scirc;', [349]='&scirc;', [350]='&Scedil;', [351]='&scedil;', [352]='&Scaron;', [353]='&scaron;', [354]='&Tcedil;', [355]='&tcedil;', [356]='&Tcaron;', [357]='&tcaron;', [358]='&Tstrok;', [359]='&tstrok;', [360]='&Utilde;', [361]='&utilde;', [362]='&Umacr;', [363]='&umacr;', [364]='&Ubreve;', [365]='&ubreve;', [366]='&Uring;', [367]='&uring;', [368]='&Udblac;', [369]='&udblac;', [370]='&Uogon;', [371]='&uogon;', [372]='&Wcirc;', [373]='&wcirc;', [374]='&Ycirc;', [375]='&ycirc;', [376]='&Yuml;', [377]='&Zacute;', [378]='&zacute;', [379]='&Zdot;', [380]='&zdot;', [381]='&Zcaron;', [382]='&zcaron;', [402]='&fnof;', [437]='&imped;', [501]='&gacute;', [567]='&jmath;', [710]='&circ;', [711]='&caron;, &Hacek;', [728]='&Breve;, &breve;', [729]='&DiacriticalDot;, &dot;', [730]='&ring;', [731]='&ogon;', [732]='&DiacriticalTilde;, &tilde;', [733]='&dblac;, &DiacriticalDoubleAcute;', [785]='&DownBreve;', [913]='&Alpha;', [914]='&Beta;', [915]='&Gamma;', [916]='&Delta;', [917]='&Epsilon;', [918]='&Zeta;', [919]='&Eta;', [920]='&Theta;', [921]='&Iota;', [922]='&Kappa;', [923]='&Lambda;', [924]='&Mu;', [925]='&Nu;', [926]='&Xi;', [927]='&Omicron;', [928]='&Pi;', [929]='&Rho;', [931]='&Sigma;', [932]='&Tau;', [933]='&Upsilon;', [934]='&Phi;', [935]='&Chi;', [936]='&Psi;', [937]='&ohm;, &Omega;', [945]='&alpha;', [946]='&beta;', [947]='&gamma;', [948]='&delta;', [949]='&epsi;, &epsilon;', [950]='&zeta;', [951]='&eta;', [952]='&theta;', [953]='&iota;', [954]='&kappa;', [955]='&lambda;', [956]='&mu;', [957]='&nu;', [958]='&xi;', [959]='&omicron;', [960]='&pi;', [961]='&rho;', [962]='&sigmaf;, &sigmav;, &varsigma;', [963]='&sigma;', [964]='&tau;', [965]='&upsi;, &upsilon;', [966]='&phi;', [967]='&chi;', [968]='&psi;', [969]='&omega;', [977]='&thetasym;, &thetav;, &vartheta;', [978]='&Upsi;, &upsih;', [981]='&phiv;, &straightphi;, &varphi;', [982]='&piv;, &varpi;', [988]='&Gammad;', [989]='&digamma;, &gammad;', [1008]='&kappav;, &varkappa;', [1009]='&rhov;, &varrho;', [1013]='&epsiv;, &straightepsilon;, &varepsilon;', [1014]='&backepsilon;, &bepsi;', [1025]='&IOcy;', [1026]='&DJcy;', [1027]='&GJcy;', [1028]='&Jukcy;', [1029]='&DScy;', [1030]='&Iukcy;', [1031]='&YIcy;', [1032]='&Jsercy;', [1033]='&LJcy;', [1034]='&NJcy;', [1035]='&TSHcy;', [1036]='&KJcy;', [1038]='&Ubrcy;', [1039]='&DZcy;', [1040]='&Acy;', [1041]='&Bcy;', [1042]='&Vcy;', [1043]='&Gcy;', [1044]='&Dcy;', [1045]='&IEcy;', [1046]='&ZHcy;', [1047]='&Zcy;', [1048]='&Icy;', [1049]='&Jcy;', [1050]='&Kcy;', [1051]='&Lcy;', [1052]='&Mcy;', [1053]='&Ncy;', [1054]='&Ocy;', [1055]='&Pcy;', [1056]='&Rcy;', [1057]='&Scy;', [1058]='&Tcy;', [1059]='&Ucy;', [1060]='&Fcy;', [1061]='&KHcy;', [1062]='&TScy;', [1063]='&CHcy;', [1064]='&SHcy;', [1065]='&SHCHcy;', [1066]='&HARDcy;', [1067]='&Ycy;', [1068]='&SOFTcy;', [1069]='&Ecy;', [1070]='&YUcy;', [1071]='&YAcy;', [1072]='&acy;', [1073]='&bcy;', [1074]='&vcy;', [1075]='&gcy;', [1076]='&dcy;', [1077]='&iecy;', [1078]='&zhcy;', [1079]='&zcy;', [1080]='&icy;', [1081]='&jcy;', [1082]='&kcy;', [1083]='&lcy;', [1084]='&mcy;', [1085]='&ncy;', [1086]='&ocy;', [1087]='&pcy;', [1088]='&rcy;', [1089]='&scy;', [1090]='&tcy;', [1091]='&ucy;', [1092]='&fcy;', [1093]='&khcy;', [1094]='&tscy;', [1095]='&chcy;', [1096]='&shcy;', [1097]='&shchcy;', [1098]='&hardcy;', [1099]='&ycy;', [1100]='&softcy;', [1101]='&ecy;', [1102]='&yucy;', [1103]='&yacy;', [1105]='&iocy;', [1106]='&djcy;', [1107]='&gjcy;', [1108]='&jukcy;', [1109]='&dscy;', [1110]='&iukcy;', [1111]='&yicy;', [1112]='&jsercy;', [1113]='&ljcy;', [1114]='&njcy;', [1115]='&tshcy;', [1116]='&kjcy;', [1118]='&ubrcy;', [1119]='&dzcy;', [8194]='&ensp;', [8195]='&emsp;', [8196]='&emsp13;', [8197]='&emsp14;', [8199]='&numsp;', [8200]='&puncsp;', [8201]='&thinsp;, &ThinSpace;', [8202]='&hairsp;, &VeryThinSpace;', [8203]='&NegativeMediumSpace;, &NegativeThickSpace;, &NegativeThinSpace;, &NegativeVeryThinSpace;, &ZeroWidthSpace;', [8204]='&zwnj;', [8205]='&zwj;', [8206]='&lrm;', [8207]='&rlm;', [8208]='&dash;, &hyphen;', [8211]='&ndash;', [8212]='&mdash;', [8213]='&horbar;', [8214]='&Verbar;, &Vert;', [8216]='&lsquo;, &OpenCurlyQuote;', [8217]='&CloseCurlyQuote;, &rsquo;, &rsquor;', [8218]='&lsquor;, &sbquo;', [8220]='&ldquo;, &OpenCurlyDoubleQuote;', [8221]='&CloseCurlyDoubleQuote;, &rdquo;, &rdquor;', [8222]='&bdquo;, &ldquor;', [8224]='&dagger;', [8225]='&Dagger;, &ddagger;', [8226]='&bull;, &bullet;', [8229]='&nldr;', [8230]='&hellip;, &mldr;', [8240]='&permil;', [8241]='&pertenk;', [8242]='&prime;', [8243]='&Prime;', [8244]='&tprime;', [8245]='&backprime;, &bprime;', [8249]='&lsaquo;', [8250]='&rsaquo;', [8254]='&oline;, &OverBar;', [8257]='&caret;', [8259]='&hybull;', [8260]='&frasl;', [8271]='&bsemi;', [8279]='&qprime;', [8287]='&MediumSpace;', [8288]='&NoBreak;', [8289]='&af;, &ApplyFunction;', [8290]='&InvisibleTimes;, &it;', [8291]='&ic;, &InvisibleComma;', [8364]='&euro;', [8411]='&tdot;, &TripleDot;', [8412]='&DotDot;', [8450]='&complexes;, &Copf;', [8453]='&incare;', [8458]='&gscr;', [8459]='&hamilt;, &HilbertSpace;, &Hscr;', [8460]='&Hfr;, &Poincareplane;', [8461]='&Hopf;, &quaternions;', [8462]='&planckh;', [8463]='&hbar;, &hslash;, &planck;, &plankv;', [8464]='&imagline;, &Iscr;', [8465]='&Ifr;, &Im;, &image;, &imagpart;', [8466]='&lagran;, &Laplacetrf;, &Lscr;', [8467]='&ell;', [8469]='&naturals;, &Nopf;', [8470]='&numero;', [8471]='&copysr;', [8472]='&weierp;, &wp;', [8473]='&Popf;, &primes;', [8474]='&Qopf;, &rationals;', [8475]='&realine;, &Rscr;', [8476]='&Re;, &real;, &realpart;, &Rfr;', [8477]='&reals;, &Ropf;', [8478]='&rx;', [8482]='&TRADE;, &trade;', [8484]='&integers;, &Zopf;', [8487]='&mho;', [8488]='&zeetrf;, &Zfr;', [8489]='&iiota;', [8492]='&bernou;, &Bernoullis;, &Bscr;', [8493]='&Cayleys;, &Cfr;', [8495]='&escr;', [8496]='&Escr;, &expectation;', [8497]='&Fouriertrf;, &Fscr;', [8499]='&Mellintrf;, &Mscr;, &phmmat;', [8500]='&order;, &orderof;, &oscr;', [8501]='&alefsym;, &aleph;', [8502]='&beth;', [8503]='&gimel;', [8504]='&daleth;', [8517]='&CapitalDifferentialD;, &DD;', [8518]='&dd;, &DifferentialD;', [8519]='&ee;, &ExponentialE;, &exponentiale;', [8520]='&ii;, &ImaginaryI;', [8531]='&frac13;', [8532]='&frac23;', [8533]='&frac15;', [8534]='&frac25;', [8535]='&frac35;', [8536]='&frac45;', [8537]='&frac16;', [8538]='&frac56;', [8539]='&frac18;', [8540]='&frac38;', [8541]='&frac58;', [8542]='&frac78;', [8592]='&larr;, &LeftArrow;, &leftarrow;, &ShortLeftArrow;, &slarr;', [8593]='&ShortUpArrow;, &uarr;, &UpArrow;, &uparrow;', [8594]='&rarr;, &RightArrow;, &rightarrow;, &ShortRightArrow;, &srarr;', [8595]='&darr;, &DownArrow;, &downarrow;, &ShortDownArrow;', [8596]='&harr;, &LeftRightArrow;, &leftrightarrow;', [8597]='&UpDownArrow;, &updownarrow;, &varr;', [8598]='&nwarr;, &nwarrow;, &UpperLeftArrow;', [8599]='&nearr;, &nearrow;, &UpperRightArrow;', [8600]='&LowerRightArrow;, &searr;, &searrow;', [8601]='&LowerLeftArrow;, &swarr;, &swarrow;', [8602]='&nlarr;, &nleftarrow;', [8603]='&nrarr;, &nrightarrow;', [8605]='&rarrw;, &rightsquigarrow;', [8606]='&Larr;, &twoheadleftarrow;', [8607]='&Uarr;', [8608]='&Rarr;, &twoheadrightarrow;', [8609]='&Darr;', [8610]='&larrtl;, &leftarrowtail;', [8611]='&rarrtl;, &rightarrowtail;', [8612]='&LeftTeeArrow;, &mapstoleft;', [8613]='&mapstoup;, &UpTeeArrow;', [8614]='&map;, &mapsto;, &RightTeeArrow;', [8615]='&DownTeeArrow;, &mapstodown;', [8617]='&hookleftarrow;, &larrhk;', [8618]='&hookrightarrow;, &rarrhk;', [8619]='&larrlp;, &looparrowleft;', [8620]='&looparrowright;, &rarrlp;', [8621]='&harrw;, &leftrightsquigarrow;', [8622]='&nharr;, &nleftrightarrow;', [8624]='&Lsh;, &lsh;', [8625]='&Rsh;, &rsh;', [8626]='&ldsh;', [8627]='&rdsh;', [8629]='&crarr;', [8630]='&cularr;, &curvearrowleft;', [8631]='&curarr;, &curvearrowright;', [8634]='&circlearrowleft;, &olarr;', [8635]='&circlearrowright;, &orarr;', [8636]='&leftharpoonup;, &LeftVector;, &lharu;', [8637]='&DownLeftVector;, &leftharpoondown;, &lhard;', [8638]='&RightUpVector;, &uharr;, &upharpoonright;', [8639]='&LeftUpVector;, &uharl;, &upharpoonleft;', [8640]='&rharu;, &rightharpoonup;, &RightVector;', [8641]='&DownRightVector;, &rhard;, &rightharpoondown;', [8642]='&dharr;, &downharpoonright;, &RightDownVector;', [8643]='&dharl;, &downharpoonleft;, &LeftDownVector;', [8644]='&RightArrowLeftArrow;, &rightleftarrows;, &rlarr;', [8645]='&udarr;, &UpArrowDownArrow;', [8646]='&LeftArrowRightArrow;, &leftrightarrows;, &lrarr;', [8647]='&leftleftarrows;, &llarr;', [8648]='&upuparrows;, &uuarr;', [8649]='&rightrightarrows;, &rrarr;', [8650]='&ddarr;, &downdownarrows;', [8651]='&leftrightharpoons;, &lrhar;, &ReverseEquilibrium;', [8652]='&Equilibrium;, &rightleftharpoons;, &rlhar;', [8653]='&nlArr;, &nLeftarrow;', [8654]='&nhArr;, &nLeftrightarrow;', [8655]='&nrArr;, &nRightarrow;', [8656]='&DoubleLeftArrow;, &lArr;, &Leftarrow;', [8657]='&DoubleUpArrow;, &uArr;, &Uparrow;', [8658]='&DoubleRightArrow;, &Implies;, &rArr;, &Rightarrow;', [8659]='&dArr;, &DoubleDownArrow;, &Downarrow;', [8660]='&DoubleLeftRightArrow;, &hArr;, &iff;, &Leftrightarrow;', [8661]='&DoubleUpDownArrow;, &Updownarrow;, &vArr;', [8662]='&nwArr;', [8663]='&neArr;', [8664]='&seArr;', [8665]='&swArr;', [8666]='&lAarr;, &Lleftarrow;', [8667]='&rAarr;, &Rrightarrow;', [8669]='&zigrarr;', [8676]='&larrb;, &LeftArrowBar;', [8677]='&rarrb;, &RightArrowBar;', [8693]='&DownArrowUpArrow;, &duarr;', [8701]='&loarr;', [8702]='&roarr;', [8703]='&hoarr;', [8704]='&ForAll;, &forall;', [8705]='&comp;, &complement;', [8706]='&part;, &PartialD;', [8707]='&exist;, &Exists;', [8708]='&nexist;, &nexists;, &NotExists;', [8709]='&empty;, &emptyset;, &emptyv;, &varnothing;', [8711]='&Del;, &nabla;', [8712]='&Element;, &in;, &isin;, &isinv;', [8713]='&NotElement;, &notin;, &notinva;', [8715]='&ni;, &niv;, &ReverseElement;, &SuchThat;', [8716]='&notni;, &notniva;, &NotReverseElement;', [8719]='&prod;, &Product;', [8720]='&coprod;, &Coproduct;', [8721]='&Sum;, &sum;', [8722]='&minus;', [8723]='&MinusPlus;, &mnplus;, &mp;', [8724]='&dotplus;, &plusdo;', [8726]='&Backslash;, &setminus;, &setmn;, &smallsetminus;, &ssetmn;', [8727]='&lowast;', [8728]='&compfn;, &SmallCircle;', [8730]='&radic;, &Sqrt;', [8733]='&prop;, &Proportional;, &propto;, &varpropto;, &vprop;', [8734]='&infin;', [8735]='&angrt;', [8