text:
Engineering Education in 2050/Engineers as Applied Social Scientists

The Past and Present of Engineering Education
Engineers stereotypically focus on technical solutions,  ignoring insights from social sciences. This view mirrors a traditional engineering education. Traditional engineering education has a focus on the technical side of engineering, with social sciences as an afterthought. At the University of Virginia, all engineering students (regardless of field) are required to take four main engineering ethics courses (named “STS”). With many types of engineers in one class, topics are generalized without going into the specific issues of each engineering major. Engineering students are also required to take “HSS” courses, which expose students to different humanities and social sciences. Many of these “HSS” courses are not social sciences, meaning students can go their entire engineering education without taking any social science courses.

In a study of engineering schools at US universities, Erin Cech (2014) found that students’ esteem for ethics, technology studies, the humanities and the social sciences consistently declined before graduation. With college being a time where students are exposed to different topics, it is important for students to experience social sciences. As many engineering jobs require solutions with implications in social sciences, social science exposure in college is necessary. Since engineers' roles in policy development and decision making are increasing in areas such as infrastructure planning, and technology regulation, it is important to alter the engineering curriculum to make sure they have the tools to engineer the best solution.

Future for Engineering Education
In the previous section we established the problem of a lack of societal based education in engineering education. So, what needs to be done if engineers are expected to make the decisions similar to those of social scientists? In this section we propose ideas that will act as tools for this emphasis on societal based education, and in the next section we will predict how to implement these ideas for a new sort of engineering education in 2050.

While many current engineering programs implement ethics education in some form, we still feel as though there is a disconnect between them and the topics learned in technical classes. Currently it seems that these programs are somewhere between micro (relationships, individuals, families) and macro (legal systems, nations, societies) ethics, in a zone that is referred to as meso -ethics. This zone focuses on communities, ethnicities, organizations, and other systems that are smaller in scale but still have profound effects on society. For engineers to be social scientists, we believe that they need to learn about these different levels of ethics, but mostly focus on the macro level, in order to eventually make big-picture decisions with the least amount of bias.

In the current system of engineering education at the University of Virginia, students are required to take nine credits (three classes) relating to the humanities and/or social sciences (HSS Electives). While we believe that this is a good step in the integration of social sciences into engineering education, more needs to be done. The problem with these electives is that there are far too many options for students to select that don’t necessarily have to do with social sciences. These electives do provide cultural education which is important to a societal based education, but not specifically tied to the science behind human behavior. We believe that students should be required to take more specific courses that fall into the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, and/or economics. Along with this, students should have to take a few courses with a central cultural topic, like a language course or something in the arts.

Being engineers, some of the best ways we learn are through hands-on learning or case studies (real world applications). Because of this, we see it appropriate that two classes of engineering history should be required. One class would focus on engineering from ancient to modern times, and how the technological developments of those times affected societies and how those groups responded. The second course would focus on engineering failures, and how they affected society. With all of the above classes, engineers will make a connection between why their social science education is important to their technical education, seeing that many of these failures could have been prevented with the education that they would be receiving. Finally, in the more technical based classes, societal and ethical concerns should be tied into the different topics, so students can see how exactly these society based topics fit into their specific discipline. In the next section, we explain realistic ways that these ideas could be implemented.

Implementation
Currently, engineers primarily take courses in their own discipline alongside several math and natural science courses. This makes for a comprehensive technical engineering education, but not a “well-rounded” one, as it fails to incorporate a social science education. In designing a new engineering curriculum, it is important to reflect the needs of the industry. Integrating social science related courses into the regular engineering curriculum can help students become better prepared for the workforce, as many engineering industries exist in the context of multiple fields and engineers have an ethical responsibility. An interdisciplinary education is a type of “well-rounded” education plastered across several pages of the University of Virginia’s College of Arts and Sciences website. Interdisciplinary study involves the combination of two or more disciplines to create something new. UVA’s College of Arts and Sciences has two notable instances of interdisciplinary study: (1) a Bachelor of Interdisciplinary Study and (2) required integration electives for the BA CS major combining computer science with other fields. UVA’s engineering school lacks the same emphasis on interdisciplinary study. However, looking at engineering disciplines in the real world, we can find natural interdisciplinary combinations for engineering disciplines. Civil engineering pairs well with urban development, as a background in Urban Planning would allow Civil Engineers to make more informed proposals and landscape-fitting designs. Other relevant combinations include data science & politics and psychology & computer science. Combinations like these could be represented in the Engineering curriculum as interdisciplinary majors, or as concentrations. Different from a usual double major, the curriculum for an interdisciplinary major would include requirements for courses that combine the two disciplines. This could better prepare engineering students for the real world by giving their skillset in a broader context. Non-engineering students should also be able to take engineering-based classes, many of these students are likely to work with and have to understand engineers in the future.

In our experience, we have found that it is more natural for students in the College of Arts and Sciences to double major across disciplines. This could be as a result of certain engineering majors having less flexibility in terms of required electives. Looking at UVA’s engineering computer science curriculum, there are multiple natural science electives, like chemistry and biology, that are unlikely to be at all relevant to a CS major’s career. By replacing these courses with interdisciplinary courses, students are both able to take classes that combine both their major and another discipline. In more inflexible majors, a concentration in another social science subject with ties to their major could be an effective alternative.

Engineering disciplines have many social and ethical implications (bias in AI, environmental strain of engineering materials, social implications of urban development). This gives engineering students a responsibility for the effects of their work. Integrating readings/lecture slides on the ethics of subjects in already required courses (labeling in Machine Learning, issues with Agile in Advanced Software Testing, etc.), can be a simple way for students to gain a broader perspective on their work. Working on engineering projects with students of other disciplines can also allow students to gain a broader perspective of their own work. This can be accomplished through collaboration with the local community in projects. In the curriculum, this could be added as an extra step to Capstone projects. There could also be lab or project-based classes that combine different majors, such as an app designing class with CS and graphic design students. CS students could develop an app, while graphic design students could design the art for it. In a real-word context, engineers are expected to be able to collaborate with professionals in different fields. This could be a good first step.


text:
Mobility 2050/Trains Instead of Planes

Introduction
For decades, trains were the industry leader among long distance travel options, and have been hallmarks of American success in westward expansion. More recently,  they have fallen off in favor of cars and planes. A large majority, around 69%, of Americans support moving towards carbon neutrality by 2050. However, if the U.S. is to shift to  a world less focused on major carbon emitters for  transportation, there has to be a shift back to greener transportation options. Travel by trains can reduce carbon footprint by almost half when compared to planes. A mass shift to usage of trains over planes could have a large impact on reducing carbon emissions. Many of the changes needed are social/cultural and political, although some technical improvements are needed to make train travel safer. This goal for the world of 2050 will be much more achievable following the path laid out here.

Current Projects
Many other countries have been working towards more sustainable futures by increasing accessibility of passenger rail. Most notably, France and Japan have taken different approaches to this issue. Japan has built a large network for the Shinkansen, a high speed bullet train. This was originally designed for long-distance travel, but also serves commuters in metropolitan areas. Although the network currently doesn’t cover the majority of Japan, new proposals and current construction promises to cover a large portion of Japan in coming years. In 2023, France passed legislation that bans flights shorter than 2.5 hours in favor of rail travel. This pushes people to choose trains when traveling. The success of these projects may be attributed to smaller distances between destinations in Japan and Europe compared to the much larger U.S.. The U.S. can take inspiration from both of these examples when designing a shift from planes to trains.

In the U.S. there are projects in California and Florida to build high speed passenger rail lines: California High Speed Rail Authority and Brightline. The California High Speed Rail has faced many roadblocks regarding funding and acquiring property. Brightline has had more success, recently starting operations in Florida and receiving $3 billion in federal funding for constructing a high speed rail line between Los Angeles and Las Vegas. The success of Brightline in Florida is due to some land already being allocated for rail usage, thus the project faced fewer issues with land acquisition. This project incorporated new rails with existing freight lines, reducing costs and resources needed. Currently, Brightline is the only privately owned high speed rail company operating in the U.S. and can be used as a role model for future projects.

