text:
Cookbook:Green Tea and Berry Pavlovas

These individual pavlovas make for a beautiful and well-balanced dessert, with a nice contrast between flavors and textures. You get sweet crunchy meringue, rich whipped cream, tangy lemon curd and fruits, all rounded out with a faint bitterness from the matcha. While it has multiple components, none are particularly tricky to prepare, and many components can be made in advance.

Meringue

 * 4 ea. egg whites
 * 1 cup white granulated sugar
 * Tiny pinch of salt
 * 1 tbsp matcha powder, sifted

Lemon curd

 * 4 ea. egg yolks
 * ½ cup white granulated sugar
 * ½ cup fresh lemon juice, strained
 * Zest from juiced lemons
 * 4 tbsp unsalted butter

Berry compote

 * 1 lb frozen mixed berries (blueberries, blackberries, raspberries)
 * 1 tbsp cornstarch
 * 1 pinch ground cinnamon
 * Lemon juice
 * White granulated sugar

Whipped cream

 * 1 cup heavy cream, cold
 * ¼ tsp vanilla extract
 * 1–2 tbsp powdered sugar

Assembly

 * Fresh berries (e.g. blueberries, blackberries, raspberries)
 * Powdered sugar

Meringue

 * 1) Bring an inch or two of water to a simmer in a pot.
 * 2) Whisk together the egg whites, sugar, and salt in a clean heat-safe mixing bowl.
 * 3) Place the bowl of egg whites over the simmering water. The bottom of the bowl should not touch the water itself.
 * 4) Stir the mixture until all the sugar is dissolved. Rub a little bit between your fingers—it should be warm, and you shouldn't feel any grains. Make sure not to go too far and let the whites coagulate, since you don't want them to cook.
 * 5) Remove the bowl from the pot. Use a mixer to whip the egg whites to stiff peaks.
 * 6) Beat in the matcha for about 30 seconds. Then, use a rubber spatula to make sure everything is well-incorporated and even.
 * 7) Line a baking sheet with parchment paper. Use a piping bag or two spoons to make dollops of meringue on the parchment. The size is up to you—they should be single-serving.
 * 8) Use the back of a spoon to create a divot in each meringue. This will hold your fillings later. Don't just press down and pull away with the spoon—you need to rotate it and pull away at an angle in order to create the divot.
 * 9) Bake the meringues at 175°F (80°C) for 2–3 hours or until they are dry on the outside and easily pull off the parchment. Turn the oven off and let them sit for about 8 hours to fully dry.
 * 10) Store the meringues in an airtight container until use.

Lemon curd

 * 1) Combine the yolks and sugar in a heat-safe mixing bowl. Whisk in the lemon juice and zest.
 * 2) Like with the meringue, place the bowl over a pot of simmering water. Stir the mixture until all the sugar is dissolved and the mixture is hot and opaque yellow (several minutes). It should thicken very slightly but not significantly. Again, do not let it curdle.
 * 3) Remove the bowl from the simmering water. Add the butter, and whisk until fully emulsified.
 * 4) Strain the curd and let cool.
 * 5) Chill in the refrigerator—it will thicken somewhat.

Berry compote

 * 1) Toss together the frozen berries and cornstarch, then transfer them to a saucepan.
 * 2) Add the cinnamon and ⅛ cup sugar to start, then place the pot over medium heat.
 * 3) Cook the berries, stirring occasionally, until they start releasing their juice and breaking down.
 * 4) Mix in lemon juice and sugar to taste—it shouldn't be too sweet or sour, since you'll be pairing it with meringue and lemon curd.
 * 5) Let the mixture simmer for a minute or two, making sure it doesn't burn at the bottom.
 * 6) If desired, use a fork to mash any whole berries remaining.
 * 7) Cool completely and store in the fridge.

Whipped cream

 * 1) When ready to assemble the pavlovas, combine the cold cream, vanilla, and 1 tbsp powdered sugar in a mixing bowl.
 * 2) Whip until starting to thicken and foam. Taste and add more sugar as desired.
 * 3) Continue whipping to soft peaks—don't let it go grainy or curdle.
 * 4) Use as soon as possible.

Assembly

 * 1) Place a spoonful of lemon curd onto a plate, and use a spoon to decoratively streak it across the plate.
 * 2) Place one meringue decoratively on top of the lemon curd.
 * 3) Spoon some whipped cream into the divot, and top with a dab of compotes.
 * 4) Decoratively arrange berries on top, then use a sieve to dust with powdered sugar.
 * 5) Serve as soon as possible, as the meringue will soften under the cream.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If desired, you can omit the matcha powder.

title: Cookbook:Green Tea and Berry Pavlovas


text: Category:Pavlova recipes

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Pavlova recipes


text:
Talk:A-level Computing/WJEC (Eduqas)

Missing areas
Hi there, Could you potentially, complete the book as from what I have read so far it has been invaluable for me. Although this is a great ask there is such little resources surrounding this exam board and so it would be a great help for me and my classmates. All the best and I thank you for what you have published so far! 2A02:C7C:A603:B600:183B:3701:6A89:9D4A (discuss) 11:00, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:A-level Computing/WJEC (Eduqas)


text: User talk:Lionel Cristiano

title: User talk:Lionel Cristiano


text:
Talk:Internet Governance/Foreword

"Since its origins over 30 years ago"
The very first words of this forward make me wonder how dated this book is. Anyone else? Ottawahitech (discuss • contribs) 16:00, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Internet Governance/Foreword


text:
Talk:How Wikipedia Works/Chapter 11

Autoconfirm
According to the section:
 * "When you first register your account, you'll be able to create new articles, but you'll still have some restrictions: You won't be able to move pages or work on semiprotected articles. After a period of four days and ten edits, these restrictions are automatically lifted"

I am wondering how accurate this statement is. I had been "editing" the English Wikipedia since 2007 with many more than 10 edits, but I was not able to move pages until many years later, IIRC. I vaguely remember this because I had mentioned this in discussion and I remember some participants viewed my statement as implausible. Ottawahitech (discuss • contribs) 16:51, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:How Wikipedia Works/Chapter 11


text: Category:Disambiguation

title: Category:Disambiguation


text: Category:Maintenance and administration

title: Category:Maintenance and administration


text:
User talk:Catlanet

You cannot edit indefinitely due to disruptive editing. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

--Xania   talk 06:14, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Catlanet


text:
User talk:ජපස

Welcome!
Welcome, ජපස!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 06:40, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:ජපස


text:
User talk:Quangkhanhhuynh

Welcome!
Welcome, Quangkhanhhuynh!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 06:40, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Quangkhanhhuynh


text:
User talk:JohnSon12a

Welcome!
Welcome, JohnSon12a!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 06:42, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:JohnSon12a


text:
User talk:51.235.108.155

February 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 06:42, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:51.235.108.155


text:
User talk:47.157.159.108

February 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 07:28, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:47.157.159.108


text: Category:Template pages

title: Category:Template pages


text:
Cookbook:Potato, Courgette, and Cavelo Nero Pancakes

Ingredients

 * 1 courgette (zucchini)
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 3 medium potatoes
 * 4 fronds cavelo nero (lacinto kale)
 * 8 spring onions, finely sliced
 * 60 g dill, chopped
 * 2 eggs
 * ¾ cup all-purpose flour
 * ½ tsp pepper
 * Rapeseed / canola / vegetable oil

Procedure

 * 1) In a food processor, coarsely grate the courgette. Alternatively, use the coarse grating side of a cheese grater.
 * 2) Sprinkle the courgette with the salt and let sit in a bowl for about 15 minutes. Then squeeze through a fine mesh or cheesecloth to remove moisture.
 * 3) Finely grate the potatoes with the fine grating side of a cheese grater. Alternatively, first coarsely shred the potato in the food processor, then use the knife blade sparingly to make it slightly chopped. Remove moisture with a cheesecloth or fine mesh.
 * 4) Remove the stem, then finely slice the cavelo nero.
 * 5) Combine the grated courgette, grated potato, sliced cavelo nero, sliced spring onions, and chopped dill in a bowl. Add the eggs, flour, and pepper. Mix with a mixing spoon.
 * 6) Heat a pan on medium heat and add a few tablespoons of oil. Place a spoonful of batter in the pan, and flatten with a spatula. You should be aiming for no more than 4 inches in diameter, as larger ones will lack integrity. Cook for 3–4 minutes, then flip with the spatula, and cook for another 3–4 minutes. Add more oil to the pan as needed.
 * 7) Place a paper towel or two on a plate, then place the fritter pancakes on the paper towel to let the oil drain off.
 * 8) Serve with sour cream, applesauce, or ketchup.


text:
User:Omair795

Omair ahmad qadri is a columnist since from 2006

title: User:Omair795


text: Talk:Wikipedia Equality

title: Talk:Wikipedia Equality


text: Cookbook talk:Cuisine of Argentina

title: Cookbook talk:Cuisine of Argentina


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Cebuano

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Cebuano and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Cebuano alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 28.9 million native speakers of Cebuano as of 2020.

Where is this language spoken?
Cebuano is spoken in the Philippines by the Visayan ethnolinguistic groups native to the islands of Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, the eastern half of Negros, the western half of Leyte, and the northern coastal areas of Northern Mindanao and the Zamboanga Peninsula. In modern times, it has also spread to the Davao Region, Cotabato, Camiguin, parts of the Dinagat Islands, and the lowland regions of Caraga, often displacing native languages in those areas (most of which are closely related to the language)

What is the history of this language?
Cebuano is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Cebuano. Cebuano therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Potenciano Aliño (c. 1864 – 1909) was a Cebuano Visayan writer. He is credited for having first translated Jose Rizal's Mi Ultimo Adios (Kataposan nga Panamilit). He was born in 1864. He died in 1909 at the age of 44.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Ako si Takuri is a children song in Cebuano language. This song is simple and has many rhymes.

