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Mirad Grammar/Syntax

= Word Order =
 * Overall, Mirad is an SVO language, that is, the normal word order is Subject + Verb Predicate + Object, much like English and all of the Romance languages.
 * The subject and object consist of nouns or pronouns with or without modifiers. The verb predicate consists of a conjugated verb form with or without adverbial modifiers, which may precede or follow based on considerations below.

= The Subject =
 * A subject is the entity that is responsible for the action or state in the verb predicate. That entity consists of modified or unmodified zero or more nouns or pronouns.  The subject can be a noun phrase, which can include modifiers like deictic adjectives, quantifiers, or descriptive adjectives preceding a noun or nouns heading up a prepositional phrase.
 * Some rules:
 * Modifiers of a noun or noun phrase precede that noun or noun phrase:
 * Deictic adjectives and possessive pronouns come in first place among the modifiers:
 *  Hia via toyb.... this beautiful woman
 *  Ha aa dresiun.... the first letter
 *  Yata ifwa twed hu toja zojub.... our beloved father who died last year
 * Quantifiers come after any deictic adjectives or possessive pronouns, but before the noun they modify:
 * Hua ewa pati....those two birds
 * Hya ha gla jubi....all the many days
 * Iyta gla yafoni....her many abilities
 * Prepositions precede their complement:
 *  Za ata tam.... in front of my house
 * Prepositional phrase modifiers follow the noun they modify:
 * ha domep zo yata tam ....the street behind our house
 * saxam yub bi et ....a factory near you
 * Relative clause modifiers follow the noun or noun phrase they modify:
 * Hos at voy teste ....the thing (that) I don't understand
 * Ha glo doymi ho zoybese ....the few towns that remain
 * A subject noun can consist of a clause, infinitive, or gerund:
 *  Van it upo se vala..... That he will come is certain.
 *  Ser yiva se ser iva..... To be free is to be happy.
 *  Hia uvteuden yefe poser..... This weeping must stop.
 * The subject can consist of a pronoun or linked pronouns:
 *  Et ay at .... You and I
 *  Anay et .... Only you
 *  Glati .... many people
 * Adverbs often precede what they modify, but this rule is somewhat loose.
 *  gey et.... even you
 * deuzen fiay ....singing well
 *  voy aken.... not winning

= Prepositional Phrases =
 * In Mirad, prepositional phrases consist of a simple or complex (= multi-word) preposition followed by a complement. Some examples:
 *  be moj.... at night (simple)
 *  ja utyal.... before supper (simple)
 *  yeb bu ha tam.... into the house (complex)

Use of Simple Prepositions

 * Mirad has the following simple prepositions, which, except for ogel, are monosyllabic, and stand directly before their substantive complement:
 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top; font-size:smaller;"

 * + Simple Prepositions
 * - vAlign="top"
 * ab....on || eb....between || ob....off || ib....away from || ub....toward
 * - vAlign="top"
 * ayb....above || eyb....among || oyb....under || ||
 * - vAlign="top"
 * || be....at || || bi....of, from || bu....to
 * - vAlign="top"
 * bay....with || bey....by, via || boy....without || byi....from the start of||byu...up to
 * - vAlign="top"
 * za....in front of || ze....in the middle of || zo....behind || zi....at the right of || zu....at the left of
 * - vAlign="top"
 * zya....throughout || zye....through || || ||
 * - vAlign="top"
 * ja....before || je....during || jo....after || ji....since || ju....until
 * - vAlign="top"
 * gab....plus || || gob....minus || ||
 * - vAlign="top"
 * gal....times || gel....like ogel....unlike || gol....divided by || ||
 * - vAlign="top"
 * gar....to the power of || || gor....to the root (negative power) of || ||
 * - vAlign="top"
 * ay....and || ey....or || oy....but
 * - vAlign="top"
 * av....for ayv....about || || ov....against oyv....opposite || ||
 * - vAlign="top"
 * || vyel....about, than, as || ||
 * }
 * Examples:
 *  boy uvteuden.... without moaning
 *  av hyea tesdud.... for whatever reason
 * ewa gal ewa....two times two
 * poper zya Europam.....to travel all over Europe.
 * iwa gar se yuwa....three squared is nine
 * yekea dyes vyel (or: ayv ) Mirad....looking for a book about Mirad

 * The preposition be (at) is used as an all-purpose locator:
 *  be ha mimkum.... at the beach
 *  be ha domep.... in the street
 *  be ha meb.... on the mountain
 *  be Fransam.... in France
 * The preposition be is used in many idioms, where ha (the) is omitted:
 *  be dropek bay.... at war with
 *  be obem bi.... at the bottom of ( = at bottom of)
 *  be nem bi.... in place of, instead of, in lieur of
 *  be tam bi....chez, at the house of
 *  be zam bi.... in front of
 *  be sinibar.... on television
 *  be dud bu.... in response to
 *  be tam.... at home
 * The preposition bi can be used for from, indicating origin, or of, denoting possession or origin.
 * Examples:
 * Ata twed zoypa bi yex gwa.....My father returned from work early.
 * Ha yabtom bi London se humep.....The tower of London is that way.
 * His se ha dyes bi hua twob.....This is that man's book ( = the book of that man).
 * The proposition to (to) can often be omitted after a verb where the to-ness is embedded in the verb. This omission is possible only when the verb is followed immediately by the object of destination:
 * Examples:
 * Buu at hua drar....Give me that pencil (or: Buu hua drar bu at.)
 * Pu tam!....Go home! (but: Pu izay bu tam!)
 * At peye zedom.....I am going downtown. (or: At peye bu zedom.)
 * The preposition vyel is used for two purposes:
 * about, concerning, relative to as in Hia dyes vyel moltun se yika.....This book about physics is difficult.
 * than, as after comparative adjectives as in ga aga vyel huas....bigger than that one.
 * Do not confuse bay and bey, both of which can sometimes be translated by with in English.
 * bay denotes accompaniment as in Duven et po bay at?....Will you be going with me?
 * bey denotes means as in It pyexa at bey muf.....He hit me with ( = by means of) a stick.

