text:
Guitar/Structure of the CAGED scale shapes

 * Translated by Google

= Structure of the major and minor scales according to a slightly modified CAGED system = Hopefully you have read the previous introduction to the major scales, where the upcoming lessons were already outlined.

This course is about improvising melodically over simple songs set in major and natural minor keys.

Here we want to learn the division of the fingerboard according to the CAGED system, which can be learned quickly, especially for beginners in the subject of 'improvisations in major and minor'. First we break down the major scale into manageable units, then we build each of the five CAGED scales from the individual parts

The 5 CAGED scales
We want to learn the following five scales in this course.

We assign the major scales to a barre chord, which is also the basic chord (tonic) of the scale.

The sequence of the chord, pentatonic or major scale shapes of the same name ('shapes') follows a certain order, which can be easily remembered using the mnemonic "CAGED".

The barre chords can be easily derived from the basic chords.

The only important thing for the CAGED system is the position of the fundamental tones in relation to the respective chord or scale.
 * Animation

You already know basic tones from your beginners' lessons. And you should already be familiar with the principle of chord shapes from the bare chords.

The stupid thing about the mnemonic 'CAGED' is that it actually only works problem-free for major chords or major pentatonics. With minor, the mnemonic reaches its limits. And the mnemonic doesn't describe many of the connections that you learned about in the circle of fifths (e.g. when you took the workshop on how to pick out chords ).

So it may not really surprise you that here in the Wikibooks we have alternative names for the obviously missing shapes. If you know barre chords, and if you can do something with the phrase: "grasp the A major like an F barre on the 5th fret!" , you shouldn't have any problems with it.

The names of the scales are derived from the following simple scales in the first frets:

All chords known from the simple keys mentioned above, bass lines and the like can largely be transferred to the corresponding 5 CAGED scales, almost as if the scale had been moved to a higher position using a capo.

The double naming (or the modification of the CAGED system) is explained again in the corresponding lessons, or described as a summary in the chapter Form Systematics.

= Orientation on the fretboard = To ensure that a scale doesn't just remain a dot image, you first need a landmark. A very good method is the intervals of the major scale.

 * [[File:Scala Griffbrett.svg]]

 * You determine the basic chord of the major scale (1).
 * Barré chords can help you to find the position of the root notes.
 * As soon as you know where the fundamental note is, move the scale on the fingerboard until the (1) is on the fundamental note. Then you can improvise to the piece using the major scale.
 * Think of it like this: Draw the fretboard on a piece of paper (landscape format). Put it in a clear sleeve. Draw the circles with the intervals on it using foil fonts. Now you can pull the sheet out until the (1) comes to rest on the required fundamental note. That's how we did it before the time when there wasn't an app for everything.

Later you derive the natural minor scale from the major scale, in which the sixth (6) of the scale becomes the fundamental note. There are also some songs in which the second (2) or fifth (5) becomes the fundamental note. Then you don't play major or minor, but Doric (2) or Mixolydian (5).

You do this in much the same way as a music reader. This first determines the major scale based on the accidentals and then the actual key or mode based on the chords and tones.

How the intervals then behave relative to the new fundamental note (as demonstrated in the introduction to the major patterns for the minor key) does not have to be of interest to you for the time being. We'll take a closer look at the 3-note per-string scales. It can wait until then.

Find the “square”
Take a closer look at the major scale. We ignore all colors and numbers here. Notice anything about the scale?
 * [[File:Major-Pattern only black.svg]]

You should actually notice the notes that are a little closer together or that don't have an empty fret between them. Then you should notice that two of the slightly closer intervals are usually exactly on top of each other. To get a general idea of how to memorize the scales, I recommend you look for the “square”.
 * [[Image:Scala Carree.svg]]

More precisely, you are looking for the semitone steps in the scale. A semitone step is the pitch distance from one fret to the next; and with a whole tone step there is still a fret in between, which is usually not fingered. So pay attention to the distance between 3 and 4 and the distance between j7 and 1.
 * to repeat

The semitone steps for the key of C major can be represented quite clearly on a piano keyboard. You should know the spacing of the semitone steps from the structure of a scale. There is no black key between the notes E and F and between the notes B and C (note that our B is called H in German and some other languages). There is no fret between the notes E/F and B/C on the guitar's fretboard. And the fundamental note C is one of the tones in semitones.

The semitone steps are well arranged on the guitar board as a small "square" (square). You can find this very easily, even if the scale only consists of black dots, or someone has numbered it strangely (or relative to the chord root). Once you have found the "square", you can easily find the root note of the major scale. From your perspective as a guitar player, the "1" is always at the top right of the "square". As soon as the fundamental note (1) is found, the remaining intervals arise automatically. You can orientate yourself very well on the basic tones of the simple major and minor chords.

Now it pays off that you know where the root notes are in the simple chords. You simply have to know these basic tone patterns by heart. But you don't need to know much more to clearly assign a scale to a chord shape.

Three fingerings
Two of the following three fingerings can be derived from the “square”.

1st Fingering

 * [[Image:C-Major-Scale_on_the_fretboard_first_fingering.svg]]

The “square” is on the left in this fingering.

Practice this on all string positions

 * Note: The numbers here indicate the intervals of a major scale. The 7 is a major seventh. Unfortunately the software (Lilypond) cannot generate j7.

When switching between the G and B strings, the lower part of the fingering must be moved one fret to the right. (Why? Later!) Everything is back to normal between the B and E strings
 * Note!

The Roman 3 (III) or the Roman 4 (IV) are information for the frets. But which fret you start practicing on is completely up to you. Maybe first practice in a higher position (from the 5th fret) where the distance between the fingers is as comfortable as possible. Later you can practice in lower positions (1-5), where you have to spread your fingers a little more.

Move up and down the individual notes and try to get the fingering into your fingers. No melody, no solo, no improvisation, no rhythm or anything else is required yet.

 * For example

In the second step, you can try to always start and end your dubbing with the number 1. Note that you only practice the first fingering on 2 strings. No longer! Only on the second pass does the next pair of strings come on, and then the one after that.

Then you can play around with the intervals. (e.g. skip every 2nd tone...)

The first attempts are not about replaying tablature, but simply about experimenting. We start playing small motifs after the first jingling around.

Exercises
The following exercises often contain a series of one or two bar sequences. A sequence is a motif that repeats itself at different pitches.

There are also excerpts from classical pieces, folk songs, children's songs, etc. The simple structure or familiarity of the melodies should make practicing easier. This means you don't have to decipher every single note from the tablature, but your fingers find their position more easily in anticipation of the melody.

One bar sequences
Note that the root note (1) is under the middle finger (i.e. on the second fret of this fingering). When doing your free improvisation in major, it's best to start with (1). You can find the fundamental note C here in the 8th fret on the E string under the middle finger.

A power chord (e.g. C5) or a normal chord at the end is optional (i.e. optional). A chord like this calibrates your ear to the root note of the key you are currently playing. However, you have to think about how you get from the chord back to the fingering. This is sometimes easier, sometimes more difficult. Therefore, a chord is intended for later repetition. At the beginning, the basic note is sufficient as a conclusion.

Half-bar sequences
This time you have half-measure sequences that are repeated once. Even without knowledge of music, you can follow the progression and repetitions of the sequences more easily using the sheet music than using the tablature; especially if you listen to the exercise at the same time. The optional power chord at the end stabilizes the fundamental tone again. You can find the fundamental note F in the 8th fret on the A string.

A bird wanted to get married
Here I found a relatively well-known German children's song that fits the 1st fingering perfectly.

The tone durations are difficult for those unfamiliar with notes to read. But if you know the piece or have listened to it several times, it is not an insurmountable difficulty. The root note Bb can be found in the 8th fret on the D string.

Half-bar sequences with changes of position
In the G shape there is a change of position between the G and B strings. You always have to come up with a strategy for when and how best to change positions.

If you're lucky, you'll find a hint in the sheet music showing how you can change the position conveniently. I recommend that you use your middle finger where the 2 is above the notes.

 * (1 = index, 2 = middle, 3 = ring, 4 = pinky, 0 = open string)

Consider such advice only as a suggestion, because there is no binding rule as to how the change of position should take place. If you practice the same sequences a few strings higher or lower, it becomes easier. By the way, you can practice every single exercise on all string positions.

warm-up (before singing)
Many people who have ever sung in a choir are familiar with these two motifs. Unfortunately, many songs do not correspond exactly in their range to one of the full three fingerings or the scales that follow later. Most of the time only excerpts from the patterns are needed. In the first motif, for example, the major seventh (j7) before the fundamental is missing.

The second motif contains the major seventh (j7). The second motif calibrates the choir to the key required. Here only chord tones are played in an ascending or descending tone sequence (also called arpeggios). The A7 chord contains both the leading tone (j7), which leads to the root note (1), and the buttress tone (4), which moves towards the major third (3). With the two exciting tones that want to resolve to the basic chord, the choir is placed in the major key. Here I don't need to explain to you where the fundamental note D is.

2nd Fingering

 * [[Image:C-Major-Scale_on_the_fretboard_second_fingering.svg]]

The “square” is on the right in this fingering.

Practice this on all string positions too.

For the 2nd fingering, the lower fingering must also be moved one fret to the right between the G and B strings. Again, everything is normal between the B and E strings!
 * Attention!

For the 2nd fingering, the lower fingering must also be moved one fret to the right between the G and B strings. Again, everything is normal between the B and E strings!

Excursus: Switch between the G and B strings
Do you still remember tuning the guitar?
 * [[Image:Tuning ADGHE5 ADGHE0.svg]]

You played almost all the strings at the 5th fret and tuned them as pure fourths. Therefore, all fingerings on the strings tuned in fourths look the same. You just went from the G to the B string on the 4th fret. That's a major third. Accordingly, the intervals between the two strings G and B always have one fewer fret, which means that the intervals on the B string slide one fret further to the right.

