text:
House Construction/Structural building

= Structural building =

Rough Framing
The Framing begins with the anchoring of the studs to the concrete foundation. Walls are constructed of Wood Studs typical 16" on center - framing studs come in 2 x 4, 2 x 6, 2 x 8, 2 x10 and lengths of 6,8,10,12 feet and longer. Floor/Ceiling joists are typically an engineered lumber product, as are the Roof Trusses, both ordered to size. Sheer Walls are constructed by sheathing the stud walls with plywood on one or both sides - used primarily in earthquake regions. Exterior walls are sheathed with plywood or oriented strand board and usually a Owens Corning Rigid Insulation Product.

Masonry
Masonry structures are those built of stone, or of stone-like (petrous) materials, leading to confusion since at times this activity is also referred to as Stone Masonry. The enduring character of masonry structures, the relative simplicity of the processes involved, the pleasing outlines usually obtained, together with the almost universal availability of the materials and the consequent moderate cost, render masonry construction one of the most important of the builder's activities. It is often used in creating the building foundations, walls, linings.

Footing courses
Footing courses are the bottom courses in masonry; they are generally built to extend beyond the face of the wall and to cover a greater area than the base of the regular wall. Footing courses distribute the weight of a structure over a great area, thus diminishing liability of settlement and increasing stability. Always use the largest stones in the footing courses; they should be laid upon their natural beds and well bonded into the wall so as to avoid the possibility of shearing off that portion of the footing course which projects beyond the face of the wall; also care should be observed, to keep all joints in this projecting portion of the footing courses, especially in brickwork, as far as possible back of face of wall. Stones used in footing courses should be at least eight inches thick and two or three feet on other dimensions. Footing courses should extend, at the bottom, at least twelve inches beyond the face of the wall.

Lime mortar
Usage: sticking stone and brick together

Fat limes (that is, limes which are pure, as opposed to hydraulic, water transferring limes which are burnt from limestone containing some clay) should not be used for mortar; they are slow-setting, and there is a liability for some of the mortar, where there is not a free access of air to assist the setting, remaining soft for some considerable period, often months, thus causing unequal settlement and possibly failure. Grey stone lime is feebly hydraulic, and makes a good mortar for ordinary work. It however, decays under the influence of the weather. It should never be used in foundation work, or where exposed to wet. Lias lime is hydraulic, that is, it will set firm under water. It should be used in all good class work.

Ordinary lime mortar may have its strength considerably enhanced by the addition of a small proportion of Portland cement.

Roman cement is rarely used for mortar, but is useful in some cases on account of the rapidity with which it sets, usually becoming hard about fifteen minutes after mixing. It is useful in tidal work and embankments, and constructions under water. It has about one-third of the strength of Portland cement, by which it is now almost entirely supplanted.

Selenitic cement or lime, invented by Major-General H. V. D. Scott (1822-1883), is lias lime, to which a small proportion of plaster of Paris has been added with the object of suppressing the action of slaking and inducing quicker setting. If carefully mixed in accordance with the instructions issued by the manufacturers, it will take a much larger proportion of sand than ordinary lime.

Lime should be slaked before being made into mortar. The lime is measured out, deposited in a heap on a wooden " bank " or platform, and after being well watered is covered with the correct proportion of sand. This retains the heat and moisture necessary to thorough slaking; the time required for this operation depends on the variety of the lime, but usually it is from a few hours to one and a half days. If the mixing is to be done by hand the materials must be screened to remove any unslaked lumps of lime. The occurrence of these may be prevented by grinding the lime shortly before use. The mass should then be well "larried", i.e. mixed together with the aid of a long-handled rake called the "tarry." Lime mortar should be tempered for at least two days, roughly covered up with sacks or other material. Before being used it must be again turned over and well mixed together.

Roman cement mortars must be mixed as required on account of its quick-setting properties. Fresh Roman cement mixtures must be made several times a day, as near as possible to the place of using.

Cement mortars should never be worked up after setting has taken place. Care should be taken to obtain the proper consistency, which is a stiff paste. If the mortar be too thick, extra labor is involved in its use, and much time wasted. If it be so thin as to run easily from the trowel, a longer time is taken in setting, and the wall is liable to settle; also there is danger that the lime or cement will be killed by the excess of water, or at least have its binding power affected.

It is not advisable to carry out work when the temperature is below freezing point, but in urgent cases bricklaying may be successfully done by using unslaked lime mortar. The mortar must be prepared in small quantities immediately before being used, so that binding action takes place before it cools. When the wall is left at night time the top course should be covered up to prevent the penetration of rain into the work, which would then be destroyed by the action of frost. Bricks used during frosty weather should be quite dry, and those that have been exposed to rain or frost should never be employed. It is generally agreed, that from a practical point of view, bricklaying should not be carried on at temperatures lower than 14° to 9° F, for as the thermometer falls the expense of building is greatly increased, owing to a larger proportion of lime being required.

For grey lime mortar the usual proportion is one part of lime to two or three parts of sand; lias lime mortar is mixed in similar proportions, except for work below ground, when equal quantities of lime and sand should be used. Portland cement mortar is usually in the proportions of one to three, or five, of sand ; good results arc obtained with lime mortar fortified with cement as follows:—one part slaked lime, one part Portland cement, and seven parts sand. Roman cement mortar should consist of one or one and a half parts of cement to one part of sand. Selenitic lime mortar is usually in the proportions of one to four or five, and must be mixed in a particular manner, the lime being first pround in water in the mortar-mill, and the sand gradually added. Blue or black mortar contains equal parts of foundry ashes and lime; but is improved by the addition of a proportion of cement. For setting fire-bricks fire-clay is always used. Pargetting for rendering inside chimney flues is made of one part of lime with three parts of cow dung free from straw or litter. No efficient substitute has been found for this mixture, which should be used fresh. A mortar that has found approval for tall chimney shafts is composed by grinding in a mortar-mill one part of blue lias lime with one part each of sand and foundry ashes. I n the external walls of the Albert Hall the mortar used was one part Portland cement, one part grey Burham lime and six parts pit sand. The lime was slaked twenty-four hours, and after being mixed with the sand for ten minutes the cement was added and the whole ground for one minute; the stuff was prepared in quantities only sufficient for immediate use. The by-laws dated 1891, made by the London County Council under section 16 of the Metropolis Management and Building Acts Amendment Act 18781 require the proportions of lime mortar to be one to three of sand or grit, and for cement mortar one to four. Clean soft water only should be used for the purpose of making mortar.

Adobe, clay and straw bricks - hand-formed
Adobe, ado' bee, a word of Spanish origin, applies to unburnt, sun-dried bricks used in the arid regions of Mexico and the Southwest United States, and also to the peculiar clayey soil from which they are made. When moist, the soil is very plastic and can be molded into any shape, but when dry, adobe is almost unbreakable. This characteristic was recognized by the aborigines at an early date, and they not only made bowls, pitchers and other vessels from it, but shaped the muddy clay into bricks, which they laid out to dry in the sun. Adobe houses are common in Mexico and Arizona, even to-day. As they are cheap and easy to construct, they are used chiefly by the Mexicans and Indians, but many white people, who could afford other building material, prefer them because they are always cool, even in the hottest weather.

The process of making adobe bricks is simple. The wet adobe is shaped into bricks of various sizes, which are then baked by exposing them to the sun for ten days or two weeks. During this time they are turned every day. Bricks made in the same way were used by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, and were made by the children of Israel during their enslavement in Egypt.

The art of making bricks dates from very early times, and was practiced by all the civilized nations of antiquity. Brick-making formed the chief occupation of the Israelites during their bondage in Egypt, but in this case the bricks were probably sun-dried only. These bricks were made of a mixture of clay and chopped straw or reeds, worked into a stiff paste with water. The clay was the river mud from the banks of the Nile, and as this had not sufficient cohesion in itself, the chopped straw (or reeds) was added as a binding material. The addition of such substances increases the plasticity of wet clay, especially if the mixture is allowed to stand for some days before use; so that the action of the chopped straw was twofold; a fact possibly known to the Egyptians. These sun-dried bricks, or "adobes", are still made, as of old, on the banks of the Nile by the following method — a shallow pit or bed is prepared, into which are thrown the mud, chopped straw, and water in suitable proportions, and the whole mass is tramped on until it is thoroughly mixed and of the proper consistence. This mixture is removed in lumps and shaped into bricks, in molds or by hand, the bricks being simply sun-dried.

Brick veneer on wood frame walls
When applied over wood frame walls, a weather-resistive-barrier is critical to protect the wood framing from water damage. Masonry is not waterproof.

Roof

Mansard, Shed, Hip, Gamble, Saltbox and Gable can be covered in Asphalt and Wood Shingle, Terracotta Tiles, Slate Tiles, Copper Sheeting and Metal Standing Seam the most common roofing materials.

Based on geometry roofs can be classified as sloped, pitched or flat. The "pitch" of the roof is dependent on geographic location - Higher pitched roofs are typically found in cold climates but also in wet climates.