Technology changes
All of the technology needed to achieve this vision  exists and is used throughout the world, such as the vast rail systems in Europe and the high speed rails in Japan. Although no new technology is needed for widespread rail travel to be viable, some advancements would be beneficial for current rail lines in America. New technology should focus on safety, such as robotic solutions to prevent trains from going too fast on hazardous tracks. Recent large crashes have been attributed to operators not recognizing the need to slow down for sharp corners, and technology could prevent this in the future such as better autopilots that know the layout of the track that they are on. Other technology changes may focus on improving the passenger experience. Software that better predicts delays or helps with planning connecting trains could address major concerns among rail passengers.

Political changes
Pressure from the National Association of Railroad Passengers can initiate short-term changes to improve efficiency of Amtrak travel. Currently, the law gives Amtrak the right of way over freight trains, but freight trains are too long for the lengths of side tracks. The Department of Justice does not penalize freight train companies despite them violating the law. Action in federal court and enforcement from the Department of Justice will help reduce passenger rail travel times by giving Amtrak right-of-way over freight trains. This is the first major step towards improving the desirability of train travel, further enabling improvements to the dynamic between freight and passenger rail. One limitation of this is the much higher prevalence of and reliance on freight rail to move cargo in the U.S. compared to other countries with more successful passenger rail networks. Next, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), an agency that administers rail funding, can focus on improving existing rail lines to handle newer, faster trains via infrastructure funding allocations. Existing infrastructure is one of the main limitations for passenger rail travel. Many railroads feature sharp curves, old bridges, and tunnels that trains cannot safely travel on at higher speeds. Therefore, infrastructure funds will upgrade current tracks to enable the adaptation of higher speed trains. Remaining funds will create new rail lines to expand existing routes to underrepresented areas. These changes will increase accessibility of travel by trains, making them more competitive with planes.

Long-term changes will focus on implementing high speed rail infrastructure. Efforts from the U.S. High Speed Rail Association will continue to press the FRA for more allocations to high speed rail development. These projects will likely take on a similar form to the current Japanese Shinkansen systems, connecting major cities across the United States with high speed bullet trains. Such high speed rail projects will begin with connecting metropolitan areas that have high traffic between them. Some strong candidates for the first high speed train services in the U.S. are Los Angeles to San Francisco, the Texas Triangle region, and New York to Boston. High speed rail development is ideal for these areas due to the large amounts of commuting traffic and interconnected economies caused by their regional proximity. Although flights will remain faster than high speed trains, the long wait times experienced at airports will enable these regional high speed train services as a faster alternative when considering total travel time. In addition, high speed rail could serve as a cheaper way to travel long distances and could serve as a pull factor away from more expensive flights.

From there, the network of railroads can be expanded to cover the next group of major cities, and so on until rail service is strong enough to support the vast majority of Americans' travel needs. The U.S. can then  look towards social incentives for using trains instead of planes.

Social changes
Socially, the U.S. needs to shift away from its current car and plane based society. In recent years, the younger generation has started to push for better rail systems, such as those seen in Europe. Once political changes have been put into effect to improve rail travel, social changes can easily start with pushes away from air travel.This includes federal carbon taxes on planes and high taxes or bans on short term flights under a specific amount of time (around 2 hours), as seen in France currently. These legal changes aim to remind the American public that trains are a viable and necessary alternative to planes. As rail ridership increases, more privately owned passenger rail companies will form. One possibility is airlines expanding into the train sector, creating more privately owned rails. Amtrak has made similar changes in the past by offering bus travel when their trains are not accessible. There may be concerns regarding security measures of passenger trains compared to planes, but trains inherently need fewer safety measures. Trains also offer fewer restrictions on luggage, more privacy, and more freedom of movement. Building more railroad tracks may have negative impacts, particularly dividing cities/communities. Historically, railroad tracks served as a divider between White and Black communities in the U.S., so it is crucial to ensure that the placement of new tracks is not detrimental to the local population. Promoting the existing benefits of train travel is one step in encouraging people to choose trains. The key for many of these changes is to wait until rail travel becomes a viable alternative to air travel for both travel time and price, so these social changes are treated as a pull factor to the new and improved train systems rather than a push factor that could cause backlash from citizens. PSAs could be a good way of getting information out about new rail lines and the advantages of rail travel.

Conclusion
To achieve this vision of trains instead of planes, changes to the technology, politics, and social behaviors surrounding train travel must be credible, desirable, and feasible, which this vision demonstrates. This vision is credible because of the countries referenced that are already implementing variations or portions of the tools described here. Desirable, because of the positive impact it would have on fossil fuel emissions and improving the comfort of long distance travel. Feasible, because the technology used in this vision largely exists, and where it doesn’t, such as the robotic solutions for controlling trains, the technology exists in other forms of transportation and could be more easily brought over to trains because of their one directional nature.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mobility 2050/Trains Instead of Planes


text:
Mobility 2050/Retrofitting Parking Garages

Introduction
We envision a 2050 where car usage drastically decreases. Improvements in alternative transportation infrastructure and changing regulations will shift public focus from cars to micromobility, trains, and more efficient commuting methods. Cities, such as Oslo, Netherlands and Paris, France, have already taken steps to reduce car ownership. Paris plans to ban all cars from its historic landmark regions within the capital, with minimal exceptions. Oslo has enacted a congestion charge, reducing the number of cars entering the city by roughly 14,000 a day. With less cars on the road, the number of car parking spots used will equally decline. If autonomous vehicles continue to improve, large driverless taxi fleets will further reduce the need for car parking. As parking dwindles, parking lot owners will look for alternative uses. Standard parking lots can be easily replaced by parks or commercial centers. Conversely, retrofitting parking garages presents unique challenges due to their awkward spirals, uneven floors, short ceilings, and concrete structure. We examine the three most likely alternatives for parking garages in 2050, taking cost, social factors, and current trends into account.

Bike Garages
To fill the hole left by the decline of cars, bike use will skyrocket. Infrastructure changes will enable this shift by increasing bike lanes, setting up physical barriers for bike lanes, and closing off select streets to cars. This is favorable because bikes are the most energy efficient form of transportation, averaging 5.5 Watt-hours per kilometer, and up to 12 bikes can fit in one car parking spot. Space saved by swapping cars for bikes has the potential to revitalize our cities by increasing commerce and making walking safe again. Roads filled with bikes will reduce emissions, save lives, and save money.

Bikes could help solve the first mile/last mile problem surrounding public transport. Commuters are hesitant to take public transport because of a lack of feasible transport options between the train stop and their final destination. In the cities of 2050, people will bike to their nearest train or bus stop, park their bike in a converted parking garage, take public transport, and rent a bike to their final destination, possibly out of another retrofitted parking garage. In the Netherlands, this vision is a reality where 40% of Dutch train riders bike to the train station everyday. The Dutch have integrated affordable bike parking and bike rentals into nearly every train station across the country. They have constructed massive bike parking garages, such as the one at Utrecht’s train station capable of holding up to 22,000 bikes.

In many cities, shared bikes and scooters clutter streets and sidewalks presenting unnecessary hazards. To resolve this issue, we believe rideshare companies will look to convert parking garages for bikes, storing their micromobility devices safely and conveniently.

One challenge to converting parking garages to bike parking garages, is that not all parking garages are centrally located near transportation hubs or commercial centers. If all car users switch to bikes, the space efficiency of bikes means only a fraction of the parking garages will be required to house all of these bikes. We predict bike parking garages will proliferate in areas near transportation and commercial centers, and people will be willing to walk an extra couple of blocks for a more secure bike parking experience than a street bike rack. Even in these popular areas, bikes may not take up an entire parking garage, and the upper floors may be used for other purposes. Garages in areas with less traffic will also need to be converted to other uses which is why bike parking is a tool but not a solution to retrofitting parking garages.

Urban Farms
With the population of cities growing, there will be an increased strain on the supply chain to bring food into major cities. We are also seeing a trend towards eating healthier and locally sourced foods. Parking garages turned to urban farms would provide cities with local produce without the need for extensive shipping. Growing using hydroponics will also be extremely sustainable in terms of water, electricity, and land usage. Because the crops are in a controlled environment pesticides and artificial fertilizers are unnecessary. Placing a green farm in the middle of a city would increase the quality of life for all residents nearby. The farm could be a community growing center with volunteers helping out and the increased greenery would result in cleaner air. This combination of shorter shipping, reduced inputs, better food, and cleaner communities makes the conversion from parking garage to urban farm a very desirable option.