736]='&ang;, &angle;', [8737]='&angmsd;, &measuredangle;', [8738]='&angsph;', [8739]='&mid;, &shortmid;, &smid;, &VerticalBar;', [8740]='&nmid;, &NotVerticalBar;, &nshortmid;, &nsmid;', [8741]='&DoubleVerticalBar;, &par;, &parallel;, &shortparallel;, &spar;', [8742]='&NotDoubleVerticalBar;, &npar;, &nparallel;, &nshortparallel;, &nspar;', [8743]='&and;, &wedge;', [8744]='&or;, &vee;', [8745]='&cap;', [8746]='&cup;', [8747]='&int;, &Integral;', [8748]='&Int;', [8749]='&iiint;, &tint;', [8750]='&conint;, &ContourIntegral;, &oint;', [8751]='&Conint;, &DoubleContourIntegral;', [8752]='&Cconint;', [8753]='&cwint;', [8754]='&ClockwiseContourIntegral;, &cwconint;', [8755]='&awconint;, &CounterClockwiseContourIntegral;', [8756]='&there4;, &Therefore;, &therefore;', [8757]='&becaus;, &Because;, &because;', [8758]='&ratio;', [8759]='&Colon;, &Proportion;', [8760]='&dotminus;, &minusd;', [8762]='&mDDot;', [8763]='&homtht;', [8764]='&sim;, &thicksim;, &thksim;, &Tilde;', [8765]='&backsim;, &bsim;', [8766]='&ac;, &mstpos;', [8767]='&acd;', [8768]='&VerticalTilde;, &wr;, &wreath;', [8769]='&NotTilde;, &nsim;', [8770]='&eqsim;, &EqualTilde;, &esim;', [8771]='&sime;, &simeq;, &TildeEqual;', [8772]='&NotTildeEqual;, &nsime;, &nsimeq;', [8773]='&cong;, &TildeFullEqual;', [8774]='&simne;', [8775]='&ncong;, &NotTildeFullEqual;', [8776]='&ap;, &approx;, &asymp;, &thickapprox;, &thkap;, &TildeTilde;', [8777]='&nap;, &napprox;, &NotTildeTilde;', [8778]='&ape;, &approxeq;', [8779]='&apid;', [8780]='&backcong;, &bcong;', [8781]='&asympeq;, &CupCap;', [8782]='&bump;, &Bumpeq;, &HumpDownHump;', [8783]='&bumpe;, &bumpeq;, &HumpEqual;', [8784]='&doteq;, &DotEqual;, &esdot;', [8785]='&doteqdot;, &eDot;', [8786]='&efDot;, &fallingdotseq;', [8787]='&erDot;, &risingdotseq;', [8788]='&Assign;, &colone;, &coloneq;', [8789]='&ecolon;, &eqcolon;', [8790]='&ecir;, &eqcirc;', [8791]='&circeq;, &cire;', [8793]='&wedgeq;', [8794]='&veeeq;', [8796]='&triangleq;, &trie;', [8799]='&equest;, &questeq;', [8800]='&ne;, &NotEqual;', [8801]='&Congruent;, &equiv;', [8802]='&nequiv;, &NotCongruent;', [8804]='&le;, &leq;', [8805]='&ge;, &geq;, &GreaterEqual;', [8806]='&lE;, &leqq;, &LessFullEqual;', [8807]='&gE;, &geqq;, &GreaterFullEqual;', [8808]='&lnE;, &lneqq;', [8809]='&gnE;, &gneqq;', [8810]='&ll;, &Lt;, &NestedLessLess;', [8811]='&gg;, &Gt;, &NestedGreaterGreater;', [8812]='&between;, &twixt;', [8813]='&NotCupCap;', [8814]='&nless;, &nlt;, &NotLess;', [8815]='&ngt;, &ngtr;, &NotGreater;', [8816]='&nle;, &nleq;, &NotLessEqual;', [8817]='&nge;, &ngeq;, &NotGreaterEqual;', [8818]='&lesssim;, &LessTilde;, &lsim;', [8819]='&GreaterTilde;, &gsim;, &gtrsim;', [8820]='&nlsim;, &NotLessTilde;', [8821]='&ngsim;, &NotGreaterTilde;', [8822]='&LessGreater;, &lessgtr;, &lg;', [8823]='&gl;, &GreaterLess;, &gtrless;', [8824]='&NotLessGreater;, &ntlg;', [8825]='&NotGreaterLess;, &ntgl;', [8826]='&pr;, &prec;, &Precedes;', [8827]='&sc;, &succ;, &Succeeds;', [8828]='&prcue;, &preccurlyeq;, &PrecedesSlantEqual;', [8829]='&sccue;, &succcurlyeq;, &SucceedsSlantEqual;', [8830]='&PrecedesTilde;, &precsim;, &prsim;', [8831]='&scsim;, &SucceedsTilde;, &succsim;', [8832]='&NotPrecedes;, &npr;, &nprec;', [8833]='&NotSucceeds;, &nsc;, &nsucc;', [8834]='&sub;, &subset;', [8835]='&sup;, &Superset;, &supset;', [8836]='&nsub;', [8837]='&nsup;', [8838]='&sube;, &subseteq;, &SubsetEqual;', [8839]='&supe;, &SupersetEqual;, &supseteq;', [8840]='&NotSubsetEqual;, &nsube;, &nsubseteq;', [8841]='&NotSupersetEqual;, &nsupe;, &nsupseteq;', [8842]='&subne;, &subsetneq;', [8843]='&supne;, &supsetneq;', [8845]='&cupdot;', [8846]='&UnionPlus;, &uplus;', [8847]='&sqsub;, &sqsubset;, &SquareSubset;', [8848]='&sqsup;, &sqsupset;, &SquareSuperset;', [8849]='&sqsube;, &sqsubseteq;, &SquareSubsetEqual;', [8850]='&sqsupe;, &sqsupseteq;, &SquareSupersetEqual;', [8851]='&sqcap;, &SquareIntersection;', [8852]='&sqcup;, &SquareUnion;', [8853]='&CirclePlus;, &oplus;', [8854]='&CircleMinus;, &ominus;', [8855]='&CircleTimes;, &otimes;', [8856]='&osol;', [8857]='&CircleDot;, &odot;', [8858]='&circledcirc;, &ocir;', [8859]='&circledast;, &oast;', [8861]='&circleddash;, &odash;', [8862]='&boxplus;, &plusb;', [8863]='&boxminus;, &minusb;', [8864]='&boxtimes;, &timesb;', [8865]='&dotsquare;, &sdotb;', [8866]='&RightTee;, &vdash;', [8867]='&dashv;, &LeftTee;', [8868]='&DownTee;, &top;', [8869]='&bot;, &bottom;, &perp;, &UpTee;', [8871]='&models;', [8872]='&DoubleRightTee;, &vDash;', [8873]='&Vdash;', [8874]='&Vvdash;', [8875]='&VDash;', [8876]='&nvdash;', [8877]='&nvDash;', [8878]='&nVdash;', [8879]='&nVDash;', [8880]='&prurel;', [8882]='&LeftTriangle;, &vartriangleleft;, &vltri;', [8883]='&RightTriangle;, &vartriangleright;, &vrtri;', [8884]='&LeftTriangleEqual;, &ltrie;, &trianglelefteq;', [8885]='&RightTriangleEqual;, &rtrie;, &trianglerighteq;', [8886]='&origof;', [8887]='&imof;', [8888]='&multimap;, &mumap;', [8889]='&hercon;', [8890]='&intcal;, &intercal;', [8891]='&veebar;', [8893]='&barvee;', [8894]='&angrtvb;', [8895]='&lrtri;', [8896]='&bigwedge;, &Wedge;, &xwedge;', [8897]='&bigvee;, &Vee;, &xvee;', [8898]='&bigcap;, &Intersection;, &xcap;', [8899]='&bigcup;, &Union;, &xcup;', [8900]='&diam;, &Diamond;, &diamond;', [8901]='&sdot;', [8902]='&sstarf;, &Star;', [8903]='&divideontimes;, &divonx;', [8904]='&bowtie;', [8905]='&ltimes;', [8906]='&rtimes;', [8907]='&leftthreetimes;, &lthree;', [8908]='&rightthreetimes;, &rthree;', [8909]='&backsimeq;, &bsime;', [8910]='&curlyvee;, &cuvee;', [8911]='&curlywedge;, &cuwed;', [8912]='&Sub;, &Subset;', [8913]='&Sup;, &Supset;', [8914]='&Cap;', [8915]='&Cup;', [8916]='&fork;, &pitchfork;', [8917]='&epar;', [8918]='&lessdot;, &ltdot;', [8919]='&gtdot;, &gtrdot;', [8920]='&Ll;', [8921]='&Gg;, &ggg;', [8922]='&leg;, &lesseqgtr;, &LessEqualGreater;', [8923]='&gel;, &GreaterEqualLess;, &gtreqless;', [8926]='&cuepr;, &curlyeqprec;', [8927]='&cuesc;, &curlyeqsucc;', [8928]='&NotPrecedesSlantEqual;, &nprcue;', [8929]='&NotSucceedsSlantEqual;, &nsccue;', [8930]='&NotSquareSubsetEqual;, &nsqsube;', [8931]='&NotSquareSupersetEqual;, &nsqsupe;', [8934]='&lnsim;', [8935]='&gnsim;', [8936]='&precnsim;, &prnsim;', [8937]='&scnsim;, &succnsim;', [8938]='&nltri;, &NotLeftTriangle;, &ntriangleleft;', [8939]='&NotRightTriangle;, &nrtri;, &ntriangleright;', [8940]='&nltrie;, &NotLeftTriangleEqual;, &ntrianglelefteq;', [8941]='&NotRightTriangleEqual;, &nrtrie;, &ntrianglerighteq;', [8942]='&vellip;', [8943]='&ctdot;', [8944]='&utdot;', [8945]='&dtdot;', [8946]='&disin;', [8947]='&isinsv;', [8948]='&isins;', [8949]='&isindot;', [8950]='&notinvc;', [8951]='&notinvb;', [8953]='&isinE;', [8954]='&nisd;', [8955]='&xnis;', [8956]='&nis;', [8957]='&notnivc;', [8958]='&notnivb;', [8965]='&barwed;, &barwedge;', [8966]='&Barwed;, &doublebarwedge;', [8968]='&lceil;, &LeftCeiling;', [8969]='&rceil;, &RightCeiling;', [8970]='&LeftFloor;, &lfloor;', [8971]='&rfloor;, &RightFloor;', [8972]='&drcrop;', [8973]='&dlcrop;', [8974]='&urcrop;', [8975]='&ulcrop;', [8976]='&bnot;', [8978]='&profline;', [8979]='&profsurf;', [8981]='&telrec;', [8982]='&target;', [8988]='&ulcorn;, &ulcorner;', [8989]='&urcorn;, &urcorner;', [8990]='&dlcorn;, &llcorner;', [8991]='&drcorn;, &lrcorner;', [8994]='&frown;, &sfrown;', [8995]='&smile;, &ssmile;', [9005]='&cylcty;', [9006]='&profalar;', [9014]='&topbot;', [9021]='&ovbar;', [9023]='&solbar;', [9084]='&angzarr;', [9136]='&lmoust;, &lmoustache;', [9137]='&rmoust;, &rmoustache;', [9140]='&OverBracket;, &tbrk;', [9141]='&bbrk;, &UnderBracket;', [9142]='&bbrktbrk;', [9180]='&OverParenthesis;', [9181]='&UnderParenthesis;', [9182]='&OverBrace;', [9183]='&UnderBrace;', [9186]='&trpezium;', [9191]='&elinters;', [9251]='&blank;', [9416]='&circledS;, &oS;', [9472]='&boxh;, &HorizontalLine;', [9474]='&boxv;', [9484]='&boxdr;', [9488]='&boxdl;', [9492]='&boxur;', [9496]='&boxul;', [9500]='&boxvr;', [9508]='&boxvl;', [9516]='&boxhd;', [9524]='&boxhu;', [9532]='&boxvh;', [9552]='&boxH;', [9553]='&boxV;', [9554]='&boxdR;', [9555]='&boxDr;', [9556]='&boxDR;', [9557]='&boxdL;', [9558]='&boxDl;', [9559]='&boxDL;', [9560]='&boxuR;', [9561]='&boxUr;', [9562]='&boxUR;', [9563]='&boxuL;', [9564]='&boxUl;', [9565]='&boxUL;', [9566]='&boxvR;', [9567]='&boxVr;', [9568]='&boxVR;', [9569]='&boxvL;', [9570]='&boxVl;', [9571]='&boxVL;', [9572]='&boxHd;', [9573]='&boxhD;', [9574]='&boxHD;', [9575]='&boxHu;', [9576]='&boxhU;', [9577]='&boxHU;', [9578]='&boxvH;', [9579]='&boxVh;', [9580]='&boxVH;', [9600]='&uhblk;', [9604]='&lhblk;', [9608]='&block;', [9617]='&blk14;', [9618]='&blk12;', [9619]='&blk34;', [9633]='&squ;, &Square;, &square;', [9642]='&blacksquare;, &FilledVerySmallSquare;, &squarf;, &squf;', [9643]='&EmptyVerySmallSquare;', [9645]='&rect;', [9646]='&marker;', [9649]='&fltns;', [9651]='&bigtriangleup;, &xutri;', [9652]='&blacktriangle;, &utrif;', [9653]='&triangle;, &utri;', [9656]='&blacktriangleright;, &rtrif;', [9657]='&rtri;, &triangleright;', [9661]='&bigtriangledown;, &xdtri;', [9662]='&blacktriangledown;, &dtrif;', [9663]='&dtri;, &triangledown;', [9666]='&blacktriangleleft;, &ltrif;', [9667]='&ltri;, &triangleleft;', [9674]='&loz;, &lozenge;', [9675]='&cir;', [9708]='&tridot;', [9711]='&bigcirc;, &xcirc;', [9720]='&ultri;', [9721]='&urtri;', [9722]='&lltri;', [9723]='&EmptySmallSquare;', [9724]='&FilledSmallSquare;', [9733]='&bigstar;, &starf;', [9734]='&star;', [9742]='&phone;', [9792]='&female;', [9794]='&male;', [9824]='&spades;, &spadesuit;', [9827]='&clubs;, &clubsuit;', [9829]='&hearts;, &heartsuit;', [9830]='&diamondsuit;, &diams;', [9834]='&sung;', [9837]='&flat;', [9838]='&natur;, &natural;', [9839]='&sharp;', [10003]='&check;, &checkmark;', [10007]='&cross;', [10016]='&malt;, &maltese;', [10038]='&sext;', [10072]='&VerticalSeparator;', [10098]='&lbbrk;', [10099]='&rbbrk;', [10184]='&bsolhsub;', [10185]='&suphsol;', [10214]='&LeftDoubleBracket;, &lobrk;', [10215]='&RightDoubleBracket;, &robrk;', [10216]='&lang;, &langle;, &LeftAngleBracket;', [10217]='&rang;, &rangle;, &RightAngleBracket;', [10218]='&Lang;', [10219]='&Rang;', [10220]='&loang;', [10221]='&roang;', [10229]='&LongLeftArrow;, &longleftarrow;, &xlarr;', [10230]='&LongRightArrow;, &longrightarrow;, &xrarr;', [10231]='&LongLeftRightArrow;, &longleftrightarrow;, &xharr