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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 2/History

Summary of our seminar talk
We tried to guess when Physics and English literature both became disciplines. Several dates came up : with the example of physics, some of us said 1905 because it was a time of revolutionary breakthroughs (with Einstein's theories of relativity for ex) Around that time emerged the branches of modern physics as we know them today : cosmology, particle physics, quantum physics, mechanics, geophysics... However, when students all shared their answers to the class, we realised that all of us came up with very different dates. Some placed physics up to 4th century BC. And it's true that Aristotle already questioned matter and the movement of planets and conducted experimentations. Other referred to 1752, the discovery of electricity by Franklin, or even Newton as the founder/the father of physics. For litterature, 1450, the invention of the press was a recurring answer amongst students.

These answers were not correct because we all talked about the history of these subjects, when they became relevant in society. It was all subjective. We then understood that in order to say that a subject became a discipline, we need to refer to more objective key points in history, for example when was the first examination for it, or when the first degree was given, or even if one carry on this discipline in one's life.

A discipline is defined as: "a branch of knowledge, typically one studied in higher education".

For this reason, we needed to consider key points in the history of a subject which are tied to its academic study.

After realizing that all of us gave extremely different answers regarding when physics and literature actually became disciplines, we tried to figure out how to define the point in time/ the line when a subject such as physics becomes a discipline rather than a simple area of research. Physics, for example, has existed as a subject, since the beginning of human life: men discovered fire using basic physics laws, men realized that the earth was round and turning on its axis and created electricity, but when along the line did physics become a discipline, rather than a simple topic of conversation or research?

The answer is different for each discipline, but the key point to refer to is the creation and growth of a social structure around the subject. An area of knowledge becomes a discipline when it is accepted, evaluated, and referred to as one definitive subject. Taking law as an example, we argued that in the United States, we could refer to the bar, an examination acting as a benchmark to becoming a lawyer. Hence, we could say that an area of knowledge becomes a discipline when starts being evaluated/ graded/ assessed.

But what about subjects that cannot be objectively evaluated, such as art, or music? Trying to answer this question, we figured out that artistic disciplines would become as such when again, a social structure would start to form around it. Taking visual arts as an example, we could say that it became a discipline as art started being appreciated, critiqued, exhibited and when museums started being built in order to display it.

Analysing the history of a subject or discipline helps us see why two disciplines clash nowadays, why both can have their own valid point of view on different issues. A history is often rich and complex: it takes years of evolution before arriving to the current paradigms, concepts and vocabulary in place within a discipline today. This builds up hard rigid groundings within a discipline that are often hard to break. We then see how history could play an issue in interdisciplinary work.

Law vs. Natural Science
Law emerged as a discipline to resolve disagreements and regulate behaviour. Laws are made to reflect the values of a society, hence as time passes laws change to demonstrate the shift in culture. On the other hand, natural science originated to understand natural phenomena and is based on empirical evidence from experimentation and observation. Asking a scientist and someone in law enforcement how they know something is true or valid will result in two very different answers. A scientist is likely to respond that something is true if there is objectively measurable data that is reliable and replicable. Whereas, someone in law enforcement will determine if something is true based on their own subjective observation, using inductive and deductive reasoning and often following their "gut feeling".

=History of different disciplines=

History and its hindrance to interdisciplinary
Each discipline has its own history. This might involve the traditional methodologies, values and other aspects of the discipline which upholds its integrity. However, these things might interfere with the ability of disciplines to interact and work together. A key reason for this might be that the history of the discipline has allowed its experts to develop certain schemas and expectations of the environments they work in, the nature of the problems involved in the discipline and the approach to problem-solving. Interdisciplinarity requires experts to move out of these familiar circumstances and this might lead to a struggle to apply their skillsets and knowledge to new contexts. An example of this would be the study Professor Nancy Nersessian conducted on system biologists (experts who mathematically model large-scale biological systems) and molecular biologists (have very little mathematical experience but are skilled in experimental manipulation). The system biologists would often require certain data from the molecular biologists for their mathematical models that would require months of experimentation or might not even be possible to cultivate. At the same time, the molecular biologists were unable to understand the importance of the data due to their lack of mathematical background which made it difficult for the system biologists to explain it to them. Hence, affecting the ability of the two disciplines to collaborate.

Philosophy and its association to other disciplines
Philosophy was one of the first academic discipline created as it rose during Antiquity with Socrates sharing his point of view and knowledge to Plato who taught about his vision to Aristotle and so on. However, we can see that through its evolution other subjects became part of our lives and therefore were impacted by philosophy and its history. Hence, interdisciplinary made it grow and clash with other disciplines as well as its own. For example, Aristotle believed that for something to be alive it had to have a life force within itself. However, as time passed and biology and anatomy became important, Descartes proposed another definition of the living as the previous one clashed with these disciplines. He explained that living beings were like machines they had a certain organization which was proved by anatomy. These theories were established due to an interdisciplinary clash but as a result made philosophy expand and conflicted within itself with different approaches. Therefore, interdisciplinary work associated with philosophy can be a useful tool as well as an obstacle to a truthful judgement.

History of disciplines and Pyschology
How do we define a discipline? A discipline is an academic subject, such that can be taught or studied, that has been formally recognised by an institution or authoritative body, for example a university. There are a number of ways in which the origin of a discipline can be traced, for example when a subject was first taught, when academic literature was first published in the discipline or when the first professor in the discipline was first appointed. Once a discipline has been given a name, it can be considered established, as it will likely have been defined and/or discussed. When disciplines arose, ares of knowledge were separated into subjects, whereas before academia came under the umbrella term of philosophy, a term coined by ancient Greeks. At the time, philosophy included elements of subjects we now class as separate disciplines, such as maths, physics and also philosophy in itself. Some difficulties have arisen due to the categorisation of subjects, such as a divergence in the terms used to describe theories/ideas, processes, or the way in which they are described.

Psychology is a science which looks at the thought processes, emotions and behaviours of living beings. While it is widely regarded as a contemporary discipline, it also has roots in Ancient Greece, as all sciences do, because philosophers at the time sought to make sense of the world and its events, partly through investigating the human experience. However, the official origin of psychology was in 1879 when the first psychological laboratory was built in Leipzig for the scientist Wilhelm Wundt, who began to lecture in the new subject. This was followed a decade later by James Baldwin who began the first experimental laboratory in Toronto. Sigmund Freud also played a large role in the development of the discipline by moving from the study of the conscious experience into the unconscious.

Art History and its appearance as a discipline
Discipline comes from the word disciplina (instruction), discipulus (pupil) and discere (to learn), but it was first used in the 13th century in Middle English. This means that even though every discipline has precedents to that century (in this case, through the Roman authors Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder), they cannot formally be applied as such. Art History’s beginnings as a discipline, therefore, formally date back to the German neo-classicist Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who published in 1764 his work History of the Art of Antiquity, approaching the subject from a studious perspective. However, in the late 50’s, after World War II had been finalised, there was much discussion about the schooling’s quality, mainly focused on scientific discipline due to the war’s influence. John F. Kennedy’s election in 1962 meant his interest in balancing all disciplines (including and aiming for the arts) would be put into action, contributing to the emergence of Art being taught as a school subject. As an interdisciplinary study, Art History deals with an infinite amount of studies, such as Theology, Sociology and Anthropology through the social point of view; Biology and Chemistry as a way of scientifically analysing the works of art; and Physics and Architecture from a structural perspective.

