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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 12/History

This is the sandbox page for the issue: History.

The founding of biochemistry as a discipline
Biochemistry emerged as a subject matter when biology first met chemistry, especially during the XIXth century when new methods and technologies allowed the chemists to study the molecules of the living organisms. At this point, biochemistry was referred to as physiological or pathological chemistry.

However, the founding of the discipline of biochemistry, a mix of two existing disciplines, in itself can be marked by the coinage of the name "Biochemistry", which is a contraction for ”biological chemistry”. Although several sources attribute the creation and first use of this word to Carl Neuberg, one of the first and most important German biochemist, in 1903, the first real mention of “biochemie” ( “biochemistry“ in German) can be found in the foreword of the first issue of the journal called « Biological Chemistry », in January 1878. This journal was published by Felix Hoppe-Seyler, a German physiologist and chemist, and was at the start called ”Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie”(”Journal of Physiological Chemistry”).

The establishment of the discipline
In the late XIXth century, early XXth, biochemistry really began to establish its roots as a discipline throughout the world. The following examples highlight some key dates of its establishment in the UK.

In 1902, the first department of Biochemistry of the UK was founded in the University of Liverpool. UCL is also the seat of the first Research School of Biochemistry in the UK. It was founded by Dr W.D. Halliburton who then contributed to the creation of the first Society of Biochemistry with the help of J. A. Gardner and R. H. A. Plimmer in January 1911.

How has it changed?
Hikmet Geckil realised two advancements that really pushed forward biochemistry has a discipline. The first is the "The discovery of the roles of enzymes as catalysts" by using yeast as an example, proving that enzymes are proteins. The second is the in-depth study of nucleic acids. This ranges from discovering DNA as the genetic material of the cell (1940) to using it in cancer research and brain sciences (2010s).

Hence, Biochemistry developed from the study of extracellular (e.g: chemistry of digestion) to intracellular chemistry. The key moment that might have contributed to this transformation could have been when Sangers, Berg and Gilbert received a Nobel Prize (1980) for their work on base sequences in nucleic acids, aiding the research of PCR. Molecular Biochemistry in particular is becoming more and more favored due to the clinical use of PCR which has been proved to diagnose and treat genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis (gene therapy).

Who decides what the subject matter or approach of a discipline should be?
Combing everything together, biochemistry studies living process/metabolism at a molecular level and applies this in medicine. This includes the roles of various structures ranging from large complexes such as carbohydrates and smaller compounds like vitamins.

Therefore, looking at history, we can see that Carl Neuber aside, it is mainly the collection of successful research publications over time such as Nobel Prize winner Sangers' experimentation with chemistry and biology/ enzymes. As Biochemistry originated from chemistry, it is the theories and methods used in chemistry that is interdisciplinarily used to solve problems in biology hence why only the "bio" is added on.

History of Medical Physics
Medical physics, the discipline where applied physical techniques meet medicine, emerged from the linking of the two previously existing disciplines – physics, covering mechanics amongst other things, and medicine, covering the diagnosis and treatment of disease.

It is difficult to make out an exact moment or incident in time where the discipline was born. Some links between physiology and physics already occurred in ancient Egypt and Greece, when tools were used to measure pulse rate or to see differences in skin temperature. The first time, however, when a method known in the field of physics was applied to measure something concerning health, was the weighing of the human body at the turn of the 17th century. After that, the idea emerged to start thinking of the body as a machine that is explicable by physics and mathematics. This idea was adopted by an increasing number of scientists who started explaining how the body works fully in mechanical terms. An important step in the discipline’s evolvement was also the use of electricity applied to subjects concerning health when it became clear that electricity impacted biological beings.

At the end of the 18th century, French physician Jean-Noel Hallé became the first professor to teach about medical physics in Paris, which might mark the beginning of medical physics as a discipline in academia. He is also referred to as the “father of medical physics”. In 1814 a definition of “medical physics” was published in a dictionary, a few years later books on the subject were being released, first only ones for medical students, but about physics until others were published that revolved around applied physics in medicine in particular.

Medical physics went through a shift in focus by the end of the 19th century: while until then most of the discipline’s weight was put on how physics could be applied to explain how the human body works to begin with, it turned to the question of how physics could help to detect and cure diseases in the 20th century. Medical imaging developed and became more and more established, its methods including positron emission tomography, the use of x-rays and magnetic resonance imaging.

The founding of International Relations as a discipline
The roots of International Relations can be traced to at least 460-395 BC, when Thucydides, a Greek Historian narrated the war in his writing « The History of the Peloponnesian War ». Divided into eight books, Thucydides describes in is writing the conflicts between the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta against the Delian League led by Athen. While describing, he also explains his point of view on the war and until today, he is considered one of the fathers of a dominant International Relations theory: realism.

However, as a discipline, International Relations appeared for the first time in the aftermath of World War One. Indeed the first Department of International Politics was founded in 1919 at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth University. The first holder of the Woodrow Wilson Chair of the Department was Alfred Zimmern, a classical scholar and English historian. . Founded in response to the horrors of World War One, the Department was created to prevent a future war. The members of the Department of Politics in Aberystwyth would search for the causes of war in order to find solutions. Once the solutions were established, they would submit them to politicians to stop other conflicts from emerging. As explained above, the appearance of International Relations as a discipline was made after World War One. Plus, the publication of " The Twenty Years' Crisis" by Edward Hallett Carr in 1939 and "Politics Among Nations" by Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Winfred Thompson in 1949 also precipitated the focus on the discipline. Those two publications introduced new concepts, new points of view and quickly became classics in International Relations.

Changes in International Relations
International Relations is a topic that changes a lot over time. Since its origins after World War One, loads of debates emerged, creating new theories, new ideas, and new concepts.

Indeed, they are main debates in International Relations, the first one being between the Liberals and the Realists and with the question « How do we end all wars and conflicts ? ». A question that was asked just after the tragedies of World War One. Liberals assumed that conflicts could be ended and peace created. On the other end, Realists scholars claimed that conflict was inherent and endemic in world affairs.

The debates around International Relations also changed during the Cold War. Because the first debate couldn't provide any solution or explanation as to why another conflict arrived, a new question emerged: "If we can't eliminate all conflict, how best to manage them?". Realists and neo-realists said that the best way was to establish a balance of power and for great powers to have dominance over world affairs. . Liberals and neo-liberalists tended to believe in the creation of institutions to manage relations and emphasized the role of economics, free trades as they would ensure links between states so fewer possibilities for conflicts to arise. Moreover, the Marxists focused on economics as they thought that economic inequalities needed to be resolved in order to have peace and stability.

After the end of the Cold War and since World War II, International Relations as a discipline has immensely evolved with society and its development. New topics are analyzed, beyond conflict and warfare. As power dynamisms are shifting International Relations gives more space to theories such as Post-Colonialism. With worldwide societal movements like "Me Too", Feminism is being explored as a great matter. There is a diversification in focuses, different perspectives, and a new profound interest in Ethics.

Who decides how and when the discipline changes?
When talking about a change in International Relations as a discipline, we talk about the change of subject matter or methods. It is hard to determine how it changes, as it's more of a question of why does it change. Indeed, there is no designated organization, corporation, or item that decides. Often, International relations changes in response to world events: war, social movements, emerging power... As analyzed before, new theories appeared after World War One, World War Two, or after the Cold War. However, a few organizations help manage world peace, which is one of the main focus in International Relations. Founded in 1945, The United Nations is an international organization that counts 193 Member States today. Their focuses are "on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st century, such as peace and security, climate change, sustainable development, human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health emergencies, gender equality, governance, food production...". The United Nations can take action and help physically (by sending help) or economically (by sending money) the countries and cities that find themselves in trouble.

History of Psychosurgery
Psychosurgery, also known as psychiatric neurosurgery, is the practice of treating mental disorders by means of surgical intervention, traditionally the severing or debilitating specific areas of the brain. The discipline lies at the intersection of neurosurgery and psychiatry. The brain and the mind are closely linked; therefore, it seems intuitive to look to the former to solve problems with the latter. Nevertheless, psychosurgery is not currently widely used. It is under-researched and regarded with caution due to its unethical history.

Is Psychosurgery a Discipline?
Despite the controversy, the practice used to occupy a place in academia, with its own research and thought leaders such as Egas Moniz. While many of these people tended to be neurologists or psychiatrists rather than psychosurgeons specifically, that can be attributed to the rapid development and decline of the discipline, which began gaining traction in the 1930s and started falling out of public favour in the 1950s. In the early stages of a discipline, it is not uncommon for experts to come from other, already established fields. Moreover, as the different fields of medicine became more specific, where psychosurgery persisted, it split from neurosurgery, as the former dealt with mental disorders whilst the latter addressed disorders of the nervous system. For example, some establishments such as the Regional Neurosurgical Centre of the Brook General Hospital in London have psychosurgical units. As such, psychosurgery can be regarded as a discipline, albeit a niche one.

The History of Psychosurgery
The roots of psychosurgery go back as far as the prehistoric era, with trepanations that took place in the Neolithic period being some of the earliest recorded surgical interventions. These procedures involved creating a hole in the bones of the skull, which was believed to relieve pressure.