Use of Complex Prepositions

 * The above simple prepositions can be used with adverbs to form more complex prepositions. The following chart shows adverbs which ban be joined with simple prepositions to create complex prepositions:
 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! ADVERB !! + bi !! + be !! + bu !! OTHER
 * + Complex Prepositions
 * yab up ||  yab bi ha sem  up from the table ||  yab be ha abmas  up on the roof ||  yab bu ha abtem  up to the attic ||  yab ayb ha mays  up over the fence
 * yob down ||  yob bi ha abmas  down from the roof ||  yob be ha mimkum  down at the beach ||  yob bu he obtim  down to the cellar ||  yob oyb ha sem down under the table
 * yeb in ||  yeb bi ha mamil  in from the rain ||  yeb be ha tam inside the house ||  yeb bu ata tim  into my room ||  yeb av vafil in for wine
 * oyeb out ||  oyeb bi ha miltim  out of/from the bathroom ||  oyeb be ha abzamas...out on the balcony ||  oyeb bu ha mesabab  out to the porch ||  oyeb av etyal out for lunch
 * yub near ||  yub bi yata tam near(by) our house ||  yub be eta kun near at your side ||  yub bu ha ujnod  near to the endpoint.. ||  yub bay tod near with family
 * yib far ||  yib bi him far from here ||  yib be mom  far out in space ||  yib bu ha byum  far to the goal ||  yib yob bu ha obem far down to the bottom
 * yuz around ||  yuz bi ha mir  around the world ||  yuz be ha zom around in the back ||  yuz bu ha zam  around to the front ||  yuz boy tof  around without clothes
 * yiz beyond ||  yiz bi Meir  beyond earth || ||  yiz bu hyua kum  beyond to the other side ||
 * yez along ||  yez b i ha mas  flush with the wall || || ||  yez kum bi at alongside me
 * yan together || || || || yan bay yat  together with us
 * yon apart ||  yon bi hus  apart from that || || ||
 * zay forward, ahead ||  zay bi at be ha pesnad  ahead of me in line || ||  zay bu eta byun  ahead to your goal ||
 * zoy back, backward ||  zoy bi yex back from work ||  zoy be tam  back at home ||  zoy bu tistam back to school ||  zoy av gas back for more
 * zey across ||  zey bi ha aybmep  across the bridge ||  zey be ha ogela kum  across on the other side ||  zey bu ha ogela kum  across to the other side ||  zey ov yat  opposite us
 * iz directly, straight ||  iz bi yex  straight from work ||  iz be ha zenod  right at the midpoint ||  iz bu sum  right to bed ||  iz yub bi him  right near here
 * }
 * yez along ||  yez b i ha mas  flush with the wall || || ||  yez kum bi at alongside me
 * yan together || || || || yan bay yat  together with us
 * yon apart ||  yon bi hus  apart from that || || ||
 * zay forward, ahead ||  zay bi at be ha pesnad  ahead of me in line || ||  zay bu eta byun  ahead to your goal ||
 * zoy back, backward ||  zoy bi yex back from work ||  zoy be tam  back at home ||  zoy bu tistam back to school ||  zoy av gas back for more
 * zey across ||  zey bi ha aybmep  across the bridge ||  zey be ha ogela kum  across on the other side ||  zey bu ha ogela kum  across to the other side ||  zey ov yat  opposite us
 * iz directly, straight ||  iz bi yex  straight from work ||  iz be ha zenod  right at the midpoint ||  iz bu sum  right to bed ||  iz yub bi him  right near here
 * }
 * zoy back, backward ||  zoy bi yex back from work ||  zoy be tam  back at home ||  zoy bu tistam back to school ||  zoy av gas back for more
 * zey across ||  zey bi ha aybmep  across the bridge ||  zey be ha ogela kum  across on the other side ||  zey bu ha ogela kum  across to the other side ||  zey ov yat  opposite us
 * iz directly, straight ||  iz bi yex  straight from work ||  iz be ha zenod  right at the midpoint ||  iz bu sum  right to bed ||  iz yub bi him  right near here
 * }
 * iz directly, straight ||  iz bi yex  straight from work ||  iz be ha zenod  right at the midpoint ||  iz bu sum  right to bed ||  iz yub bi him  right near here
 * }
 * }

Using Prepositions as Clausal Conjunctions

 * Some simple and complex prepositions can introduce a dependent clause, but must be followed by the positive particle van. This rule does not apply to ay (and), ey (or) and oy (but), because they are already properly conjunctions. This chart shows some examples:
 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! PREPOSITION !! CLAUSAL CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE
 * + Prepositions as Clausal Conjunctions
 * ja before || ja van || It tojo ja van et puo. He will die before you arrive.
 * je during || je van while ||  Je van et tuxeya, at tujeya.  While you were studying, I was sleeping.
 * jo after || jo van || Yit xo ifonpop ja van yit tadso. They will go on a honeymoon after they get married.
 * av for || av van so that av von lest...not, so that...not || Egxu av van et su jwabwa. Rehearse so that you will be prepared. Yexu jestay av von et ujoku. Study hard so you won't fail.
 * ov against || (gey) ov van (even) though, despite the fact that || It igpa gey ov van it ta van it so gwaa. He (or she) ran even though he knew (that) he would be late.
 * }
 * Note that av van and av von are followed by a clause where the predicate verb is in the hypothetical mood (-u), reminiscent of the subjunctive in the Romance languages.
 * av for || av van so that av von lest...not, so that...not || Egxu av van et su jwabwa. Rehearse so that you will be prepared. Yexu jestay av von et ujoku. Study hard so you won't fail.
 * ov against || (gey) ov van (even) though, despite the fact that || It igpa gey ov van it ta van it so gwaa. He (or she) ran even though he knew (that) he would be late.
 * }
 * Note that av van and av von are followed by a clause where the predicate verb is in the hypothetical mood (-u), reminiscent of the subjunctive in the Romance languages.
 * Note that av van and av von are followed by a clause where the predicate verb is in the hypothetical mood (-u), reminiscent of the subjunctive in the Romance languages.

= The Predicate =
 * The predicate consists of a verb, its modifiers, and its objects.

Rules

 * The adverbs vay (indeed), vey (possibly, may), and voy (not) usually precede the verb:
 * Yata tam voy osexwa.....Our house was not destroyed.
 *  Vey mamilo.....It may rain.
 * Et se vay fia deuzut.....You are really a fine singer.
 * Other adverbs and come either before or after the verb, depending on emphasis.
 * Dalu yug !....Speak softly !
 * Et dale gra ig .....You speak too fast .
 * It glaxag ake.....He often wins.
 *  Glaxag it ake..... Often he wins.
 * It ake glaxag .....He wins often .
 * Yes-no questions are formed by preceding the verb predicate with Duven...?, which means Say whether..., Is it true that..., without any word order change in the verb predicate:
 *  Duven it gaj tejeye?.... Is (it true that) he still living?
 *  Duven et te ha dud?.... Do you know the answer?
 * Questions words requiring fill-in-the-blank words like When?, Where?, Who?, etc. start out with the question word, followed by the verb predicate in unchanged word order:
 *  Duhoj et taja?.... When were you born?
 *  Duhoyen et se?.... How are you?
 *  Duhos se eta dyun?.... Wha t is your name?
 *  Duhom et tambee?.... Where do you live?
 *  Duhot kobia ata dyes?.... Who stole my book?
 * Question words that are adverbs, as well as pronominal question words that are the subject of a stative predicate, can appear at the end of a sentence:
 * Et taja duhoj ?.... When were you born?
 * Et se duhoyen ?.... How are you?
 * Eta dyun se duhos ?.... What is your name?
 * Et tambee duhom ?.... Where do you live?
 * Verbs can be serial:
 * It deuze, daze, ay duzare .....He sings, dances, and plays an instrument .
 *  Eku ey pilu !.... Play or get lost !
 * Iyt eka oy oka .....She played but lost .
 * Verb predicates can have an implied, unexpressed subject:
 * Mamilo.....(It) is going to rain.
 * Upu!....(You) come!
 * Se ama him.....(It) is hot here.
 * Voy se yeva jayevder hes.....(It) is not fair to prejudge someone.
 * Von (et) jwosu.....Don't (you) be late.

Predicate Types

 * Predicate types, i.e. illocutions, refer to how the verb, predicate, clause, or sentence is expressed, There are three predicate types in Mirad:
 * Declarative
 * Interrogative
 * Imperative / Hortative
 * These predicate types, in turn, can be:
 * Negative, or
 * Affirmative, or
 * Combinations of these.

 * A simple, non-negative statement is affirmative declarative, such as Ha meir yuzpe ha maar.....The earth goes around the sun.

 * The following sections discuss non-declarative and non-affirmative predicate types.

