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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar5/Power

= Issue 4 - Power =

Introduction
In contemporary academia, one tends to refer to the global north as "developed" and to the global south as "developing". But when it comes to the disciplinary factors leading up to this distinction, some of the lines are more blurred than one might expect. These paragraphs are going to provide a short insight into the economic and political analysis of this phenomenon and will aim to shed light on the western importance of this distinctive characterisation.

Economic perspective
When it comes to the economic prosperity of a nation, the 21st century tends to always point back to the free-market, neoliberal economic model. However, what most people fail to recognise is that neoliberal policies often fail to provide the prosperity most countries wish to accomplish. One of the currently most capitalistic nations, the United States of America, actually achieved its fortunate economic status, not through a free-market, but a rather protectionist Hamiltonian economy. When neoliberal economic policies are suddenly implemented in countries with low economic development, they oftentimes lead to the exploitation of the given country, as at that moment these countries are still lacking both the regulations and the facilities to "protect themselves" from other, much more developed nations in free-trade. In the political analysis, the paragraph is going to detail why the above-mentioned provision of backwards "economic aid" is a conscious decision made by western political leaders.

Political perspective
Due to the recent developments of the global political and economic landscapes, many started questioning the intentions of western countries when promoting "financial prosperity for all", especially when it is supposed to be achieved through an already questionable mean such as free-market capitalism. Even most western countries are already starting to witness the destructive side-effects of a neoliberal economy. Recent studies suggest that western leaders possibly only promote the image of prosperity to try and hide the fact that they do not actually wish for everyone to prosper and in the meantime gain much more from developing countries than they provide in return. According to research done by the BBC, if everyone were to live like an average American, it would take four Earths to sustain the current global population. Therefore, many argue that the "economic aid" promoted by the global north for the global south is consciously backfiring, not to mention the effects of possible corruption that would also influence the amount of aid actually "making it" to countries in need.

Evaluation
These paragraphs aimed to display how an interdisciplinary perspective is able to give a holistic demonstration of the inequalities in global development dynamics. The economic and political analyses support and reinforce each other in stating the obvious western exploitation present in current developing countries. What is granted as "economic-aid" might be a fairly inaccurate portrayal of the western power's influence.

Introduction
This section will discuss the influence of power within the interdisciplinary field of oriental studies, focusing on Orientalism. Most of the research and publications in oriental studies are from a western perspective, and it can be argued that the lack of research from an unbiased and representative perspective across disciplines is a result of power influences that are legacies of colonialism.

Orientalism can be defined as the “scholarship, learning, or study in Asian subjects or languages”. However, negative connotations of imperialism and colonialism have been reinforced by academic discourse, in books such as ‘Orientalism’, published by Edward Said in 1978, whom conceptualised Orientalism as a "systemic discipline" where Europeans controlled the perception of the Orient "politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically and imaginatively during the Enlightenment period".

History and Art
Historically, Orientalist referred to Western scholars who specialised in Oriental studies, and wanted to study Indian, Arab and Islamic cultures as equal to western cultures. This was especially prolific in France during the 19th century, with the French Society of Orientalist Painters being founded in 1893, allowing artists to create a distinguished art movement of Orientalist paintings. Leading artists in the movement include Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) (figure 1) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904). However, many artists captivated by eastern mysticism and eroticism travelled and recorded their impression of eastern culture and society, but with political agendas, and others based impressions on their imaginations without visiting the countries they were depicting.

According to Foucault, knowledge is used as a form of power through the creation of truth. As argued, discourse is a social construction that is based upon hierarchical structure, and governing and curating knowledge will influence the historical narrative that defines a society, their cultures and religions. Depictions of the Orient are criticised as avoiding resemblance to “whiteness” or Western attributes, and instead made eastern societies synonymous with mystery, barbarism, sexual submissiveness. Here, a binary opposition of the 'west' and 'east' is created according to Saussurean's structuralist theory. By generating the definition of the East as ‘the other’ using antithetical attributes to the Occident, the West also created an identity and definition for itself that reinforced their portrayal of the Occident as a superior and civil society. This demonstrates how power in the discipline, enabled by a hegemony of power relations, has allowed these imaginations to become accepted facts, robbing the societies of their identity, and creating disciplines based upon subjective interpretation of cultures.

Political philosophy
The discipline of political philosophy was invented by Plato and Aristotle. Based on rationalism, the study aims to understand what is a good, just and ethical life, and created a "political space" where a distinction is made between the "inside" and "outside". The inside of the political space comprised of Greeks, with the outside constituting "orientals", who were considered to lack rationality and natural attributes of those on the 'inside' of the political space. The 'outsiders' were considered 'not Greek' and incapable of being so. This demonstrates how the Orient was perceived as a moral threat to the rationalism of the Greek society.

Furthermore, rationalism in political philosophy leads to the need to classify ideas and people. This classification, combined with prejudices resulted in the binary classification of the Greeks and the Orientals, similar to that of the West and the East, created through 19th century art. Rationalism further justified, not only classification, but the need to rank the classified into a hierarchy, which leads to the perception of the superior and inferior. A perception had thus been created through political philosophy that the Other was incapable of understanding justice and being just.

Post-colonial film studies
Misrepresentation has proliferated even in postmodern media, such as in film, with post-structuralist analyses criticising Eurocentric misrepresentations of cultures and characterisation of the Other.

For example, analysis of popular films such as in the 1992 Disney film Aladdin, shows how Western culture depicts a constructed reality of eastern culture. Interestingly, the original story was set in China rather than the Arab world, with the early 19th and 20th-century versions mixing Chinese elements with European elements. For example, the 1880 musical burlesque version, played by an actor in 'yellowface', in a culturally European setting (see figure 2). This misrepresentation of the Orient continued into the modern 1992 adaption. Mystical exoticism is used, with the mythical Arab city of Agrabah described as a “city of mystery.” Furthermore, Jasmine is portrayed as a princess who wishes to escape her oppressive culture; citizens are shown as barbarous and violent, whereas the main protagonist Aladdin as well as the Genie are culturally American through character design and humour that draws on American pop culture. The result is similar to that of misrepresentation is art, with the reinforcement of cultural stereotypes and the perception of the Occident as the cultured antithesis to the Orient.