Here is a little anticipation of a later lesson. We need this “module” to slide from one scale shape to the next one. . (note the animation above).

Rondeau (excerpt)
The one-bar sequence was taken from a Rondeau by JS Bach that you can repeat as desired. You can find the root note C again in the 8th fret on the E string; this time under the pinky.

"The ugly duckling" or "All my ducklings" in minor
The previous exercise was in major, and here we use the same fingering in minor. As you can see and hear, a fingering or a pattern cannot be clearly assigned to a single key. The final note or the final chord (here the note D or the chord Dm) determines the key. The keynote D here is the sixth (6) of the underlying major pattern. It can be easily derived from the tuning tone in the 5th fret of the A string.

If there are two note stems above a number in a tablature, this is a sign of a half note that lasts two beats. Since this looks very unusual for many guitarists, bar lines in the tablature are often omitted. In this case, the duration of the tone can be determined solely from the note values.

The Vltava (main motif)
The sequence of tones (more precisely the intervals) of the following exercise is almost exactly the same as the previous one, just at a different tone level. But with the different rhythm it is very similar to the main motif of the composition "The Vltava" by Bedrich Smetana (without an upbeat and rhythmically simplified).

Even if it only goes up and down the minor scale (as in the 7th exercise), you will hopefully notice how much the beat and rhythm make a difference to the effect. If you later think that your improvisations sound boring, then you should focus more on rhythm. You can also work a little with batting patterns.

Sasha (simplified)
The song "Sascha" is played here on the G and B strings. We have to come up with strategies as to which fingering we use best for changing positions.

The melody is easier to play on the other string positions.

Asturias (detail)
The whole piece of Asturias is a masterpiece. But you might be happy to know that it won't be long before you can at least do a little demonstration of the first few bars of the piece. This is just a preliminary exercise.

1st Fingering comes above the 2nd Fingering
The second fingering always follows immediately below the first fingering. (Of course only if there are other strings above this fingering.)

I'll explain later how the scale names come about. Suffice to say, it has something to do with the position of the fundamental note (1).

 * F-Form

 * Bb-Form

 * D-Form

As you can see, the first fingering with the "square" on the right always comes first, and then comes the fingering with the "square" on the left. They are always one above the other.

Burlesque

 * F-Form

Only between the G and B strings does a position change one fret to the left. Otherwise the three fingerings are the same.

So far you have nothing more to learn than two fingerings, that the first comes before the second, and that there is a change of position between the G and B strings. You must take this change of position into account in all future scales.

 * G-Form

 * C-Form

Of course, half of the first or second fingering is missing if it doesn't go any further up or down.

As you might already suspect, you already have 5 excerpts from the five scales that we will take a closer look at.

With the 1st and 2nd fingering and the change of position you have already grasped a large part of the CAGED scales.

Later in your repertoire you will only need excerpts from each of the 5 CAGED scales. There are extremely few pieces that have exactly the tone range of a competent CAGED scale or that of one of the 3 fingerings. That's why I don't have attractive exercise examples ready for all scales and scale sections, but I sometimes have to offer you some dry exercises.

Hopefully you already have a vague idea of why it's worth learning the scales in their entirety.

3th Fingering
Does not contain a “square”

This fingering is not an independent fingering at all. The upper part of the 3rd fingering is actually the lower part of the 2nd fingering. Likewise, the lower part of the 3rd fingering is also the beginning of the 1st fingering. What is important about this fingering is the transition between the end of the 2nd fingering through the 5 and 6 to the 1st fingering. During the third fingering there is a change of position to the left. Here it is important to pay particular attention to the position of the fingers.

Especially if you don't just play the scale up and down (which you most likely practice at the beginning), this "5-6 transition" always requires a lot of thought until you know how to place your fingers most skillfully.

Practice fingering on the top string position and one string position lower!

 * D-Form

 * G-Form

If you slide one string position lower with the 3rd fingering, then we have to take into account the change in position between the G and B strings again. We have just learned that the third fingering involves a change of position to the left. The transition between the G and B strings also results in a change of position to the right. So one change in position is canceled out by the other. Fingering is ultimately made easier by eliminating position changes, but at the beginning you have to think a little more about how the individual position changes affect the third fingering.
 * Note!

 * C-Form

 * F-Form

You always have to take the matter of the change of position during the 3rd fingering and the change of position between the G and B strings into account. This may sound a bit complicated when you first read it, but it reduces the entire structure of the five main major scales to 4 building blocks. The 1st to 3rd fingering and the change in position between the G and B strings. But that's all you need to know about the formal structure.

 * Bb-Form

In der Bb-Form geht der 3. Fingersatz natürlich nicht weiter als bis zur E-Saite.

A II-V-I-Progression

 * D-Form

A simple tone sequence over a 2-5-1 progression. The chord tones are mostly on the heavy beats (on beats!?).
 * A, C, E, G belong to Am7
 * F#, D, C, A belong to the D7
 * B, D, G belong to the G major chord.

A II-V-I-Progression (arpeggios)
Here are simple arpeggios (harp-like chord tones) of a 2-5-1 progression. The basic harmonic structure becomes clearer if you only play the chord tones. Arpeggios (chord breaks) are more demanding exercises because you have to be familiar with the scale in order to find the chord tones. The three fingerings are not as easy to discover in arpeggios as in more melodic exercises. If an exercise is too difficult for you, postpone it until a later repetition.
 * G-Form

A Doric melody
The transition between the G and B strings cancels out the change in position of the third fingering, which simplifies the fingering. Instead of taking a long and laborious process to determine the intervals of the Dorian scale, we proceed as with the minor scale. With the Dorian scale we simply set the root note to (2) of the major pattern. You should have no problem finding the root note E.
 * C-Form

A Mixolydian melody
Here too, the two changes in position at the transition between the G and B strings cancel out with the change in position in the third fingering, which simplifies the fingering here too. This key is Mixolydian, because the root note is the fifth (5) of the major pattern, which again shows that the pure fingering says nothing about the mode.
 * F-Form

The notes A and D together form a power chord (reversal of D and A). D and A form the frame interval of the D major chord. (D+F#+A). More important than the starting note of a melody is the ending note, and the fact that you perceive the note D or the chord D major as the tonal center.

1 over 2 over 3 over 1...
If you were to spin the system further, you would get the following:

 * Second fingering
 * First fingering
 * Third fingering
 * Second fingering
 * First fingering
 * Third fingering
 * Second fingering

Of course, there is no 12-string guitar where each string is tuned to fourths, but this is a good exercise that you should do with the help of a piece of paper and a pencil. In principle, you will find all of the major scales of the guitar here (if you only pick 6 neighboring strings).

There's just the catch with the transition between the G and B strings.

The 3 fingerings always follow one another in a specific order.

 * 1st fingering is above the 2nd fingering
 * the 3rd fingering connects the lower end of the 2nd fingering with the upper end of the first fingering.
 * Between the G and B strings, everything shifts one fret to the right.

That's all you need to know for the 5 main scales. 3 fingerings that always meet in a certain order and change positions between G and B.

With this you will now work out one scale shape after the other. You will see that you will soon have the 5 main types in there.

And before you ask yourself: In addition to the 5 main forms of the CAGED system, there are a few minor types known as 3-notes-per-string scales and Berkelee scales, and others such as the pentatonic and the blues scales. Scala. But we'll save all of those for later. Don't rush anything! Now it's the turn of the CAGED scales.
 * Final note

Each of the following five CAGED scales actually consists of just the three fingerings learned above! As a cheat for a quick overview:

Summary

 * 1) As soon as you have found the "square",
 * 2) It's very easy to get into the 1st and 2nd fingerings.
 * 3) With each of these fingerings, the keynote of the scale (and with a little practice all other intervals as well) can be determined very easily.
 * 4) The 1st fingering is above the 2nd fingering.
 * 5) The 1st and 2nd fingerings are connected by the 3rd fingering.
 * 6) The third fingering usually involves a change of position to the left.
 * 7) There is a change of position to the right between the G and H sides.
 * 8) The position changes of the 3rd fingering and the position changes of the GH string transition can cancel each other out, making fingering easier.


text:
User:1000mm

Active editor and admin on Wikipedia in Norwegian, and updates Wikidata elements accordingly. Performs minor updates on other language versions from time to time, and corrects errors if I stumble across them.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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text: Guitar/Chord shapes short definition

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text:
Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming/GDScript/Keywords (3.x)

Keywords in Godot are special words used for GDScript. Unfortunately, some of them are not recorded in Godot's class documentation in much detail.
 * Keywords

break
The break keyword ends a looping piece of code. Useful for "forever" loops:

counter = :  counter += counter == :

This ends the loop after 15 runs of the code.

continue
The continue keyword is used inside loops. Similar to break, continue skips a single run at the loop. Like breaking it, but instead of ending the whole loop, it only skips the single iteration.

num : num == : ( num )

The above runs 5 times. Num is 1, 2, 3, 4 then 5. If num is 4, it "continues" the loop. Otherwise it prints. So 4 is not printed, but 1, 2, 3 and 5 are.

const
The const keyword can be used in place of var to create a constant, a value that cannot change.

Unlike variables, constants can be used in static functions.

enum
The enum keyword is similar to making integer constants.

{  DRAW_MODE_PEN, DRAW_MODE_FILL, DRAW_MODE_ERASER, DRAW_MODE_LINE, DRAW_MODE_BOX, DRAW_MODE_SHADING, DRAW_MODE_CONTRAST, DRAW_MODE_BLEND }

The code above is a snippet of code from an image editor I once made in godot. It shows the possible draw modes, like line and fill, as named ints for easier code debugging.

export
Not to be confused with exporting. The export keyword is a very powerful keyword.