The translation of that song is

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Cebuano


text: Category:Caviar recipes

title: Category:Caviar recipes


text:
User talk:Mvolz

Welcome!
Welcome, Mvolz!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 05:56, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mvolz


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Ilocano

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Ilocano and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Ilocano alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 6,370,000 as of 2005. There are 2 million L2 speakers as of 2000. It is the third most spoken native language in the Philippines.

Where is this language spoken?
Ilocano is an Austronesian language spoken in the Philippines, primarily by Ilocano people and as a lingua franca by the Igorot people and also by the native settlers of Cagayan Valley. It is the third most-spoken native language in the country.

What is the history of this language?
Ilocano is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Ilocano. Ilocano therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Roy V. Aragon also known as Roy Vadil Aragon is a Filipino writer writing in the Ilokano and Filipino languages. He is a fictionist and poet, and also works as a translator, an editor, a book designer. Among his awards and prizes are three third-place prizes and one second-place prize in the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature's short story contest in the Ilokano and Filipino divisions, received in 1999, 2001, 2014, and 2016, respectively.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Adda ti Lobok is a children song in Ilocano language. This song is simple and has many rhymes.

The translation of that song is

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Ilocano


text:
Electricity and magnetism

This short treatise explains to beginners the fundamental laws of electromagnetism: Coulomb's law and Maxwell's equations. The only prerequisite is to know a little differential and integral calculus. If you already know that $$\int_0^y x$$ $$dx = \frac{1}{2}y^2$$, you have a sufficient mathematical level to understand all the calculations of this book, including the proof that /E = m c²/.

/Electrostatics/

/Electrodynamics/

/Magnetism/

/Maxwell's equations/

/Light/

/E = m c²/

Thanks
Thanks to everyone who made and donated the images and animations for this book, and especially to MikeRun.

title: Electricity and magnetism


text:
Electricity and magnetism/E = m c²

Light exerts pressure on the surfaces that reflect or absorb it. We can calculate this radiation pressure with Maxwell's equations (1865) because it is a magnetic force exerted by the incident wave on the electric charges that it sets in motion. Lebedev observed and measured this light pressure, in 1900.

The pressure exerted by the light shows that it has mass. We can calculate the mass of light using Maxwell's equations. We find $$ m = \frac{E}{c^2}$$ where $$E$$ is its energy.

It is often believed that $$E = mc^2$$ is a law of the theory of relativity, but this is false. This chapter gives a proof of $$E = mc^2$$ for light from Maxwell's and Newton's equations.

The theory of relativity (1905) shows that all energy has mass, even the kinetic energy of moving masses, not just light. The mass of kinetic energy is not taken into account in Newton's equations.

The mass of light
Light has mass.

Proof: let us consider two photons of the same energy which bounce horizontally between two mirrors in a stationary box. With each bounce, a photon exerts pressure on the mirror. This is the radiation pressure, which can be calculated from Maxwell's equations. If we set the box in motion by exerting a force $$F$$, the acceleration of the box is $$a = \frac {F}{m}$$, according to Newtonian physics. The speed of the box modifies the pressure that the photons exert on its walls. If the speed of the box is from left to right, a photon which goes from right to left exerts a greater pressure towards the left than the pressure exerted towards the right by a photon of the same energy which goes towards the right. When the box is accelerated, it loses part of its momentum which it gives to the photons which bounce off its walls. It is thus slowed down, transiently, by the photons it contains. A box full of photons is therefore less accelerated than the same empty box subjected to the same force. So a box full of photons has a greater mass than the same empty box. So photons have mass.

If we filled a box with 1 kg of photons, we would give it an energy approximately equal to that released by a nuclear bomb. When a nuclear bomb explodes a significant part of its initial mass is transformed into light, particularly X-rays.

The speed $$c$$ of light is almost equal to $$300$$ $$000$$ $$km/s = 3.10^8$$ $$ m/s$$. So $$c^2 = (3.10^8)^2 m^2/s^2 $$ is almost equal to $$10^{17} m^2/s^2$$. $$10$$ $$MJ = 10^7$$ $$J$$ is approximately the energy provided by daily bread. This is a physicist's order of magnitude, not the recommendation of a nutritionist doctor. For a physicist, one is almost equal to two, not for a doctor. The energy released by a nuclear bomb, approximately $$1$$ $$kg.10^{17} m^2/s^2 = 10^{17}J$$ is therefore roughly equal to the energy consumed in their food by all human beings during a day. This calculation is made for uranium bombs. Hydrogen bombs are much more powerful.

Photons are sometimes said to have zero mass, but this is false, because their energy is mass. We also say that their rest mass is zero, but this is also false, because there is no frame of reference where they are at rest, so their rest mass is not defined. In the equation $$E^2 = m_0^2c^4 + p^2 c^2$$, $$m_0=0$$ for photons because E=pc< /math> but $$m_0$$ has no physical meaning.

There is no particle of zero mass, neither at rest nor in motion. Everything that exists in the Universe always has mass. So-called zero-mass particles like photons are not massless particles, but restless particles. There is never an observer for whom they are still.

The Higgs boson is sometimes said to give their mass to particles which without it would be massless. But it's wrong. It gives rest to particles which without it would never find rest.

Rest mass
The masses of all particles, whether without rest or with rest, always depend on the frame of reference where they are measured. But particles with rest have privileged frames of reference, those where they are at rest. In these frames of reference, they always have the same rest mass $$m_0$$. It is a constant specific to the particle, which is conserved throughout its existence. It is the same for all observers, provided that they measure it with the formula

$$m= \gamma m_0$$

where $$m$$ is the measured mass, $$\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}$$, $$v$$ is the speed of the particle and $$c$$ that of light. $$\frac{1}{\gamma}$$ is the coefficient of contraction of lengths in the direction of their movement.

Restless particles have no rest mass because they have no frame of reference where they are at rest.

Everything that exists has momentum
Everything that exists physically always has momentum.

Proof: what exists physically always acts on other beings which exist physically. A being that never acted on other physical beings would never have any effect and could never be observed. It would have no physical existence. When a being acts on another, it modifies its movement, therefore its momentum $$\mathbf{p}=m\mathbf{v}$$ for a body of mass $$m$$ and speed $$\mathbf{v}$$. But the total momentum is always conserved. If one body increases the momentum of another, it loses momentum. If one body decreases the momentum of another, it gains momentum. Therefore a body without momentum cannot act on another and cannot exist physically.

The momentum of a photon and any restless particle can be calculated with the formula $$\mathbf{p}=m\mathbf{v}$$ as for all other particles:

$$\mathbf{p}=m\mathbf{c}$$

where $$m$$ is the mass of the particle and $$\mathbf{c}$$ its velocity vector. The magnitude $$c$$ of the velocity vector $$\mathbf{c}$$ is the same for all restless particles, in all frames of reference. It's the speed of light.

Since everything that exists has momentum, everything that exists has mass.

E = pc
If we accept the fundamental equations of the photon, among the first in quantum physics, given by Einstein (1905):

$$E = h \nu $$

$$p = \frac{h}{\lambda}$$

where $$h$$ is Planck's constant,

we immediately obtain

$$E = pc$$

because

$$c = \lambda \nu$$

where $$\lambda$$ is the wavelength of the photon and $$\nu$$ its frequency.

We can also prove $$E = pc$$ directly from Maxwell's equations, without going through quantum physics, by calculating the energy and momentum of the electromagnetic field. This calculation is given at the end of this chapter using the Poynting vector of an electromagnetic wave.

Einstein would not have stated his fundamental equations if he had not first understood Maxwell.

E = mc²
If we admit that the momentum of a photon is $$p=mc$$ where $$m$$ is its mass, we immediately obtain from E = pc that

$$E= mc^2$$

is the energy of a photon of mass $$m$$.

Calculating the mass of a photon trapped in a box shows that indeed

$$m = \frac{p}{c}$$

is the mass of a photon of momentum $$p$$.

The Doppler effect
To understand the calculation of the mass of light, one needs to know the Doppler effect.

We can tell if the police are approaching or moving away by listening to their siren. It is more acute when they approach than when they move away. This is the Doppler effect for sound waves.

Consider a machine gun that fires $$f$$ bullets per second projected at speed $$V$$. $$f$$ is the firing frequency. Consider a paper target that moves at speed $$v$$ relative to the machine gun. The frequency $$f'$$ of bullet impacts on the target is not the same as the firing frequency $$f$$, because the bullets take less and less time to reach their target, if $$v$$ is aimed towards the machine gun, and increasingly longer, if $$v$$ is aimed in the opposite direction. This is the Doppler effect for a machine gun.

$$f' = f(1 - \frac{v}{V})$$

Proof: during a duration $$T$$, the target travels a distance $$|v|T$$, where $$|v|$$ is the absolute value of $$ v$$. The balls are spaced a distance $$L = \frac{|V|}{f}$$. So there is $$\frac{|v|T}{L} = |\frac{v}{V}| f T$$ balls on the distance $$|v|T$$. For the $$T$$ duration, the machine gun fired $$fT$$ bullets. If the target is aimed at the balls, $$\frac{v}{V}<0$$, and it encounters $$fT + |\frac{v}{V}| f T = f(1-\frac{v}{V})T = f'T$$ balls. If the target moves away from the bullets, $$\frac{v}{V}>0$$, and it encounters $$fT - |\frac{v}{V}| f T = f(1-\frac{v}{V})T = f'T$$ balls.

$$f' = f(1 - \frac{v}{V})$$ is the formula for the non-relativistic Doppler effect. Its proof presupposes the velocity addition theorem of Newtonian physics. A relativistic calculation is more exact, but gives almost the same result, even if $$V = c$$, provided that $$v$$ is much smaller than $$c$$.