Rain Control
Depending on the architectural style the Gutter, Downspouts and Collector Box's may be exposed or built with the roofs eaves and walls.

title: House Construction/Structural building


text:
House Construction/Commodities infrastructure

= Commodities infrastructure =

Plumbing
Plumbing is a trade that supports a wide variety of services found in modern buildings and urban areas. At a basic level though, it is the craft that serves to provide clean, drinkable water to homes and businesses and conducts contaminated water away from them. To learn the theory and skill needed to construct and maintain the plumbing systems for large commercial buildings, install boilers, and other complex jobs, plumbers often receive years of training. However, the plumbing systems that bring hot and cold water to household fixtures (sinks, bathtubs, water closets, ...) and carry waste water away from them can be designed, built, and maintained by anyone who is willing to do careful research, invest in tools and practice, and proceed patiently and carefully with the work. It should be noted that as contracted labor only a certified professional should do plumbing in houses and commercial buildings due to the risk involved in maintaining water and sewer. The certification provides a level of guarantee about the capabilities of the professional and in some locations guarantees an insurance covering errors and damages.

Installation of Hot/Cold Supply and Waste Lines, Shower and Tub Valves, Hot Water Heater, Water Purifier/Softener and Fire Suppression System

Plumbing Codes
Many local, regional, and national governments enact regulations that apply to the way buildings are constructed. These regulations are put in place to protect citizens from dangerous conditions. The regulations that apply to a trade such as plumbing are called "codes." Codes exist for general building, electrical work, plumbing, and other aspects of construction. Governments may write their own codes or use codes developed by outside authorities.

In many cases, the regulations are developed as a result of lessons learned through accidents and injuries. As trade experts analyze the flaws in a building that cause or contribute to fires, poisoning, falls, or other mishaps, they add rules to the relevant codes to reduce the chance of recurrence.

Plumbing codes are often associated with inspections. An inspection is done by a trade expert, designated by a government body, who checks work being done to a building to make sure that it is done according to the code. Some government bodies do not inspect work being done. There is a minimum standards code regulated by the U.S. government called the BOCA code. The only places that do not regulate and inspect plumbing are doing so illegally and should probably be avoided as the potential for drinking water contamination is extremely high. Many states have their own code but it can only be more stringent than the BOCA code, not less. One historical figure who gave momentum to the use of building codes in the United States was the early American Benjamin Franklin.

Drainage and Venting
The drain should be at least 1 1/2" and should enter a pipe, sized by local plumbing codes, before exiting the structure to septic tank or sewer system. The ptrap of a lavatory or drinking fountain may be 1 1/4", no horizontal waste pipe under 1 1/2" should ever be installed and should in no case carry a fixture load beyond the size of a double lavatory OR a bathtub, but not both. A 2" pipe is needed for a kitchen sink or shower unit.

Most states require at least one 3" vent through the roof, this is usually the vent serving the bathroom fixtures. Other vents may usually penetrate the roof at 2". Local codes influence the height of the pipe through the roof usually 12" to 24", depending on how far north you are located.

Septic/Sewage Systems
How the septic tank system works - A typical septic system, consists of an underground tank, a distribution line and a soil absorption drainage field. Waste water leaves the home through an underground pipe connected to the septic tank. Baffles in the septic tank slow the flow of the incoming waste water and prevent sewage from flowing directly through the tank. Heavier solids settle to the bottom and accumulate as sludge.

The septic tank system is a natural sewage treatment and disposal system. By natural we mean that it relies on bacteria to digest and clean the waste water. Septic systems are biological systems and must have bacteria to work. The bacteria in the septic tank literally eat & digest the solids in the tank turning them into liquids and gases.

Raw household waste water will quickly clog all but the most porous gravel formations. A septic tank is a watertight chamber, which conditions the waste water to reduce clogging so that it may be more readily absorbed into the soil. The septic tank separates the settable and floatable solids, promotes the growth of anaerobic bacteria necessary to decompose the solids, and provides storage for the resulting sludge and scum.

Constructing a septic tank system:
 * Septic tanks should be located where they will not cause contamination of any well, spring or any other source of water supply.
 * The septic tank should not be located closer than 10 feet from any building. The tank should not be located in swampy areas, or in areas subject to flooding.
 * Slopes greater than 25 percent will cause considerable difficulty in construction, and may slide once they become saturated with effluent.
 * There must be no permanent cover placed over the septic tank or lateral lines.

HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning)
Furnace/Air Conditioner Unit Installation, Supply/Return Air Ducts, Exhaust Ducts, Radiant Floor Systems, Air Purifier/Humidity Systems and Vacuum Systems.

How to reduce HVAC energy cost
Most home owners already have a HVAC system on their house to help them control temperature on summer and winter season. Too much cold can bring you sickness that is why heater is very helpful. And in summer season, air conditioner is very useful on cooling down your house.

Having a HVAC system installed in your house can definitely make your electricity bill high. Since it uses electricity, it will definitely increase your energy cost.

Using HVAC system on winter and summer season is inevitable. You might want to know how to reduce your HVAC energy cost.

Here are some tips on how to reduce your HVAC energy cost:

Maintenance- If you haven’t attended a maintenance program on your HAVC system, make sure you hire a HVAC service company to check your HVAC to see if it is working well. They will check if the parts are still in good condition and if your HVAC system heats and cools well. If you don’t maintain your HVAC system, it will soon get into worst condition.

Stable temperature- You also need to know the right temperature for you HVAC system. Most HVAC system have their temperature range to ensure its efficiency. You can check the HVAC system’s manual or consult a HVAC technician to know the most energy efficient temperature range. When using your HVAC system, don’t instantly put it on a higher temperature. For example, if it is a hot day, don’t put the thermostat on a higher level, you must first remove the heat using low temperature then make it high when the heat is gone.

Change Air filters- You also need to change the air filters of your HVAC system for at least once a month. It is to make sure that your HVAC system has uninterrupted and smooth air flow. Don’t be so lazy on changing it, remember that it will cost you a lot if your HVAC system malfunctioned. Most people don’t change an air filter. That is why their energy cost is rising and the worst is, they pay for the service of the HVAC technician because their HVAC malfunctioned.

Help control the temperature- When you are using your HVAC system, you can also help to control the temperature in your house. For example, it is very hot in your room. In order to make your room cool easily, you need to put curtains on your windows to block the heat rays from the sun.

You also need to make sure that your windows and doors are closed. You can also use the fan to spread the cold air in your room. Air conditioner will take so long on making your room cools if heat rays are entering your room and the windows and doors are open.

You need to know proper way of using and some other things about HVAC system so that you can prevent it from malfunctioning, spending money on the HVAC service and electricity bill.

Water Flow in Pipes
Pumped Water Flow in Piping Systems

Electrification
An important document to read is the IEE Wiring Regulations (or equivalent).

Installation of Transformers, Service Panels, Switches, Outlets, GFI Outlets, Jboxs, Recessed Light Fixtures, Exhaust Fans, Fire/Security Horns and Emergency Lighting

Low-voltage systems
installation of wiring for Security Camera/Alarm, Telephone/Intercom/Internet Communications, Audio/Video Components, LV Light Fixtures and Home Automation Controllers

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
House Construction/Exterior details

= Exterior details =

Exterior Wall Surfaces
Materials as Stucco, Brick, Stone, Wood Clapboard and Shingle are all cladding products. Modern wood frame construction requires the installation of a weather-resistive-barrier (WRB) under the cladding. The WRB provides the primary function of protecting the structure from water.

Exterior Cast Stone
Door/Window Surrounds, Eaves, Balconies, Columns/Pilasters and Steps/Coping

Exterior Openings
Installation of Exterior Windows, Doors, Roof Hatch and Skylights requires weather proofing be at its best.

Door & Window Hardware
Installation of Door Hinges, Knobs/Lever, Cremone/Lock, Thresholds and Window Locks/Cranks "Taqi". Although older houses may still contain single glazed wooden framed windows and doors; modern house usually have a steel or aluminum reinforced uPVC framed double glazed system. These window systems are fixed to the preformed concrete ope by use of usually a galvanized steel fixing bracket which clips to the frame of the window or door and is fix back to reveal.

The window will sit either on the upstand of a pre-cast concrete cill or onto a PVC of aluminum PPC cill. A silicone sealant or expandable foam can be used to weather the window or door once in place.

Doors may have to be sunk a few millimeters in order to achieve the correct height of threshold depending on building regulations governing the use of the door.

title: House Construction/Exterior details


text:
House Construction/Interior details

= Interior details =

Insulation
A fundamental principle in building. It the means by which the interior environment can be made thermally comfortable. Insulation works by limiting the loss of heat from a relatively warm environment to a relatively cold environment. This is achieved in a number of ways:

Limiting Convection (air) heat loss. Most forms of insulation (such as polystyrene and fiberglass) contain cellular structures that trap air. This trapped air acts as a barrier to the passage of air through the insulating material.

Limiting Radiation heat loss Insulating materials are generally good at limiting radiated heat by reflecting it in the same way that a mirror reflects light. Shiny metals such as aluminum are good at reflecting heat, and this material is often used as a backing for insulated panels.

Interior Wall Surfaces
Drywall, Plaster, Wood Panel and Tile/Stone/Brick are typical selections.