;', [10232]='&DoubleLongLeftArrow;, &Longleftarrow;, &xlArr;', [10233]='&DoubleLongRightArrow;, &Longrightarrow;, &xrArr;', [10234]='&DoubleLongLeftRightArrow;, &Longleftrightarrow;, &xhArr;', [10236]='&longmapsto;, &xmap;', [10239]='&dzigrarr;', [10498]='&nvlArr;', [10499]='&nvrArr;', [10500]='&nvHarr;', [10501]='&Map;', [10508]='&lbarr;', [10509]='&bkarow;, &rbarr;', [10510]='&lBarr;', [10511]='&dbkarow;, &rBarr;', [10512]='&drbkarow;, &RBarr;', [10513]='&DDotrahd;', [10514]='&UpArrowBar;', [10515]='&DownArrowBar;', [10518]='&Rarrtl;', [10521]='&latail;', [10522]='&ratail;', [10523]='&lAtail;', [10524]='&rAtail;', [10525]='&larrfs;', [10526]='&rarrfs;', [10527]='&larrbfs;', [10528]='&rarrbfs;', [10531]='&nwarhk;', [10532]='&nearhk;', [10533]='&hksearow;, &searhk;', [10534]='&hkswarow;, &swarhk;', [10535]='&nwnear;', [10536]='&nesear;, &toea;', [10537]='&seswar;, &tosa;', [10538]='&swnwar;', [10547]='&rarrc;', [10549]='&cudarrr;', [10550]='&ldca;', [10551]='&rdca;', [10552]='&cudarrl;', [10553]='&larrpl;', [10556]='&curarrm;', [10557]='&cularrp;', [10565]='&rarrpl;', [10568]='&harrcir;', [10569]='&Uarrocir;', [10570]='&lurdshar;', [10571]='&ldrushar;', [10574]='&LeftRightVector;', [10575]='&RightUpDownVector;', [10576]='&DownLeftRightVector;', [10577]='&LeftUpDownVector;', [10578]='&LeftVectorBar;', [10579]='&RightVectorBar;', [10580]='&RightUpVectorBar;', [10581]='&RightDownVectorBar;', [10582]='&DownLeftVectorBar;', [10583]='&DownRightVectorBar;', [10584]='&LeftUpVectorBar;', [10585]='&LeftDownVectorBar;', [10586]='&LeftTeeVector;', [10587]='&RightTeeVector;', [10588]='&RightUpTeeVector;', [10589]='&RightDownTeeVector;', [10590]='&DownLeftTeeVector;', [10591]='&DownRightTeeVector;', [10592]='&LeftUpTeeVector;', [10593]='&LeftDownTeeVector;', [10594]='&lHar;', [10595]='&uHar;', [10596]='&rHar;', [10597]='&dHar;', [10598]='&luruhar;', [10599]='&ldrdhar;', [10600]='&ruluhar;', [10601]='&rdldhar;', [10602]='&lharul;', [10603]='&llhard;', [10604]='&rharul;', [10605]='&lrhard;', [10606]='&udhar;, &UpEquilibrium;', [10607]='&duhar;, &ReverseUpEquilibrium;', [10608]='&RoundImplies;', [10609]='&erarr;', [10610]='&simrarr;', [10611]='&larrsim;', [10612]='&rarrsim;', [10613]='&rarrap;', [10614]='&ltlarr;', [10616]='&gtrarr;', [10617]='&subrarr;', [10619]='&suplarr;', [10620]='&lfisht;', [10621]='&rfisht;', [10622]='&ufisht;', [10623]='&dfisht;', [10629]='&lopar;', [10630]='&ropar;', [10635]='&lbrke;', [10636]='&rbrke;', [10637]='&lbrkslu;', [10638]='&rbrksld;', [10639]='&lbrksld;', [10640]='&rbrkslu;', [10641]='&langd;', [10642]='&rangd;', [10643]='&lparlt;', [10644]='&rpargt;', [10645]='&gtlPar;', [10646]='&ltrPar;', [10650]='&vzigzag;', [10652]='&vangrt;', [10653]='&angrtvbd;', [10660]='&ange;', [10661]='&range;', [10662]='&dwangle;', [10663]='&uwangle;', [10664]='&angmsdaa;', [10665]='&angmsdab;', [10666]='&angmsdac;', [10667]='&angmsdad;', [10668]='&angmsdae;', [10669]='&angmsdaf;', [10670]='&angmsdag;', [10671]='&angmsdah;', [10672]='&bemptyv;', [10673]='&demptyv;', [10674]='&cemptyv;', [10675]='&raemptyv;', [10676]='&laemptyv;', [10677]='&ohbar;', [10678]='&omid;', [10679]='&opar;', [10681]='&operp;', [10683]='&olcross;', [10684]='&odsold;', [10686]='&olcir;', [10687]='&ofcir;', [10688]='&olt;', [10689]='&ogt;', [10690]='&cirscir;', [10691]='&cirE;', [10692]='&solb;', [10693]='&bsolb;', [10697]='&boxbox;', [10701]='&trisb;', [10702]='&rtriltri;', [10703]='&LeftTriangleBar;', [10704]='&RightTriangleBar;', [10716]='&iinfin;', [10717]='&infintie;', [10718]='&nvinfin;', [10723]='&eparsl;', [10724]='&smeparsl;', [10725]='&eqvparsl;', [10731]='&blacklozenge;, &lozf;', [10740]='&RuleDelayed;', [10742]='&dsol;', [10752]='&bigodot;, &xodot;', [10753]='&bigoplus;, &xoplus;', [10754]='&bigotimes;, &xotime;', [10756]='&biguplus;, &xuplus;', [10758]='&bigsqcup;, &xsqcup;', [10764]='&iiiint;, &qint;', [10765]='&fpartint;', [10768]='&cirfnint;', [10769]='&awint;', [10770]='&rppolint;', [10771]='&scpolint;', [10772]='&npolint;', [10773]='&pointint;', [10774]='&quatint;', [10775]='&intlarhk;', [10786]='&pluscir;', [10787]='&plusacir;', [10788]='&simplus;', [10789]='&plusdu;', [10790]='&plussim;', [10791]='&plustwo;', [10793]='&mcomma;', [10794]='&minusdu;', [10797]='&loplus;', [10798]='&roplus;', [10799]='&Cross;', [10800]='&timesd;', [10801]='&timesbar;', [10803]='&smashp;', [10804]='&lotimes;', [10805]='&rotimes;', [10806]='&otimesas;', [10807]='&Otimes;', [10808]='&odiv;', [10809]='&triplus;', [10810]='&triminus;', [10811]='&tritime;', [10812]='&intprod;, &iprod;', [10815]='&amalg;', [10816]='&capdot;', [10818]='&ncup;', [10819]='&ncap;', [10820]='&capand;', [10821]='&cupor;', [10822]='&cupcap;', [10823]='&capcup;', [10824]='&cupbrcap;', [10825]='&capbrcup;', [10826]='&cupcup;', [10827]='&capcap;', [10828]='&ccups;', [10829]='&ccaps;', [10832]='&ccupssm;', [10835]='&And;', [10836]='&Or;', [10837]='&andand;', [10838]='&oror;', [10839]='&orslope;', [10840]='&andslope;', [10842]='&andv;', [10843]='&orv;', [10844]='&andd;', [10845]='&ord;', [10847]='&wedbar;', [10854]='&sdote;', [10858]='&simdot;', [10861]='&congdot;', [10862]='&easter;', [10863]='&apacir;', [10864]='&apE;', [10865]='&eplus;', [10866]='&pluse;', [10867]='&Esim;', [10868]='&Colone;', [10869]='&Equal;', [10871]='&ddotseq;, &eDDot;', [10872]='&equivDD;', [10873]='&ltcir;', [10874]='&gtcir;', [10875]='&ltquest;', [10876]='&gtquest;', [10877]='&leqslant;, &les;, &LessSlantEqual;', [10878]='&geqslant;, &ges;, &GreaterSlantEqual;', [10879]='&lesdot;', [10880]='&gesdot;', [10881]='&lesdoto;', [10882]='&gesdoto;', [10883]='&lesdotor;', [10884]='&gesdotol;', [10885]='&lap;, &lessapprox;', [10886]='&gap;, &gtrapprox;', [10887]='&lne;, &lneq;', [10888]='&gne;, &gneq;', [10889]='&lnap;, &lnapprox;', [10890]='&gnap;, &gnapprox;', [10891]='&lEg;, &lesseqqgtr;', [10892]='&gEl;, &gtreqqless;', [10893]='&lsime;', [10894]='&gsime;', [10895]='&lsimg;', [10896]='&gsiml;', [10897]='&lgE;', [10898]='&glE;', [10899]='&lesges;', [10900]='&gesles;', [10901]='&els;, &eqslantless;', [10902]='&egs;, &eqslantgtr;', [10903]='&elsdot;', [10904]='&egsdot;', [10905]='&el;', [10906]='&eg;', [10909]='&siml;', [10910]='&simg;', [10911]='&simlE;', [10912]='&simgE;', [10913]='&LessLess;', [10914]='&GreaterGreater;', [10916]='&glj;', [10917]='&gla;', [10918]='&ltcc;', [10919]='&gtcc;', [10920]='&lescc;', [10921]='&gescc;', [10922]='&smt;', [10923]='&lat;', [10924]='&smte;', [10925]='&late;', [10926]='&bumpE;', [10927]='&pre;, &PrecedesEqual;, &preceq;', [10928]='&sce;, &SucceedsEqual;, &succeq;', [10931]='&prE;', [10932]='&scE;', [10933]='&precneqq;, &prnE;', [10934]='&scnE;, &succneqq;', [10935]='&prap;, &precapprox;', [10936]='&scap;, &succapprox;', [10937]='&precnapprox;, &prnap;', [10938]='&scnap;, &succnapprox;', [10939]='&Pr;', [10940]='&Sc;', [10941]='&subdot;', [10942]='&supdot;', [10943]='&subplus;', [10944]='&supplus;', [10945]='&submult;', [10946]='&supmult;', [10947]='&subedot;', [10948]='&supedot;', [10949]='&subE;, &subseteqq;', [10950]='&supE;, &supseteqq;', [10951]='&subsim;', [10952]='&supsim;', [10955]='&subnE;, &subsetneqq;', [10956]='&supnE;, &supsetneqq;', [10959]='&csub;', [10960]='&csup;', [10961]='&csube;', [10962]='&csupe;', [10963]='&subsup;', [10964]='&supsub;', [10965]='&subsub;', [10966]='&supsup;', [10967]='&suphsub;', [10968]='&supdsub;', [10969]='&forkv;', [10970]='&topfork;', [10971]='&mlcp;', [10980]='&Dashv;, &DoubleLeftTee;', [10982]='&Vdashl;', [10983]='&Barv;', [10984]='&vBar;', [10985]='&vBarv;', [10987]='&Vbar;', [10988]='&Not;', [10989]='&bNot;', [10990]='&rnmid;', [10991]='&cirmid;', [10992]='&midcir;', [10993]='&topcir;', [10994]='&nhpar;', [10995]='&parsim;', [11005]='&parsl;', [64256]='&fflig;', [64257]='&filig;', [64258]='&fllig;', [64259]='&ffilig;', [64260]='&ffllig;', [119964]='&Ascr;', [119966]='&Cscr;', [119967]='&Dscr;', [119970]='&Gscr;', [119973]='&Jscr;', [119974]='&Kscr;', [119977]='&Nscr;', [119978]='&Oscr;', [119979]='&Pscr;', [119980]='&Qscr;', [119982]='&Sscr;', [119983]='&Tscr;', [119984]='&Uscr;', [119985]='&Vscr;', [119986]='&Wscr;', [119987]='&Xscr;', [119988]='&Yscr;', [119989]='&Zscr;', [119990]='&ascr;', [119991]='&bscr;', [119992]='&cscr;', [119993]='&dscr;', [119995]='&fscr;', [119997]='&hscr;', [119998]='&iscr;', [119999]='&jscr;', [120000]='&kscr;', [120001]='&lscr;', [120002]='&mscr;', [120003]='&nscr;', [120005]='&pscr;', [120006]='&qscr;', [120007]='&rscr;', [120008]='&sscr;', [120009]='&tscr;', [120010]='&uscr;', [120011]='&vscr;', [120012]='&wscr;', [120013]='&xscr;', [120014]='&yscr;', [120015]='&zscr;', [120068]='&Afr;', [120069]='&Bfr;', [120071]='&Dfr;', [120072]='&Efr;', [120073]='&Ffr;', [120074]='&Gfr;', [120077]='&Jfr;', [120078]='&Kfr;', [120079]='&Lfr;', [120080]='&Mfr;', [120081]='&Nfr;', [120082]='&Ofr;', [120083]='&Pfr;', [120084]='&Qfr;', [120086]='&Sfr;', [120087]='&Tfr;', [120088]='&Ufr;', [120089]='&Vfr;', [120090]='&Wfr;', [120091]='&Xfr;', [120092]='&Yfr;', [120094]='&afr;', [120095]='&bfr;', [120096]='&cfr;', [120097]='&dfr;', [120098]='&efr;', [120099]='&ffr;', [120100]='&gfr;', [120101]='&hfr;', [120102]='&ifr;', [120103]='&jfr;', [120104]='&kfr;', [120105]='&lfr;', [120106]='&mfr;', [120107]='&nfr;', [120108]='&ofr;', [120109]='&pfr;', [120110]='&qfr;', [120111]='&rfr;', [120112]='&sfr;', [120113]='&tfr;', [120114]='&ufr;', [120115]='&vfr;', [120116]='&wfr;', [120117]='&xfr;', [120118]='&yfr;', [120119]='&zfr;', [120120]='&Aopf;', [120121]='&Bopf;', [120123]='&Dopf;', [120124]='&Eopf;', [120125]='&Fopf;', [120126]='&Gopf;', [120128]='&Iopf;', [120129]='&Jopf;', [120130]='&Kopf;', [120131]='&Lopf;', [120132]='&Mopf;', [120134]='&Oopf;', [120138]='&Sopf;', [120139]='&Topf;', [120140]='&Uopf;', [120141]='&Vopf;', [120142]='&Wopf;', [120143]='&Xopf;', [120144]='&Yopf;', [120146]='&aopf;', [120147]='&bopf;', [120148]='&copf;', [120149]='&dopf;', [120150]='&eopf;', [120151]='&fopf;', [120152]='&gopf;', [120153]='&hopf;', [120154]='&iopf;', [120155]='&jopf;', [120156]='&kopf;', [120157]='&lopf;', [120158]='&mopf;', [120159]='&nopf;', [120160]='&oopf;', [120161]='&popf;', [120162]='&qopf;', [120163]='&ropf;', [120164]='&sopf;', [120165]='&topf;', [120166]='&uopf;', [120167]='&vopf;', [120168]='&wopf;', [120169]='&xopf;', [120170]='&yopf;', [120171]='&zopf;'}