History of architecture
Architecture has always been a subject of interest. Thinking of how to conceive/make/build the most isolating, practical and camouflaging house in Ancient times with bare materials. Thinking of how to conceive/make/build the most sumptuous, intricate and expensive-looking building... However, architecture was not a discipline. 1841 - UCL is first British university to appoint a chair of architecture, Thomas Leverton Donaldson, a founding member of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). (UCL) 1868 - MIT is the first American university to offer architecture as an undergraduate program. 1st graduate in US is Nathan Ricker, 1st female graduate with architecture degree in North America is Mary Louisa Page in 1879. (“Illinois Architecture College of Fine and Applied Arts.)
 * became a studied subject
 * top schools created architecture department
 * 1st international architecture exhibition at La Biennale di Venizia ("History")
 * 1st journals dedicated to architecture: Architectural Record in 1891, Architectural Forum (og: The Brickbuilder) 1892, Architectural Review (og: Architectural Review for the Artist and Craftsman) 1896 (“List of Architecture Magazines.”)

sources UCL. “About Us.” The Bartlett School of Architecture, 22 May 2019. “Illinois Architecture College of Fine and Applied Arts.” History | The Illinois School of Architecture. “History.” La Biennale Di Venezia, 21 July 2019. “List of Architecture Magazines.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Oct. 2019,

Architecture as a superdiscipline
Architecture poses the perfect example of a discipline which not only has interdisciplinary origins, but continues to exist between two disciplines.

Architecture is defined as the art and science of designing buildings and (some) non building structures. The term architecture is derived from the Greek words for chief and creator. Creation being a major interdisciplinary (super)concept, as the confluence between science and beauty, helps us understand the history of architecture using its etymology.

The Roman architect Vitruvius, considered by many to be the first disciplined architect, stated that a building (or built structure/creation) should satisfy the following principles:
 * Firmness (durability, structure)
 * Commodity (utility, purpose)
 * Delight (beauty, aesthetics)

The first two principles are tied to science as they consider the materials from which the structure is built, their properties, the understanding of the intended use of the structure and the laws of building themselves (physics). The final principle is a consideration of art and aesthetics. The Vitruvian man itself, a work of art created by Leonardo da Vinci, is a consideration of human anatomy by studying our proportions.

From the very beginning, architecture has always been an amalgamation of the arts and sciences, and continues as such now. The Beijing National Stadium (colloquially referred to as the Bird's Nest) takes aesthetic and structural influence from bird's nests and how they stay intact.

When did International Relations emerge as a discipline?
International relations emerged as a discipline after world war one and two, when liberalism was compared to realism to answer the question; How do we end all wars? During the cold war, discussion changed to how best nations could manage conflict, and thus another debate arose between realists and behaviourists. At the end of the cold war the discipline became more focused around different international perspectives, especially in regards to globalisation.

What significance does the history of International relations as a discipline have?
Relative to disciplines such as Physics or English literature, International relations is a new discipline, which has growing significance in our increasingly globalised and interconnected world. Since the start of the 20th century countries have become increasingly reliant on each other for security, food, money, information, technology and knowledge. International networks facilitate this, but studying these incredibly complex connections can help us to understand tensions or positive connections essential for a cooperative international community. Since globalisation had not began on such a scale until the 20th century, there was not the same need for the discipline of international relations. This demonstrates how quickly disciplines can arise and establish.

The emergence of 'paradigms' in optical physics
Kuhn explores the route to normal science in his work 'the structure of scientific revolutions'. He very explicitly distinguishes the period that preceded Newton's work on Optics from the one following it. Thomas S. Kuhn describes the progress of optical physics since the 18th century as a series of generally accepted theories that followed one another, called 'paradigms'. We are taught today that light can behave as a wave and as a particle, described as photons, I.e. small packets of energy. Plank developed this theory not even a century ago whilst before that, Einstein's theory that light only behaved as a transverse wave was the globally accepted theory. During the XVIII'th century, Newton developed a theory that illustrated light as small material corpuscles.

Kuhn refers to these 'scientific revolution' as 'paradigms of physical optics', and the transformation from one paradigm to another shapes modern science. However, before Newton's work, there were a huge number of competing theories referred to as 'schools of physics', each competing with varies theories, all of which contributed to the creation of Newton's theory. Under these circumstances, it was hard to develop any widely accepted theory because no-one could take any common belief for granted.

So why did it take a scientist like Newton to put aside competition and create a globally accepted theory that united previous works into one whole? What did it take to create the first paradigm in optical physics? And why did this change not occur before and not after? Whilst it would take a while to answer these questions, we now know when physics became a widely accepted discipline and why.

Money, Money, Money - A brief History
Why talk about money and it's emergence? The answer is pretty simple: money has shaped our lives over the past thousands of years, it has enabled us to break through the barriers of trade and build universal trust between people that do not know each other, complete strangers. But we haven't actually built trust between us, we haven't started to trust our values, our constitutions, our governments, we have simply started trusting this currency and all of the work that was put into it that backs it. Whilst this small contribution does not target any discipline, it is crucial to understand that many disciplines could not have existed without money: how could economics have emerged as a discipline if money didn't exist?

A long time ago, humans had no money and would trade with each other everything that was required to live. With the emergence of kingdoms, cities started to rise from the ground and we started to gather together and live closer to each other. These changes enabled the progress of what we call today specialization. People would specialize in producing wheat, making fur coats or raising horses for example. We would trade with each other, but quickly came to realize all the problems associated with barter. How many kg of wheat do you trade for a fur coat? And how many coats for a horse? Not only was it impossible to remember all the conversion rates in our head, but what would happen if you wanted a coat and the coat maker wouldn't want any wheat? You would have to find someone else to trade your wheat with, then go back to the coat maker and trade something else. We needed a solution. We invented money.

Historians have tried to trace back the emergence of money but have come to the realization that various types of money emerged in various places at various times. This is because the invention of money did not require any scientific or industrial revolution. It did not need a technological breakout to emerge like Artificial Intelligence does today. Money was no such revolution, it was a psychological one, one that had to happen in everyone's head at the same time. As stated by Yuval Noah Harari, "it involved the creation of a new inter-subjective reality that exists solely in people's shared imagination". What we often seem to forget today is that money isn't real, it doesn't just involve bank accounts, coins and checks, it involves anything that we are willing to trade with each other and are willing to use in units of constant value.

A couple examples: for thousands of years, cowry shells were by indigenous used as money in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Today, prisoners all over the world still use cigarettes as a means of exchange, which are much more widely accepted as real money, since prisoner's aren't able to get out and use money in the short run. Money is a system, a system that only requires one fuel to work: trust. People have to trust that the medium of exchange, for example shells or cigarettes, would have the same value all over the country or province, even if they wait. Hence, money is probably the most efficient and greatest system of trust ever invented by humankind.

Emergence of Discipline of Biology
After discussing when disciplines themselves arose in our seminar, I researched one of my primary disciplines - Biology. Described as the study of life and a natural science, there are many subdivisions within the field of Biology.

Modern biology as we know it arrived arose as an idea in the 19th Century, yet emerged from traditional medicine and natural philosophy.