If the frequency of light decreases, its color shifts toward red. If the frequency increases, the color is shifted towards blue. The Doppler effect for light changes its color:

The farther away the galaxies are from us, the more their light is redshifted, so the faster they move away from us. Hubble's observation of this red shift is therefore proof of the expansion of the Universe.

Radiation pressure
Light exerts pressure on the surfaces which absorb or reflect it. It's easy to understand if we take its mass into account, because it behaves like a ball that we catch, if it is absorbed, or which bounces, if it is reflected.

Consider a ball of mass $$m$$ and speed $$v$$ which bounces on a wall which remains stationary. We assume that the speed is perpendicular to the wall. If the ball is perfectly bouncy, its speed after the bounce is exactly equal and opposite to its speed before the bounce. The variation of its momentum is

$$p_1 - p_2 = mv_1 - mv_2 = mv + mv = 2mv$$

The variation of momentum $$dp$$ for a time $$dt$$ is $$Fdt$$ where $$F$$ is the force exerted on the ball:

$$F = \frac{dp}{dt}$$

So

$$p_2 - p_1 = \int dp = \int Fdt$$

The force $$F$$ exerted by the wall on the particle is the opposite of the force $$-F$$ exerted by the particle on the wall. So

$$p_1 - p_2 = 2mv = \int -Fdt$$

is the integral of the force exerted by the ball on the wall. This integral is proportional to the integral of the pressure exerted by the ball on the wall. The pressure exerted by the ball on the wall is therefore proportional to the product of its mass and its speed.

The effect of the pressure exerted by the ball depends only on its momentum. If we vary its mass and its speed without varying their product, the integral of the pressure is the same. A photon of momentum $$p$$ has the same effect as a ball of speed $$v$$ and mass m = \frac{p}{v}. This suggests giving photons a mass $$m = \frac{p}{c}$$ such that

$$p = mc$$

If we move towards a ball, we experience greater pressure from it when we receive it, or when it bounces, than if we are standing still. Likewise, the pressure exerted by light on a surface depends on the speed of the surface receiving this pressure.

The radiation pressure on a mirror depends on the speed of the mirror in the same way as the pressure exerted by a bouncing mass on a moving wall.

Proof :

Let R be a reference frame where the wall is stationary and R' a reference frame which goes at speed $$-V$$ with respect to R. In R', the speed of the wall is V and that of the ball is $$u = v + V$$ before the bounce and at the speed $$ -v +V$$ after the bounce.

Its momentum variation is therefore always

$$p1 - p2 = m(v-V - (-v -V) = 2mv = 2m(u-V) $$

For the same speed $$u$$ of the bouncing ball, the pressure exerted on the wall increases as $$u - V = u(1-\frac{V}{u})$$.

The pressure exerted by a photon depends on its momentum $$p$$ in the same way as a bouncing ball. According to the fundamental equations of the photon

$$ p = \frac{h}{\lambda} = \frac{h \nu}{c}$$

According to the Doppler effect formula, if $$\nu_0$$ is the frequency of a photon, $$\nu_0 (1-\frac{V}{c})$$ is its frequency in a frame of reference of a mirror which encounters it at speed $$V$$

$$p = \frac{h \nu_0 (1-\frac{V}{c})} {c}$$

If the momentum of the photon is fixed at $$p = \frac{h \nu_0}{c}$$ the pressure it exerts on a wall which meets it at the speed $$V varies as in the same way that the pressure exerted by a bouncing ball of speed u varies as.

This proof is given with the equations of Newtonian physics and the formula for the non-relativistic Doppler effect. The relativistic calculation is more exact and leads to the same theorem.

Calculation of the mass of a photon trapped in a box
An horizontal force F is exerted from left to right, for a short duration \Delta, on a box initially at rest, which contains two photons, initially of the same energy E$$, which bounce horizontally on its walls.

We assume that the force is exerted at the instant $$t=0$$ where the two photons cross in the middle of the box, far from the walls, and that the duration $$\Delta t$$ is short enough that the photons do not have time to reach the mirrors during $$\Delta t$$. While it is exerted, the force $$F$$ therefore sets the box in motion as if it were empty, since the photons are far from the walls.

Let $$m$$ be the mass of the empty box. Its speed just after the application of the force $$F$$ is

$$v(\Delta t) = \int_0^{\Delta t} dv = \int_0^{\Delta t} a dt = \int_0^{\Delta t} \frac{F}{m} dt$$

where $$a = \frac{dv}{dt}$$ is the acceleration of the box.

When the photons bounce off the mirrors, they slow down the box, because the Doppler effect works in opposite directions for each of them. The photon going from right to left exerts greater pressure than the photon going from left to right.

The laws of conservation of energy and momentum make it possible to calculate the speed of the box $$v(\infty)$$ when it is no longer slowed down by the photons it contains.

Let $$E_b(t)$$ be the kinetic energy of the empty box, and $$p_b(t)$$ its momentum. Let $$E_l(t)$$ be the total energy of the two photons, and $$p_l(t)$$ their total momentum.

$$E_b(0) = 0$$, $$p_b(0) = 0$$

$$E_l(0) = 2 E$$, $$p_l(0) = 0$$

$$E_b(\Delta t) = \frac{1}{2}m v^2(\Delta t)$$, $$p_b(\Delta t) = mv(\Delta t)$$

$$E_l(\Delta t) = 2 E$$, $$p_l(\Delta t) = 0$$

Energy conservation requires

$$E_b(\infty) + E_l(\infty) = E_b(\Delta t) + E_l(\Delta t) = \frac{1}{2}m v^2(\Delta t) + 2E$$

The conservation of momentum imposes

$$p_b(\infty) + p_l(\infty) = p_b(\Delta t) + p_l(\Delta t) = mv(\Delta t)$$

Let $$p'_0$$ be the momentum of a photon in the box in a frame of reference R' where it is at rest when braking is completed. The momentum of this photon in the reference frame R where the box is moving is

$$p_0 = p'_0(1 + \frac{v(\infty)}{c})$$ or $$p_0 = -p'_0(1 - \frac{v(\infty)} {c})$$

depending on whether the photon goes from right to left or from left to right.

So

$$p_l(\infty) = 2p'_0 \frac{v(\infty)}{c}$$

$$p_b(\infty) = mv(\infty)$$

So

$$mv(\infty) + 2p'_0 \frac{v(\infty)}{c} = mv(\Delta t)$$

Let $$m'$$ be the mass of the box with its two photons.

$$v(\infty) = \int_0^{\Delta t} \frac{F}{m'} dt = \frac{m}{m'} \int_0^{\Delta t} \frac{F}{m} dt = \frac{m}{m'} v(\Delta t)$$

$$m'-m$$ is the mass of the two photons in the box.

$$m' - m = m(\frac{v(\Delta t)}{v(\infty)} - 1) = \frac{mv(\Delta t)-mv(\infty)}{v(\infty)} = 2\frac{p'_0}{c}$$

$$E =pc$$ therefore

$$m'-m = \frac{2E'}{c^2}$$

where $$E'$$ is the energy of a photon in R', after braking the box.

If $$v(\infty)$$ tends to zero, $$E'$$ tends to $$E$$. The mass $$m_p$$ of a photon is therefore

$$m_p = \frac{E}{c^2}$$

where $$E$$ is its energy.

When $$v(\infty)$$ is not infinitesimal, this non-relativistic calculation gives a false and absurd result: the initial mass of the photons depends on the force applied to the box. But this calculation ignores the mass of the kinetic energy of the box. This is why we must take the limit where this kinetic energy tends towards zero, to obtain the correct result.

The momentum of the electromagnetic field
When an electromagnetic field exerts the Lorentz force on a charge, it varies its momentum. The conservation of the total momentum requires that the momentum of the field varies at the same time and in the opposite direction as the momentum of the particle. We can thus calculate, from Maxwell's equations, that the momentum density of the field is obtained from the Poynting vector:

$$\mathbf{S} = \frac{1}{\mu_0} \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}$$

$$\mathbf{E}$$ is the electric field, $$\mathbf{B}$$ the magnetic field and $$\mu_0$$ a constant which depends on the choice of units. $$\mu_0 = \frac{1}{\epsilon_0 c^2}$$

The momentum density $$\frac{\mathbf{p}}{v}$$ of an electromagnetic field $$\mathbf{E}$$, $$\mathbf{B} $$ is

$$\frac{\mathbf{p}}{v} = \frac{1}{c^2} \mathbf{S} = \epsilon_0 \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}$$ For an electromagnetic wave, $$B = \frac{E}{c}$$ and $$\mathbf{B}$$ is perpendicular to $$\mathbf{E}$$, so

$$\frac{\mathbf{p}}{v} = \frac{1}{c} \epsilon_0 E^2$$

From Maxwell's equations, Lorentz equation and the conservation of energy, one can calculate that the energy density of the electromagnetic field is

$$u = \frac{1}{2}(\epsilon_0 \mathbf{E}^2 + \frac{1}{\mu_0}\mathbf{B}^2)$$

For an electromagnetic wave:

$$u = \frac{1}{2}(\epsilon_0 + \frac{1}{\mu_0c^2}) E^2 = \epsilon_0 E^2$$

so

$$u = \frac{pc}{v}$$

where $$p$$ is the magnitude of the momentum $$\mathbf{p}$$ of the field in the volume $$v$$.

If now $$E$$ is the field energy in the same volume:

$$E = vu = pc$$

The intensity of the electric field radiated by a dipole is represented by color. The arrows represent the Poynting vector.

title: Electricity and magnetism/E = m c²


text:
Sin Chao, Jonathan!