title: Module:Numcr2namecr


text:
Module:LoadData/doc

A more complex version of Module:Data with more options and the ability to select indexes with an inequality operator.

Usage

 * Zeroth parameter is the name of the data module to read, without Module:, e.g.
 * Next parameters, for an index N starting at one, are called N for the exact index you need, coerced to number if possible, N lteq to select the highest numerical index less than or equal to the argument, or N gteq for the opposite.
 * template is a printf-style string to interpolate the resulting value(s) into, e.g..
 * preprocess is like template except that  is run on it; this makes e.g. template transclusions work.
 * if nil is the string to return if the result is nil. Default is nil, which comes out as the empty string.

title: Module:LoadData/doc


text:
Module:Numcr2namecr/doc

This is a data module. It cannot be invoked directly, but it can be accessed from other modules.

Usage
From Lua, use. Be aware that will return a special type of table so some features are unavailable.

From templates, use, or

 * |index| must be a plain decimal 160 or explicit hexadecimal 0xA9. Not "&#160;" nor hexadecimal "00A9".

Editing
Please do not add any functions, metatables etc. to this data table. is very limited in what it will accept as valid input.

title: Module:Numcr2namecr/doc


text: Category:Unicode data modules

title: Category:Unicode data modules


text: Category:Citation Style 1 templates

title: Category:Citation Style 1 templates


text:
User:Vagabondah

Hello...
__INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__

title: User:Vagabondah


text:
User talk:2401:4900:4467:CB51:C632:490A:B9F0:96AA

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 22:43, 7 April 2023 (UTC)


text:
User talk:འབྲུག་གི་ཞིབ་འཚོལ་ལམ་ལུགས།

My discussion

authors: འབྲུག་གི་ཞིབ་འཚོལ་ལམ་ལུགས།

title: User talk:འབྲུག་གི་ཞིབ་འཚོལ་ལམ་ལུགས།


text:
User:འབྲུག་གི་ཞིབ་འཚོལ་ལམ་ལུགས།/sandbox

Sandbox

authors: འབྲུག་གི་ཞིབ་འཚོལ་ལམ་ལུགས།

title: User:འབྲུག་གི་ཞིབ་འཚོལ་ལམ་ལུགས།/sandbox


text:
Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2023/February

Global ban for PlanespotterA320/RespectCE
Per the Global bans policy, I'm informing the project of this request for comment: Requests for comment/Global ban for PlanespotterA320 (2) about banning a member from your community. Thank you.--Lemonaka (talk) 21:40, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

New details about the Private Incident Reporting System
We have an update about the Private Incident Reporting System (PIRS) development.

We have created an FAQ on the project page to help answer your questions. Please check it, and give feedback, or ask additional questions if you have more.

Best regards, Trust & Safety Tools team. –– STei (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 11:28, 8 February 2023 (UTC)

Community feedback-cycle about updating the Wikimedia Terms of Use starts

 * You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.
 *  metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Legal department/2023 ToU updates/Office hours/Announcement •

Hello everyone,

Wikimedia Foundation Legal Department is organizing a feedback-cycle with community members to discuss updating the Wikimedia Terms of Use.

The Terms of Use (ToU) are the legal terms that govern the use of websites hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation. We will be gathering your feedback on a draft proposal from February through April. The draft will be translated into several languages, with written feedback accepted in any language.

This update comes in response to several things:

 * Implementing the Universal Code of Conduct
 * Updating project text to the Creative Commons BY-SA 4.0 license
 * Proposal for better addressing undisclosed paid editing
 * Bringing our terms in line with current and recently passed laws affecting the Foundation, including the European Digital Services Act

As part of the feedback cycle two office hours will be held, the first on March 2, the second on April 4.

For further information, please consult:

 * The proposed update of the ToU by comparison
 * The page for your feedback
 * Information about the office hours

On behalf of the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Team, Mervat (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 18:36, 21 February 2023 (UTC)

Editing news 2023 #1
Read this in another language • Subscription list for this multilingual newsletter

This newsletter includes two key updates about the Editing team's work:

 * 1) The Editing team will finish adding new features to the Talk pages project and deploy it.
 * 2) They are beginning a new project, Edit check.

Talk pages project

The Editing team is nearly finished with this first phase of the Talk pages project. Nearly all new features are available now in the Beta Feature for.

It will show information about how active a discussion is, such as the date of the most recent comment. There will soon be a new "" button. You will be able to turn them off at Special:Preferences. Please tell them what you think.

An A/B test for on the mobile site has finished. Editors were more successful with. The Editing team is enabling these features for all editors on the mobile site.

New Project: Edit Check

The Editing team is beginning a project to help new editors of Wikipedia. It will help people identify some problems before they click "". The first tool will encourage people to add references when they add new content. Please watch that page for more information. You can join a conference call on 3 March 2023 to learn more.

–Whatamidoing (WMF) (User talk:Whatamidoing (WMF)) 23:24, 22 February 2023 (UTC)

Your wiki will be in read only soon

Read this message in another language •

The Wikimedia Foundation tests the switch between its first and secondary data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. To make sure everything is working, the Wikimedia Technology department needs to do a planned test. This test will show if they can reliably switch from one data centre to the other. It requires many teams to prepare for the test and to be available to fix any unexpected problems.

All traffic will switch on . The test will start at .

Unfortunately, because of some limitations in MediaWiki, all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future.

You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.

 * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on.
 * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case.

Other effects:

 * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped.
 * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards.
 * GitLab will be unavailable for about 90 minutes.