Evaluation & the case for interdisciplinary research
Power and it's influence on creation and control of knowledge, as well as imperialist influences in art, film and politics, have impacted the study of eastern societies. The bias of research and depictions being carried out by western researchers predominately from France and Britain, needs to be deconstructed in the post-colonial world. Critical analysis of art, literature and other depictions by understanding geographical and historical context is essential. Orientalism must be viewed as interdisciplinary topic, with analysis of History, Art, Politics, Geography and politics. Said believed that cross-fertilisation of the disciplines allowed for varied perceptions. Analysis of Said in particular, who conceptualised the term 'Orientalism' has highlighted that his chosen position as the 'amateur' allowed him to delve into discipline such as politics, psychology, history and art to achieve an interdisciplinary perspective in his book. The strategy of interdisciplinary critique has become popularised among progressive scholars who utilise critical methodologies in their research and analysis. This provides a case for deconstructing power and hierarchy within the disciplines using interdisciplinary analysis.

Power in Geography
Certain geographical circumstances can be seen as 'inherently powerful', in that they allow for certain later advantages to the people who are able to utilise them. If they do, then this can have a resounding impact though a 'butterfly effect' causal relationship, leading to lasting consequences for people and societies far removed from the initial location.

Geographical determinism
Jared Diamond is one of the key figures of the 20th century that revived discussion around the theory that the initial physical environment of different groups of peoples was (and continues to be) key to the explanation for why power relationships in the world are what they are today (geographical determinism). In his Pulitzer-prize winning book, Guns, Germs, and Steel, he discusses Western political and cultural dominance throughout the centuries in this light. How flora and fauna impact food production, which impacts the rate of further development of a given society is a central part of his argument.

Location as determining cultural development
In his book The Geography of Genius, Eric Weiner sets out to investigate whether the etymology behind the word "genius" - genius loci, 'spirit of a place', points to the 'clustered genius' of groups of people in certain cities over the centuries being contingent on the cities themselves. He examines various historical circumstances to explain the origins of the clusters, but comes to not one definite common characteristic among the cities he selects (Athens, Edinburgh, Kolkata, Vienna). Some conditions that may predispose a place to harbouring genius is chaos/stress/worry over something, which leads to the need for problem-solving and inspires creativity; /etc/

Geography and military operations
Landscape has long been an important factor to consider in any battle strategy. Being able to use one's geographical surroundings to one's advantage, even those of a foreign land, can sometimes lead to military victory when one is very outnumbered - the Battle of Austerlitz is a case in point. Geography is thereore an important factor to consider when analysing historical power shifts caused by war victory, with the latter being interesting to consider in light of geographical determinism.

- carthography as expressing the dominant viewpoint (Western European maps)

- the Silk Road (& trade routes in general)

- Tambora, 1816, Mary Shelley?

- use of /geographical?/ phenomena to symbolise holy anger -> reinforcing religious power structures (earthquakes, draught, floods; Noah's Ark, Moses' seven plagues?)

- affecting global knowledge (Dark Ages, anthropology's 'discovery' of Melanesian art & its influence, juxtaposing relevant examples from different parts of the world to arrive at theory that explains all things)

- cholera epidemic from ATK /complexity/ presentation?

Power in classical music
This article will focus on power issues regarding gender in classical music. There are other issues that could and should be addressed, for example the exclusion of minorities and disabilities in orchestras and the classical music world, but this focuses merely on gender issues.

A 2014 Survey has shown that from 150 top conductors of the world only five are female. Only 13 % of all performed contemporary pieces are composed by women (2018). Until 1913 women were only allowed to play in woman’s orchestras, the first of those started playing in 1898  under Mary Wurm, a student of Clara Schumann. In 1913 the Queen’s Hall Orchestra in London accepted, but were still excepted to only play certain instruments, such as violin and harp. And this, in some respect, has still not changed: In 2014 97% of orchestral brass players were male. The first female harpist and musician, Edna Phillips, to take a place in an American orchestra, namely the Philadelphia Orchestra, in 1930, did not feel welcomed at her workplace. The Vienna Philharmonic was an all-male orchestra until 1997, even though their first female member, harpist, Anna Lelkes, had played with them before, although publicly unacknowledged.

In her research conducted in several youth orchestras in the UK in 2016, sociologist Anna Bull, notices that authority of male conductors in youth orchestras leads to girls seeing themselves as unable to perform those authoritative jobs. She observes the „gendered authority, which is central to classical music practice“ and how the status of male conductors in youth orchestras supports gender norms. This process mainly takes place in the middle class and is different to other authoritative situations, as it has a „non-linguistic, affective, embodied power“. The rehearsals bring together both public and private place and authority and intimacy. There the conductor’s state is seen as „absolute“, he is the only one speaking for most of the rehearsal time, while the youth plays after his wishes. The conductors Bull has observed in her study all understated or denied their role of power, but stressed the openness of the rehearsal process, which when closer examined did not actually exist. As classical music has not been subject to sociological critique for a long time, it is highly necessary.

Power in Architecture
The built environment is underpinned with elements of power in its intention to organise, house and influence the general public. The influence of public architecture influences many areas including healthcare, housing, religion, politics and commerce. How a space is designed, its audience and its intention are all key questions in evaluating elements of power within architecture. This issue is approached by Sam Stein in "Gentrification and The Real Estate State", where he states "Planners operate in a system that must appear open to the public, whilst simultaneously guaranteeing that ultimate power resides in the hands of properties elites".

Power in Social Housing
The UK saw a rapid rise in social housing projects following the end of the first world war as, the then Prime Minister, David Lloyd George wished to improve the domestic lifestyles of returning soldiers. This led to high standard social housing with a driving force of high quality of living. For example average wall heights of 8ft (higher than average in the UK today) and a minimum 70ft distance between housing rows to increase the amount of light entering homes. Social historian John Boughton remarked that "Council homes were initially for the more affluent working classes. They were far from slum housing.".

A similar surge is seen post WWII. However, to cope with an increased number of returning soldiers and the damage of bombings, the government sought to decrease spending in order to maximise the number of homes built. This led to the development of many prefabricated bungalows which, although intended to last for around a decade, would remain for many years. It also saw the introduction of Precast Reinforced Concrete for longer lasting, cheap and quick to build housing.

Redevelopment or Slum-Clearing
The Housing Act of 1930 sough to designate "redevelopment areas" in order to remove residents from housing deemed to be unsatisfactory and relocate them to more suitable accommodation. This strategy persisted throughout the 20th century and has faced much criticism. Critics argue that the process only serves to improve quality on life on paper and ultimately fails to address the underlying factors that will result in the inequalities prevalent in the original housing.