Interior Wall/Ceiling Finishes
Primed, Painted, Stained, Wallpaper, Faux Finishes and Venetian Plasters

Furnishings
Floor Coverings (Carpet/Area Rugs), Window Coverings (Drapes/Shades and Sun Control: Window Tint)

Millwork
Wall Paneling, Coffered Ceiling, Decorative Beams, BaseBoard, Door/Window Casing, Applied Wall Molding, Crown/Cornice Moldings, Columns/Pilasters Overdoor, Staircase Balustrades/Hand Rail and Fireplace Mantels

Wood Flooring
Wood Plank, Strip and Parquet, Decorative Inlays/Boarders and Staircase Risers/Treads

Stone & Tile
Ceramic/Terracotta, Terrazo, Concrete, Mosaics and Inlays Floors, Bathroom Walls/Showers/Tub Decks, Fireplace Mantels/Surrounds/Hearths, Countertops/Backsplash, Staircase Risers/Risers, Columns/Pedestals and Exterior Terrace/Walks/Paths/Drives

Metalwork
Wrought Iron Railings, Doors/Windows, Pedestrian/Auto Gates, Fences and Grilles. Copper Awnings, Chimney Caps and Hoods

Cabinetry
Built In Bookcases/Desks, Powder Room Pullmans, Bathroom & Kitchen Cabinetry, Pantry/Linen Shelving and Closetry

Finish HVAC
Decorative Grilles/Diffusers and Controller Trims.

Finish Plumbing
Installation of Fixtures (Bidet/Toilet), Trims of Faucet/Drain Fittings, Connect Tub/Sink Drains and Volume Tests

Materials and Tools
Sink mount kitchen faucet installation tools:
 * Basin wrench
 * Plumbers tape
 * Adjustable wrench
 * Rags
 * Plumber's putty
 * Copper tube cutter
 * Needle-nose pliers
 * 1/2" faucet supply hoses (2)
 * Flashlight
 * Philips and flathead screw drivers

Replacement kitchen faucet:
 * 1) Check that appropriate contents have been supplied--compare to contents on box.
 * 2) Instructions.

Wall mount Kitchen Faucet tools will include similar to above and a pipe wrench plus threaded pipes, possible requirements like pipe extractor, hammer and chisel to modify the wall.

Finish Electrical
Switch/Outlet Covers, Recessed Lighting Trims, Installation of Decorative Light Fixtures (Chandeliers/Sconce/Lanterns)

Appliances
Kitchen Refrigerator/Freezer, Range, Ovens, Hoods, Dishwasher, Ice makers, Wine Coolers. Laundry Washer and Dryers

Interior Doors
Installation of Jambs for Pocket/French/BiFold type doors.

Glass/Mirror
Decorative Leaded and Etched Glass Window/Doors, Shower and Tub Doors/Enclosures and Wall Mirror used in house. False wall and beam used gypsum board. Supporting system e.g steel channel for installation gypsum board.

= Landscaping =

Landscape Watering
Sprinkler, Driblers

Landscape Pool/Spa
Swimming Pool, Spa, Fountains and Reflecting Pools

Landscape Hardscape
Walls, Terraces, Walks, Stairs, Curbs and Driveways

Landscape Structures
Gazebo, Cabana, Canvas Awnings and BBQ/Cooking Areas

Landscape Plantings
Lawn, Trees, Shrubs, Flowers and Potted Plants

Landscape Lighting
Path/Walk, Stair, Plant/Tree, Water Features and Security

title: House Construction/Interior details


text:
Climatology/Introduction

Climatology is a branch of atmospheric science as well as geographical and environmental science. Climate is a dynamical system that is based upon the long term averages and behaviour of Earth's atmosphere both on the global scale and the regional scale. This topic aims to help your understanding of the basics of climate science as well as the many impactors climate has on the Earth as well as the impactors the Earth has on the climate.This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography, which is one of the Earth science. Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography]] and biogeochemistry. Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO), the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO), the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation (AO), the Northern Pacific (NP) Index, the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate.Climatology, the science that studies climate, is a young science, with modern climate science only emerging from meteorology, oceanography, and geology in the late 20th Century, it is highly dependent of mathematical models and estimates that rely in a constant gathering of data, improved sensors and historical records (natural or human generated). Of course, people have been interested in the natural world, including movements of air and water, for a very long time. An in general the sciences are still very imprecise at short or very long time frames, even if precision tends to increase over large geographical areas. Meteorologists and atmospheric scientists often say that climate is what you expect; weather is what you get. Early climate researchers include Edmund Halley, who published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the southern hemisphere. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) first mapped the course of the Gulf Stream for use in sending mail from the United States to Europe. Francis Galton (1822–1911) invented the term anticyclone.[4] Helmut Landsberg (1906–1985) fostered the use of statistical analysis in climatology, which led to its evolution into a physical science. Climatology is compounded of two Greek words, klima+logos;"klima' means slope of the earth'and 'logos' means a discourse or study.The first distinct climate treaties were the works of Hippocrates, who wrote Airs, Water and Places in 400 B.C.E.

'scientific Discoveries Related to Climate Science
Climatology was  primarily  an  observational  speculation  prior  to  the  scientific  age. Gradually, devices for  measuring  and  studying  weather  were  invented  and  the  keeping  of  systematic weather  records  began. Climatology, thus,  began  as  the  observation  and  description  of  weather on  sub-continental  and  continental  levels.The  early  nineteenth  century  marks  the  beginning  of the  scientific  discovery  of  climate  when  ice  ages  in  paleo-climate  were  first  suspected. The natural greenhouse  effect  was  also  identified  as  an  element  of  climate  change. During first  and second world war, effects of ground and upper air circulations were recognized. This led to the need for  the  statistical  treatment  of  weather  elements  and  its  predictions. Earth observation through  satellites  and availability  of  huge  quantum  of  data  led  to  model  the  weather conditions and  monitor  the  climate  elements  both  at  regional  and  global  levels.

title: Climatology/Introduction


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Let not vs that yongmen be (Unattributed)

[ff. 87v-88r]

Textual Commentary
Very definitely in the style of Henry VIII’s lyrics of doctrine, chivalric and otherwise, this lyric draws upon figures common to Henry—Youth, Age, and Disdain—in its encouragement of young men to follow the amorous ways of their age.

 * 2   venus  Cf. Henry’s “Thow that men do call it dotage” (H 44.4).

 * 3   age  See other of Henry’s lyrics.     dysdayne  Cf. Henry’s “Whoso that wyll all feattes optayne” (H 28.2,4,8,11,14) and elsewhere; see the note to line 2 of the aforementioned lyric.

 * 4   yough   See other of Henry’s lyrics.     loue to refrayn   Cf. Henry’s “Lusti yough shuld vs ensue” (H 61.5).

 * 5–6 Cf. the lines “I pray you all that aged be. / How well dyd ye yor yough carry. / I thynk sum wars of ych degre” from Henry’s “Though sum saith that yough rulyth me” (H 51.6–8).

 * 6   most lust   Greatest vigor.

 * 7–8 case . . . grace   Cf. the riddle in Henry’s “If love now reynyd as it hath bene” (H 38.11–2; see also note).

 * 9   than   Then.

 * 12 metest   Most suitable (OED “meet” a 3).

The first stanza is through-set, with the remaining text underlaid. In each witness, the final two lines of each stanza are represented as being repeated after the second line of each stanza as well. The first letter of the fourth voice, “L,” is not treated with a block capital. While not attributed in H, it is exactly in Henry VIII’s manner and contains many echoes to his own lyrics; as Stevens notes, it contains “the self-justifying tone in other songs of chivalric ‘doctrine’” (Stevens M&P 415; see also Robbins Index & Suppl. 1866.5). “Let not vs that yongmen be” is listed in H’s table of contents as the ninety-seventh work.

This piece is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 1866.5, Boffey, and Ringler MS TM886. Reprinted in Chappell Acount 375, Chambers Lyrics 68, Chambers Verse 42–3, Flügel Anglia 248, Stevens M&P 415, and Stevens MCH8 63.

Texts Collated
H1,2,3,4 (ff. 87v–88r, ll. 1–6 H2,3,4).

 * 1   not vs] vs H3

 * 2   banysht to be] banysht to be banysht to be. H1,2, banysht to be banysht to be H3,4

 * 4   loue to refrayn] loue to refrayn loue to refrayn. H1,, loue to refrayne loue to refrayne. H2, loue to refrayne. loue to refrayne. H3, loue to refrayne. H4

 * 6   lust^] lost. H4


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Dulcis amica (Prioris, Incipit)

[ff. 88v-89r]

Dulcis amica

Textual Commentary
“Dulcis amica” is an anonymous prayer to the Virgin. The piece appears as an incipit in H in only one of four voices. Although all voices have spaces for large initial block capitals, they are left blank in voices two through four, and filled with a capital in voice one slightly large than the text of the incipit. There is space among the musical notation for further text. “Dulcis amica” is listed in the manuscript’s table of contents as the fifty-eighth work. Unattributed in H, it is attributed elsewhere to Prioris.

The best source of “Dulcis amica,” as noted by Keahey and Douglas (3.XI), is CaP1760 (f. 2r), and it is also found in Am162 (f. 117v), C1848 (413), Cb124–8 (f. 133v), CCap (16–17), L35087 (ff. 61v–62r), Mu326 (f. 13v), P1597 (ff. 4v–5r), P2245 (ff. 31v–32r), PBA31 (ff. 106v–107v), PBLau (f. 20r), PBMiss (f. 4v), PBMot (f. 16v), PBRha (#3), PBTre (ff. 7v–8r), SG462 (9), SG463 (#140), T27 (f. 35v), Up76a (ff. 55v–56r), WLab (ff. 139v–140r), and elsewhere. Of these, full texts of the lyric are extant in Am162, C1848, CaP1760, Cb124–8, L35087, P1597, PBLau, PBMiss, PBMot, SG462, SG463, T27, Up76a, and WLab. A slight variant is provided by SG462, which reads “Dulcis Maria”; PBRha and Mu326 (a copy of the former) provide an entirely different text, “Qui credit in filium habet vitam aeternam…” (see Albrecht, ed., 3.6).