Making Predicates Interrogative

 * To make a declarative predicate or sentence into a question, simply begin it with the Yes/No Question Introducer Duven....Say whether.../Is it true that...? or any other interrogative pronoun or adverb such as Duhos?....What?, Duhot?....Who(m)?, or Duhom?....where?. Note that the Du in Duven means Say.../ Tell me..., so Duven...? really is a command meaning Say whether....  The word ven without the du is a conditional complementizer and just means if or whether.  The part of the sentence after Duven is a simple declarative statement in the normal word order.  The same is true for the words following other interrogative words, such as Duhos?....What? and Duhom?....Where?.  In other words, there is no inversion of word order in questions as there often is in English, Spanish, and many other languages.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! DECLARATIVE !! INTERROGATIVE
 * + Making Predicates Interrogative
 * Et se tadxwa. You are married. ||  Duven et se tadxwa? Are you married? (= Say whether you are married.)
 * Ha mari se manika. The stars are bright. ||  Duven ha mari se manika? Are the stars bright? (= Say whether the stars are bright.)
 * Hut aka. That guy won. ||  Duhot aka?  Who won?
 * Iyt aka glas. She won a lot. ||  Duhoglas iyt aka?  How much did she win?
 * It paye. He has gone. ||  Duhom it paye?  Where has he gone?
 * }
 * Iyt aka glas. She won a lot. ||  Duhoglas iyt aka?  How much did she win?
 * It paye. He has gone. ||  Duhom it paye?  Where has he gone?
 * }
 * It paye. He has gone. ||  Duhom it paye?  Where has he gone?
 * }

 * Note that the question words introduce the sentence and do not alter the word order as seen in the declarative. Also, a declarative sentence can be made interrogative simply by adding a question mark at the end in writing or raising the voice inflection at the end in speaking, eg:

 * Et tambese ha yubem? You live in the neighborhood?

 * The yes-no tag vao can be placed at the end of a declaration to make it a question, eg.:

 * Et tambese ha yubem, vao ? You live in the neighborhood, right ?

 * Yes/no questions such as the above and those introduced with Duven usually are answered with va yes, ve maybe, or vo no or their equivalents.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! YES-NO QUESTION !! ANSWER
 * + "Yes-or-no Questions"
 * Duven eta dyun se John? Is your name John? || Vo, se Bill. No, it's Bill.
 * Duven eta apet aka? Did your horse win? || Va. Atas vay aka. Yes.  Mine won indeed.
 * Duven et texe van ha maalyen gafiso hijub? Do you think the weather will improve today? || Ve. Maybe.
 * Fe per bay at? Wanna go with me? || Vey zajub. Maybe tomorrow.
 * Et tadso, vao? You're going to get married, right? || Vey va, vey vo. Maybe yes, maybe no.
 * }
 * Fe per bay at? Wanna go with me? || Vey zajub. Maybe tomorrow.
 * Et tadso, vao? You're going to get married, right? || Vey va, vey vo. Maybe yes, maybe no.
 * }
 * Et tadso, vao? You're going to get married, right? || Vey va, vey vo. Maybe yes, maybe no.
 * }

Affirming/ Doubting / Negating Declarations

 * The following set of interjections and adverbs can be used to affirm, cast doubt on, or negate declarations:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

!  !! INTERJECTION !! ADVERB !! PROPOSITION
 * + Affirming, Doubting, Negative Declarations
 * AFFIRMATIVE || va yes || vay indeed, really || Va. At vay yantexe Yes, I indeed/do/really agree.
 * DUBITATIVE || ve maybe, perhaps || vey possibly, may... || Ve. At vey po. Maybe. I may/possibly will go.
 * NEGATIVE || vo no || voy not || Vo. At voy su iva. No.  I would not be happy.
 * }
 * NEGATIVE || vo no || voy not || Vo. At voy su iva. No.  I would not be happy.
 * }
 * }

Mixing Them Up

 * The above interrogative words and the words of affirmation / doubt / negation can be used in various combinations, for example:

 * Duven et voy se tadxwa?....Are n't you married?
 * Duhasav iyt se voy tadxwa?....Why is n't she married?
 *  Vey voy mamilo.....It may not rain.
 * At vay voy tadso iyt.....I will certainly not marry her.
 * Et peyo, vao ?....You will go, right ?
 * Vo. Hus vey vay se vyoa.....No. That may indeed be wrong.
 * Et te ha dud, vao ?....You know the answer, don't you? (= right ?)

 * Note that the particles of affirmation/doubt/negation usually precede the verb, but can just as easily follow it.

 * At voy te. ....I do n't know.
 * At te voy . ....I don't know. [Lit: I know not .]

 * Note that vao? is a particle meaning yes or no?, right?, n'est-ce pas?

Imperative and Hortative Expressions

 * An imperative expression is a command. In Mirad, a verb in the tenseless hypothetical mood ending in -u without a subject is assumed to an imperative referring implicitly to you.  For example:

 *  Ipu !.... Go away !
 *  Tiju !.... Wake up !
 *  Su fiat !.... Be a good person!

 * Hortative expressions, i.e. urging or wishing expressions like Let's go. or May he win., use the hypothetical form of the verb with the clause introduced by the positive complementizer van....that, may, let. In Arabic and some other languages, this is called the jussive mood.

 *  Van yat fadilu.....Let's pray. (Lit:  That we would pray.)
 *  Van weti aku hia ifek..... May you guys win this game.
 *  Van ha edeb yagteju.....Long live the king. (Lit.  That the king would long-live.)
 * At ojfe van wit piu.....I wish he'd leave. (Lit.I wish that he would leave.)

 * The negative version of imperative and hortative expressions is introduced with the negative complementizer von....don't, lest, let's not. If there is no subject pronoun, you is understood.

 *  Von (et) dalu at huyen..... Don't (you) speak to me that way.
 *  Von yit oku..... May they not lose.
 * Yit fiyake von yet oku.....We hope (that) you will not will.
 *  Von yat toxu it..... Let's not forget him.

Complementizers

 * Van, ven, von, and ho are complementizers.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! TYPE !! COMPLEMENTIZERS !! MEANING !! MIRAD EXAMPLE !! ENGLISH EQUIVALENT !row=1| Interrogative !row=1| Conditional !row=1| Anti-Conditional !row=1| Positive/Hortative !row=1| Negative/Prohibitive !row=1| Relative
 * + Complementizers
 * duven...? || Is it true that...? Tell (me) whether... (yes/no question introducer) ||  Duven eta dyun se John? ||  Is (it true that) your name is John?
 * ven || if, whether ||  Ven et te, du has. At utdide ven it upo. ||  If you know, say so. I wonder whether he'll come.
 * oven || unless ||  Oven et yexe, et voy ako. ||  Unless you work, you will not win.
 * van || that, so that, let, may || At ta van it upo.  Van yat dilo.  Van et su iva. At xa has van et fitexu at. || I knew ( that ) he would come.  Let 's pray.  Let you be happy. I did it so you'd think well of me.
 * von || Don't, let...not, lest ||  Von teaxu at.  Von yat su uva. At pio von et futipsu. ||  Don't look at me.  Let's not be sad. I will leave lest you get angry.
 * ho || who, whom, that, which || Ha toybi ho ifaye et... Ha toyb ho et ife. Koxon ho at yofe lonyafxer. || The women who have loved you. The woman ( whom ) you love. A problem ( that/which) I cannot solve.
 * }

Subjunctive Clauses

 * The hypothetical mood is also used in subjunctive clauses. A subjunctive clause is one in which an action or state is desired, requested, required, or wanted in some other way by the actor in the main clause.  Positive subjunctive clauses are introduced with the positive complementizer van....that, let's, so that.  Here are some examples:

 * Ha edweb dira van at tyoibu za it.....The king demanded that I kneel before him.
 * Se igefwa van et upu gwa ig.....It is urgent that you come as soon as possible.
 * Durwa van hyat dolu .....It was ordered that everyone be silent .

 * A negative subjunctive clause is introduced with the negative complementizer von....don't, lest.

 * Biksu von et pyosu .....Be careful lest you fall / that you not fall .