Right - to - Buy
Whilst proposed by the previous Labour government, in 1980, Margaret Thatcher's Government implemented the the Housing Act (1980) within which renters of council housing were offered large discounts on purchasing the properties they rented. This was initially received gladly by those living in council estates who saw the scheme as a step towards a better quality and a sense of greater ownership over their homes. However, some argue that it drove a segregation between those who bought their homes and those who still rented properties. It is also seen by some as an early root of the current housing crises as the sale of so many properties led to a great depletion of public assets.

Social Housing Rejuvenation
Ageing social housing must be maintained or improved to cater for residents. However, this can lead to gentrification, or so-called 'Art-Washing', whereby social housing projects are driven by aesthetic design over a priority of rational function for the intended audience. This process can lead to an increase in price of the housing as its audience expands from the original groups who seek a form of cheap housing to cater for their lower incomes to an audience that is willing to pay a greater sum for a project deemed to have greater artistic or architectural value.

Power arises as an issue in the study of social housing through the imbalance of power between those that supply and those who wish to obtain such property. Often those with the greatest need of affordable housing are of a lower income and so are, in turn, often of lower influence in the planning, construction and distribution of social housing. Whilst the study of social housing is often occupied with the large scale planning and legislature involved in construction, it could be argued that the needs of the audience are often overlooked due to such imbalances in power. Furthermore, the gentrification of past social housing projects, to improve quality and so drive up desirability and economic value, inevitably drives away lower income families or individuals who are, perhaps, most at need of accommodation.

This reflects a power dynamic that underlies social housing. There is a conflict of interest between supplying housing for those with lower incomes (as an introductory property) and increasing profits by supplying property to a wealthier audience. Crucially, those who are arguably in greatest need of such housing, have the least power over its development.

Ableism in Architecture
Architecture often struggles with the issue of accessibility and ableism. In the US, up until the 1970s, so-called ugly laws were in effect, outlawing the public appearance of people deemed unsightly in public. This included disabilities of many kinds, meaning that there was no consideration for accessibility for the disabled population. Architecture kept to the standards of good design, with respects only to aesthetic appearance. In other, more historic places, the inaccessible nature of the cityscape is associated with its historic charm. It can create a struggle between making the architecture more accessible and keeping the historical accuracy of a building. Oftentimes, when confronted, authorities will claim that accessibility is an issue of money, and many places, like Canada, do not have concise plans or laws for fighting ableism, leaving it to individuals and organisations to make the cityscape or wheelchair friendly. Another aspect of ableist architecture can be found in air travel. While there is the obvious lack of consideration for disabled passengers, such as untrained staff, damages that occur to mobility devices during the flight, etc., the design of the planes itself poses a big challenge as well. The trend of trying to cut down on costs leads to the drastic reduction of leg-space and aisle width. This poses a great challenge to people with impaired mobility or obese passengers and is entirely connected to the physical build and design of the aircraft.

Power in policing
In this piece I will look at power in policing and specifically the tactic of stop and search.

The tactic of using stop and search, was first introduced in the 1981 to tackle high levels of crime in south london, specifically Brixton. Police stopped and searched hundreds of mainly black youths. The operation was a Major catalyst for the Brixton riots in April of 1981.

New rules on the way police can use the tactic have been introduced, for example generally they need reasonable evidence that the suspect has been involved in a crime or carrying illegal items. However, still today it remains one of the most controversial police tactics and is frequently referenced when talking about racism with the police.

A report by the 'Equality and Human Rights Commission' in 2010, concluded that police across the country disproportionately used the tactic against black and Asian people. It stated 'the pattern of entrenched disproportionate use of stop and search powers' correlates to 'evidence on racial prejudice and stereotyping'. This idea of racial prejudice as a driving force for how police chose who to stop and search is problematic. As the report explains, if police are making decisions based on prejudices and generalised beliefs, rather than objective evidence the tactic is not being used in a lawful way. The findings in this report are still relevant today, for example in 2018 black people were nine times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people. Furthermore Theresa May's relaxation of regulation around the tactic this year has worsen the imbalance between racial groups.

Studies have shown that the disproportionate is in part caused by decision making based on racial bias. Stop and search is 60% linked to drugs, and David Lammy, the MP for Tottenham believes the discrimination is 'grounded in the fictitious narrative that drug use is especially prevalent among black and minority ethnic groups'. However the stereotype of drug use and increasing like-hood of criminality among particularity black men, is not backed by evidence-only 16% of stop and searches of black people involving knives resulted in arrest compared 21% for white people, in 2019.

However, in the context of knife rising 7% this year, police have backed the bias of stop and search against Black youths stating 'Knife crime and street violence disproportionately affects boys and young men, particularly of African-Caribbean heritage both in terms of victims and perpetrators.'. However there is a continually debate over the link of crime and race particularity to do with knife crime in London. Earlier this year Theresa May relaxed stop and search regulations under Section 60, to allow for police to stop and search without 'reasonable grounds' for doing so, in areas most affected by knife crime.

Stop and Search as a tactic is reported to be an extremely effective: '''Stop and search is a hugely effective power when it comes to disrupting crime, taking weapons off our streets and keeping us safe', Sajid Javid, home secretary. However evidence has repeatedly show that it has limited impact, the governments own research concluded “some have questioned whether the reduction in the use of stop and search drives an increase in violence, the data does not support such a conclusion.”.''

Overall the tactic of stop and search, highlights problems of racism and discrimination by the police, even if sub-consciously. It is a controversial tactic that arguably increases tensions between communities and police, as well as showing how police power can be used to oppress and further marginalise minority groups. Furthermore, big questions around its effectiveness, make it a tactic that perhaps creates alot more problems than it solves.

Pornography and its power to encourage sexual liberation
While the damaging effects of mainstream porn today are uncontestable in that they form a sexual narrative that doesn't reflect reality or promote a healthy alternative to reality. However, while the power of pornography at empowering certain groups is done at a small scale today, it is arguable that pornography isn't problematic by nature but rather by the way it is used today, i.e. in what it portrays. Indeed, the idea that damaging pornography (pornography that objectifies certain groups on the basis of discriminatory stereotypes) is a symptom of Discrimination and Objectification rather than an origin is a view that is shared between multiple pornography advocates.

