text:
DBMS/Database Design

employee domain of the attribute e.g.: The domain of attribute marital status is having four values: single, married, divorced or widowed.
 * entity : nothing but it represents field of the database e.g.,
 * entity set : collection of different fields
 * relationship :
 * relationship set :
 * domain :The set of possible values for an attribute is called the

The domain of the attribute month is having twelve values ranging from January to December. unique for every entity instance e.g.: the account number of an account, the employee id of an employee etc. database connectivity is called the cardinality of the relationship e.g., one to one, one to many, many to many doesn’t have key attribute (s) of its own e.g. : spouse of employee
 * Key attribute: The attribute (or combination of attributes) that is
 * attribute : e.g., gender
 * composite attribute :
 * degree of relationship :the number of entity types involved in a
 * cardinality of relationship : The minimum and maximum values of this
 * weak entity :Entity that depends on other entity for its existence and

 * identifying relationship :
 * non-identifying relationship :
 * discriminator :

ER Diagram

 * entity relationship data model
 * Introduction to Data Modeling at University of Texas, Austin

Modelling concepts
 * Specialisation
 * Generalisation
 * Categorisation
 * Aggregation

Normalization
Normalization is the formal process for deciding which attributes should be grouped together in a relation.The process of normalization was first developed by E.F.CODD. Normalization is the process of evaluating and correcting the relation schemes to minimize data redundancies and thereby reducing anomalies.

First Normal Form
As per the rule of the 1NF an attributes of a table cannot hold multiple value. It should hold only atomic value.

Second Normal Form
Second Normal form is characterized by the property of functional dependency. a relation is in second normal form if it is in 1st normal form and every non key attribute is fully and functionally dependent on the primary key.

Third Normal Form
transitive dependency : A relation is in third normal form, if it is in second normal form and no transitive dependencies exist. Suppose A,B and C are the three attributes of a relation(R) then if A->B(B depends on A) B->C(C depends on B) then we can say that "C" depends transitively on "A".

Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
BCNF is based on functional dependencies that take into account all candidate keys in a relation. For a relation with only one candidate key, 3rd normal form and BCNF are equivalent. A relation is in BCNF if and only if every determinant is a candidate key. now what is a determinant? consider the following functional dependency: A→B where A and B are attributes in relation R. it says that B is functionally dependent on A. here A is referred to as determinant and B is the dependent.

BCNF is slightly stronger than 3nF.

Fourth Normal Form

 * multivalued dependencies are removed :

Fifth Normal Form
Any remaining anomalies are removed.in this normal form we isolate semantically related multiple relationships.

Anomalies can be : Insertion Anomaly,Deletion Anomaly or Modification/update Anomaly. Any remaining anomalies are removed.in this normal form we isolate semantically related multiple relationships.

title: DBMS/Database Design


text:
DBMS/Query Languages

Query Languages

 * query : the retrieval of tuples from the relations of a relational schema
 * query language : a language used to retrieve information (tuples) from the relations of a relational schema.

types of query language
 * procedural language
 * non-procedural language

Mathematical query languages
 * Relational algebra
 * Tuple relational calculus
 * Domain relational calculus

Relational algebra
relational algebra is a procedural query language BY:NA
 * operations
 * selection (r σ s) -
 * projection (r ∏ s) -
 * union: (r ∪ s)
 * set difference: (r – s)
 * Cartesian product: (r X s)
 * rename: ( ρr )
 * intersection:
 * natural join:
 * division:
 * union:
 * intersection:
 * outer join

Tuple relational calculus
A tuple variable is variable that takes on tuples of a particular relation schema as values. That is, every value assigned to a given tuple variable has the same number and type of fields. A tuple relation calculus query has the form {T I p(t)} where T is a tuple variable and p(T) denotes a formula that describes T; The result of this query is the set of all tuples t for which the formula p(T)evaluates to true with T=t.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: DBMS/Query Languages


text:
DBMS/Storage Manager

Storage manager module of the database provides the interface between the following component:
 * data stored in the database
 * the application programs
 * queries submitted to the system

file manager
function of the file manager is to manage disk space for storage and manage data structure used for storing information.

buffer manager
The buffer manager reads disk pages into a main memory page as needed. The collection of main memory pages (called frames) used by the buffer manager for this purpose is called the buffer pool. This is just an array of Page objects. The buffer manager is used by (the code for) access methods, heap files, and relational operators to read / write /allocate / de-allocate pages. The Buffer Manager makes calls to the underlying DB class object, which actually performs these functions on disk pages.

Replacement policies for the buffer manager can be changed easily at compile time.

Authorisation and integrity manager
Checks the authorization of users to access data and tests integrity constraints

Indexing and hashing
Many queries reference only a small proportion of records in a file. For example, finding all records at Perryridge branch only returns records where bname = ``Perryridge''. We should be able to locate these records directly, rather than having to read every record and check its branch-name. We then need extra file structuring.

Evaluation
As we know that, computer has two storage memories 1.primary storage 2.secondary storage

title: DBMS/Storage Manager


text:
DBMS/SQL

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is a non procedural language.

References relational algebra
 * A Gentle Introduction to SQL at SQLzoo
 * SQL Tutorial at W3CSchools

title: DBMS/SQL


text:
DBMS/XML

Extensible Mark-up Language.

XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language XML is a markup language much like HTML XML was designed to carry data, not to display data XML tags are not predefined. You must define your own tags XML is designed to be self-descriptive XML is a W3C Recommendation

XML

title: DBMS/XML


text:
DBMS/Application Design

JDBC
JDBC means Java Database Connectivity.

title: DBMS/Application Design


text:
DBMS/Query Processing

 * Query Processor
 * Query parsing
 * Query optimizer
 * Query evaluation engine : It executes low level instructions given by the DML and retrieves the information from the storage manager.

title: DBMS/Query Processing


text:
DBMS/Transaction

 * transaction : collection logically related operations in a database application.
 * Transaction-management: ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
 * authorization engine

title: DBMS/Transaction


text:
DBMS/Concurrency control

 * Concurrency-control: ensuring the consistency of the database in spite of interaction among the concurrent transactions

title: DBMS/Concurrency control


text:
DBMS/Recovery

To restore a physical backup of a data file or control file is to reconstruct it and make it available to the Oracle database server. To recover a restored data file is to update it by applying archived redo logs and online redo logs, that is, records of changes made to the database after the backup was taken. If you use RMAN, then you can also recover data files with incremental backups, which are backups of a data file that contain only blocks that changed after a previous incremental backup.

title: DBMS/Recovery


text:
DBMS/Distributed Database Management System

Distributed Database management Systems are the software for managing databases stored on multiple computers in the network.

Distributed Database: It is a set of databases stored on multiple computers that typically appears to application as a single database. It stores related over two or more physically independent sites that requires distributed processing. A database that is composed of different database fragments / parts.


text:
DBMS/Data Mining and Analysis

Data mining is searching information which is already stored in such a database.

title: DBMS/Data Mining and Analysis


text: DBMS/Printable version

title: DBMS/Printable version


text: Mother 3/Printable version

title: Mother 3/Printable version


text: Xenosaga/Printable version

title: Xenosaga/Printable version


text: The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap/Printable version


text: The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask/Printable version


text:
The Final Fantasy Legend/Introduction

"It has been said that the tower in the center of the World is connected to Paradise. Dreaming of a life in Paradise, many have challenged the secret of the tower, but no one knows what became of them. Now, there is another who will brave the adventure..."

The Final Fantasy Legend is a unique roleplaying game for the classic Game Boy. It is actually the first part of Squaresoft's experimental series of SaGa games. This series is known for its use of unconventional gameplay, making it an interesting RPG historically.

The story, although not the focus of the game, tells the tale of an adventurer braving the trials of a tower that supposedly leads to Paradise. This adventure will take him, her, or it through multiple worlds chock full of adventure and 8-bit roleplaying gameplay.

The game was originally released on the Game Boy, and has since been re-released on the WonderSwan Color, Mobile Phone platforms (i-Mode, EZweb, and SoftBank 3G), and the Nintendo Switch.

title: The Final Fantasy Legend/Introduction


text: The Final Fantasy Legend/Printable version


text: Tales of Symphonia/Printable version

title: Tales of Symphonia/Printable version


text: Super Monkey Ball/Printable version

title: Super Monkey Ball/Printable version


text: Metal Gear Solid 5: The Phantom Pain/Printable version


text: Stardew Valley/Printable version

title: Stardew Valley/Printable version


text: Star Fox: Assault/Printable version

title: Star Fox: Assault/Printable version


text: Splinter Cell/Printable version

title: Splinter Cell/Printable version


text: Secret of Mana/Printable version

title: Secret of Mana/Printable version


text: Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire/Printable version


text: Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen/Printable version


text:
Nintendogs/Introduction

Nintendogs is a video game released in 2005 for the Nintendo DS portable gaming system. In it, players adopt and care for dogs, which they can interact with by touching the screen and using the microphone to interact with the game, doing such things as using your voice to speak to your Nintendogs. The game was released under three different versions, for both Japan and the USA/Europe, and each of these three versions has a different selection of dogs available to the player. The game was originally developed and demonstrated as a concept for the Nintendo 64, but was never released on that platform. Instead, it was reworked to take advantage of the DS's touch screen to provide a more tactile game.

title: Nintendogs/Introduction


text: Nintendogs/Printable version

title: Nintendogs/Printable version


text: Metroid Prime: Hunters/Printable version


text: Metroid Prime/Printable version

title: Metroid Prime/Printable version


text: Mario Kart: Double Dash!!/Printable version


text: Mario franchise strategy guide/Printable version


text: Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time/Printable version


text: Luigi's Mansion/Printable version

title: Luigi's Mansion/Printable version


text: Kirby Super Star/Printable version

title: Kirby Super Star/Printable version


text: Halo 2/Printable version

title: Halo 2/Printable version


text: Halo/Printable version

title: Halo/Printable version


text: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City/Printable version


text:
The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra

Sumatra Island is the northwest oriented physiographic expression, lied on the western edge of Sundaland, a southern extension of the Eruasian Continental Plate (Fig. 2.1). The Sumatra Island has an area of about 435,000 km2, measuring 1650 km from Banda Aceh in the north to Tanjungkarang in the south. Its width is about 100-200 km in the northern part and about 350 km in the southern part. The main geographical trendlines of the island are rather simple. Its backbone is formed by the Barisan Range which runs along the western side. This region divides the west and the east coast. The slope towards the Indian Ocean is generally steep, consequently the west belt is mostly mountainous, with the exception of two lowland embayments in north Sumatra which are about 20 km wide. The eastern belt of the island is covered by broad, hilly tracts of Tertiary formations and alluvium lowlands. At Diamond Point, in Aceh, this low eastern belt has a width of about 30 km; its width increases to 150-200 km in central and south Sumatra.