During the seminar, we seemed to agree that the emergence of a discipline was defined by when it was first studied in educational institutions such as a University. However, after research into the discipline of Biology, it is difficult to pinpoint this, and therefore the start of the discipline, as sciences related to the field of modern biology have been studied for centuries - such as the fields of natural philosophy (studied in ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia), medicine (can be traced back to prehistoric routes) and botany (dated to 10,000 years ago).

Despite this, if we research the foundations of modern biology (discoveries which tie all biological disciplines together) we can assume that the start of the discipline of Biology as we know it was when the last foundation was discovered. These foundations include; cell theory, evolution, genetics, homeostasis and energy.

The last of these foundations to be discovered was homeostasis. The theory of regulation of an internal environment was first made by Claude Bernard in 1865 - whereas the term, 'homeostasis' was created by Walter Bradford Cannon in 1926.

We can therefore argue that the emergence of the discipline of modern Biology was during the period of 1865-1926.

=Interdisciplinary Behavioural Change and Mental Health Reform=

This article represents a multi-level interdisciplinary approach and proposal for restructuring the current mental health system with a goal to better address the psychological and behavioural issues which permeate society today (project ongoing*). Of specific note, four common issues facing such an interdisciplinary approach shall be covered: Ultimately, through a more thorough understanding of the issues at play, as well as an exploration of more innovative approaches to these problems (specifically in the related fields of psychology, philosophy of mind, and phenomenology), the aim of this article and its successive inquiries is to encourage better communication and collaboration across departmental lines so that we might achieve a comprehensive and actionable theory for reform.
 * 1) The history of philosophical and psychological approaches to mental health
 * 2) Alternate theories of ‘truth’
 * 3) Relevant evidence gathering and
 * 4) The disparate balance of power afforded to certain disciplines over others

Psychology
While theories of the mind go back to ancient philosophy, the distinct discipline of psychology we know today emerged only in the mid-to-late 1800s, with experimental psychology building upon historical concepts of the psyche (Citation needed). This relative youth, coupled with the seemingly endless need to refute notions which call into question the validity of psychology as a ‘true science’, has led practitioners to diminish or abandon more thorough lines of psychopathological inquiry in favour of methodologies which rely exclusively on scientific empiricism. (Further information needed)

Philosophy of Mind
Philosophy of Mind is a branch of philosophy that deals with “the nature of mental phenomena … especially … the relation of the mind to the body and to the rest of the physical world” (Encyclopedia Britannica). The mind-body problem, the ‘hard problem of consciousness’, thought, feeling, perception, and the phenomenal experience are just a few domains studied within the field, along with complementary notions of free will and causation. In the interest of brevity, this article shall focus on applied and practical domains which hold the greatest weight in our inquiry, namely, phenomenology (for further information on the history of philosophy of mind, see (Information needed)).

Phenomenology
On its own, phenomenology may be considered either as a method or a philosophical movement. For our purposes, the phenomenological method is of most import; however, it is useful to note the divergence of its two primary approaches, namely, that of “descriptive” and “interpretive” phenomenology. The following sections shall briefly describe those approaches before relating their methods to our interdisciplinary model for mental health reform.

Descriptive Phenomenology
Descriptive phenomenology, so named by Edmund Husserl (who may be considered the “founder” of the philosophical school), “seeks to describe the essence of experiences” via a method of “bracketing,” whereby the philosopher must “disconnect” from their everyday life and “suspend disbelief” in order to assess a phenomenon without undue influence from their previously held convictions or daily life (Gill, 2014, p. 6).

Interpretive Phenomenology
Contrasting Husserl’s descriptive approach is Martin Heidegger’s “interpretive” phenomenology, which, rather than describing the essence of experience, seeks to explore the very “human experience of being” (p. 7). Perhaps most relevant to the social considerations of our model, Heidegger suggests that individuals are “always already in an environing world” (1988, p. 164); rather, everyone exists in an environment which is conditioned both culturally and historically (p. 8), of which they cannot escape or ignore. As such, one’s experience is always contextualized by one’s background, culture, traditions, and understandings (p. 8), which, in turn, denies the validity of Husserl’s concept of bracketing.

The Phenomenological Method
There are roughly five phenomenological interpretive typologies: A brief overview of the main points from each form is summarized in Table 1. (Insert Table 1 ~ Source: Gill, M. 2014, 'The Possibilities of Phenomenology for Organizational Research')
 * 1) Patricia Sanders’ phenomenology for organizational research,
 * 2) Amedeo Giorgi's descriptive phenomenological method,
 * 3) Max Van Manen’s hermeneutic phenomenology,
 * 4) Patricia Benner’s interpretive phenomenology, and
 * 5) Johnathan Smith’s Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.

Alternate Theories of Truth
(Information needed)
 * Hard vs. soft science
 * Qualitative vs. quantitative

Evidence Gathering
(Information needed)

Unequal Balance of Powers
(Information needed)
 * Government funding
 * Grants
 * Social expectation
 * Stigma and misunderstanding
 * Robert A. Dahl ~ Power and operationalisation

Relation to Clinical Practice
(Information needed)
 * Language of diagnosis (relate back to Dahl)
 * Active role of patient
 * Shifting away from the DSM-5
 * Ability of the methods to distinguish more nuanced information
 * Consider studies from: Englander, Englebert, Fuchs, Stanghellini, Westin
 * Consider Patricia Churchland’s Neurophilosophy

Interdisciplinary Implementation
(Information needed)
 * Utilising the Behavioural Change Wheel in order to address all levels of society necessary for the success of such transitions
 * Integrate Churchland’s paradigmatic model and the phenomenological method
 * UCL Centre for Behaviour Change
 * HBCP Human Behaviour Change Project
 * Aggregate phenomenological testimonies to build validity

Broader Applications and Implications
(Information needed) ucl. ac. uk/behaviour-change/research britannica. com/topic/philosophy-of-mind doi. org/10.1177/1094428113518348
 * Sociojudiciary system
 * Questions of free-will and responsibility
 * Retributive justice
 * Mental health in prisons (note cost); potential for prison reform
 * Increasing empathy
 * Decreasing stigma/increasing awareness and acceptance
 * Changing the language we use; advertising/notable endorsements/phenomenological testimonies


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 2/Power

= Definition =

Power is something that everyone craves when they don’t have it; and when they do, they need to keep it. It’s the capacity to direct the behaviour of others or the course of events. It gives authority and credibility to some people. Human History and evolution is based on power. Every group needs a leader and everybody wants to be one. Power manifests itself through colonialism (the age of discovery ), sexism, racism (apartheid ) and many other issues of injustice

=Power through global issues=

Power in Voluntourism
Power and colonisation are two terms which go hand in hand, as colonisation was arguably the biggest manifestations of a power disparity in history. Although the Western world may believe we have moved on from colonisation, the effects continue to be felt worldwide and the colonial mentality has found itself entrenched in many fields.

Voluntourism is a portmanteau of the words "volunteer" and "tourism", creating a term describing the phenomenon whereby a person does volunteer work outside their home country. People who typically participate in voluntourism do so because they might feel like going abroad to volunteer gives them a chance to do more, or impact more lives. This form of volunteering, which often plays out as a group of white volunteers travelling to a non-white country, with the aim to help them, is reminiscent of the colonial mentality of 16th-century colonizers. "White savior" is a term used to refer to such people, suggesting the need to "save people of colour" as their motivation to volunteer, a desire which implies that the white saviors see the people of colour as being in need of saving.