The first voice of CaP1760, a chansonnier at one time likely belonging to Henry VIII’s elder brother Prince Arthur, provides the following text:

 * DVlcis amica dei
 * Rosa vernans stella decora
 * Tu memor esto mei
 * dum mortis venerit hora

This piece is reprinted in Stevens (MCH8 64), Keahey and Douglas, eds. (5.44), and Albrecht (ed. 3.6), among others. It is indexed in Fallows (Catalogue 580–1), among others.


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Lusti yough shuld vs ensue, Henry VIII

[ff. 94v-97r]

The Kynge. H. viij

Textual Commentary
The speaker of “Lusti yough shuld vs ensue” affirms his intention—using the plural first person pronoun, at times—to follow the ways of “Lusti yough” (l. 1). The ways of “Lusti yough,” however, are at odds with the wishes of youth’s “dysdaynares” (l. 10; most often referred to as “they”). The speaker asserts the virtuous aspects of youthful pastimes, and their provision of “goode gydaunce” (l. 19) necessary in youth.

 * 1   ensue   Imitate the example of.

 * 2   rew  Affect with regret (for some act), make (one) wish one had acted otherwise, or  affect with pity or compassion (OED v.1 2,4).

 * 6   dysdayne  Cf. Henry’s “Whoso that wyll all feattes optayne” (H 28.2,4,8,11,14) and elsewhere; see the note to line 2 of the aforementioned lyric.

 * 8   But . . . may   Cf., in Youth, the statement of Youth in response to Pride’s advice “It is time enough to be good / when that ye be old” (ll. 645–46): “I will make merry while I may” (l. 648; Lancashire, Two Tudor Interludes).

 * 9–10 How . . . vse / but all dysdaynares for to refuse   Cf. the moral saying “he that in yowth no vertu will vse / In Age all honor shall hym Refuce”  (OxHill f. 200v [217]; variant in OxRawl86 f. 31r); the full saying in OxHill is as follows: “kepe well .x. & Flee From sevyn. / sspende well .v. & Cum to hevyn / he that in yowth no vertu will vse / In Age all honor shall hym Refuce / Serve god truly & the world besily // Ete thy mete meryly / and euer leve in Rest // Thank god highly thowgh he visit the porely. // he may amend it lyghtly wham hym lyke the best.”

 * 12 vertus pastance   Likely the pastimes noted in Henry’s “The tyme of youthe is to be spent” (H 19), the “As featys of armys” (l. 7) and other “goode dysporttys” (l. 12); see also l. 24.

 * 13 them   Honest mirth, &c.

 * 15 sew … grace   See the comment in Henry’s “If love now reynyd as it hath bene” (H 38.12).

 * 21 yough ys frayle  Though not exactly the sense here, cf. the verses recollected by Mary in Wager’s interlude The Life and Repentaunce of Marie Magdalene:  “The pleasure of youth is a thyng right frayle, / And is yearely lesse, so that at length it doth faile” (ll. 711–12).

 * 24 vertuus pastaunce   See l. 11, above.

 * 27 amend  For similar use in the context of prayer, see the note to Henry’s “Withowt dyscord” (H 49.24).

 * 28 An  And.

“Lusti yough shuld vs ensue” is in the form of a combined strophic and through-setting. Some music is missing, and some rules are left blank.

“Lusti yough shuld vs ensue” is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 2025.5 and Ringler MS TM964, and reprinted in Chappell Account 376, Flügel Anglia 249–50, Stevens M&P 416–17, Stevens MCH8 70–71, and Trefusis 34–35.

Texts Collated
H1,2,3,4 (ff. 94v–97r, ll. 1–4 H2,3, ll. 17–20 H2,3,4).

 * 7   do] so H1

 * 11 has as] as as H1

 * 20 shuld] shull H2;     in]  in to gret H3,4


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Now (Unattributed)

[f. 98r]

Now

Textual Commentary
This piece is only one word, presumably enough to give rise in the mind to the rest of the lyric, though there is little room left among the musical notation for text. “Now” is not listed in the manuscript’s table of contents, and follows a blank, though ruled, page. It does not begin with a block capital typical of the first letter of most lyrics, nor has the scribe left space for lyrics, save the word which is present. Stevens supplies further words for this from Robbins’ Secular Lyrics #138 (Stevens MCH8 72):

 * freshe flower, to me that is so bright,
 * Of your lovely womanhood I pray you of grace,
 * Of your fair beauty I pray you a sight
 * That my great mourning may come to solace.

One may also wish to consider other possibilities for the full text of this piece, such as the departure song “Now fayre wele my Joye my comfort and solace” (Oxford Bodleian 120 ff. 95r–v; see Robbins Index & Suppl. 766 and Ringler MS TM1098), a lyric which itself has some echoes in this manuscript, such as in Cornish’s “Adew adew my hartis lust” (H 13).

“Now” is indexed in Ringler MS TM1092. It is reprinted in Stevens M&P 417 and Stevens MCH8 72.


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Belle sur tautes (Agricola, Incipit)

[ff. 99v-100r]

Belle sur tautes

Tota pulcra es

Textual Commentary
“Belles sur tautes” appears as an incipit in H in only one of four voices. The initial capital is not provided, nor is space left for it in any of the other voices. Little room has been left among the musical notation for text. This piece is not listed in the manuscript’s table of contents. Unattributed in H, the piece is by Alexander Agricola. Stevens also notes that this piece is perhaps adapted here by a native composer (Stevens MCH8 109 #95).

“Belle sur tautes” also appears with music in FlC2439 (ff. 63v–64r), PBCan (ff. 161v–162r), PBFm (#84), and SG462 (f. 37r); in each case, only the incipit is present. The text of a lyric with the same incipit, though without music, is copied into P1722 (f. 3r), as follows:

 * Belle sur tourtez et sans quelque macule
 * je vostre serf ma diuine maistresse
 * A vous seulle humblement je madresse
 * vous supliant que peche ne maculle

 * Enfer me point et peche me macule                                      5
 * Mais vous pouez moster de ceste presse

 * Belle sur tourtez.

 * A voz vertus jamais napproucha nulle
 * Dont vous pesente mon ame percherresse
 * Que vous requiret que luy soiez adresse                             10
 * Tant qua bien faire et vertus ne reculle

 * Bell sur toutez.

Transcribed according to Lerner (ed., Agricola 4.52–53), the bass part throughout as follows:

 * Tota pulcra es amica mea et macula non est in te.

“Belles sur tautes” is reprinted in Lerner (ed., Agricola 4.52–53), and elsewhere.

Emendations of the Copy Text (H1):

 * 1   Belle sur tautes] elle sur tautes H1


text:
Climatology/About

This book is useful for geography students and teachers for pre-university level for climate related subjects. Typically, this would be for an introduction to geography course which is taken by most under graduate student in colleges.

How does climate affect our life and earth?
Climate is a broad term, but it always describes a long-term change of a climate system. Often 'climate' is used to mean the long-term mean state of the atmosphere, including temperature, humidity, and wind. In other contexts, 'climate' can include the oceanic state, the cryosphere (snow and sea-ice), the biosphere, and sometimes even the lithosphere (Earth's crust). The pattern of human life in any particular region is to a very large extent determined by the climate:--

Shelter:
The design of houses in different geographical regions of the world is determined by climatic conditions. In areas of heavy rainfall, the houses have sloping roofs. The material used in construction is, however, determined by the availability of construction material. The roof could be tiled or comprise bamboos covered with hay where clay for making tiles may not be available.

In dry regions like Rajasthan, flat stone pieces are used for roofing. Partition walls are made of wood in very cold countries. In regions of high temperature, there are open courtyards attached to each dwelling. In hill districts, houses are made on stilts with the ground floor reserved for cattle.

Dress:
Loose dresses are popular in regions where the climate is hot. In colder regions, people wear dresses that are body hugging. A very wide variety of head gears is used again depending on the climate. The Sola hat was so popular with the British people living in the hot plains of India. Where rainfall is abundant people wear head gears that provide protection against rain while people are at work.

The lungi is popular in the southern regions of the country where it is relatively hot but not so in colder region as Himachal Pradesh. Woollens are worn in cold regions while cotton clothing is worn in hot and temperate regions. Synthetic clothing may be suitable in cold climates but not so at places where people perspire during the day.

Wealth
The wealth of a country can also be impacted by climate. If a country has a very inhospitable climate, such as ice and snow, or desert, then it will not be easy for agriculture or other profitable industry to be carried out, so the country will not be able to sustain a very large population, or to give a good lifestyle to those it does sustain.

Occupations:
During the winter months when outdoor living is not easy, the people of Kashmir remain indoors and follow up occupations like making carpets, handicrafts; silk wares that can be weaved sitting indoors. Agriculture is practiced where rainfall is adequate.

People living in dry regions follow pastoral occupations moving from place to place along with their herds of cattle looking for water and grass where ever it may be available. Where rainfall is abundant, forestry comes up as an important occupation for the people.

Art and Culture:
Open air stage performances are popular in areas that are not very cold. A wide variety exists at places where people have opportunity to remain out doors for most part of the year.

Food habits:
Since climate determines the nature of crops that can be grown in any part, the food habit also get influence by the climate. In Bengal, the staple food is rice since heavy rainfall in that region is most suited for paddy cultivation. The northern parts of the country, wheat are the staple diet. Millets are popular in dry regions like Rajasthan.

Crops like Bajra are grown there since this crop can survive even with scant water supply. The people living in Tundra region have no chance of being vegetarians. The climate does not allow growing any cereals or food crops.