Therefore, the main argument of pornography advocates today is that the industry has the power to shift today's sexual narratives in favour of healthier, less problematic narratives and eventually, become a manifestation of minority advancement and empowerment. This is precisely what the arising field of ethical porn (i.e. pornography that promotes consent and health in its practice) seeks to establish. This area of the industry validates more 'niche' sexual preferences, therefore broadening the spectrum of sexual liberation. The driving view in this field is the idea articulated by Cindy Gallop that, “When you force anything into the darkness, you make it much easier for bad things to happen, and much harder for good things to happen. The answer is not to shut down. The answer is to open up.” This could explain why a study undertaken at Minnesota State University wrote that "Two qualitative studies have found that gay, bisexual, and queer men report very few negative effects of porn consumption." . Indeed, while pornography can be degrading for certain minorities it also validates various sexual preferences. It is in this way that some Liberal Feminists promote pornography as a medium for sexual liberation and personal fulfilment.

Other advocates of pornography claim that the variety in sexual categories on pornographic sites, while often driven by stereotypes, have led to the uncovering and acceptance of different sexual preferences, facilitating personal sexual fulfilment. This provides a platform for certain sexual fantasies to escape repression, find acceptance and eventually, liberation. Brian McNair introduces this notion in 2002 as the 'democratization of desire" in his book, Striptease CUlture: Sex, media and the democratization of desire.

While opponents of pornography criticise it for encouraging sexually dangerous behaviour, others claim that for mentally stable individuals, access to pornography doesn't have real impact on their sexual behaviour, whereas for unstable counterparts, it can aggravate sexual impulses. Some have therefore suggested that restricting access shouldn't be applied to everyone, but rather to defined targets.

Power of Education
This article focuses on the impacts of education, specifically in less developed countries. Fundamental to development and growth, education is crucial as it allows people to acquire essential skills and knowledge. Although education is deemed a basic human right, many still do not have access to it.

Economical impact of education
The Poverty Cycle occurs when poor people lack the necessary resources to improve their current situation, resulting in them being trapped in a continuous cycle of poverty which could be transmitted from generation to generation. People with low incomes tend to have a lower productivity and earnings, thus resulting in their inability to make investments to better their current situation. Similarly, looking at the bigger picture, when a country has a less productive workforce, it would have a smaller or possibly negative economic growth. Since education is a merit good the social benefits are greater than the individual benefits. With educated individuals, productivity of the workforce increases, resulting in greater output and increased economic growth which could potentially attract foreign investments.

Social impact of education
In a journal series titled Policy Futures in Education, it shows how education for females can spearhead multiple social changes. First and foremost, educating mothers has a massive impact as they are provided with basic knowledge such as how to care for their child. As mothers usually have a bigger responsibility in caring for their children, a mother's level of education influences the quality of care and given to them, overall raising the standard of living for their children, families and communities. Furthermore, giving girls an education aids in decreasing the occurrence of child marriages. In a study conducted, it showed that "girls who have no education are three times as likely to marry by 18 compared to girls with secondary or higher education". This is partly due to the fact that girls who have access to education have a higher chance of avoiding child marriages as they are more knowledgeable and can make better informed decisions, thus delaying possible child marriages.

power in art to fight for political cause
Artists can play an effective counter-power role in combating abuses of power, using the paper on the exhibition of Frida Kahlo at the Vya Museum. The document makes it possible to realize how Frida subversively denounced the Indo-American roots of her country that were hidden by the authoritarian regime of General Porfirio Diaz. It also denounces the economic abuses of the United States with respect to Mexico.

First, photos show that Frida is dressed in costumes and necklaces inspired by pre-Hispanic folklore. One of them depicts the Tehuana costume that Frida used to wear. Also, in the photo taken by the famous photographer Nickolas Muray, Frida has in her hand, a Tolteca statue, which can be interpreted as a way to forcefully vindicate Mexico’s indigenous past.

Second, in the self-portrait that is called "Border between Mexico and the United States", Frida painted, on the left side, the spiritual richness of the Mexican world that is symbolized by a pre-Columbian temple and contrasts, on the right side of the picture, with the materialism of the industrial world of the United States. The link between the two parts is a wire that connects an American machine to a root of Mexico, which can be read as a criticism of the United States for wanting to appropriate Mexico’s natural resources. Between the two parts of the picture, as a border between the two countries, Frida turned to the Mexican side and holding a flag

Art, in general, can be a useful tool to fight against dictatorships and political power abuses, so the example of Frida Kahlo shows. We have also seen that civic education can contribute to combating gender-based violence in the domestic sphere. In the end, we have seen that some exemplary leaders can, thanks to their extraordinary vision, also effectively use the counter-power of the press to try to promote a change in society.

Power in Health within Pornography
The area of health, concerning the wellbeing of actors, relates to the issue of power in pornography through inequality in access to services and influence over the use of preventive measures.

The lack of access to health resources for adult film actors results from the freelance nature of their work. As described by Danny Wylde, actors are paid for individual jobs. They, therefore, lack health insurance or any facilitated access to health services. Danny Wylde's career was ruined because of the industry's excessive use of Sildenafil (viagra). There is an increase in STDs within the porn industry: nearly 50% of 168 actors studied were either tested positive to having chlamydia, gonorrhea or both. . These actors are exposed more frequently to STDs and STIs yet receive no health support once infected.

However, in the Netherlands, sex workers are "encouraged but not required" to have screenings for diseases and infections multiple times a year. and are protected by free government-funded healthcare. This validates sex work as a profession and implies that adult film actors aren't faced with inequalities in access to healthcare.

Another representation of power in pornography is the disapproval of the use of condoms which undeniably increases transmissions between actors. A study found that filmmakers believe the use of condoms decreases the "marketability" of porn, resulting in a minimal percentage of heterosexual porn being shot using such preventive measures, encouraging workers to put themselves at risk. These power dynamics within pornography pervade the disciplines of health and economics.

Power in Philosophy
The discipline of philosophy has been shaped by the power dynamics of Western societies. The discipline focuses mainly on male philosophers of the Western World (Greece, France, Germany, and the UK), dismissing Asian and Arabic philosophers although they birthed influential theories

Furthermore, philosophy has generalized the male point of view, often excluding women from the concept of universality. Indeed, women have either been excluded from philosophical discussions or their feminity has been criticized. Philosophical concepts that are fundamental to the discipline, such as reason and objectivity, can be considered incomplete as they don't include women's point of view. It is only with the rise of feminist philosophy that feminity has started to be considered in such discussions and the input of feminist philosophers has furthered and added a new depth to the philosophical inquiry of the nature of the self, of the relationship between the natural and the social, and of knowledge.