This is a modern-day example of how power disparity can play out on a seemingly innocent level. There's absolutely no problem with volunteering, but, in this case, the motivation to volunteer comes from a place of racially induced power-hunger, which is highly problematic.

Power through Sexism
Many discipline have focused on power. Sociology for example talks about the difference between men and women in the work world. From the beginning of their education, unconsciously, young girls are told that they are less capable of pursuing certain field of studies than boys. They are being oppressed by the patriarchal system. Once, an engineering professor at Northeastern University looked around and said “I see women in the classroom. I don't believe women have any business in engineering, and I'm going to personally see to it that you all fail”.

Furthermore, let’s talk about the gender pay gap. If a woman and a man do the same job; having exactly the same educational background, the man will be better paid.

Power leads to social inequalities
There is always a group of people that sees itself as superior beings, smarter, better, because they earn more money. They impose their way of life, their preferences on everybody else, this is called the symbolic violence according to the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. This form of power inevitably creates financial, economical and social inequalities.

Power has shaped our history and explains a lot of what is happening nowadays. If we do not act upon it, to rebalance the dynamics, inequalities will widen.

Power and Creativity
The relationship between creativity and power seems to be quite contradictory. On one hand, it is widely thought that people who hold great amounts of power prevent creative people and therefore creative work to make its way into the world. Evariste Galois is a perfect example to this topic. He came up with an algebraic theorem so complex it was ‘unintelligible’ to the Academy of Science. Those who owned the power prevented him from introducing ideas that would only appear a quarter of a century later, as the way of thinking progressively changed. This is only one of many ways power in creativity has been evidently shut down through external issues.

On the other, there is a general conception that many people with power seem to have made their way to that state with the help of, or thanks to creativity. This has led to a further hierarchical issue, where the belief that creativity provides stability yet possibility of moving along to the top of the hierarchy. Daniel Sligte et al. carried out a study where a group of people were divided into four categories, depending on higher or lower job stability or higher/lower positions in charge of a series of tasks. The group had previously taken some tests regarding their levels of creativity, and concluded in those having higher stability and positions to also have more creativity.

Female Education and Climate Change: Power as an Interdisciplinary Issue
There are 130 million girls out of education worldwide. Aside from having a hugely profound effect on individual lives, families and communities, female education is a huge factor in the route to combatting climate change both now and in the future. According to Project Drawdown's list of solutions, educating girls is the sixth most important factor in stopping climate change. In contrast, electric vehicles and rooftop solar panels are ranked at only the 26th and 10th most important factors respectively. Female education is such an important factor because girls who are educated typically have less children and are more likely to pursue careers in science and technology. Moreover, it is shown that with every year a girl is in education, climate resilience in the country increases by a factor of 3.2, according to the ND-GAIN Index. This evidence sets questions such as "Why is more not being said about this issue?"; "Why is money being invested in solar panels and electric cars and not educating girls?" and "Why is progress in girls education and climate change rarely considered together, when they are integrally connected?"

How does the concept of power within disciplines affect this issue?
This interdisciplinary problem is affected by the concept of power within the disciplines of International Relations and Postcolonial Studies. Within Postcolonial Studies, power is said to reside within ex-colonial powers, now often referred to as 'the West'. A solution is offered to the aforementioned questions as S. Basij-Rasikh argues - 'climate change discussion has been largely driven by Western nations — and in Western nations, girls’ education is a given. It’s not a topic most Westerners think about.' Therefore, it could be argued industrialised countries with high GDPs such as the US, UK, Germany, France and Italy should be leading the way to focus investment on girls education. Thus, one postcolonial approach could argue that western countries should broaden their outlook on climate action strategies and increase investments into more effective and long term solutions such as female education. Within International Relations, a feminist outlook on this would suggest that because there are not enough women in positions of power, issues concerning women such as this are overlooked. Consequently, they believe that power resides within the patriarchal systems within areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa where 52 million girls are out of education. An International Relations scholar would argue that this is a problem which is occurring because the patriarchal nature of the media is less concerned with the struggle of females and hence educating girls is not a topic which is widely covered. In contrast, a Postcolonial Studies scholar would argue that it is because educating girls is not an issue in western society, it is not something covered by the media or heavily invested in.

Does Power lead to Corruption? An interdisciplinary Approach through the Dictator Game
The dictator game is a frequently used tool by economists and psychologists, that can help illustrate how humans respond to the attribution of power. The game is very simple yet shows interestingly complex and unpredictable results, which is why an interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of the results is required. The game involves two players: one player, the dictator, is given a significant sum of money, whilst the other player, the follower, does not receive any. The dictator has the choice to either keep the money for himself, send it to the follower, or share it with the other player. Note that the dictator is acting alone, and that it is up to him, and him only, to decide how to split the endowment. Ie. the follower has no influence on the outcome and respective payoffs of the players.

According to Adam Smith, players in a such game will always try to maximize their own welfare. Smith, and many other economists, focus on the concept of rationality in economics, and argue that everyone will act in an egoistic manner in situations where given a choice like in the Dictator game. This phenomenon is called homo oeconomicus and is today the building stone of all economics taught at school or university. Hence, we can predict that the dictator will keep all the money for himself. Psychologists, theologists and historians argue that humans have the ability to be benevolent, to share and give, even in situations where huge amounts of power is given to them. So, are humans more egoistic homo oeconomicus or altruistic benevolent?

Taking a look at the data collected during such experiments, we find the results quite surprising: it has been found that, on average, only 30 to 40% of the dictators keep the money. So, can we conclude that humans are altruistic and benevolent? Of course not, it is crucial to note that a huge amount of uncontrollable factors come into play during such games: personality, intelligence, honesty, gender, age etc... What these results show for sure, is that the idea of rationality is, in reality, simply an assumption made by economists and that humans do not always aim to maximize their welfare. John Antonakis, a researcher and professor at HEC Lausanne, is one of the many researchers that chose to take a deeper look into this game. He progressively added more followers to the experiment: instead of having one dictator and one follower, he then chose to add five, ten, twenty followers to one dictator. The more power given to dictators, the more antisocial decisions started to be made. Some kept half of the money and shared the rest, whilst some kept the entire sum.

While we cannot be 100% confident that there is a direct correlation between power and corruption, it is important to note that this experiment has fundamental applications in politics and many more disciplines. How can we trust our leaders to make geopolitic decisions that are in the best interest of the nation when we can show that the more power one has, the more likely he/she is to make egoistic decisions? Fortunately, power is not freely handed out on the street, and it doesn't take one day to become the leader of a nation. As History has shown, one power-craving, dedicated dictator is enough to initiate worldwide chaos and end the life of 85 million people. This only emphasizes how important it is for institutions to limit how much of the addicting "power-pill" their leaders should be allowed to take. As John Dalberg-Acton said, "power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely".

Power in advertisement during the Chilean plebiscite in 1988
Pinochet was a general who established a dictatorship in 1973 which lasted for 13 years. This dictature ended with a plebiscite which was supposed to legitimise Pinochet’s power. However an advertisement countered this power by encouraging people to vote No to Pinochet’s power. It was supposed to be a lost cause because the country was either agreeing with Pinochet’s government or terrorised by it. However the advertisement was so well done that it gave the courage to 56% of the population to vote against Pinochet trusting he wouldn’t rig the referendum.