It allows editing the value in the Inspector dock, and it saves changes per-instance.

For a basic one, try.

You can even use templates and ranges:

number = (, FILE ) file_path (, FILE, )  specific_extension_file_path (, Number1, Number2, Number3 ) dropdown_menu_int = float_with_range =

extends
The extends keyword tells Godot that a script inherits the properties of the given Object.

It must be at the very top of a script. Only  can go before it.

for
The for keyword runs the indented block of code after it for every item from a given value.

i [,, , , , , ]: ( i )

in
Often used inside if statements. It evaluates as true if the value before it is inside the value after it. It can check:

 * 1) If a value is in an Array
 * 2) If a key is in a Dictionary
 * 3) If a string of text contains another string of text
 * 4) If an Object contains a property or constant of the same name

Among other things. would be false. "Hello" does not have a lowercase "h" in it. If you want case insensitive search, call  on both values to convert every letter to lowercase (or   for uppercase - all capitals).

is
Often used in if statements. It checks if the value before it is of the type after it.

(  )  (    )  (    )

load
Okay, load is technically described in global scope. However, it is very much defined as a keyword, so it would make no sense if it were not here.

It loads a file from your FileSystem when called. It takes a single argument: a file path.

File paths must be relative to your project folder or player save folder and not lead outside!

Valid examples:

res leads to your project folder. user leads to the player's save folder. This is typically %appdata%/roaming/godot/app_userdata/ unless the ProjectSetting Config/Use Custom User Dir and Config/Custom User Dir Name are set, in which case it's %appdata%/roaming/.

master
The master keyword is part of a series 5 multiplayer keywords. It makes it so only the "master" calls a function if used.

( damage ): health -= damage (, health )

You don't want to call this on a puppet to help prevent bugs.

onready
The onready keyword goes before the var keyword. It allows using a dynamic number that is set before the _ready function call.

random_number =

pass
The pass keyword is used as a blank line of code. Use it after an "if" statement or "for" statement or after a function declaration to count as a "block of code" (to remove the error) without doing anything. This is called an "empty" if statement or a "stub function".

preload
See load. The file can be relative to the script that calls it or "res". The resource is loaded when the script is, preventing stalls during the running game. However, files must exist or there will be an error, and the path must be constant (i.e: not changeable).

res://game/game.gd:

or:

puppet
The puppet keyword is one of a series of 5 multiplayer keywords. Use it before "func" but after "remote". It makes a function only call to non-masters.

( v ): health = v

You don't want to call this to the master to stop players cheating.

remote
Use the remote keyword before the "func" keyword to allow a function to be called remotely by other peers in multiplayer when calling "rpc", "rpc_id", "rpc_unreliable" or "rpc_unreliable_id". Beware of cheating and security threats when doing this!

(, health ) ( hp ): . != :  health = hp

See puppet and master for more info. Use remotesync to call the function locally as well as via the network.

'''WARNING: Malicious hackers can use your game to retrieve or delete data, or players can cheat, if you do not add checks to stop them. Don't ever add remote to functions that delete or create files unless you know what you're doing.'''

remotesync
See remote. This keyword also calls a function locally instead of only calling them over the network. Good for telling other peers as well as the master that the character has jumped.

return
The return keyword is used to end the function. For functions that are called and "return" a value, the return keyword is where to go.

It also ends the function call, so can be used in an if statements to skip the rest of the function. It does not require a return value, and by default returns null.

setget
Use at the end of a variable declaration. Syntax:. The getter is optional. The setter must have an argument (the value to set too) and the getter must return a value. Example:

points =  set_points get_points ( value ): points = value :   points

static
Usually, to call an Object's function, you need an instance of it. If you use the static keyword before the "func" keyword, you'll be able to call it from a non-instance. However, you can only use other static functions or those in global scope. You cannot use member variables.

In the following example, Weapon is a custom.

damage = DAMAGE = :   DAMAGE
 * Weapon.gd

becomes, saving memory and CPU resources if you were to want to find a value.

tool
The tool keyword tells Godot that a script runs in the editor. These sorts of scripts are commonly referred too as tool scripts. It won't run if the script is only open in the Script edit screen. It must be attached to a node in the scene, or a node with the script must be in the editor.

It must always be placed before the extends keyword.

If you have a tool script, scripts that it inherits and scripts that inherit it won't run, unless they are also tool scripts. All nodes themselves run in the editor, but only if placed into it's interface with editor plugins.

See also: editor plugins (and the plugins chapter), very powerful things.

var
The var keyword creates a variable. They are automatically freed from memory when they leave the scope (an indented block of code unindents, for example.)

global_varible := :  some_function(7) (argument): (argument) (global_variable) temporary_variable = (temporary_variable) :     another_variable = (another_variable) (temporary_variable) (another_variable)

while
The while keyword runs the indented block of code after it until the if-statement after it is no-longer true. It won't run if it starts as false.

i = i < : (i) i +=

yield
Yield, currently, accepts 2 arguments: an Object and a signal name (as a String). Calling it will wait until that signal is called from that Object.

(., )


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User talk:2001:44C8:4051:1B7B:DCDD:82FF:FE94:4785

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 01:46, 25 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Advanced Microeconomics/Preface

The goal of this book is to provide graduate-level foundations for microeconomics. It will assume proficiency in advanced mathematics such as calculus, set theory, and optimization. Many readers may wish to start with the lower-level Principles of Microeconomics.

title: Advanced Microeconomics/Preface


text:
Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Preface

This Wikibook is the first of an anticipated series on specific nuclear power plants such as Diablo Canyon (Nuclear) Power Plant and the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, both of which are in California. They are offered in conjunction with a Wikiversity course entitled [California Government and Citizen Participation] and the Wikibook of the same name. All policies of Wikibooks and Wikiversity apply and you are invited to read but also to write copy and edit existing copy. If you are reading this online, please familiarize yourself with Wikibooks protocols by clicking on the links to the left. All content herein is subject to the CCL 2 license which means that it is free for re-use with attribution in accordance with the CCL 2 guidelines.


text:
Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Introduction

The nuclear incident at the Fukushima Diaichi nuclear station has sparked a renewed interest in evaluation of the risks posed by nuclear power plants worldwide, among them Diablo. (Some parties insist on referring to the plant as Diablo Canyon (Nuclear) Power Plant; consistent with our neutral point of view policy, we try to steer clear of that debate as much as possible, referring to the facility as "Diablo", the "plant" and so forth). As you can read in the Diablo Canyon Power Plant chapter, it was built in close proximity to numerous earthquake fault zones, and is a source of on-going, often heated, public policy debate.

According to Wikipedia, Diablo Canyon was originally designed to withstand a 6.75 magnitude earthquake, including the nearby San Andreas fault|San Andreas and Hosgri faults, but was later upgraded to withstand a 7.5 magnitude quake. Recent public disclosure of the existence of the Shoreline fault proximal to DC(N)PP has created renewed public interest in the current ongoing re-licensing application of DCPP, including calls for a suspension of the licensing process until the seismic studies are complete. Although the plant has redundant seismic monitoring and a safety system designed to shut it down promptly in the event of significant ground motion, there remains considerable public concern about safety.


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Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Acknowledgements

 * The staff at the Nuclear Regulatory Commission have been very helpful at public forums at which they provided very learned answers to questions from the public.
 * Dr. Norm Abrahamson of the University of California at Santa Barbara was the keynote speaker at a forum in November 2010 in San Luis Obispo and provided an excellent encapsulation of earthquake related issues at DCPP.
 * Sandra S. Schulz and Robert E. Wallace authored material on the San Andreas Fault which was made available on a USGS dot-gov website.
 * David Weisman and Rochelle Becker are principals in the Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility and through their website and listserv made much information available which was not available through other sources.
 * Administrators at Wikibooks have gone beyond the call of duty and gave generously of their time correcting errors and providing state of the art software tools. Particularly patient and helpful have been the administrators logging in as Adrignola and the aptly named Quite Unusual.


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Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook/Contributors

Attributions to material imported from Wikipedia are available by clicking History link. On certain pages, importing may have failed on numerous occasions. In those instances, every effort has been made to exceed the minimal CC-BY-SA 3.0 and GFDL licensing protocols.

Many people wrote Wikipedia articles which were imported to Wikibooks by Geof Bard with the aid of administrators Adrignola and Quite Unusual. Matisse and other users to be enumerated also provided assistance. The original introduction and many of the Wikipedia articles were written from scratch also by Geof. The article writers user names can be viewed by clicking View history. If you contribute and would like to be listed please add your name to this section.


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Technical Theatre/People

To put on a play it takes many people, doing many different jobs. Working together as a team the result can be very impressive. Each production organization is laid out differently, but most have people filling these roles.

The Stage Director is the person responsible for the artistic vision, the meaning and thusly the purpose of presenting the production. While not a technical position, the Stage Director is still important in technical production in that they coordinate the artistic efforts of the different designers and actors into one unified vision. The Production Manager works with the Stage Director and the various designers, coordinating all the various design elements,making sure the different designs are carried out as best as possible. This person coordinates the efforts of the different departments, and making certain the production maintins its production schedule and remains within the budget. The Technical Director (or TD) works with the Scene designer and Properties designer, supervises the master carpenter and oversees the construction of the set. The TD frequently (in smaller organizations) may also take on other functions, such as supervising the set and props crews.

The Designers are the people that make the artistic decisions in their respective areas. The Scene Designer designs the sets for the different scenes. The Lighting Designer designs how the playing area and the actors will be lit. The Properties Designer obtains and sometime even creates the hand props held by the actors and props used on the stage. The Costume Designer designs the clothes that the people will wear, often designing or working closely with the designers of the hair and makeup as well. The Sound Designer chooses or makes the different sound effects that will play during the show, as well as determining who gets microphones, and how much amplification will be necessary.