The caricatural image of the philosopher being a white male with a beard makes it hard for those who don't fit said image to feel included in that discipline. Studies show that women represent only 17% of full-time academic staff in philosophy in the US and 29% in the UK and Patrice Haynes, senior lecturer in philosophy, reports that there are only five black philosophers, three being woman, in the UK. The lack of inclusivity in philosophy is a reflection of the ways of thinking of important philosophers in the past that are no longer relevant in the modern academic world.

= Notes ==


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/Seminar 6

Welcome to the sandbox for Approaches to Knowledge seminar group 6, which meets on Thursdays 10-11.

Below are links to pages on the issues that we will be covering in the first half of term.

History

Truth

Evidence

Power

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:LBird BASc/sandbox/Seminar 6


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/History

Issue 1 - History

Colonialism and the disciplines
Irma, Yujin, Elisa, Henry

In an attempt to identify the ways in which colonialism and disciplines reciprocally shaped and influenced each other, the following questions act as a guiding thread for our reflection: -How did disciplines contribute to colonialism? -How were the disciplines shaped by colonialism? -How do disciplines deal with the issue of colonialism today?

Social Sciences
A brief history of Social Theory

Few disciplines are as closely related to colonialism as sociology. In fact, it seems adequate to say that sociology was built within a culture of imperialism. In his paper ‘Why Is Classical Theory Classical?’, Connell argues that global expansion and colonization gave sociology its main conceptual framework and much of its data, key problems, and methods.

Sociology as a discipline was constructed around the foundation narrative of European men theorizing sociology as a response to changes in a new industrial society due to the Industrial Revolution, urbanisation, class conflict, alienation and the emergence of the modern nation-state. In this view, sociology arose from the experience of modernity and aimed to make sense of the new society being built. Following this myth, Durkheim, Weber, and Marx were established as the founding fathers whose texts form today’s sociological canon. However, such a narrative lacks the support of adequate evidence: the literature early sociologists themselves wrote and read. If some 28% of pre-world war one reviews focused on the problems emerging from the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority were concerned with the differences between the metropoles, the West and the “others” - the “Primitives”. The idea of 'progress' from primitive to advanced fascinated sociologists, who saw in remote societies a reflection of the early stages of societal development.

Methodologies that embody the imperial gaze

The way in which Eurocentrism influenced sociology prevails in the methodologies it adopted, and the data researchers selected as evidence to support their theories.

How did Durkheim know of the Kabyle’s situation in Algeria? It is upon the analysis of the archives from the Arab Bureau that he based his work on the concept of segmental social organization. A military institution conceived to assure the intellectual conquest of Algeria, the Bureau gathered information about Algerian society, which in turn determined the focus of French scholar research. While it must be recognized that the Bureau made a rigorous effort to accurately record all facts relating to different aspects of society, from religious customs and public morality to local and general laws, this research was certainly not disinterested. The knowledge gathered served the colonial agenda. In fact, the representation of the native aimed to identify the most efficient ways of establishing French governance in Algeria. Abdelmajid Hannoum argues in Colonialism and knowledge in Algeria: The archives of the Arab Bureau, History and Anthropology: knowledge is a means by which and through which an institution not only justifies its practices but also rules others. To govern one needed to know and knowing is nothing more than representing. What the natives were like, also meant in this context, what was the proper way to govern them in the most efficient way.

Literature
Because literature is made up of a range of different authors from different backgrounds, there will rarely be consensus within literature as a whole. However, certain trends have developed at different points through out the history of colonialism.

There were two main ways that literature contributed to colonialism at the time. Firstly, books would reflect and spread the view that the indigenous populations were subhuman by portraying them as beasts and savages. An example of this is Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe from 1719, where the people who live on the island are cannibals. The interactions between Crusoe and the character Friday is also seen by some to give legitimacy to colonialism. Crusoe gives him a new name, teaches him English and introduces him to Christianity, which closely mirrors the process colonists went through when colonising. Secondly, native voices were silence in this period, both through being marginalised and by not having the language necessary to reach a larger audience.

Colonialism shaped literature by expanding themes like nationality, identity and race. The analysis of these works became part of the wider formulation of post-colonialism in the 1980s and 1990s. The theory deals broadly with power structures between groups, most often with aspects of European imperialism and its consequences. There were also more specific effects of colonialism om literature. For instance, there is a range of narratives around slavery in the US. An example would be the anthology of poems Amazing Grace.

Literature today mainly deals with colonialism through the lens of post-colonialism. There are two main parts of this. One is revisiting canon literature, such as Brontë's Jane Eyre, and and analysing the power structures within the narrative. A few concepts that have been developed to aid this analysis are: hybridity, third-space, mimicry and difference. The other is an increase in literature that deals with the consequences of colonialism. A few examples of these narratives are: Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys, Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe and Half of a Yellow Sun by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.

Economics

 * The economic reasons for colonialism

As Fred M. Gottheil points out, 'Colonialism represents a set of structures that are imposed upon a nation by another in order to affect international distributions of income and wealth.' Colonialism is closely related to the economy. The first economic factor that gives birth to colonialism is that some countries attempt to look for new markets overseas to sell domestic products. The second economic reason is that colonists seek to exploit the natural resources and labor in the colonised countries to accumulate more wealth. The third economic consideration is that the price of raw materials is usually relatively low in the colonised countries which as a result allows the invaders to gain more profits.
 * The economic impacts of colonialism

One of the most prominent economic impacts of colonialism is the immense economy inequality. Many of the underdeveloped countries are still under the economic domination of the developing countries. A great amount of the natural resources of the colonised countries were taken way by the colonising countries, which becomes a huge hindrance to their economic development. Some researchers claim that colonialism is the major cause of income inequalities across different countries. For example, Acemoglu states that the different colonisation strategies adopted by the European settlers in the colonies have an important effect on the institutions today, which in turn determines the economic conditions of these colonised countries.