This project may be postponed if necessary. You can read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. There will be more notifications about this. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. Please share this information with your community.

Trizek (WMF) (m:User talk:Trizek (WMF)) 21:20, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

Broken print version
I would like to attract your attention to the broken print version. Kittypet's Guide To Warrior Cats/Print version. None of the pages of the book show up there. Thanks in advance, -Slava Ukrajini Heroyam Slava (discuss • contribs) 17:38, 27 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Update, I fixed it by manually embedding the pages. -Slava Ukrajini Heroyam Slava (discuss • contribs) 19:35, 28 February 2023 (UTC)

Conflict Resolution
your page on conflict Resolution has a passage which uses pick-up artistry as an example. It's pretty lame.73.37.53.57 (discuss) 21:42, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Don't think calling a passage "lame" is going to help us improve it. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 22:37, 27 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Sorry. I mean to say that the page is off topic. I was just a little frustrated that it's about something I have a very low opinion of. 73.37.53.57 (discuss) 01:47, 28 February 2023 (UTC)
 * If you have ideas on how to improve it, you're more than welcome to work on it yourself! We are always happy to have people working on and updating wikibooks :) —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:23, 28 February 2023 (UTC)


text:
User:Knoppson/sandbox

Hi!

I think that it is not so good if you upgrade the software all the time like all commercial companies does because you are thankfully not commercial.

I am sitting on Firefox 32, which I never will change, because I like it so much.

Now I have gotten a problem while editing because it seems like you have "downgraded" to new software.

I also have to use another way to upload my picture which however is rather better than my original wizard.

So there is not only problems but also good things with my problem.

I think you should be proud of how it is possible to "surf" wikipedia/wikibooks with older browsers.

But please, do not do as everybody else does which is to "downgrade" all the time.

We users are not putting our card numbers into wikibooks so there is no safety need.

Best regard/Knoppson. PS When my FF32 stops working i will not write any more at wikibooks, the software world can go and fuck itself!

title: User:Knoppson/sandbox


text:
Cookbook:Ghee I

Ingredients

 * Unsalted butter

Procedure

 * 1) Using a medium saucepan, melt butter over medium heat.
 * 2) Bring to a boil, stirring constantly. You will notice that the oil will separate from the water. The top will begin to froth; remove froth.
 * 3) Allow the oil to become clear by letting the water evaporate. Once clear, remove from heat and allow to cool for 15 minutes.
 * 4) After cooling, strain ghee through a very fine strainer or through 3–5 layers of cheesecloth into a container or jar.
 * 5) Put lid on container and store on shelf.

title: Cookbook:Ghee I


text:
Cookbook:Ghee II

Ingredients

 * Unsalted butter
 * Sorghum flour
 * Hardwood of grape vine or hickory wood (optional), smoldering

Procedure

 * 1) Melt the butter in a saucepan over low heat.
 * 2) Let the butter boil moderately for 5 minutes.
 * 3) Heat a clean, broken potsherd in fire until it becomes red hot.
 * 4) Place a quantity of sorghum flour the same size as the potsherd on a plate.
 * 5) Lay the hot potsherd on top of the sorghum flour in the plate. Flip the whole thing over so that the potsherd is on the bottom.
 * 6) Cast out the sorghum flour that remains in the plate. Throw the potsherd into the pot of melted butter, and cover with a lid.
 * 7) Leave potsherd in butter for about 2–3 minutes to impart flavor.
 * 8) Strain the butter while it simmers on a low heat, skimming away all solid particles, and allowing the whey to evaporate. Strain the butter into a clean container.
 * 9) If desired, add the smoldering piece of wood vine to the strained butter to impart a smoky flavor.
 * 10) Store butter in a cool place (e.g. pantry, cellar, etc).

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Some add roasted fenugreek seeds to the boiling butter and strain out the seeds at the end before cooling.

title: Cookbook:Ghee II


text:
Cookbook:Ghee III

Ingredients

 * 3–4 packages (600–800g) milk-flavored margarine
 * 3 packages (600 g) unsalted butter
 * ½ cup semolina
 * Hardwood of grape vine or hickory wood (optional)
 * 1 Tbsp fenugreek seeds (optional), roasted and powdered

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the margarine and butter in a saucepan over medium heat. Melt and bring to a boil.
 * 2) Strain the mixture using a fine strainer. Mix in the semolina.
 * 3) If using, place a smoking piece of grapevine wood or hickory wood and in an empty sealed jar. Add the butter, margarine, and fenugreek.

title: Cookbook:Ghee III


text:
User talk:2600:8800:3603:9B00:CC7B:F3E3:A726:163B

Blocked
You cannot edit for 2 days due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 01:37, 9 April 2023 (UTC)


text: User talk:Siphiwo Sambokwe

title: User talk:Siphiwo Sambokwe


text: Talk:High School Trigonometry

title: Talk:High School Trigonometry


text:
Supplementary mathematics/History of mathematics

The history of mathematics deals with the origin of discoveries in mathematics as well as mathematical methods and notation of the past. Written evidence of new developments in mathematics prior to the modern era and subsequent spread of knowledge around the world have been identified in only a few places. From about 3000–5000 BC, the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria, followed by ancient Egypt and the Syrian states of Abla and Elam began to use arithmetic, algebra and geometry for the purposes of taxation and trade. They were also used in architecture, drawing, and engraving, as well as in patterns found in nature, such as astronomy, time recording, and calendar editing.


text: User talk:Rodw

title: User talk:Rodw


text: User talk:122.252.237.200

title: User talk:122.252.237.200


text:
User talk:98.21.200.236

Disruptive edits
Hello! Please do not continue making and reverting test edits on Wikibooks pages. Please instead use the sandbox for making test edits. Thank you! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 17:18, 10 April 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:98.21.200.236


text:
User talk:103.143.254.19

You cannot edit for 1 week due to vandalism. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. --SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 04:00, 10 April 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:103.143.254.19


text:
Bengali–Assamese script

Bengali–Assamese script A Comprehensive Guide to Understand a South Asian Script Bengali–Assamese (বাংলা–অসমীয়া লিপি) or Eastern Nagari (পূর্বী নাগরী/পূৰ্বী নাগৰী) is a writing system used to write Bengali, Assamese and Meitei (Manipuri). It is also used by smaller languages like Bishnupriya Manipuri, Chakma, Kamta, Santali etc. The purpose of this book is to understand a writing system used by several languages in Eastern South Asia. While it may not be easy to understand the script, this book attempts to represent the script as simply as possible. Contents

/Introduction/ /Bengali alphabet/ /Assamese alphabet/ /Ligatures/ /Numbers/

Related books Bengali Modern Meitei

title: Bengali–Assamese script


text:
Bengali–Assamese script/Introduction

About Bengali–Assamese
Bengali–Assamese is an abugida system, that is when a consonant is followed by a vowel, the vowel is written with the consonant. However, if no vowel is written with the consonant, the vowel is assumed to be an O (hot or boat). A hosonto (্) is sometimes used to indicate that the consonant is not followed by a vowel. These are in contrast to the Latin script (used by English), where consonants and vowels are written separately and no sign is used to indicate that the consonant is not followed by a vowel.

Bengali–Assamese is divided into two alphabets:
 * Bengali alphabet, used by Bengali, Meitei, Bishnupriya etc.
 * Assamese alphabet, used by Assamese, Hajong, Kamta etc.

title: Bengali–Assamese script/Introduction


text: Category:Book:Bengali–Assamese script

title: Category:Book:Bengali–Assamese script


text:
Bengali–Assamese script/Bengali alphabet

Overview
The Bengali alphabet consists of 11 vowels and 38 consonants. An additional vowel (অ্যা) and an additional consonant (জ়) are also used in the Bengali language and are listed here. Since the wikibook Bengali has already described the Bengali alphabet in three pages, this wikibook gives only a minute summary of the alphabet.


text:
English Grammar/Subject and Predicate/Direct and Indirect Objects

DIRECT OBJECT -It is the person or things that directly receives the action or effects of the verb.It answers the question what or whom © What type - direct ®Whom type - indirect Ex- He gave a necklace to his wife Here necklace is using what - so it is direct object And the wife is using whom - so it is indirect object


text:
User talk:Belbury

Talk
That you got blocked from Wikipedia wasn't even Jinnifer he was just some random who was concerned and got carried away. 2600:387:15:635:0:0:0:4 (discuss) 13:48, 10 April 2023 (UTC)

 * A lot of users are concerned about the misprint content on the horror film article. 2600:387:15:635:0:0:0:4 (discuss) 13:49, 10 April 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Belbury


text:
AI Art Generation Handbook/ControlNet

What is ControlNet ?
ControlNet is developed by Stanford researcher named Lvmin Zhang and Maneesh Agrawala. It was first introduced in paper  Adding Conditional Control to Text-to-Image Diffusion Models  on Feb 2023. .

As you experimented around with Stable Diffusion, you may experience that at times you may want to create a character with a cool imposing pose, but using prompt itself is a huge undertaking. You may generate up to hundreds of images but unable to get that type of images that you wanted.

This is where, ControlNet is to the rescue.

ControlNet allows prompt-crafter to guide the image generation process using additional input images or conditions, beyond just text prompts.

For example:

Let's say you want to control the pose of a human in an image (as shown, a girl squatting down)

AI model would be trained on a dataset of images of humans in different poses. Meanwhile, ControlNet network are trained on the same dataset of images.

The ControlNet network would learn to associate the pose of the human in the image with the desired output of the diffusion model.

Once the ControlNet network is trained, you can use it to control the pose of the human in an image and use the prompt to change from female to male as shown.

How ControlNet works ?
It uses a "zero convolution" layer that starts with zero weights.

This layer is added to each block of a pre-trained diffusion model (like Stable Diffusion).

The zero convolution allows ControlNet to be trained on specific tasks without altering the original model's knowledge.

(1) Text prompts is sent to ControlNet neural network

(2) The trained AI model is then used to generate an image.

(3) ControlNet is then used to add extra conditions to the generated image.

(4) The generated image is then fine-tuned using ControlNet.

(5) The fine-tuned image is then output.

How to use ControlNet ?
First, assuming you are using SDXL base model to generate images, highly recommended to download the Union ControlNet

(trained especially for SDXL) here:  https://huggingface.co/xinsir/controlnet-union-sdxl-1.0/tree/main .

We assume you have Web-UI by Automatic1111 or SD.Next (Vladmandic ).

Auto1111
(1) First of all, go to Extension -> Available ->Click "Load From" button to download the extension.

(2) Search for extension   (by author Mikubill). Click "Install" button located at right side.

(3) Restart the whole Automatic1111 to make sure the Extension is properly installed.

(4) Once installed, inside txt2img or img2img tab, you should see ControlNet v1.1.xxx (usually on below of Seed).

(5) Click the to expand on the menu and y  ou should see something similar  to the left

Here are the some examples of settings that are found at the ControlNet style:

To use any ControlNet models, you need to click

If the Graphic Card VRAM is not powerful enough for additional pre-procesing, click on

For  is suitable if you wanted the ControlNet to retain most of the details of the picture

(Note: This is useful if you wanted to change from a photorealism to anime style)

SD.Next
In SD.Next, it is more easier as ControlNet is integrated into the WebUI without using external extensions.

Copy your downloaded model here into this location :

When opening up the SD.Next, go directly to the "Control" tab and you will see few options:

Initially, all of these will be hidden and you will need to click on ◀ button on the right of the screen to reveal the hidden menu

Control Input

You can upload of your "base" image here, and the generated images are shown

Also the settings for the usual image generations  are located here, you can click on the ◀  button to reveal them

Control Elements

You can choose ControlNet, T2I Adapter, XS, Lite and Reference but for this chapter, we are going to use ControlNet

Preprocessor

This is Preprocessor settings for more finetune control

References Link
ControlNet Layman Introductions  - Controlnet

Huggingface - Download all of pre-trained ControlNet models here (For SD1.5)

Github - All info authors works are here

title: AI Art Generation Handbook/ControlNet


text:
AI Art Generation Handbook/ControlNet/Pose

OpenPose in ControlNet was introduced in the paper "Adding Conditional Control to Text-to-Image Diffusion Models" by Standford researchers: Lvmin Zhang and Maneesh Agrawala, published in 2023.

It uses human pose estimation (detects key points on the human body [ joints, face landmarks] ) as a conditioning input for image generation models. It allows users to control the pose and positioning of human figures in generated images by providing a skeleton-like representation of the desired pose.

This concept is not entirely new as this is based from earlier works by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University in the paper "OpenPose: Realtime Multi-Person 2D Pose Estimation using Part Affinity Fields"

Auto1111


text:
User:Shuoli1999

Shuo Li
Hello! I'm Shuo Li. I'm a master student in ETH Zürich. My research mainly focuses on medical image analysis and signal processing.