Modern psychosurgery was founded by Gottlieb Burckhardt, who conducted various experiments on six subjects in 1888. He described three of the outcomes as effective. One of the others did not survive the intervention. Burckhardt abandoned his studies as his ideas were not received favourably. Various surgeons conducted similar experiments, the most famous of which being Egas Moniz, who popularised the practice of ablating the frontal cortex, which later became known as lobotomy. Almeida Lima was his colleague and a neurosurgeon, and he performed over a hundred early experimental lobotomies using a rod with a wire loop. The trials were considered a success after psychiatric and subjective examinations, although those were poorly recorded and many patients had to be returned to the asylum, their further fate unknown. However, this evidence was enough to help Moniz popularise the procedure. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in Medicine or Psychology for this work in 1949. The procedure caught on in multiple countries. American neurologist Walter Freeman and neurosurgeon James Watts developed a method called the transorbital frontal lobotomy, which meant that instead of making incisions in the skull, the instrument would be inserted through the eye socket. This made the procedure easier to perform. Consequently, it became used by people with no surgical training and was promoted as an easy solution to the widespread, expensive, and little understood problem of mental disorders.

Lobotomy
In modern times, the word "lobotomy" conjures up the ideas of barbaric and outdated medical practices, and rightly so. The frontal lobes of the brain are the region our personality stems from and the control center of our behaviour and emotions. They are responsible for expressive language and voluntary movement, as well as higher-level executive functions such as planning, initiative, self-monitoring, etc. The severing of these areas of the brain in most cases causes a decline in cognitive abilities. Some patients died as a result of the surgery, such as Josef Hassid, one of the greatest classical musicians of the 20th century. The mortality rate of lobotomies in the 1940s was 7.4%. In some cases, the subjects took their own lives following the surgery. Many survivors suffered disabling side effects, including paralysis, seizures and mutism, some reduced to a vegetative state. In most cases, the patients suffered effects such as stupor, a loss of personality, memory problems, diminished intellect and the inability to function independently. The doctors at the time described the procedure as a "surgically induced childhood". The effects were believed to wear off in time, but in most cases, they lasted for the rest of the patients' lives, although some made recoveries. Notably, the loss of cognitive function was not so much a side effect of the procedure as it was the goal, as it caused the reduction in symptoms and made the patients easier to manage for caretakers and asylums. Freeman suggested training adult patients with rewards and punishments as one would a child in order to achieve the desired behaviour.

The subjects of these surgeries also raise ethical concerns. Women made up 60% of lobotomy patients, and Freeman considered black women specifically the best candidates for the procedure. Lobotomies were sometimes performed on difficult children, even younger than six, with the consent of their guardians. Adult patients could also be subjected to the procedure without their consent, at the will of the doctors and guardians. While the original purpose of lobotomies was to make violent patients easier to manage and care for, they gained popularity and were prescribed as a treatment for disorders such as depression and PTSD, as well a treatment for chronic pain. The procedure was often performed with electroconvulsive treatment used as anesthesia, and many of the doctors administering the treatment were unqualified.

Lobotomies fell out of favour in the 1950s as their dangerous effects became better understood and as new treatments such as pharmacologic therapy were developed. Other forms of psychotherapy were researched, although none were ever implemented in the same widespread manner. In the 1970s, the question of creating a less violent society by means of altering the limbic system was brought up but was met with much backlash due to ethical concerns, yet again contributing to the historical baggage of psychosurgery as a discipline.

Psychosurgery Today
Current methods and approaches to psychosurgeries differ from those described above. Lobotomies have been phased out, the field is heavily regulated, and new techniques have replaced it, specifically anterior cingulotomy, subcaudate tractotomy, limbic leucotomy and anterior capsulotomy. These are much more specific than lobotomies, and some of them use electrodes to target specific areas of the brain. These methods have been shown to help patients with OCD and other mental disorders while having significantly reduced side effects. Some of these procedures, such as anterior cingulotomy, supposedly have very few side effects, while others, like subcausate tractomy, have temporary side effects (with no diminishing of cognitive abilities demonstrated). However, the research in the field is sorely lacking, and the studies conducted into these techniques are likely to be unreliable. For instance, there haven't been any placebo-controlled trials. After its fall from grace, the field of psychotherapy currently exists on the margins in the form of small niche studies and contradictory evidence. The discipline could hold great promise as a valuable tool in medicine, but all that currently exists is a dark history and an uncertain present. Psychosurgery as an idea in itself holds merit, but the irresponsible profit-driven and unethical approach it has been handled with throughout history have shaped it into a fringe research topic at its best, and a life-ruining horror at its worst.

What are social sciences
Social sciences began with the need to understand human behaviour throughout multiple aspects in society; how humans interact with each other and how they make decisions. Social sciences are a broad discipline that includes anthropology, sociology, social psychology, political science and economics.

Social sciences go back to Ancient Greece and their willingness to understand human nature, their morality and the social construction around a state of politics.

The term ‘social sciences’ was first brought by William Thompson in 1824 when he wrote his book An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the newly proposed system of voluntary equality of wealth.

From then, the discipline grew, mainly with the organisation of philosophers, the enlightenment philosopher that consisted of Denis Diderot, Baruch Spinoza, John Lock and Montesquieu.

Slowly social sciences entered universities, at first with research and then with it being taught for master students at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The end of World War II marks the increase in demand to study social sciences and especially political thinking to better understand the world.

History of Economics
Economics can be defined as the understanding of human behaviour when it comes to wanting unlimited goods in a world where there is a limited supply. Economics probably began in Ancient Greece when the poet Hesiod wrote economics precepts in his poem. During the Medieval Age, thinkers like Thomas Aquinas talked about the importance of private property. However, economics weren’t a real discipline or even a subject to talk about before the 18th century.

At the time, we talked about ‘political economy’ to understand how production and consumption were linked to the making of policies. The term ‘political economy’ changed for ‘economy’ thanks to the textbook Principles of Economics by Alfred Marshall with the rise of mathematical thinking to understand economics better.

The first time economics was studied dates back to the 19th century with the School of Salamanca in Spain.

Why is economics considered a social science?
Economics is considered to be the most scientific of social sciences. Indeed, the tools used to understand human behaviour in economics are mainly scientific, with the use of formulas, models, theories and hypotheses to prove their points. Likewise, studying economics in University and school requires, most of the time, a strong background in mathematics.

However, economics is considered a social science because its main purpose is to analyse, thanks to quantitative methods, human behaviour when it comes to having unlimited wants in a world where there is a limited supply. Economics is at the limit between social sciences and hard sciences has it uses hard science to prove human behaviour.

History of Anatomy
The anatomy of the human body has been an interest to scientists for a very long time. Therefore, what we might know today has notably changed and evolved since the beginning.

The first recorded school of anatomy was based in Alexandria, Egypt from approximately 300 to the 2nd century AD. Students were taught by two famous anatomists, Erasistratus and Herophilus, who would explain the structure of the human body by dissecting it publicly. These two anatomists were reportedly the last ones to perform a human dissection for education purposes.

Galen (129-216 CE) was one of the most renowned anatomists in history. For centuries, scientists used Galen’s work to learn about human anatomy. However, during his time, the dissection of a dead body wasn’t legal. Consequently, all of his discoveries on human anatomy were based on the dissection of animals, such as cats, dogs and monkeys.

During Renaissance, people’s interest in human anatomy grew much more and human dissection was permitted to anatomists. Andreas Vesalius, a physician, started comparing his discoveries to the work of Galen. To no surprise, there were a lot of inaccuracies in Galen’s books since he was relying on animal dissection. He released his own seven-volume book which was only based on human dissections. Andreas Vesalius was from then on known as the founder of modern anatomy.

Leonardo Da Vinci also contributed to the discipline of anatomy with his drawings and annotations of the human body, however much of Da Vinci’s work went unpublished for years. Due to Da Vinci’s own interdisciplinary talents, being an artist, sculptor and engineer, his drawings and dissections were also performed extremely skillfully, also having described coronary sinuses almost 200 years before they were officially named.

Since that time, scientists have built on Andreas Vesalius' knowledge and discovered more about the human body. As surgery and anatomy moved to academia during the late 17th and 18th centuries, anatomy became more systematically studied, driven by a demand for more effective medicine and the legitimisation of surgery as a medical practice. Moreover, the teaching of anatomy has changed from centuries ago. Dissecting in some schools is seen as outdated and in others it's still permitted.

Colonial beginnings
Social anthropology as a discipline began in the earth 20th century and gained momentum in the 1930s with an increase in financial backing. Social anthropology has its roots in colonialism as funding for research in the UK came from the British Colonial Office. The relationship between anthropologists and colonial authorities is described as “often uneasy, even occasionally combative”, yet the colonial context dictated the research performed from the 1920s through to the 1970s. In this context, research was often conducted in “exotic” (in the eyes of European researchers) communities far from the researcher's country of origin. The power dynamics in these situations were skewed and participants of research were exotified and commonly referred to as primitive, native and savage.

Key theoretical approaches
Inspired by the school of Durkheim and founded by anthropologists such as Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown, structural functionalism was the social anthropological approach that dominated British research within the field in the middle of the 20th century. With a focus on empirical data, structural functionalism sought to understand the communities studied through a scientific approach.