 * The conditional complementizer ven....if, whether can introduce a clause in the subjunctive, indicating an unreal condition, as in the following examples:

 * At sexu tam ven at su nasika.....I would build a house if I were (= would be) rich.
 * Duhas et xu ven et beu ga nas?....What would you do if you had (= would have) more money?

 * Many of the above sentences could be rephrased with an infinitive in order to avoid the subjunctive:

 * Ha edweb dira at tyoiber za it.....The king demanded me to kneel before him.
 * Se igefwa av et uper gwa ig.....It is urgent for you to come as soon as possible.
 * Hyat durwa doler .....Everyone was ordered to be silent .
 * Biksu voy pyoser .....Be careful not to fall .

If-Then Conditional Clauses

 * A conditional clause is introduced with the conditional complementizer ven....if, whether. The if-clause can be a real tense or a hypothetical.  If the if-clause is hypothetical, the then-clause is also hypothetical.  Here are the possible variations:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! IF-CLAUSE !! THEN-CLAUSE ! PRESENT INDICATIVE !! PRESENT INDICATIVE ! PAST INDICATIVE !! PAST INDICATIVE ! FUTURE INDICATIVE!! FUTURE INDICATIVE ! PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL !! PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL ! PAST HYPOTHETICAL !! PAST HYPOTHETICAL
 * + If-then Conditional Clauses
 * Ven ot yexe jestay, If one works hard, || ot akxe. one succeeds.
 * Ven ot yexe jestay, If one works hard, || ot akxe. one succeeds.
 * Ven et ta , If you knew , || et dola. you kept quiet.
 * Ven et ta , If you knew , || et dola. you kept quiet.
 * Ven et pio , If you leave , || at so uva. I will be sad.
 * Ven et pio , If you leave , || at so uva. I will be sad.
 * Ven at su nyaza, If I were rich, Ven et teetu, If you would listen, || at nuxbiu aga tam. I would buy a new house.  et testu. you would understand.
 * Ven at su nyaza, If I were rich, Ven et teetu, If you would listen, || at nuxbiu aga tam. I would buy a new house.  et testu. you would understand.
 * Ven at tayu , If I had known , || at dudayu hyuyen. I would have responded differently.
 * }
 * Note that in English, when the then-clause is future tense, the if-clause is present; This is not the case in Mirad, where both clauses are in the future. In Mirad, the formula is "If you WILL leave, I WILL be sad."  In English, the formula "I didn't know whether he WOULD x" is translated in Mirad as "I didn't know whether he WILL x."  Relative tenses do not exist in Mirad.
 * Note that in English, when the then-clause is future tense, the if-clause is present; This is not the case in Mirad, where both clauses are in the future. In Mirad, the formula is "If you WILL leave, I WILL be sad."  In English, the formula "I didn't know whether he WOULD x" is translated in Mirad as "I didn't know whether he WILL x."  Relative tenses do not exist in Mirad.

If/Whether Subordinate Clauses

 * Here are some examples of sentences where the main clause contains some verb of knowing, questioning, wondering, guessing followed by a subordinate clause introduced by the conditional complementizer ven....whether / if. Note that the tenses in Mirad are somewhat different in that there is no relative shifting of time as in English.
 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! MAIN CLAUSE !! IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE ! PRESENT INDICATIVE !! PRESENT INDICATIVE ! PRESENT INDICATIVE !! PAST INDICATIVE ! PRESENT INDICATIVE !! FUTURE INDICATIVE ! PRESENT INDICATIVE !! PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL ! PAST INDICATIVE!! PRESENT INDICATIVE ! PAST INDICATIVE!! PAST INDICATIVE ! PAST INDICATIVE!! FUTURE INDICATIVE ! PAST INDICATIVE !! PRESENT HYPOTHETICAL ! PAST INDICATIVE !! PAST HYPOTHETICAL
 * + If-whether Subordinate Clauses
 * At utdide I wonder || ven it te ha vyan. if / whether he knows the truth.
 * At utdide I wonder || ven it te ha vyan. if / whether he knows the truth.
 * At voy te I don't know || ven yit aka ey oka. if / whether they won or lost.
 * At voy te I don't know || ven yit aka ey oka. if / whether they won or lost.
 * At voy te I don't know || ven et ujako. if / whether you will succeed.
 * At voy te I don't know || ven et ujako. if / whether you will succeed.
 * At utdide I wonder || ven et yantexu. if / whether you would agree.
 * At utdide I wonder || ven et yantexu. if / whether you would agree.
 * At voy ta I didn't know|| ven wit se taduwa. if / whether he was [Mirad: is] married.
 * At voy ta I didn't know|| ven wit se taduwa. if / whether he was [Mirad: is] married.
 * At dida I asked|| ven iyt teata hia dezun. if / whether she had seen [Mirad: saw] this play.
 * At dida I asked|| ven iyt teata hia dezun. if / whether she had seen [Mirad: saw] this play.
 * At voy ta I didn't know|| ven it upo if / whether he would [Mirad: will] come.
 * At voy ta I didn't know|| ven it upo if / whether he would [Mirad: will] come.
 * At dida I asked || ven it fu per bay at. if / whether he might like to go with me.
 * At dida I asked || ven it fu per bay at. if / whether he might like to go with me.
 * At dida I asked || ven it fayu per bay at. if / whether he might have liked to go with me.
 * }
 * }

 * The negative conditional complementizer oven....unless is used in main-subordinate clause structures in the same way as the above.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! MAIN CLAUSE !! IF / WHETHER SUBORDINATE CLAUSE ! PRESENT INDICATIVE !! PRESENT INDICATIVE ! FUTURE INDICATIVE !! PRESENT INDICATIVE
 * + Negative Conditional Complementizer
 * Ot voy ujake One does not succeed || oven ot yexe jestay. unless one works hard.
 * Ot voy ujake One does not succeed || oven ot yexe jestay. unless one works hard.
 * Et voy teato at You won't see me || oven et upo. unless you come (= will come).
 * }
 * }

Relative Clauses

 * Relative clauses are of two types:
 * Bound relative clauses qualify an explicit element (usually a noun or phrase) appearing in the main clause, and refer back to that element by means of the relative complementizer ho (example: "The boy who laughed was expelled."), and:
 * Free relative clauses, which do not have an explicit antecedent external to themselves. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence I like what I see, the clause what I see is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb like in the main clause. (An alternative analysis is that the free relative clause has zero as its antecedent.) In Mirad, relative deictic pronouns or adverbs having the prefix ho, as shown in the chart below, are used to introduce the free relative clause.

Bound Relative Clauses

 * The invariable relative complementizer ho is used to introduce a bound relative clause and refer back to an element in the main clause. Here are some examples:

 * Ha tob, ho tadsa ewa jabi jay, bayse awa tud.....The man, who got married two years ago, has one child.
 * Ha toyb ho ako ibo aga nazun.....The woman who wins will receive a big prize.
 * Hia pati ho at pixa magelwo himaj.....These birds (that/which) I caught will be cooked this evening.
 * Biu hyea jotul ho et fu .....Take any dessert (that) you'd like .
 * Ha apet ho at bua it ha afeb apeda bay if.....The horse I gave the apple to neighed with pleasure. (= ...that I gave him the apple...)
 * Iyt trua at bu ha yexeb ho iyt yexaya oyb it ji gla jabi .....She introduced me to the boss under whom she had worked for many years . (Lit: ...that she had worked under him...)