The Sumatra island is interpreted to be constructed by collision and suturing of discrete micrcontinents in late Pre-Tertiary times (Pulunggono and Cameron 1984, Barber 1985). At the present-day, the Indian Ocean Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Continental Plate in a N20oE direction at a rate of between 6 and 7 cm/yr (Fig. 2.2). This zone of oblique convergence is marked by the active Sunda Arc-Trench system which extends for more than 5000 km, from Burma in the north to where the Australian Plate is in collision with Eastern Indonesia in the south (Hamilton 1979). The basinal configuration of Sumatra is directly related to the presence of the subduction-induced non-volcanic forearc and the volcano-plutonic backarc, the morpho-structural backbone of the Island.

In general the region can be divided into 6 regions (Fig. 2.1):

1. Sunda outer-arc ridge, located along the active margin of the Sunda forearc basin and separate it from the trench slope.

2. Sunda forearc basin, lying between the accreting non-volcanic outer-arc ridge with submerged segments, and the volcanic back arc of Sumatra.

3. Sumatra back arc basins including North, Central and South Sumatra basin. The system developed as distinct depressions at the foot of the Barisan range.

4. Barisan mountain range, occupies the axial part of the island and is composed mainly of Permo-Carboniferous to Mesozoic rocks.

5. Sumatra intra-arc or intermontane basin, separated by subsequent uplift and erosion from this former depositional area, thus with similar lithologies to the fore-and backarc basins.

2.1. SUNDA OUTER-ARC RIDGE

The Sunda non-volcanic outer-arc ridge marks the western margin of the Sunda Forearc Basin of West Sumatra. This chain of islands and sea-floor rises, between 100 and 150 km off the coast of West Sumatra, forms a structurally controlled topographic ridge nearly 200 km wide (Karig et al., 1979), that extends from the Andaman Sea to the southeast of Java. Nias, Simeulue, and Banyak Island lithologies represent the stratigraphy of the Sunda ourter-arc ridge in general. The geology of the Sunda outer-arc ridge is represented by Nias and Simeulue Island in this chapter.

2.1.1. NIAS (Adopted from Situmorang, B & Yulihanto, B., 1992)

Nias Island is located approximately 125 km off the west coast of Sumatra (Fig. 2.1) and it has been frequently cited as a classic model of an accretionary complex (Fig. 2.3). Nias lithologies were divided into two principal units, the Oyo complex and the Nias Beds (Fig. 2.4). The contact between the two units has not been observed in the field.

2.1.1.1. OYO COMPLEX MELANGE

The Oyo Complex is described by Moore and Karig (1980) as a tectonic melange. On Nias, outcrops of Oyo Complex are seen as isolated blocks and boulders in river sections, along road sections and coastal exposures. The Complex is composed of sedimentary blocks, including conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones, with subordinate mafic plutonic rocks, pillow basalts and cherts (Harbury et. al., 1990). Sandstone blocks form the dominant clast type in the SW part of the island, while pillow basalts and gabbros form some largest blocks (up to 200 m diameter) cropping out mostly along the west coast of the Nias Island (Fig. 5).

Texturally, the sediment boulders are sub to mature clastic with mainly subangular to rounded and well sorted sediments, and are either grain supported or matrix supported. In the area where the mélange is present, landslips are common to occur and the fresh matrix of the Oyo Complex can be observed. Good outcrop of melange is exposed in central Nias (Moi River) and SW Nias. The matrix forms a typical scaly clay, with a high density of curved, polished shear planes. The age of the Oyo Complex remains unresolved by paIeontological analysis.

2.1.1.2. NIAS BEDS

Overlying the Oyo Complex, with probable unconformable contact, are a series of clastic sediments of shallow to deep marine deposits of Nias Beds which are well exposed along the eastern part of the island (Fig 2.4 & 2.5). It consists of coarse to fine sandstone, conglomerate, mudstone, shale and limestone. The age of the Nias Beds has been interpreted by previous authors as Early Miocene-Pliocene. On the contrary, Situmorang & Yulihanto (1992) fieldwork indicates that the lower part of the Nias Beds is Upper Oligocene in age.

2.1.2. SIMEULUE

Simeulue lies slightly off-strike and to the northwest of Nias (Fig. 2.1). This island shares a broadly comparable geology with Nias, of melange overlain by interbedded sandstone and siltstone sequences, with parts of the succession dominated by bioclastic limestones. Although lithological variations do exist, the most notable differences between the two islands is one of structural style.

2.1.2.1. SIBAU GABBRO GROUP

The oldest rocks exposed on the island are represented by the Sibau Gabbro Group (Situmorang et al. 1987; Fig. 2.4)). The Sibau Gabbro Group is composed mainly of metaigneous lithologies with predominantly transitional contacts. The ophiolite correlates closely with a partially defined gravity high in this area indicating that the basic igneous rocks form a major body, extending to a depth of several kilometers (J. Milsom, pers. commun. 1990). Lithologies identified within the group include gabbros, meta-dolerite and meta-volcanics, all with abundant chlorite and pumpellyite suggesting that these rocks are all low-grade metamorphics. Rock dating suggest that the Sibau Gabbro Group and Baru Melange Formation were metamorphosed between Late Eocene and Early Oligocene (Harbury & Kallagher, 1991).

2.1.2.2 BARU MELANGE FORMATION

Situmorang et al. (1987) describe the Baru Melange formation as being in structural (thrust) contact with basalts at the top of the Sibau Gabbro Group (Fig. 2.4). Blocks within the melange include fine-grained, micaceous sandstone some of which are fractured; very well-consolidated, weakly sheared, micaceous mudstone, poorly-sorted meta-greywacke; iron-rich meta-dolerite; brecciated meta-basalt; meta- volcanics and calcite-rich, lithic and crystal tuft’s. Blocks within the melange may be in excess of 10 m in diameter. Smaller blocks of 5 – 10 cm in diameter are commonly enclosed within a sticky blue/grey clay matrix containing organic material, or within a cleaved mudstone matrix. No bedding or other sedimentological characteristics, within the blocks of the melange or the clay matrix, can be used to determine the stratigraphical base or top of the Baru Melange Formation. The apparent random distribution of blocks of different lithology within the outcrop area suggests that the melange is unsorted. The thickness of the formation is estimated to be approximately 200 m.

2.1.2.3 AI MANIS LIMESTONE FORMATION

The Ai Manis Limestone Formation forms a NW – SE orientated ridge in the east central part of Simeulue. The formation is approximately 260 – 350 m thick and consists of both biostromal, biohermal (composed of in situ corals) and bioclastic limestones. The major part of the formation consists of bioclastic

title: The Geology of Indonesia/Sumatra


text: Golden Sun/Printable version

title: Golden Sun/Printable version


text: Fireboy and Watergirl in the Forest Temple/Printable version


text: Donkey Kong Jungle Beat/Printable version


text: A Guide to Animal Crossing/Printable version


text: Animal Crossing: Wild World/Printable version


text: Zelda franchise strategy guide/Printable version


text: X-COM: Apocalypse Strategy Guide/Printable version


text: We ♥ Katamari/Printable version

title: We ♥ Katamari/Printable version


text: Total Annihilation/Printable version

title: Total Annihilation/Printable version


text: Star Sonata/Printable version

title: Star Sonata/Printable version


text: Star Fox franchise strategy guide/Printable version


text: Space Invaders/Printable version

title: Space Invaders/Printable version


text:
The Linux Kernel/Security

Landlock
Landlock allows to sandbox applications.

👁 example:

📚 References:

title: The Linux Kernel/Security


text: Sonic the Hedgehog 3/Printable version

title: Sonic the Hedgehog 3/Printable version


text: Sonic the Hedgehog 2/Printable version

title: Sonic the Hedgehog 2/Printable version


text: Sonic R/Printable version

title: Sonic R/Printable version


text: Sonic Heroes/Printable version

title: Sonic Heroes/Printable version


text: Seiken Densetsu 3/Printable version

title: Seiken Densetsu 3/Printable version


text: Rise of Nations/Printable version

title: Rise of Nations/Printable version


text: Quest for Glory/Printable version

title: Quest for Glory/Printable version


text: Pokémon Red and Blue/Printable version

title: Pokémon Red and Blue/Printable version


text: Pokémon/Printable version

title: Pokémon/Printable version


text: Phoenix/Printable version

title: Phoenix/Printable version


text: Old School RuneScape/Printable version

title: Old School RuneScape/Printable version


text: Nintendo Wars/Printable version

title: Nintendo Wars/Printable version


text: Neopets/Printable version

title: Neopets/Printable version


text: Need for Speed: Most Wanted/Printable version


text: Minecraft resource gathering/Printable version


text: Mega Man X/Printable version

title: Mega Man X/Printable version


text: Mario Kart 64/Printable version

title: Mario Kart 64/Printable version


text:
User talk:2A02:C7D:F821:9100:18B:2D1C:C7B2:D30F

Warning
—Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 00:08, 8 November 2021 (UTC)


text: Jump Superstars/Printable version

title: Jump Superstars/Printable version


text:
Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories/Story

The game takes place in Liberty City, 1998, before the events of Grand Theft Auto III and Grand Theft Auto taking place in 2000 and 2001. You start out playing as Toni Cipriani, a made man and Capo for the Leone Mafia family last seen in Grand Theft Auto III, returns to the city after a period of "laying low", having killed a "made man" before to the approval of don Salvatore Leone. Upon arrival, however, he finds that the Leones have moved on with business and Toni's position as Capo was seized by another member. Starting again as a low ranking goon of Salvatore's mob, Toni must once again work his way back up to his former position as the second-in-command to the don. You, the player, will assume the role of Tony Cipriani upon arrival in Liberty City.