Parking garages could easily transform into farms because of their solid structure, open layouts, and possible rooftop space. The size of parking garages would allow for the growing, processing, and packaging all in one building. Below ground garages could be used to grow low-light produce and sunlight could be used on the roofs of above ground garages. Fully equipping a garage would take a sizable initial investment and continuous staff to care for the farms, however we believe that in the long run these urban farms will become profitable. Advances in hydroponic and grow light technology will make this equipment cheaper by 2050.

Today in 2023, there are already examples of parking garages retrofitted into urban farms. One example is La Caverne underneath Paris, France. La Caverne sits within a 9,000 sq m parking garage underneath a housing complex. They grow mushrooms, endives, and microgreens. The mushrooms can grow in low-light, the endives can grow in virtually no light, and their microgreens are grown with hydroponics under LED lights. They pride themselves in using no pesticides, no artificial fertilizers, minimal water, and low electricity bill. They also say the day their produce is harvested it is put on a bike and delivered directly to local restaurants. Another current example is Citiponics in Singapore. Citiponics built a modular hydroponic vertical farm on the roof of a parking garage. Their system can produce up to 25 different leafy vegetables and herbs. Also they have reported that their 0.5 acre farm can produce up to 4 tons of food annually while using only 1% of the water an equivalent conventional farm would use.

We can keep following these examples into the year 2050 and create cleaner urban environments, healthy locally sourced produce, profitable businesses, and more jobs by converting parts or entire parking garages into urban farms.

Residential and Commercial Centers
We believe the last major alternative for parking garages will be residential and commercial centers. This option restricts the number of eligible parking garages as apartments and stores require specific building conditions. Parking garages that are above ground and mostly flat will be ideal for this conversion. Many parking garages exist near densely populated areas, making this conversion practical as demand for housing is greatest here. In terms of structural feasibility, retrofitting a parking garage is much cheaper than demolishing it and building a new apartment complex. Compared to converting garages to bike parking or hydroponics, the increased workload and financial investment to plan and convert to apartments would be offset by a higher financial return. Apartments in Paris rent monthly for 35 euros per square meter on average, compared to bike parking spaces averaging about 6.58 euros per square meter. The larger return on investment makes this option attractive and, in some cases, will be worth the higher up front costs.

Converting parking garages into housing centers may mirror the social trends of industrial factories. Manufacturing warehouses abandoned in the 1950s were later converted to industrial lofts and marketed as a vintage style of living. These lofts became popular over time, starting as affordable housing with uncommon benefits and later gaining traction in the high end housing market. We expect parking garage apartments to experience a similar social trend, becoming popular due to their unique style.

Parking garages are already being retrofitted with apartments and commercial spaces. In Wichita, Kansas, the Broadway Autopark Apartments was previously a five level parking garage before the developer converted it into housing space. The complex offers standard apartment amenities along with parking in front of the apartments and free bike share memberships. These unique amenities and their eccentric modern design make the Broadway Autopark housing more competitive with traditional housing options. Commercial space is available for lease on the ground floor of the building, a layout which is similar to most city apartments. We believe parking garage owners and residents alike will benefit from converting these spaces into apartments and commercial space.

Social and Political Change
There are many social and political challenges to overcome on the path to a future with fewer parking garages in the US by 2050. Car infrastructure has a feedback loop effect on society, whereby more car infrastructure leads to higher demand for cars which leads to higher demand for car infrastructure, leading to suboptimal conditions. To overcome this, we must invest in more sustainable infrastructure and take advantage of that same feedback loop for biking and public transit. For example, Amsterdam was similarly car-dominated until the 1970s when absurd levels of traffic congestion and automotive fatalities led to protests for safer urban planning. The Dutch government listened and built the infrastructure that would turn the Netherlands into one of the most bike-friendly countries in the world. While achieving the same transformation is a uniquely hard task for the US, American democracy was founded to tackle problems like this. The US Government and its people have achieved similar victories against the status quo before, from women’s suffrage to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The people of the USA need to unite behind a future with fewer cars, like the Dutch did decades ago, in order to create a better 2050.


text:
Mobility 2050/Tech's Place in Micromobility

Introduction
Thinking about 2050 may seem like far into the distance, but as Benjamin Franklin famously said, “If you fail to plan, you are planning to fail.” As cities grow, there must be greater consideration for expanding access to more feasible, desirable, and credible modes of mobility. We envision a future with high-sōsh mobility systems in combination with high-tech micromobility devices that will help restructure transportation networks across the nation.

What is Micromobility?
Micromobility is the use of small and lightweight means of transportation, offering an eco-friendly alternative to traditional transportation methods. Some examples include electric and non-electric bicycles, scooters, and skateboards. These forms of transportation can decrease traffic, limit pollution, and facilitate short-distance travel. With the expansion of cities, micromobility is becoming a crucial facet of urban living.

Micromobility solutions allow us to shift away from fossil-fuel dependent vehicles, notably gas cars, and significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Some potential solutions are improving biking access and infrastructure and encouraging e-scooter use. Furthermore, the widespread use of these alternate transportation modes can substantially alleviate traffic congestion, especially in major cities like Los Angeles or New York City, and result in shorter travel times. This dual impact will enhance the efficiency of transportation and also contribute to lower fuel consumption, fostering the creation of more livable and environmentally friendly urban spaces.

In examining the feasibility of micromobility, particularly in the context of the United States, there are some significant infrastructure challenges. Many college campuses across the states are relatively walkable, which contributes to a secure environment that encourages active engagement and meaningful interactions among students and faculty (Transloc, 2021). For example, at the University of Virginia, the majority of locations are easily accessible by foot, with micromobile transportation options like cycling, electric scooters, and on-campus buses serving as convenient alternatives for closer destinations. However, this pedestrian-friendly atmosphere contrasts with most of the U.S., where the streets aren’t as walkable. Only 34% of Americans primarily walk to their destinations, mainly because of concerns with pedestrian safety. The U.S experiences a higher rate of pedestrian fatalities than any other country (Benfield, n.d.). Major changes to the infrastructure of American cities must be made to address this issue. By prioritizing the development of well-designed sidewalks and crosswalks, urban areas can better accommodate micromobile solutions and make them more accessible and safer for pedestrians. Additionally, integrating underpasses in bridges can serve as a crucial measure to provide secure crossings, minimizing the inherent risks associated with traversing busy roads.

Technological Innovations
As previously stated, popular examples of technology in micromobility include electric scooters and bikes. These are all examples of how low technology with the addition of a battery allows people to travel longer distances and emit less carbon into the atmosphere than with a car. We expect that more pathways, docking stations, and parking garages will be available for electric bicycles and scooters in the year 2050 along with more riders. The Netherlands is an example of how people heavily rely on bikes as a form of transportation; Dutch citizens demonstrate how their society cares about this form of micromobility because there are over 300 locations near metro stations and bus stops housing bicycles for people to rent. This system integrates the use of public transport with cycling to create a complex network independent of automobiles. Incorporating this system in the U.S. would align with our commitment in the Paris Agreement to prevent global temperatures from exceeding 2 degrees Celsius and limiting carbon emissions (Nations, n.d.). A society which focuses on micromobility options is one geared towards limiting carbon emissions since it deters car usage, one of the leading sources of emissions within the transportation sector.

Further investigation of this system shows that roughly 27% of Dutch people choose to ride a bike as a form of transportation to and from work and home (de Haas & Hamersma, n.d.). In comparison, only 0.6% of Americans commute to work by bike (Burrows, 2019). This network is made possible because of OV chip cards which connect all public transportation. In order to rent a bike you need this card as well as a seasonal pass. Renting these e-bikes is affordable and only costs $4.95 for a day of travel (Dutch Public Transport System, 2023). Linking multiple modes of public transportation in the US with a card or app would be beneficial and the US could incentivize the use of micromobility by giving cheaper rates to those who already use public transit. This incentivization strategy could look like using a flat fee instead of charging by the minute for micro mobility devices such as bikes and scooters.

Sidewalks which generate energy in conjunction with walking are a less common mode of micro mobility; these sidewalks work as “[p]ower is generated when a footprint compresses the board from a depth of 5 to 10 mm” (Souza, 2019). About 2 to 4 joules or 5 Watts of energy are generated with each step and this is enough energy to power a LED bulb for 30 seconds (Souza, 2019). We expect them to be found in more locations with heavy foot traffic such as universities and corporate facilities. Installing these sidewalks will help meet our sustainability goals since the cleaner form of energy generated will help to power these large facilities. We don’t believe that they will completely replace the current energy systems in these buildings, but their addition will decrease the amount of energy generated in non-green forms.