Sin Chao, Jonathan! is a story that teaches the Masa Tang language via the "direct" or "natural" method, introducing new vocabulary and grammar over the course of the story. It is a translation of Salute, Jonathan!, a course by Mithridates that teaches Interlingue (Occidental).

Masa Tang is a language created by Michael Wirth, who also created Ekumenski. Masa Tang draws inspiration from the languages of Southeast Asia while also incorporating vocabulary from languages around the world.

Perek wan (Perek 1)
Man jeng nai chyang. Man sha buk yom. Man sem chyang.

Man jeng nai chyang ba? Yep, i jeng nai chyang.

Man jeng nai…man ba? Mai, i mai jeng nai man. I jeng nai chyang.

Man jeng nai treng ba? Mai, i mai jeng nai treng. I jeng nai chyang. Man jeng nai chyang.

Man sha buk yom ba? Yep, i sha buk yom.

Buk yom sha man ba? Mai, buk yom mai sha man. Buk yom mai sha. Man sha. Man sha buk yom.

Chyang sem man ba? Mai, chyang mai sem man. Chyang mai sem. Man sem. Man sem chyang ba? Yep, man sem chyang.

Man jeng wea? I jeng nai chyang. Man sha wot? I sha buk yom. Man sem wot? I sem chyang. I jeng nai chyang, en i sha buk yom, en i sem chyang.

Man jeng nai buk yom ba? Mai, i sha nai buk yom. Man sem man ba? Mai, i mai sem man; i sem chyang.

Man sang tom. Man sang bong, en man teng kop swang. I ting. I ting re chyang. I ting: “Chyang sang wot? Chyang sang bong ba? Chyang sang tom ba?”

Man sha chyang ba? Mai, i mai sha chyang; chyang sang tom. I sha buk yom; buk yom mai sang tom.

Buk yom ting re man ba? Mai, buk yom mai ting. Man ting. I ting re buk yom, en ting re chyang.

En i sha nai buk yom. I sha re chyang. I sha: “Chyang sang bong, en chyang sang tom.”

I ting: “Chyang sang bong”; i ting et chyang sang bong. I ting: “Chyang sang tom”; i ting et chyang sang tom. I ting re chyang, en i ting re buk yom.

Buk yom sang wot? Buk yom sang wea man sha; i sha nai buk yom. Nai buk yom, man sha re chyang. Nai buk yom, man mai sha re treng; man jeng nai chyang, mai nai treng. I mai ting re treng; i ting re chyang, chyang Myunik.

Chyang sang wot? I sang Myunik. Myunik sang wea? I sang wea man jeng. Man sang wea? I sang nai Myunik.

Yep, Myunik sang chyang tom, en chyang bong. Man ting et Myunik sang chyang bong, en i ting et i sang chyang tom. Man teng kop swang. I sei: “Hai, Myunik!” I sang man bong!

Man jeng en ting: “Treng sang wea?” I sem…i sem treng! I ting: “Treng!” Nau i mai ting re buk yom en mai ting re chyang; i ting re treng!

Perek dwa (Perek 2)
Nau man sang nai treng. I mai sang nai Myunik; i sang nai treng. I fai byajeng. I ting: “Nau mi fai byajeng de Myunik na Byena. I sang byajeng bong. Mi mak byajeng.”

I ting re Myunik. I ting: “Nau mi sang nai treng, men onteng mi ya sang nai Myunik. En nau mi sha buk yom nai treng, men onteng mi ya sha buk yom nai Myunik. En nau mi ting nai treng, men onteng mi ya ting nai Myunik. Onteng mi ya ting re Myunik nai Myunik, en nau mi ting re Byena nai treng. Nau mi sang nai treng, mai nai Byena. Men mi ting en sha re Byena.”

Nau man ting nai Myunik ba? Mai, i mai ting nai Myunik. I ting nai treng. Onteng i ya ting nai Myunik. I sei: “Hai, treng!”

Man sang nai treng, en i fai byajeng na chyang. Chyang mai sang Myunik; Myunik sang chyang onteng. Chyang sang Byena; Byena sang chyang kyo.

Man ting re Myunik en Byena. I ting: “Myunik ya sang chyang onteng, en Myunik ya sang bong. Nau i sang kyo, en mi sang nai treng; treng sang bong. Byena lo sang bong ba?”

Man ting re Myunik: Myunik ya sang chyang onteng. I ting nai treng: kyo i sang nai treng. En i ting re Byena: Byena lo sang chyang dilap.

En i ting: “Myunik ya sang tom. Treng sang tom. Byena lo sang tom?”

En i ting: “Nai Myunik mi ya sha nai buk yom. Nai treng mi sha nai buk yom. Nai Byena mi lo sha in buk yom ba? Yep, dilap nai Byena mi lo sha nai buk yom. Mi mak buk yom.” Man ting mya (i ting mya = i ting en ting en ting), en i sha mya. Yep, i sang man kung kop swang. Man kung kop swang sha mya, en ting mya. I sang Jonathan; Jonathan sang man kung kop swang.

I sha: “Mi sang Jonathan. Mi sang nai treng. Onteng mi ya jeng nai Myunik; dilap mi lo jeng nai Byena.”

I ting, en sha: “Treng…i sang bong, men hen. I mai sang nyu; i sang hen. Nai Myunik ma treng sang hen? Yep, ma treng nang Myunik sang hen. Men ma treng nang Myunik sang bong, en mi mak ma treng nang Myunik. Onteng mi ya mak treng nai Myunik, en kyo mi mak treng nau, en dilap mi lo mak treng nai Byena. Mi mak treng!”

Jonathan sha: “Myunik sang chyang bong en chyang hen, en Byena sang chyang bong en chyang hen. Myunik en Byena mai sang nyu, men sang bong. Myunik en Byena sang ma chyang hen, men bong. Ma chyang mai sang nyu, men bong. Mi mak chyang!”

Jonathan ting, et yom dwa nang byajeng sang bong. I sei: “Kyo ya sang yom dwa bong nang byajeng. Mi mak byajeng!”

Perek sam (Perek 3)
Jonathan jeng nai Byena: chyang Byena. Jonathan ting et Byena sang bong, en et Byena sang moi. Jonathan mai ting et Byena sang lelik; i ting et Byena sang moi. I sei: “Byena sang chyang moi! Mi lo sha re i!” En i sha nai buk yom re Byena. Nai buk yom i sha: “Yom sam mi sang chok bong! Nai yom dwa mi ya jeng nai Myunik. Men nau mi jeng nai Byena: Byena mai sang Myunik. Myunik en Byena sang dwa chyang; Myunik mai sang Byena en Byena mai sang Myunik. Mi jeng nai Byena en chyang sang chok mai. Mi mak Byena; chyang mai sang lelik. Byena sang chok mai! Men mi teng mungdoi.”

Wot? Jonathan teng mungdoi? Wot mungdoi? Nau i mai sem buk yom; i sem chyang en ting. I ting mya re mungdoi.

Mungdoi nang Jonathan sang et i mak Byena, men i mai teng tem.

I ting: “Hm. Nau ji sang pyet (7). Nai ji syet treng sai. Ji ten (10) mweng ji syet (7) sang sam (3) ji. Sam ji mai sang tem mya fo chyang moi! Mi mai teng tem. Teng tem sang bong, men mi mai teng i! Sha buk yom sang bong, men mi mai teng tem fo sha i! Wot fai nai Byena?”

I ting: “Mi mai teng tem mya. Wot fai - sha buk yom, o nyam, o sem chyang? Mi lo fai wot?”

I ting pyu, en sei: “Mi teng pik ting bong! Wan sunggan…mi ting. Treng mi sai nai ji ten (10). Teng treng pyu sen, nai ji ten wan (11), o ji ten dwa (12), ten sam (13), ten kwat (14) o ten pyet (15) ba?”

I sem…yep! Teng treng yang sai nai ji ten pyet. Nau Jonathan sang bong jai.

Jonathan sei: “Ten pyet (15) mweng syet (7) sang ot (8). Nau mi teng tem ot ji! Mi lo fai wot?”

I sei: “Mi sa! Mi lo nyam bitek. En mi lo dop olut. Wan sunggan…mai, mi lo dop dwa olut, o sam olut. Pik ting bong!”

Nau Jonathan dop olut nai Byena, en nyam bitek. I sang bong jai. I sei: “Mi sang bong jai taung mya! Mi mak chyang Byena. Mi mak taung mya byajeng!”

title: Sin Chao, Jonathan!


text:
User talk:2000Lobotomys

No..
2000 lobotomy’s… 2000Lobotomys (discuss • contribs) 17:46, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:2000Lobotomys


text:
User:LotobomyMaster4

No!

title: User:LotobomyMaster4


text:
User talk:LotobomyMaster4

Nope…

title: User talk:LotobomyMaster4


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Kapampangan

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Kapampangan and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet. However, Kapampangan phonology lacks the sound of the letter H as in hat.

The Kapampangan alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
As of 2008, there are 2.8 million native speakers of Kapampangan language.

Where is this language spoken?
Kapampangan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary and predominant language of the entire province of Pampanga and southern Tarlac, on the southern part of Luzon's central plains geographic region, where the Kapampangan ethnic group resides. Kapampangan is also spoken in northeastern Bataan, as well as in the provinces of Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, and Zambales that border Pampanga. It is further spoken as a second language by a few Aeta groups in the southern part of Central Luzon.