You can contact me through my Email: shuoli@student.ethz.ch or shuoli199909@outlook.com

Currently, I'm working on a research project in Biomedical and Mobile Health Technology Laboratory, ETH Zürich, Switzerland. Besides, I'm also taking the course "Computer simulation of sensory systems" FS2023.

简介
几乎所有的生物都具备感知光线的能力，也就是说，它们能够响应300-800纳米范围内的电磁辐射. 从进化的角度来看，对视觉系统的研究是非常吸引人的. 因为在生命树上，彼此相距很远的动物似乎都发展出了极其相似的、有时非常复杂的机制，这使得它们能够感知光线. 其中特别值得注意的是箱型水母（立方水母纲，刺胞动物门）（图 1）的视觉系统：它是刺胞生物中最复杂的视觉系统. 这些美丽的水生动物的眼睛与我们人类自己的非常相似！当人们注意到某些立方水母纲（刺胞动物门中最小的纲）中的动物展现出了意想不到的复杂游泳行为时，他们还发现了这些动物卓越的视觉能力：它们能够快速地朝特定方向移动，并且避开黑暗区域和障碍物. 有多种实验方法可以让科学家们研究箱型水母的视觉能力. 例如，在限制水母移动的情况下，通过控制实验室内的光照条件，观测水母脉冲率、收缩和伞盖的结构不对称性等变化.

这些变化可转化为自由状态下的水母的规避动作. 同时，这些观测数据还可以对水母的游泳行为进行近似. 在过去的几十年中，科学家们已从解剖学、细胞学、分子和遗传学的角度对包括视觉系统在内的箱型水母的神经系统进行了研究，但对这些生物眼部的详尽了解仍然不足.

解剖结构
箱型水母因其立方形状的伞盖而得名. 成年的箱型水母的伞盖直径约为10毫米. 伞盖的每一面各有四个感觉棍. 其中，感受棍是一种感觉结构，总共可以容纳不同类型的24只眼. 这样的视觉器官的分布使得立方水母纲的动物拥有其周围近乎360度的视野！值得注意的是，它们的眼睛并不是看向外部，而是朝向水母的内部（即互相看着对方！）. 但由于箱形水母伞盖的透明特性，它们的眼睛依然可以获取全部方向的视野. 水母缺乏通过肌肉控制眼睛位置的能力，所以借助底部的水晶结构（称为平衡石，可以充当配重）和顶部的柔性柄，使得感觉棍可以连接伞盖，从而保持相同的自然朝向并且独立于伞盖的朝向. 单个感觉棍中的六只眼睛属于四种不同的形态类型 （图 2）：位于垂直中线的上晶状体复杂人形眼（ULE）和下晶状体复杂人形眼（LLE），仅分布于每侧的带有光敏色素的简单眼，其中包括凹陷眼（PE）和狭缝眼（SE）. 尽管刺胞动物是辐射对称的生物，但除了眼中的中线定位，它们感觉棍内的神经系统是呈现左右对称的. 有一个带有感觉棍神经的柄充当感觉棍和伞盖边缘的环状神经（与神经网相连接）之间的连接，组成了箱型水母的完整神经系统.

不同的细胞种群在感觉棍内形成神经细胞和非神经细胞. 神经元细胞聚集在两个左右对称的群体中，通过纤维链连接到凹陷眼和狭缝眼. 总之，在感觉棍内有超过1000个神经元细胞，包括：

 * 连接到眼的与视网膜相连的神经元

 * 侧翼神经元

 * 巨型神经元

非神经元细胞主要分为三类. 第一类是负责初始光感知的纤毛光感受器细胞. 第二类为气球样细胞，其功能尚未确定. 第三类是可能与神经系统有关的后细胞层，它同时也是最大的未分化细胞种群.

眼部
箱型水母的眼睛与人类的眼睛非常相似，这是由于两者都有一个将晶状体和视网膜分开的玻璃体相机（因此得名“相机眼”）. 水母眼睛的空间分辨率很差，因为视网膜与晶状体之间仅隔一个薄薄的玻璃体空间（在下侧眼中约为8微米的位置，在上侧眼中则没有），然而晶状体的焦距远远超出了视网膜的位置（在400-600微米之间）. 相比之下，人眼的相机大小约为23毫米. 使用一种名为视网膜电描记法的特殊流程，可以在眼睛中放置一个电极，记录其对各种视觉刺激的反应活动，从而确定了上下侧眼的时间特性. 这两种眼睛的时间分辨率都很低，但它们的反应模式不同，这表明它们被用于不同的视觉任务. 例如，上下侧眼所能分辨的最大频率（又被称为闪烁融合频率）分别为10赫兹和8赫兹. 此外，两种眼睛的视野覆盖了周边不同的区域. 总的来说，箱型水母的眼睛似乎经历了细微调整以执行特定的任务，从而使它们可以过滤在感觉棍中的视觉刺激.

箱形水母是否具有色彩视觉？
一个有趣的问题是立方水母纲的动物是否像我们人类这样的更高级的脊椎动物一样具有色彩视觉. 在动物界中有两种类型的光感受器：纤毛型，通常存在于脊椎动物中，和子弹型，存在于无脊椎动物中. 有趣的是，箱型水母具有类似脊椎动物的纤毛型光感受器. 虽然两种类型的光感受器都依赖于视黄醛分子在光照下的同一个化学转化过程（即漂白），但它们在机制、结构、起源和分子途径方面有所不同. 上下侧眼的视网膜中的受体类型通常对蓝绿光敏感，其吸收峰在465-508纳米之间，具体情况取决于物种. 到目前为止的数据表明，箱型水母可能对绿色光敏感，尽管这一结论并不能在绿色引导下的避障实验中得到印证. 对于生活在浅水水域的动物来说，色彩视觉是一种很有用的适应环境的能力. 当水面的波纹产生大量的闪烁光时，色彩视觉可以帮助动物辨别相关视觉刺激发出的亮度（即明度和光强）噪声，因为色彩视觉对亮度波动并不敏感.

游泳行为的视觉处理和控制
迄今为止，只有下侧眼已经通过实验确认了其对于控制游泳行为的重要性，包括它们在调节伞盖收缩率从而控制动物运动速度方面的作用. 值得注意的是，不同种类的立方水母目动物的眼的光功率存在差异，从而引入了进一步的变异性. 凹陷眼和狭缝眼在起搏活性（伞盖脉动）和控制游泳方向方面的作用尚不清楚，可以在未来的实验中进行阐释. 例如，在实验中选择性地使其特定的眼睛类型失去功能. 同时，科学家们也不完全清楚视觉输入在箱型水母的神经系统中是如何进行整合的. 对视觉刺激的反应既可在柄（神经环的一个延伸）中检测到，也可在感觉棍的神经系统中检测到. 在感觉棍内，特定神经细胞与某些眼睛类型的联系意味着某些（而不是全部）信息的处理和整合发生在这些结构内部. 有一种假说提出，水母身体和触手的收缩速度及强度会决定其游泳速度，该游泳速度是由负责视觉信息高阶处理和整合的独特神经元群的起搏活性所控制的. 侧翼和巨型神经元可能对此功能有一定的作用. 进而，精细转向可能是通过独立信号和伞盖不同侧面的不对称收缩来实现的.

进化视角
从基因的角度分析，相比与无脊椎动物，箱形水母的视觉系统似乎与脊椎动物的视觉系统更密切相关. 提出这一观点的原因是，箱形水母和脊椎动物在光传感分子途径的几个关键组成部分（例如，光转导所需的磷酸二酯酶和视网膜中的保护性色素的产生机制）上是相同的. 在其他径向对称的水母中，感觉棍的神经系统（视网膜相关神经元除外）的双边结构可能可以作为刺胞动物从双侧对称的祖先进化而来的证据. 但箱形水母和脊椎动物对纤毛型光感受器的使用和黑色素的生成途径可能又意味着它们具有共同的祖先或者它们的进化过程是独立且平行的. 因此，进一步研究箱形水母极其优秀的视觉系统将有助于解决关于先进相机眼进化起源的谜团.

参考文献

简介
章鱼是最有趣的非灵长类动物之一. 这一非灵长类动物最值得关注的特点是它的触手运动. 在这些无脊椎动物中，关于触手的控制是非常复杂的，因为触手可以朝任意方向移动，具有近乎无穷大的自由度. 在章鱼的体内，大脑只需要向触手发送一个指令以执行动作，至于如何执行该动作则完全嵌入在触手本身中. 观察表明，章鱼通过将触手运动保持在固定的、已成型的模式中，从而降低了控制它们触手的复杂性. 为了弄清楚章鱼的触手是否拥有自己的意识，研究人员切断了章鱼的一只触手中的神经与身体中其它神经（包括大脑）的联系，然后瘙痒并刺激触手上的皮肤. 结果，这只触手的行为方式与健康章鱼中的完全一样. 这意味着大脑只需要向触手发送一个单一的移动命令，触手就会完成其余的动作.

在本章中，我们将详细讨论章鱼的感觉系统，并重点研究这一非灵长类动物的感觉运动系统.

章鱼 - 聪明的非灵长类动物
章鱼有两只眼睛和四对触手，它们具有双侧对称的特征. 章鱼有一个硬喙，位于全部触手的中心点处. 章鱼的嘴也位于它的硬喙之上. 章鱼没有内外骨骼（虽然一些物种在其外套膜内部有一些遗传痕迹），这使得它们能够钻进狭窄的空间中. 章鱼是所有无脊椎动物中最聪明且最具行为灵活性的动物之一.

章鱼最有趣的特征是它的触手运动. 对于目标导向的触手运动，章鱼的神经系统会生成一系列的运动指令，将触手移向目标. 控制触手尤其复杂，因为触腕可以向任何方向移动，具有几乎无穷大的自由度. 对于自主运动的基本运动程序则嵌入在触手自身的神经回路中.

章鱼的触手运动
在章鱼的层级组织中，大脑只需要向触手发送指令以执行动作，如何执行动作的全部信息都嵌入在触手本身. 章鱼利用触手行走、抓取猎物、排斥不需要的物品，并获取关于其周围环境的广泛的机械和化学信息.

与人类的手臂不同，章鱼的触手不受肘部、手腕和肩部关节活动范围的限制. 但是，为了完成获取食物或游泳行为等目标，章鱼必须能够控制其八个附肢. 章鱼的触腕可以使用几乎无穷大的自由度在任何方向移动，这种能力来自于触手上密集的柔性肌肉纤维.

观察表明，章鱼通过将其触手运动固定为特定且基本不变的模式来减少控制触手的复杂性. 例如，触达动作总是由沿着触手向末端传播的弯曲构成. 由于章鱼总是使用相同的运动方式伸展其触手，因此产生该模式的命令被储存在触手本身，而不是大脑中. 这种机制进一步降低了控制柔性触手的复杂性. 这些柔性触手由一个复杂的周围神经系统控制，该系统包含分布在每只触手上的5千万（50 million）个神经元. 在这些神经元中，40万（400 k）个属于运动神经元，它们支配触手的内在肌并在局部控制肌肉运动.

每当需要时，章鱼的神经系统会产生一系列运动指令，从而产生力和相应的速度，使肢体触及目标. 通过对基本运动的矢量求和和叠加，得到最优运动轨迹，从而简化了运动过程. 这要求肌肉具有相当程度的柔韧性.

中枢神经系统
不同于其它无脊椎动物，章鱼及其亲属（墨鱼和鱿鱼）进化出了更加庞大的神经系统以及更复杂的认知能力. 尽管章鱼的大脑与脊椎动物大脑的解剖结构不同，但它们依然具有多种相似的特征，包括短期和长期记忆的形式、睡眠的形式，以及识别个体和探索物体的能力. 章鱼可以在简单的迷宫中穿行，还可以通过视觉线索来区分两个熟悉的环境. 更有趣的是，章鱼甚至可以用触手拧开罐子来获取里面的食物. 章鱼、墨鱼和鱿鱼同属于头足纲，该纲还包括一些已经灭绝的生物，如菊石和箭石. 随着头足纲动物的进化，它们的壳都内化或完全消失了. 与此同时，还发生了另一个转变：一些头足纲动物的智力获得了显著提升. 虽然很难定量地衡量动物智力发展的程度，但至少从外表来看，这些动物都进化出了大型的神经系统，包括大脑. 一只普通章鱼体内大约有5亿（500 million）个神经元，这与很多哺乳动物处于同一数量级，接近狗的水平. 而这一数目显然比其它所有无脊椎动物都大得多.

有一个故事可以生动地体现章鱼的卓越智力. 阿拉斯加太平洋大学生物学家David Scheel说，被困在水缸里的章鱼似乎在以一种微妙的方式观察人类是否注意到了它，当人类没有注意到它时，它就会移动并尝试逃出水缸. 即使当人类戴上面具后，章鱼依然可以辨别人类的存在.