The American school of social anthropology took a more interpretive approach. With the release of Clifford Geertz’s book, The Interpretation of Culture (1973) social anthropologists welcomed a more flexible approach to research now known as the postmodernist era of social anthropology. Relevant issues in the discipline of today include migration, gender and ethnicity. Postmodernism in social anthropology also brought into light more critical approaches to ethnographic research such as postcolonialism, critical race criticism, feminism and marxism.

The reflexive turn
For a long time, scholars and researchers within social anthropology were a homogenous group consisting primarily of white, European males. With the empirical approach of structural functionalism, these researchers aspired to be as objective as possible in their studies and were unreflexive in their research. This proved problematic for the production of knowledge as it excluded a crucial aspect of ethnographic research: the impact of the researchers' positionality on their study. The reflexive turn refers to a change in approach where ethnographers started recognising aspects of their intersectional identities that limit, challenge, assist or otherwise impact the methods of their research. This has resulted in a production of knowledge that can be described as “openly subjective”. This approach aims to reduce the unequal power dynamic as well as reflect on the anthropologist’s own cultural biases in relation to their research.

Summary - contemporary social anthropology
As a result of its history, here briefly explained, social anthropology as a contemporary discipline has moved away from its colonial roots where the focus lay on understanding “primitive” and “exotic” societies from a place of superiority. Today the discipline focuses more on understanding cultures and communities, seeing research participants as collaborators in the production of knowledge rather than subjects of study, using critical theories to understand the colonial history of anthropology and reflecting on the researcher’s intersectional identity and positionality and the ways in which this affects the outcome of their ethnography.

Historical Prevalence
Environmental conservation aims to preserve and maintain various natural areas and resources, though there is debate on whether conservation should focus on maintaining environments for their own sakes, or in conjunction with humanity’s usage of them. Various forms of conservation have been employed throughout human history, such as crop rotations used to maintain the arability of land. Though some records date back further, Leviticus 25:4, written around the 6th century BC, references letting land lie fallow every seven years, which is a preliminary form of the modern-day strategies. Before it became a discipline, instances of environmental conservation were a response to population growth and therefore, a necessary means of survival.

Evolution to a Discipline
With the rise of European colonialism and an increased need for building materials, deforestation became a concern for academics of the time. John Evelyn, an English diarist and tree-specialist, published Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions in 1664, to call for reforestation after observing the excessive timber harvesting to keep up with military needs. It had support from the prestigious Royal Society. This was an influential work in forestry academia, as conservation shifted from a survival technique to a problem of potential higher scholarly merit. A century later, Reverend Jared Eliot published Essays Upon Field-Husbandry in New England, with conclusions pertaining to the ensuring of adequate soil maintenance, use of fertilizers, and management of irrigation and water runoff, after several years of experimentation and study. Ultimately, he correctly predicted problems that would occur as the population grew and land became less plentiful. As the issue worsened significantly with the Industrial Revolution and degradation began to show widespread effects, conservation’s promotion to a discipline led to the creation of higher educational degrees in Environmental Studies and related fields. Syracuse University was one of the first in the early 1950s, but it was followed by many other institutions, and today is a common staple at most multi-disciplinary universities.

Emergence Into Mainstream Concern
There occurred a revival of environmental debate in the 1960s, as Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring explained the world's bleak future given its reliance on excessive production and chemical usage. Around the same time, social ecology evolved the discipline further, courtesy of political philosopher Murray Bookchin, among others. The study of cultural and economic factors, among others, has become entrenched within the discipline as a valuable source of the cause and effect within climate change. Later on the 1980s, after concerns about carbon emissions grew too large to ignore, oil companies Shell and Exxon also carried out environmental research suggesting a 2 degree Celsius temperature increase within the next 50-80 years. The decades-long burial of these figures, in the interests of corporate success, highlights economic underpinnings that hinder effective environmental research, further strengthening the case of social ecology. Following those aforementioned corporate barriers, progression within the discipline has acquired another level of difficulty as governments across the world, such as the US and Brazil, also refuse to take science-backed action. Accounting for the enormous network of factors, setbacks, and misinformation occurring in the present day, environmental conservation has grown into a hugely complex field that, despite pushback, shows no sign of declining given the current precipitous position of humanity and its relation to the planet.

Psychology as a scientific discipline
Wilhelm Wundt is commonly referred to as the father of the modern discipline of psychology, having opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in 1879. His lab was the first psychology lab and its opening is often considered to be the start of psychology as a separate scientific discipline rather than a more vague philosophical one. . Wundt's school of thought is known as "structuralism" and this school of thought was also contributed to by Edward Titchener who had studied under Wundt.

Psychology as a philosophical discipline
It can also be argued that psychology as a holistic, more philosophical discipline began centuries ago in the Hellenic Age with writers and philosophers such as Homer, who discussed the human condition within the Iliad and the Odyssey. However, at this time, it wasn’t regarded as a scientific study, therefore it is difficult to determine whether it could be classified as the disciple of psychology.

Other schools of thought in psychology
A famous school of thought in psychology called “psychoanalysis” was developed by Freud in the 1890s and was an alternative to experimental psychology at the time that Wundt had opened his lab. Freud then, along with four other men, founded the “Psychological Wednesday Society” in 1902. Another dominant school of psychology is "Behaviourism" which became popular in the early 20th century. John B.Watson was one of the first psychologists to discuss the concept of "behaviourism," partially as a rejection of the older forms of psychology which had more philosophical roots.

Origins of the discipline
Ecology, despite being a relatively young discipline, has its roots as early as in the 4th century BC. During that time Aristotle and his student Theophrastus, both of whom devoted a substantial part of their works to the nature and behaviour of living organisms. Even though the latter attempted describing dependencies between animals and their environment, what may appear as a clearly ecological work, it can’t be classified as such in the modern sense. The reason for it is the very fact that, even while seeing the importance of the surroundings, animals and other living organisms were thought about in terms of essence, what led to a relatively static conception of nature.

Early modern approach
The next major contributions to the subject of ecology were made in the 18th century, mostly due to the emergence of colonial superpowers. As they run multiple expeditions in order to discover and conquer new lands, they were accompanied by many scientists whose job was to describe and classify new natural resources. German botanist Alexander von Humboldt was one of them. His work was of huge importance to the emergence of the discipline that is today known as ecology, as well as the ones closely related, such as botany, biogeography and meteorology. Similarly to his ancient predecessors, he focused on the relationship between organisms and their surroundings, however his view was much broader and his metodologies more specific, as he benefited from all the previous discoveries and entirely new lands. Humboldt was one of the first ones to take interest in the notions of climate and its changes.

Arguably the biggest breakthrough in the field took place after the publications of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859. Although it did not result in immediate ecologic change, it allowed thinking about nature in terms of natural selection and of ecosystems as dynamic and actively reacting to the environmental changes, what effectively overthrew the ideas of essentialism and idealism.

The term "ecology" was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866, he himself was a great advocate of acknowledgment of the links between the theory of evolution and ecological sciences.

During that time or shortly after came several other important contributions, such as discoveries of photosynthesis, description of symbiotic relationships or food chains that led to quick development in this freshly established field of science.

Contemporary view on Ecology
With the increasing level of knowledge came the increased level of generalisation, as (thanks to previous smaller-scale research) scientists were able to describe larger and larger systems. Soon, the concern of ecology became the whole ecosystem and relationships often ranging further than the surface of the singular continent. In the 21st century, ecological attention focuses mostly on anthropogenic changes affecting the whole planet, such as global warming and depleting natural resources.

Historical ecology

Historical ecology is a sub-discipline in ecology that studies the past and future of the relationship between humans and the environment. It takes into account other disciplines like geography, politics and even sociology to try and understand how this relationship between humans and the environment is shaping the world that we live in. It's a pluridisciplinarity project research that aims to gather decisions and outcomes from the past and put them to use for the future.

This discipline was first brought up after World War II because scholars were more and more interested in grasping concepts from different points of view which meant bringing together different disciplines around a subject.


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History

This is the sandbox page for the issue: History.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC0001/2020-21/Thursday2-3/Week1Introductions

Obsolete obscurantism

1. I survived 1 week in uninhabited island.

2. I picked 5 tones of apples in 10 days.

3. I have llamas as pets.

Obsolete obscurantism (discuss • contribs) 09:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6/James Everest/Chelsea Nicole Florea

·       I never had a dental cavity.

·      When I was a child I invented a language I can still speak.

·      I used to tell everyone I was Bill Gate's daughter.