Migration:
People living in extremely cold climates are known to migrate to warmer places in search of jobs. Where the climates are temperate, people tend to live a more settled life.

Effect on environment :
As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality. Specific impacts include: Warmer water temperatures may affect water quality and accelerate water pollution.

title: Climatology/About


text: User talk:112.200.196.110

title: User talk:112.200.196.110


text:
Climatology/FAQs

What is the greenhouse effect?
Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming, which is caused by the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect can be demonstrated in this way: suppose you are driving in a car on a hot summer day. The sun's rays shine down into your car through the windows. However, the heat cannot get out of the car because the windows reflect the heat trying to get out back towards the interior of the car. This causes the car to continue to heat up until the thing blocking the heat from getting out is removed or a cooling element of some type is activated in the car.

In the subject of global warming, the greenhouse gases are the "windows" and the Earth is the "car." The sun's rays are somewhat deflected or absorbed through their travel through space and the atmosphere, but most of the energy still reaches the Earth's surface. This energy is reflected back toward space by the Earth, but because of the greenhouse gases it cannot go back into space. Therefore, the entire Earth warms up.

The global temperature has only risen a few degrees since the start of the Industrial Revolution. However, one must remember that we are talking about a global temperature increase, not just in one relatively small location. One would expect the temperature in one location to be varied, but the forces required to raise the average temperature on the entire planet would have to be immensely strong.

Why are greenhouse gases detrimental to the environment?
Granted, greenhouse gases (GHG) occur naturally in the environment, but since the Industrial Revolution, humans have intensified this process by emitting more GHG into the atmosphere than our environment can handle. The main contenders are the automobile makers, industries such as coal (fossil fuel) burning power plants, and even landfills which release large amounts of hazardous methane (from decomposition). Some parties assert that this actually helps plant life to grow, on account of the fact that plants absorb carbon dioxide as a part of their photosynthesis. While this may be true, when the plant decays, the stored carbon is released back into the air. Scientists are afraid that if the dumping of greenhouse gases continues at the present rate, plant life may not be able to keep up.

title: Climatology/FAQs


text:
Climatology/External Links

 * [http://www.exploratorium.edu/climate/ Introduction to climate change... good for younger audience too.
 * Global Warming
 * Local effects of climate change
 * RealClimate
 * Climate Science Special Report – U.S. Global Change Research Program
 * The Earth's climate – Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS – France)
 * Climatology News Daily publication with news in all areas of climatology plus free news feeds for webmasters.
 * Climate Prediction Center
 * KNMI Climate Explorer The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute's Climate Explorer graphs climatological relationships of spatial and temporal data.
 * Climatology as a Profession Amer. Inst. of Physics account of the history of the discipline of climatology in the 20th century
 * Sunpreview annual and global weather project

title: Climatology/External Links


text:
Climatology/Further Reading

 * Hartmann, D. Global Physical Climatology
 * Peixoto & Oort, Physics of Climate
 * Richard Heinberg. "The Party's Over: Oil, War and the Fate of Industrial Societies". ISBN 0865714827. Interesting philosophical outlook on history of technological civilization and it's possible fate.
 * Human Footprint video by National Geographic Channel
 * Elizabeth Royte. "Bottlemania: How Water Went on Sale And Why We Bought It". ISBN 1-59691-371-1. History and problems of bottled water with comprehensive review of issues with tap water and additional filters.
 * "Food, Inc. How Industrial Food Is Making Us Sicker, Fatter, and Poorer — And What You Can Do About It". ISBN 978-1-58648-694-5. Great insight into modern industrial food production system.

title: Climatology/Further Reading


text:
Climatology/Atmospheric Composition and Structure

Meaning of Composition of Atmosphere
The literal meaning of composition is ‘ingredients’ or ‘constituents’ of something. In another words, it is a manner by which something is made up of. When we apply the same meaning with atmosphere, it signify the items or the elements with which our atmosphere is composed. Our atmosphere  is  composed  of  numerous  gasesand  other  substances,  hence,  it  is  a mechanical  mixture  of  the  gases,  water  vapour  and  dust  particles. Let us  discuss  about  the composition of atmosphere.

Composition of Atmosphere
The envelope  of  atmosphere  around  the  earth,a  mechanical  mixtures  of numerous gases and other substancesare very important to all living organisms of the planet. The four major gases – nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide together constitute 99.99% of the total volume of dry air. The maximum concentration is of nitrogen with more than 78 percent while the oxygen is a little less than 21 percent.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the most abundant found in atmosphere constituting 78.084 percent to the total volume of dry gases. This is almost chemically inactive and have nothing to do  with  any  sort  of  chemical  actions  in  the  atmosphere. It does  not  combine  freely  with other elements, hence, it is termed as neutral substance. This gas is found beyond a height of 100 km, but its concentration is below 50 km height from the sea level. This gas is significant for the growth and reproduction in plants and animals. Certain bacteria in the soil are capable of converting a very small amount of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and fix it to the soils and water  bodies  to  be  consumed  by  animals  and  plants. This process  is  called  as  Nitrogen fixation. The nitrogen  fixed  in  the  earth’s surface is again converted and sent back to the atmosphere by bacterial action through a chemical reaction called denitrification.

Oxygen
It is the  second  largest  gas  of  the  atmosphere  constituting  20.9476  percent  of  the total  dry  atmospheric  gases. It is  very  essential  for  the  survival  of many  of  the living organisms of  this  planet. It is chemically very  active  gas. It is combined  with  several other elements and forms varied compounds. Oxygen is vital for combustion of fuels. When anything burns, oxygen is consumed and helps in burning that substance. Though oxygen is found beyond  100 km  but  it  is  reasonably  in  good  proportion  within  16 km  of  height.With increasing  height,  the  amount  of  oxygen  decreases  very  rapidly. On mountain  slope,  the available oxygen for breath is very scanty and the mountaineers are supposed to carry oxygen for them.

Argon
In terms  of  percentage,  argon  is  the  third  largest  gas  in  the  atmosphere constituting 0.934  percent  of  total  dry  atmosphere. It is  an  inert  gas  and  chemically  it  is inactive. It is also found in the earth’s crust and sea water. It is used in electric bulb and fluorescent lights.

Carbon-dioxide
It is the fourth abundant gas of the atmosphere. It is densest gas and found in lower parts. It is found upto a height of about 30 km, it is concentrated in the lower strata. Its percentage is very low, i.e.,  0.04 percent but it is  most  vital  for the  growth  of vegetative  life  of  biosphere. It is  transparent  to  the  incoming  solar  radiation  but  does  not allow  to  escape  the  same. And hence,  it  is  called  as  greenhouse gas. It plays  a  very  crucial role in increasing the global temperature.

Methane
Methane is the also a greenhouse gas which absorbs the radiation and cause more temperature of the air. Paddy cultivation also generates methane in the air. It is also produced from the wetlands and waterlogged soils and released in the atmosphere. Fossil fuel is also a source to release of methane in the atmosphere. Its amount in the atmosphere is variable.

Ozone
Ozone’s concentration  lays  in  a  belt  between  the  heights  of  15  to  50 km  of atmosphere. Instead ofnormal two atoms of oxygen, ozone has three atoms of oxygen formed together denoted  by  O3. It is  formed  when  atmospheric  oxygen  molecules  are  broken  by ultraviolet  solar  radiation. It may  even  be  formed  at  the  time  of  electrical  discharge  during thunderstorms. This gas  is  also  termed  as  variable  as  its  formation  and  disintegration  is dependent upon numerous activities. Though ozone is very less in quantity (0.00006 percent), this thin layer is very significant for the survival of living worldas it absorbsthe dangerous ultraviolet rays  and  protects  the  earth. Neon, helium, krypton, hydrogen, xenon are  other minor gases. Some gases  are  still  extremely  less  in  quantity,  they  are  termed  as  trace  gases. Important among  them  are  ammonia,  carbon  monoxide,  sulphur  dioxide,  nitrogen  dioxide, nitrous oxide and sulphur hexafluoride etc.

Water Vapour
Water vapour is  small in amount  but  it is  one of the  most  important  part of atmosphere with respect to the distribution of vegetation and life. Water vapour exists all the time in  the  atmosphere  but  with  varying  degree  of  amount  depending  upon  the  season (temperature  condition)  and  the  supply  of  water  for  evaporation  and  evapotranspiration. Air is hardly  completely  dry. In summer,  the  water  holding  capacity  of  the  air  is large  as  the temperature is high while in winter it is low.

Aerosols
Aerosols are extremely fine-sized solid particles or liquid droplets which continue to be  in  suspended  form  in  gas  for  very-very  long  time. They could  be  seen  when  their concentration  is  more  otherwise  they  are  invisible. Aerosols themselves are  non-gaseous microscopic substance released in the atmosphere from various sources –natural and human created. They could be pollen, minute earthly dust, sea salt, carbon soot from burning fuels, volcanic dust  etc. Human activities  also  help  the  aerosols  to  enter  the  atmosphere. Their concentration is  more  over  the  industrial  and  urban  areas. Burning of  fossil  fuels  and generation of smoke also pump the  aerosols in  the air.

Meaning of Structure of Atmosphere
Structure means the arrangement of different part into one. In another words, it is the skeleton or organization or  anatomy  of  a  whole by looking  at the relationships  with  its  parts. According to this background, the study of different parts of the atmosphere and the relationship with its  parts  is  said  to  be  the  structure  of  the  atmosphere. Vertically, the atmosphere  is divided  into different layers/  parts. Therefore, the  study  of  different  layers  is  known  as structure of atmosphere.