Challenges and Considerations
In an increasingly high-tech world, there will be technological advancements, like those mentioned, that make micromobility modes work better. However, concerns about these advancements and the willingness to accept them must be considered to determine if they are worthy.

This past September, Paris issued a citywide ban on e-scooters after a referendum passed with 90% of voters in favor (Schofield, 2023). Also, the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (2023) found that there was a 21% increase in injuries involving micromobility devices between 2021 and 2022. These examples raise two important questions: Will more high-tech components necessarily make high-sōsh micro mobility devices work better and will there be more pushback to the increasing use of high-tech micromobility devices? With our solutions, we had to step back and ask if they would be adopted with no questions asked. Many people will move in the direction of society and willingly accept more high-tech micromobility modes, but for some people, stories of injuries and road disruptions will be enough to deter them. We believe that a vital component of our solutions is to avoid artificially manufacturing consent so that they are naturally adopted by people.

Looking at the bigger picture, micromobility devices and their high-tech components are all a part of a bigger system that includes all of us; pedestrians, drivers, cyclists, etc. In a TikTok posted by Angry Bikers (2023), these different social groups can be seen interacting with one another. There is the cyclist who gets mad at the pedestrians for standing in the bike lane, the pedestrians who seem to not care when called out, and the driver who parked in the bike lane and laughed at the cyclist when confronted. These groups all interact with one another, but as one can see, there is a large disconnect between them. Although we are a part of the same system – our cities and streets – the level of cohesion is fairly low. This is vital to note because we can incorporate as many high-tech components and micro mobility devices into our cities as possible, but without working on improving the relationships within these systems, the high-tech will only serve as a tool and not a solution to anything.

Making Mobility Systems Cohesive
Examples of how technology can better micromobility have been given, such as The Netherlands' well-connected transportation network. However, there are other cases closer to home which also cohere mobility systems and prioritize improving interactions between users of different modes of mobility. BikeWalk NC (n.d.) advocates for bicycle detection at traffic signals. Most traffic signals only account for automobiles and do not turn green for cyclists, creating risks for everyone on the road. Using ordinary inductive loop technology, many communities have been able to adjust signal sensors to effectively account for bicycles and motorcycles. This harmonizes traffic control and contributes to safer roads for bicyclists, motorcyclists, and car drivers alike. Also, this further shows how technology can make mobility systems as a whole work better. In this instance, technology was used to bridge the gap between users of different modes of mobility and to promote public safety, since many cyclists view automobiles, roads, and traffic devices as antithetical to their well-being. If more cities and towns across the U.S. invested in improving traffic control technology by 2050, a future where micromobility and its counterparts coexist is possible.

Conclusion
We want to emphasize that high-tech on its own will not improve these high-sōsh micromobility modes, and we need to consider several factors in order for the high-tech components to truly be of value. With that, technology has proven to be valuable in changing how our mobility systems and modes work. We presented our Vision 2050 of how high-tech components can make high-sōsh micro mobility modes work better. The systems that these modes (and us) exist in can be improved so that the high-tech really has a meaningful impact and is not just an unnecessary extension to whatever we have right now.


text: Category:Pasta salad recipes

title: Category:Pasta salad recipes


text: Category:Book:Engineering Education in 2050


text: Category:Book:The University of 2050

title: Category:Book:The University of 2050


text:
Mobility 2050/New Transit Modes

In 2050 there will be numerous changes to the transit industry to better serve the needs of its users and the environment. Potential solutions are adaptations to the train and commuter rail industry today; new technologies such as AV ride sharing, smart roads, and e-bikes; or strategic improvements of the transportation industry, such as using mobility as a service or demand-responsive transit.

In 2050 the commuter rails will improve by addressing problems like overcrowding, high pricing, and inefficient transit. Overcrowding will be addressed by removing seating in some cars and by capacity signaling. Cities like Seoul in Korea are already experimenting with removing the seating in up to two cars to free up 160 square feet of standing room. In 2050, this will have expanded to more countries allowing more people to use public transportation systems like commuter rail and stimulating health in riders by making them stand in-between busy work days. Capacity signaling uses technology to determine and display the capacity of a commuter rail unit to users so they can better disperse themselves within the trains. This can be accomplished using artificial intelligence (AI) with cameras or machine learning models with sensors on the bottom of trains. With the use of camera sensors we can determine the percent occupied of a train; and sensors can detect weight differences as users enter and exit the train. Once the capacity is determined, LED lights at the stations will show which carts are most full and which are the least using red/yellow/green signals to demonstrate high sosh techniques.

The high prices of public transportation systems seen since COVID in 2020 are now addressed by benefiting the most frequent users of commuter rails. Users who ride the metro more than 3 or 4 times a day on average for six days a week have a special metrocard with a reduced fare. If a user purchases a ticket at the station, they are subject to the changing fees based on the economic changes of the state. This encourages the use of public transit by reducing fair prices to its most loyal customers.

Inefficient transit will be addressed by using machine learning models to best optimize the number of cars operating on certain routes based on the capacity measurements mentioned above and frequency of high capacities around certain time frames. Addressing inefficient transit encourages the usage of public transportation as it will be seen as more reliable and efficient than using passenger cars, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions significantly.

Another change we expect to see in the future is the widespread use of high-speed trains. Mag-lev and Hyper-loop trains are now being used across Europe and the United States to replace short air travel. The Mag-lev has proven to be efficient and successful in China and will pilot various versions of this until the Hyper-loop is developed. The Hyper-loop is an electric vehicle that travels in a vacuum at speeds 30% faster than a traditional 747 aircraft, allowing riders to travel from DC to New York in approximately 1 hour. Also, major hubs in the northeast, including Toronto and Montreal, will now be connected via high-speed train. With widespread use, the goal is that costs and fuel consumption will be less than airplanes. Using electric vehicles over planes will decrease the amount of greenhouse gas emissions produced by the transportation industry.

Electric Bicycles, or E-Bikes, will also become more prevalent by 2050, and they will be increasingly available in public spaces. Electric bikes are an efficient, cost-effective, eco-friendly transit method that will be beneficial in both urban and rural environments. Between 2019 and 2021, annual electric bicycle sales were boosted by 240%, and in 2020, the sales of E-Bikes outnumbered those of electric vehicles by a ratio of around 2:1. This growth suggests that E-Bikes will play a pivotal role in shaping the sustainable and accessible mobility future of 2050. E-Bike ride-sharing will also be integrated with new systems, which will continue to allow individuals to navigate in efficient and sustainable ways.

Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) as well as driverless taxis will be seen and used on public roads by 2050. Seeing as 35 U.S. states have introduced or are in the process of writing legislation regarding AV usage, public interest as well as research and development have propelled AVs into public usage. There are a variety of issues that will have to be addressed in the next decades such as carbon emissions due to the computing power of the autonomous algorithms as well as the convenience of the rides prompting more car rides per day per person than currently with manual cars. As the U.S. transitions to renewable energy, electric vehicles with high energy consumption will demand a stronger and more unified national electric grid. Since the importance of personal liberties varies between countries, it would be unlikely to see a human driver ban in some countries, though a model of Berlin suggests that such a ban with the use of driverless taxis could reduce overall congestion and carbon emissions. As recently as October of 2023 the California Department of Motor Vehicles has suspended Cruise, a major driverless taxi corporation based mainly in San Francisco, due to its cars’ performance being deemed unsafe for public operation. Complaints from many citizens of cities with driverless taxi deployment such as in Austin, Phoenix, and San Francisco of the cars being a nuisance to other drivers to more extreme issues such as blocking emergency vehicles and killing pedestrians. Despite similar issues being raised in a public hearing in San Francisco on increasing the deployment of driverless taxis, the commissioners still decided to allow it. All of these issues will likely slow the development of driverless taxis as a new mode of transit but will not inhibit it from becoming widespread by 2050.

Mobility as a Service (MaaS), which aims to integrate various modes of transportation into a single platform, will become increasingly prevalent and will serve as an efficient way to promote more sustainable transit, such as biking, walking, public transportation, and ride-sharing. Helsinki, Finland has already begun to do this with the app Whim, which integrates various transportation services in the area into a single service. MaaS platforms will use advanced algorithms and real-time data to optimize routes, reduce congestion, and provide users with efficient and more sustainable options for their transportation. MaaS will become integral to developing sustainable urban cities by promoting shared mobility and reducing traffic emissions.