How is power in this example an interdisciplinary issue?
The power of the advertisement in both cases affected history. For the « yes » campaign, Pinochet obstructed its government real history with all the tortures and deaths that he was responsible for.In this case we have a confrontation between the political and the historical approach to the subject. For the « no » campaign, the power of the advertisement produced a conflict between psychology and history. Their first ad showed the suffering caused by the dictatorship however it wasn’t really well received by the population and scared them even more to vote against Pinochet. The dictator’s opponents then opted for a more psychologically impacting ad with a jingle and bright colours. Therefore they set aside the historic data for a more traditional psychological ad which would sell more.

Power through gender inequalities in the art industry
From a young age, children are taught that disciplines are split in half. The ones that are soft, subjective and feminine, as opposed to the ones that are hard, objective and masculine: art vs science. Throughout one's lifetime, one is taught to follow a path because it is the one that conforms to gender norms. We therefore see a significant gender gap both in arts and sciences-directed schools. More women go to art (here, we are focusing on applied arts) schools, and more men go to maths and sciences schools. One would expect to encounter more successful women in the art industry, but is is not the case. When thinking at successful "artists", one thinks about Picasso, Degas, Dali, Pollock, Duchamp... None of which are women. It is only when one is a bit more cultured in that area that women start to appear in the list. However, always in the background. "According to the National Museum of Women in the Arts, 51% of visual artists today are women. But when it comes to exhibitions and gallery representation, the numbers tell a less optimistic story. In London, for example, 78%t of the galleries represent more men than women, while only 5% represent an equal number of male and female artists."

How is power in this example an interdisciplinary issue ?
The power dynamics between men and women in the art industry can be looked at from 3 different viewpoints:
 * Sociology = Major institutions have often failed to support the careers of women who wanted to make art their job. Indeed, art galleries often require a certain 'pace' and 'speed' from the artist, that makes it difficult for mother artists to keep up. Children do have an impact on the time these women can allocate to moving around between galleries and clients.
 * Psychology = When growing up, men are taught to be ambitious and confident in their ideas, even if they don't necessarily have the skills required. To the contrary, women are often made to believe they are incompetent and unable to make a career out of something like art. Many cases show that women who study fine arts in school change directions in their career and paint as a hobby.
 * Economics = Art auctions = men's artwork sells better than women's. Why is that ?
 * Literature = Virginia Wolf's To The Lighthouse reveals the phenomenon where women are brought to persuade themselves that they cannot make art for a living. Charles Tansley, who represents the societal view of gender norms, says to Lily Briscoe, one of the main characters (and aspiring painter): "Women can't paint. Women can't write." Throughout the novel, the author makes clear that Lily is constantly repeating those sentences to herself and doubting her skills. Through this, one can see the impact of society's pressure on women in this microcosm.

Tate. “What Does It Mean to Be a Woman in Art? .” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/art/tate-exchange/women-in-art. Elderton, Louisa. “Redressing the Balance: Women in the Art World.” The White Review, 2013, www.thewhitereview.org/feature/redressing-the-balance-women-in-the-art-world/.

Power in Postcolonial rule
As mentioned in the section about Voluntourism, colonialism had a large on global world politics and this is manifested in various disciplines such as Economics and International Relations. Postcolonial theory is concerned with the "political, aesthetic, economic, historical and social impact of European colonial rule around the world in the 18th through to the 20th century". Though the era of physical colonisation is over, "much post-colonial scholarship also highlights the important degree of continuity and persistence of colonial forms of power in contemporary world politics". An interesting example of this would be the development aid provided by First World countries to Third World countries (usually between the former colonisers and the colonised). However, this aid does not improve the countries in the long run and instead cause them to grow reliant on the aid provider, putting the former colonisers in a position of power. Establishing trade instead of aid with these countries would be more effective in their development but also cause First World countries to possibly lose the vast advantage they have now. Thus, they are more content to exploit the economic, political and cultural resources that colonisation has provided them with.

Power in Gastronomy
Power refers to the historically embedded systems of politics, economics and culture that underpin major aspects of society. This can be understood through the discipline of Gastronomy, which is a Western-orientated system of classifying and rating the quality of food. The Michelin-star system originated in 1926 as part of the restaurant reviews of the guide-books produced by the tyre-brand Michelin that were to encourage driving. Therefore, the categories were initially described and categorised by first French and later Europeans, which meant the opinions are biased towards the tastes and traditions of Western Europeans.

= References =

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:213.96.60.196

Stop your vandalism !!!--WikiBayer (discuss • contribs) 12:37, 6 September 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:213.96.60.196


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Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian Revolts/Chapter 5 : Battle of Kriva Palanka

Battle of Kriva Palanka
During the Ottoman-Macedonian Wars, the Karposh uprising started on the 20th of October, 1689 and centered around an area or region between Skopje and Kriva Palanka. Karposh's uprising began with the commencement of the Macedonian revolutionaries attacking the Ottoman positions within Kriva Palanka. Kriva Palanka was a town that formed in 1633, at that time it was well known for its distribution of natural resources of iron ore. Iron ore was transported along the roads of Kriva Palanka heading towards Ottoman Bulgaria, where it was refined and was distributed further north. During this time the town of Kratovo had developed into a mining town and was strategically and economically important to the Ottoman Empire. The Battle of Kriva Palanka started near the Kriva river and continued into the centre of the town. The Macedonian revolutionaries firstly attacked the Ottoman guardpost, on order of Karposh, the cavalry units charged through the river and into the town. At that time, there were only 60 to 80 Ottoman troops stationed within Kriva Palanka, most of them were foot soldiers. Karposh had thought that the Ottoman forces consisted of dragoons however there were no dragoons and this greatly increased the Macedonian rebels chances of gaining a victory in Kriva Palanka. After two hours of fighting the guardpost was destroyed by a fire, the use of gunpowder by the rebels had proved successfully in the outcome of the battle. Buildings that were destroyed during the battle were : a postal services building, a bank, and the small headquarters that consisted of offices and bedrooms that were used by the Ottoman soldiers and officers.

Some residential properties were also ransacked and robbed during the battle. The local townspeople ran from their homes fearing for their lives. Many of the Ottoman Turkish families become homeless due to the battle. Karposh with his 200 rebel force had captured the town of Kriva Palanka. The main purpose of the Ottoman Empire was expansion, as it's conquests, campaigns suggests and it's most important institution was it's army. The early Ottoman forces had consisted of Turkish cavalry known as sipahis, however there were no sipahis forces stationed within Kriva Palanka at the time. Sipahis were paid by grants of government revenues usually land revenues, also known as timars. The Ottoman Empire later decided to remove the old armies and replace them with a new European-style force. The Ottoman Empire decided to destroy the janissaries and in their place put a paid disciplined conscript force.

Towards the end of the battle, the Ottoman commander who was sitting on his horse atop a grassy hill witnessed that the battle was heading towards a Macedonian victory and ordered for his officers to withdraw, after a great loss on the Ottoman side the commander was forced to dismount from his horse and continue fighting using his sword, he was placed in a difficult position and in the end with his lieutenant started running for his life. Karposh's victory at the Battle of Kriva Palanka signified and instigated a great support from the local people of Kriva Palanka.

After capturing the stronghold, Karposh declared it liberated rebel territory and made it his centre of resistance. Among the items captured at the stronghold were six cannons, a real prize for the rebels. After securing Kriva Palanka the rebels built and secured a new stronghold near Kumanovo. After the battle the people of Kriva Palanka celebrated with joy, Karposh was hailed a hero, the victory was even known to the Austrian Emperor Leopold I who named Karposh as "King of Kumanovo" for his efforts at defeating the Ottoman armies.