章鱼的大脑与脊椎动物大脑的解剖结构非常不同. 章鱼的大部分神经元并不位于它的大脑，而是在触手上. 从功能上来说，章鱼的大脑不负责处理绝大多数的感知信息和动作指令. 相反，大脑只负责接收一部分的感知信息，并发出简单的指令. 当这些指令被传送到各个器官后才会被具体化，这意味着章鱼的大脑与触手之间存在相当大的独立性. 然而，这并不代表章鱼的大脑在行为决策上的地位是不重要的. 相比于脊椎动物神经系统的层级结构（例如，中枢神经系统会对周围神经系统所输入的信息进行整合并反馈），章鱼的大脑与触手之间的关系更偏向于“协作”. 2011年，研究人员Tamar Gutnick和Ruth Byrne以及Hochner和Kuba进行了一项实验，以测试章鱼是否可以学会引导单个触手在迷宫中到达特定位置以获取事物. 在该实验中，章鱼触手上的化学传感器不足以引导其找到食物，且触手必须在某一点离开水面才能到达目标位置. 但迷宫的墙壁被设置为透明，因此章鱼可以通过视觉看到食物目标. 这样一来，章鱼必须通过视觉引导触手穿过迷宫从而获取食物. 尽管章鱼花了很久才学会这样做，但最终参与实验的动物都成功了. 这表明了章鱼的视觉可以指导触手执行特定的动作. 同时，该论文还指出，当章鱼在执行寻找食物的任务时，其触手似乎会一边向目标移动一边进行自身的局部探索. 因此，似乎有两种控制形式在协同工作：通过视觉对触手的整体路径进行中央控制，并结合触手本身对周围空间的探索进行微调.

Central nervous system
Unlike other invertebrates, octopuses and their relatives (cuttlefish and squid) have evolved larger nervous systems and more sophisticated cognitive abilities. Although octopus brains differ in anatomy from vertebrate brains, they still share a variety of similar features, including patterns of short - and long-term memory, patterns of sleep, and the ability to recognize individuals and explore objects. Octopuses can navigate simple mazes and use visual cues to distinguish between two familiar environments. More interestingly, octopuses can even use their tentacles to unscrew jars to get to the food inside. Octopuses, cuttlefish and squid all belong to the class Cephalopod, which also includes extinct creatures such as ammonoids and arrowstones. As cephalopods evolved, their shells all internalized or disappeared altogether. At the same time, another shift took place: some cephalopods experienced a marked increase in intelligence. Although it is difficult to quantify the extent of an animal's intellectual development, these animals have evolved large nervous systems, including brains, at least in appearance. The common octopus has about 500 million neurons in its body, which is in the same level as many mammals and close to that of dogs. And this number is obviously much larger than that of all other invertebrates.

The remarkable intelligence of octopuses can be vividly illustrated by a short story. An octopus trapped in a water tank appears to be watching in a subtle way to see if humans notice it, and when they don't, it moves and tries to escape the tank, said David Scheel， a biologist from Alaska Pacific University. Even when then human is wearing a mask, the octopus can still recognize when a human is there.

The anatomy of an octopus brain is very different from that of a vertebrate brain. Most of an octopus's neurons are not in its brain, but in its arms. Functionally, the octopus brain is not responsible for processing most sensory information and motor commands. Instead, the brain takes in only part of the sensory information and sends out simple commands. These instructions are not materialized until they are sent to the various organs, which means that the octopus's brain is quite independent of what it sells. However, this does not mean that octopus brains are not important in behavioral decision-making. Compare this to the hierarchical structure of the vertebrate nervous system (for example, the central nervous system integrates and responds to input from the peripheral nervous system). More accurately, the relationship between the octopus's brain and arms can be described as "collaborative". In 2011, researchers Tamar Gutnick and Ruth Byrne, along with Hochner and Kuba, conducted an experiment to examine whether octopuses could learn to guide an individual arm to specific locations in a maze in order to obtain food. In this experiment, the chemical sensors on the octopus' arms were not enough to guide them to food, and the arms had to leave the water at some point to reach their target. But the walls of the maze are set to transparent, so the octopus can see the food target visually. In this way, the octopus must visually guide its arm through the maze to reach the food target. Although it took the octopuses a long time to learn how to do this, all the animals in the experiment eventually succeeded. This suggests that octopus vision can guide the arms to perform certain movements. Also, the paper notes that when the octopus is on a food-finding mission, its arms seem to move toward the target while exploring locally. As a result, there appear to be two forms of control working together: central control of the arm's overall path guided through vision, and fine-tuning of the arm's exploration of the surrounding space in conjunction with the arm itself.

触手的神经系统
章鱼的八只触手是从头部延展出来的细长的、逐渐变细的、肌肉发达的器官，并围绕口部排列. 每个触手的内侧表面都有一排双重吸盘，每个吸盘交替排列于相对的一排吸盘之间. 每个触手上约有300个吸盘.

触手既有运动功能也有感知功能. 章鱼触手的神经系统由神经节组成，作用于运动和连接功能. 周围神经细胞代表着感觉系统. 神经节和周围神经细胞之间存在密切的功能关系.

触手的基本解剖结构
触手的肌肉可以分为三个独立的群组，每个群组具有一定程度的结构和功能独立性：
 * 1) 触手的内在肌
 * 2) 吸盘的内在肌
 * 3) 髋臼肱肌（连接吸盘和触手上的肌肉）

这三组肌肉的每一组都由相互垂直的三束肌肉组成. 每束肌肉都独立于周边单元，并表现出显著的自主性. 尽管没有骨制或软骨的框架，但章鱼可以通过不同肌肉的收缩和松弛来产生触手的运动. 从行为上看，纵向肌肉可以使触手收缩，并在抓取物体并将其带入口中起主要作用，而斜肌和横肌可以使触手伸长并被章鱼用于排斥不需要的物体. 章鱼的触手上有六个主要神经中枢，负责这些肌肉的活动. 轴向神经索目前是触手最重要的运动和整合中心. 每条触手上各有一个神经索，八条触手上共包含3.5亿（350 million）个神经元. 每条轴向神经索通过连接性神经束与五组周围神经中枢相连. 四组肌内神经索位于触手内肌之间，神经节位于每个吸盘髋假体下方的脚梗内.

所有这些小的周围神经都包含运动神经元，并承接来自深层肌肉受体的感觉纤维，其中深层肌肉受体起着局部反射中心的作用. 因此，触手肌肉的运动神经支配不仅由可以对来自大脑的神经节前纤维作出反应的轴向神经索的运动神经元提供，而且还由这些更外围的运动中心提供.

感觉神经系统
触手包含一个复杂而庞大的感觉系统. 触手的三个主要肌肉系统中的深层受体，为动物提供了一个可从肌肉中广泛收集信息的感觉器官. 许多初级受体位于覆盖触手表面的上皮细胞内. 吸盘，尤其是它的边缘，具有数量最多的感觉细胞，而触手的皮肤则不那么敏感. 每个吸盘里有成千上万个受体.

在章鱼的触手上发现了三种主要的受体形态. 这些受体包括圆形细胞、不规则多极细胞和锥形纤毛细胞. 所有这些细胞都将它们的进程向心性地向神经节发送. 这三种受体的功能性意义尚不明确，只能进行推测. 有研究认为圆形和多极受体可能负责记录机械刺激，而纤毛受体则可能是化学受体.

纤毛受体并不直接将其轴突延伸至神经节，而是将轴突与上皮下所包裹的神经元相连，并与这些神经元的树突形成突触联系. 这种联系有助于减少初级神经细胞之间的输入. 另一方面，圆形和多极受体则是将它们的轴突直接与运动神经元所在的神经节相连.

触手运动中周围神经系统的功能
行为实验表明，有关肌肉运动的信息并未到达大脑的学习中枢. 形态学上的观察指出，深部感受器将其轴突延伸至外周中枢，如吸盘的神经节或肌肉内神经索. 有关肌肉的伸展或运动的信息仅用于局部反射.

当含有来自大脑的轴突束的背侧部分的轴神经索受到电信号刺激时，整个触手的运动仍然可以被观测到. 这些运动是由外部提供的刺激所引发的，而不是直接由来自大脑的刺激所驱动的. 因此，刺激背侧部分的轴向神经索会引发触手的伸展. 相反，在同一区域内的肌肉或神经节部分的刺激仅会引发局部肌肉收缩. 这意味着大脑只需向触手发送单个移动命令，而触手将完成其余的动作.

一个沿着触手传播的背向弯曲，使吸盘指向运动方向. 随着弯曲的传播，靠近弯曲的触手部分保持延展状态. 为了进一步证明章鱼的触手具有自我意识，研究者们将章鱼触手的神经切断，使其与其它神经（包括大脑）分离. 当通过电流刺激神经索或通过物理接触刺激皮肤或吸盘时，被切断的触手开始进行正常状态下触手的延展动作.

人们注意到，当在刺激之前人工施加弯曲时，弯曲的传播更容易启动. 如果对完全放松的触手进行刺激，触手的初始动作会被刺激所触发，随后是相同的弯曲传播. 因此，触手的神经系统不但驱动局部反射，还控制涉及整个触手的复杂运动.

从运动学上的角度来说，在切断神经的章鱼触手上所引发的动作几乎与自然状态下章鱼的动作是相同的. 当受到刺激时，被切断的触手展现出肌肉活动的主动传播，就像自然状态下触手的延展动作一样. 相似的初始触手姿势引起的运动会形成相似的路径，而不同的起始姿势最终会形成不同的运动路径.

由于失去神经支配的章鱼触手的伸展从质量上和运动学上与自然状态下触手的伸展相似，这表明似乎有一个潜在的运动程序在控制内嵌于触手神经肌肉系统中的运动，且这一程序不受中枢神经的控制.

参考文献

简介
在本维基教科书中，人体解剖学和生理学部分描述的感觉系统在神经系统中执行特定的功能. 然而，对这些系统的理解并不能完整地描绘出，是什么使我们人类能够做出增加生存机会的决定.

为了管理来自感觉子系统的众多复杂信号，神经系统包含各种高阶过程. 它们负责处理更复杂的感觉刺激，并产生行为. 这些更高阶的大脑区域构成了新皮层的大部分，被统称为联合区. 大脑皮层联合区所执行的广泛功能通常被称为“认知”：“关注于外部刺激或内部动机的能力；识别这些刺激的重要性；并做出适当的回应”.

联合区的功能
我们对人类大脑皮层联合区作用的认识相当有限. 关于其功能的大多数推论来自对皮质功能损害患者的观察. 随后，这些推论通过观察实验动物和人类脑中相应区域的神经活动模式得到验证. 在过去的几十年里，PET（正电子发射断层造影术）、MRI（磁共振成像）、EEG（脑电图）、TMS（经颅磁刺激）、TES（经颅电刺激）、MEG（脑磁图）和NIRS（近红外光谱）等技术的发展显著提高了我们对认知控制的神经基础方面的理解.

顶叶联合区负责管理注意力和感性认识. 顶叶病变患者的视觉、躯体感觉和运动系统是完好的，但他们无法注意到空间中的一部分内的物体. 这种情况被称为对侧忽略综合征. 顶叶皮层，更具体地说，下顶叶，是大脑中传递注意力的主要（但不是唯一）部分.

颞叶皮层联合区负责对刺激的识别和确认. 与忽视综合征患者不同，颞叶皮层受损患者能够感知病变对侧的物体，但难以对其进行识别和命名. 此类疾病被统称为失认症. 下颞皮质的特定部分受损会导致患者无法识别其他人的面孔，这种情况被称为型面孔失认症.

额叶皮层联合区负责计划和决策. 相比于任何其他新皮质区，它管理更广泛的功能 ，并整合来自感觉和运动皮质以及来自顶叶和颞叶皮质联合区的信息. 在人类的额叶皮层中，存在一个由我们的祖先进化而来的大脑结构 ：前额叶皮层. 前额叶皮层在认知控制中起着关键作用 ，并控制着我们所说的个人“人格”.

前额叶皮质的功能
人们对前额叶皮质功能的首次关注，是由神经科学史上一个著名的医学案例引起的：1848年，铁路建筑工头Phineas Gage在一次工作事故中，被一根长约1米、直径约5厘米的铁棒从他的头部穿过. Gage甚至没有失去意识，但他的额叶皮层受到了严重损伤. Gage脑部与运动控制、眼球运动和语言有关的额叶区域保持完整，他的基本功能在事故后的11年里没有受到任何损伤. 然而，Gage的前额皮质严重受损，这导致他的性格发生了巨大的变化.

根据他的医生和朋友的报告，Gage的行为变得不再理智和成熟，无法控制自己的冲动或为未来的做计划. 在接受额叶切除术的患者中也有类似症状的报告. 额叶切除术是20世纪对患有各种精神疾病的患者实施的一种手术，在额叶切除术中，前额叶皮质会被有意地破坏.

虽然这些病例揭示了前额叶皮质在指引人类行为方面的作用，但它在认知控制中的执行功能和重要性直到20世纪中期才由于神经心理学测试的出现而变得清晰.