What is the history of this language?
Kapampangan is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Kapampangan. Kapampangan therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Juan Crisóstomo Caballa Soto was a poet, dramatist, journalist and newspaperman. He was also known as Crissot, the “Father of Pampango Literature.” Soto was born in Santa Inés, Bacolor, Pampanga to Santiago Soto and Marciana Caballa.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Atin Ku Pung Singsing is a Kapampangan folk song. This song is simple and has many rhymes.

And here's the English translation of it.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Kapampangan


text:
National Etiquette Differences in Europe/Introduction

Etiquette in Europe is not uniform. Even the regions of Europe do not have common manners. For example, a Dane will prefer direct speech while a Finn will tend to prevaricate. Even within a single country there may be different customs, especially when there are different linguistic groups, as in Switzerland where there are French, German and Italian speakers.

Age and social context may determine the level and details of the customs which are followed. The age issue is clearly observable in countries that have passed through some historical event, a war, revolution of a change in political systems, like previous satellites of the ex-USSR where there is a huge generational divide between those who grew up in the 'Communist era' and those who did not, the same is also valid to those under Fascist regimes, these deep social changes have an impact in what is deemed appropriate behavior in a society.

European etiquette globally
Many customs regarding good behavior have been exported to places with cultural traditions based in Europe, including America, Oceania, South Africa and so on. Therefore, much of this article is limited to the discussion of etiquette which is peculiar to only a particular part of Europe.

Generalizations
While Europe contains a wide variety of social traditions, it is also (excluding Russia) relatively compact, well-traveled and urbanized compared to many other continents or cultural areas. As such many expectations regarding etiquette are shared across Europe.

Avoid stereotypes and generalizations, because you are likely to cause offense to the country you are visiting and shows your country in a negative way.

Generalizations are never good, e.g. all British people drink tea with biscuits at least once a day etc. Just as not all Americans chew "spitting' tobacco" and wear cowboy hats there are cultural variations and you should never make an assumption asking is the safest thing to do.

Consideration
Etiquette begins with some sensitivity to the perceptions and feelings of others and the intention not to offend. Failing to thank and compliment a host, using a mobile phone in a theater, taking the last bit of a dish without offering it to others and many other examples of bad manners fall into this category.


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Pangasinan

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Pangasinan and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Pangasinan alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
Pangasinan has 1.8 million native speakers as of 2010. It is the 8th most spoken language in the Philippines.

Where is this language spoken?
Pangasinan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary and predominant language of the entire province of Pangasinan and northern Tarlac, on the northern part of Luzon's central plains geographic region, most of whom belong to the Pangasinan ethnic group. Pangasinan is also spoken in southwestern La Union, as well as in the municipalities of Benguet, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Zambales that border Pangasinan. A few Aeta groups and most Sambal in Central Luzon's northern part also understand and even speak Pangasinan as well.

What is the history of this language?
Pangasinan is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Pangasinan. Pangasinan therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Santiago B. Villafania, Pangasinan poet, is the author of poetry collections Balikas na Caboloan (Voices from Caboloan) published by the National Commission for the Culture and the Arts (NCCA) under its UBOD New Authors Series (2005) and Malagilion: Sonnets tan Villanelles (2007).

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Alulong ya Abong is a children song in Pangasinan language. It is a version of the original Tagalog song Bahay Kubo.

This is the English translation of that song.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Pangasinan


text: Category:Book:Electricity and magnetism

title: Category:Book:Electricity and magnetism


text:
Making Websites with Flask/Creating a web app

Now that you have learned the basics of Flask website development, it is time for the final project. We will be making a web application in which someone can someone can upload their name, age and favourite food, and every other user can view this information.

Creating the homepage
We will now create the homepage for the website so that when someone connects, they will know what this is.

Here is the code: As you can see, it links to a sign up page, that does not exist yet. We will now address this issue.

Making the sign up page
For someone to use your website, they must create an account. But first, we must create a list of all accounts. We will structure it like this:. In the next chapter we will code this page, and more.


text:
User:TreaderUltra

I am a kind person who likes maintaining and updating Wikibooks.

title: User:TreaderUltra


text:
Resonances: Engaging Music in Its Cultural Context/Music in human life

What is Music?
It is surprisingly difficult to define the term “music.” More specifically, it can be challenging to determine what is not music, and to explain why. For example, is bird song music? It is beautiful and enjoyable to listen to, and bird song often features clear, catchy melodies. Some birds learn songs from one another, thereby developing diverse repertoires. Is it a problem that birds sing primarily to communicate and attract mates? Humans certainly make music for those purposes. Does the reason for singing determine whether a song counts as music or not? Can music even be made by non-humans, or is it a uniquely human phenomenon?

It is surprisingly difficult to define the term “music.” More specifically, it can be challenging to determine what is not music, and to explain why. For example, is bird song music? It is beautiful and enjoyable to listen to, and bird song often features clear, catchy melodies. Some birds learn songs from one another, thereby developing diverse repertoires. Is it a problem that birds sing primarily to communicate and attract mates? Humans certainly make music for those purposes. Does the reason for singing determine whether a song counts as music or not? Can music even be made by non-humans, or is it a uniquely human phenomenon? The broadest definition of music to date was provocatively set forth on August 29, 1952, by the American composer John Cage. He made his statement not in words but with a performance of a composition that is known as 4’33”. The premiere of 4’33” was given by pianist David Tudor, who came out onto the stage and proceeded to sit in silence at the keyboard for the time indicated in the title, interrupting his performance only to open and close the keyboard at predetermined time markers. The musical contents of the performance, therefore, were not sounds that emanated from the piano but rather the incidental sounds that audience members happened to perceive during the allotted time: rustling programs, whispers, laughter, a passing train. The composer certainly did not know what these sounds would be and exercised no control over them—and indeed, the sounds heard during performances today would in some cases have been unimaginable to the composer, who died in 1992. The object of this composition was to make the case that any sounds could be music as long as they were listened to as music. In other words, music is in the ear of the beholder. It is defined not by its source or by the intent of its creator. It is defined by the act of listening. There is continued debate over how to define “music.” The Google Dictionary definition—that is to say, the definition that one is most likely to come across—reads “vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) combined in such a way as to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion.” This describes most music, to be sure. But does music have to be beautiful? If so, who is the arbiter of what is beautiful? Does music have to express emotion? And what about music that is created not by voices or instruments but by computers (e.g. electronic dance music)? The above definition excludes a lot.

For a more clinical take, we can turn to Merriam-Webster, which describes music as “the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity.” This definition is more difficult to criticize, but it still seems lacking. What about the power of music to make us cry, or dance, or become overwhelmed with nostalgia? What about the significance of music to personal and cultural identity? A dictionary definition certainly doesn’t have to address these dimensions, but they are integral to a deeper understanding of what music really is.

The Power of Music
Although we might argue over what is and what is not music, there is no question that music is important. Its significance ranges from the historical to the cultural to the biological. Music has played a role in every documented human society of the past and present. The oldest instrument found to date is an ivory flute created about 43,000 years ago—clear evidence that music is not a recent development. But why did humans start making music? The answers to that question might be discovered by examining the extraordinary effects that making and listening to music has on our brains.

Music, Human Experience, and the Brain
All of our activities are governed by the amazing organ situated inside of our skulls and between our ears: the human brain. And it is clear to religionists and evolutionists alike that there is something distinctly different between humans and other animals. But what is that difference? What makes us capable of complex reason and emotion? What gives us the ability to have an awareness of our own thought processes? It can’t simply be the size of our brains, as the brains of blue whales are much larger than those of humans, yet we don’t credit them with equivalent intelligence. Conversely, gorilla brains are only a little smaller than human brains, and they are not capable of the extreme creative and processing power of humanity. So what is it that makes our brains different?

What Makes Us Human?
Consider just a few of the qualities that are claimed to be unique to humans. We recognize ourselves in the working order of things, and are capable of standing back as a spectator and seeing our part in the greater picture. In other words, we have self-consciousness, and are capable of making choices based upon that information. Scientists use the mirror test (whether or not an animal species recognizes reflections of themselves as self, rather than another animal) to measure self-consciousness. But there are many species of primates that recognize their reflections as self, so that characteristic isn’t unique to humans. We have an appreciation of beauty and of aesthetic things, and are compelled as a species to create art. But there are some elephants who paint surprisingly beautiful imitations of the world around them, and some birds who decorate their nests—does this mean that they possess our same capacity for appreciation of aesthetics?

What about humor? All people possess a sense of humor (though some have less than others) and can appreciate and express humor. Not only does humor require intelligence and understanding of situational variables, but it also requires the ability to see the odd, absurd and ironic. But there are chimpanzees that “laugh” when they are tickled, and if you watch young chimps playing long enough, you will eventually see one pull a prank on another and run away “laughing.”

What about awareness of death? While many creatures exhibit behaviors we could characterize as mourning when they lose a beloved human or fellow animal, humans have elaborate funeral rituals upon death. The ancient Egyptians actually buried people with physical objects so that they would have things with them in the next life. But elephants4 have been observed burying their dead (and the dead of other species) in addition to placing food, fruit, and flowers with their bodies. That sounds a lot like a funeral.

What about awareness of time? Humans experience sequence of events, form memories, and then predict future outcomes, and we have ways of measuring the passing of time in equal intervals (think second hand on a watch). Dogs and other animals certainly don’t have clocks or devices, but they reliably know when it is dinner time. Is this because of biological processes, or do they, too, have some sense of time?