As a commander and an uprising leader Karposh was under enormous amounts of stress, an important factor for Karposh was how long could he hold on to Kriva Palanka. He was for certain that the Ottoman Empire, would send further re-inforcements to suppress the uprising and get back the town of Kriva Palanka. With the continuation of the uprising he concentrated on getting his army to the city of Kumanovo. Upon hearing the news that the Kumanovo Fortress was ready, Karposh had ordered his men to head for Kumanovo. Two days later Kriva Palanka was abandoned by Karposh and his forces, in order to avoid any Ottoman patrols Karposh proceeded through a densely forested region, if he followed a gravel road he was more likely to came across Ottoman troops. So he decided that it will be much safer if he travelled through the forests of Kumanovo region.

In order to reach Kumanovo, Karposh and his men had to travel 63 kilometres, that's if he had taken the normal gravel road, however he took a different route and this involved going through a number of forests and the approximate distance from Kriva Palanka to Kumanovo was roughly 85 kilometres. He also did not have a horse-driven carriage and was only riding his horse. He had to stop a number of times because the horses would become extremely exhausted and required water and food. Karposh had left Kriva Palanka leaving behind a few of his revolutionaries to continue the fight if another Ottoman garrison or group was to retake the town. The Battle of Kriva Palanka is also known as the Battle of Egri Palanka. Back in 1689 Egri Palanka was basically a small town with a population of less than 200 inhabitants.

The historical accounts for the Battle of Kriva Palanka, as depicted or described in this wikibook is a work of fiction, however the battle did occur and the overall number of troops involved is a rough estimation. It is most likely that there were less then 80 troops involved as part of the Ottoman forces up at Kriva Palanka. While Karposh's revolutionaries numbered about 180 men. Later after the battle, Karposh went into hiding and was living away somewhere in the north-eastern regions of Macedonia.


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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Cyril Donald Moran

More than 50 key articles relevant to Cyril Donald Moran, mainly from the NLA's Trove Digitised Newspapers have been transcribed for ease of reference here: Cyril Donald Moran - Transcriptions and Notes


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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Cyril Donald Moran/Notes

1904 10
Qld birth registration for Francis James Moran, shot-lived brother of Cyril Donald Moran
 * Qld BDM
 * Birth registration: Francis James Moran
 * Birth date: 09/10/1904
 * Mother's name: Mary Anne Kilmartin
 * Father/parent's name: William Donald Moran
 * Registration details: 1904/C/3668

1904 12
Qld death registration for Francis James Moran, shot-lived brother of Cyril Donald Moran
 * Qld BDM
 * Death registration: Francis James Moran
 * Death date: 12/12/1904
 * Mother's name: Mary Anne Kilmartin
 * Father/parent's name: William Moran
 * Registration details: 1904/C/1252

1908 12
Qld birth registration for Elizabeth Watson Smith, wife of Cyril Donald Moran
 * Qld BDM
 * Birth registration: Elizabeth Watson Smith
 * Birth date: 01/12/1908
 * Mother's name: Elsie Marguis (sic Marquis)
 * Father/parent's name: John Watson Smith
 * Registration details: 1909/C/1713

1909 07
Qld birth registration for Cyril Donald Moran
 * Qld BDM
 * Birth registration: Cyril Donald Moran
 * Birth date: 08/07/1909
 * Mother's name: Mary Ann Kilmartin
 * Father/parent's name: William Donald Moran
 * Registration details: 1909/C/11378

1938 04
Qld marriage registration for Cyril Donald Moran
 * Qld BDM
 * Marriage registration: Cyril Donald Moran
 * Marriage date: 16/04/1938
 * Spouse's name: Elizabeth Watson Smith
 * Registration details: 1938/B/31397

1943 08
Moran in-law residing with him wins a prize in a raffle "MISCELLANEOUS. . . . RAFFLES. . . . RESULT. Battle Stations Appeal Art Union Committee, 34, 1st, 6 piece Kitchen Suite, No. 597, Mrs. O'Neil, 10 Drymam St., Paddington. 2nd, Combination Kitchen Sink, with stands. No. 1164, Mrs. J. D. Smith, c/- C. D. Moran, Nudgee Rd., Hendra. 3rd, Model 'Flying Fortress' Ash Tray, No. 1003, Pat Lawther, 'The Esplanade, Wynnum. 4th, Pr. Blankets, No. 2906, W. E. Kirby, Rex Theatre, Valley. 5th, Electric Reading Lamp, No. 3808, P. Richardson, 29 Wesley St., Lutwyche. Prizes may be obtained on production of tickets through M. E. West, Hon. Secretary, c/- Wests' Furniture, Wickham St., Valley."

1972 08
Qld death registration for Cyril Donald Moran
 * Qld BDM
 * Death registration: Cyril Donald Moran
 * Death date: 26/08/1972
 * Mother's name: Mary Ann Kilmartin
 * Father/parent's name: William Donald Moran
 * Registration details: 1972/B/34932


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Talk:Lentis/The Deep Web

File:Deepweb graphical representation.svg
File:Deepweb graphical representation.svg has been in use since December 2018. There was no reason to remove it from the article. Two attempts have been made to delete it from Commons; both failed due to the general consensus that it is an accurate depiction of the subject matter. I suggest that the image reinstated and that the article be semi-protected to prevent it being removed without prior discussion. AshFriday (discuss • contribs) 03:58, 7 September 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lentis/The Deep Web


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User:AshFriday

Visiting from Wikimedia Commons.

title: User:AshFriday


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User talk:AshFriday

Visiting from Wikimedia Commons. Leave messages below. AshFriday (discuss • contribs) 04:03, 7 September 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:AshFriday


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User:CVVAlena36590254

My name is Jayme and I am studying Biochemistгy and Asian Studies аt Millau / France.

title: User:CVVAlena36590254


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Wikijunior:Asia/South Korea

South Korea is a country that is hilly and mountainous and much of the uplands of the Korean Peninsula remain forested. Koreans are thought to be descended from several Mongol tribes that migrated from Central Asia. South Korea are formed after World War 2, after which Japanese occupation ends with Soviet troops occupying area north of the 38th parallel, and US troops in the south.South declares independence in 1950 sparking North Korean invasion. The armistice ends Korean War, which has cost two million lives.

The capital city of South Korea is Seoul and the currency used is Won.

Where is South Korea?
South Korea is located on the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and bordering north to North Korea. It has coastlines along the Sea of Japan to its west and the Yellow Sea to its east.

How many people live in South Korea?
48 million people live in South Korea according to a 2010 census. The Korean society is almost homogeneous (consist of single race) and almost 99% of South Koreans identify as ethnically Korean. The largest group of ethnic minorities in South Korea, the Chinese, only number around 20,000 people.

What are the most common languages in South Korea?
The Korean language, written in a script called Hangul, is the most common language for South Korea. In different areas of South Korea you’ll find that different dialects are spoken. For example, the Gyeongsang dialect spoken around Busan and Daegu to the south sounds quite rough and aggressive compared to standard Korean. Written Korean is also unique, using a phonetic system called hangul. It stacks sounds into blocks that represent syllables, and its consistency means it's fairly easy to pick up.