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Type-oriented programming/Bounded type arguments

Consider the following code:

type Equatable { func equals(x Any) Bool }

type Complex : Equatable { property real Float property imag Float

func equals(x Any) Bool { if x is Complex then { var x = x as Complex return self.real == x.real & self.imag == x.imag }   return false } }

type Pair[T] { property first T property second T }

main { var x = new Complex { real=2.0, imag=3.0 } var y = new Complex { real=2.0, imag=3.0 } return x.equals(y) }

We now want to implement the  method also for  :

func equals(p Pair[T]) Bool { return self.first.equals(p.first) & self.second.equals(p.second) }

Note, however, that this code won’t compile since the compiler can’t be sure that  represents an equatable type. We need to change the declaration of  to

type Pair[T:Equatable] { ... }

Now it’s ensured that  is equatable and we can check pairs for equality:

main { var x = new Complex { real=2.0, imag=3.0 } var y = new Complex { real=2.0, imag=4.0 } var p1 = new Pair[Complex] { first=x, second=y } var p2 = new Pair[Complex] { first=x, second=y } return p1.equals(p2) }

Here, the  type argument is called bounded since there’s a type constraint placed on it.

NB: The pseudocode can be tried out using the Funcy app, which can be downloaded for free from Apple’s App Store (iOS/macOS), Google Play (Android) or Amazon Appstore. The code to be executed must be placed in a  block.


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Type-oriented programming/Functors

A functor is a type operator equipped with a  method declared as follows:

type Functor[T] { func map[U](f Func[T,U]) Self[U] }

The  method must satisfy some formal requirements that we ignore here for now. The important point is that  takes a function of type  (where   is a type argument of the method) and returns an instance of type , that is, the same functor possibly with a different type argument. You’ve already met the  functor:

type Maybe[T] : Functor[T] { property val T

func map[U](f Func[T,U]) Self[U] { return new Self[U] { val = self.val.isNil ? nil : f(self.val) } }

func description String { return self.val.isNil ? "none" : self.val.description } }

In the next section, we’ll use  to explain what a monad is and how a generic  type can be implemented.

NB: The pseudocode can be tried out using the Funcy app, which can be downloaded for free from Apple’s App Store (iOS/macOS), Google Play (Android) or Amazon Appstore. The code to be executed must be placed in a  block.

title: Type-oriented programming/Functors


text:
User:ÖMERÖZCAN123

MERHABA BU BENİM KULLANICIM VİKİPEDİYİ ÇOK SEVİYORUM

title: User:ÖMERÖZCAN123


text:
User:ÖMERÖZCAN123/sandbox

ÖYLESİNE

title: User:ÖMERÖZCAN123/sandbox


text:
Oberon/ETH Oberon/bootman

Using a boot manager, with application to ETH Oberon

Summary The next level of boot complexity is that of booting with the assistance of a boot manager. When a boot manager is installed, the genuine MBR installed with a particular OS is replaced and the notion of "active" partition becomes irrelevant. Instead, any partition, primary partition or logical drive in an extended partition can be booted. Some boot managers can also be cascaded.

More information on the subject can be found, for example, in the multi-booting article in Wikipedia.

OS-provided boot managers Many operating systems include a multi-boot facility which can be profited from.

Windows NT/2000

When Windows NT is installed after DOS was installed, the existing DOS boot sector is overwritten with the NT boot sector. But immediately before that, the DOS boot sector is copied to a file BOOTSECT.DOS (usually in the root of C:).

Windows NT/2000 Multiboot

When MS-DOS is selected from the NT boot menu, NTLDR runs BOOTSECT.DOS, which in turn loads IO.SYS, loading DOS.

Starting ETH Oberon using a boot manager The Windows NT/2000 boot manager can be recommended as simple to use and as reliable, but plenty of competitors offer equivalent products. It's principal advantage is that it does not capture a primary partition for itself.

From the Oberon point of view, this boot manager can be installed on a new, bare hard disk which will host only DOS in the first primary partition and any number of Native/Active Oberon partitions (primary or logical).

The installation can be conducted with Oberon facilities in a hand's turn, provided a source machine with a Windows/DOS combination is available.

On the source machine:
 * Execute Partitions.PartitionToFile dev#part MBR.Bin 0 1 ~
 * Backup MBR.Bin to a diskette
 * Copy C:\NTLDR, C:\BOOTSECT.DOS, C:\BOOT.INI to the diskette

On the destination machine awaiting the installation of DOS and Oberon on a (new) hard disk: [boot loader] timeout=30 default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(3)\WINNT [operating systems] multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(3)\WINNT="Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional" /fastdetect C:\ = "MS-DOS" C:\dev#part.MBR = "ETH Oberon / PC Native dd.mm.yy"
 * Install DOS in a primary partition. Choose among MS-DOS, IBM-DOS, Caldera DOS; even an old version will do. Be cautious with FreeDOS, since experimenting with the current version was not successful.
 * Copy NTLDR, BOOTSECT.DOS, BOOT.INI from the diskette to C:\
 * Execute Partitions.WriteMBR dev#0 MBR.Bin ~
 * Install Native Oberon from an Oberon-0 diskette. Remember that a primary partition can be created with Oberon.
 * Execute Partitions.PartitionToFile dev#part dev#part.MBR 0 1 ~
 * Copy dev#part.MBR to C:\
 * Edit BOOT.INI as ASCII file in Oberon to condition it to boot Native Oberon

A selection of third-party boot managers Here is a workable grub file for dual booting Linux and Bluebottle submitted by Alan Freed - Alan.D.Freed at nasa.gov # grub.conf generated by anaconda #     # Note that you do not have to rerun grub after making changes to this file # NOTICE: You have a /boot partition. This means that #         all kernel and initrd paths are relative to /boot/, eg.      #          root (hd0,0) #         kernel /vmlinuz-version ro root=/dev/hda3 #         initrd /initrd-version.img #boot=/dev/hda default=1 timeout=10 splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/splash.xpm.gz     password --md5 title Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-18.8.0) root (hd0,0) kernel /vmlinuz-2.4.18-18.8.0 ro root=LABEL=/ hdb=ide-scsi initrd /initrd-2.4.18-18.8.0.img title Bluebottle rootnoverify (hd1,0) chainloader +1
 * BootMagic - a feature of PartitionMagic
 * GRUB - GRand Unified Bootloader

 * Masterbooter
 * XOSL - Extended Operating System Loader
 * Smart Boot Manager
 * Boot-US
 * GAG
 * MATTSoft Boot Manager
 * BootManager.com
 * kBootManager
 * OSL2000 Boot Manager - An Advanced Multi Boot Manager
 * Oberon Boot Manager

Example of application: a boot manager to control 39 separate, fully functional operating systems, including ETH Oberon, on a machine, by Richard Robbins. This site also provides an insight on multiboot solutions and problems.

[Top] ''18 Mar 2003 - Copyright © 2003 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved.''

E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch [expired]

Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ [expired]

title: Oberon/ETH Oberon/bootman


text:
User:HMaloigne

This is my user page for teaching on the course BASC0001 Approaches to Knowledge, 2020-2021.

title: User:HMaloigne


text:
User:Jadaireu/sandbox

Welcome to my sandbox (is it currently working ? )

1- I can speak 4 languages

2- I don't know how to swim

3- My mom is a good cooker

title: User:Jadaireu/sandbox


text:
User:Hiugdghj

Heyy

title: User:Hiugdghj


text:
User talk:136.228.206.219

Please stop
-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:40, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

--Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 22:59, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:136.228.206.219