 * How colonialism shaped economy

Many economists try to explain the colonial system through different perspectives, which gives rise to various kinds of economic theories. Economists are mainly studying colonial policies to understand long-term patterns in development and inequalities, which will help devise economic policies. However, Yannick Dupraz and Valeria Rueda emphasize that economic studies of colonialism should not ignore its inherent racism and violence.
 * How economy deals with the issue of colonialism today

Art
Colonialism had a clear effect on the influences of art, both in the colonising countries and the nations that were colonised. It greatly increased access for European artists to foreign techniques and art history, and in turn did the same for artists in the countries that were colonised. It is more than likely that the effect of colonisation played a significant role in the creation of whole genres of Western Art.

The Effect of Colonialism on European Art

The subject of Colonialism and the foreign mystique contemporarily associated with it, was rife in the Western Art of the time.

There was patriotic and jingoistic art such as 'Lord Clive Meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey' (1757) by Francis Hayman. It is unsurprising that colonisers see themselves as the glorious conquerers, and this belief of superiority is reflected in some of the art of the time. In the case of 'Lord Clive Meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey' the artist is overtly portraying the British colonisers as compassionate victors, the painting making reference to the defeated general pledging his forces to the victorious Lord Clive. Hayman had never visited India and the painting was a patriotic celebration of a British military success and the resulting cooperation with the Indian population.

Over the following centuries, as attitudes changed towards colonialism and imperialism, such art has come in and out of favour in art galleries. This is due to the changing outlook towards the connotations of such art. Indian 'cooperation' in Haywood's painting was seen more as subjugation for example. 'The remnants of an army' (1879) by Elizabeth Butler, which was once a main attraction in the Tate spent 50 years in a regimental museum in Somerset, in an effort to reduce the signs of colonialism.

There was also a clear effect of colonial influences on incredibly famous European artists. Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso were very strongly influenced by African sculptures and masks around the years of 1907 to 1909. Picasso in particular (although he later denied any influence reportedly for Iberian patriotic reasons) took heavy influence from the statues' non-anatomical portrayal of the human form. Picasso was apparently very struck by a visit to the ethnographic museum at Palais du Trocadéro in 1907, a museum brought into existence by French colonialism. His years between 1907 and 1909 are known as his African period and contained 'Les Demoiselles d'Avignon', one of his more famous pieces and a very important artwork in early modernism.

In a similar way artists like Manet and Van Gogh were strongly influenced by Japanese prints and African and other 'primitive' art (on top of it's influences to Picasso's cubism) was an important influence to American Abstract Expressionism.

The effect of Colonialism on the art of the colonised countries

During the times of colonial rule there was a tendency to imitate techniques from Western art and in order to gain respect, many local artists would go abroad to be classically trained in a Western country. In the aftermath of the colonial powers leaving, different effects can be seen in the art of different places.

There was often later a drive to rediscover more traditional techniques and styles, in the wake of interest from the colonisers. The effect of this in tandem with a greater importance being put on identity in the indigenous psyche towards the end of imperial rule and with the context of independence and rediscovery of what came before European intervention.

In some cases though, the changes to the social make up of the society was significant enough to change the outlook towards art. Some of the best examples of this happening are in post-colonial Africa where in parts the change in religion (to the monotheistic religions of Islam and Christianity) brought about through the foreign influences of colonialism caused some of the purpose of art to change. The change of outlook can of course be seen in some of the

It is worth mentioning though, that 'traditional' African art is a loose concept as African cultures were not isolated in pre-colonial times and there was always an exchange of ideas and a progression in techniques.

Sources:
 * http://what-when-how.com/western-colonialism/art-european-western-colonialism/
 * http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless-static/www.boundless.com/art-history/concepts/effects-of-colonialism-on-nigerian-art-0-17387/index.html
 * https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/nov/20/how-to-look-at-the-art-of-the-british-empire
 * https://www.pablopicasso.org/africanperiod.jsp
 * https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw01347/Robert-Clive-and-Mir-Jafar-after-the-Battle-of-Plassey-1757
 * https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/african-art-intro/a/african-art-effects-of-european-colonization

Science
Scientific achievements as proof of European superiority -> contributed to justifying imperialism However, science could be used as a tool to tear down the premises of colonial rule.

Streams within Economics and Psychology
Two streams exist within the studies of Economics and Psychology, with similarities being present in both streams:

 * Theoretical: In theoretical streams, scientific methods such as mathematics, statistics and computational modelling are mostly used. Such methods of data collection in theoretical development have been especially relevant in 21st century Psychology where the biological approach is the dominant approach at present due to advances in technology that have allowed for more objective methods such as brain scanning technologies that allow for greater validity and reliability in experiments. This represents an increased convergence between the two disciplines. Empiricism is present in both disciplines in the evidence used in supporting theories. Theories are largely made on the basis of evidence from sensory experience (observations) where economic theories are created from events such as financial crises while most psychological theories stem from observational studies and experiments.

 * Practical: Theorietical knowledge is used in both disciplines is translatable to practical outcomes. In Economics, theoretical knowledge is used by governments and financial institutions in policies. For instance, governments and central banks have used theories of fiscal and monetary policies respectively in altering taxes and interest rates to influence levels of economic activity.

Overview
Economics, as described by Oxford Dictionary, is a “branch of knowledge concerned with the production, consumption, and transfer of wealth." In the 1800s economics was a topic of interest for few academics and members of the elite, but it did not have such a presence in the world as it does today. The definition of economics has evolved through the years, which shows how language and lexicon play an important role in the formation of a discipline. For example, the first definition of economics by Alfred Marshall had great overlaps with the topics that psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists study. Especially since the idea of ‘wealth’ and ‘well-being’ could be considered a threshold concept, which is studied by plethora of disciplines. Although the definition of economics has gone through many changes, economists through the ages have tackled similar questions: what determines the prices of goods, labour and resources. Since the 19th century, the study of Economics has branched off into Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. Within these two branches schools of thought emerged, such as Classical Economics (eg Adam Smith), Neoclassical, Keynisian and Marxist economics. The more recent additions to the study of economics include Environmental Economics, Econometrics and Behavioural Economics.

Theoretical History
Several disparate schools of thought exist, with different academics being pivotal in the rise and fall of each. Theories started from the ancient world and are still being formulated up to the present day. The dominant viewpoint has changed throughout history, with significant events (ie. financial crises) being key drivers in these changes.

Key thinkers:
 * Adam Smith
 * Marx and Matheus
 * Keynes
 * Friedman

Ideological viewpoints:
 * Classical (18th-19th century)
 * Neoclassical (19th and early 20th century)
 * Keynesianism (20th century)

Methodological History
Formal modelling started in the 19th century, using differential calculus as a means of explaining economic behaviour such as utility maximisation. Until the latter half of the 20th century, methods became increasingly mathematical but qualitative methods such as game theory were subsequently introduced to complement existing methods.