Demand-Response Transport (DRT) systems will also be used effectively in 2050, by analyzing data, such as through artificial intelligence, from various sources, like passenger requests, traffic conditions, and events, to optimize transit routes and minimize waiting times. DRT will allow transit services to dynamically adjust routes and schedules based on real-time user demand. This will be implemented for existing public transit systems, like bus routes, and will also be used in vanpool sharing, which will be useful in rural areas without extensive transit infrastructure. In 2023, many cities have begun to implement pilot programs implementing DRT, such as the “Metro Micro” van sharing program in Los Angeles, or London and Auckland’s integration of DRT for bus services. These trials will allow for better implementation and serve as a basis for creating robust DRT systems in 2050.

As many countries begin to prioritize green energy by 2050, transit will have to adapt to the challenges that will arise. In 2050, this could mean advancements in increased energy efficiency, more sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels, and improved transit infrastructure like more charging stations and smarter city planning. Also, current emerging technologies will have to overcome current challenges, as well as adapt to evolving demands as we approach 2050 and integrate into our daily lives. It is very likely that innovative and unpredictable forms of transit will come into the market or that the market will surpass the transit that seems promising now in 2023.

By 2050, the predicted transit modes above will tackle current transit concerns, like traffic, high prices, unsustainable practices, and others to better support people and the environment. From improved and new transportation technologies, like enhanced commuter rail systems, high-speed trains, E-Bikes, and AVs, to new transit systems, like MaaS and DRT, the future of transit will allow for more substantial improvements in mobility, equity, and sustainability. Ongoing green energy efforts will continue to drive advancements in energy efficiency and more sustainable options, creating a better transit system for the future, and as we approach 2050, the integration of new technologies and advancements will bring a promising transit future.

title: Mobility 2050/New Transit Modes


text:
Bikol/Singular and Plural Adjectives

<< Contents | Grammar | Pronunciation | Diacritics | Alphabet | Greetings | Introducing Yourself | Where Are You From? | Telling Time | Inclusive and Exclusive We | Negation | This and That | Here and There | Adjectives | Interrogative Pronouns | Past and Future When | Personal Pronouns | Possessive Pronouns | Singular and Plural Nouns | Singular and Plural Verbs | Singular and Plural Adjectives | External Links >>

In Bikol, plural adjectives are made by adding the syllables "ra", "ri", "ro", and "ru" after the first syllable. However, there is an exception. The plural of "magayón", is "magagayon" and "mabuot" is "mabubuot".
 * A small stone.
 * Sarong sadit na gapô.

 * Four small stones.
 * Apat na saradit na gapô.

 * A dry shorts.
 * Sarong marang sarwal.

 * Two dry shorts.
 * Duwang mararang sarwal.

 * A short bamboo split.
 * Sarong halìpot na salsag.

 * Seven short bamboo splits.
 * Pitong haralìpot na salsag.

 * A long bamboo split.
 * Sarong halabang salsag.

 * Four long bamboo splits.
 * Apat na haralabang salsag.

<< Contents | Grammar | Pronunciation | Diacritics | Alphabet | Greetings | Introducing Yourself | Where Are You From? | Telling Time | Inclusive and Exclusive We | Negation | This and That | Here and There | Adjectives | Interrogative Pronouns | Past and Future When | Personal Pronouns | Possessive Pronouns | Singular and Plural Nouns | Singular and Plural Verbs | Singular and Plural Adjectives | External Links >>

title: Bikol/Singular and Plural Adjectives


text:
Number Theory/Relative To Record

In a fluctuating integer sequence, every term has a relative-to-record score, defined by the following formula:

"Relative to Record" = $$ \frac{S(x)}{(S(m)+S(x))} $$

where S(x) is the observed term of the sequence, and S(m) is the maximum value of S(k) for the range 1 ≤ k ≤ x − 1.

The inverse value is defined by subtracting this value from one.

Both "Relative to Record" and "Relative to Record (Inverse)" are real numbers between 0 and 1. "Relative to Record" is greater than 0.5 if and only if S(x) is a record term in the sequence. "Relative to Record (Inverse)" is less than 0.5 if and only if S(x) is a record term in the sequence. A term S(x) is a record term iff for all positive integers k such that k < x, S(k) < S(x). By convention:

 * The first term of any integer sequence is considered to be a record term.
 * Terms that tie, but don't break, a record are not considered to be record terms.

An integer sequence S(x) is a fluctuating integer sequence iff it is neither "eventually strictly increasing" nor "eventually strictly decreasing." Equivalently:

 * I) There are infinitely many natural numbers n such that S(n + 1) > S(n).
 * II) There are infinitely many natural numbers n such that S(n + 1) < S(n).

In number theory, two important fluctuating integer sequences are the divisor function d(n) and the prime gaps. For any natural number n, d(n) is the number of positive divisors of n. For example, d(15) = 4 because fifteen has four divisors: 1, 3, 5, and 15. The prime gaps, as the name suggests, are the arithmetic differences between consecutive prime numbers. There are 25 prime numbers between 1 and 100, those being 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, and 97. To find a prime gap, you subtract a prime from its successor; for example, to find the eighth prime gap, subtract the eighth and ninth primes: 23 − 19 = 4. The first 24 prime gaps are:

1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 4, 2, 4, 6, 2, 6, 4, 2, 4, 6, 6, 2, 6, 4, 2, 6, 4, 6, 8.

The records in this sequence are g(1) = 1, g(2) = 2, g(4) = 4, g(9) = 6, and g(24) = 8. The next time the record breaks is the thirtieth term: g(30) = 127 − 113 = 14. After that, you won't find a larger term until the ninety-ninth term: g(99) = 541 − 523 = 18. The record breaks yet again at g(154) = 907 − 887 = 20. Due to the prime number theorem, prime gaps grow arbitrarily large, so this record will keep being broken.

Relative to Record (Divisor function)
Numbers for which d(n) sets a new record are called . The highly composite numbers below 1000 are:

1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 120, 180, 240, 360, 720, and 840.

For all n > 1, d(n) is always at least two. Those numbers with exactly two divisors are the prime numbers.

title: Number Theory/Relative To Record


text:
Preface: Empowering India Digitally

Preface: The Confluence of Technology and Society

In the past three to four decades, the remarkable revolution in technology has drastically and fundamentally changed our lives. How has the digital revolution closely impacted the lives of Indians, and what are the associated opportunities as well as risks and problems?

The reason for choosing the title

First of all, it is necessary to explain why we have chosen this title Public Digital Backbone? The title "Public Digital Backbone" embodies the essence of India's digital transformation journey. Just as the backbone is central to the human body, connecting and supporting various parts, this digital backbone serves as the core support system for various digital initiatives in India. It's more than just a network or infrastructure; it's the very foundation that upholds and empowers the nation's digital ecosystem. This backbone doesn't merely provide services but creates an environment where different platforms, services, and stakeholders come together, flourish, and evolve. It gives everyone, from citizens, government entities to private sectors, the freedom to build upon and customize it, reflecting the inclusivity and democratic nature of the initiative. By naming the book "Public Digital Backbone", we want to highlight this initiative's pivotal role in driving India's digital progress, fostering innovation, and ensuring benefits reach every citizen.

 Trailblazers of Modern India: Innovations and Pioneers in Science and Technology

After India's independence, the past 75 years have witnessed a rapid transformation in the lives of its citizens. This is predominantly attributed to the innovative endeavors of Indian scientists and the unwavering support they received from the political leadership.

Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of India's space research program, established the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in 1962. ISRO has played a pivotal role in placing India on the global space exploration map, with recent accomplishments like the Chandrayaan mission to the moon being a testament to their capabilities. Dr. Homi Bhabha laid the foundation of the atomic energy program in India by establishing the Tarapur Atomic Power Plant in 1948. This initiative set the stage for India becoming self-reliant in the field of nuclear energy. P.C. Mahalanobis pioneered the realm of statistics and planning in India. He founded the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), which stands today as one of the largest statistical institutions in the country. Former President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was instrumental in developing India's Agni and Prithvi missile systems, fortifying the nation's defense capabilities. Dr. Sam Pitroda brought a revolutionary change to India's telecommunication landscape by introducing modern digital telecommunications systems. This led to the establishment of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) and the development of a national-level fiber optic network Nandan Nilekani’s contribution lines up and should be seen in the same league as the great men listed above. Nandan Nilekani, renowned as a significant technologist, entrepreneur, and social innovator, laid the foundation for the Aadhaar project. He also pioneered the concept of Digital Public Infrastructure, which is the topic of this book.