text:
User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6/Juliette Hart

1. I've broken 4 bones 2. I've swam with reef sharks 3. I don't know how to ride a bike


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Samuel Walker McGowan

Samuel Walker McGowan
Samuel Walker McGowan was the eldest son of the late Mr. Samual McGowan, of Kingston, Ontario, Canada, and was born on January 4, 1829. He was educated at the Midland District Grammar School, Kingston, and subsequently studied for the legal profession, but owing to the death of his father in 1847, he abandoned law in favour of science. He became a pupil of the late Professor Morse, the inventor of the Morse system of telegraphy, and under him made himself thoroughly acquainted with the whole of the details of the working of the electric telegraph. He subsequently widened his experience by accepting engagements with several telegraph companies in Canada and the United States. In 1852, when the news of the gold discoveries in Victoria had begun to be circulated, Mr. McGowan, acting on the advice of his old instructor, Professor Morse, determined to venture to Australia. At the suggestion of the same eminent authority he decided to bring with him to the colonies a complete equipment of telegraph instruments and a first-class electrician. The voyage to Australia was made in the ship Glance, and after a somewhat lengthy passage Mr. McGowan landed in Melbourne early in the year 1853. No telegraph then existed in the colony, and Mr. McGowan, appreciating the value of establishing communication between the goldfields and Melbourne, opened negotiations with a few influential capitalists with the view of floating a company to erect lines between Sandhurst and Ballarat and Melbourne, and subsequently to the capitals of the adjoining colonies. When the venture appeared to have every chance of a successful issue the Government intervened. At first disinclined to accept the responsibility of availing themselves of the discoveries of Professor Morse, they at length recognised their great utility and worth. Mr. McGowan and his fellow speculators were then informed that should they form a company their application for authority to build lines would be resisted to the utmost. At the same time overtures were made to Mr McGowan to join the public service. Finally Governor Latrobe solicited an interview with him, and at the meeting offered to give him control of the state system of telegraphs if he would accept an engagement from the Government. With nothing but the prospect of great opposition from the authorities if he did not agree to their terms, Mr. McGowan after a few days' deliberation signified to His Excellency his willingness to accept state employ. In the meantime the Government had issued tenders for the construction of a line of telegraph between Williamstown and Melbourne, and a contract was entered into by Mr. McGowan to complete the work, which he did to the satisfaction of the authorities. To him, therefore, belongs the honour of having not only been one of the first men in Victoria to direct public attention to the immense possibilities of telegraphy, but also of having taken the first step to bring the system into operation in the colony, if not in the whole of Australia. The line from Williamstown was completed in January, 1854, and thrown open to the use of the public in March of the same year. The Government, however, could not legally charge for the transmission of messages until after the passage of the Electric Telegraph Bill, the second reading which was moved on March 31 of that year by the then Attorney-General, Sir William F. Stawell. It was at this time that the control of the new department was vested in Mr. McGowan, to whom it was a matter of great pride that he should have been thus intimately associated with its creation. From 1854 until 1869, Mr. McGowan acted as superintendent of telegraphs, and it was under his personal supervision and direction that the majority of the lines radiating from Melbourne to every part of the colony were constructed. When in 1869 the Government decided, for the purpose of promoting the efficiency of the Postal and Telegraph departments, to unite them under the control of one permanent head, Mr. McGowan was given the position of inspector of post and telegraph services, and superintending officer of tele-graph construction. This office was held by him until July, 1883, when, on the transference of Mr. T. W. Jackson to the vacant commissionership of audit, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general. He continued to act in that capacity until the beginning of 1886, when, in consequence of ill health and his long and efficient service, he was granted extended leave of absence to enable him to visit Europe and America. The Government, in view of his practical knowledge of electricity, instructed him while abroad to collect all available data relating to recent inventions in telegraphy and telephony. Letters of credit were furnished to him and with these at his disposal he was enabled not only to visit the state establishments of Great Britain and of several of the continental nations, but also to inspect the telephone systems conducted by private enterprise in the new and the old world. When the negotiations for the purchase of the business of the Victorian Telephone Exchange Company were abruptly terminated, the agent-general was instructed to communicate with Mr. McGowan, who was then in the counties, as to the best system of telephone communication inspected by him while abroad. Mr. McGowan proceeded to London, where he had several interviews with the agent-general on the subject. He finally sailed from England for Melbourne about the beginning of March. Mr. McGowan during his absence not only visited England, Scotland, Ireland and the chief cities on the Continent, but he also made an extended tour through the United States and Canada. An account of journeying, together with an interesting statement of the result of his inquiries relative to recent developments in electricity as applied to the working of telegraphs and telephones, and of his interviews with Sir George Stephens, president of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, Mr. Pender, chairman of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company, and other celebrities, appeared in the columns of The Argus of April 12. The mass of information collected by Mr. McGowan was being framed by him, at the time he was seized with his fatal illness, into a report for presentation to the Postmaster-General. It is a national loss that his labours in this respect should have been unfinished, because they would have embodied the observations of one of the most skilled experts in telegraphic matters south of the equator. Mr. McGowan was married on June 30, 1857, to the eldest daughter of the late Major H. W. Benson, of Kingston, Ontario, Canada. He left a widow and four children — two daughters and two sons. The eldest daughter was married to Mr. W. L. Lempriere, of Sydney; and his eldest son, Mr. Samuel Benson McGowan, practised as a solicitor near Gembrook. His second daughter accompanied S. W. McGowan and Mrs. McGowan to England. The news of his death was received with great regret by the Postmaster-General, the officials of the Postal department, and by a large circle of friends.

A comprehensive biography of Samuel Walker McGowan has not yet been prepared, however the following resources have been assembled in preparation:

 * Transcriptions and Notes - Samuel Walker McGowan - More than 10 transcriptions and notes

 * Photos, QSL cards and other graphics - Samuel Walker McGowan - Nothing uploaded as yet

 * Frank Randell Bradley's 1934 article on the History of the Electric Telegraph in Australia - Essentially complete excepting formatting

 * B. McMahon's 1939 article on "The Early History of the Telegraph Electrical Society, Melbourne"

 * Work-in-progress of Wikipedia Article on Samuel Walker McGowan - Not yet started

In the National Library of Australia's Trove website, more than 200 articles (Newspapers & Gazettes) have been tagged as "Samuel Walker McGowan" (search publictag:Samuel Walker McGowan)

A search in Trove on "Samuel Walker McGowan" and "S. W. McGowan" identifies more than 200 articles, the majority of which refer to Samuel Walker McGowan, those tagged to date are a quick review to identify the most important for this Wikibook. Articles transcribed for Notes are tagged: "!Wikibooks - McGowan". Articles reviewed and considered either duplicates of other articles or not of sufficient importance for inclusion are tagged: "!Wikibooks - McGowan Not"


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Samuel Walker McGowan/Notes

1887 04
Comprehensive obituary for McGowan DEATH OF THE DEPUTY POSTMASTER GENERAL. It is with regret that we have to announce the death of Mr. S. W. McGowan, deputy postmaster-general, which occurred at the George Hotel, St Kilda, early yesterday evening. Mr. McGowan only returned from a twelve month's tour through Great Britain, Europe, and America, on Saturday, the 9th inst, and as he was apparently in the best of health when he landed, his decease was both sudden and unexpected. The day after his arrival he complained of slight indisposition, but on the following Wednesday his illness appeared to be of so trifling a character that he paid an official visit to the Postmaster-General during the course of the forenoon at the General Post-office. Towards the evening, however, the symptoms of his disorder became more pronounced, and as he subsequently grew gradually worse he was compelled to confine himself to his room and seek medical advice. It was then discovered that he was suffering from congestion of the liver and other dis-orders of a complicated nature. Remedial measures were adopted, and although Drs. Williams and Girdlestone were called in to consult with Dr. Coupar Johnson, Mr. McGowan gradually sank, and died at 9 o'clock last night.

The deceased gentleman was the eldest son of the late Mr. S. McGowan, of Kingston, Ontario, Canada, and was born on January 4, 1829. He was educated at the Midland District Grammar School, Kingston, and subsequently studied for the legal profession, but owing to the death of his father he abandoned law in favour of science. He became a pupil of the late Professor Morse, the inventor of the Morse system of telegraphy, and under him made him-self thoroughly acquainted with the whole of the details of the working of the electric telegraph. He subsequently widened his experience by accepting engagements with several telegraph companies in Canada and the United States. In 1852, when the news of the gold discoveries in Victoria had begun to be circulated, Mr. McGowan, acting on the advice of his old instructor, Professor Morse, determined to venture to Australia. At the suggestion of the same eminent authority he decided to bring with him to the colonies a complete equipment of telegraph instruments and a first-class electrician. The voyage to Australia was made in the ship Glance, and after a somewhat lengthy passage Mr. McGowan landed in Melbourne early in the year 1853. No telegraph then existed in the colony, and Mr. McGowan, appreciating the value of establishing communication between the goldfields and Melbourne, opened negotiations with a few influential capitalists with the view of floating a company to erect lines between Sandhurst and Ballarat and Melbourne, and subsequently to the capitals of the adjoining colonies. When the venture appeared to have every chance of a successful issue the Government intervened. At first disinclined to accept the responsibility of availing themselves of the discoveries of Professor Morse, they at length recognised their great utility and worth. Mr. McGowan and his fellow speculators were then informed that should they form a company their application for authority to build lines would be resisted to the utmost. At the same time overtures were made to Mr McGowan to join the public service. Finally Governor Latrobe solicited an interview with him, and at the meeting offered to give him control of the state system of telegraphs if he would accept an engagement from the Government. With nothing but the prospect of great opposition from the authorities if he did not agree to their terms, Mr. McGowan after a few days' deliberation signified to His Excellency his willingness to accept state employ. In the meantime the Government had issued tenders for the construction of a line of telegraph between Williamstown and Melbourne, and a contract was entered into by Mr. McGowan to complete the work, which he did to the satisfaction of the authorities. To him, therefore, belongs the honour of having not only been one of the first men in Victoria to direct public attention to the immense possibilities of telegraphy, but also of having taken the first step to bring the system into operation in the colony, if not in the whole of Australia. The line from Williamstown was completed in January, 1854, and thrown open to the use of the public in March of the same year. The Government, however, could not legally charge for the transmission of messages until after the passage of the Electric Telegraph Bill, the second reading which was moved on March 31 of that year by the then Attorney-General, Sir William F. Stawell. It was at this time that the control of the new department was vested in Mr. McGowan, to whom it was a matter of great pride that he should have been thus intimately associated with its creation. From 1854 until 1869, Mr. McGowan acted as superintendent of telegraphs, and it was under his personal supervision and direction that the majority of the lines radiating from Melbourne to every part of the colony were constructed. When in 1869 the Government decided, for the purpose of promoting the efficiency of the Postal and Telegraph departments, to unite them under the control of one permanent head, Mr. McGowan was given the position of inspector of post and telegraph services, and superintending officer of tele-graph construction. This office was held by him until July, 1883, when, on the transference of Mr. T. W. Jackson to the vacant commissionership of audit, he was appointed deputy postmaster-general. He continued to act in that capacity until the beginning of 1886, when, in consequence of ill health and his long and efficient service, he was granted extended leave of absence to enable him to visit Europe and America. The Government, in view of his practical knowledge of electricity, instructed him while abroad to collect all available data relating to recent inventions in telegraphy and telephony. Letters of credit were furnished to him and with these at his disposal he was enabled not only to visit the state establishments of Great Britain and of several of the continental nations, but also to inspect the telephone systems conducted by private enterprise in the new and the old world. When the negotiations for the purchase of the business of the Victorian Telephone Exchange Company were abruptly terminated, the agent-general was instructed to communicate with Mr. McGowan, who was then in the counties, as to the best system of telephone communication inspected by him while abroad. Mr. McGowan proceeded to London, where he had several interviews with the agent-general on the subject. He finally sailed from England for Melbourne about the beginning of March. Mr. McGowan during his absence not only visited England, Scotland, Ireland and the chief cities on the Continent, but he also made an extended tour through the United States and Canada. An account of journeying, together with an interesting statement of the result of his inquiries relative to recent developments in electricity as applied to the working of telegraphs and telephones, and of his interviews with Sir George Stephens, president of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, Mr. Pender, chairman of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company, and other celebrities, appeared in the columns of The Argus of April 12. The mass of information collected by Mr. McGowan was being framed by him, at the time he was seized with his fatal illness, into a report for presentation to the Postmaster-General. It is a national loss that his labours in this respect should have been unfinished, because they would have embodied the observations of one of the most skilled experts in telegraphic matters south of the equator. Mr. McGowan was married on June 30, 1857, to the eldest daughter of the late Major H. W. Benson, of Kingston, Ontario, Canada. He leaves a widow and four children — two daughters and two sons. The eldest daughter is married to Mr. W. L. Lempriere, of Sydney; and his eldest son, Mr. S. B. McGowan, is at present practising as a solicitor near Gembrook. His second daughter accompanied him and Mrs. McGowan to England. The news of his death has been received with great regret by the Postmaster-General, the officials of the Postal department, and by a large circle of friends.