 * In cases where the antecedent in the matrix clause needs to be very clear, ho can be replaced with a relative pronoun specifying the gender or number of the antecedent, for example:

 * Ata tedi ay yita tuyd, hoyt at yuxa be ha aj,.......My parents and their daughter, whom (f.s. referring to the daughter) I helped in the past, ...
 * Ata tedi ay yita tuyd, hoti at yuxa be ha aj,.......My parents and their daughter, whom (pl.) referring to both the parents and their daughter) I helped in the past, ...
 * Ata tedi ay yita tuyd, ho at yuxa iyt be ha aj,... (Here the relative complementizer ho is used but is followed up later with a resumptive feminine personal pronoun. For consistence in the language, this latter method is best.)

 * Note that in cases where the relative clause ends in a preposition governing the man clause antecedent, a resumptive pronoun is added agreeing in gender, number, and animacy with the main clause antecedent. This type of construction occurs in the last two example sentences above.  So, the English relative clause for whom I sang would be expressed in Mirad as that I sang for her/him/it/them depending on the gender, number, and animacy of the antecedent in the main clause.

 * Ha toybi ho at deuza av yiyt fida ata yafi.....The ladies for whom I sang (= that I sang for them) praised my abilities.

 * Bound relative clauses beginning with whose are expressed in Mirad as hota (which person's) or hoyita (which persons'), depending on the number of the explicit antecedent in the main clause.

 * Ha ekuyt hota tyoyab yonpyexwa yofa eker hijeb.....The female player whose foot was broken was unable to play this season.
 * Ata yubati, hoyita tam se jay ga aga vyel yatas, agaxa yita puram gajod.....Our neighbors, whose (= which persons') house is already bigger than ours, enlarged their garage again.

 * If no preposition governing the antecedent is involved, but the relative clause takes the place of an objective case element, supplying a pronoun referring back to the antecedent noun (resumptive pronoun) is optional:

 * Ha dyesi ho at dyea hasi zamaj sa hyasi fia.....The books (which) I read (them) last evening were all good.

Free Relative Clauses

 * Free relative clauses are introduced by a relative deictic pronoun or adverb as shown in the charts below. Note that if the deictic pronoun is one other than a relative pronoun or adverb, then it is followed by the relative complementizer ho.  For example, Hos at te.......What I know does not need the relative complementizer ho, because it is already embedded in the relative pronoun hos.  The use of ho with other deictic words in a relative clause is optional.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! RELATIVE PRONOUNS !! MIRAD....ENGLISH !! EXAMPLE !row=1| Thing(s) !row=1| Person(s) ! RELATIVE ADVERBS !! MIRAD....ENGLISH !! EXAMPLE !row=1| Place !row=1| Time !row=1| Manner/Kind !row=1| Degree !row=1| Quantity !row=1| Reason
 * + Free Relative Clauses
 * - valign=top
 * hos....what/that which/the thing that hosi....what/those which/the things that hyes (ho)....whatever/anything that hyesi (ho)....whatever/anything that/any things that hyas (ho)....everything that/all that hyasi (ho)....all (things) that hyos (ho)....nothing (that) hyosi (ho)....none of the things (that) hoas....which one hoasi....which ones||  Hos at da se vyaa..... What I said is true.  Hosi it xa futipxa at..... What/the things he did angered me. At xo hyes (ho) et do.....I will do whatever/anything you say. Et voy teeta hyesi (ho) at deuza.....You didn't hear any of the things I sang.  Hyas (ho) at fe se poos..... All I want is peace. At akxa hyas (ho) at fa.....I achieved all (that) I wanted. At akxa hyasi (ho) at fa.....I achieved all the things (that) I wanted. At testa hyos (ho) et da.....I understood nothing you said.  Hyosi (ho) et iyfe ifue at..... None of the things you like appeal to me. At te voy hoas at gwafe.....I don't know which one I like best. At te hoasi at gwofe.....I know which ones I like least.
 * hot....who//the person (who) hoti....the ones who hyet (ho)....whoever/anybody who/that hyeti ho....whoever/any people that/who hyat (ho)....everyone that/everybody who hyati (ho)....all those who hyot (ho)....nobody (that/who) hyoti (ho)....no ones (that/who) hota....whose hoata....which one hoati....which ones||  Hot et teata pia..... The one you saw left.  Hoti at tye yantexe..... Those (people) I know agree. At teapo hyet (ho) at fe.....I will visit whomever I wish. Et voy teata hyeti (ho) at teata.....You didn't see any of the ones I saw.  Hyot (ho) at ijtyea sa fiyena..... Everyone I met was nice. At fida hyoti (ho) at yeyfa.....I praised all the people I was supposed to. At testa hyot (ho) at teeta.....I understood nobody I heard.  Hoti et ijtyaxa sa fuyena..... The ones you introduced were ill-mannered. At te voy hota ifpot his se.....I don't know whose pet this is. At te voy hoat at gwafe.....I don't know which one (person) I like best. At te hoati at gwofe.....I know which ones (people) I like least.
 * hom....where hyem (ho)....wherever hyam (ho)....everywhere bi hom....from where, whence bu hom....to where, whither || Yat tambese hom ha maalyen se yugra.....We live where the weather is mild. At fu per hyem (ho) et po.....I'd like to go wherever you go.  Hyam (ho) et pe, su bikaya..... Everywhere you go, be careful. Ha dom hom at byise se gla oga.....The town where I come from is very small. Ha memi hom at popeyo se gle jiba.....The countries where I am going to be traveling are quite distant.
 * hoj....when hyej (ho)....whenever hyaj (ho)....everywhere ||Du at hoj et puo.....Tell me when you arrive.  Hyej (ho) iyt se iva, iyt deuze..... Whenever/anytime she is happy, she sings.  Hyaj (ho) at yabteaxe, et yobteaxe..... Every time I look up, you look down.
 * hoyen....how, in what way, as hyeyen (ho)....however, in any way, in whatever manner hyiyen (ho)....just as, the same way as || At utdide hoyen it xa hus.....I wonder how he did it.  Hyeyen (ho) xwa se kos..... However it happened is a mystery. Xu has hyiyen (geyen) (ho) at xe has.....Do it the same way as I do it.
 * hogla....how, to what extent hyigla ( ~ ge) ho....as, to the same degree as || Et hyoj to hogla iva at se.....You'll never know how happy I am. At yofe poper hogla (= ge) yib ho et yafe.....I cannot travel as far as you can.
 * hogla....how much, how many hyegla (ho)....however much, however many hyigla (= ge) (ho)....as much/many as || Duven et te hogla nas it ayse?....Do you know how much money he has? Yet dida yat hyegla tami (ho) yat sexa.....You guys asked us however many houses we built. Et nixo hogla ~ ge nas at xe.....You will earn as much money as I do.
 * hosav....why, for what reason hyesav (ho)....why ever, for whatever reason || Duven et te hosav it xa hus.....Do you know why he did that? Yat voy teste hyesav (ho) et xu hus.....We don't understand why ever you'd do that.
 * }
 * The ho complementizer in free relative clauses can be omitted in conversation if there is no loss of meaning. For example, At fe per hyem et pe.....I want to go wherever you go. or Xu geyen at de.....Do as (= the same way (that) ) I say.

 * If the relative clause is restrictive (i.e. it cannot be omitted without violating the meaning of the sentence), then no commas are used, but if it is non-restrictive (i.e. it provides new information that can be omitted), then it is surrounded by commas, just as in English.

 * RESTRICTIVE: Ha mar ho yata mer yuzpe dyunwe ha maar.....The star that our planet goes around is called the sun.
 * NON-RESTRICTIVE: Ha amar, ho yata mer yuzpe, se vay haway hea mar.....The sun, which our planet goes around , is really only a (= some) star.