text: Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories/Printable version


text: GoldenEye 007/Printable version

title: GoldenEye 007/Printable version


text: Final Fantasy Mystic Quest/Printable version


text: EverQuest/Printable version

title: EverQuest/Printable version


text: Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest/Printable version


text:
Public-Private Partnership Policy Casebook/JFK Airport PPP

Summary

 * In 2017, Governor Cuomo announced a JFK Vision Plan.
 * JFK vision plan would reviatlize the airport on multiple fronts:
 * Connect 8 terminals.
 * Redesign international roadways to remove congestion
 * Centralize the parking lots
 * Revamp amenities
 * Plans were approved again May 2021 by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, along with JFK International Air Terminal (JKFIAT), which operates the terminal, and Delta Air Lines.
 * About the JFK Airport as a whole
 * JFK covers 4,930 acres, including 880 acres in the Central Terminal Area.
 * The land is owned by the City of New York, the airport built on it is operated by The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, under a lease with the City of New York.
 * It is a major hub for Jetblue, Delta, and American airlines. It has four runways, eight terminals with 117 gates.
 * JFK Airport can operate a maximum of 81 flights per hour.
 * JFK has been recognized as the leading U.S. gateway for passengers and cargo. The airport is among the busiest in North America and the world.
 * This case study synthesis is to focus on the P3 agreement of Terminal 4.
 * JFK Terminal 4 was the first major terminal in the United States to be administered by a foreign airport operator (Schiphol Group).
 * It is also the only non-airline privately-operated terminal at the JFK Airport.

Maps of Locations

 * Location of JFK Airport

 * Location of JFK Terminal 4

Timeline of the JFK Terminal 4 PPP Project

 * 1993 Port Authority began planning and design studies for Terminal 4 redevelopment
 * July 1995 Request for qualifications issued for parties interested in operating the existing IAB and to construct and operate the new Terminal 4
 * December 1995 Request for proposals (RFP) issued March 1996 RFP responses due
 * April 1996 JFKIAT selected as winning proponent
 * May 1996 Memorandum of understanding signed between Port Authority and JFKIAT and JFKIAT assumes operational responsibility
 * April 25, 1997 Closing of $934.1 million in Series 6 Special Project Bonds to finance Terminal 4 redevelopment
 * May 13, 1997 Execution of JFKIAT lease, JFKIAT assumes operation of IAB
 * May 8, 2001 Opening of the Terminal 4 central terminal building (“head house”) with the principal facilities for processing arriving and departing passengers
 * August 10, 2001 Port Authority and JFKIAT agree to terms of lease amendment; Port Authority provides $172 million in subordinate completion financing
 * September 11, 2001 Terrorist attacks depress international airline travel demand; most U.S. airports, including JFK, closed for 2 days
 * November 2004 City of New York and Port Authority execute extension to Port Authority’s lease of JFK and LaGuardia airports through 2050
 * 2007 Delta Air Lines begins negotiations with Port Authority and JFKIAT over Terminal 4 expansion
 * April 2010 Schiphol USA acquires JFKIAT ownership stakes of LCOR and Lehman
 * August 11, 2010 Port Authority, JFKIAT, and Delta announce $660 million expansion of Terminal 4
 * May 2013 Delta to relocate fully Terminal 3 operations to Terminal 4
 * May 2015 Terminal 3 demolished; site redeveloped to accommodate remote aircraft parking

Annotated List of Actors

 * Port Authority: a bi-state port district established through an intergovernmental contract between the states of New York and New Jersey. The governor of each state appoints 6 members to the Board of Commissioners, which oversees the Port Authority.
 * JFK International Air Terminal LLC (“JFKIAT”): the winning bidder of this project, with a joint venture structure of
 * LCOR JFK Airport LLC (“LCOR”) with a 40% stake
 * Schiphol USA LLC with a 40% stake
 * Lehman JFK LLC (“Lehman”) with a 20% stake

Contract Type
In May 1997, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey awarded a concession contract to JFK International Air Terminal LLC (JFKIAT), a subsidiary of the Schiphol Group, to operate, manage and maintain Terminal 4 until 2043. According to the concession, JFKIAT was in charge of expanding the Terminal 4 and upgrading the airport infrastructure, which includes nine new international gates, customs and border security facilities and additional baggage space.

JFKIAT signed a lease with the Port Authority on May 13, 1997, just a few days after the special project bonds' financial close on April 25, 1997. The lease period was set to terminate on the sooner of (1) 25 years after the date of beneficial possession of the new facility, or (2) the day before the expiration of the Port Authority's lease with the City of New York for JFK ("City Lease"). The lease obliged JFKIAT to finish construction of the terminal by May 12, 2002; but, if it was not completed by May 2001, hefty financial penalties applied. The City Lease was set to expire in 2015 at the time of its signing; however, in 2004, it was extended until 2050. If the City Lease was not extended, the JFKIAT lease provided for accelerated amortization of principal. The JFKIAT lease for Terminal 4 was amended to expire on May 8, 2026, as a result of the City Lease extension.

Cost
The Port Authority issued $934.1 million in special project bonds in April 1997 to finance JFKIAT's construction of the new Terminal 4, which included dismantling the IAB and creating a terminal building, terminal frontage highway, and aircraft parking ramp. The bonds are not a general obligation of the Port Authority and are secured by rental payments (i.e., amounts necessary to pay debt service on the bonds), the pledge of a leasehold mortgage, and certain other pledged assets of JFKIAT. JFKIAT pays for facility rentals using its net earnings (revenues less operating and maintenance expenses and ground rental to the Port Authority). Standard & Poor's gave the 1997 bonds a BBB+ rating, Fitch gave them an A, and Moody's gave them a BAA2 rating. MBIA guaranteed the bonds, which were three times oversubscribed.

In August 2001, a lease amendment was signed in line with the Port Authority's $172 million completion financing for JFKIAT. Although JFKIAT initially requested that the Port Authority issue extra bonds to cover cost overruns, the Port Authority instead offered to give a subordinate loan to speed up the process and reduce the complications of dealing with numerous financial parties. The Port Authority also wanted to safeguard its landlord position in the "waterfall" from another creditor while also improving the deal's overall profitability. The Port Authority, in particular, retained a significant amount of land as a result of this funding and the subsequent lease amendment. JFKIAT obtained a greater terminal management fee as well as a larger retail management fee in exchange. The terms of the completion finance were amended by subsequent lease amendments. As a result, after paying operational expenses, ground rent, debt payments, reserve deposits, and terminal and retail management fees, JFKIAT's financial returns are essentially made up of its portion of ACRP 01-14 Considering and Evaluating Airport Privatization Appendix H H-29 distributions.

The project was completed in May 2001 at a construction cost approximately 20% over the budgeted amount. .The final cost of construction was approximately $1,069 million, compared to an original estimate in 1997 of $876 million.

JFKIAT uses differential pricing to account for the value of access to the facilities during peak hours to airlines and the value of longer-term, fixed lease agreements to JFKIAT. These rent and fee prices are normally established to match market-based competitive rates. Airlines can sign into agreements with JFKIAT for a variety of terms (from 30 days to 10 years), with airlines that guarantee a minimum passenger volume for a longer period of time often being charged cheaper prices. According to the lease, JFKIAT is required to present an annual strategic plan to the Port Authority, which includes a collaborative evaluation of the proposed price structure. Any agreement between JFKIAT and an airline with a term of more than 7 years requires written consent from the Port Authority.

Financial Structure
JFKIAT is required to make rental payments sufficient to pay debt service on the special (tax-exempt) facility bonds, pay certain operation and maintenance expenses and ground rent to the Port Authority, and make certain other payments and distributions from revenues available after the debt service is paid under the terms of the lease with the Port Authority. Airline payments (passenger terminal costs, utility recovery charges, exclusive airline space leases, aircraft parking fees, and ground handling concession prices), terminal concession privilege fees, and tenant parking fee payments account for the majority of revenue.

Terminal 4's airline revenues account for around 85-90 percent of total Terminal 4 revenue.

Identification of Policy Issues

 * Order Limiting Operations at John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK).
 * Originally published on January 18, 2008, and most recently extended on September 17, 2018.
 * The Order remains effective until October 29, 2022.

Key Takeaways
Terminal 4 is generally recognized in the industry as a successful example of nonairline, private sector participation in terminal development and operation. The project did not necessitate the implementation of any federal or state legislation, such as the Airport Privatization Pilot Program. Since the opening of Terminal 4 in 2001, no project of equal magnitude has been completed in the United States. The Port Authority is considering using certain aspects of the Terminal 4 model in connection with a terminal expansion at Newark and the planned redevelopment of the central terminal building at LaGuardia Airport, among other options, as a reflection of its general satisfaction with the conceptual model.

Key lessons learned from this P3 project are as follows:

 * The redevelopment of Terminal 4 was made possible by the availability of tax-exempt financing. According to LCOR, tax-exempt borrowing provides a 30% reduction over private financing.
 * Despite the Port Authority's efforts to attract private equity to the project, its access to the tax-exempt bond market on behalf of the developers and the resulting cheaper cost of capital dissuaded a significant equity investment that would have demanded higher returns. The Port Authority wanted the consortium to have "skin in the game," so JFKIAT made a $15 million commitment.
 * JFKIAT was able to effectively test market-based pricing, which is used by just a few public airports. In example, during the traffic dip caused by September 11 and SARS, JFKIAT was able to negotiate special pricing with airlines that would not have been possible under traditional public procurement regulations.
 * The fact that there was no "anchor tenant" whose needs were driving facility design and development at the expense of other tenants was crucial to the Terminal 4 project's success. Any organized opposition to the project was difficult due to the fact that no airline had a significant percentage of traffic at the terminal. As a result of the Terminal 4 expansion project and Delta's preferential-lease status, these dynamics have shifted to some extent.
 * This project has also been a success because it is one of numerous terminals at JFK that compete for traffic with other terminals. This competition aims to keep costs cheap while also encouraging JFKIAT to run a well-managed facility with strong customer service standards. Because JFKIAT competes for airline consumers, there is less need for more stringent regulation.