text:
User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5/Félicitie Mason

1. I don't know how to inflate a balloon 2. I don't know to swing (on a swing) 3. I don't know how to snap my fingers


text:
Template:The Linux Kernel/doc

doc Usage:

Result: EOL

title: Template:The Linux Kernel/doc


text:
User talk:OvertAnalyzer

Welcome
Welcome to Wikibooks, OvertAnalyzer!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
 * Please fill in the edit summary and preview your edits before saving.
 * Sign your name on discussion pages by typing ~~~~
 * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the Gadgets tab of my preferences; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit save!

--Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 02:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

Categories
Hi. I saw your comment at Wikipedia sister project links, and your Category:California here.

Your attention to sister projects is greatly appreciated.

The thing is, that isn't how we use categories on Wikibooks. In fact, we've been working for several years on the problem of providing a specific page on arbitrary topics, suitable for incoming links from sister projects, and we still haven't yet actually got a solution in place. The closest thing we have atm is shelves, which are tied together in the book Wikibooks Stacks, but shelves only classify books, not pages in books. You can read about the current initiative at Reading room/Proposals, and the history of our infrastructure at Wikibooks Stacks/History. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 02:15, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello Thank you for taking the time to help me understand how Wikibooks operates, and how it is organized. Based on what I understand so far, it doesn't sound like Wikibooks has a good way to group all books and pages related to a specific topic. I was hoping there would be something equivelant to the old fashioned card catalogues that would point to all the materials on a particular topic. On one hand, it's good to see there is a plan to restrict how categories are used within Wikibooks. I've always felt categories on Wikipedia are a bit chaotic, duplicative, and not particularly intuitive. On the other hand I'm disappointed Wikibooks doesn't seem to have a way to group information by topic. My concern with creating a page for "arbitary topics" is you would end up duplicating what is already on Wikipedia. If, for example, I created a specific page for California on Wikibooks, it seems it would end up duplicating a lot of what is already on Wikipedia. Personally, I would prefer to maintain the information about California on Wikipedia, then point readers to a catalogue of books they might find useful on Wikibooks. I'll continue reading more about Wikibooks and its organization so I understand it better. Thanks again for you help. --OvertAnalyzer (discuss • contribs) 21:24, 10 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Would it be appropriate to create a Shelf for California that grouped all books related to California? --OvertAnalyzer (discuss • contribs) 21:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

 * This is all very relevant to me, as this sort of infrastructure is something I've been chipping away at for years. (Sorry if I get overenthusiastic about it; I will get to your question about a Shelf:California, below.)  It appears that when Wikibooks was first set up, folks here understimated the difficulty of several aspects of growing a library of books, one of which was that organizing the collection of books is not so easy.  (Though I do like that we haven't attempted to adopt some hierarchy from another collection with different dynamics, such as the Library of Congress; our circumstances here are unique to us, and imho our solutions should be customized for us, too.)
 * Over the past several years I've undertaken some systemic changes, leading to the Wikibooks Stacks, which is mostly completed but has stalled atm because there are certain templates I should adapt from the old subjects system to the new shelves system that are so confusing I had trouble figuring out how to change them, and I lost my momentum on the undertaking. But that effort-to-rearrange really started with the insight I've gained into the problem of sister-links by working on infrastructure at Wikinews.  A Wikinews "topic cat" corresponds to a Wikipedia article (something we have to watch carefully on Wikidata, to point out when occasionally someone starts to do it wrong), and then each topic-category has a bunch of explicit sister links to related pages on other projects (example).  But I've set up a slew of these topic cats, and there's almost never any corresponding page on Wikibooks (the other project I'm an admin on, so I really notice this).  I really wanted to have categories of this sort; but we already have two different major kinds of categories — book categories and shelf categories.  I've added explicit prefixes to those, in order to keep track of which categories are which —like Category:Book:Algebra and Category:Shelf:Algebra—, and if I can get finished with the cleanup from that, I hope to create another set of categories with a third prefix that would support topic categories, that can categorize modules within a book as well as books as a whole, and thus serve as targets for sister links from other projects.
 * One thing we've got pretty neatly set up at Wikibooks is using categories to keep track of the constellation of pages associated with a book. It was a real improvement to our infrastructure when I set up a book, Wikibooks Stacks, to contain the whole hierarchy of shelves (and the departments at the top of the hierarchy); and I'm in the process of setting up a similar arrangement, modeled on book categories, for keeping track of the constellation of pages associated with an assistant.
 * Books differ from encyclopedia articles in at least two important ways: books are more coherent at a larger scale than encyclopedia articles, and books can go much more in-depth than encyclopedia articles. (There may be some other really important things I'm forgetting, but those are two important things that come to mind atm.)  There's no reason for either Wikibooks or Wikipedia to worry about "duplicating" information that's also in the other; as I say, Wikibooks can go into more depth and is organized differently, and if at any given moment there's some information-overlap between the two projects, that's as may be.
 * Regarding your suggestion for a Shelf:California: I did consider that possibility. It turns out, though, we don't even have a shelf for the United States.  It seems as if we could have a United States shelf, but we don't yet, and it would take some careful thought to how to set it up well, and it seems like we'd want to do that before tackling Shelf:California.  Then we'd want to think through the candidate books to go on a Shelf:California.
 * (addendum) There's also some question of where to put these shelves, in the hierarchy. (00:32, 11 October 2020 (UTC))
 * I'm frustrated to find that if you use Special:Search for a category containing, say, "Algebra", the shelf is ridiculously far down the list of matches. If the search is in mainspace, Shelf:Algebra is more than three-quarters of the way down a list of almost three thousand pages; and even in category space, where there are only 64 matches, Category:Shelf:Algebra is number 23.  Some thought seems warranted on how best to integrate the activity of topic-searching with whatever gets put in place for topic-categories.  (I wonder if there should be another book for this, just as there was Wikibooks Stacks for shelves, or perhaps should Wikibooks Stacks itself somehow incorporate the new pages?)
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 23:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:OvertAnalyzer


text:
User:Colan8633

Keyonte Covington

title: User:Colan8633


text:
College Survival Guide/Social Life

Hazing
Some campus organizations will have an initiation. Some of these rituals are relatively harmless, such as a short chant or oath. However when these initiations include hazing, they have gone too far, and can harm yourself, the organization, and the rest of the campus community. For example if a group asks you to streak across campus, you may impress that specific group by doing that. However, to everyone else on campus, you'll be the person who publicly ran nude in front of students, visiting tour groups, professors, and administrative staff. Even if you somehow evade the campus police, someone is probably going post a video of it online that could haunt you professionally later. Serious private hazing is no better, and there is usually several deaths in the United States every year which can be attributed to hazing incidents.

Guide to drinking
In most college towns, drinking is a part of life, and often a major part of the local culture.

A good drink is meant to be savored with friends over a period of time. Know your limits, both physically and financially - there's nothing wrong with keeping it to a single drink for the night. Don't leave your drink unattended, and make sure Alcohol is ok to drink with any medications you might be on.

Casual drinking can be a nice way to spend time with friends, but drinking too much is bad for your academic career, and life in general. Poor quality sleep and hangovers can make classwork the next day difficult. Drinking a lot of alcohol frequently gets expensive fast, and getting your stomach pumped or dealing with liver damage isn't fun.