The crew heads are responsible for coordinating the efforts of the different crews of stagehands working under them in the implementation of the designers' work. The Master Carpenter directs the construction of the set. They may also coordinate the people that move the set during scene changes. The Scenic Charge is the person that oversees the painting of the set. The Master Electrician makes sure that the lighting instruments get placed where the designer needs them. They also oversee the people operating the lighting control board and any follow spots. The Audio Engineer oversees the layout of the sound system; during the show they will oversee the operator of the sound boards and make sure any microphones and other sound equipment is working. The Properties (or props) Master will gather the items that the actors will handle during the performance. Under direction of either the scenic designer they may also in charge of "set dressings" such as tables and chairs that the actors will interact with. The Costumer will coordinate the making of the costumes and the fitting them on the performers.

The stagehands are the people that do the labor. These people are divided into several crews. The carpenters build the set, and move set pieces during the show. The painters paint the set the colors the designer specified. The electricians put the lights in the correct place, run the cables to power them, and operate the control board and any followspots. The audio crew will place speakers and microphones as well as run the cables to power them. In addition, they will operate the sound mixers. The wardrobe mistress supervises the stitchers and drapers who sew and mend and clean the costumes, and the dressers who help the actors get into them. The props crew will make sure the items the actors need are where they are supposed to be, and repair them if they get broken.

title: Technical Theatre/People


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Technical Theatre/Set Design and Construction

The design of a set for a production, often times, is one of the first steps taken by director and designer. This is due to several issues. First, the set is one of the few parts of the technical theatre which is specifically dictated by the script. How many people must be on stage? How many different entrances must be accommodated? Where do those entrances lead? Each of these questions (and others) must be addressed with the set design. Secondly, the directors must have the set design prior to blocking the play so that the performers are blocked intentionally around the set pieces which will exist.

As with all design elements, the first step in creating a set design is to read the script several times. The minimum number of times a designer should read the script is three before beginning work on a set design. The first time through, the designer should read it for the story line and enjoyment.

The second time through, the designer should begin gathering a better feel for the story. Where does the story take place? Are there any major set pieces that must be included? What entrances and exits must exist? How much space must be allowed for the number of characters on stage at any given time?

The third time through the script, the designer should begin writing down specifics about the space. In coordination with the director, choices must be made about where off-stage locations exist, where will the more intense beats or moments take place on stage, and general traffic patterns throughout the space.

Following this third reading, most designers will create a series of sketches...at least one per location...for the director to review. These sketches should include not only the set but also stage props and furniture and possibly tentative actor locations for major points in the story. After getting the director's approval of the sketches, scale drawings must be made. These should include not just an overhead view of each scene but also front elevations of the scenes and, where necessary for construction, specific cut-away designs of complicated set pieces. From these scale drawings, many designers will then create scale models so that the directors and designers have three-dimensional models to work from both for the sake of blocking and also building the set pieces.

All of these design steps should also include the lighting designer and scenic designer (in charge of providing the coloring scheme for the sets...sometimes the scenic and set designer is the same person) so that the design schemes for all of the elements are complementary.


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Technical Theatre/Prop Design

The prop design of each show depends on the artistic style of both sets and costumes, as well as the requests and needs of the director and/or choreographer. At a first reading of the script, the property designer will make a general list of all mentioned items and those that can be inferred from narration. Basic background research will begin for the look of items from a set period and location. Communication with all departments and designers helps to eliminate various items that overlap into costumes or set Lists. An initial "Prop list" is generated and dispersed to each of the other designers as well as the director, and all relevant parties. After receiving notes from the various departments, the "prop list" is updated and a second reading of the script is done to double check information gathered is consistent with script requirement as written. Research continues and narrows in on items that will require special attention. Budget constraints require that many items be used from stock, borrowed or rented before a purchase of a new item is made. Some items that are not in the company stock and cannot be located are fabricated. Props from a period settings are not always widely available and often require some amount of research to determine what the item is, how it was used and where it can be located.

Prop
A property is designated depending on the theatre and the structure of design responsibility set by years of trial and error. It is common for a prop to be defined as anything that is not firmly adhered or 'nailed' down to a piece of setting. This may include all set dressings and furniture as well as hand held "props". Other theatrical organizations may only designate that which the actor actually picks up as a 'prop'. The range in-between varies. Props may be an item usually associated with another department or require close work with them. Costume pieces may sometimes be the responsibility of the costume department to fabricate and then be tracked in rehearsal and performance by the prop department such as hat and purses, coats that come off or never worn but held as part of the costume. At other times in the script, a dress may be picked up and packed in a suit case on stage and never worn. The prop department would acquire one of the correct period, basic size, etc. and may possibly require the approval of the costume designer. Another example of a possible cross over would be a microphone. If live, it would require input from both the sound and electrics department but may be chosen and tracked by the prop department. The choice of microphone may require the input of the sound designer, set designer and the prop designer.

In some theatres a prop may be among many different elements layered on top or around each other with backdrops and architectural elements, elaborate costumes, large ensembles as well as lighting. With theatre in the round the elements are distilled down to the most basic elements. The 360 degree "line of site" adds limitations to sets. While costumes may be as elaborate, theatre in the round has a much more limited area then a proscenium and cast size could be limited as well. These are a few reasons that make theatrical properties in this situation stand out more. It also puts a more direct spotlight on the item and in many cases is central to the development of plot or central character.

Specialized props used as 'sight gags' could be a rubber chicken or a more elaborately conceived notion. Simple looking items, in many cases, require specialized work. Requirements, specific to a production may require an item be 'rigged' in one way or another. A burlap bag may require an inner lining smaller than the outer shell that may be stuffed to emulate content.

title: Technical Theatre/Prop Design


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Technical Theatre/Introduction

When you go to a play, the opera, the ballet, or even a concert you notice the people on the stage performing. You may also notice the lighting effects, audio effects, costuming, makeup, and the set the performers are on. All of these things are part of the world of Technical theatre.

Technical theatre encompasses all that goes into making a staged production. The areas of technical theatre are scenery,lighting, properties,costuming,and sound. All of these areas work together in a production to establish the place, time period, and mood of the production. If successful the audience will not even notice many of the technical elements of the show. Instead they will come away having enjoyed the show. However, if one of the areas is incomplete or of a lesser quality than the rest the entire production can suffer. Each area relies on the others for support so it is important that everyone works together and communicates as a team; if the lighting designer uses blue light in their design and the costume designer creates a yellow dress, the audience will see an ugly green dress. Technical theatre therefore depends on teamwork and cross-communication for success.

title: Technical Theatre/Introduction


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Ithkuil

Ithkuil is a philosophical and logical constructed language, created by John Quijada that is designed to be extremely precise, concise and clear as possible. Ithkuil is notable for its notorious difficulty, however, new versions of the language try to simplify it as much as possible while retaining the initial goal of the language.

As per 2024 Ithkuil has 4 versions released: the initial version, Ithkuil (meaning "a hypothetical representation of a language") in 2004, a simplified version called Ilaksh in 2007, a third version, Elartkha in 2011, and the current version, called Maleuthrait, or simply New Ithkuil, in 2023 (To avoid confusion, "Ithkuil" will refer to 2023 version). This book is going to be describing the 2023 version, deemed the most simple and complete of the four.

Table of contents

 * /Phonology/
 * /Basic Morphology/
 * /Formatives/
 * /Adjuncts/
 * /Referentials/
 * /Special constructs/
 * /Syntax/
 * /Numbers/
 * /Writing System/
 * /Texts/

title: Ithkuil


text: Ithkuil/Phonology

title: Ithkuil/Phonology


text: Category:Book:Ithkuil

title: Category:Book:Ithkuil


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Zelda II: The Adventure of Link/Items

Zelda II: The Adventure of Link contains items. Here are all of them:

 * 1-Up: Zelda II has lives unlike other games in the Zelda franchise. Lose all of them, and you'll Game Over. This pickup will give Link an extra life.
 * Heart Container: This will give Link an extra bar of health.
 * Treasure Bag: This magic bag will give Link experience points of varying amounts.
 * Candle: Found in the Parapa Palace. Lights up dark areas and makes enemies in caves visible.
 * Magic Container: Like the Heart Container, this gives Link an extra bar of magic.
 * Trophy: Required to get the spell Jump.
 * Fairy: Refills Link's health to full.
 * Bagu's Note: When shown to the Riverman, gives access to Death Mountain.
 * Mirror: Link finds this under a table in a house in Saria. Required to get the spell Life.
 * Hammer: Breaks rocks blocking the way in the Overworld.
 * Handy Glove: Allows Link to break blocks with his sword.
 * Raft: Allows Link to cross bodies of water.
 * Missing Child: Required to get the spell Reflect.
 * Winged Boots: Allows Link to walk on water the Raft cannot cross.
 * Flute: Removes the River Devil, and reveals 3-Eye Rock Palace and New Kasuto.
 * Magic Key: Gives Link infinite keys.
 * Cross: Makes invisible enemies in the graveyard visible.

Spells

 * Shield: It reduces damage taken by half.
 * Jump: Link can jump super high.
 * Life: Restores 3 bars of health.
 * Fairy: Transforms Link into a fairy.
 * Fire: Link can shoot fire from his sword.
 * Spell: Turns enemies into Bots.
 * Reflect: Allows Link to block attacks.
 * Thunder: Deals massive damage to enemies in a spark.

title: Zelda II: The Adventure of Link/Items


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User:BLACK.elyjah/sandbox

Log in to BLACK.elyjah ELYJAH^(

title: User:BLACK.elyjah/sandbox


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The science of finance/Introduction

Too often, even a hard worker does not earn enough to support his or her family, has not really been trained, except by himself and some friends or colleagues, and has neither good tools nor safe working conditions.