All these illustrious Indian scientists and innovators, through their notable contributions, have positioned India at a prestigious place in the fields of science and technology. Their achievements serve as a profound inspiration for India's future.

 The Dual Face of Digital India:-

Before proceeding, it's essential to acknowledge that every coin has two sides.

The renowned economist Joan Robinson once said, "Anything you can say about India, the opposite is also true," and this aptly applies to the topic at hand.

India is recognized as 'Digital India', but inherent contradictions persist. On one hand, India ranks second globally in the number of active Internet users and is also the second-highest in social media usage. On the other, over the past five years, India has been the country to impose the most Internet shutdowns. In 2022 alone, India enforced 84 Internet shutdowns, the highest amongst the G-20 nations.

This behavior stands in stark contrast to the objectives of Digital India. The slogan of Digital India is 'Nobody will be left behind'. Without Internet access, there's no connectivity. And without connectivity, how can people fulfill basic needs like ration, or carry out transactions via UPI?

The direct impact of Internet shutdowns not only affects employment and economic activities but also infringes upon democratic rights. Such shutdowns clearly violate citizens' freedom of expression.

The Indian government has repeatedly used this tactic for authoritarian purposes. This was evident during the farmers' protests and before the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly elections when internet shutdowns were imposed in several regions.

If India aims for digital growth and global leadership, it must cease these frequent Internet shutdowns. India has pledged in this year's G-20 Digital Economy Working Group to develop a human rights-centric digital infrastructure.

To honor this commitment, India needs to abandon the path of Internet shutdowns. Moreover, while the world is moving towards 5G and 6G, millions of Indians are still stuck on 2G. Without addressing these contradictions, 'Digital India' remains a distant dream.

But then why to discuss Digital Public Infrastructure at all? Why it is so relevant?

Because the global world is divided between the south and the north. Digital Public Infrastructure is capable addressing this question. It is an instrument in the fight against this divide.

Is it valid to argue that the Public Digital Backbone serves as both a quest and a means of equalization? Is the Public Digital Backbone a pursuit and a catalyst for achieving equality? Can we contend that the Public Digital Backbone is on a mission to promote equalization?

It may sound as a tall claim. The claim is made in spite of knowing difficulties and obstacles. But we feel it is worth debating it instead brushing it aside.

The Global South: An Analysis of Socioeconomic Divide

The concept of a digital social structure and debates around 'universalism' may not yet be fully understood. To grasp this, it's essential to first understand the ongoing debate of the global North vs. South and the reality behind it.

The term "Global South" generally refers to a group of countries including those in South and Central America, African nations, ASEAN countries, Pacific Island nations, the Indian subcontinent, Middle Eastern nations, and China. In essence, the Global South typically represents regions such as Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. Interestingly, no European country is considered part of the Global South. The global North-South divide is a prevailing reality, signifying that Northern countries are wealthier and more developed than their Southern counterparts. Northern countries tend to suppress the South, hindering their path to development. The reasons for this divide include:

Legacy of the Colonial Era: Northern countries colonized and ruled over Southern countries for centuries, during which they exploited their resources, causing economic weaknesses.

Unjust Global Economic Systems: The current global economic system often benefits the North while disadvantaging the South. For example, international trade agreements restrict Southern countries from protecting their industries.

Technological Shortfalls: The lack of modern technology in the South acts as a barrier to their development.

Instability: Often, countries in the South face political and social turmoil, stalling their progress.

Because of this division, Southern countries face numerous challenges, such as:

Poverty: A significant problem in the South, with more than 80% of the world's impoverished population residing there.

Illiteracy: Over two-thirds of the world's illiterate population lives in the South.

Health Issues: More than 90% of those affected by diseases like malaria and AIDS are in the South.

Understanding this divide is crucial to acknowledging the global challenges and addressing them holistically.

Addressing the Global Divide

To eradicate this division, the global community needs to take several steps, including:

Reforming the Global Economic System: The global economic system should be restructured to provide equal opportunities to all nations.

Spreading Technology: It's essential to disseminate modern technology across countries in the Global South, allowing them to accelerate their development.

Establishing Stability: Stability needs to be established in the countries of the Global South, ensuring they can focus on their development without any hindrance.

Comparing Western, Chinese, and Indian Approaches to Personal Identification: The Supremacy of Aadhaar

In an era marked by rapid technological advancements and a digital revolution, the approach to personal identification has emerged as a significant point of contention globally. The Western, Chinese, and Indian methods are representative of diverse philosophies on governance, data privacy, and the role of the state. Among these approaches, India's Aadhaar system stands out as a pioneering solution, tailor-made for the modern, digital age.

Western Approach: The Western perspective, particularly as exemplified by the United States and European Union, leans heavily on individual privacy and rights. While the US has been market-centric, allowing innovation to flourish with minimal regulations, Europe has become the torchbearer for data privacy. The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) encapsulates this ethos, placing the onus of data protection on service providers, and emphasizing the right of individuals to control their personal data.

Chinese Approach: In stark contrast, China's approach is one of state control and censorship. Under the guise of "cyber-sovereignty", China heavily regulates and monitors internet usage within its borders. The famous "Great Firewall" restricts access to foreign websites, and the government relies heavily on private enterprises, like Alibaba and WeChat, to collect and share user data. While this method ensures significant control over the digital ecosystem and deters potential external influences, it also curtails freedom and privacy.

India's Aadhaar: The Indian approach is a harmonious blend of technological advancement and individual empowerment. Aadhaar, the world's largest biometric ID project, was established to provide a trustworthy identity to every resident of India. Instead of being a tool of surveillance or a mere regulatory compliance, Aadhaar functions as a "foundational ID", enabling citizens to access a plethora of services, from banking to social welfare, with a single identity.

There are several reasons why Aadhaar emerges as a superior solution:

1. Public Good: Aadhaar was constructed as public infrastructure, ensuring that the primary motive was societal benefit and not profit. Unlike private Western platforms that collect data for advertising revenue, Aadhaar collects minimal data – name, date of birth, address, and gender.

2. Transparency and Privacy: While there is transparency in transactions with Aadhaar, there's also inbuilt privacy. The system does not store the purpose or nature of a transaction, ensuring user confidentiality.

3. Empowerment through Data: Aadhaar is a testament to the belief that individuals should be empowered by their data. The associated systems, like the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and e-KYC, are manifestations of this principle, streamlining processes and increasing accessibility.

4. Interoperability: The Aadhaar system's integration into various services, like banking and telecommunications, ensures seamless and efficient interactions. This interoperability encourages competition and enhances consumer choice.

5. Affordability and Scalability: The Aadhaar system was established at a minimal cost of approximately $1 per resident, a model of efficiency and scalability.

6. A Model for Others: Aadhaar's success has made it a model for other nations, with countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Rwanda exploring similar systems.

While the West grapples with the balancing act of innovation and privacy, and China leans heavily on state control, India's Aadhaar stands out as an innovative solution, optimized for the modern digital age. Its focus on individual empowerment, transparency, and public good makes it not just a robust identification system but also a beacon for digital infrastructure development globally.

There is an important coveat in all the above discussion. In modernism the world has progressively turned into datafication. The process started sometime around 1900 and going on unabbeted with ever accelerated speed.

There has arisen a question as to what is primary? humanity or technology? This is not confined to only datafication but to the other technologies like nuclear, genetic upto AI. Solution to that is of course not going backward but interpret modernism in favor of the humanity.

Datafication and Aadhaar: The Pursuit of a Better Personal Identification System

In today's rapidly digitizing world, datafication is inevitable. As individuals and institutions grow increasingly reliant on digital platforms, personal identification becomes paramount, ensuring that online interactions are both authentic and secure. The Aadhaar system, introduced by the Indian government, represents a significant step forward in this realm, aiming to provide a universal identification for every Indian citizen. While Aadhaar has showcased numerous advantages, there is an inherent necessity to continually evolve and seek better solutions to address emerging challenges.

Aadhaar: A Pioneer in Modern Identification

Aadhaar, at its core, is a 12-digit unique identification number linked to an individual's biometric and demographic data. Launched as the world's largest biometric ID system, it has bridged gaps in accessibility and inclusivity for millions. By linking numerous services under one umbrella, Aadhaar has simplified administrative processes, reduced paperwork, and increased transparency in transactions.