If you want to abstain from drinking or just don't feel like drinking on some nights, that is absolutely fine. Hanging out with inebriated friends, watching drunk antics while sober, and safely acting as their designated driver can be its own unique reward.

ABV
Keep in mind that some alcohol is much stronger than others: a glass of light beer and a glass of vodka are not equivalent. Alcohol by Volume is the measurement of how much alcohol is in a drink. In general, low ABV drinks are enjoyed by themselves, and high ABV drinks are served in smaller amounts, or diluted as part of a mix, such as in a cocktail.

Below is a quick guide to typical ABV. Each individual drink has its own value, and some drinks vary significantly.
 * Beer and cider is around 6% ABV or less.
 * Wine and mead is about 12% ABV.
 * Liqueurs range from 15% ABV to 50% ABV.
 * Whisky, Rum, Brandy, and Gin typically range 40% ABV - 60% ABV.
 * Vodka and Absinthe can range from 40% ABV to 90% ABV.

title: College Survival Guide/Social Life


text:
User:Inorganic-Yogi/sandbox

Evidence is the foundation upon which academic disciplines are built. Having a firm knowledge base is an integral step in the process of subject matter becoming a discipline, but this can only be achieved through the use of evidence to either quantify or qualify the knowledge and data appropriately. Evidence can, however, cause conflict and issues within a discipline if used incorrectly or if the definition of evidence itself is contested between individuals, as has been seen in evidence-based medicine (EBM). EBM has been defined as 'the conscientious, explicit, judicious and reasonable use of modern, best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients,' integrating 'clinical experience and patient values with the best available research information.' This definition really raises the question of what evidence fundamentally is, who has the authority to classify something as evidence and how to distinguish between varying qualities of evidence - evidence therefore has the potential to cause a lot of conflict within the discipline and those involved.

title: User:Inorganic-Yogi/sandbox


text:
User talk:GSS

--Synoman Barris (discuss • contribs) 12:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:GSS


text:
User talk:BOWLING

--Synoman Barris (discuss • contribs) 12:54, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:BOWLING


text:
User talk:LangMan1642

Welcome
Welcome to Wikibooks, LangMan1642!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
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 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
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Cheers Jules  (Mrjulesd) 17:21, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:LangMan1642


text:
User talk:Wkee4ager

Welcome!
I'm not a frequent user. If you want to increase your chances of getting in touch I recommend to head over to my global user talk page.

title: User talk:Wkee4ager


text: Category:Book:Type-oriented programming

title: Category:Book:Type-oriented programming


text: Category:Book:Hand knitting (beginner to intermediate)


text:
User:ExamSet

ExamSet is a safe learning organisation which is enforcing the learning of igcse students. This forum is to help igcse students cling on to something that can help them. View us on YouTube where we publish educational videos on chemistry, physics and biology. When you visit our YouTube channel you might find out that the are no published educational videos this is because getting the videos produced is taking time. You may check us out on; Facebook, Telegram. CEO- Oarabile Koore.

title: User:ExamSet


text:
User talk:96.227.114.130

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks! You do not need to log in to read or edit books at Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * A username of your choice for directly attributing your contributions.
 * A personal user page, a talk page, and a watchlist to monitor pages that interest you.
 * The ability to rename pages and to customize some aspects of the Wikibooks interface.
 * People will recognize you as a member of the Wikibooks community, and you will be eligible to review pages as you gain experience.
 * Your IP address will be hidden from most users, which may give you a greater sense of security and privacy.

We hope that you choose to join our community as a Wikibookian and create an account.

Feel free to ask any questions on my talk page or in the Reading room. Be sure to sign your talk page comments with four tildes ( ~ ). JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 21:05, 10 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:96.227.114.130


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/April 21

Today in 2005 the alternative BitKeeper client SourcePuller was released. It was built on a reverse engineered implementation of the BitKeeper source code management protocol for the Linux kernel developers by Andrew Tridgell. The disgruntled developer of the origrinal proprietary BitKeeper software denied the kernel developers continued free use of its software, which led to the development of the free replacements Mercurial and the enormously popular Git.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/April 27

Today in 1995 the first version (0.6.2) of the Apache HTTP Server was released, a fork of the NCSA HTTPd 1.3 that initially comprised just a set of patches.


text:
The Linux Kernel/PCI

⚲ Most used API
🗝 Acronyms:
 * ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
 * ACS - Access Control Service
 * AER - Advanced Error Reporting port service
 * ASPM - Active State Power Management
 * EDR - Error Disconnect Recover
 * FLR - function level reset
 * HT - Hypertransport
 * BAR - Base Address Registers
 * BW - Bandwidth
 * DPC - Downstream Port Containment port service
 * EP - Endpoint
 * mmrbc - maximum memory read byte count
 * mps - maximum payload size
 * MWI - Memory-Write-Invalidate
 * PM - Power Management
 * PMC - ... ... Controller
 * PME - ... ... Event, port service
 * SR-IOV - Single-root input/output virtualization
 * VF - virtual functions

⚲ User space API:

Querying information from a shell:
 * -vv
 * column -t /proc/bus/pci/devices

 * ,, - pci device information handling

⚲ Kernel space API:

 * - has vendor, device and class IDs. It is used for probing.
 * - the central struct
 * - helper macro to register pci_driver. It uses and.
 * - device descriptor
 * , - must be called in probe and remove callbacks of pci_driver.
 * / or, / ,
 * /, or
 * / or, / ,
 * /, or
 * / or, / ,
 * /, or
 * /, or

👁 Examples:
 * PCI Linux Driver Template

📚 PCI subsystem docs
, newer on the top:

X86_REROUTE_FOR_BROKEN_BOOT_IRQS

pci=ioapicreroute

Querying information from shell:

find /sys/kernel/config/pci_ep/

EPC - EP Controller:

,

EPF - EP Function:

Internals:

Driver to test endpoint functionality:

, 2009

API:, ,

, 2008

MSI Example:

vectors = (pci_dev, 1, 1, PCI_IRQ_MSI | PCI_IRQ_MSIX); irq = (pci_dev, 0);

, 2006

API:, , ,

API:, ,

, 2004

API: ,,

,, ,

💾 Historical:
 * LDD3:PCI Drivers
 * LDD3:PCI Drivers, pdf
 * http://www.tldp.org/LDP/tlk/dd/pci.html

📚 References
 * https://wiki.osdev.org/PCI
 * https://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/#PCI
 * https://wiki.osdev.org/PCI
 * https://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/#PCI

title: The Linux Kernel/PCI


text:
User talk:Braveheidi

Welcome
Welcome to Wikibooks, Braveheidi!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
 * Please fill in the edit summary and preview your edits before saving.
 * Sign your name on discussion pages by typing ~~~~
 * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the Gadgets tab of my preferences; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit save!

Hi I've answered your questions on my talk. But basically everything is fine. Cheers Jules  (Mrjulesd) 12:35, 11 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Braveheidi


text:
Oberon/ETH Oberon/bootdos

Booting an OS using another OS, with application to ETH Oberon

Summary An operating system is started first. Then, using a program running in that environment, a further operating system is started. That program is able to start a kernel of the goal OS stored in a file in a DOS directory. The procedures for starting ETH Oberon and Linux in this way are so similar that everything boils down to this simple statement: the DOS-program noboot.exe is to ETH Oberon what loadlin is to Linux. This should become clear when looking at the example CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files below.

The correspondance is as follows (the names are indicative, not imperative):  File name      ETH Oberon       Linux DOS program    noboot.exe       loadlin.exe Kernel in file native.bin       zimage Configuration  native.par       linux.par Start program  native.bat       startlin.bat It is not even necessary to have a (minimal) DOS partition on hard disk. A DOS boot diskette is enough.

Advantage: Adding a partition does modify the partition table in the MBR, but apart from that the MBR is not altered. Hence, the danger of malignous side effects due the addition of an OS, like ETH Oberon, to a system is minimized. The partition can be placed anywhere.

How to start ETH Oberon from DOS The following was tested with MS-DOS only but should also be applicable to IBM DOS, Caldera DOS and IBM DOS 2000. noboot is the DOS program which loads the Oberon kernel stored in a DOS directory in a file usually named "native.bin". The load process is directed by configuration specifications contained in another file (usually "native.par") stored in the same directory. noboot integrates itself seamless in an existing DOS or Windows 95/98 environment and can be used with most of the boot managers.

noboot requires a bare-bone DOS system and no more. If Oberon fails to start, e.g. hangs in the middle of the boot process, analyze the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files and REM the lines related to memory management. In particular, those mentioning HIGH, or those involving the use of EMS or XMS. Alternatively, force Oberon to enter debug mode using the option -d mentioned below.

Start Oberon at the DOS prompt by executing the command:  noboot [-dptv] kernel params -d     debug mode. Trace data is then presented on the console -p     don't reset the processor -t     trace mode (no boot) -v     verbose message output kernel kernel image filename (usually: native.bin) params parameter filename (usually: native.par)

How to start Oberon from Windows 95/98 If the running system is Windows 95/98, MS-DOS 7.0 is be started by restarting Windows in DOS mode or by pressing Shift-F5 when Windows starts. noboot is started in DOS-mode from the user interface. A special icon native.ico is provided for that purpose.