Indirect and Direct Discourse

 * As in English, Mirad has both indirect discourse and direct discourse. Indirect discourse is when you know or say that something happened, whereas direct discourse is when you directly quote what someone has said.

Indirect Discourse

 * Sentences that have a main clause of communication or knowledge, followed by a subordinate clause with an indirect indication of what was said or known, use the positive complementizer van (that, the fact that) to introduce the subordinate clause. The tense in the subordinate clause is a true tense, not a relative tense.  Unlike in English, where the that can often be omitted, the Mirad van complementizer can never be omitted.

 * At ta van et upo.....I knew that you would (= will) come.
 * Ata ted da van it yexe hya ita tej gel mufyegut.....My father said that he had worked (= he worked) all his life as a plumber.
 * Se vyaa van at gra tele.....It is true that I eat too much.
 * At jada van et puo jwa.....I predicted that you would (= you will) arrive early.

 * The conditional complementizer ven....if, whether and the negative complementizer von....lest, don't, that...not are discussed in later sections.

Direct Discourse

 * Direct discourse works as in English, except that a colon is used instead of a comma.  Double quotes are used to surround the directly quoted part of the sentence.

 * Iyt da: "At voy fe per."....She said, "I don't want to go."
 * At dida it: "Duhot so eta aadezut?".....I asked him, "Who will be your lead actor?"

= The Object =
 * The object in a sentence can be noun or noun phrase, a pronoun, an infinitive, a gerund, a prepositional phrase, or a clause. Sometimes, an object consists of both a direct object and an indirect object.
 * Rules:
 * Transitive verbs can take a direct object:
 * Ha yepet teupixa at .....The dog bit me .
 * Yovobu hoti fyuxe et .....Forgive those who hurt you .
 * Biu hia yibdren .....Take this telegram .
 * Some transitive verbs can take both a direct and indirect object. Many common transitive verbs imply a directional proposition, and so that preposition need not be expressed in the indirect object, but in such cases the indirect object comes before the direct object:
 * Buu at hua nyem.....Give (to) me that box.
 * Du it doler.....Tell (to) him to be quiet.
 * Xu at ha avun bi pier.....Do (to) me the favor of leaving.
 * Stative intransitive verbs like ser (to be) can be followed by a complement consisting of a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, gerund, or clause.
 * His se fis .....This is a good thing .
 * His se gla fia .....This is very good .
 * Ha akut sa et .....The winner was you .
 * Se fia aker .....It is good to win.
 * Se uva van iyt pia .....It is sad that she left .
 * Wit tease fia yexut .....He looks like a good worker .
 * Dynamic intransitive verbs do not take an object:
 * At yexa hum je ewa jabi.....I worked there for two years.
 * Yat teje yukomay.....We live comfortably.
 * Hia voli agse ug.....These plants grow slowly.
 * Verbs of communication can take an entire clause as a direct object in addition to an indirect object, the recipient of the communication:
 * At ta van et upo .....I knew (that) you would come .
 * Duven et te hoa tam se itas ?....Do you know which house is his ?
 * At da it hom et tambese .....I told him where you live .
 * Tuu at hoj et puo .....Inform me when you arrive .
 * It voy da ven et upo .....He did not say whether he would be coming .
 * At jwatua von it jwosu .....I warned him not to be late (= lest he be late ).
 * Verbs of motion and communication, which have an inherent directional component implied, do not need a preposition before their object. In cases where there is both an indirect and direct object, the indirect object comes before the direct object, otherwise a preposition is necessary:
 * At peye ha nam.....I'm going to the store. ( = I'm going the store.)
 * Pu tam!....Go home!
 * Et yefu der iyt hus.....You should tell her that.
 * Ha twob zoyda at: "Va."....The man replied to me, "Yes." ( = replied me)
 * At byise Ferom.....I come from France. ( = I originate France)
 * Nusbiu at dyes. (or) Nusbiu dyes av at.....Buy me a book (or) Buy a book for me.

= How to Say "No Matter What" =
 * The expression toxu....forget is often used in idioms where English uses no matter. An alternative is the use of the indeterminent deictic determiners (those that begin with hye-) meaning whatever, wherever, etc.  Here are some examples:
 *  Toxu hos et de, at voy vatexe is..... Whatever you say, I don't believe it.
 *  Hyes et de, at voy vatexe is....." "

 * Et kaxo yikani toxu hom et po.....You will encounter difficulties no matter where you go.
 * Et kaxo yikani hyem et po....." " " "

 *  Toxu hogla et dio, iyt voy do va..... No matter how much you ask, she won't say yes.
 *  Hyegla et dio, iyt voy do va....." " " "

 * Et ifio toxu hoa dom et teapo.....You will enjoy no matter what city you visit.
 * Et ifio hyea dom et teapo....." " " "

= A Summary of Negators =
 * As in most natural languages, Mirad has a variety of ways to negate elements of a sentence. This section is meant to clarify when and how these negators are applied:

Negating a Predicate

 * The adverb voy is used to negate a declarative or interrogative predicate. The voy adverb and precede or follow the verb:
 * At te.....I know. →  At voy te.....I don't know.
 * Duven et te?....Do you know? →  Duven et voy te?....Don't you know?
 * The negative subordinate conjunction von is used to negate an imperative, subjunctive, or jussive predicate. The positive conjunction van gets replaced by von:
 * Upu him!....Come here! →   Von upu him!....Don't come here!
 * Van et ujaku!....May you succeed. →   Von et ujaku!....May you not succeed!
 * The conditional subordinate conjunction ven (if) can be negated to form oven meaning unless:
 * Ven wit tojo, it voy ako ha doteuzen.....If he dies, he will not win the election. →  Oven wit tojo, it ako ha doteuzen.....Unless he dies, he will win the election.
 * At po ven et voy ofxo at.....I will go if you don't forbid me. →  At voy po oven et afxo at.....I won't go unless you permit me.
 * The various negative deictic adverbs can be used to negate a predicate:
 * Et te.....You know. →  Et te hyoj .....You never know.
 * At se iva.....I am content. →  At se hyoyen iva.....I am in no way content.
 * Et se vyaka.....You are right. →  Et se hyogla vyaka.....You are not at all right.

Negating an Adjective

 * The prefix o- is used to negate the semantics of an adjective (including verbal adjectives). The o- changes to ol- if the adjective already begins with the letter o.
 * eva....neutral →  oeva....non-neutral
 * vyaa....true →  ovyaa....untrue
 * twa....known →  otwa....unknown
 * ovufekyea....offensive →  olovufekyea....unoffensive
 * Sometimes the prefix lo- is need to negate an adjective is negating it with o- causes ambiguity:
 * fwa....wanted →  lofwa....unwanted (because prefixing o- would yield ofwa which already means forbidden.)
 * The prefix lyo- is a stronger negator for adjectives:
 * dota....social →  lyodota....barbarian
 * fibyena....polite →  lyofibyena....callous, rude
 * Positive adjectives ending in -ika or -aya can be changed to -uka or -oya to make them negative:
 * yufika....fearful →  yufuka....fearless
 * mekaya....dusty →  mekoya....dust-free
 * Positive adjectives ending in -yaf(w)a (able/possible) can be switched to -yof(w)a (unable/impossible):
 * yonsaunxyafwa....distinguishable →  yonsaunxyofwa....indistinguishable
 * teatyafa....able to see →  teatyofa....blind

Negating the Semantics of a Verb

 * The prefixes o- and lo- are used to negate or reverse the semantics of a verb. The latter prefix is usually expressed in English with de- or dis- or un-.
 * bexer....to have/hold →  obexer....to lack
 * bexer....to have/hold →  lobexer....to leave/abandon/give up
 * teater....to see →  oteater....fail to see/overlook
 * teater....to see →  loteater....to disregard
 * teazexer....to focus →  oteazexer....to fail to focus
 * teazexer....to focus →  loteazexer....to blur
 * boxer....to quieten →  loboxer....to disquieten
 * Note the difference between:
 * odabtunxwa....unpoliticized
 * lodabtunxwa....depoliticized
 * Note also the following opposites:
 * ayser....to have →  oyser....to lack
 * kaxer....to find →  koxer....to lose
 * paxer....to move →  poxer....to stop
 * aker....to win →  oker....to lose
 * fixer....to do well →  fuxer....to do poorly
 * In the above cases, the ordinal vowel does the job in contrasting the meaning of the verbs (a vs. o and i vs. u). This is a factor of the way vocabulary is constructed in Mirad.