Good wages, training, good equipment and safety impose costs that can not always be covered by previous revenues. So we have to advance funds. In other words, we have to finance our project. If we advance the funds ourselves, it is self-financing, if others bring their funds, it is external financing. The science of finance studies how human beings finance their projects.

The financing of a project can be conceived in real terms: what are the raw materials, the supplies, the labor force and the capital goods that must be advanced to launch the project, until its revenues are sufficient to cover its costs? It can also be conceived in monetary terms: what are the sums of money needed to buy these raw materials, these supplies and this labor force, and to rent or buy these capital goods?

title: The science of finance/Introduction


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The science of finance/Summary

We want to finance the most profitable projects. We must therefore be able to evaluate them beforehand. Evaluation of projects presents the most basic principles of economic and financial evaluation. It explains the dual origin of economic value, use value and exchange value, the creation of value by composition of projects, options, because it is perhaps the most important concept for economic evaluation, because our wealth is essentially a wealth of options, the net present value of certain and uncertain projects, and the economic value of the common order. The subject of project evaluation is further developed in a supplementary chapter (not yet written) devoted to risk assessment.

Inequalities in front of finance explains the origin of interest rates and other property income, which make the financial system very unequal, since it privileges the owners to the detriment of the less fortunate. Finance sometimes makes it possible to partially correct certain economic inequalities by offering means of entrepreneurship, but even so it remains profoundly inegalitarian.

It seems that to advance funds it is necessary to dispose of it in advance. But it is to count without the banking system capable of advancing funds that are created at the very moment they are loaned. It looks like counterfeit money, but it's very different, because money is created in exchange for promises of repayment. How can we create money from scratch? shows how the banking system works and why money creation is not necessarily an evil. Money can be created to meet the real investment needs and the ability of the economy to engage in profitable projects. A good project is a sufficient guarantee to legitimize the creation of the money that finances it.

To benefit from sustainable prosperity, economies must navigate between two pitfalls, too little investment, lack of private investors or of sufficient money creation, and too much investment, because of the exaggerated optimism of private investors or an excess of money creation. Financing the economy presents the basic knowledge that shows how to proceed, and why it is difficult. It emphasizes the importance of countercyclical monetary and fiscal policies. Paradoxically the state has to spend less when it earns more and it has to spend more when it earns less.

This book is translated from the French language Wikibook La science de la finance.

title: The science of finance/Summary


text: Category:Chorizo recipes

title: Category:Chorizo recipes


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User talk:70.48.163.34

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 08:36, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:70.48.163.34


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User:JSTD466/sandbox

Justice Studies Senior Seminar, Spring 2024

title: User:JSTD466/sandbox


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses

In Meitei mythology, there are numerous goddesses. A few of them are listed below:

 * 1) /Helloi/
 * 2) /Ichum Lairembi/
 * 3) /Imoinu/
 * 4) /Irai Leima/
 * 5) /Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi/
 * 6) /Khunu Leima/
 * 7) /Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi/
 * 8) /Koucheng Leima/
 * 9) /Kounu/
 * 10) /Laikhurembi/
 * 11) /Lainaotabi/
 * 12) /Leimalen/
 * 13) /Loktak Ima/
 * 14) /Maheigi Lairembi/
 * 15) /Ngaleima/
 * 16) /Nganu Leima/
 * 17) /Nongthang Leima/
 * 18) /Panthoibi/
 * 19) /Phouoibi/
 * 20) /Shapi Leima/
 * 21) /Thongak Leima/
 * 22) /Thoudu Nungthen Leima/
 * 23) /Thumleima/
 * 24) /Yumchao Leima/

title: Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Thoudu Nungthen Leima

Goddess Thoudu Nungthen Leima, also known as Thoudu Nungthel Leima, was born on a stone slab in a riverbed, as a divine incarnation of supreme mother earth goddess Leimalen. She was destined to be found out by God Koupalu and his good lady Goddess Kounu, on their way. She was adopted as their own daughter by two divine couple. As time went by, she grew up into a beautiful maiden. She was given hand in marriage to God Loiyalakpa (also known as Tollongkhomba), the son of God Marjing. Thoudu Nungthen Leima's beauty knew no bounds. For this reason, even after her marriage, she was desired by another young God Khoiriphaba. To prevent any further problem, God Koupalu and God Marjing tricked Khoiriphaba to give up the idea of Thoudu Nungthen Leima.


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User:Grasso Luigi

Hi I'm Luigi said Louis, electronics technician. I was born in Catania on November 8th 1963 .

This is my home page. I'm interested in chemistry, physics, statistics, mathematics.

Personal pages
Templates

title: User:Grasso Luigi


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Yumchao Leima

Goddess Yumchao Leima, also known as Yumjao Leima or Yumjao Lairembi, is the all time ruling supreme queen mother goddess of the royal houses of ancient Meitei kings. She is usually depicted as a gentle kindhearted mother, sitting on a grand throne.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Thumleima

Goddess Yoibu Noinu Thumleima, also known as Thumkhong Lairembi, is a goddess of salt and natural salt wells (salt brines). She is one of the noble princesses of the celestial realm. She is one of the daughters of the Sky God Salailen, the Heavenly Father. She was sent down to earth to prosper the human civilization. Obeying her Supreme Father's divine orders, she and her sisters descended from the celestial realm to the earthly realm. On her way, she had a lot of adventures. Afterwards, she used to live in the natural salt brines (salt wells). Since early times, ancient Meitei people used to worship her to get blessings of good salt yield from the brines. Salt was considered as a wealth in ancient Meitei civilization. People were often rewarded for good works in the form of lumps of salt.


text: User:Grasso Luigi/templates

title: User:Grasso Luigi/templates


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Thongak Leima

Goddess Thongak Leima, also known as Thongak Lairembi, is a gatekeeper of the entrance door to reach the land of death of the underworld kingdom, ruled by her husband Thongalen. She is predominantly worshipped in the Langgol Hills (also spelled as Langol Hills) in the outskirts of Imphal city since ancient times by the Meitei people, due to which she is also known as Langgol Lairembi, literally meaning Langgol Goddess, or Langgol Leima, literally meaning Langgol Queen. She controls entry and exit to and from the land of death and the land of living. Even if any superior God orders for the departure or arrival of anyone to and from the netherworld and the earthly human world, she has the authoritative powers to open or close the gate for or against them. For this reason, in early times, ancient Meitei people used to worship her to give long life, to close the door of death for them, to close the door of bad health for them.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Shapi Leima

Goddess Shapi Leima, also known as Shabi Leima, is the queen of all the rodents living in the world. She is one of the noble princesses of Heavenly Realm. She is one of the most favorite daughters of Sky Father Salailen. She has the freedom of roaming in the earthly realm according to her own wish. She once happened to fell in love with a mortal man, who was about to be killed by a selfish evil king. She intervened the situation and rescued her lover using her divine powers. Many legends say that she could call upon all the rodents of the entire world to a single spot at a single time. She has other two sisters, Nganu Leima, the goddess of water birds, and Khunu Leima, the goddess of pigeons, with whom she shares numerous adventures.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Phouoibi

Goddess Phouoibi, also known as Phouleima, is a divine female personification of the paddy plant, growing in the agricultural lands. She is one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She is one of the favorite daughters of Heavenly Father, Salailen, the Sky God. She was sent by her father down to earth to prosper the human civilization. She, along with her other sisters, descended from the heavenly realm to the earthly realm, obeying the divine orders of their Supreme Father. On her way, she used to face multiple adventures. She even fell in love with Akongjamba, a mortal handsome noble man of Kege Moirang (Keke Moilang) kingdom. But fate did not permit them to unite. So, she and her mortal lover reincarnated six further rebirths, thereby enacting the divine seven epic cycles of rebirths (incarnations). Goddess Phouoibi (as Phouleima) and her husband God Phouningthou are worshipped as deities of agricultural fertility and harvesting, by the ancient Meitei people.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Panthoibi

Panthoibi, also known as Nongpok Leima, was an ancient princess of the Ningthouja dynasty, married to a prince of the Khaba dynasty, later eloped to Nongpok Ningthou, a King of the Selloi Langmai people, living in the Nongmaiching Mountains. She was later deified as a divine figure, and worshipped as a motherly goddess of love, romance, lust, sex, fertility, prosperity and civilization. She was later characterised in many legends, including the Numit Kappa, as a statesman, who negotiated with the Sun King God, to come out of his hiding spot inside a cave, and to shine once again in the sky. Panthoibi's cult and pantheon spreads across all the Meitei realms. Many goddesses and deified ladies were associated with the identity of Panthoibi. Phouoibi, the goddess of agriculture, Nongthang Leima, the goddess of seduction, Leimalen, the mother earth goddess, are usually related to Panthoibi. She is often compared as related to Thoibi, an ancient princess of the Moirang dynasty of the Kege Moirang (Keke Moilang) kingdom.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Nongthang Leima

Goddess Nongthang Leima, also known as Nongthang Lairembi, was a primordial deity, born from the thunder and lightning in the primeval chaos (or void), known as Atingkok. She was a daughter of Heavenly Father Salailen (who's the Atingkok himself). Her foremost duty was to seduce Prince Haraba (another name for Pakhangba) to divert his attention from disturbing his elder brother Sanamahi (alias Ashiba) in the creation of the world. Nongthang Leima used dance and music, along with her feminine physical beauty, to entice Haraba. She succeeded in her task. She was one of the earliest priestesses of the mythical world. She was both a goddess as well as a priestess (nun). She was one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She was one of the favorite daughters of the Sky Father Salailen. In later times, the identities of numerous historically deified ladies got merged to her cult and pantheon. She was often associated with Lady Panthoibi, another deified ancient ancient Meitei princess of the Ningthouja dynasty.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Nganu Leima

Goddess Nganu Leima, also known as Nganureima, is the queen of all the ducks, geese, swans and other waterfowls (water birds), living in the world. She is one of the noble princesses of the Heavenly Realm. She is one of the most favorite daughters of Sky Father Salailen. She has the freedom of roaming in the earthly realm according to her own wish. She once happened to fell in love with a mortal man, who was about to be killed by a selfish evil king. She intervened the situation and rescued her lover using her divine powers. Many legends say that she could call all the water birds of the entire world to a single spot at a single time. She shares many of her adventures with two of her sisters, Khunu Leima, the goddess of pigeons, and Shapi Leima, the goddess of rodents.