Questions for Discussion

 * 1) Due to lower traveler numbers, do you think expanding the terminal is still a good idea?
 * 2) Do you think the P3 model in this JFK Terminal 4 project, which is quite unique in a number of factors, e.g. a lease contract, leveraged on special (tax-exempt) bonds, and short-term concessions (initially 15 years), can be transferrable to other P3 projects?


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Signetics 2650 & 2636 programming/Development systems

This chapter takes a brief look at the options available for developing new software for these consoles.

WinArcadia

WinArcadia (for Windows) and AmiArcadia (for Amiga) are the most developed systems for programming these consoles. They are emulators for a range of 2650-based consoles, computers and arcade machines, with capability for disassembly, assembly and debugging. The supported languages are currently English, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Italian, Polish, Russian and Spanish. They are built and maintained by James Jacobs in Australia, and can be downloaded from Emerson Arcadia 2001 Central at amigan.yatho.com

Pi2650
This is currently under development by Derek Andrews in Canada. It is an IDE that runs on a Raspberry Pi 400 connected to a console via an interface board. The IDE includes an editor and assembler. It dumps its binary output to a dual-port RAM on the interface board. It enables developers to test their code on a real console.


text:
User:Barisoab

Abreham Bariso

title: User:Barisoab


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Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Channel Tunnel

The Channel Tunnel also called "the Chunnel" is a 51-kilometer/31-mile rail tunnel beneath the English Channel. It connects south-east England and northern France. The Chunnel consists of two rail tunnels and a service tunnel in the middle used for maintenance and emergency evacuation. The tunnel carries high-speed passenger trains operated by Eurostar, the Eurotunnel Shuttle for both passenger and cargo road vehicles, and international freight trains.

Trains passing through the tunnel can travel at a top speed of 160 kilometers per hour. Plans to build a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802; around twelve early proposals were made from both countries but with no success. Eventually, the current tunnel project was organized and constructed starting in 1988. It was opened for service in June 1994, costing almost 15 billion dollars in today's money. The project was privately financed by a consortium of British and French corporations and banks.

Getlink, formerly known as the Eurotunnel Group, is a public company based in Paris that manages and operates the Channel Tunnel, the Eurotunnel Shuttle train service, and earns revenue on other passenger and freight trains that operate through the tunnel. Since 1994, over 450 million passengers have traveled through the tunnel using Eurostar or Eurotunnel Shuttles and over 430 million tons of goods have been shipped through the tunnel.

Actors
The French Government, led by French president François Mitterrand and The British Government, led by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher signed the Treaty of Canterbury, where the two governments came together to allow the tunnel to be built.

The Channel Tunnel Group/France Manche (CTG-FM)

The British Channel Tunnel Group consisted of two banks and five construction companies. France–Manche consisted of three banks and five construction companies. This organization originally proposed and planned the tunnel.

Getlink

Getlink, formerly the Eurotunnel Group, is a company based in Paris that manages and operates the Channel Tunnel. Getlink also operates "Le shuttle", the railway shuttle service operated by between France and Britain. It transports passenger and commercial road vehicles under the Channel Tunnel by rail.

TransManche Link

TML was a group of British and French construction companies responsible for building the Channel Tunnel. At its peak it employed almost 14,500 people and spent more than $5.5 million per day.

Eurostar

Eurostar is a high-speed rail service connecting the United Kingdom with France and Belgium. The company operates the only passenger-rail service through the Channel Tunnel, but is separate from Getlink.

Timeline
The Beginning of the Chunnel

The idea for a Channel Tunnel, also known as the Chunnel, was first conceived in the year 1802 by French miner Albert Mathieu. Mathieu’s plan involved creating an artificial island in the middle of the English Channel where two tunnels from the English and French sides would meet. The means of transport would be horse drawn carriages, these would then switch out when meeting at the middle island. This plan would not gain any real traction and would later fail. However, this would start centuries of attempts at a similar tunnel that would try to connect the British isles to mainland Europe.

In the 1830s, decades after Mathieu’s first proposal, French engineer Aimé Thomé de Gamond would conduct the first geological and hydrographical surveys of the channel tunnel. His work on these surveys would continue until 1856 when he finally presented his findings to Napoleon the 3rd. De Gamond would present his own version of a channel tunnel, the first since Albert Mathieu over 50 years before. This proposal would have been a railway instead of the previous horse drawn method. De Gamond’s plan would ultimately fail as well. On the English side politicians and statesmen like George Ward Hunt, William Low and Sir John Hawkshaw would make similar pushes for a channel tunnel. However, these English statesmen would be even less successful than their French counterparts.

First Chunnel Attempt

The First attempt at the building of a channel tunnel would occur in 1876. An agreement was reached by the French and English to create pilot tunnels. This was to ensure that both sides would be willing to commit to the building of the actual tunnel. The first digging would commence in 1881 on both the French and the English sides. Leading the French team was Alexandre Lavalley (contactor of the Suez Canal) and leading the English side Sir Edward Watkin (British Railway entrepreneur). Both sides had successful first digs, however a year into digging, pressure from British media and politicians would cause the English side to end construction. This led to the ultimate failure of the project as the French could not continue their digging without British approval.

Pre-Modern Attempts

British prime minister David Lloyd George would be the first person to revive the channel tunnel project. He would make this proposal at the Paris Peace conference following the end of World war 1. However, due to paranoia and nationalism in the years following the war, the project was unable to regain any steam even with the support from the former prime minister. The British public and politicians wanted to protect the British isles after seeing the devastation caused by World war 1 on mainland Europe.

Not long after though the use of the airplane would cause these fears to change. French and British airpower became so strong that the English channel was virtually useless as a strategic point. There was no longer a defense reason against the building of the tunnel. Talks would begin between the two countries with new geological and technical surveys being conducted in 1964 and 1965. Nearly a decade later construction of the Channel Tunnel would begin in 1974. However, after a year of construction of the project, the British Government would indefinitely suspend the project

Building of the Chunnel

The British cancelation of the project would last until 1987. In the treaty of canterbury, British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and French prime minister Francois Mitterrand would agree on terms that would allow for the project to proceed. The first drilling of the tunnel would commence the following year. The French would begin their construction in the June of 1988, while the British began their drilling in the December of that same year.

In the first few months of the project, accidental deaths caused construction to slow down with new safety protocols needing to be implemented. Although, this would not stop the project. Late in the year of 1990, tunnels from both sides of the channel would meet underneath the english channel. Construction and finalizing of the project would happen over the course of the 4 years following this moment. Finally on may 6th, 1994, Queen Elizabeth the second and French prime minister Francois Mitterrand would hold a ceremony commencing the opening of the tunnel.

Policy Issues
Geology

The digging of the tunnel was an important and also one of the most complicated parts of building the tunnel. The geological layers of rock that make up the earth under the english channel were permeable layers of chalk. This meant was that the engineers needed to pick a deep layer of rock in order to prevent water from eroding parts of the tunnel. To do this, engineers would choose the "chalk marl" layer. The chalk marl layer was chosen due to its low permeability protecting the tunnel's from erosion, as well as for safety purposes due to this layer having low flint levels. This would later help prevent fires during the dig.

Part of this geological process also included the removal of fossils as well. While fossil digging was not an initial intention of geological surveys, digging uncovered highly fossilized layers of the Holocene and late Glacial eras. The resulting excavations were able to help scientists provide a more detailed picture of life that existed 13,000 years ago within the English Channel Valley.

Defense

The English Channel separates mainland Europe from the British isles. This separation over millenniums has aided in the repelling of invaders from the island. So for the British, creating a tunnel that on some level would render the defense of the channel harder, if not useless, was not something they were keen on. However, as decades progressed the threat of the Channel Tunnel to the British isles defenses weakened. The invention of the airplane and mass use of it in war changed warfare allowing for enemies to simply bomb the isles. With no real defense reason left holding back the British, construction of the tunnel was finally able to happen.

Migrants in the past few years have shown, however, that while a military threat may not exist, a security one does. Back in 2015, the migrant crisis faced by Europe began to put a strain on countries' migrant processing systems. This led to a mass of migrants simply going wherever they wanted to within the EU. Many migrants, after reaching Europe, would decide to make the further journey to Britain. With English being a much more commonly spoken language by these migrants, the UK seemed like a better choice to settle in. Since the UK was still in the EU at the time, freedom of movement would allow for these migrants to attempt just that.

In these attempts to cross, migrants would either try to sneak onto trains to the UK or much more dangerously, they would make attempts at entering the tunnel to cross. Many migrants over the years have died or been detained trying to make this dangerous journey. Although, in recent years both the UK and French governments have committed resources combating this problem by ramping up security at both stations and the tunnel entrance. While this has prevented further deaths from migrants entering the tunnel, migrants are now choosing to try and cross the channel itself, which can be just as dangerous.

Regional Growth and Development

A promise of expanded regional growth in the regions of Kent, UK and Calais, France, helped get public support. Both regions were relatively low income and underdeveloped regions of the UK and France. The project was projected to produce thousands of permanent jobs for both regions and be an economic engine. However, with many of the jobs requiring high skilled labour it was projected before the project even began that 40% of all the jobs required would have to come from labour outside the region. The tunnel has reportedly had little to no direct economic impact on the local economies since its opening. Calais in France does see economic subsidies from the EU for development purposes, however, Kent in the UK did not see any even when the UK was still in the EU. However, there are no reports that indicate that the subsidies received by Calais have anything to do with the presence of the Chunnel itself. The channel tunnel has however been able to facilitate expanded trade between mainland europe and the British isles with 25% of all imports from europe now coming through the tunnel.

A plan to open a second tunnel has also been in talks since the opening of the first one. Back when Margaret Thatcher had finally agreed to the project, part of the deal was that firm Eurotunnel would provide a plan for a second tunnel by the year 2000. The firm was able to meet their deadline and published their proposal, however there has been no real push for the second tunnel propsed by the firm other than Thatcher herself. Thatcher advocated that a second tunnel be built and that it allow drivers to freely cross it. This plan was deemed much too dangerous as a crash or accident would be much more likely in such a tunnel. While there continues to be no push to build a second tunnel, especially since capacity of the current one sits at only 50%, in recent years driverless technology has convinced many that such a tunnel might be feasible.