Expressing pro-, anti-, and a- (neutral)

 * Words expressing a favorable slant take the prefix av-; those with an opposing stance take ov-, while those with a neutral or absent stance take ev-:
 * avdopreka....pro-war
 * ovdopreka....anti-war
 * odopa....un-military
 * evdopa....neutral militarily
 * evdofina....amoral
 * odofina....immoral
 * odata....unfriendly
 * ovdata....hostile
 * The av, ov, and ev morphemes can be suffixed as well:
 * agdovyab....constitution →  agdovyabova....anti-constitutional
 * doyux....welfare →  doyuxava....pro-welfare
 * fyatez....religion →  fyatezeva....areligious

The Use of -okya to Express a Loss

 * Some adjectives expressing the loss of something can end in -okya (having lost):
 * tad....spouse →  tadokya....widowed
 * ifon....love →  ifonokya....lovelorn
 * ted....parent →  tedokya....orphaned
 * tep....mind →  tepokya....crazy
 * nas....money →  nasokya....bankrupt/broke
 * mep....way →  mepokya....lost
 * izbex....control →  izbexokya....out of control
 * tayeb....hair →  tayeboyka....bald

The Use of the prefix oy- to Express Privation

 * Some nouns can be negated by prefixing oy- (a stub for boy meaning without) and then converting the noun to an adjective with the suffix -a:
 * tof....clothes →  oytofa....naked
 * teus....taste →  oyteusa....insipid
 * pos....stop →  oyposa....nonstop
 * tob....time →  oyjoba....eternal
 * dab....government →  oydaba....anarchic
 * mil....water →  oymila....anhydrous

title: Mirad Grammar/Syntax


text:
Mirad Grammar/Sample Texts Analyzed

= Article One of the Declaration of Human Rights =
 * Article One of the Declaration of Human Rights is often used to show how various invented international auxiliary languages compare with one another in written form. Here is the Mirad version of Article One, followed by the English version:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! ENGLISH !! MIRAD
 * + Declaration of Human Rights Article One
 * All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. || Hya tobi taje yiva ay gea be utfiz ay doyivi. Yit bulwe texyaf ay tyaf ay yeyfe hyuitaxler tidyenay.
 * }
 * }

 * Anaysis:
 * {|style="font-size:smaller;"

 * 1 || hya || all  <   hya- [distributive deictic determiner]   +
 * 2 || tobi || human beings  <   tob....human being [singular noun]   +   -i [plural suffix]
 * 3 || taje || are born  <   taj-....be born [stem])  +   -e [present simple tense marker]
 * 4 || yiva || free  <   yiv- [stem]   +   -a [adjectival suffix]
 * 5 || ay || and [positive conjunction]
 * 6 || gea || equal  <   ge- [stem]   +   -a [adjectival suffix]
 * 7 || be || at, in [preposition]
 * 8 || utfiz || dignity  <   ut....self [pronoun]  +   fiz....merit [noun]
 * 9 || doyivi || rights  <   do(t)-....society   +   yiv....freedom, right [noun]  +  -i [plural suffix]
 * 10 || yit || they/them  <   yit [3d person plural animate pronoun]
 * 11 || bulwe || are endowed  <   bul-....endow [verb stem]   +   -w [passive]   +   -e [present]
 * 12 || texyaf || reason  <   tex-....think   +   yaf....ability, faculty
 * 13 || tyaf || conscience  <   t-....know   +   yaf....ability, faculty
 * 14 || yeyfe || should  <   yeyf-....(have a) duty [verb stem]   +   -e [indicative simple present tense]
 * 15 || hyuitaxler || treat one another  <   hyuit (comb. of hyut....other person   +   hyit....same person)   +   axl-....act [verb stem]   +   -er [verbal infinitive marker]
 * 16 || tidyenay || in a brotherly way  <   tid....sibling [noun]   +   -yen....manner   +   -ay....-ly [adverbial suffix]
 * }
 * 9 || doyivi || rights  <   do(t)-....society   +   yiv....freedom, right [noun]  +  -i [plural suffix]
 * 10 || yit || they/them  <   yit [3d person plural animate pronoun]
 * 11 || bulwe || are endowed  <   bul-....endow [verb stem]   +   -w [passive]   +   -e [present]
 * 12 || texyaf || reason  <   tex-....think   +   yaf....ability, faculty
 * 13 || tyaf || conscience  <   t-....know   +   yaf....ability, faculty
 * 14 || yeyfe || should  <   yeyf-....(have a) duty [verb stem]   +   -e [indicative simple present tense]
 * 15 || hyuitaxler || treat one another  <   hyuit (comb. of hyut....other person   +   hyit....same person)   +   axl-....act [verb stem]   +   -er [verbal infinitive marker]
 * 16 || tidyenay || in a brotherly way  <   tid....sibling [noun]   +   -yen....manner   +   -ay....-ly [adverbial suffix]
 * }
 * 14 || yeyfe || should  <   yeyf-....(have a) duty [verb stem]   +   -e [indicative simple present tense]
 * 15 || hyuitaxler || treat one another  <   hyuit (comb. of hyut....other person   +   hyit....same person)   +   axl-....act [verb stem]   +   -er [verbal infinitive marker]
 * 16 || tidyenay || in a brotherly way  <   tid....sibling [noun]   +   -yen....manner   +   -ay....-ly [adverbial suffix]
 * }
 * 16 || tidyenay || in a brotherly way  <   tid....sibling [noun]   +   -yen....manner   +   -ay....-ly [adverbial suffix]
 * }
 * }

= Lord's Prayer =
 * Word-for-word analysis:
 * {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! ENGLISH !! MIRAD
 * + The Lord's Prayer
 * Our Father, who art in Heaven,||Hey yata Twed, ho se be Totmir,
 * Hallowed by thy name.||van eta dyun fyadwu.
 * Thy kingdom come.||Van eta edob upu.
 * Thy will be done on Earth as it is in Heaven.||Van eta fon xwu be Imer hoyen xwe be Totmir.
 * Give us this day our daily bread,||Buu yat hijub yata hyajuba povel,
 * and forgive us our trespasses||ay yovobu yat bi yata fuxeyni
 * as we forgive those who trespass against us.||hoyen yat yovobe hoti fuxe yat.
 * And lead us not into temptation,||Ay von izbu yat ub yekuen,
 * But deliver us from evil.||oy yivxu yat bi fyox.
 * Amen.||Xwu huus.
 * }
 * {|style="; font-size:smaller;"
 * as we forgive those who trespass against us.||hoyen yat yovobe hoti fuxe yat.
 * And lead us not into temptation,||Ay von izbu yat ub yekuen,
 * But deliver us from evil.||oy yivxu yat bi fyox.
 * Amen.||Xwu huus.
 * }
 * {|style="; font-size:smaller;"
 * Amen.||Xwu huus.
 * }
 * {|style="; font-size:smaller;"
 * {|style="; font-size:smaller;"
 * {|style="; font-size:smaller;"