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Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Long Bridge

This page is for a case study on the Long Bridge, created by Zhenxian Ji, Xintong Dai, and Dian Jing. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathon Gifford.

Summary
The Long Bridge Project is a major infrastructure initiative aimed at expanding rail capacity across the Potomac River between Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. The project involves constructing a new two-track railroad bridge adjacent to the existing Long Bridge, dating back to 1904. This will create a four-track rail corridor to alleviate severe congestion on the current two-track bridge operating at near full capacity.

The project has a long historical context, with previous bridges at this location serving various transportation modes like pedestrians, horses, carriages, and railroads since the early 19th century. The bridges played a strategic role during the Civil War. Over time, the current Long Bridge became devoted solely to railroad use.

Multiple government agencies at the federal and state levels are involved in this project through an institutional framework. Key players include the Federal Railroad Administration, District Department of Transportation, National Park Service, Army Corps of Engineers, Virginia agencies like the Department of Rail and Public Transportation, and railroad operators like CSX and VRE.

Major policy issues revolve around minimizing community impacts from construction like noise, traffic disruptions on roads/trails, and temporary closures on the Potomac River. Extensive public outreach and mitigation measures like timing restrictions are planned. Environmental considerations focus on tree protection by adjusting staging areas, using protective fencing/arborists, preventing invasive species, and revegetating disturbed areas.

Funding comes from federal programs like the Intercity Passenger Rail Grant matched with state funds, with Virginia recently securing $729 million. The project aims for completion around 2030 to transform rail operations along the Eastern Seaboard by separating passenger and freight traffic.

Map of Location
Long Bridge spans the Potomac River, connecting Washington, D.C., to Arlington, Virginia, in the United States.

1809-1870: Pedestrians, horses, carriages, railroad
1808: Approval Granted

The Washington Bridge Company was authorized by regional commissioners and Congress in 1808 to shorten the distance of the nation's main mail route.

1809: Completion and Opening

The bridge was completed and opened to traffic on May 20, 1809. It was a wooden pile structure with two spans spanning 5,000 feet, including abutments. The bridge was 36 feet wide with a spacious roadway of 29 feet in the center. The remaining portions were pedestrian walkways protected from the central traffic by railings.

1814-1818: The Battle of Bladensburg Led to Bridge Burnt

After the Battle of Bladensburg on August 24, 1814, the American forces retreated to Virginia using the bridge and burnt its southern end. The next day, British forces, upon entering Washington City, burnt the northern end of the bridge. Fortunately, the bridge was restored by 1818.

1831-1835: Washout and Repair

On February 22, 1831, high water levels and ice washed away several bridge spans. The following year, the U.S. Congress allocated funds for the restoration of the bridge. It wasn't until October 30, 1835, that the bridge was fully repaired and reopened. 1861: Civil War and Military Significance- Fort Jackson was constructed to guard the bridge

On May 25, 1861, federal troops occupied and controlled the bridge, along with Alexandria and its railways. Fort Jackson was constructed to guard the bridge, preventing espionage and incursions from the Confederate States.

The outbreak of the Civil War and the secession of Virginia highlighted the military significance and strategic importance of the Long Bridge.

1864: Construction of the New Bridge- Railway Bridge

On July 23, a new and sturdier bridge, built by the Washington, Alexandria, and Georgetown Railroad Company, was completed.

1865: Bridge Span Breaks

On February 18, a U.S. military railway engine crossing the old bridge caused a bridge span to break due to its weight. Following this failure, the military deemed it easier and more crucial to occupy the new bridge and install railways on it rather than repairing the old bridge.

Consequently, railway traffic was diverted to the new bridge (Railway Bridge)

PS: Sometimes the two bridges, old and new, are collectively referred to as the Long Bridge and the Railway Bridge, or as two parts of a single "Long Bridge."

During the war, wounded Union soldiers were transported across the bridge to hospitals established throughout the city. The nearest one was the Armory Square Hospital, just a few blocks from the bridge, providing great convenience for treating the wounded.

1872–1904: Pedestrians, Horses, Vehicles, Railroad, Streetcars
1870: Flood

On October 1, a major flood struck, rendering the existing bridges irreparable as most of the embankments, wooden superstructures, and spans were washed away. The Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Company (B&P) opted to construct a replacement bridge.

The replacement bridge opened to traffic in May 1872 and was used for both vehicular and streetcar passage. The new bridge had lanes for vehicles and railways, standing 9 feet above the water surface, with sturdy abutments made of blue granite.

However, despite the adoption of new designs, the bridge still suffered damage from freshwater, hindering river traffic and lacking width to accommodate two railway tracks.

1881-1895: Ice Flows Cause Damage

In 1881, ice flows damaged the bridge, causing three spans of the bridge to be washed away. On February 7, 1895, the Evening Star reported that ice floes were blocking the Potomac near the wharf, held back by the Long Bridge, effectively acting as a dam and creating conditions that could lead to flooding.

1904–Present: Railroad Only
1904: Construction of the New Railway Bridge

In 1899, the B&P Company urged Congress to authorize the replacement of the Long Bridge, built in 1872, to accommodate multiple carriers and address freshwater issues. In 1901, a congressional act authorized the construction.

The new Railway Bridge was a Pratt through-truss swing bridge, opened in 1904. It wasn't until the 1980s that this railway bridge began to be referred to again by the old "Long Bridge" name. The old Long Bridge was dismantled by the end of 1907.

2011-2019: Renovation

In 2011, the District Department of Transportation (DDOT) collaborated with the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) to restore or replace the Long Bridge. They identified insufficient carrying capacity and redundancy of the bridge and carried out repairs in 2016.

In 2019, the DDOT and FRA reported the need for a second bridge to meet the growing demand for passenger rail. They also proposed building a third bridge to create a new bicycle/pedestrian crossing. 2020-2030-future: Expansion Plans

The Long Bridge has historically been one of the most severe bottlenecks in the national railway system, often operating at 98% capacity. Environmental impact statements and FRA decision records were released on September 4, 2020. The approval cleared the way for the final engineering design, financing, and construction of the Long Bridge expansion.

Donald "DJ" Stadtler Jr., Executive Director of the Virginia Passenger Rail Authority, stated that the adequately funded Long Bridge expansion project is expected to be completed by 2030.

Funding and Financing
The latest funding comes from the Federal-State Partnership for Intercity Passenger Rail Grant Program, established under the bipartisan infrastructure law.

By the end of 2023, Virginia announced that it had secured $729 million in federal funds to assist in covering the costs of expanding the Long Bridge over the Potomac River. The expansion funds are aimed at alleviating railroad congestion issues. Governor Glenn Youngkin stated, "This project enhances the resilience of our supply chain, improves freight movements to and from our world-class ports, and promotes the local economy." The funding will not only construct a new Long Bridge but also extend a third track along the railway corridor. The additional track will further allow the separation of freight and passenger rail services.

The Federal-State Partnership for Intercity Passenger Rail Grant Program:

This is a funding initiative managed by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) of the U.S. Department of Transportation. It was established under the Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 to provide funding for capital projects for intercity passenger rail.

The program provides matching federal funds, covering up to 80% of project costs, with the remaining 20% required from non-federal sources. Both Amtrak and individual states are eligible to apply for these competitive grants to invest in their intercity passenger rail services and infrastructure.

This 20% non-federal share can come from several channels:

1. Contributions from state and local governments

2. Investments from private investors or companies

3. Funds from railway operators (such as Amtrak)

4. Other public or private funding sources from non-federal governments

This funding model aims to encourage active participation from state governments, local governments, private enterprises, and other stakeholders in investing in the modernization of local railway infrastructure and upgrading intercity passenger rail services. Grant funds can be used for projects such as laying new tracks, improving grade crossings, purchasing new trains and locomotives, station enhancements, and implementing positive train control.

The 80/20 cost-sharing mechanism not only avoids complete reliance on federal funding but also provides crucial financial support from localities, aimed at expediting project progress and effectively integrating resources from all parties. By sharing costs and risks among multiple stakeholders, it enhances the efficiency of fund utilization and better drives the modernization of intercity passenger rail services.

Institutional Arrangements
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA): The FRA, in partnership with the District Department of Transportation (DDOT), prepared the DEIS, demonstrating compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) among other regulations. The FRA is responsible for ensuring that the project adheres to federal environmental laws and regulations.

District Department of Transportation (DDOT): As the joint lead with FRA, DDOT has played a crucial role in the development and compliance of the project with environmental and transportation regulations. It acts as a co-sponsor and has been pivotal in managing and guiding the project through its phases.

Cooperating and Participating Agencies
Several agencies have been identified as cooperating with the project, providing jurisdictional authority or special expertise:

National Park Service (NPS): With jurisdiction over Federal Park property in the project area, NPS's decisions are critical to the project's compliance with environmental policies and practices.

National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC): As the federal government's central planning agency for the National Capital Region, NCPC has significant influence over federal projects within the district, including land transfers and alterations to federal property.