Institutional Arrangements
The Channel Tunnel is unique in that it is both a public private partnership and an intergovernmental project. It is a partnership between British private actors, French public actors, the British government, and the French government. In 1985 the Channel Tunnel Group, consisting of two british Banks and five British construction companies, and France-Manche, consisting of three French banks and five French construction companies combined to form Channel Tunnel Group/France-Manche (CTG/F-M) and presented a proposal to the French and British Governments to build the Channel Tunnel.

In 1986 the British and the French signed the Canterbury Treaty which authorized the building of a tunnel between the two nations and set out a framework for how the project was to be managed. The treaty also created the Intergovernmental Commission (IGC) which would represent the governments and oversee the construction and operation of the tunnel. A month later the Concession Agreement was signed giving CTG/F-M the authority to design, finance, construct, and operate the Channel Tunnel for 55 years before transferring it to the governments of the UK and France.

After the signing of the Concession Agreement CGT/F-M was absorbed by the newly created Eurotunnel Group(now known as Getlink.) Eurotunnel contracted with TransManche Link (TML) to construct the tunnel. TML was comprised of Translink and TransManche. Translink was formed by the five construction companies originally a part of the Channel Tunnel group and was responsible for building the British terminal and boring the northern half of the tunnel. TransManche was likewise formed by the five construction companies originally a part of France-Manche and responsible for building the French Terminal and boring the southern half of the tunnel. Once the Construction was complete control of the tunnels was returned to Eurotunnel and TML was dissolved.

Funding + Financing
Funding

Funding was always a major concern for the Channel tunnel. Initial estimates put the cost of the tunnel at £4.8 billion. Eurotunnel planned to raise £6 billion to cover these costs as well as any overruns the project may produce. When the tunnel opened in 1994 over £10 billion had been spent on the project. The budget overruns stem from three main sources: unfixed costs at the time the estimate was made, changes to the design mandated by the IGC, and the sheer size of the project. When the estimate was created in 1986 the only cost that had been fixed in any of the contracts that had been signed was the cost of the tunneling, the cost of the equipment and the rest of the construction had not yet been agreed on. Both the Treaty of Canterbury and the Concession Agreement gave broad oversight powers to the IGC both during construction and operation. The IGC used these powers several times to increase expectations for safety, security, and environmental protections on the project. All of these changes increased the cost of construction and were not anticipated in the original estimate. Finally, the Channel Tunnel was a mega project and mega projects rarely finish on time or on budget. It is clear that Eurotunnel expected overruns as their original plan was to raise £6 billion in capital which would have covered a 25% budget overrun. Tolls and usage fees were intended to pay back the loans required to finance the project as well as the maintenance and operations, and even turn a profit.

Financing

The project was 100% financed by private capital. Margret Thatcher was opposed to the use of public funding for the project. The British were also opposed to the use of public loans for the project to avoid any public risk should the venture fail. This created additional difficulties in financing the project. Eurotunnel had to cover costs with private loans which have much higher interest rates than publicly secured loans; this combined with the project overruns made the project much more expensive than was originally imagined. There were several points during the construction of the tunnel when it was unclear whether Eurotunnel would be able to continue construction of the tunnel as a look through any major British newspaper from the 1990s would confirm.

The tunnel has also experienced much less traffic than was initially estimated. All operational and maintenance financing comes from tolls and usage fees. This is the only way in which the governments of either country financially contribute to the project as the eurostar, the publicly owned passenger rail service between the UK, France, and Belgium does pay guaranteed usage fees to use the route. Lower revenue and higher interest payments than originally anticipated created years of financial uncertainty for the Eurotunnel.The company stayed afloat mostly through debt restructuring and obtaining extensions to their operating period granted in the concession agreement, first to 65 years then to 99 years. Eurotunnel paid its first dividend in 2008, twenty years after building began, at €0.04 per share. Dividend rates had risen as high as €0.41 per share in 2020 but dropped back to €0.05 per share in 2021 as the company reported a net loss of €113 million for the 2020 fiscal year largely due to a drop in usage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Narrative of the Case, Lessons, and Takeaways
The Channel Tunnel is an important piece of infrastructure that links England/Scotland/Wales to mainland Europe. The tunnel was centuries in the making, and was the result of careful planning between French and British parties. After the Treaty of Canterbury in 1987, the tunnel would be built. The tunnel was financed through completely private funds. Although the tunnel had less traffic than initially expected and went over budget, it eventually started paying dividends to investors more than twenty years after its completion. From a traveler's point of view, the tunnel has been a great success that has made crossing the English channel more convenient, faster, and cheaper for both personal and commercial uses. In 2017, the chunnel facilitated the passage of over 20 million passengers and 1.6 million commercial trucks. However for investors, the tunnel has never met passenger expectations with the costs still outweighing the benefits by roughly £8 billion.

Efficiency

Overall, the tunnel has a mixed record on efficiency. The channel offers marginal improvements on time and experience crossing the English channel, compared to the only option of ferries that existed before. The journey time by car in le shuttle is roughly 40 minutes through the channel tunnel compared to roughly 90 minutes on a ferry. In addition, the tunnel provides more frequent service than the ferries. In addition, the addition of new options to cross the channel by both car and rail has resulted in cheaper options for consumers due to more competition. On the other hand, it is still hard to call the project “efficient” due to the fact that the project was a disaster for investors. Even with the efficiency improvements for travelers, the tunnel’s exorbitant costs make it hard to justify overall. However, the tunnel did have other ripple effects that are hard to quantify in a cost-benefit analysis, including further investment in Europe's high speed rail network, economic development, and more connectivity between the content and the UK.

Accountability

The tunnel is managed through the private companies and investors that built the tunnel, and this structure will be maintained until 2086. However, safety, security, and economic regulation is managed through the Channel Tunnel Intergovernmental Commission (IGC) that is a joint venture of the British and French governments. There have been safety incidents since the tunnel has opened. The most serious was a fire in 1996 that burned for 12 hours and forced the tunnel to be closed for over a month. Safety plans were disregarded and there were communication difficulties between french and english firefighters. While no one died, there were serious injuries and damage to the tunnel. While other fires have occurred since, none have been as bad as this one.

Adaptability

Although the tunnel from first glance only serves as a rail tunnel, it provides multiple ways of transit across the English channel. The tunnel has high speed passenger rail operated by Eurostar, vehicle and commercial vehicle traffic operated by shuttles, and traditional freight rail trains. Since the tunnel has been built, there have been multiple crises that have hit the tunnel. In the aftermath of Brexit going into effect throughout 2020, there has yet to be an agreement on whether UK or EU rail safety standards will apply in the tunnel. Furthermore, new travel and freight restrictions have affected travelers and freight traffic. While the most disastrous potential outcomes for the tunnel from Brexit have been avoided, the new cross-border travel situation has reduced travel across the tunnel. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic severely reduced travel in the tunnel. In February 2021, passenger numbers were down 71% and freight traffic was down 31% compared to the year before. This was due to the combined effect of both Brexit and the pandemic. As mentioned earlier, the operators of the tunnel lost €113 million in FY 2020. In recent years the tunnel has also had to deal with a surge of migrants and an immigration crisis. At the height of Europe’s refugee crisis in 2015, over 37,000 migrants tried to flee to the UK using the Chunnel in a 7 month period. Calais, the French side of the tunnel, became home to thousands of migrants living in temporary camps, and the governments of the UK and France were forced to spend millions of dollars reinforcing security.

Discussion Questions

 * How will Brexit and the aftermath of the pandemic affect the future of the tunnel?
 * In your opinion, was the decision to make the tunnel rail instead of road correct?
 * Should the chunnel and other similarly important pieces of infrastructure have been financed through private funds or public funds?

Additional Readings
"The Regional Impact of the Channel Tunnel Throughout the Community." European Commission, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1996, http://aei.pitt.edu/99131/1/21.pdf.

Goldsmith, Hugh, and Patrick Boeuf. “Digging beneath the Iron Triangle: The Chunnel with 2020 Hindsight.” Journal of Mega Infrastructure & Sustainable Development, vol. 1, no. 1, Routledge, Jan. 2019, pp. 79–93, https://doi.org/10.1080/24724718.2019.1597407.

R W Vickerman (1987) The Channel Tunnel and regional development: a critique of an infra-structure-led growth project, Project Appraisal, 2:1, 31-40, DOI: 10.1080/02688867.1987.9726592 https://doi.org/10.1080/02688867.1987.9726592

Ziegelmeir, Michael. “Privatizing the ‘Chunnel’ Project - Success or Failure? - A Governance Analysis of a Public-Private-Partnership in High-Speed Rail.” Mar. 2019, pp. 1–25., https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336285232_Privatizing_the_Chunnel_project_-_Success_or_failure_-_A_Governance_Analysis_of_a_Public-Private-Partnership_in_High-Speed_Rail


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Beginners Guide to Ladino/Nouns in Ladino

Nouns: Gender
It is important to know the gender of nouns in Ladino so that the correct adjectives can be used with the noun. It is very simple to know if a noun is masculine or feminine with a few rules:

- Nouns ending in -or, such as kalor (heat) and kolor (color) are feminine.

- Nouns ending in -a such as klima (climate) and planeta (planet) are feminine.

- Most place names such as Ungaria (Hungary) will be feminine, as they end in -a.

- Everything else is masculine.


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5/3. Nc3/3...dxe4/4. Nxe4/4...h6

= Caro-Kann Defence: Finnish Variation = With move 4. h6 Black creates escape square for light squared bishop's later use. It is usually consired as an inaccuracy and it is therefore rarely seen in higher levels.

White's most usual respond is 5. Nf3. Natural development move 5. Bc4 is also played often and usually with an aim to sacrifice bishop in f7.


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User:Leo Gama/common.css

@-moz-document regexp("https://.*\\.wikibooks\\.org/wiki/(?!User:).*") { #mw-content-text { max-width: 650px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } }

title: User:Leo Gama/common.css


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Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Cariceae

There about 227 Carex taxa listed as native or naturalized in New York State. Of these only about a dozen are listed as introduced (not native to the state), and another half-dozen are listed which state nativity undetermined.