'Core journal' articles in the 20th century were largely written by economists where an assessment of mathematical techniques in these showed a decrease in articles using qualitative methods.

Econometrics emerged as a result of advances in mathematical and statistical methods in economics. It uses statistics as a means of validating mathematical theories.

Other examples of early uses of mathematics in economics:
 * Henry L. Moore - mathematics as a means of investigating the relationship between productivity and elasticity in agriculture.
 * Walras - use of models and theories in General equilibrium theory.
 * Alfred Marshall - mathematical modelling of economies and introduction of new concepts (Economies of Scale, Marginal Utility, Real Cost Paradigm).
 * French physiocrats built on the work of Adam Smith and carried out the first methodical study of how economies work.

Overview
Psychology is the discipline that concerns itself with the study of the mind and its processes. Why we think the way we think, why we act the way we act, and basically what is the origin of our personalities. Tracing back to Ancient Greece, the field of psychology was a subset of philosophy but never received the full undivided attention it deserved. Psychology is therefore a very recent science because it didn’t emerge as a separate discipline until the 1800’s.

In 1873, Wilhelm Wundt published “Principles of Physiological Psychology“ which can be seen as the birth of the discipline because it was the first ever book to solely focus on the study of the mind. Wundt started carrying out experiments at the Universirty of Leipzig that set the stage for psychology in general by focusing on a process called introspection: examining one’s one conscious experience as objectively as possible. Wilhelm Wundt’s main objective was to identify the overall structure of consciousness and its mechanisms. This attempt to understand the processes of the mind by breaking it down into parts is called structuralism.

However, this approach to psychology faded out as Wundt’s students realized that introspection was unreliable because individual subjects were subjective to their one experiences. Edward Tichtener, one of Wundt's students therefore opened of the first school's of thought

Timeline
1879, Leipzig, Willem Wundt- first official university laboratory for the study of psychology 1883 - first journal of experimental psychology (Wundt) - early philosophical roots

Merger between both the disciplines
Economics is fundamentally closely linked to the study of human psychology, as it is based on the presumptions of rationalities and principle of utilities. Hence ever since the classical period of microeconomics, which has a main focus on individual behaviour and decisions, economics has had an inseparable connection with psychology.

Nevertheless, neoclassical theories in microeconomics are based around the assumption that people make rational decisions, which always maximise their profits. This idea is challenged by Behavioural economists, who look at deviations from the idea of “the rational man” and construct new behavioural models. Research from other disciplines, especially psychology, social science and cognitive science is used to make their models more reliable. Overall, the overlaps between the two disciplines led to the creation of a new interdisciplinary branch of study.

Where they merge
''' Scientific methods. ''' - empiricism, use of statistics and computational methodologies to make predictions about behaviour and formulate theory. Economics utilises models - the most well-known of which being the model illustrating market changes with Demand and Supply whilst Computational Cognitive Neuroscience also utilises computational/mathematical models of neurons, circuits and cognitive functions with the same purpose of predicting behaviour/outcomes. Practical outcomes. Most outcomes of theoretical knowledge from both Psychology and Economics are facilitated by the same body - the government, in the same field of social policy. This is primarily seen in the area of welfare (welfare benefits and their effects on incentives, policies concerning education). ''' Co-existence of different schools of thought. ''' Where competing schools of thought (Keynesianism and Neoliberalism) exist in Economics, different psychological approaches use and stress the need for very different methods (The Biological Approach in Psychology takes a reductionist view where phenomena is studied as its constituent parts whereas the Humanistic Approach sees the need for holism in studies, taking the view that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, directly opposing the Biological Approach). Philosophical connections. The merger between Economics and Psychology is not limited to the relatively new field of behavioural economics but these disciplines may have originated from the same area - Philosophy. To date, methods and theories are still subject to the same type of philosophical evaluation in the field of Philosophy of Science.

Psychology Economics Methodology in both disciplines and philosophy Methodology in psychology and economics is open to philosophical enquiry in the field of epistemology. Epistemology concerns itself with the methods in which knowledge is acquired and ‘truth claims’ made by theories - whether what the theory suggests relates to perception or reality, how a given theory can be proven - must every theory be verifiable by empirical means.
 * Aristotle, Socrates, Plato: Discussed topics such as pleasure, pain, knowledge, motivation, rationality, mental illness and the origins and psychological forces of these.
 * In the 17th century, the concept of Dualism was introduced by Descartes where the Body and Mind were viewed as separate entities - physical and spiritual respectively and were only connected through the pineal gland.
 * Hobbes and Loke opposed dualism (Monism) where the brain was believed to be a host to physical processes such as thoughts, images, sensations, feelings.
 * Wilhem Wundt founded experimental psychology in 1879 on the basis of being a self-conscious field of experimental study - introspection.
 * Different schools of thought and ideological perspectives are formed on the basis of varying political and social philosophies held by key thinkers, with resultant policy decisions reflecting such philosophies. Such political and social philosophies include ideas about freedom, rational and social choice, welfare and equality of opportunity.

History of how they merged

 * Realisation of abstract mathematics and assumptions - could not be applied reliably on human behaviour - mainstream economics distorted, detached, from reality?
 * ‘Animal spirits’ shown in the financial crisis (Keynes) - importance of psychology and decision making in econonmics - people are not always rational.
 * Continuous market failures in spite of solutions based on theory (based on assumptions)
 * a) The ‘07 financial crisis would have been deemed as being impossible, as implied by risk models utilised by Goldman Sachs.
 * b) Continuous privatisation regadless of repeated failures - eg care services, railways.

Uncompatiability
On the other hand, both disciplines have a lot of differences and cannot be used in combination in all situations. Economists examine concrete actions and deal with institutions, meanwhile psychologists look at mental states and individual factors.

Climate change
Throughout history, different periods of weather greatly affected the earth and the life on it. At the beginning of our era, three main periods stand out: The Medieval Warm Period, The Little Ice Age, and the current climate change. We have studied these different periods with a particular focus on the impacts these climate changes have had on the biodiversity and on human lives and societies.

Medieval Warm Period (900–1300)
This climate change lasted for around 400 years and heavily influenced life on earth. It is represented by increased temperature of 1°C in the first 100 years. Increase of solar activity, changes in thermohaline circulation and decreased volcanic activity were the reasons for a Medieval Warm Period.