United States Coast Guard (USCG): Responsible for permitting bridge projects over navigable waterways, the USCG's role is crucial for any modifications or constructions affecting the Potomac River.

United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE): With responsibility for impacts to rivers, streams, and wetlands, the USACE's permitting process is essential for the project's adherence to the Rivers and Harbors Act and the Clean Water Act.

Federal Transit Administration (FTA): Providing expertise on public transportation and potentially a source of funding, the FTA's involvement underscores the importance of integrating the Long Bridge Project with the broader transit system.

Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (DRPT): As the state agency overseeing rail and transit planning in Virginia, DRPT contributes funding and will be the project sponsor for the final design and construction phases.

Virginia Railway Express (VRE): As a commuter railroad agency operating on the existing bridge and a contributor to the project, VRE's involvement is key to ensuring that the project meets the needs of commuter rail services.

Early History and Evolution
The Long Bridge has served as a vital connection between Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D.C., across the Potomac River since the early 19th century. Originally constructed to facilitate foot, horse, and stagecoach traffic, it has undergone several reconstructions to accommodate the growing transportation needs of the region. Notably, during the Civil War, the bridge's strategic importance was underscored as it witnessed significant military movements and underwent modifications to support rail traffic, signaling the bridge's evolving role in the region's transportation infrastructure.

The 20th Century Developments
The current Long Bridge was constructed in 1904, becoming the only railroad crossing over the Potomac River between the District and Virginia. Owned and operated by CSX Transportation (CSXT), it serves freight, Virginia Railway Express （VRE）for weekday commuting; and Amtrak for intercity passengers. Throughout the 20th century, the bridge underwent further modifications to address the challenges posed by floods and to support the increasing rail and vehicular traffic. A notable period of transition was marked by the rivalry between the B&O Railroad and The Pennsylvania Railroad, with the latter eventually gaining control and making significant upgrades to the bridge to handle the burgeoning traffic flow. This era also saw the construction of new bridge structures to replace the outdated ones, reflecting the ongoing efforts to modernize the transportation network in response to the capital city's growing demands.

Addressing Contemporary Challenges
In 2013, there were 79 daily trains using the Long Bridge. The freight use is approximately 30 percent of that traffic or 23 trains, and the passenger and commuter rail make up approximately 70 percent or 56 trains. The current Long Bridge Project aims to dramatically increase rail capacity over the Potomac River by constructing a new, two-track railroad bridge adjacent to the existing structure, thereby creating a four-track corridor. This project, spearheaded by the Virginia Passenger Rail Authority, is a critical step towards alleviating the congestion that has plagued the existing two-track bridge, which is operating at nearly full capacity. The project not only focuses on expanding rail traffic capacity but also includes the construction of pedestrian bridges to enhance connectivity and accessibility, reflecting a comprehensive approach to transportation infrastructure development in the region.

Traffic And Community Impacts During Construction:
The Long Bridge Project, spearheaded by the Virginia Passenger Rail Authority (VPRA), presents a multifaceted policy challenge revolving around minimizing community disruptions while undertaking a crucial infrastructure endeavor. This endeavor aims to augment rail capacity and alleviate congestion between Arlington, Virginia, and Washington, D.C., ultimately enhancing regional connectivity and mobility. However, the construction process necessitates a delicate balancing act between project expediency and mitigating adverse impacts on the surrounding communities.

A paramount policy issue lies in addressing noise pollution emanating from construction activities. The project team has committed to adhering to local ordinances that restrict excessively loud operations to daylight hours. Nonetheless, certain circumstances may warrant the acquisition of waivers to conduct limited night work, underscoring the need for a pragmatic approach that weighs project progress against potential disturbances.

Another critical policy consideration involves minimizing disruptions to transportation networks and ensuring the seamless flow of vehicular, pedestrian, and cyclist traffic. The construction of bridges over major arteries, such as I-395, Maine Avenue SW, the George Washington Memorial Parkway, and the Mount Vernon Trail, will necessitate temporary lane shifts, shoulder closures, and occasional brief full roadway closures. These measures, while unavoidable, will be meticulously planned and executed during off-peak and overnight hours, coupled with extensive public notification to minimize inconvenience.

Last but not least, the project team must address potential impacts on maritime navigation along the Potomac River. While temporary channel closures or detours are unavoidable during construction, the project's policy approach prioritizes adherence to U.S. Coast Guard regulations and the implementation of mitigation strategies, such as utilizing flaggers or designating auxiliary channels. Maintaining open lines of communication with mariners through various channels, including weekly notices and media outlets, is crucial to ensuring their safety and minimizing disruptions, particularly during peak river traffic periods.

Underpinning these policy considerations is VPRA's commitment to proactive community engagement and transparent communication. The authority has devised a comprehensive outreach strategy, leveraging various platforms, including flyers, social media, email alerts, newsletters, news stories, and pop-up events, to keep stakeholders informed about project-related impacts and mitigation measures.

Environmental Considerations Regarding Tree Protection:
FRA and DDOT have exerted efforts to mitigate impacts on natural resources, particularly terrestrial vegetation, throughout the Project Development process. This has involved minimizing the Project's footprint as much as possible, considering existing infrastructure and constraints from landowners. One notable action taken was the removal of a culvert extension at Roaches Run, which was initially part of earlier draft plans. DRPT intends to persist in these efforts to minimize impacts on terrestrial vegetation as the Project progresses into subsequent phases, refining design, and construction details. Proposed measures for mitigation include:

Adjusting temporary access and staging areas during the final design phase to avoid disturbing trees and vegetation, ensuring that vehicles and materials are stored on vegetated surfaces only when necessary. Mandating the implementation of tree protection measures and measures to limit equipment access to adjacent forested areas through the use of protective fencing, overseen by a licensed arborist or other qualified professional approved by NPS. The arborist would also conduct necessary pruning to maximize tree survival during and after bridge construction, adhering to all NPS regulations, including timing restrictions.

Requiring equipment washing before entering NPS lands to minimize the spread or introduction of invasive species. Ensuring that all introduced organic material, such as soil, mulch, and seed, is certified weed-free to prevent the spread or introduction of invasive species. Installing fencing, mulch, and planking to minimize injury and compaction when vegetated surfaces are the only viable option for staging near the Project. Reestablishing terrestrial vegetation removed for both permanent and temporary construction activities where feasible and in coordination with any reforestation requirements. Restoring areas to their pre-construction condition and appearance after construction completion, either through reseeding or replanting woody vegetation using native species.

Key Lessons and Takeaways
1. Bridge construction needs to keep pace with the times to meet constantly changing transportation demands (pedestrians, horses, vehicles, railroads, streetcars).

2. Bridges have significant strategic value during wartime. During the Civil War, long bridges were used for military mobilization and became critical military strongholds.

3. Cooperation between the government and private enterprises is crucial for advancing large-scale infrastructure projects. The long bridge project involves federal, state, and local government agencies, as well as railway companies.

4. Mitigating the impact on communities during construction is a major policy consideration. Comprehensive mitigation measures need to be implemented, such as noise control, traffic maintenance, and protection of maritime activities, while enhancing communication with the public.

5. Environmental impact assessments and mitigation measures are indispensable. The project team has taken a series of measures to minimize impacts on vegetation and ecosystems, such as adjusting construction areas, protecting trees, and restoring vegetation.

6. Funding sources for infrastructure investment can be diversified. The project has received federal funding, as well as state government and private investments. Rational cost-sharing can accelerate project progress.

7. Large-scale projects require clear institutional arrangements and division of responsibilities. The project involves multiple federal, state, and local agencies, each with clear roles and responsibilities to ensure legal compliance.

Discussion Questions

 * 1) How can the Long Bridge Project effectively balance the need for infrastructure improvements while minimizing disruptions to local communities and the environment?
 * 2) How are the military and transportation values of a long bridge reflected in scenarios such as civil war, repelling invasions, defense against floods and ice flows, and alleviating pressure on modernized railways?
 * 3) How does the 80/20 cost-sharing mechanism in the Federal-State Partnership ensure adequate and reliable funding for long bridge projects, and do you think the massive federal funding is a positive or negative development?
 * 4) What challenges and opportunities does the Long Bridge Project present for the future of transportation infrastructure in the Washington, D.C., and Arlington, VA, areas?
 * 5) How is technological innovation being integrated into the design and construction of the Long Bridge to ensure its longevity and adaptability?
 * 6) What specific strategies or platforms could be employed to ensure inclusive and effective communication with diverse stakeholder groups, including residents, businesses, and commuters?