我们现在知道，前额叶皮层通过一个错综复杂的神经网络与许多其他大脑区域相互作用. 前额叶皮层整合并影响来自感觉输入、内部状态和运动输出 的信息，因此可以被视为大脑的控制中心.

”感知-行动“循环
前额叶皮质通过创建视觉、听觉、触觉和嗅觉信息的内部表征来调节感觉输入. 这些外部世界的皮质表征被称为感知.

运动输出，如受控的身体运动和语言，也是前额叶皮质调节的结果. 此外，前额叶皮质还可以调节思维和情绪. 因此，前额叶皮层在大脑和环境之间形成了一个反馈回路. 这种双向通信被称为”感知-行动“循环.

反馈回路已经存在于我们人类近期祖先的大脑中（事实上，在许多更原始的大脑中依然存在）. 然而，这些都是自下向上的自反射循环. 人类仍然保留的自下而上的”感知-行动“循环的一个例子是“膝跳”反射. 轻拍膝盖会引起突然的、自发的腿部运动. 像膝跳反射一样的反射性”感知-行动“循环是在没有评估和决策的情况下发生的.

相比之下，由前额叶皮层控制的”感知-行动“周期涉及自上而下的处理过程. 这是感知和行动之间周期的短暂停顿的结果. 执行性的（或高阶的）认知功能在这一延迟期间被激活. 这种感知和行动之间的延迟期的演变与人类大脑中前额叶皮质的发育相吻合. 这种停顿允许自上而下的选择性处理 ，这导致与环境的交互变得更加复杂.

选择性注意使我们专注于环境的特定方面从而追求目标，同时抑制或忽略无关的感觉输入. 将与任务相关的信息短时间保存在大脑中以指导后续行为的能力被称为工作记忆. 研究者认为，工作记忆通过对即将发生的事情的期望连接感知以及未来的行动.

目前的研究表明，选择性注意和工作记忆之间存在大量的重叠，前额叶皮质在这两个认知过程中扮演了媒介.

认知控制
在控制”感知-行动“周期中，前额叶皮质在认知控制中起着关键作用. 认知控制指的是一个人的思想和行动与内部目标的协调.

正如神经科学家Earl Miller和Jonathan Cohen所描述的那样，“认知控制源于前额叶皮层活动模式的主动维持，前额叶皮层代表着目标和实现目标的手段”. 因此，认知控制包括选择性注意、工作记忆和目标管理三个领域.

来自前额叶皮层的信号可以引导大脑其他区域的神经活动，比如感觉区域. 大脑自上而下的调节会影响这一引导活动，导致人对环境中所存在的刺激的预期有着一定的偏好. 通过这种方式，与个人目标最直接相关的特征、位置和事件在它们特定的大脑区域内具有更大的代表性，从而可以被更快地检测到.

然而，忽略次要刺激的能力是同样重要的. 这种感知抑制对于将目标干扰最小化尤其关键，其中，目标干扰可能会打断完成预期任务的过程. 人类很容易以分神和打断的形式被目标干扰所吸引，这其中包括内在干扰和外界干扰.

因此，专注和忽略对于成功实现自上而下的目标、保持大脑的选择性注意力以及塑造我们感知世界的方式都至关重要.

参考文献

title: User:Shuoli1999


text:
Professionalism/Tang Mingfang, Foxconn, and Amazon

Background and Issues with Foxconn
Foxconn, also known as Hon Hai Precision Industry Co., Ltd., is the world’s largest contract manufacturer of electronics, with factories across mainland China and plans to expand to the U.S. It has a growing revenue of $175 billion and over a million employees. Its plants are best known for the design of electronics such as iPads, iPods, Nokia devices, Sony devices, and even Apple's iPhone. Foxconn also manufacturers Amazon's Alexa devices such as the Kindle, Echo and Echodot.

Foxconn factories had many issues. In 2010, the company was hit by a wave of worker suicides, with one worker jumping from his apartment only a month after joining the company. In 2012, a Foxconn audit found illegal overtime work and unpaid wages. Employees often worked more than 60 hours a week and around two-thirds of workers felt their take-home pay was inadequate in fulfilling basic needs. Other serious accidents have occurred at the factory, such as an electric shock which damaged a worker's brain in 2011 and an explosion in the same year, which injured eighteen and killed four people. Foxconn also admitted to having hired teens as young as 14 years old. Many students, who were between 17 and 19 years old, worked overtime for up to 11 hours a day and were told they were obligated to work at the factory for a certain amount of time in order to graduate. Having 7,400 workers, interns comprise about 21% of the facility’s workforce, which is more than double the 10% allowed under Chinese law. In addition, Foxconn has required teachers to enlist and supervise students to work at the facility, and teachers frequently attack interns both physically and verbally. On top of this, harsh managers would often humiliate workers for their mistakes, which has led to many riots over the years.

Tang Mingfang's Role in Exposing Foxconn
Tang Mingfang, a 43-year-old employee at Foxconn, witnessed the awful working conditions firsthand. In 2019, Mingfang leaked documents to the China Labor Watch, a New York-based activist organization, which revealed that the Foxconn factory in Hengyang, China forced underaged school children to work for egregiously long hours. Foxconn immediately responded by accusing Mingfang of infringing on business trade secrets law, and he was detained by the Chinese Public Safety. In an interview with the Observer, Mingfang stated, "My father always taught me that I should be a good person and, because I followed my heart and believed that justice should be served, I reported the serious violations at Hengyang Foxconn. Yet my imprisonment has caused such great harm to me and my family.”

Amazon and the Chinese Government's Response
When Tang was originally imprisoned, he stated that he initially received a sympathetic hearing from the police when he explained that he had only acted to expose illegal activity in the factory.

When he refused to accept he was guilty, however, he stated that “the police officer battered me multiple times during the interrogation, he repeatedly slapped and hit me in my face and in the back of my head.” He said he unwillingly signed a confession to infringing trade secrets after being handcuffed to a bed overnight because he feared he would be beaten again.

Various labor organizations and human rights organizations had written to Amazon to offer support for Tang Mingfang, however Amazon has yet to offer any. They did, however, release the following statement in 2019: "While Amazon did not answer specific questions, they stated the following: “We do not tolerate violations of our supply chain standards. We regularly assess suppliers, using independent auditors as appropriate, to monitor continued compliance and improvement – if we find violations, we take appropriate steps, including requesting immediate corrective action.”

Amazon, being under public scrutiny, sent its own staff into the factory to investigate the labor law breaches and Foxconn was forced to pay more than $200,000 in compensation for underpaying workers making Echo and Echo Dot devices in the city of Hengyang. Amazon also requested an immediate corrective action plan from Foxconn. However, Tang Mingfang was imprisoned for 2 years and while he said he believed Amazon acted correctly in addressing the illegal working practices, he believes Amazon should have intervened on his behalf, which is in line with US law offering protection to whistleblowers and guaranteeing their freedom of speech.

Aftermath
As of 2022, Mingfang has remained in prison for over two years and has appealed to higher courts to be exonerated. In a letter to Jeff Bezos, Mingfang implored him to support his case, citing his responsibility to protect the rights for both workers for Amazon’s suppliers and those who report violations. Although Amazon initially responded to Mingfang's situation by emphasizing their diligence in assessing international supply chains, neither the company nor Jeff Bezos has offered any support since.

Despite Amazon’s silence, other organizations have spoken up on the matter. China Labor Watch (CLW) is a New York-based, non-profit organization that monitors and defends Chinese workers rights. Li Qiang, the director of CLW, wrote to Jeff Bezos imploring him to intervene: “CLW believes that Amazon has the responsibility to call for China to free this innocent volunteer, who provided the evidence of labor violations in an Amazon supplier factory, and thank him for helping improving workers’ conditions…. It is unacceptable and unfair that Tang Mingfang is serving jail time for trying to help Amazon improve the labor conditions in its supplier factory.” Similarly, the Congressional-Executive Commission on China (CECC), a bipartisan organization of the U.S. Congress, addressed a letter to Amazon asking for support in Mingfang’s court appeal and for the company to publicly update their policies so that exposure of labor abuses is not considered a breach of company confidentiality. The CECC also urged Amazon to include specific consequences for any suppliers found to be guilty of forced labor.

Legislative Considerations and Application to Professional Ethics
China has historically been underdeveloped in terms of whistleblower protection legislation. However, several occasions in recent years have emphasized the need for the establishment of stronger legal protections for whistleblowers in China. In 2019, the State Council, which oversees provincial governments, issued the Guiding Opinions on Strengthening and Standardizing In-process and Ex-post Regulation, which requires both the central and provincial governments to implement whistleblower protection systems. In addition, China’s Ministry of Finance  issued the Interim Measures for Rewards for Whistleblower Reports of Major Violations in the Field of Market Regulation in 2021, which establishes monetary incentives for whistleblowers acting in the public interest. China also has several labor laws that cover a wide range of areas such as expected work responsibilities, compensation, hours, and workplace safety protections. However, Chinese whistleblower protection programs and labor laws do not necessarily apply to foreign-registered employers and their employees.

Amazon’s internal company policy also provides a system for whistleblower protection. According to the Grievance Mechanism and Whistleblower Protections sections of the Amazon Supply Chain Standards, suppliers are expected to protect whistleblower confidentiality and to "prohibit retaliation against worker whistleblowers, who in good faith report improper conduct by a Supplier or an employee or officer of a Supplier." Evidently, Mingfang’s case calls into question the efficacy of these policies and the extent to which foreign suppliers are monitored and held responsible for violations. It also highlights the need for stronger protections for those acting in the public interest and underscores the shared responsibility of companies and governments to protect workers’ rights in global supply chains.

A Similar Case to Foxconn
Amazon has had similar cases with whistleblowers exposing factory conditions. In 2020, Lina Rodriguez, a former employee of Amazon, was fired from Amazon’s sorting center in Thornton because she had repeatedly raised concerns on COVID-19 risks and eventually filed a whistleblower complaint with the state labor department. The reason she had spoken up about it was due to Amazon's lack of guidance on health and safety information in Spanish, as well as their poor efforts on contact tracing. Rodriguez filed a 9-page complaint along with lawyers from two Denver-based law offices, and cited the Public Health Emergency Whistleblower (PHEW) Act, which protected workers who raised concerns about public safety during a public health crisis. The report called the Thornton facility an "ineffective sham" as workers were unaware if they had been exposed to the virus and management had failed to follow proper safety procedures.

Amazon officials once again did not address any specific allegations in the complaint, but instead fired Rodriguez for "time theft" as they claimed that Rodriguez often "clocked in and then either left the building or failed to report to her work assignment". David Seligman, one of the attorneys involved, claimed that these “time theft” allegations and firing workers are a common theme for Amazon when it is seeking to silence workers who pitch concerns about workplace conditions and safety protocols.

Similarly to Tang Mingfang, Lina Rodriguez wants accountability from Amazon and is encouraging her story to be spread. She has yet to receive any response from Amazon on next steps in improvement for their factories. There are more cases alike to these, regarding Amazon and other tech giants, where the whistleblowers have yet to receive justice for the unfair treatment they've received when exposing the human condition in factory work.


text:
Happiness/Volunteering

It’s true when you do something for the creation of God without any business purpose that work will make you happy. If someone be happy for your kind effort that job can make your Soul happy. Remember always for happiness we should think positive & need to do everything or at least something for mankind as a volunteer.

title: Happiness/Volunteering


text:
User talk:173.76.102.69

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title: User talk:173.76.102.69


text:
Hobo travel journalism

The concept is not radically new, in general, correspond to all the parameters of the printed form of travel journalism, the definition of which is given below; the only difference is in the not quite usual way of implementation: the process of collecting material is associated with a high probability of adventures and extreme situations.

Travel journalism is one of the areas of journalism, which is based on the creation of descriptive texts about routes traveled, road adventures, natural attractions, historical and archeological sites of countries and continents, subtleties of travel and everything associated with them.

On the pages of this textbook talk about the well-known now field of journalism — in the aspect of hobo tourism; an informal version of the approach is considered, in which the creator of the material intended for publication uses specific methods of wandering, while not being a regular employee of the periodical.

The chapters of the textbook are supplemented by articles by the author (in ru), presented as examples, which allows, along with the study of theory, to get a visual idea of the results

Content

 * /General information/
 * /Route selection/
 * /Topics/
 * /Penetrating indigenous nations cultures/

For additional reading: Rubrics of printed publications, which were conducted at different times by the author of this textbook (in ru):
 * Returning from distant wanderings (in the newspaper "Republic of Crimea")
 * Wind of wanderings (in the newspaper "Crimean Time")
 * With a backpack around the planet (in the newspaper "Southern Capital")
 * Around the World (in the newspaper "Crimean Observer")
 * Around the world (in the newspaper "Republic")
 * Travel notes (in the ProX magazine)

authors: Виктор Пинчук

title: Hobo travel journalism