It is not possible to switch directly from Windows NT to Oberon. A DOS boot diskette or an additional, minimal DOS partition must be started in that case, via a boot manager for example.

Using a DOS/Win9x boot menu Example files for constructing a DOS/Win9x boot menu These example texts control the access to three co-resident Oberon systems: MS-DOS, Oberon, Linux.

1 - Example NATIVE\NATIVE.PAR file  MT="PS2" MP="1" MB="-3" DMASize="14800H" Display="S3Trio." Init="bb0501b8024fcd10" DWidth="1024" DHeight="768" DDepth="8" 2 - Example CONFIG.SYS  [Menu] Menuitem=dos, MS-DOS 6.21 Menuitem=native, Oberon in own partition (primary or logical drive) Menuitem=linux, SuSE Linux 6.1 - using loadlin Menudefault=dos, 20
 * 1) Configuration generated by Oberon-0

[common] ... [dos] ... [native] [linux]

3 - Example AUTOEXEC.BAT  @echo off rem Editor for noboot (hold Shift-key or activate ScrollLock) set editor=c:\dos\edit.com goto %config%

 * dos

... goto end

 * native

cd native native

 * linux

cd loadlin linux hda6

 * end

4 - Example NATIVE\NATIVE.BAT  @echo off rem Run this under DOS or in MS-DOS mode under Windows 9x. rem Does not work under Windows 3.11 or NT. rem rem To create an icon for starting Oberon: rem 1. Create a shortcut to "native.bat" (the icon native.ico is provided). rem 2. Right-click on the shortcut and select "Properties" from the menu. rem 3. Click "Program" tab, then "Advanced..." and select "MS-DOS mode". rem 4. Confirm the setting by clicking on "OK".

if not exist native.par goto usage

rem Show boot status at top left cls echo. - ETH Native Oberon booting...

rem DOS commands may be inserted here before Oberon starts. rem E.g. a command to set the correct display refresh rate.

noboot native.bin native.par

rem We should never get back here goto end

 * usage

echo Please change to the directory containing the installed ETH Native Oberon

 * end

How to start Oberon from Windows NT/2000 Example Windows NT boot manager file BOOT.INI  [boot loader] timeout=30 default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(2)\WINNT [operating systems] multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(2)\WINNT= "Windows NT Workstation Version 4.00" multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(2)\WINNT= "Windows NT Workstation Version 4.00 [VGA mode]" /basevideo /sos C:\ = "DOS boot menu" C:\bootlinx.bin="LILO menu (SuSE Linux 6.1)"

[Top] ''20 Nov 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved.''

E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch

Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch

title: Oberon/ETH Oberon/bootdos


text:
Oberon/ETH Oberon/bootfile

Booting an OS in a file, with application to ETH Oberon

Summary If one feels it is too risky to partition a hard disk for installing a foreign OS on a working system hosting other OSes, the alternative is to install the unfamiliar OS in a large file in an existing file system. ETH Oberon can then co-exist with any number of other partition-based OSes, including Oberon, in these manners: As another example, this technique is also used by the free BeOS 5 Personal Edition.
 * if Windows is installed, in a FatFS
 * if Linux is installed, in a Linux file system (EXT2)

ETH Oberon for Dummies When Windows is installed, this version of Oberon can be installed in a large FAT file. An easy-to-use installation program OberonInstaller.exe running under Windows is included. The program installs the big file and writes an Oberon boot file to a 1.44MB diskette, from which Oberon can then be booted. To uninstall, delete the file.

Note: It is an updated version of the software found on the CD-ROM included in the book Beginning Programming for Dummies.

Linux-based Oberon When Linux is installed, an emulation of Native Oberon under Linux, is installed in a large file of the Linux file system (EXT2). The goal is not a tight integration in the Linux environment but a binary compatibility with Native Oberon. This implementation does not change the module interfaces. Oberon is started in the X11 environment by executiong a ./oberon command. Installation and usage informations in Native Oberon Installation: Concepts and Procedures.

[Top] ''21 Nov 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved.''

E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch

Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch

title: Oberon/ETH Oberon/bootfile


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/December 6

Today in 2020 Microsoft announced that future versions of its Edge browser will be based on Google’s open Chromium core.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/January 14

Today in 2012 the Ada Initiative held the first AdaCamp, which focused on the inclusion of women in technology and culture.


text:
User talk:Seikopo

Welcome!
Welcome, Seikopo!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 01:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Seikopo


text:
User:CycoMa1

My account

title: User:CycoMa1


text:
User talk:Shuwiso

Good morning Wikibooks i'would like to introduce you to E-learning

Today we are going to read on vision Have a vision .Think big. Dream .Personal and business success is created twice, first in the mind then in the external world Vision is a source of motivation passion and success. If you strive for the impossible you will reach the best possible.

title: User talk:Shuwiso


text:
User talk:103.29.143.15

--Synoman Barris (discuss • contribs) 07:51, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:103.29.143.15


text:
Onondaga

Table of Contents

 * /Basics/
 * /Weather/

Other Resources

 * https://onlc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Onondaga-Language-Workbook.pdf

title: Onondaga


text:
User:Granosyenite

Geo-graphing: History of Modern Geography
--Granosyenite (discuss • contribs) 05:17, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

Kant, Humboldt and Ritter
In line with his philosophies of space, Immanuel Kant was a key figure in the establishment of geography as a discipline. From 1757 to 1797, he lectured in physical geography at Konigsberg University. The course was popular among students, but Kant did not have a professorship in geography - the first chair of geography was given to Carl Ritter in 1820.

It was the works of Carl Ritter and Alexander von Humboldt that marked the birth of modern geography. In Ritter's book Die Erdkunde, he used a regional approach to depict the earth as the home of humans.

Jared Diamond and Neo-determinism
--Granosyenite (discuss • contribs) 02:03, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User:Granosyenite


text:
User talk:Samshakur

Libros gratuitamente

title: User talk:Samshakur


text:
User:Kisanflex

BioFloc- An overview
Biofloc technology (BFT) is an innovative and eco-friendly fish farming technique that involves stock-breeding of fishes, in a micro-organism rich ecosystem, artificially created in a tank. The term Biofloc (Bio=life, Floc= aggregate) refers to clusters of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and other kinds of organic particles like fish faeces and uneaten feed. All these, together, form loose clusters of organic matter which are held together by a thin film-like substance. Ecosystems rich in Biofloc enable recycling of the waste from the fishes into an organic feed. This not only serves as a protein-rich source of food for the fishes but also maintains the optimum Carbon: Nitrogen ratio, which is a pre-requisite for viable production. The best part is, the process involves a zero to minimal water exchange within the ecosystem. This reduces the chances of water contamination and ensures a high level of bio-security. BFT was invented by Prof. Yoram Avnimelech, an Israeli environmentalist in the ’70s to promote a more sustainable mode of fish farming. In the past few decades, Biofloc has become increasingly popular all across the world, including India. But why are people opting for this method of fish farming, nowadays? What makes it unique or better than traditional fish farming techniques? Over the years, Biofloc Technology has been able to address some major drawbacks of traditional aquaculture practices. BFT has the following clear advantages over the age-old traditional methods: •	It is Eco-friendly. Over-fishing has caused serious damage to the marine and aquatic ecosystems, resulting in a steep decline in fish catch. Biofloc fish farming aims to reduce environmental concerns by creating protein-rich artificial ecosystems in fish tanks.

•	BioFloc fish farming improves land and water use efficiency as only a limited area of land is required for setting up the fish tanks. The availability of natural water resources for fish farming and the ever-increasing costs of land acquisition has always been a concern for fish farmers.

•	Limited or zero water exchange involved in the process helps to prevent the introduction of diseases from external sources into the fish tanks. This enhances the survival rate of the fishes.

•	Biofloc itself serves as a protein-rich feed for the fishes which reduces the need for add-on feed. This helps in the cost reduction of fish feed. Further, the Indian tropical climatic conditions have proven to be congenial for cultivating a wide variety of fishes and shrimps. The initial investment in BioFloc fish farming is considerably low at around Rs. 30,000/- for a 4 meters diameter fish tank, which generally yields 600 kilograms of fishes within 5-6 months. The cost of harvesting is an additional Rs.35000/--40000/- approximately. One can harvest a minimum of 400kgs fish in such a tank, which converts into a revenue of Rs.56000/-, considering that the produce sells at Rs.140/kg at the least. The ROI, therefore, is easily achieved within 2 harvests during a year, not to mention the high-profit margins.

Biofloc fish farming works best with fishes that can derive nutritional benefits from the direct consumption of the ‘floc’. The commonly used species for this method are shrimp, tilapia, koi, carps, etc. All common fish species that can tolerate high solid concentration in the ecosystem are suitable for Biofloc fish farming.

BFT is a completely scientific approach and therefore, one must gain a thorough understanding and training on the same, before venturing into the farming process.

We, at KisanFlex, strive to create best-in-class products to address the customer requirements and enhance our services through continuous technological innovations and end-to-end customer support. We strongly believe in the cohesive growth of this nascent industry, by maintaining a close association across different value chains and creating sustainable value for all stakeholders.

title: User:Kisanflex