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Khunu Leima

Goddess Khunu Leima, also known as Khunureima, is the queen of all the pigeons and doves, living in the world. She is one of the noble princesses of the Heavenly Realm. She is one of the most favorite daughters of Sky Father Salailen. She has the freedom of roaming in the earthly realm according to her own wish. She once happened to fell in love with a mortal man, who was about to be killed by a selfish evil king. She intervened the situation and rescued her lover using her divine powers. Many legends say that she could call all the pigeons and doves of the entire world to a single spot at a single time. She shares many of her adventures with two of her sisters, Nganu Leima, the goddess of water birds, and Shapi Leima, the goddess of rodents.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Ngaleima

Goddess Ngaleima, also known as Ngareima, is a divine female personification of fish, the predominant form of aquatic life. She is one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She is one of the favorite daughters of the Sky Father Salailen. She was sent down to earth to prosper the earthly water bodies, with aquatic life, and to prosper the human civilization as well. Obeying the divine orders of her Supreme Father, she and her sisters descended from the heavenly realm to the earthly realm. On her way, she had numerous adventures. Finally, she lived in the water bodies of the earth, and gave rise to various types of aquatic life forms, predominately the fish. Ancient Meitei fishing people always offered prayers to her, to shower her blessings to them. Abundance and scarcity of fish haul was perceived as satisfaction (pleasure) and dissatisfaction (displeasure) of her respectively.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Maheigi Lairembi

Maheigi Lairembi is a Mother Goddess of books, education, enlightenment, knowledge, learning, letters, manuscripts, mastery, philosophy, poetry, prose, scholarship, science, skill, speech, wisdom, writing. She is also known as Eeyek Leima, Eyek Leima, Iyek Leima, Lairik Leima, Lailik Leima, Humpu Leima, Nareng Lei Shubi, Naleng Lei Shupi, Singjakhombi, Singchakhompi, Maheigee Lairembee, Maheigee Lairemma, etc. She is also depicted as Meiteilon Ima (alias Meeteilon Ema, Kangleilon Eemaa, Manipuri Ima, Meitei Ima, Meetei Ema, Kanglei Eemaa), which is the Divine Motherly Personification of Classical Meitei language & literature.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi

Goddess Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi, also known as Nura Naothem Heibi, is a divine enchantress, associated with death. Her main duty is to collect the souls of the deceased and to bring them to netherworld, the land of death, where God Thongalen ruled supreme. Sometimes, she faces challenges from some souls who are not willing to depart the earthly realm. In such case, she uses to disguise herself as either the mother or the closest and the most trusted person of the very person of that particular troublesome disobedient soul. In most cases, she succeeds in bringing the souls by hook or by crook to the underworld. She is depicted as a very intelligent and smart lady. She is one of the wives of God King Thongalen, the deity of death.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi

Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi, also known as Chingphulon Konthousu, was a deified lady of the ancient Haorok Konthou clan of Meitei ethnicity. She was born to mortal parents, often named as Lord Konthoujamba and Lady Konthoujambi. She married Celestial King Salailen, the Heavenly Father. Her marriage drew empathy of Salailen for the people of her clan. So, he granted immunity to death (immortality) and immunity to illness, to all the people of her clan. She gave birth to Prince Khoiriphaba (also known as Khoriphaba). Once she descended from the celestial realm to the earthly realm, to visit her parental house, with the permission from her divine husband, under the condition that she should not consume any earthly food or drink. She disobeyed the condition. So, she was permanently disallowed from entering the celestial realm by Salailen. The immunity to death and the immunity to illness for the people of her clan were also removed. Thus, she not only got departed from her beloved husband but also from her beloved infant son. She endured emotional pain, for a very long time, until her son grew up and came down from the sky by himself to meet her.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Irai Leima

Goddess Irai Leima, also known as Erai Leima, Eerai Leima, Ireima, Ereima, Eereima, is a divine female personification of water and the water bodies. She is one of the noble princesses of the Celestial Realm. She is one of the favorite daughters of King Salailen, the Sky Father. She was sent down to earth to prosper the earthly realm with water, to make life possible, and to prosper human civilization as well. Obeying the divine orders of her Supreme Father, she and her sisters descended from the heavenly realm to the earthly realm. On her way, she had lots of adventures. She gave rise to numerous water bodies, starting from water catchment areas (or watersheds), streams and brooks, rivers and their tributaries, then lakes and ponds, then seas and oceans. The identities of numerous ancient deified ladies got merged with her cult and pantheon in Meitei society.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Imoinu

Goddess Imoinu, also known as Emoinu, is a divine motherly personification of the sacred kitchen hearth fire (called "Phunga Lairu" in Classical Meitei language) of ancient Meitei households. She is also the goddess of wealth and prosperity. She is often depicted as either an old woman (grandmotherly figure) or a young or elderly but matured woman (motherly figure) sitting by an indoor fireplace warming herself. Chengphu, the traditional Meitei pot for storing rice, is a symbolic representation of goddess Imoinu. Senphu, a traditional Meitei idol shaped container for storing coins (or any money), is also an iconography of her. She is associated with cleanliness and hygiene. Ancient Meitei people believed that no matter how much one was devoted to her, if the person and his/her house's environment was not clean, goddess Imoinu never set her feet on that place. On the holy day of Imoinu Iratpa (also known as Emoinu Eratpa) ritualistic festival, Meitei people worship her with a greater pomp, than the daily worshipping ceremony. She is often offered different varieties of fish, rice and vegetables. She is often compared to ancient Greek goddess Hestia and ancient Roman goddess Vesta.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Leimalen

Goddess Leimalen, also known as Leimalel, Leimaren, Leimarel, is the supreme goddess or the divine empress of the entire universe. She is entitled as Sitapi (or Sidabi), meaning she is immortal. She, herself, is the mother earth for which she is called Malem Leima. She is the first and the foremost female ever created during the genesis. She is the wife of Emperor Salailen, the Heavenly Father. She is the mother of Sanamahi (symbolic son) and Pakhangba (biological son). She is symbolically represented in the form of an earthen pot ("Isaiphu" in Classical Meitei language). Inside Meitei households, she is generally worshipped in the form of Isaiphu. All the female beings are considered to be the different manifestations of Leimalen. All the living beings are considered to be her children. Almost most of the ancient Meitei goddesses are associated with her identity, cult and pantheon. Among them, Imoinu and Panthoibi are the most frequently mentioned in relation to her in ancient Meitei textual and oral traditions.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Helloi

A Helloi, also known as Heloi, is a divine female figure, who is attractive, beautiful, charming and seductive to wandering menfolk, frequently depicted as roaming in forests, grasslands, mountainsides, lonely places or sparsely human populated areas. According to classical Meitei tradition, there are seven helloi ladies who are considered to be the noble princesses of the celestial realm and the favorite daughters of Heavenly King Salailen, the Father Sky. Many legends often praise that the youngest of all the helloi sisters is the most beautiful, the most gentle, the most innocent, the most lovable, etc. There are numerous ancient Meitei folktales of the youngest helloi sister falling in love with a mortal man. These ancient Meitei mythological seven divine sisters are considered to be the paragon of beauties and the epitome of charms, giving fascination and inspiration to numerous cultures across South Asia and Southeast Asia in modern times.


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Meitei Culture/Mythology/Goddesses/Kounu

Goddess Kounu is the tutelary protectress of the northern directions. She is also the queen of the northern mountains of Kangleipak. She is believed to dwell in the snows of far north. She is the blesser of good rainfall to bring good agricultural harvest to prosper the human civilisation.

She is the wife of God Koupalu (also called Koubaru or Koubru). So, besides her native place Kounu Ching (meaning "Kounu mountain" in Classical Meitei language), she has her second home at Mount Koubru, the sacred abode of her husband. She is one of the most benevolent and compassionate divine motherly ladies. Kounu adopted goddess Thoudu Nungthel Leima (also, Nungthen Leima) as her own daughter, after finding her as a newborn baby girl lying on the stone slab in a riverbed. Kounu also adopted Loiyalakpa (also called Tollomkhomba or Tollongkhomba) as her own son. Kounu also adopted another lady as her own daughter, who was later known by the name Koubarol Namoinu ("Koupalol Namoinu" in Classical Meitei language).


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User talk:216.232.169.133

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User talk:175.176.77.152

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User talk:152.22.51.25

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User talk:206.176.111.115

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User talk:173.251.75.215

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User talk:41.121.127.32

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MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 01:38, 27 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:41.121.127.32


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A Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology/Introduction

This is a Resource Book of Local History techniques and terminology aimed at helping local history researchers who are studying historical documents which contain many archaic terms, local names for plants and animals, dialect words (Scots, English, Welsh, Cornish, American, etc.), unusual first names, specialist farming terms, legal terms, obscure or rarely used (archaic) words, etc. which are often absent from standard factual sources or are only defined briefly, in outline and often not in context.

The abecedary is designed to be used as a resource for all local history linked researches and as a steadily accumulating bank of information on each topic. Editors are invited to add new words, but to do more than just give definitions, e.g. cite examples, sites for, historical links, trivia, etc.


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A Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology/Bibliography

Bibliography & References

 * Aiton, William (1811). General View of the Agriculture of the County of Ayr. Pub. Glasgow. P.61.
 * Anderson, William & Hicks, Clive (1990). Green Man. The Archetype of our Oneness with the Earth. Compass Books. ISBN 0-9517038-1-1.
 * Buxbaum, Tim (1987). Scottish Doocots. Pub. Shire No.190. ISBN 0-85263-848-5
 * Evans, Tony & Green, Candida Lycett Green (1982). English Cottages. Pub. London.
 * Ferguson, Robert (2005). A Miller's Tale. The Life and Times of Dalgarven Mill. ISBN 0-9550935-0-3
 * Foster, A.M. (1988). Bee Boles and Bee Hives. Shire Publications. ISBN 0-85263-903-1
 * Gauldie, Enid (1981). The Scottish Miller 1700 - 1900. Pub. John Donald. ISBN 0-85976-067-7
 * Gillespie, James H. (1939). Dundonald. A Contribution to Parochial History. Glasgow : John Wylie & Co.
 * McKean, Charles (2001). The Scottish Chateau. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-2323-7
 * More, Daphne (1976). The Bee Book. David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-7268-8
 * Peters, J.E.C. (2003). Discovering Traditional Farm Buildings. Shire Books. ISBN 0-85263-556-7
 * Quiney, Anthony. (1995). The Traditional Buildings of England. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27661-7
 * Rodger, Donald, Stokes, John & Ogilve, James (2006). Heritage Trees of Scotland. The Tree Council. ISBN 0-904853-03-9
 * Service, John (Editor) (1887). The Life & Recollections of Doctor Duguid of Kilwinning. Pub. Young J. Pentland.


text: Category:Book:A Guide to Super Mario Bros. 2


text: Category:Book:A Guide to Discord

title: Category:Book:A Guide to Discord


text: Category:Book:An Introduction to Dragon

title: Category:Book:An Introduction to Dragon


text: Category:Book:A Guide to Sylheti Wikinews