What is the most common religion in South Korea?
Historically, several religions prevailed in the Ancient Korea: shamanism (the religious belief in gods, demons, and ancestral spirits responsive to a priest, or shaman), Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. The principles and social outlook of Confucianism are still much in evidence in Korean daily life and family relationships, and Buddhism remains influential—even among people who may be nominally Christian.

Approximately 25% of the population professes Christianity, with Protestants (particularly Presbyterians and Methodists), independent Christians, and Roman Catholics the largest groups. Less than 15% of the population is Buddhist.

What sports are played in South Korea?
The national sport in South Korea is Taekwando (taekkyon) is the art of self defense that originated in Korea. It is recognized as one of the oldest forms of martial arts in the world, reaching back over 2,000 years.

During the 20th century, there were five major martial art academies or Kwans. They were called Mooduk Kwan, Jido Kwan, Changmu Kwan, Chungdo Kwan, and Songmu Kwan. Within these schools lie a variety of styles such as KongSooDo, Tae Kyon, SooBakDo, TangSooDo, KwonPup, etc. The way of teaching and employing many of the techniques varied as much as the schools and in 1946 an attempt was made to unify Dojangs (training halls) and standardize instructional methods. Some of the leaders wanted to uphold the martial art character of the schools while others wished to create a combat sport. These meetings met with no success.

In 1955 a board of instructors, historians and prominent society members sat down to coordinate all the schools and select a name for the hopefully unified art. In April 1955 a new name was from a group of names by the board, it was Taekwondo.

The name was selected for its appropriate description of the art: Tae  (foot), Kwon  (hand / fist), Do  (art). Literally, Taekwondo meant "the art of the foot and hand/fist"

There are few rules related to Tae Kwan Do: (1) The aim of taekwondo is to land as many kicks and blows as you can on your opponent in the allowed target areas. (2) A taekwondo contest comprises three rounds of two minutes each – with a one-minute break between each round. (3) The whole taekwondo contest area is a 10m square mat. (4) One point is scored for each legitimate strike on the body, and two points are given for kicks to the face.

What are some important sites?
Jeju Island - Located off the southern coast of South Korea, it is nicknamed Island of the Gods.Jeju is a subtropical destination known as one of the top honeymoon and vacation spots in South Korea.

Gyeongbokgung Palace - Built in 1395, Gyeongbokgung Palace is also commonly referred to as the Northern Palace because its location is furthest north when compared to the neighboring palaces of Changdeokgung (Eastern Palace) and Gyeonghuigung (Western Palace) Palace. Gyeongbokgung Palace is arguably the most beautiful, and remains the largest of all palaces in South Korea.

Gyeonggijeon Shrine - Built in 1410 and holds the portrait of King Tae-jo, the founder of the Joseon Dynasty. The King and his wife’s mortuary tablets are enshrined here at Jogyeong Shrine.

title: Wikijunior:Asia/South Korea


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?

This article is a critical analysis of the following paper: Manson J, Greenland P, LaCroix A. Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of cardiovascular events in women. ACC Current Journal Review. 2003;12(1):29

What is the background to this research?
(CVD) is one of the leading causes of mortality, not only in Australia, but also across the globe. It is classified as a condition relating to the heart and its surrounding blood vessels. A strong relationship between regular physical activity and the prevention of CVD has been found in a large number of studies. Prevalence data shows that one in six Australians is affected by CVD. Both men and women are equally affected. Although, only a small amount of research focussed on women at the time. Most physical activity guidelines have focussed on providing recommendations of intensities between moderate and vigorous physical activity, without any emphasis on the effects of walking, which is recognised as the most common form of exercise in women. Evaluating the effects of walking on CVD could have a great impact on health in especially elderly women, by making PA guidelines more accessible and achievable, without the pressure of vigorous activity. In addition, this study highlights the effect of sedentary behaviour and its contribution to CVD, which hasn't been accounted for in previous studies.

Where is the research from?
The research was published in, which identifies as the world's leading medical journal and website.

The study population involved an ethnically and diverse cohort of postmenopausal women, who were enrolled in the. The WHI is an American national health study, which aims to develop strategies in preventing major disease factors in postmenopausal women and is highly recognised by the American health care system.

The main author ,Dr. JoAnn Manson, is a well-respected professor of medicine at the Harvard medicine school, who's main focus of research is in women's health and chronic disease. As well as one of her co-authors, Philip Greenland, who is a reputable professor of medicine and published well over 400 papers in relation to his focus on cardiovascular epidemiology and prevention.

What kind of research was this?
This research was a prospective study as part of the Women’s health initiative observational study. A large cohort of 73,743 women was observed for an average of 3 years, while looking for development of any sign of cardiovascular disease and analysing how this related to other factors of the individual’s lifestyle.

Prospective observational studies have high validity and provide high quality data, even though a high follow-up rate is necessary. The study claims of a follow-up rate of 95%. In addition, a seemed more appropriate than a, due to the benefit of being able to target for a specific outcome, with less bias. Observational studies are not controlled and need to take into account any factors that could influence or bias the outcome, known as confounders. This study used Cox to account for these potential confounding variables, such as age, smoking, BMI etc.

Due to the large sample size, the follow-up rate and duration of this study, the methodology seemed appropriate.

What did the research involve?
At baseline, all subjects had to be free of any diagnosed cardiovascular disease or cancer. The first screening included self-administered questionnaires relating to personal and family medical history and other lifestyle factors that could be of significance. This was followed by repeated physical activity questionnaires, that focussed on the type, frequency and duration of exercise, including information on walking and sedentary behaviour. This data was analysed and calculated into weekly energy expenditure, measured in metabolic equivalents, for different intensities of physical activity and walking. The end points of this study were classified as newly diagnosed coronary heart disease and total cardiovascular events in individuals, which were strictly classified.

Strengths

 * Large cohort and long-term follow up
 * Racial and ethnic diversity
 * End points were classified very accurately and consistently

Limitations

 * Questionnaires - this leads to misclassification and over-reporting of physical activity. It is also to consider that different individuals have a different perception of what to classify as moderate and vigorous exercise
 * Usage of standardised classifications of energy expenditure associated with certain activities, which remains to be an estimate. Calculating energy expenditure from these estimates won't be as accurate, compared to measuring energy expenditure from different sources. Although, due to the large sample size, it seemed appropriate.

What were the basic results?
The study displayed significant results in the relationship between physical activity and CVD:
 * 1) Strong inverse relationship between base line physical activity score and risk of cardiovascular event during the follow-up period
 * 2) Similar risk reductions between walking and vigorous physical exercise
 * 3) A combination of both walking and vigorous exercise showed the greatest risk reduction (approximately 0.37 for individuals in the highest energy expenditure quintiles)
 * 4) Greater sedentary behaviour increased the risk factors

However, the most significant indicator, for developing risk factors for CVD, was energy expenditure, without any relation to the type of activity. Therefore, it should be considered that any type of activity, as long as it reaches a certain threshold of energy expenditure will very likely be effective in reducing the risk for CVD.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
Both walking and vigorous physical activity seemed to have a similar positive effect on the reduction of risk factors related to CVD. However, total energy expenditure is a better indicator of risk reductions in CVD, compared to type and intensity of physical activity. Recent studies suggest that even small amounts of exercise are better than none although, increasing the amount will have significant benefits on health and preventing CVD.