 * }


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Oberon/ETH Oberon/Tutorial/FontEditor

Font Editor User's Guide [ Text | Contents | Index | Master index ]

Objective
Learn how to create and modify fonts using the special purpose editor and the companion panel FontEditor. This simple and handy tool, is very useful to draw custom fonts. The font editor is an Oberon system extension using the facilities provided by the Rembrandt tool.

Estimated time: 30 minutes.

Installation
The FontEditor is delivered with Oberon for Windows as an archived application which must be installed first. Verify with System.Directory Win.FontTools* ~.

Using the FontEditor panel
A type-font (or font, in short) is a collection of screen or printer characters sharing a common typeface. Oberon is delivered with two custom designed font families created by Mr. H. Meier: "Syntax" and the more recent one named "Oberon". Each family consists of several collections of varying size (8, 10 12, 14, 16, 20 and 24 points - 1 point = 1/72 inch) and style (normal, italic, bold, and for "Syntax" only medium bold).

Further font families are delivered with the Oberon system: Note that, besides these font families, Oberon for Windows may also use installed TrueType fonts - see UserGuide.Text.
 * "Math" in the sizes 10, 12, 14, 16, 20 and 24 points of the normal style
 * "Greek" in the sizes 10, 12, 14, 16, 20 and 24 points of the normal style
 * "Courier" in the sizes 8, 10 and 12 points of the normal style. This is the only non-proportional font available.

Open the FontEditor panel by executing the command:
 * Desktops.OpenDoc FontEditor.Panel

The top part of the panel presents a table of 256 buttons, one for each of the 256 8-bit combinations. Buttons are captioned with the corresponding displayable (or printable) character where applicable, and with the corresponding hexadecimal value otherwise. Note that only the buttons 00 to 7F are the standardized ASCII codes. The assignment of the buttons 80 to 96 (special language characters) is a property of Oberon.

Enter the name of one of the Oberon fonts, such as "Syntax12.Scn.Fnt" or "Oberon14.Pr3.Fnt" for a 300 dpi printer font, in the text field gadget below the table and (middle) click on the [Load] button. An implementation limitation makes it impossible to edit 600 dpi printer fonts with this tool. The bitmaps are too big; the 600 dpi fonts delivered with the system were contructed with another tool.

Move the mouse focus onto one of the buttons of the table, and press the middle mouse key to select the corresponding character, which then appears in original size in the white area at the lower right of the panel. Drag on that key and watch how the various characters are previewed in the white area. Release the key when the mouse focus is positioned on the character to edit. A picture viewer is opened to edit the character.

The buttons in the lower part of the panel have the following meaning:

[Load] loads the font specified in the text field above the button. This font replaces the current one, if one is loaded, and it can now be inspected and modified.

[Store] stores the current font in the file named in the text field above the button. Font file names (must) have the following name suffixes:
 * - .Scn.Fnt for display (Sreen) fonts
 * - .Pr2.Fnt or Pr3.Fnt for printer fonts with the respective resolutions of 200 or 300 dots per inch.

[Store Char *] stores the character appearing in the marked viewer in the current font. The viewer's NamePlate must contain the character itself or its hexadecimal value for a displayable character. For a non-displayable character it must be its hexadecimal value.

[Show String] opens an unnamed picture viewer displaying the string entered previously in the text field at the right. It is a preview which may be zoomed and to some extent edited (select, move and copy), but changes cannot be saved. This is useful for verifying the modifications to the currently loaded font.

New Viewer: When this check box is checked, the result of any of the three operations described below is presented in a new picture viewer. If it is not, the result appears in the current viewer.

[Flip H] flips the selection around the median line.

[Flip V] flips the selection around the median line.

[Turn 90] rotates the selection anticlockwise by 90 degrees.

Using the editor
Using the FontEditor panel, you have learned how to start editing a character by clicking on one of the buttons in the font table. The character picture is presented in a picture viewer having properties very similar to the picture viewer described in the Rembrandt tutorial.

The character appears magnified at its maximum, in a white area with a grid. This area does not necessarily cover the entire viewer. Every square corresponds to one pixel in real size. The mouse focus, or cursor, is a cross formed by intersecting horizontal and vertical line segments. It appears as soon as the mouse focus crosses the boundary of the picture. Pressing the left mouse key lets the caret appear, a cross rotated by 45 degrees, which snaps on the grid and marks the insertion point. Dragging on the key, tracks the caret. The caret can also be set by clicking the left key.

Character metrics

The imaging model of characters defines that a character is contained in a box defined by a set of metric data x, y, w, h and dx, in a system of coordinates represented by the two red orthogonal lines. The origin of the coordinates is called the reference point and the X-axis is called the base line. (x, y) is a vector from the current reference point to the origin of the box. w and h are the width and the height of the box, and dx is the distance to the reference point of the next character on the same base line, that is the abscissa of the blue line.

The metrics of a character can be retrieved by program, as is shown below:

PROCEDURE ShowC*; VAR dx, x, y, w, h: INTEGER; pat: LONGINT; ch: CHAR; BEGIN ch := "g"; Fonts.GetChar (Fonts.This("Syntax12.Scn.Fnt"),  ch, dx, x, y, w, h, pat); Out.Int(x, 3), .... (* Visualizing the values produces,     for the example letter in the example font,      x = 1, y = -3, w = 5, h = 10 and dx = 6 *) END ShowC;

Font metrics
The abstract data type Font, defined in the Fonts module, represents a collection of characters. The font attributes are:

Fonts.height: the minimum distance between lines. This distance is modified when the Vertical offset is modified.

Fonts.minX, Fonts.maxX, Fonts.minY, Fonts.maxY: are the extremal values of the box enclosing all characters when their base points are aligned at (0, 0).

The metrics of a font can be retrieved by program, as is shown below: PROCEDURE ShowF*; VAR F: Fonts.Font; BEGIN F := Fonts.This("Syntax12.Scn.Fnt"); Out.Int(F.height, 3); ... (* Visualizing the values produces, for the example font,    F.height = 14, F.minX = 0, F.maxX = 13,     F.minY = -4 and F.maxY = 10 *) END ShowF;

Vertical offset
When text is edited, characters normally have their base line aligned. Characters may however be offset by a few points above or below the base line of the neighbouring characters to let them appear as superscript or subscript characters for instance. Example: sin2 x + cos2 x = 1. or aij

This is obtained by using the TextDocs.ChangeOffset command. In that case the distance to the neighbouring lines is not equal to Fonts.height anymore, but is increased.

Zooming a picture
In addition to the standard buttons, the title bar features two extra buttons used for zooming.

[+] magnifies the selection, or the entire picture if there is none. The button may be clicked 5 times in succession to obtain a magnification of 16. This makes it very easy to edit a character picture dot-wise.

[-] reduces the size of the character picture. The button may be clicked a maximum of 5 times in succession until the original size is restored, and not beyond.

Editing with the mouse
Editing of a character is essentially done with middle mouse key clicks. However, the system behaviour differs depending on which of the two modi "Pixel" or "Metric" has been selected. These two buttons are radio buttons.

[Pixel] When Pixel is selected, position the mouse focus on a square of the grid. If the square is white, it changes to black when the middle mouse key is clicked. If it is black, it changes to white. Instead of editing the pattern dot-wise, you may drag on the middle key to process all the dots on a trajectory. If you started on a black square, it and all further dots are changed to white, and conversely. Changes are immediately reflected in the small white area in the panel.

Useful hint: to ease character retouching, make a copy of the viewer first, then magnify either of the two views as required. Whatever is retouched in the zoomed picture will be reflected in the original.

[Metric] When Metric is selected, the colored metric lines can be moved. Position the mouse cursor at the proximity of the line to move, press the middle mouse key, and drag on it in the direction of the line until the line is "captured". From that moment, a vertical line can be moved sideways, or the horizontal line up and down, in discrete intervals of the snapping grid. Release the key when the line is correctly positioned.

The mouse commands otherwise comply with the Oberon standard. Selection

Clicking the right mouse key (anywhere in the viewer) selects the entire picture. The cursor changes to a flat hand and the entire white area is surrounded by a fat frame. Clicking again, deselects the picture and restores the cursor.

Pressing the key and dragging on it, tracks the selection which is delimited by a rubber band rectangle. When the key is released, a fat selection frame is drawn. When copying a selection, the caret may be set in a picture viewer different from the viewer containing the selection.

Moving a picture

Moving the white area in the viewer can be done in two ways. First, select the entire area with a right mouse click, then press the middle mouse key and drag. Second, if the area does not cover the viewer entirely, place the mouse focus outside the area, press the middle mouse key (the cursor changes to a flat hand), and drag. In both cases, when the white area is correctly positioned, release the key.

When editing is completed, close the picture viewer(s) and store the character in the current font.

Printing the character picture
To print a character picture, mark it and either: - click the [Print *] button in the Rembrandt panel or - execute the command: Desktops.PrintDoc printDevice * ~

Using the Windows Font resource tool
If you are using Oberon for Windows, and have created or modified a font with the font editor, you can improve the performance of your display system by compiling Windows font resources from the Oberon raster font. Note that this applies to custom fonts developed or modified using the FontEditor tool. All the fonts distributed with Oberon for Windows are already available as Windows font resources in the sub-directory System. Oberon for Windows uses Windows fonts for printing.The conversion is performed using the sole command in the FontRes module.

FontRes.Convert { OberonFontFile => [Path]WindowsFontFile} ~ | ^ processes a list of name pairs, separated by "=>". The Oberon display font file oberonFontFile is converted to a Windows FON resource. If the file already exists, it is overwritten. The name of a FON file consists of four parts: NNNNNSSF.FON where: FontRes.Tool contains all that is necessary to convert the entire Syntax font family if need be, and this text can be modified for converting other fonts.
 * NNNNN first five letters of the font family name (e.g. Synta for Syntax, Math for Math)
 * SS one or two digits for font size
 * F optional character for face style (b = bold, i = italics, m = medium)
 * FON standard name extension

Note: The Windows .FON file format used to produce the resource is documented in the Microsoft Windows Programmer's Reference, Vol. 4, Chapter 4: Font File Format.