Furthermore, Aadhaar has empowered those on the margins. The rural population, for instance, has been able to access government welfare schemes more efficiently, eliminating the middlemen and reducing corruption. For many, Aadhaar is not merely an ID but a ticket to numerous services and opportunities.

The Concerns and the Need for Improvement

However, as with any large-scale system, Aadhaar has its criticisms. Privacy concerns top the list. Given the vast amount of personal data stored, the potential for misuse or breaches cannot be overlooked. Critics argue that centralizing such a vast array of information makes it an attractive target for hackers and unauthorized entities.

Additionally, while biometrics offer a certain level of precision, they aren't infallible. Mistakes in capturing data, system errors, or even natural changes in an individual’s biometrics can lead to discrepancies, leaving some citizens potentially disenfranchised.

Moreover, Aadhaar's pervasiveness in daily life has led to debates about its mandatory nature. Concerns arise when it starts becoming the sole key to essential services, potentially leaving out those who, for various reasons, are not enrolled or face technical issues.

The Road Ahead: Envisioning a Better System

To make Aadhaar, or any future identification system, more robust and universally accepted, several measures can be considered:

Strengthening Data Security: Investing in cutting-edge encryption methods and regularly updating security protocols can help ensure data safety. Regular third-party audits can identify vulnerabilities before they're exploited.

Decentralization: Instead of a single, massive database, a distributed ledger system, like blockchain, could be employed. This would provide a secure, transparent, and tamper-proof record of transactions.

Enhanced Privacy Controls: Giving individuals greater control over their data, including who can access it and for what purpose, can alleviate privacy concerns.

Inclusivity and Flexibility: While the goal should be universal coverage, systems should be flexible enough to accommodate those who might face challenges in enrollment or usage.

Continuous Feedback and Evolution: No system is perfect at inception. Regular feedback from users, experts, and stakeholders, followed by iterative improvements, can ensure that the identification system remains relevant and effective.

Datafication is a double-edged sword

While it offers unparalleled convenience and efficiency, it also brings forth challenges in privacy, security, and inclusivity. Aadhaar, as a pioneering effort, has illuminated both the potential and pitfalls of such a system. As society continues to evolve and technology advances, the quest for the perfect personal identification system will continue. The lessons learned from Aadhaar can guide future endeavors in creating a system that is not only robust and secure but also respects the rights and dignity of every individual.

While the problems of vulnerable communities are not to be denied and should be fought back and demanded solutions and problems of digital divide, connectivity, Internet blackouts are real problems, we should not throw the baby out with the bath water. Otherwise we will be the loosers as society as a whole in the race to modernisation.

In this context Moody's objections to Aadhaar and Indian government's reaction to that are worth mentioning.

Digital Transformation: Challenging Dominance and Shaping Socio-Political Landscapes.

The concept of 'Digital Public Infrastructure' holds the potential to be a solution to the persistent divides of this century. This idea, proposed by Nandan Nilekani and the subsequent practical experiments conducted under his guidance in India, has set the stage for its potential realization.

Historically, developed countries like America and Europe have often advised developing nations that their path to development is to abandon their own traditions and embrace Western culture and values, suggesting that it is in their best interest and is the key to their freedom. The implication is that there's only one path, one option available to the developing world. If they don't follow this, their backwardness and poverty will persist, a sentiment that is repeatedly reinforced. However, behind this seemingly benevolent advice lurks a violent dominance. Mahatma Gandhi recognized this dominance and understood that its resistance couldn't be met with violence. Thus, he equipped the masses with the nonviolent weapon of Satyagraha, leading India to its freedom. But an independent India needed technological support for its development. A nonviolent tech revolution was required, but the essence of this tech remained unexplored in the post-Gandhi era of Gandhism. The Digital Public Infrastructure initiative is a step in this direction.

Language, communication, and technologies are not apolitical and asocial as is commonly believed. It is a misconception that technology is 'neutral'. Technologies have their natural tendencies – both in a positive and negative sense. It's now evident and proved that every technology has its own politics.Their uses is another ball game driven by socio-political forces. It doesn't become apparent unless you listen and read carefully and scratch underneath the surface. The atomic technology that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki and killed millions was celebrated by democratic nations. The recent movie 'Oppenheimer' sparked significant discussion around and about the politics of atomic technology. The current war in Ukraine is happening before us in today's world is dominantly technological. There were debates around genetic engineering and blockchain technology. Before, there were discussions on computer technology and ethics related to that which is almost forgotten now. Currently, artificial intelligence is a hot topic of discussion. These discussions are not futile and are very close to our daily lives than we realize.

Digital Advancements in India: Bridging Gaps and Building Trust

India has made significant strides in the realm of digital public infrastructure. This foundational infrastructure has brought transformative changes in the lives of its citizens. For instance, the 'Aadhaar' system ensures that millions in India can directly benefit from banking, pensions, and grant-related services. The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) has revolutionized the digital payment sector in India, making money transfers more convenient and secure for its citizens. Decades ago, Rajiv Gandhi famously remarked that only fifteen paise of every rupee meant for welfare schemes reach the intended beneficiaries. With the revolution in digital technology, it's now possible to mitigate such financial discrepancies. The Digilocker provides individuals the convenience of securely storing and verifying their essential documents. Through the Account Aggregator (AA) technology, individuals can now securely share their personal data to avail various services.

Analyzing the Utilization of Digital Infrastructure in India

To truly grasp the immense scale of digital public infrastructure in India, consider the following statistics:

Aadhaar: Number of biometric authentication transactions - 1.3 billion, Unsuccessful biometric authentications – Over 100 million, Biometric authentication errors – Over 100 million

UPI (Unified Payments Interface): Daily transactions - More than 20 billion, Monthly transactions - Over 30 trillion (more than 1000 billion), Annual transactions - Exceeding 12 trillion (12,000 billion)

DigiLocker: Total number of documents stored – Over 500 million, Number of verified documents – More than 100 million

Accounts Aggregator (AA): Data sharing requests made – Over 100 million. This data highlights the deep penetration and reliance on digital mechanisms in everyday life across India.

For governmental functions and for criminal investigations Aadhaar is not available

Aadhaar plays a pivotal role in India Stack by providing a foundational identity layer. This identity verification mechanism, however, only confirms or denies a user's identity. It doesn't store or centralize transactional details, ensuring that data related to specific activities or behaviors isn't consolidated at the national level.The central government cannot use the Aadhaar central database for regular governmental activities arbitrarily. Aadhaar's primary purpose is to serve as an identification system, and its use is governed by the Aadhaar Act of 2016, which sets specific limits on the usage and sharing of data stored within the system. Here are the primary constraints and considerations:

1. Purpose Limitation: The Aadhaar Act restricts the use of Aadhaar data to specific purposes. The central and state governments can use Aadhaar for the distribution of any benefit or service that incurs expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India. However, it cannot be used for activities outside of these specified purposes.

2. Data Privacy and Consent: Aadhaar data can't be shared without the explicit consent of the individual. The UIDAI (Unique Identification Authority of India) does not have knowledge about the purpose of authentication, ensuring transactional privacy.

3. Restrictions on Storage and Use: Entities using Aadhaar for authentication are not allowed to store the biometrics of individuals. They can only store the Aadhaar number, which further limits the possibility of misuse.

4. Limited Data Access: The Aadhaar database primarily contains demographic and biometric data. The central government does not have access to personal details beyond what's stored in the Aadhaar system.

5. No Surveillance Mechanism: The Supreme Court of India, in its landmark judgment on Aadhaar, emphasized that the Aadhaar architecture doesn't provide a mechanism for surveillance. The system's design ensures minimal data collection, and it doesn’t record the purpose of any authentication request.

It's essential to note that while Aadhaar can be a potent tool for ensuring that government benefits reach the intended recipients, its use is constrained by legal and technical safeguards to protect individual privacy and data. The government, or any entity for that matter, cannot access or use the centralized Aadhaar data beyond the purposes and manners defined by the Aadhaar Act and the guidelines issued by UIDAI.

For example, there's no blanket permission for the police or any investigative agency to access Aadhaar data for criminal investigations. In September 2018, the Supreme Court of India struck down Section 33(2) which allowed disclosure of Aadhaar information in the interest of national security without any judicial oversight. The court also emphasized the importance of individual privacy and reiterated that the Aadhaar database shouldn't turn into a tool for surveillance.