What about love? It is arguably one of the most important motivational forces in a human’s life, but are we alone in this? Animals display behaviors that clearly indicate affection, but do they love each other the way we do? Cats will rub their companions and purr, whales can deliberately save seals from attack, and dogs display extraordinary altruism towards their owners and other creatures. In humans, these behaviors signal the thing we call love. Do animals experience it the way we do? What about language? Humanity is the only species that uses language, although we are clearly not the only species that communicates. So what is different about us? Animals communicate in many ways with one another, and some gorillas have been taught sign-language. Koko the gorilla reportedly understood over 2,000 spoken words and was able to use more than 1,000 signs to convey thoughts and emotions. She was even able to communicate compound ideas by using signs in ways they had not been taught to her. This certainly was a form of communication and language use, although Koko could never learn to speak. In addition, while some animals can understand words, sounds, and tone of voice, they do not comprehend syntax or communicate in complex sentences. Throughout history, human beings have devised hundreds of languages and endless dialects, despite the fact that we are born with no way to verbally communicate, at all. So what is it about our brains that makes them capable of complex language, when the composition of our brains is so similar to chimpanzees and gorillas?

Language and the Human Brain
It comes down to the structure of our brains and to what those structures do. Generally, the human brain can be divided into three regions: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. This characteristic is absent in most animals. Although the size of the brain itself does not determine complex intelligence, the size of the brain in relationship to the size of the body matters. Humans win the rodeo with the largest brain of all animals in comparison to the size of their bodies. In addition, the human brain has more neurons in its outermost layer (the cerebral cortex) than do other animals, and the insulation around nerve fibers in the human brain is thicker than that of other animals, enabling more rapid signal transfer between neurons. We literally think better and faster. But it is the structures responsible for language production and comprehension (Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas) that are unique to human beings. And, interestingly, both of these areas are heavily involved in the processing of music, which brings us to the crux of the matter: human beings are the only animals who employ “music” and “language”. That is what separates us from every other species on the planet. And it seems as though we do these things because we have been endowed with neuroanatomical structures that are unique to us. So what do these two critical brain regions do? And how is music cognition different from language cognition?

Early investigators learned about particular regions of the brain that control speech by observing patients’ limitations and then conducting postmortem exams. A French neurologist named Paul Broca observed a patient who understood language but who was unable to produce more than a few isolated words. When that patient died, Broca conducted a postmortem exam and found a lesion in the man’s forebrain in the frontal lobe. He deduced that this area was associated with the production of speech, and it was termed Broca’s area. Persons with damage to Broca’s area understand heard language and know what they wish to say but are unable to speak. They can’t speak because Broca’s area controls the physical production of speech. Essentially, our brains take in auditory stimuli, then Broca’s area (in conjunction with Wernieke’s area, which we will discuss in a moment) converts the stimuli to neuronal representations that are then translated into the physical motions involved in producing speech sounds. To put this more simply, that area of the brain helps us understand what we hear, formulate articulate thoughts and then convert them into speech.

About ten years later, a neurologist named Carl Wernicke identified a similar, but different, problem in patients who were unable to comprehend language or to construct meaningful sentences, even though they did not experience difficulty in producing articulate words. In postmortem examination, he found lesions at the junction of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. He deduced that this area, now termed Wernicke’s area, had something to do with the understanding of language. Conjunctly, Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas handle the input of sound, conversion of sound to understanding, and utterance of spoken language. And these two areas are distinct to humans. The genuinely fascinating thing is that for many years, these areas were thought to be exclusively involved in the processing of language. But recent researchers have discovered through fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) technology that the two language processing centers are activated during listening to and processing music, even when it contains no text. In other words, your two language centers fire when you are listening to instrumental music and are not processing language. How bizarre is that? Why might that be? How are music and language similar in such a way as to explain this phenomenon?

Connections Between Speech and Music
Connections Between Speech and Music What two things do you think of most easily when someone asks, “What is music?” Probably variation in pitch (frequency) and rhythm (time), even though those are not the only elements of music. Is there a pitch and a rhythm to speech? Read that question aloud to yourself, and note the fact that not all words are the same pitch. This is because we emphasize more important words and increase pitch when asking a question. Read it again and note the fact that not all of the words are the same speed or length, due to the fact that we vary the rhythm of speech sounds. And not only that: there is a syntax (the orderly arrangement of sounds in a system) to both language and music. They behave similarly in that the arrangement of sounds is predictable and conforms to patterns. And there we have it. Our brains are uniquely constructed for the successful intake, conversion, and execution of language and music. And the reason other animals can’t and don’t make music or speech (some animals make musical sounds, but the construction of these sounds doesn’t conform to syntactical rules, so these sounds aren’t actually music in the way we understand it) is because their brains lack the two areas involved in the processing of orderly sound systems. How crazy is that?

But what does this really mean about the nature of music and speech? It suggests that those are the two primary things that make us human and that distinguish us from all other creatures on the planet. That’s a significant point. But music isn’t only processed in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, although speech primarily is. Before we examine that, however, we need to discuss how the brain is generally structured. The brain is divided into three main parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. The cerebrum is the part that gives the brain its wrinkled appearance. It is divided into a left and right hemisphere separated by the corpus callosum, a bundle of fibers that transmit messages from one side of the brain to the other. The cerebrum performs higher functions like receiving and analyzing sensory input such as touch, sight, and sound, and also processes reasoning, emotion, memory, and fine motor control. Both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are situated in the cerebrum. The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. It primarily coordinates muscle movements, and processes the body’s position in space for purposes of balance. The brainstem is the most evolutionarily primal area of the brain—one that we share with other primates. The brainstem performs primarily autonomous functions—those that don’t involve voluntary thought, like heart rate, breathing, body temperature, digestion, swallowing, coughing, and vomiting. You can see that as you move upward from the brainstem, the functions of the brain become more complex.

Now that we’ve handled some of the less-interesting technical information about the way the brain is structured, let’s go back to the cerebrum, where most complex brain function occurs. If we can arrive at an understanding of the way the cerebrum is divided and what kinds of information are processed in each area, it will help us to understand the differences in the way the brain processes language and music—perhaps the two most significant markers of what it is to be human. As previously mentioned, the cerebrum is divided into a left and right hemisphere that communicate with one another across the corpus callosum. Not all functions of the two hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls the physical motion on the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the physical motion on the left side of the body. Also, in general terms, the left hemisphere processes speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, and artistic and musical skills. This explanation is a bit misleading, however.

If you look down at a brain from the top, you can see it is divided into two distinct hemispheres. But if you look at the brain from the side, you can see that each hemisphere has distinct fissures that divide the brain into chunks, called lobes. Each hemisphere has four lobes. Moving from front to back, they are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. Each can be divided even further into areas that serve specific functions (like Broca’s and Werneike’s areas). But it is important to understand that no lobe or area of the brain functions in isolation. There are complex networks between the lobes of the brain and between the hemispheres that interact to process information. In that sense, our brains are the most complex computers on the planet! We’ll quickly take a look at what is generally processed in each lobe before circling back to talk about the differences between language and music processing in the brain.

Frontal lobe processing determines personality, behavior, emotions, judgment, planning, problem solving, speech (Broca’s area), fine body movement, intelligence, concentration, and one of the other defining characteristics of human beings: selfawareness. You can see that the frontal lobe (put your hand up to your forehead— that’s where the frontal lobe is) handles most of the things that make you, well… you. This is why traumatic injury to the frontal lobe from head-impact is often absolutely devastating to the individual. You can lose what it is to be you if that area is damaged. The parietal lobe processes senses of touch, pain, and temperature, and interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor input, memory, and spatial perception. It also plays a role in the interpretation of language and words. Moving further back, the temporal lobe handles the understanding of language (Wernicke’s area), memory, hearing, sequencing, and organization. And finally, the occipital lobe interprets visual stimuli, including color, light, and movement. Whew! That was a lot of information about our highly complex human brain.

So let’s go back to examine language processing a little more deeply. First, our ears take in sound waves and translate them into electrical impulses that travel through nerves to different parts of the brain. The first place they go is the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe, where the sound is translated into neuronal representations (basically, your brain’s “image” of the sounds). The neuronal representations are then transmitted to the areas of the brain involved in interpreting them and deciding what to do with them. In the case of speech that is only heard, the auditory cortex and Werneike’s area are primarily involved. In the case of language that is read and interpreted, the visual cortex and Werneike’s area are primarily involved. In the case of speech that is produced, Werneike’s area transmits neuronal representations to Broca’s area, which converts them into spoken language with involvement in the motor cortex. But if language and music are so similar, what is different in the way that the brain processes language and music?

Well, to begin with, language processing is fairly isolated. As we’ve discussed, depending on the type of language activity a person is engaging with, there are a few areas primarily involved in processing the information. In the case of music cognition, however, the brain lights up like a Christmas tree. There is activity all over the place: in both hemispheres, in all four lobes, in the cerebellum, and even in the brain stem. With the advent of fMRI, we can see which areas of the brain light up as a person is engaging with music. As in the case of language, it depends upon the way in which you are engaging with music. But the one thing that is consistent is that no matter how you are engaging—whether you are listening passively, or listening actively (listening and thinking about what you are listening to), whether you are hearing music with or without words, whether you are playing music, reading music, writing and composing music, or improvising music—a unique neural network lights up all across the brain. Normally unrelated areas of the brain work in synchronicity to process music, even when they do not coordinate to process any other type of information. That is pretty crazy! Even the brain stem—the part of the brain that handles automatic and subconscious processes—assists in music cognition.

So here we come to the crux of it. The human brain is an incredibly complicated computer. It handles incomprehensible amounts of information every second, and is more complex than the brains of other animals. There are two primary things that separate us from all other animals on the planet: language and music. Our brains are structured differently than are those of other animals, and it is these specialized structures that allow us to engage in language and music. But while language processing is complex, music cognition is even more complex, involving more brain regions and involving activity in both hemispheres, all lobes, the cerebrum, and the brainstem.