Index
[ B | C | F | G | M | P | R | S | V | Z ]

B

base line

C

character metrics

F

flip selection horizontally flip selection vertically font editor panel font editor font metrics font resource (Win) FontEditor.Panel font FontRes.Convert FontRes.Tool

G

grid

M

moving a picture

P

preview string preview print character picture

R

reference point retouch character picture rotate selection

S

selection

V

vertical offset

Z

zoom

Revised 26 Mar 1997 Installed on 30 05 1997

title: Oberon/ETH Oberon/Tutorial/FontEditor


text: User talk:208.108.154.36

title: User talk:208.108.154.36


text: Core War/Printable version

title: Core War/Printable version


text: Civ/Printable version

title: Civ/Printable version


text: Chrono Cross/Print version

title: Chrono Cross/Print version


text:
Ancient Domains of Mystery/Introduction

Ancient Domains of Mystery is a freeware, roguelike game written by Thomas Biskup and is available at the Official ADOM Website for Windows, Linux, and many other operating systems.

It takes place in the Drakalor Chain on the planet Ancardia. A Chaos Gate has been opened by Andor Drakon, the ElDeR cHaOs GoD. It was first discovered by the sage Khelavaster, who tried to close it but disappeared. Now Chaos beasts are roaming Ancardia. You are one of the many hero(ine)s who seeks to defeat Chaos and restore peace to the world.

The easiest way to defeat Chaos is to close the gate. However, a holy champion of order or balance, if equipped with certain unique artifacts, may instead enter it, slay Andor Drakon, become a demigod and keep Ancardia safe from Chaos for evermore. Those who have turned to the dark side may also slay Andor Drakon in hopes of becoming a more powerful Chaos God - perhaps even an Ultimate Chaos God.

title: Ancient Domains of Mystery/Introduction


text: Ancient Domains of Mystery/Printable version


text: Wild ARMs 2/Printable version

title: Wild ARMs 2/Printable version


text: Unreal Tournament 2004/Printable version


text: Super Mario Advance 4: Super Mario Bros. 3/Printable version


text: Super Mario Sunshine/Printable version

title: Super Mario Sunshine/Printable version


text: Super Mario 64 DS/Printable version

title: Super Mario 64 DS/Printable version


text:
Final Fantasy XII/Introduction

Final Fantasy XII introduces a number of innovations that differentiate it from the previous offline titles in the series. The most significant of these – the elimination of random battles in favour of enemies seen and fought using the same interface as exploration – gives the title a feeling akin to an MMORPG. The game introduced several innovations to the series: battles occur without a transition to a separate screen; a customizable "gambit" system automatically controls the actions of characters; and a "license" system determines which abilities and equipment are used by characters. Final Fantasy XII also includes elements from previous games in the series, such as summoned monsters, Chocobos, and airships.

Another hallmark of the game is the complex plotting which sees almost all of the player-controlled characters get equal billing throughout the story. Enhancing this feeling of depth is the fact that many of the CGI sequences that punctuate the game do not focus on the game's heroes but instead present action and machinations happening throughout the continent of Ivalice.

title: Final Fantasy XII/Introduction


text:
Final Fantasy XII/Story

Final Fantasy XII is set within the land of Ivalice during an age when "magic was commonplace" and "airships plied the skies, crowding out the heavens". At this time, magicite, a magic-rich mineral, is commonly used in magic spells and in powering airships—a popular form of transportation in Ivalice. Ivalice is divided into three continents: Ordalia, Valendia, and Kerwon. Ordalia is located in the western part of Ivalice. The Rozarrian Empire makes its home in the vast inland plains of this continent as the eastern portion of it is largely desert or "jagd"—lawless lands so rich in Mist (the ethereal manifestation of magicite) that airships cannot fly over them. Valendia is the home of Imperial Archadia, where vast and lush plains dot the landscape. Central to the story is Dalmasca, a small kingdom between the two continents and Empires. Located in the middle of the Galtean Peninsula of Ordalia, Dalmasca is surrounded by an expanse of desert. The temperate climate of Dalmasca differs from the cold environs of Kerwon and the lush plains of Valendia and Ordalia. During this time, Ivalice is beset by the pending war between the forces of Rozarria and Archadia. Caught between the two powerful Empires, Dalmasca and a number of smaller nations have already been subjugated by Archadia two years before the game begins.

title: Final Fantasy XII/Story


text: Final Fantasy XII/Printable version

title: Final Fantasy XII/Printable version


text: EverQuest II/Printable version

title: EverQuest II/Printable version


text: Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem/Printable version


text: Donkey Kong 64/Printable version

title: Donkey Kong 64/Printable version


text:
Zelda II: The Adventure of Link/Differences from Zelda I

Zelda II: The Adventure of Link bears little resemblance to the first game. It features side-scrolling areas within a larger world map rather than the top-down view of the previous title. The game incorporates a strategic combat system and more RPG elements, including an experience points (EXP) system, magic spells, and more interaction with non-player characters (NPCs). Link has extra lives, a feature which is not included in any other The Legend of Zelda game.

The game's emphasis on side-scrolling and RPG-style elements was a significant departure from its predecessor, and has given it a reputation as the "black sheep" of The Legend of Zelda series. Despite never being as popular as its predecessor, it was still one of the most successful NES games of all time and introduced elements that would become commonplace in future Zelda games. In its time it was voted "Best Overall Game" in the Nintendo Power Awards '88, was ranked in Nintendo Power's Top 5 games from their January/February 1989 through July/August 1990 issues, and stayed consistently in their Top 30 (later Top 20) NES Titles from the game's introduction in the September/October 1988 issue until the NES Top 20 was phased out in January 1995. In 1992, a sequel, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, was released for the Super Nintendo.

The game involves the protagonist Link on a quest to save Princess Zelda, who has fallen under a sleeping spell.


text: Template:StrategyWikiPartialPrint

title: Template:StrategyWikiPartialPrint


text:
Zelda II: The Adventure of Link/Intro

Zelda II: The Adventure of Link is an action-adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System. It is the second installment of The Legend of Zelda series and a direct follow-up to the first The Legend of Zelda title. Zelda II: The Adventure of Link was originally released in Japan for the Famicom Disk System on January 14, 1987, seven months before the first The Legend of Zelda title was released in America and just under a year before the first The Legend of Zelda released in Japan, also for the Famicom Disk System. It was the second best selling Famicom game released in 1987, selling approximately 1,610,000 copies in its lifetime (roughly two thirds as many sales as Dragon Warrior II). In 1988, Nintendo released Zelda II: The Adventure of Link in North America in 1988, converting the game from its initial Famicom Disk System format to the NES cartridge like they did with the first The Legend of Zelda.

title: Zelda II: The Adventure of Link/Intro


text: Wario's Woods/Printable version

title: Wario's Woods/Printable version


text:
Lentis/The Cavendish Banana, Monoculture, and Blight

The Cavendish Banana
Bananas originate from Southeast Asia, where wild bananas were bred into various strains with increased fruit yield and varying tastes. Cavendish bananas were first cultivated in the mid 1800s and include varieties like the "Dwarf Cavendish" and the "Grand Nain". However, the Gros Michel banana was the primary choice of major banana companies because of their favorable shipping qualities. Both the Gros Michel and Cavendish bananas must be reproduced through cloning, which limits genetic diversity among banana plants across the world.

When Panama disease ravaged the world's Gros Michel plants in the 1950s, the Cavendish was identified as a cultivar that was resistant to Panama disease and could be grown in similar conditions as the Gros Michel. However, a new strain of Panama disease was discovered in the 1990s, rendering the Cavendish susceptible to the same disease that destroyed the economic viability of its predecessor.

Monoculture
In agriculture, monoculture is the cultivation of a single crop in a given area. Practicing monoculture on the same land every year is known as monocropping or continuous monoculture. Professor Frank Uekötter at the University of Birmingham states the practice has its origins in 17th century Caribbean sugar plantations, replacing traditional subsistence farming methods to maximize profits. It exploded in popularity following World War II, as major technological advancements allowed producers to feed an ever-increasing world population. Today, monoculture is widely used by the global farming industry, but environmental, social, and economic concerns continue to surround the practice.

Blight
Blight refers to a type of plant disease that causes cell death and necrosis in plant tissues. Most blights are caused by bacterial or fungal pathogens. There are several examples of blight throughout history, like the following:

 * Panama disease, caused by the fungi Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, led to the extinction of the Gros Michel banana. The tropical race 4 (TR4) strain currently threatens the Cavendish banana.
 * Late blight of potato, caused by the water mold Phytophthora infestans, led to the Irish Potato Famine in the 1840s.
 * Chestnut blight, caused by the fungi Cryphonectria parasitica, has almost completely eradicated mature American Chestnuts in their natural range.

Economic
99% of the world's exported bananas are Cavendish bananas. They stay green for several weeks after harvest, they're attractive in markets, and have higher yield rates compared to the Gros Michel. Additionally, planting the Cavendish in monocultures made them easy to farm and cultivate, leading farmers to plant vast plantations of all Cavendish bananas. These farmers, located mostly in Latin America and Southeast Asia, are financially dependent on the Cavendish's survival. As the TR4 variant of the Panama Disease has spread around the world, it's banana-dependent countries with smaller, less diverse economies have suffered combined losses of US$18.2 billion to date.

Environmental
Although efficient from a marketing standpoint, monoculture is a fragile practice that relies on the land's ability to sustain continued cultivation. Genetic diversity ensures the survival of species despite natural threats; the lack thereof in Cavendish bananas means the farms are highly susceptible to pests and diseases, forcing farmers to overuse insecticides and pesticides. These devastate the environment by polluting water and destroying aquatic life, leading to soil and water contamination.

Banana plants uptake nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium from fertilizer. Repeated monoculture prohibits these nutrients from replenishing in the soil, making it more difficult or potentially impossible to grow the same plant in the same location. Soil erosion, deforestation, and destruction of habitats can put a permanent end to banana growth, crippling export-dependent economies globally. To alleviate the strain put on the land, farmers practice techniques like fixed rotation, multiple cropping, and intercropping.