Prevention of Data Centralization is made inherent in the technology design

India Stack's design inherently guards against the centralization of data at the national level. While Aadhaar provides a unified identity verification mechanism, it doesn't store transaction-specific details. When a user performs Aadhaar-based authentication, the system verifies the identity but does not record the context or purpose of the authentication. This intentional design choice ensures that while authentication is centralized, transaction data remains decentralized, preventing the formation of a single, comprehensive profile of an individual.

Interoperability of India Stack and the magic of Protocols

Interoperability refers to the ability of different information systems, devices, or applications to connect and exchange data efficiently. In the context of India Stack, interoperability ensures seamless interaction among various digital services, such as Aadhaar authentication, eKYC, UPI, and Digilocker, among others. By providing standardized APIs, India Stack ensures that diverse software applications can easily communicate and exchange data, fostering innovation and expanding digital services' reach.

Protocols, in the digital realm, are standardized sets of rules that determine how data is transmitted and received over the network. India Stack's strength lies in its adoption of open and standardized protocols, ensuring that all digital services, regardless of their origin or nature, can integrate with the system. These protocols, besides enhancing the system's overall interoperability, also set the ground rules for security, data privacy, and user consent.

How Unified Payments Interface (UPI) works?

To illustrate what we have discussed so far let us consider one of the layer of the India Stack, that is UPI. Let us see how UPI works in practice.

As we all know from our day to day experience, UPI facilitates inter-bank transactions by instantly transferring funds between two bank accounts on a mobile platform. Here is how it goes on:

First of all, UPI allows multiple bank accounts to be linked to a single mobile application, making it possible to have seamless fund routing and merchant transactions. These transactions are processed in real time, meaning the transfer happens instantly. It operates round the clock, 24/7, every day of the year. In doing every transaction, UPI uses a Virtual Payment Address (VPA) as a unique identifier, eliminating the need to enter bank account numbers or IFSC codes for transactions. If they desire users can scan QR codes for faster and error-free transactions. Transactions are secured with a two-factor authentication but only require one click for most transactions. One more thing, and not in the least unimportant, UPI supports person-to-person (P2P) and person-to-merchant (P2M) transactions.

Almost all major banks in India support UPI, allowing their customers to use any UPI-enabled app for transactions. There is no need for Wallets. Unlike mobile wallets where you need to load money, UPI transactions are direct bank-to-bank.

UPI has been instrumental in driving digital payments in India, promoting the vision of a cashless economy. Many applications like BHIM, Google Pay, PhonePe, Paytm, and more have integrated UPI for seamless transactions.

India's Success and Challenges in Digital Public Infrastructure

The statistics clearly indicate that India has achieved remarkable success in the domain of digital public infrastructure. This infrastructure has made the lives of its citizens more convenient and secure. There are high hopes that India will continue to achieve greater milestones in this field in the future. This accomplishment is not just noteworthy within India, but also sets a global benchmark. Specifically, countries in the 'Global South' are keenly observing and may be inspired by these developments. The credit for this success goes to multiple factors, including:

Visionary leadership and foresight of the government

Active participation of the citizens

Innovations in the technology sector

Legal reforms

Implementation of security measures

However, every silver lining has a cloud. While the statistics presented are impressive, a discerning reader might notice the following concerning numbers:

Aadhaar: Unsuccessful biometric authentications – Over 100 million

Aadhaar: Biometric authentication errors – Over 100 million

The fingerprints of manual laborers often fade over time. This results in their inability to authenticate through Aadhaar, leading them to be deprived of ration and other amenities. The issue of Internet shutdowns we have already discussed above.

These challenges highlight the importance of addressing the barriers that a segment of the population faces in accessing the benefits of digital public infrastructure.

Evolving Dynamics in the Digital Economy

In the past, the emphasis was on the traditional economy. However, with the advent of the information age, the significance of knowledge-based economics has been on the rise. This shift brought forward a novel concept: Public goods, contrasting the previously dominant idea of Private goods.

Private Goods: Items that, once purchased and consumed by an individual, cannot be used by others. Examples include cars, clothes, mobile phones.

Public Goods: Items available for everyone and can be used by anyone without restriction. Examples include roads, parks, and street lighting.

The crux of the matter is that, in the digital era, the utilization of public goods and the businesses based on them, especially IT companies, have become the frontrunners, leaving traditional companies in the dust. During the dot-com era before the year 2000 and the subsequent rise of social media, these IT corporations made their public goods (services) available for free to users (i.e., customers). This was widely accepted and appreciated by the masses. The primary revenue for these companies during that time was predominantly from advertisements. But even more crucial was the accumulation of vast amounts of user data by these IT corporations. Now, this data repository has become the main asset and source of power for these companies, simultaneously becoming a primary reason for the disempowerment of the masses. It's often said that a few decades ago, oil had unparalleled significance in the economy and politics was driven by oil. Today, that place has been taken by data repositories. Consequently, the issues of privacy and data protection have become of paramount importance in today's world.

Significance of Nandan Nilekani's Initiatives

Nandan Nilekani's importance chiefly stems from the following reasons.

Firstly, he didn't just limit the 'Aadhaar' initiative to the identification of an individual or citizen. Instead, he ensured that when an identity is established, the related information remains secure with that individual, without it being transmitted elsewhere. This allowed for a massive nationwide system where the privacy of information for millions of people remains intact with the respective individuals or entities. No information was extracted in exchange for services (public goods).

Secondly, by keeping this entire operation within the public sector, the it became akin to public goods. Unlike advanced nations where IT systems are largely driven by Silicon Valley or other IT corporate hubs, this was not privatized or corporatized.

Thirdly, while the system remained a public good, he didn't exclude private companies, both domestic and international, big and small. He ensured they had a rightful place and integration within the system.

Fourthly, in terms of software development, there was an emphasis on using free and open source software (FOSS). This eliminated dependence on private institutions or corporations who could monopolize it. So the dependency was eliminated and the services (public goods) available to people became cheap.

It all started with Aadhaar.

However, this was followed by a series of other initiatives:

Aadhaar

UPI (Unified Payments Interface)

e-KYC (Electronic Know Your Customer)

DigiLocker

Data Protection (DEPA and Account Aggregator AA)

Collectively, these systems have come to be recognized as the  'India Stack'. All these systems together are termed as Digital Public Infrastructure.

The Emerging Digital Landscape and Small Enterprises

The story of Aadhaar and Digital Public Infrastructure has been told so far, but it's still ongoing. The next link in this chain is ONDC (Open Network for Digital Commerce). This platform has the capability to make big online companies like Amazon and Flipkart to make room to the local vendors and small stores in their operations. Similarly, giants like Ola and Uber would have to accommodate small taxi networks in the taxi hiring business. The era of sidelining small businesses can be checked.

Nandan Nilekani suggests that over the next five years, at least fifty countries will adopt the blueprint of India's digital experimentation. However, he is quick to emphasize that each nation must carve out its own path. Every society should derive its direction based on its experiences without sidelining its cultural and social contexts.

Globalization and Digital Evolution and Socio-Economic Disparities in India

Globalization and the digital revolution have descended upon India hand in hand. Today, they form an integral part of our lives.

However, alongside this, we notice a rise in inequalities and unemployment within the country. There's a growing concern that if this trend continues, major economic reins will end up in the hands of a few powerful corporations, leaving small traders, manufacturers, and self-employed individuals unemployed.

This fear has been palpable among certain sections of the society. A prevailing notion was that digital technology primarily benefits the elite and was designed for their gain.

From this book and the above discourse, it emerges and becomes evident that if we use this technology judiciously, molding it according to our societal needs, and integrating it seamlessly with our cultural and social environments, digital public infrastructure can prove to be a blessing. It can uplift marginalized sections and enhance the value of their work.

title: Preface: Empowering India Digitally


text:
Talk:Preface: Empowering India Digitally

This is Preface of Public Digital Backbone
This page is the Prface of the Wikibook Public Digital Backbone and not a new book. But it is not accepting when I try to put in that Category and save. Admin please help me to correct it. Anil Shaligram (discuss • contribs) 15:22, 5 December 2023 (UTC)

Chapter links of the Wikibook Public Digital Backbone
Similar thing has happened with other chapters and links are lost while editing and shifting up and down and showing red. Admin please help to correct it. Anil Shaligram (discuss • contribs) 16:07, 5 December 2023 (UTC)