Beyond this, music also activates the limbic system within which emotions and feelings are processed. It is capable of eliciting sympathetic emotional response from listeners even in the absence of words, and our memory systems are intrinsically woven into the brain’s processing of music. This is why music can be used to “bring back” patients with Alzheimer’s5, and why you can remember a song even if you haven’t heard it for 40 years. Suddenly, you’ll find yourself singing along and wondering how in the world you still have that information in there—but it’s in there because the retrieval pathways were laid down in more than one way. You won’t remember a poem or a story, or any other information, the way you remember music. For this reason, it is a profound educational tool: information can be entrained quickly and permanently when connected to music. Think about how many things were taught to you as a child through song, beginning with learning your letters! The A-B-C song is the most commonly taught song in the U.S. (and many other places have their own version) because it is such an effective way of teaching children to remember otherwise unfamiliar and disconnected information (the sound of each letter and the order in which they occur in the alphabet). If it is such a profound educational tool because of the effects on memory and retention, how else can music be used?

Music and Human Development, Learning, and Wellness
Due to the information that we have gained from the field of neuroscience, the use of music therapy has exploded in the past decades. Music therapy is the clinical and evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship by a licensed music therapist. And because music is processed all over the brain, music therapy can be utilized to rehabilitate patients suffering from a broad host of disorders, ranging from traumatic brain injury to cerebral palsy, from learning disabilities to Parkinson’s Disease. It can be used to regain voluntary movement or return speech skills when they have been lost because of a blood clot or stroke. And the remarkable thing is how genuinely effective these interventions are.

The Field of Music Therapy
It is important to talk about what music therapy is, and what it is not. Although all people can participate in music, and music teachers spend time creating music and working with students, board certified music therapists are the only individuals who participate in an allied health profession that is research-based, and that, in the words of the American Music Therapy Association, “actively applies supportive science to the creative, emotional, and energizing experiences of music for health treatment and educational goals.” Music therapy is applied in either an educational or clinical context, and music therapists must hold a music degree(s) and a degree in music therapy. The degree involves clinical internship and certification by the board of the American Music Therapy Association (AMTA). Licensing involves many hours of training in order to understand which musical activities to apply in a given context, and it may be used to improve individuals’ functioning, health, or wellbeing. So why does music therapy work? Because it is a stimulus that activates every major region of the brain simultaneously. Because music processing occurs globally in the brain, it develops more comprehensive and stronger neurologic processes. According to Sharon Graham, founder and director of the Tampa Bay Institute for Music Therapy, “Music is used as a stimulus when one encounters trauma, disease or disorder, and is the most powerful non-pharmacological tool we have to address any deficits that arise.”

What is music therapy used for? The possibilities are almost limitless! It may be used for physical rehabilitation and facilitating movement, because when we hear rhythmic information, the motor cortex in our brains is activated: It is for this reason that you are compelled to move on the beat when you hear a peppy song. Have you ever noticed how people unconsciously coordinate themselves in time when music is played? Pay attention when music is playing outdoors— nearly everyone will begin to walk at the same tempo as the music. The funny thing is that they don’t even realize they are doing it! The activation of the motor cortex can be utilized by music therapists to increase motor function and voluntary movement in people with Parkinson’s and Multiple Sclerosis and in physically injured veterans.

Music therapy may be used to facilitate improvement of mood and reduction of depression. This works for multiple reasons, not the least of which is that music is enjoyable. However, it also works because we have an immediate physiological response to the music we enjoy. Engaging with liked music causes the release of serotonin and dopamine-neurotransmitters in the brain, which leads to feelings of happiness and well-being. It also releases norepinephrine, which can result in a sense of alertness and euphoria. The act of singing, in particular, releases endorphins—the “feel good” chemicals in the brain. Choral singing (singing in a group with others) has been shown to cause the release of oxytocin, which enhances feelings of trust and bonding and results in reduction of depression and loneliness. One study recently indicated that choral singers have lower levels of cortisol, indicating lower stress, while multiple studies have indicated that singing relieves anxiety and contributes to quality of life. And the best part is, you don’t have to be a good singer to reap the rewards: A 2005 study indicated that group singing “can produce satisfying and therapeutic sensations even when the sound produced by the vocal instrument is of mediocre quality.”

Studies have indicated that music can be used to reduce insomnia and to reduce the perception of pain, and it can be used as part of a rehabilitation protocol after injury or surgery. One study from the General Hospital of Salzburg found patients recovering from back surgery had higher rates of healing and less pain when exposed to music. Music therapy can be used with older adults to lessen the effects of dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease and it can be used to restore speech when aphasia (loss of ability to speak) occurs as a result of injury or stroke. Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords used music therapy to regain speech after surviving a gunshot wound to her brain. Interestingly, music can also be used to reduce the symptoms of asthma, can be used in premature infants to improve sleep patterns and to increase weight gain, and can be used to help people with Down’s Syndrome or Autism when speech is limited. In fact, it seems that there is little that music therapy cannot be utilized to improve. So what should we take away from all of this? That music is awesome, of course, and that everyone should engage with music actively throughout the course of their lives.

Why do (and should) humans make music?
If music can help rewire a brain that has been damaged or is limited in some way, it can also be used to create new brain growth and increase processing efficiency in all students. This is why there is a strong correlation (relationship) between studying music and higher grades in other subject areas. In 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act replaced No Child Left Behind, and for the first time codified music as part of a core, well-rounded academic experience with which all children should be provided. The current academic environment focuses on and prizes primarily STEM subjects, but we have learned that it is actually the A in STEAM (Arts) that provides training ground for the things employers say they prize more than subject-matter knowledge: creativity, initiative, and the ability to generate new solutions to problems not previously encountered. No child should go through school without access to these subjects.

Humans have engaged in music for as long as we have written history. Even before humans had the ability to write down the music they were creating and performing, they produced written descriptions documenting the fact that they valued music. The Biblical authors wrote about people engaging in music by playing instruments, dancing, and singing. Clearly, music was a part of those ancient cultures. We don’t know what that music sounded like, because they didn’t have a system to write it down, but we know they were doing it.

We also know that humans have been “musicking” since long before written history, as evidenced by prehistoric bone flutes found in various parts of the world. The existence of these instruments suggests that music may actually have preceded formalized spoken language as we understand it, and certainly preceded writing. To put this in perspective, humans were creating and playing instruments when wooly mammoths and saber tooth tigers roamed the earth. And to make that fact even more intriguing, when researchers blew through those flutes, they heard the pentatonic scale still in use in elementary school music today. Why would those early humans have created music, when the primary objectives were to eat, not die from the elements, and not be eaten? We can’t answer this question definitively, but one theory is that they were imitating the sounds they heard in nature. Another is that humans utilized music to coordinate themselves in time together (think: one, two, three - pull!). Yet another is that music simply feels good and touches something spiritual in humans. We will likely never know. All we can say for certain is that music is one of the things that separates us from every other animal on the planet, including our closest relatives, and that it was part of human experience before modern humans existed.

One final consideration is that it appears as though music and language acquisition skills are innately learned by humans. No one sits down with children and attempts to formally teach them to produce language or music. They simply learn those things by listening to and imitating the sounds being used in their environment. All humans in all cultures the world over uniformly amass both language and music skills simply by being immersed in an environment in which those systems are being used. And this tells us that our brains are hardwired for success with those two systems. Even if we didn’t have fMRI scans to show us that, we can deduce it from the informal experiences of babies. Studies have even shown that newborn infants who have had no experience in the world whatsoever recognize and respond to essential musical elements. These elements, which will be described and discussed in the next section, include tonic and dominant (I and V in the scale—the two most important chords) and meter (the way beats are grouped and divided). How is it that babies’ brains are able to do this with no training? It’s hardwired!

Music and Innate Aptitude
We have all seen that some people seem naturally to have more musical ability than others. Some children seem born singing beautifully, while others struggle to develop musical skills. We tend to look at children who sing early and well, and think, “Oh, she’s so talented.” But that perception can be a little misleading, and here’s why.

Researchers have indicated that there are two primary things that contribute to musical ability. One of them is aptitude, which is defined as the ease and speed with which your brain processes certain kinds of information. Aptitude is innate. You’re born with it. It is woven into the development of the grey matter in your brain as you are developing in your mother’s womb. Strangely, research indicates that aptitude is developmental until somewhere around age eight or nine. In other words, the ease and speed with which your brain is able to process certain types of information is formative until you reach age nine, at which time it stabilizes. From that point forward, you will be reliant on whatever aptitude you developed during your earliest years. This doesn’t mean you can’t learn to do new things or develop new skills. We can all learn to do things within whatever aptitude we possess. It just means that the ease and speed with which we work doesn’t fundamentally change beyond that point.

Interestingly, the same is true of aptitude for language, which makes sense, because the two systems are so intrinsically similar. Research has indicated that the same developmental window (birth to age nine) exists for language aptitude. For both of these, early exposure, and early development, are critical for the rest of the life of a human being. How do we know language aptitude stabilizes at that age? Obviously, it would be horribly unethical to lock children up for the first nine years of their lives and expose them to little or no language to see what would happen. We can’t do that. We do, however, have multiple stories of severe neglect that shine some light on what happens when children don’t develop language aptitude while they are young.

In one particularly famous case, a young girl was born to an abusive father who kept her chained to a potty chair or in a crib, and rarely let anyone speak to her or interact with her. Because there was no interactivity with the sound system, this child did not learn to speak. When she was rescued, around age 12, she was immediately taken into custody, and teams of researchers attempted to teach her to speak. She learned the use of some nouns and verbs and was able to communicate simple things, but she never learned the complex grammar that all children innately learn simply by hearing language spoken around them and having people interact with them using language. In fact, researchers estimate that all she could achieve was the basic communicative ability of Koko the gorilla (who had limited ability to form compound or complex thoughts, and did so with sign language). Why was this? Because a child’s aptitude for certain kinds of processing is developmental, and is developed, during the first years of life. Once that developmental window closes, the child is working with established aptitude.