This study is supporting recent guidelines for Physical activity, of recommended 150 minutes of moderate exercise per week. Findings from this study encourage especially elderly women to exercise, because of taking away the pressure of having to exercise vigorously. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised control trials also highlights the importance of regular walking in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

In addition to overcoming physical inactivity, it is important to note that emphasis should also be on reducing sedentary behaviour. In particular, recent studies focus on the reduction of sedentary behaviour in the population which is affecting health and CVD significantly.

Practical advice
Adding walking to your physical activity routine will have significant benefits to your health. Not only for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, but also on daily life and general health.

Tips:
 * 1) Some exercise is better than none.
 * 2) Identify preferences for physical activity, that YOU enjoy doing(e.g. walking, swimming etc.), but be consistent.
 * 3) Integrate increased walking into your lifestyle and break up sedentary patterns. (social walking, walking with a destination in mind)
 * 4) If you have any concerns about exercising - Consult a professional. See further readings.
 * 5) Start slow and increase duration and intensity over time.

Further information/resources

 * Visit Heart Foundation. Walking Solo or in a Group. https://walking.heartfoundation.org.au
 * Are you at risk for Cardiovascular disease? Find out. https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/for-professionals/clinical-information/absolute-risk
 * Physical Activity Fact Sheet. Get Active. https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/active-living/get-active
 * Adult Pre-Exercise Screening Tool. https://www.essa.org.au/Public/ABOUT_ESSA/Adult_Pre-Screening_Tool.aspx
 * Find Exercise Professionals near you https://www.essa.org.au/find-aep


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?

The following is a critique of the research paper The longitudinal association between the context of physical activity and mental health in early adulthood by Doré et al. (2018)

What is the background to this research?
Physical activity (PA) has been shown to be effective at promoting positive mental health and reducing depression and anxiety in young adults. Studies have also shown that higher intensity and PA frequency are associated with increased mental health benefits. Leisure time PA has also been shown to be more strongly associated with mental health outcomes. This study aimed to build on this knowledge and the authors hypothesised that either social connectedness or PA volume were mediators of these mental health benefits. The authors examined this relationship in the hopes of better informing future public health programs and policy as currently the Canadian PA guidelines only state the amount of PA one should complete and do not suggest a context in which PA should be completed which could possibly help optimize mental health outcomes.

This study is important as in Canada the country this study was completed in it is estimated that 10-20% of Canadian youth are affected by a mental illness or disorder and surpassed only by injuries, mental disorders in youth are ranked as the second highest hospital care expenditure in Canada.

Where is the research from?
This study was conducted in Quebec, Canada at the College of General and Professional Education de l’Outaouais. The main author of the study Isabelle Doré is an Assistant professor at the School of Kinesiology and Physical Activity Sciences, Université de Montréal. She has been an author on multiple journal articles relating to the relationship between mental health and exercise in both youth and adults.

This study was funded by doctoral awards from the 4P Strategic Training Program. It is unlikely there is any bias arising from this funding as the groups that provided funding do not stand to make any profit from services related to mental health or exercise.

What kind of research was this?
This was a longitudinal study which is a type of observational study which means the researchers collect information about the subjects without interfering with them. Compared to a cross-sectional study which only collects data at one time point a longitudinal study collects data over multiple time points and is able to measure change in variables over this time period.

What did the research involve?
This study involved baseline data being collected in compulsory physical education classes at the College of General and Professional Education de l’Outaouais in October 2013. 1527 students completed questionnaires during class time and provided contact details for follow up. Of the 1527 students only 460 completed the questionnaires online for follow up 6 months after initial data collection. This follow up response was quite small and the authors acknowledge that it is most likely due to the students originally completing the questionnaires in a compulsory class and the follow up being contact by email and non-compulsory to complete.

There were multiple measures used for this study, firstly PA context was distinguished between (i) team sports (ii) informal group PA and (iii) individual PA. Positive mental health was measured using the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) questionnaire which comprises 14 items that measure psychological emotional and social well-being. Anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms were measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depressive Scale (HADS). Social connectedness in PA was measured using The Relatedness to Others in Physical Activity Scale (ROPAS) which assesses perceived relatedness to others in leisure-time PA, regardless of PA context. PA Volume was estimated in metabolic equivalents (METs) for all participants using the Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (GSLTPAQ).

All data collected during this study relied on self-report measures which can be inaccurate especially for physical activity as it has been shown that participants are likely to both over and underestimate their actual physical activity levels. All subjects in this study were college students and it has been suggested that due to college students being a very specific population it is sometimes hard to generalize findings from studies containing just college students to the general public but the researchers do acknowledge both of these limitations.

What were the basic results?

 * PA in informal group and team sports was found to be associated with higher positive mental health scores, fewer depressive symptoms and higher moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) scores compared to individual PA but there was no association between PA contexts and anxiety symptoms.
 * A statistically significant mean difference was observed for social connectedness and MVPA across PA contexts with team sports having the highest scores followed by informal PA and lastly individual PA having the lowest scores.
 * While the study found that PA context significantly affected scores for both social connectedness and PA volume it found that these variables did not mediate the relationship between PA context and the mental health outcomes studied and the authors do acknowledge that they did not prove their hypothesis.
 * While the results are promising, the researchers only collected data at two points it would have been beneficial to have followed the cohort for a longer period collecting data over more time points to increase the reliability and validity of their results.

What conclusions can we take from this research?

 * While the authors did not prove their hypothesis that social connectedness or PA volume mediates the positive mental health benefits from participating in team sports and informal group PA compared to individual PA it has backed up similar findings from previous studies that there are increased positive mental health benefits of participating in team sports and informal PA compared to individual PA. Their findings in regards to depressive symptoms has also been reproduced in another study of young adults since this study was published.
 * Future studies should look to examine what other mechanisms may be involved in the benefits team sports and informal PA has on mental health and depressive symptoms.

Practical advice

 * This study was completed in Canada which is a very similar country to Australia and makes the findings very relevant to the Australian population.
 * While competing in team sports and informal PA may provide increased positive mental health benefits, participating in individual PA still provides a vast range of not just positive mental health benefits but also physical health benefits. The best advice is if you can find a team to play in or an informal PA setting that’s right for you go for it but if not just get out there and get exercising and you will still see benefits.

Further information/resources

 * If you're looking to join a sports team in Australia this website is a useful tool https://justplay.com.au
 * If you're looking to participate in informal group PA some options include gym classes e.g. circuit classes and Yoga, boot camps or joining local exercise groups e.g. a running or swimming group.


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User:LinoDiamond0

I'm Guadalupe and I live in a seaside city in northern France, Dijon. I'm 22 and I'm will soon finish my study at Integrated International Studies.

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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Vernon Francis Kenna

Vernon Francis "Vern" Kenna was a prominent amateur operator, amateur broadcaster, amateur club participant in the late 1920s and early 1930s. His station callsign was 4FK (4=Queensland, F=Francis, K=Kenna) and he operated from Brisbane, Queensland. He joined the Postmaster-General's Department and rose over the years to be a senior broadcasting engineer. As his professional responsibilities increased his amateur radio hobby activities were largely supplanted by yachting. A summary biography has not yet been prepared however the following resources have been assembled in preparation:
 * Transcriptions and Notes - Vernon Francis Kenna - More than 220 transcriptions and notes from more than 300 identified
 * Photos, QSL cards and other graphics - Vernon Francis Kenna - Nothing uploaded as yet