Structure of Atmosphere
Based on chemical composition, the atmosphere is classified into two. They are homosphere and heterosphere.

Homosphere
Homosphere is that part of atmosphere where the chemical composition of the air is uniform or similar. It is the lowest layer in terms of chemical composition. It extends from the earth’s/ ocean surface  to  about  85 km. the basis of the changes in temperature, the atmosphere is divided into five layers out of them, three lower layers falls under homosphere (i.e. within 85 km of altitude). They are troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere.

Troposphere
It is the lowest and densest layer of the atmosphere. It extends till a height of about 8 km over pole but over equator, it is 18 km. About 80 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere lays in this layer. With increase in height, the temperature keeps on declining till the limit of this layer. On an average, the decrease in temperature with height is 60 Celsius par km. The upper boundary is known as troposphere laying between 8 and 18 km. At this level, the average temperature reaches to minus 500 to minus 600 Celsius.

Stratosphere
Stratosphere is  the  upward  second  layer as  well  as  middle  layer  of  the homosphere. It starts from tropopause to approximate height of 50 km. The temperature at the tropopause remains almost constant till the height of 20 km. After that, it starts increasing and continue the trend till the height of 50 km. At this level, the estimated temperature is about  minus 100 to minus 150Celsius. Though the  temperature  is  on  rise,  but  there  is  no atmospheric  turbulence. This layer  is  completely  free  from clouds  and  other  weather conditions. That is  why,  it  has  an  advantage  for  flying  long-distance supersonic jets.

Mesosphere

Mesosphere is the third but the upper-most layer of the homosphere. After this layer, heterosphere  starts. The literal  meaning  of  mesosphere  is  the  middle  sphere. It is separated   by   tropopause   below   from   troposphere   and   mesopause   on   the   top   from thermosphere. It is extended from 50 km to 85 km from the earth’s surface. The air pressure is very low. It is 1 millibar at the lower limit whereas it is 0.01 millibar at the highest limit. This layer  is  characterised  by  decreasing  temperature  and  the coldest/ lowest atmospheric temperature is recorded in this layer. The lowest temperature estimated near the mesosphere is  around  minus  1300Celsius. It is  colder  that  the  lowest  temperature  recorded over Antarctic.

Heterosphere
The atmosphere laying beyond the homosphere is termed as heterosphere. The term itself is self-explanatory and it is used for that part of atmosphere where the air is not uniform. In this part of  atmosphere,  the  air  is  rare  and  the  molecules  are  wide  apart. Relatively heavier  gas molecules are concentrated in the lower part whereas the lighter are forced to be above. Beyond 85 km  height,  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere  with  increasing  altitude  vary significantly. Different layers of prominently different gases are nitrogen layer, oxygen layer, helium layer and  hydrogen  layer  are  differentiated. However, the  heterosphere,  is  divided  into  two main spheres –thermosphere and exosphere.

Thermosphere

This sphere  extends  from  mesopouse. it is 85 km to  about  650 km  from earth. The temperature is  on  rise  in  this  layer  due  to  absorption  of  solar  radiation  by  small amount  of  oxygen  molecules  present. It is  highly  dependent  upon  the  solar  activities. The temperature reaches  beyond  12000C  at  an  altitude  of  about 350 km  but  by  650 km  it  may even rise to 20000C. This much high temperature is primarily defined by average speed with which molecules are moving. Because of this, the temperature may be high.

Exosphere
Exo means external. Therefore, exosphere the external or the outer most layer of the atmosphere. Its lower  boundary  starts  from  the  thermopause 650 km to 10000 km. This much distance is little less than the diameter of the earth. It is really a very big size of the limit of the atmosphere.

Lesson Summary

 * Different temperature gradients create different layers within the atmosphere. The lowest layer is the troposphere, where most of the atmospheric gases and all of the planet's weather are located.
 * The troposphere gets its heat from the ground, and so temperature decreases with altitude. Warm air rises and cool air sinks and so the troposphere is unstable.
 * In the stratosphere, temperature increases with altitude. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which protects the planet from the Sun's harmful UV. The higher layers contain few gas molecules and are very cold.


text:
User talk:37.111.238.162

Esteban16 (discuss • contribs) 19:21, 13 July 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:37.111.238.162


text:
LMIs in Control

/Click here to continue/

title: LMIs in Control


text:
User:Mmpeet

Biography: Matthew Peet is an Associate Professor at Arizona State University. He received B.Sci. degrees in Physics and in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1999 and the M.Sci. and Ph.D. degrees in Aeronautics and Astronautics from Stanford University in 2006. He was a Postdoctoral Fellow at INRIA from 2006-2008. From 2008-2012 he was an Assistant Professor of Aerospace Engineering at the Illinois Institute of Technology. He has been with Arizona State University (ASU) since 2012 in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering. Prof. Peet has worked extensively on LMI and SOS methods, with over 80 publications in this area, including the first publications on SOS for both delayed and PDE systems.

title: User:Mmpeet


text:
User talk:Chiboy14

Can a page for physics be created?

title: User talk:Chiboy14


text:
Climatology/Insolation and Heat Budget

Solar irradiance (SI) is the power per unit area (watt per square metre, W/m2), received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation as reported in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation, solar exposure, solar insolation, or insolation.The sun is the primary source of energy for the earth. The sun radiates its energy in all directions into space in short wavelengths, which is known as solar radiation.
 * The earth’s surface receives only a part of this radiated energy (2 units out of 1,000,000,000 units of energy radiated by the sun).
 * The energy received by the earth’s surface in the form of short waves is termed as Incoming Solar Radiation or Insolation.
 * The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that is radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and its distance from the sun.
 * Moreover, water vapour, dust particles, ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere absorb a small amount of solar radiation.
 * The solar radiation received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in the distance between the earth and the sun.
 * During the earth’s revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is nearest to the sun. This position is called perihelion.
 * Due to this variation in the distance between the earth and the sun, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July.
 * However, the effect of this variation is masked by some other factors like the distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence the variation does not have a greater effect on daily weather changes on the surface of the earth.

Factors Influencing Insolation
The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is not uniform everywhere. It varies according to the place and time. When the tropical regions receive maximum annual insolation, it gradually decreases towards the poles. Insolation is more in summers and less in winters. The major factors which influence the amount of insolation received are:--

 * 1) Solar output /constant
 * 2) The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays
 * 3) Duration of the day
 * 4) Earth distance from sun
 * 5) Transparency of the atmosphere

Insolation also varies due to the length of the day. The days may be longer or shorter depending on latitudes or the change of season. A longer day means greater insolation because sunlight is available for a longer period. The duration of the day changes from equator towards poles, from season to season and so, inclination also varies accordingly.

Insolation also depends on the transparency of the atmosphere. The amount of cloudiness and its thickness, dust and water vapor which determine the transparency of the atmosphere, affect the reflection, absorption and transmission of solar radiation.

The total amount of insolation is maximum at the tropics. At 45˚latitude it is only 75%,about 58% at the arctic and antarctic circle. And only about 40% at the poles.

Solar output /constant
At the top of the earth’s atmosphere receives insolation is  expressed  as  the  solar  constant.It received  at  the  top  of  the  atmospheric surface  (thermopause)  on  a perpendicular  plane  to the solar beam. The average insolation received at the thermopause i.e. 1368Wm2(Watt per square metre)energy (solar constant) in the form of short wave. Thus, it is termed as solar constant for that mean  distance  from  the  sun. These solar  constant  is  varying  over  1  Wm2by  periodic disturbances and explosions in the solar surface basically related to sun spot. Sun spots are dark and cooler areas visible on the sun’s surface. The recent  researches  have  shown  that  more  and more  energy  is  released  when  the  sunspots  are  in  large  number. The number  of  sunspots  also increases  or  decreases  on  a  regular  basis,  creating  a  cycle  of  11  years.

The Angle of Incidence
Since the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, the sun’s rays strike the surface at different angles at different places. This depends on the latitude of the place.The higher the latitude, the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth. The area covered by the vertical rays is always less than the slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area decreases.The sun’s rays with small angle traverse more of the atmosphere than rays striking at a large angle. The angle  at  which  sun  rays  strike  on  earth surface is  called  angle  of  incidence. Itcontrols the amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface. The amount  of  insolation is  determined  by time of the day (morning, noon and evening), the latitude (equator to poles) and season (summer, autumn,  winter  and spring).When  the  sun  rays strike vertically  or  sun is directly  overhead,  the rays angle of incidence is 90 degree. The beam of rays spread on a smaller area in comparison to oblique/ slanting beam of sun rays.when sun is in a vertical position, the beam of light will spread over one mile but in the oblique position(with 300of angle) of the sun the  same  beam  of  light will  spread  over two miles.It is clear that the larger amount of radiant  energy  is lost in  case  of  slanting  rays  than  in  vertical  rays. Therefore, on  an average, equatorial areas receive approximately 2.4 times more insolation than polar areas.