Animals
Warm period had effects on genetic diversity of animals. Because of changing climate, droughts animals had to adapt to different weather or migrate to other places, therefore, some populations decreased. Fall of populations had various impacts on species. There were species as gophers, which genetic variation had fallen, because of decline of population. However, in some cases climate change had reverse consequences. Migration of animals influenced rise of genetic diversity, because of bigger diversity of breeds in one place. This was the case with voles, even though their population had fallen. These observations show that climatic change has influence on genetic diversity, however, it did not cause speciation.

Societies
Communities had adapted to changing climate differently. As some societies had a positive impact on agriculture which helped to develop faster, for others it was a challenging period that made it difficult to survive and change their lives drastically. Prolonged droughts had huge effect on North America, especially California, Great Basin. Shortage of water made it more complicated to grow food and get drinkable water, which resulted in settlement disruption, difficulties in agriculture, trading and communities movement. In Northern Europe Medieval Warm Period made different impact. Because of temperature changes people were able to grow warmer climate crops in northern countries. Cultivation of grain crops rose, wine grapes could be grown in northern areas. During that period a plethora of new cities were built and population had significantly increased.

Little Ice Age (1300–1800)
Contrary to its name, the little ice age was not a true ice age but a period of dramatic climate changes, mostly cooling, between the medieval warming period and the late 19th century warming. Cooler temperature were more evident in Europe resulting in advancing glaciers and harsher conditions for flora and fauna.

Land Occupation
Alpine glaciers advanced downwards which resulted in forced migration of many villages in northern Europe towards warmer and lower regions, such as Greenland in the early 15th century. Another Norse colonies cut off from rest of Norse civilisation The western colony collapsed due to starvation The eastern colony abandoned

Social structure
The little ice age is believed to have contributed towards a shift in social order away from feudalism towards a more liberal state. Failing harvests due to cool weather led to a significant reduction in resources, which in turn caused social unrest and uprisings. As peasant farmers no longer had surplus grain from their crops, they were no longer able to supply to their feudal lords hence resulting in the collapse of the feudal system. As farmlands perished, cities with higher presence of trade flourished as resources were exchanged. As the Little Ice Age had a more evident impact in Europe and North Atlantic regions whilst other areas experienced relatively stable climate, it may have also contributed towards the rise of colonialism as affected nations were forced to look outwards for resources.

Technological Developments
Climatic pressure caused by harsh winter drove a need for innovation and exchange of information during this period, especially evident in science and agriculture. The desire for foreign resources and trade due to cooler weather restricting the production of certain goods led to substantial developments in shipbuilding and maritime navigational technology. New crops were adopted in different regions, such as potatoes in Ireland, as previous crops(mostly cereal) failed to survive harsh winters. The increase of trade furthered the exchange of ideas which was another driving factor of the paradigm shift away from the stagnation of the medieval period into the age of discovery.

Culture and Religions
The changing climate conditions inspired many works of art and literature such as the depict of harsh in winters Pieter Brueghel the Elder's "The Hunters in the Snow" and Dickens A Christmas Carol. One of the most significant cultural responses to the Little Ice Age was the rise of witch hunts. Widespread unrest due to famine combined with a poor knowledge of climatology, many people turned towards religion and superstition in order to understand the changing weather. This led to beliefs such as the cold winters being a punishment from God for tolerating witchcraft, causing many women to be tried and prosecuted for the practice. Harsher weather conditions coincided with an increase in witch trials, and a similar decrease was seen when warmers weathers were experienced (Oster, Emily, 2004 pages 215–228)

Current climate change
After the Industrial Revolution (the burning of fossil fuels, increase in consumption and production…), the temperature has significantly increased. Until recently, the population didn’t grant much importance to the effect of climate change on the Planet Earth. However, the global warming that has been observed since the industrial revolution is starting to threaten the population’s wellbeing and the future generations.

Impact on geography

With higher temperature, ice is starting to melt (in particular Antarctica), causing a rise in sea levels. This is a threat to some lands and islands such as the Maldives which are predicted to be underwater by the end of this century. Furthermore, the increase of a few degrees will considerably modify some environments: some spaces will become dry and arid, precipitations will increase, as well as natural disasters. For example, this can already be seen in the Sahara: the desert is expanding to the South as the climate is getting hotter and dryer. All of these modifications will lead to impacts on the flora and fauna, as well as on the population.

Impacts on the flora and fauna Changes in the environments and landscapes are truly disturbing the biodiversity. Many species are disappearing, leading to an interruption in the food chain. For example, bees are endangered, and it is becoming commonplace to realize that this type of extinction could have a real impact on all biodiversity as well as human beings. In addition, global warming has an impact on the sedentarity of animals. some populations of animals no longer support the conditions of their environment that have changed and must migrate to another place (e.g. Some types of fish had to change seas to find waters that are less polluted and colder). The impact on the fauna and flora will definitely impact human beings.

Impacts on humans and society

Once the food chain is disturbed, there will be great changes in our behaviours. This is already visible: the part of the population that is vegan is growing everyday. People are becoming aware that global warming is an important problem we have to adress or else we and the future generations will greatly suffer the consequences.

Conclusion
To conclude, the impacts of climate change through history have shaped human's perception on the importance of the biodiversity. As time goes by, the evolution of the scientific and social disciplines helped raise awareness and people are starting to take action.


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Truth

Issue 2 - Truth

/Study Hoaxes in the Humanities/

/Mental illness/

/Neuroscience and Schizophrenia/

/The coexistence of objective and subjective truths in different disciplines/

/Truth about the existence of the Xia dynasty/


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence

Issue 3 - Evidencehttps://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:LBird_BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence&action=history

/Evidence in Behavioural Economics/

/Evidence in Schizophrenia/

The evolution of evidence in football

/Evidence in the Media/

/Evidence in Christianity/

/Human Rights violations: Argentina's Dirty War/

/Evidence in Political Science/

Evidence in Physics

/Evidence in Success/

/Evidence in Memory/

/Visual Art as Evidence/


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/Seminar 7

Welcome to the sandbox for Approaches to Knowledge seminar group 7, which meets on Thursdays 11-12.

Below are links to pages on the issues that we will be covering in the first half of term.

History

Truth

Evidence

Power

Jorge.Jana.Thomas

title: User:LBird BASc/sandbox/Seminar 7