In another famous case, a child was kept contained in a room with a television on all day. The child was hearing language spoken regularly, but by abstract people on the television. In other words, no one was interacting with the child while using language. Interactivity is critical—just hearing language isn’t enough. That child did not learn to speak just by listening. In the same way, music aptitude is not developed simply by listening. Children must hear others around them singing and see them moving rhythmically, and others must interact with them as they do these things. In addition to aptitude, the thing that most determines a person’s skill is achievement. This is what an individual does with the aptitude they have. Do they learn to sing and play an instrument? Do they learn to read and write? Do they regularly engage in creating music? If the answer is yes, then chances are, their achievement (or skill) will be relatively high. Does high innate aptitude automatically mean a person will have high achievement? No. There exists only a correlation between the two variables—not a causative relationship. A child may be born with lower aptitude but work her entire life and emerge as a person with relatively high skill after years of training. By the same token, a child may be born with relatively high aptitude but never engage with it or use it. That child is likely to have much lower achievement than the one who worked at it. Interestingly, the same seems to be true of language.

And in both cases, there is no such thing as a person with no aptitude. I’ve frequently heard people say: “Oh, I can’t sing.” My usual response is: “Yes, you can. Everyone can.” Usually when people make statements like that, what they actually mean is: “I don’t sing well.” But our society has robbed so many people of their birthright by fooling us into thinking that music is something only the most talented and skilled should do while everyone else watches, and, as a result, these people believe their aptitude is so low that they just shouldn’t do it. Knowing what we do about music and the brain, and about the benefits of engaging in music over the course of a lifetime, this is a pretty tragic thing! If I told you that simply singing, reading music, playing an instrument, or writing music over the course of a lifetime could decrease the likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s when you are older, would you change your mind about whether or not you should pursue it? (I hope so!) All humans have aptitude for music and for language. This aptitude is generally distributed along a bell curve. There are people with higher aptitude and people with lower aptitude. But none of us have no aptitude, because it is a matter of our brain structure.

In fact, they had to search the world over to find only ten or so people to participate in a study in amusia (a condition in which the brain simply doesn’t organize musical sounds into meaningful patterns). In people with amusia, the brain takes in sound, but it is disorganized and the individual can’t perceive the structure. In other words, they don’t hear music, they hear noise. While a normal individual might hear a beautiful symphony, an individual with amusia might perceive the sounds of New York City on a busy day. Obviously, both people hear the same thing, but one person’s brain organizes the sound meaningfully into melody, harmony, phrases, meter, and other elements, while the other’s brain doesn’t organize it at all. What a terrible thing! Can you imagine not being able to listen to and enjoy music? Not being able to play a song back in your mind? Not being able to tap on a beat because your brain doesn’t perceive the organization of meter and rhythm? Imagine how colorless life would be! Fundamentally, what I am telling you is this: Of course you can sing and learn to play an instrument, and learn to read or write music. Do you know how I know? Because you can listen to and enjoy music. Your brain is organizing the sound, which means you have the fundamental capacity to engage with it.

Music and Human Flourishing
So what does all of this together tell us? Music is important to the human species and always has been. Though you may remember a poem or a story, the way you remember words differs from the way you remember music. This difference is why music, like literature, belongs in the curriculum. Because information can be entrained quickly and permanently when connected to it, music is a profound educational tool. It is something that engages all areas of the brain at once, and no other activity does that.

Music can be used to train and grow the brain and build connections between areas, or to rehabilitate and heal individuals. It assists in the formation of longterm memories and in the retrieval of stored information, increases processing efficiency in other modes of cognition, and assists the brain in coordinating normally unrelated brain regions. It is for these reasons that music is one of life’s most miraculous phenomena. It has probably been with us for the totality of our existence as a species. And despite the fact that there are a limited number of pitches and rhythmic patterns, people throughout history, in every corner of the globe and every culture ever recorded, have engaged in the creation and performance of music that is unique to them. It truly is part of our human birthright and deserves to again take its place as a critical curricular offering in all of our schools.

And you know what else? Even if you didn’t learn to read music, sing, or play an instrument while you were in school, it’s not too late! Researchers tell us that you can begin at literally any point in life and still see benefits. It truly isn’t about how well you do it—it is that you regularly do it over time. So go join an ensemble or find some private lessons!

Print
Knight, Andrew J., A. Blythe LaGasse, and Alicia Ann Clair. Music Therapy: An Introduction to the 	Profession. American Music Therapy Association, 2018.

Murph, Megan Elizabeth. “Max Neuhaus, R. Murray Schafer, and the Challenges of Noise.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kentucky, 2018. Patel, Aniruddh D. Music, Language, and the Brain. Oxford University Press, 2010.

Sacks, Oliver. Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. Revised and expanded edition. Vintage, 2008.

Online
American Music Therapy Association

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Wikijunior:Languages/Hiligaynon

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Hiligaynon and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Hiligaynon alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 7.8 million native speakers as of 2010. There are 9.1 million total speakers. It is the 4th most spoken native language in the Philippines.

Where is this language spoken?
Hiligaynon is an Austronesian regional language spoken in the Philippines by about 9.1 million people, predominantly in Western Visayas and Soccsksargen, most of whom belong to the Hiligaynon people. It is the second-most widely spoken language in the Visayas and belongs to the Bisayan languages, and it is more distantly related to other Philippine languages.

What is the history of this language?
Hiligaynon is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Hiligaynon. Hiligaynon therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Peter Solis Nery is a Filipino poet, fictionist, author, and filmmaker. Writing in Hiligaynon, he is a Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature Hall of Fame Awardee, the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Literary Grant, and the All-Western Visayas Literary Contest (National Commission for Culture and the Arts) winner.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Masadya sa Buluthuan is a Hiligaynon song for kids composed by Mr. Jeff Javier.

Here's the English translation of that song.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Hiligaynon


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Meitei Culture/Law & Governance

The traditional law and governance in Meitei civilisation was predominantly monarchical in nature. In 429 CE, during the reign of King Naophangba, a proto-Constitution was established in Kangleipak. The law went on expanded, through several amendments, until it was finalised in 1110 CE in the form of a written Constitution of the Meitei kingdom. Since it was enacted by King Loiyumba (1074-1122 CE), it was known as the "Loiyumpa Silyel" in the later centuries.

title: Meitei Culture/Law & Governance


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Meitei Culture/Architecture

The traditional Meitei art of designing and constructing buildings, specifically in the realms of Kangleipak, is known as "Meitei architecture", or "Meetei architecture", "Manipuri architecture", "Kanglei architecture". Most of the buildings are semi-concrete or wooden in medium but heavily intricate in designs as well as in details.

Best known examples are standing in the forms of temples, gates and public houses, other than royal palaces and royal court buildings.

title: Meitei Culture/Architecture


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Meitei Culture/Economy

Economy in Meitei civilisation heavily relies on the agricultural farm lands, established in the fertile plains of the Imphal river and her tributaries, in the Imphal Valley of Kangleipak.

Another important source of economy is the Loktak lake, located in the southwestern part of the Imphal valley, which provides thousands of Meitei fishermen, their livelihoods, as fish is one of the two major staple food items of Meitei people, with the another one being rice (paddy).

The Ima Keithel (literally meaning "Mothers' Market" in Meitei), located in the heart of Imphal city, is a commercial hub for the Meitei women. No man is allowed to use the market place as a shopkeeper. It is said to be the "world's only women run market". This centuries-old market is still working today, giving Meitei womenfolk the opportunity to hold a lion's share in the income generating commercial activities in Meitei society.

title: Meitei Culture/Economy


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Meitei Culture/Sex & Gender

The two primary genders in traditional Meitei culture is male and female, derived from the concepts of Father Sky (Sky God) and Mother Earth (Earth Goddess).

Meitei society is predominantly male dominated in nature. However, women are given great liberty in comparison to other cultures.

One of the classical example is the "Ima Keithel" (meaning "Mothers' Market"), which is exclusively administered by Meitei womenfolk, where no man is allowed to sell anything inside the marketplace. This major commercial hub is located in the metropolis of Imphal, controlled by Meitei women.

The culture of treating women with respect and honour is derived from the worship of goddesses and divine ladies in traditional Meitei religion (known as "Sanamahism" or "Lainingthouism" in modern days).

Third gender is given due recognition in traditional Meitei society. However, their occupation is limited. They are traditionally most possibly supposed to become a priest, to be in service of the gods. This doesn't mean that priestly works are to be done by only them.

Other than male priests ("maiba" or "amaiba" in Meitei) and the female priests ("maibi" or "amaibi" in Meitei), there is a special category of transgender priests known as "nupa maibi" (literally meaning "male priestess" or "male nun" in Meitei, showing the characteristics of both male and female).

Second most possible occupation that a transgender is traditionally supposed to do, other than confining to religious works, is becoming an actor in the traditional Meitei courtyard theatre industry, calling "Shumang Kumhei" (also known as "Shumang Kummei" or "Shumang Leela"). Again, this doesn't mean that all the Shumang Kumhei actors are transgenders, as many are heterosexual straight males, and in special cases, female actors (actresses) also work.

These two mentioned traditional occupations are still in prevalence in present times. However, their scope of works are expanded to a greater extend.

In modern era, Meitei transgenders are best known for dominating the field of costume designing, beauty parlor and make-up. And this creates a popular stereotype (or misconception) among the masses that such fashion related jobs should be done only by the transgenders.

title: Meitei Culture/Sex & Gender