Duration of The Day
The length of  the  day  determines  the  duration  of  sunlight  which  affects  the  amount  of solar radiation received by the earth’s surface. The longer period  of sunshine,  greater  the  quantity  of solar  radiation will be  received by  a  portion  of  earth.For  example,  at  the  equator  the  length  of days  and  nights  is  12  hours in  all  the  months but the  tropics  of  Arctic  and  Antarctic sunshine duration varies between 0 and 24. On the autumn and springe quinoxes (September 23and March 21 respectively),the sun is overhead at the equatorat noon.The night and day all over the earth are equal on these days and maximum amount of insolation is received at the equator, and the amount of insolation decreasing towards the  poles.It  is  caused  by  vertical  sunshine  at  equator  but  with  increasing  latitudes,  the rays  become  more  and  more  slanting. Therefore, poleward,  the  received  energy  keeps  on declining.

Earth Distance from Sun
The earth is revolving around  the  sun  in  an  elliptical  orbit, resulting  continuous  change  in the distance between sun and the earth on annual basis. It leads to seasonal variation in solar energy received by  the  earth.The  mean  distance  between  the  earth  and  sun  is  about  149,600,000 kilometers(92,900,000 miles). When earth position is  farthest(152 million km) from  sun  is known as ‘aphelion’ on July 4. It is  perihelion(147 million km)occurs on January 3  each  year which  is  the  closest  distance. During aphelion the  northern  hemisphere  is  facing  the  sun  and therefore  receives  energy  about  7  percent  less  than  the  perihelion  (southern  hemisphere).

Transparency of the AtmosphereOur
Atmosphere is not transparent for all the radiation coming from the sun because of different composition and layers. It is also  one  of  the  controlling  factors of  insolation to  reach  earth surface. The  atmosphere   is   composed   of   gases,   water   vapour   and particulate   matters.The atmosphere  is  a  mixture  of  gases, such  as nitrogen(N),  oxygen  (O2), Argon, carbon  dioxide, Neon  (Ne),  Helium  (He),  Methane  (CH4),  Krypton  (Kr),  Ozone  (O3),  Nitrous  oxide  (N2O), Hydrogen (H) and Xenon (Xe). The atmosphere also contains water vapour, water in the gaseous state.

title: Climatology/Insolation and Heat Budget


text:
Climatology/Insolation

Solar irradiance (SI) is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation as reported in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation, solar exposure, solar insolation, or insolation.The sun is the primary source of energy for the earth. The sun radiates its energy in all directions into space in short wavelengths, which is known as solar radiation.
 * The earth’s surface receives only a part of this radiated energy (2 units out of 1,000,000,000 units of energy radiated by the sun).
 * The energy received by the earth’s surface in the form of short waves is termed as Incoming Solar Radiation or Insolation.
 * The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is far less than that is radiated from the sun because of the small size of the earth and its distance from the sun.
 * Moreover, water vapour, dust particles, ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere absorb a small amount of solar radiation.
 * The solar radiation received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in the distance between the earth and the sun.
 * During the earth’s revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is nearest to the sun. This position is called perihelion.
 * Due to this variation in the distance between the earth and the sun, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July.
 * However, the effect of this variation is masked by some other factors like the distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence the variation does not have a greater effect on daily weather changes on the surface of the earth.

Methods of Solar Energy Receipt
The solar radiation received by the earth’s atmosphere and surface by direct radiation or diffuse energy. There are five way of solar radiations. They are:--
 * Transmission
 * Scattering
 * Refraction
 * Absorption
 * Reflection

Transmission
When the solar radiation reaches to the earth surface through a medium is known as transmission of solar  radiation. The dictionary  meaning  of  transmission  is  the  passage  of  shortwave  and longwave energy (electro-magnetic energy) through either the atmosphere or water but the sun’s energy is reaching to the earth without any medium from the space. It is also known as radiation. The atmospheric energy comprises shortwave radiation inputs (ultraviolet light, visible light, and near-infrared wavelengths) and longwave radiation outputs (thermal infrared) that pass through the  atmosphere  by  transmission. In our  atmosphere,  all  the  radiation  is  not  reaching  to the  earth surface  or  in  other  word,  atmosphere  is  not  opaque  for  all  the  radiation. This differential transmission  causes  the  greenhouse  effect  in  the  atmosphere.Due  to  greenhouse  effect  of  the atmosphere, the earth’s atmospheric temperature is  hospitable. Without this  effect,  the  living conditions could not be created.

Scattering
Atmospheric gases and dust particles physically interact with incoming solar radiations through processes of  scattering. A redirection of  energy  through  refraction  and  reflections  called scattering. The solid particles  of  dust,  smoke,  aerosols,  sea  salts  sprays,  pollutants  atmospheric humidity,  smoke  shoots  etc. available in  the  atmosphere  are  responsible  for  scattering  of  sun electromagnetic  energy. It changes the  direction  of  the  light's  movement without  altering  its wavelengths. This phenomenon  is  known  as  scattering  and  represents  7percent of  Earth's reflectivity, or albedo. It is ‘unpredictable’ because of multiple reflections of electromagnetic waves by particles and surfaces. But inreflection, the direction of reflection is predictable. Dust particles, pollutants, ice, cloud droplets,  and water vapor produce  further scattering.

Refraction
Refraction means bending of light. As solar radiation enters the atmosphere, it passes from one medium to  another  of  atmosphere,  from  virtually  empty  space  into  atmospheric  gases. The atmosphere itself  is  made  up  of  different  layers. The different  layers  have  different  density  and change in density of the atmosphere causes the bending of incoming solar radiations at different angles. This refraction  could  also  be  seen  with  water  as  well. Itis known  as  refractionof incoming  radiation. For example,  prism  refracts  light  passing  through  it,  bending  different wavelengths  to different  angles,  separating  the  light  into  different  component  of  colours  to display  the  spectrum. In nature,  rainbow  is  created  when  visible  light  passes  through  many raindrops  and  is  refracted  and  reflected  toward  the  viewer  at  a  precise  angle.

Reflection
The reflection is an ability of the material where a portion of arriving energy strikes. Depending upon the  surface  characteristics,  where  it  strikes,  the  quantum  of  reflectivity  is  determined. It might be  completely bounced  directly  back  into  space  with  or  without  being  absorbed. This returned energy is called reflection especially specular reflectance where angle of incidence and angle of reflectance is same. A mirror is one of the example of reflecting more than 90 per cent of the visible light incidence upon it. The term albedo is used to describe the amount of energy reflected back  in percentage. Albedo is  the  reflective  quality  of  a  surface. It is  an  important control  over  the  amount  of  insolation  that  is  available  for  absorption  by  a  surface. So,the proportion of insolation that is reflected back from the atmosphere, from the tops of the clouds, and earth  surface  including  land  and  water  both,  without  heating  the  receiving  surface,  is  an albedo.

Absorption
In our earth’s atmosphere due to the different composition, act as a barrier to the insolation or it absorbed some  solar  radiation,  may  be  assimilated  by  the  object  is  generally  termed  as atmospheric absorption. The different material on earth has different absorptive capabilities with different wavelength of solar radiation. It is happening in all electromagnetic radiations at certain spectral bands  by  the  composition  present  in  the  atmosphere. The most  efficient  absorbers  of solar  radiation  in  this  regardare  water (H2O),  carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), Oxygen (O2),nitrous oxide (NO2). The cumulative  effect  of  the  absorption  by  the  various  constituents  can cause the atmosphere to close down completely in certain regions of the spectrum that leads to an increase in temperature. Generally, a good radiator is also a good absorber and a poor radiator is a poor absorber. As colour is concern, dark-colour surface are much more efficient absorbers of radiation in the visible portion of the spectrum than light-colour surface.

Factors Influencing Insolation
The amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface is not uniform everywhere. It varies according to the place and time. When the tropical regions receive maximum annual insolation, it gradually decreases towards the poles. Insolation is more in summers and less in winters. The major factors which influence the amount of insolation received are:--

 * 1) Solar output /constant
 * 2) The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays
 * 3) Duration of the day
 * 4) Earth distance from sun
 * 5) Transparency of the atmosphere

Solar output /constant
At the top of the earth’s atmosphere receives insolation is  expressed  as  the  solar  constant.It received  at  the  top  of  the  atmospheric surface  (thermopause)  on  a perpendicular  plane  to the solar beam. The average insolation received at the thermopause i.e. 1368Wm2(Watt per square metre)energy (solar constant) in the form of short wave. Thus, it is termed as solar constant for that mean  distance  from  the  sun. These solar  constant  is  varying  over  1  Wm2by  periodic disturbances and explosions in the solar surface basically related to sun spot. Sun spots are dark and cooler areas visible on the sun’s surface. The recent  researches  have  shown  that  more  and more  energy  is  released  when  the  sunspots  are  in  large  number. The number  of  sunspots  also increases  or  decreases  on  a  regular  basis,  creating  a  cycle  of  11  years.

The Angle of Incidence
Since the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, the sun’s rays strike the surface at different angles at different places. This depends on the latitude of the place.The higher the latitude, the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth. The area covered by the vertical rays is always less than the slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area decreases.The sun’s rays with small angle traverse more of the atmosphere than rays striking at a large angle. The angle  at  which  sun  rays  strike  on  earth surface is  called  angle  of  incidence. Itcontrols the amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface. The amount  of  insolation is  determined  by time of the day (morning, noon and evening), the latitude (equator to poles) and season (summer, autumn,  winter  and spring).When  the  sun  rays strike vertically  or  sun is directly  overhead,  the rays angle of incidence is 90 degree. The beam of rays spread on a smaller area in comparison to oblique/ slanting beam of sun rays.when sun is in a vertical position, the beam of light will spread over one mile but in the oblique position(with 300of angle) of the sun the  same  beam  of  light will  spread  over two miles.It is clear that the larger amount of radiant  energy  is lost in  case  of  slanting  rays  than  in  vertical  rays. Therefore, on  anaverage, equatorial areas receive approximately 2.4 times more insolation than polar areas.