Technological
The implementation of monoculture and monocropping allowed for the rise of mechanized agriculture at the start of the 20th century. By practicing monoculture, uniform growing conditions were created for swaths of agricultural land, creating ideal conditions for heavy machinery. In the United States, this resulted in the consolidation of agricultural land into fewer, larger farms, as the number of American farms decreased from 6.5 million in 1920 to 2 million in 2020.

Engineers
Genetic engineering has been the main defense from the banana's vulnerabilities. The Honduras Foundation for Agricultural Research (FHIA) is working to develop a disease-resistant model of the Cavendish. Recently, a UK-based biotech company, Tropic Biosciences, received US$10 million to research gene-editing technology that can solve issues like disease resistance in bananas.

Policy Makers
Government legislature largely dictates regulations, subsidies, and other rules that farmers must follow in their respective locales. In the US, the 2018 Farm Bill implemented a series of 12 titles determining how, what kind, and to what extent food can be grown. Crops like corn, soy, wheat, and rice receive high subsidies, and are therefore mass produced across the country. With backing from the government, these crops are subjected to monoculture as they become more and more valuable to cultivate. In banana export dependent countries, laws are geared towards utilizing agricultural practices that maximize profit from banana sales.

Farmers, Producers, and Export-Dependent Countries
The top 5 banana-exporting countries are Ecuador, Philippines, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Colombia, which in total account for nearly 86% of all banana export worldwide. In Central American farms, bananas are grown on monoculture plantations that can each cover hundreds of hectares. Chemical inputs are used to increase crop yield. The price of this large-scale production is poor labor conditions, insufficient wages, and damaging environmental impacts. As of 2013, about 50% of market shares in global banana exports were shared by multinational companies Chiquita, Fresh del Monte, Dole, Fyffes, and Noboa. Almost all grocery vendors that sell fresh produce stock Cavendish bananas year-round. An emergence of blight threatens the entire retail chain from farmers to local distributors.

Consumers
Out of 148 countries tested, Papua New Guinea consumes the most bananas per capita, with India being the largest banana consumer overall. Bananas have a diverse culinary significance worldwide. Every part of the banana plant is even known to contain a unique health benefit. The peel and pulp possess antifungal and antibiotic properties while the flowers are known to provide relief to a spectrum of external ailments. The banana is most commonly known as a significant source of potassium, which is essential for muscle health.

Parallels
Monoculture, with its accompanied risks and benefits, can be generalized to represent similar issues in society.

Current land development and zoning laws in the United States contrast with the land use and zoning in European countries. For example, nearly all of Paris is designated as the "General Urban", a mixed-use zoning code, while 75% of Los Angeles is zoned for detached single-family homes. Single-use zoning allows land to be only used for one purpose, such as residential or commercial, while mixed-use zoning allows land to be used for multiple purposes at once. These development restrictions of single-use zoning often increases travel time for citizens, leading to increased pollution and traffic congestion in cities with large swaths of single-use zoning. These drawbacks are lessened with mixed-use zoning, as people live closer to areas of business, recreation, and entertainment, thereby decreasing travel time.

Computer software also suffers from monoculture. Default configuration settings make it easier for non-experts to use certain software, but this leads to countless computers with identical settings, and a vulnerability discovered in those settings leads all of those computers being susceptible. An example of this is 'Heartbleed,' a security bug in the OpenSSL cryptography library, which allows the theft of information from internet results normally protected by SSL/TLS encryptions.

Animal and plant genetic diversity, specifically the lack thereof caused by inbreeding, long term isolation, etc. is another parallel to monocultures.

Benefits of Rejecting Monoculture
Monoculture may allow for greater harvest efficiency, greater crop yields, and simpler, cheaper plantation management, but the risks involved with monoculture outweigh the benefits.

For example, pests favoring a certain crop can find an abundance of densely planted, identical crops on monoculture plantations. Since monoculture and blight often coexist, this encourages the overuse of fertilizers and pesticides which, along with nutrient depletion, degrades soil. Monoculture also decreases biodiversity, negatively affecting local wildlife since ecosystems generally develop with biodiversity. Finally, monoculture negatively affects the global climate due to its dependency on fossil fuels to fuel harvest and processing systems and the homogeneity of monoculture plantations weakening an area's climate resilience.

Economically, monocultures leave farmers financially tied to the health of a single crop, which presents risk due to ever-present blight. As monocultures degrade their surrounding environments, farmers reliant on that environment suffer. When the farmers suffer, the entire chain, including the consumer and the public, suffer.

Ultimately, doing away with monocultures in all aspects of society will increase economic resilience and the natural and technological worlds' fortitude amidst a time when that fortitude is being tested more every day.


text:
Radiation Oncology/Plant Irradiation

Plant Irradiation

Photon

 * Brookhaven National Laboratory; 1962 -- "Prediction of the sensitivity of plants to chronic gamma irradiation" (Sparrow AH, Radiation Botany, 1962;2(1):9-12)
 * https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003375606280091X
 * Plants with low chromosome numbers and large nuclear volumes more sensitive, while polypoids and plants with high chromosome number resistant. 500-fold sensitivity
 * Lethal dose for Pinus strobus ~600 r

Proton

 * Chonnam National University, Korea
 * Cowpea legume irradiated to 100 Gy, 200 Gy, 300 Gy, 400 Gy and 500 Gy of Cobalt gamma rays and proton 57 MeV
 * 2021 -- A Comparison of the Transcriptomes of Cowpeas in Response to Two Different Ionizing Radiations" (Kang R, Plants, 2021;10(3):567
 * Differential transcription changes between photon and proton; proton significantly higher differentially expressed genes
 * https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/3/567
 * 2020 -- "Radio Sensitivity of Cowpea Plants after Gamma-Ray and Proton-Beam Irradiation" (Kang R, Plant Breed. Biotech. 2020;8:281-292
 * https://www.plantbreedbio.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.9787/PBB.2020.8.3.281
 * Lethal Dose 50 ~200-300 Gy for both proton and photon.
 * Antioxidant enzymes reacted to proton beams more, chlorophyll responded more to photons

 * Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Romania; 2020 -- "Impact of Proton Beam Irradiation on the Growth and Biochemical Indexes of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Seedlings Grown under Salt Stress" (Oprica L, Plants. 2020;9(9):1234
 * https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/9/9/1234
 * Barley seeds irradiated with proton 3 Gy and 5 Gy, then grown in presence of NaCl (100 mM and 200 mM)
 * Proton 3 Gy irradiation can alleviate harmful effects of 100 mM NaCl salinity

 * University of Louisiana; 2018 PMID 30482278 -- "Irradiation effects of MeV protons on dry and hydrated Brassica rapa seeds" (Deoli NT, Life Sci Space Res (Amst). 2018 Nov;19:24-30. doi: 10.1016/j.lssr.2018.08.004. Epub 2018 Aug 21.
 * Brassica rapa (turnip, bok choy) irradiated with 1-3 MeV proton ions
 * Outcome: Germination varied based on incident ion energy and dose; decreased with increasing dose for ions that could penetrate the seed coat (>1 MeV). Hydrated seeds more sensitive to radiation than dry seeds. Damage to the seed coat led to faster germination and initial seedling growth

 * Chonnam National University, Korea
 * Proton 57 MeV irradiation to doses 50 - 400 Gy to evaluate mutagenesis
 * 2017 -- "Effects of proton beam irradiation on seed germination and growth of soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.)" (Im J, Journal of the Korean Physical Society. 2017; 71:752-757
 * https://link.springer.com/article/10.3938/jkps.71.752
 * Germination rates >95%; survival rates reduced >300 Gy; plant height, fresh weight of shoots/roots reduced >100 Gy
 * Optimal dosage for proton mutation breeding between 250 - 300 Gy
 * 2017 -- "Biochemical Responses of Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) to Proton Beam Irradiation" (Im J, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology. 2017; 5:97-105
 * https://www.plantbreedbio.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.9787/PBB.2017.5.2.97
 * Proton beams induce plant membrane damage and oxidative stress, and reduce chlorophyll content

 * Peking University; 2007 PMID 17457755 -- "Biological effects of protons targeted to different ranges in Arabidopsis seeds" (Qin HL, Int J Radiat Biol. 2007 May;83(5):301-8. doi: 10.1080/09553000701283824.)
 * Arabidopsis seeds, dry or hydrated. Irradiated with 1.1 MeV, 2.6 MeV, or 6.5 MeV protons
 * Outcome: Survival reduced with increasing dose. Hydrated seeds more sensitive. Shoot apical meristem malformation observed after all proton irradiations
 * Conclusion: Radiation induced damage produced at different ranges; hydrated seeds more sensitive

Carbon

 * Chinese Academy of Sciences; 2020 PMID 31692404 -- "Genetic polymorphisms in mutagenesis progeny of Arabidopsis thaliana irradiated by carbon-ion beams and γ-rays irradiations" (Chen X, Int J Radiat Biol. 2020 Feb;96(2):267-275. doi: 10.1080/09553002.2020.1688412. Epub 2019 Nov 18.)
 * Arabidopsis irradiated with photons (LET 0.2 kev/um) and carbon (LET 50 kev/um)
 * Outcome: Carbon introduced higher polymorphism than photon
 * Conclusion: Both carbon and photon induce genetic polymorphisms, but carbon mutation breeding is more advantageous than photons

 * Kobe University, Japan, 2013 PMID 23728320 -- "Mutational effects of γ-rays and carbon ion beams on Arabidopsis seedlings" (Yoshihara R, J Radiat Res. 2013 Nov 1;54(6):1050-6. doi: 10.1093/jrr/rrt074. Epub 2013 May 31.)
 * Arabidopsis seedlings irradiated with photon and 320 MeV carbon ions.
 * Outcome: Mutant base substitution frequency increased after photon but not carbon.

Review

 * University of West England, 2018 -- "Ionizing Radiation, Higher Plants, and Radioprotection: From Acute High Doses to Chronic Low Doses" (Caplin N, Front. Plant Sci., 26 June 2018)
 * https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2018.00847/full

title: Radiation Oncology/Plant Irradiation


text:
Talk:Linear Algebra/Definition and Examples of Similarity

Example 1.2: S = PTP-1 or T = P-1SP, not T = PSP-1 as implied.MommaMadeMe (discuss • contribs) 01:02, 9 November 2021 (UTC)