Duration of The Day
The length of  the  day  determines  the  duration  of  sunlight  which  affects  the  amount  of solar radiation received by the earth’s surface. The longer period  of sunshine,  greater  the  quantity  of solar  radiation will be  received by  a  portion  of  earth.For  example,  at  the  equator  the  length  of days  and  nights  is  12  hours in  all  the  months but the  tropics  of  Arctic  and  Antarctic sunshine duration varies between 0 and 24. On the autumn and springe quinoxes (September 23and March 21 respectively),the sun is overhead at the equatorat noon.The night and day all over the earth are equal on these days and maximum amount of insolation is received at the equator, and the amount of insolation decreasing towards the  poles.It  is  caused  by  vertical  sunshine  at  equator  but  with  increasing  latitudes,  the rays  become  more  and  more  slanting. Therefore, poleward,  the  received  energy  keeps  on declining.

Earth Distance from Sun
The earth is revolving around  the  sun  in  an  elliptical  orbit, resulting  continuous  change  in the distance between sun and the earth on annual basis. It leads to seasonal variation in solar energy received by  the  earth.The  mean  distance  between  the  earth  and  sun  is  about  149,600,000 kilometers(92,900,000 miles). When earth position is  farthest(152 million km) from  sun  is known as ‘aphelion’ on July 4. It is  perihelion(147 million km)occurs on January 3  each  year which  is  the  closest  distance. During aphelion the  northern  hemisphere  is  facing  the  sun  and therefore  receives  energy  about  7  percent  less  than  the  perihelion  (southern  hemisphere).

Transparency of the Atmosphere
Atmosphere is not transparent for all the radiation coming from the sun because of different composition and layers. It is also  one  of  the  controlling  factors of  insolation to  reach  earth surface. The  atmosphere   is   composed   of   gases,   water   vapour   and particulate   matters.The atmosphere  is  a  mixture  of  gases, such  as nitrogen(N),  oxygen  (O2), Argon, carbon  dioxide, Neon  (Ne),  Helium  (He),  Methane  (CH4),  Krypton  (Kr),  Ozone  (O3),  Nitrous  oxide  (N2O), Hydrogen (H) and Xenon (Xe). The atmosphere also contains water vapour, water in the gaseous state.

Mechanisms of Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere
Heating and cooling of theatmosphere is performed by following processes:--
 * Partial absorption of solar radiation by atmosphere
 * Conduction
 * Terrestrial radiation
 * Convection
 * Advection
 * Latent heat of condensation
 * Expansion and compression of the air

title: Climatology/Insolation


text:
Climatology/Heat Budget

Concept of Heat Budget
the meaning of budget is an estimate of your income and the expenditure of the same over a certain period of time. Heat is a sort of energy which our earth receives from the sun. Therefore, the energy received (your income) from the sun and its utilization (your expenditure) by/in the atmosphere as well as the surface (land and water surface) of the earth is basically heat budget. In this context, the heat budget has two main components incoming shortwave solar radiation and outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation. Let us study them in brief:-

Incoming Shortwave Solar Radiation
the sun is the prime source of almost all energy on the earth. This energy coming from the sun is known as solar radiation.Since the sun is extremely hot, it emits shortwave radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves. different types of shortwaves like x-rays, ultraviolet, visible and near infrared. the shortwave energy from the sun is not directly absorbed by the atmosphere.

Processes Involved with Incoming Radiation
The uppermost atmosphere of earth receives about one part of energy out of two billion parts radiated from the entire sun’s surface.Processes Involved with energy is the cause of various interactions in the atmospheric systems.the processes involved with incoming radiations: There are three processes operating with the incoming solar radiation. They are:-
 * Reflection
 * Diffusion
 * Scattering
 * Absorption

Reflection
The meaning of reflection is returning something back from where something was coming. you bring a mirror to the sunlight, a bright beam of light is thrown away from the surface of the mirror. The angle of the reflection of light is dependent on the angle of the incidence. you find that the angle of incidence and angle of reflection is equal.The certain amount of incoming energy is lost and it does not participate in the heating process of atmosphere or the earth’s surface. It is generally expressed in percentage of the incident radiation reflected. It is also called as albedo or coefficient of reflection.

Diffusion and Scattering
The term diffusion refers to the spreading of something more widely from its centre to all directions. In scattering, sun energy or light is forced to deviate from the direction of propagation. When the sun energy passes through the atmosphere, it has to travel through numerous solid minute particles of aerosols and gases.In this process of passing through, the energy and light is diffused and scattered.The blue colour of the sky is due to selective scattering of sun light. Before dawn or after the sunset, the sky is red and it is due to diffusion and scattering of red visible light.

Absorption
The term absorption refers to a state of being engrossed or being captivated.It is a process by which something is absorbed by another thing. With reference to the absorption of solar radiation, it is done so by the atmosphere or the earth surface. Incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the different elements of atmosphere present at a particular point of time. These elements are gas molecules, water vapour, smoke and dust particles. They trap a part of solar energy during transmission through the atmosphere.

Outgoing Longwave Terrestrial Radiation
The received energy from the sun heats the earth surface. Heated earth surface is not that hot hence, it re-emits the energy. This returned energy is in the form of long-wave radiation. In this process, the longwave energy is absorbed by the atmosphere and the atmosphere is warmed up.

Processes Involved with Outgoing Radiation
The received energy by the earth as well as by the atmosphere is re-emitted back.It happens through different processes.The outgoing energy involves following processes:--
 * Latent heat transfer
 * Sensible heat transfer
 * Emission by vapour and clouds
 * Longwave radiation

Latent Heat Transfer
Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released from a substance due to changing phases. For example, when solid to liquid or from liquid to gas or even from solid to gas and vice versa. If a substance is changing from solid to liquid, it absorbs the energy from the surroundings so that its molecules are spread out. If the liquid is again changing its state to gas, it further requires more energy for the same reason.

Sensible Heat Transfer
Sensible heat is the energy needed to alter the temperature of a substance without any change in the state. It is possible by absorption of sunlight by the land surface or even the air is warmed up by gaining heat. Release of latent heat or the cool air coming in contact of warm air also cause the temperature to rise.

Emission by Vapour and Clouds
Emission means discharge or release of something. Huge amount of terrestrial energy is released through the vapour and clouds. In fact, the energy due to which the atmosphere was heated up, in general, is released through vapour and clouds as well.

Longwave Radiation
Little amount of energy is directly released to the space by direct longwave radiation.It means that this amount of energy is not trapped by the atmosphere.

Heat Budget
The ideal heat budget of the earth is supposed to be a perfect balance between the incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation.It has to be a zero outcome of the incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation. The total incoming shortwave radiation reaching at the top of the atmosphere is considered to be 100 percent. The distributed and re-distributed of this 100% or 100 units energy is termed as heat budget of the earth. Out of these 100 units, 17 units are reflected back to the space by cloud cover. Air molecules scatter 8 units of the energy back to the space. Energy reached on earth surface is also reflected by some surfaces like snowcover, deserts or other bright surfaces. Their contribution in reflection is 6 units. Hence, the total reflection, from atmosphere (17 units), from air molecules (8 units) and from surface (6 units) is 31 units. This much of energy is not at all used in the heating of the atmosphere or the earth surface. Remaining 69 units are involved in heating of the atmosphere and the earth surface. Out of these 69 units, 19 units are trapped by the water vapour, dust particles and ozone and heats up the atmosphere. Four units are absorbed by clouds and the rest 46 units reach directly to the earth surface. The 31 units directly reflected back to space, 23 units utilized in the atmosphere and 46 units reaching the earth make the total 100 units of incoming solar radiation.

Out of 46 units received by the earth, 9 units are directly released back to space by longwave radiation without heating the atmosphere. Six units of the longwave radiation are absorbed by clouds, water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone. The total energy used up in heating the atmosphere is 60 units; 37 units released by the earth surface (7 units –sensible heat; 24–units latent heat and 6 units absorbed by clouds, water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone) and 23 units already absorbed during transmission of the solar energy (19–units absorbed by water vapour, dust particles and ozone and 4 units –absorbed by clouds).

Heat Balance
Heating is the process of transfer of energy from a body of higher temperature to another body of lower temperature. The distribution heat energy is not uniform over the earth surface. It has numerous factors to affect. the maximum energy is received near the equator throughout the year. The seasonal variations of energy received are considerable with increasing latitudes.

title: Climatology/Heat Budget


text:
Talk:History of Hawaii/Territorial Years

To quote from the current article: "...the years leading up to the 1898 Annexation of Hawaii was marked with wide spread protest from the Native islanders. [Readers: Annexation to the U.S. was not simply a Native Hawaiian versus white American issue; there were Native Hawaiians who supported annexation, as there were American and European whites who were against it. Many of Hawaii's royalists were also Europeans, and to a lesser extent, Americans.]"

Sure, but this there-were-people-on-both-sides comment seems to undermine the *proportion* of Hawaiians who opposed annexation -- as documented for example in Silva's (2004) book "Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism" (Duke University Press). The headline should be the amazing scale of people who opposed annexation, not that there were a few dissenters. Highlighting the unsurprising fact that the "wide spread protest" was not "universal" would appear to convey a kind of false equivalence. I would suggest deleting the quoted parenthetical.