 * 1 || Hey  || O! [vocative particle]
 * 2 || yata || our < yat [1st pl animate pronoun] we + -a [adjective suffix]
 * 3|| Twed || Father  < ted....parent + infix -w- [masculine]
 * 4 || ho || who  [invariable relative complementizer meaning who(m), that, which]
 * 5 || se || am,is,are < s-[present stem of verb ser....to be] + -e [simple present tense suffix]
 * 6 || be || in [preposition of general location at]
 * 7 || Totmir || Heaven < tot....god + mir....world
 * 8 || van || let/may/that [positive complementizer introducing a fact or wish; see 32]
 * 9 || eta || your, thy < et [2d sing animate pronoun] you + -a [adjective suffix]
 * 10 || dyun || name [noun < verb stem dyu-....to call]
 * 11 || fyadwu  || be blessed < fya- holy + d- [stem of verb say / call] + -w- [passive] + -u [hypothetical/imperative/subjunctive mood]
 * 12 || edob || kingdom < e- [2nd level of scalar noun base dob....state]
 * 13 || upu || come < u(b)34- toward + p [stem of verb to go] + -u [hypothetical/imperative/subjunctive mood]
 * 14 || fwas || will < f- [stem of verb to want] + -w- [passive voice] + -a [adjective] + -s [inanimate nominalizer thing] = wanted thing
 * 15 || xwu || be done  < x- [stem of verb to do] + -w- [passive voice] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 16 || Imer || earth < -i- [3d level of scalar noun mer....planet] = third planet from the sun
 * 17 || hoyen || as < ho [relative determiner prefix] + -yen [suffix = manner] hoyen = (which manner that)
 * 18 || xwe || (it) is done < x- [stem of verb to do] + -w- [passive voice] + -e [present simple tense]
 * 19 || Buu || Give < bu- [stem of verb to give] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 20 || yat || (to) us < yat we, us
 * 21 || hijub || today, this day < hi- [proximate determiner this] + jub....day
 * 22 || yata || our < yat [1st pl pron we/us] + -a [adjective suffix]
 * 23 || hyajuba || daily < hya- [distributive determiner every] + jub....day + -a [adjective suffix]
 * 24 || povel || bread [ < povob....cereal with ob (plant) -> el (food)]
 * 25 || ay || and [positive conjunction] ( ey [intermediate] = or, oy [negative] = but)
 * 26 || yovobu || forgive < yov....guilt, shame + ob [preposition off and stem of verb to remove] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 27 || bi || from [preposition meaning of, from; opp: bu....to]
 * 28 || fuxeyni || bad deeds [noun] < fu-....bad + x-....do + -eyn [gerundive] + -i [plural suffix]
 * 29 || yovobe  || forgive < yov....guilt, shame + ob [proposition off and stem of verb to remove] + -e [present]
 * 30 || hoti || those who < ho- [relative deictic determiner] + -t....person + -i [plural suffix]
 * 31 || fuxe || offend < fu....bad + -x-....do + -e [present]
 * 32 || von || lest, so not, don't [negative complementizer; van [positive] that/so that/let; ven [intermediate] if, whether]
 * 33 || izbu || lead, guide < iz....direct, straight + b- [stem of verb put] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 34 || ub || toward [preposition; opp. ib....away]
 * 35 || yekuen || temptation < yek- [stem of verb try] + -u- [causative formant] + -en [present gerund -ing] = causing (someone) to try (something)
 * 36 || oy || but [negative conjunction; see 25]
 * 37 || yivxu || deliver, free, liberate < yiv-....free + -x-....do, make + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 38 || fyox || evil < fyo-....profane, evil + x....doing
 * 39 || xwu || be < s- [stem of verb to be] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 40 || huus || such < huu- [deictic determiner such] + -s....thing
 * }
 * 21 || hijub || today, this day < hi- [proximate determiner this] + jub....day
 * 22 || yata || our < yat [1st pl pron we/us] + -a [adjective suffix]
 * 23 || hyajuba || daily < hya- [distributive determiner every] + jub....day + -a [adjective suffix]
 * 24 || povel || bread [ < povob....cereal with ob (plant) -> el (food)]
 * 25 || ay || and [positive conjunction] ( ey [intermediate] = or, oy [negative] = but)
 * 26 || yovobu || forgive < yov....guilt, shame + ob [preposition off and stem of verb to remove] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 27 || bi || from [preposition meaning of, from; opp: bu....to]
 * 28 || fuxeyni || bad deeds [noun] < fu-....bad + x-....do + -eyn [gerundive] + -i [plural suffix]
 * 29 || yovobe  || forgive < yov....guilt, shame + ob [proposition off and stem of verb to remove] + -e [present]
 * 30 || hoti || those who < ho- [relative deictic determiner] + -t....person + -i [plural suffix]
 * 31 || fuxe || offend < fu....bad + -x-....do + -e [present]
 * 32 || von || lest, so not, don't [negative complementizer; van [positive] that/so that/let; ven [intermediate] if, whether]
 * 33 || izbu || lead, guide < iz....direct, straight + b- [stem of verb put] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 34 || ub || toward [preposition; opp. ib....away]
 * 35 || yekuen || temptation < yek- [stem of verb try] + -u- [causative formant] + -en [present gerund -ing] = causing (someone) to try (something)
 * 36 || oy || but [negative conjunction; see 25]
 * 37 || yivxu || deliver, free, liberate < yiv-....free + -x-....do, make + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 38 || fyox || evil < fyo-....profane, evil + x....doing
 * 39 || xwu || be < s- [stem of verb to be] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 40 || huus || such < huu- [deictic determiner such] + -s....thing
 * }
 * 32 || von || lest, so not, don't [negative complementizer; van [positive] that/so that/let; ven [intermediate] if, whether]
 * 33 || izbu || lead, guide < iz....direct, straight + b- [stem of verb put] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 34 || ub || toward [preposition; opp. ib....away]
 * 35 || yekuen || temptation < yek- [stem of verb try] + -u- [causative formant] + -en [present gerund -ing] = causing (someone) to try (something)
 * 36 || oy || but [negative conjunction; see 25]
 * 37 || yivxu || deliver, free, liberate < yiv-....free + -x-....do, make + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 38 || fyox || evil < fyo-....profane, evil + x....doing
 * 39 || xwu || be < s- [stem of verb to be] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 40 || huus || such < huu- [deictic determiner such] + -s....thing
 * }
 * 37 || yivxu || deliver, free, liberate < yiv-....free + -x-....do, make + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 38 || fyox || evil < fyo-....profane, evil + x....doing
 * 39 || xwu || be < s- [stem of verb to be] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 40 || huus || such < huu- [deictic determiner such] + -s....thing
 * }
 * 39 || xwu || be < s- [stem of verb to be] + -u [hyp./imper./subj.]
 * 40 || huus || such < huu- [deictic determiner such] + -s....thing
 * }
 * }
 * }

= Tower of Babel =
 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! ENGLISH !! MIRAD
 * The Tower of Babel || Ha Yabtom bi Babel
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then, all earthly humans had a single language and a common vocabulary.||style="font-weight:bold"|Huj, hya imertobi bexa ana dalzeyn ay yansauna dunyan.
 * style="font-style:italic"|While people were migrating from the east, they discovered a plain in the region of Shenear and they settled there.||style="font-weight:bold"|Je van tobi emuipeya byi ha zimerem, yit yokkaxa zyimem be ha meam "Xenear" ay yit tamkyoxa hum.
 * style="font-style:italic"|The people said to one another, "Come on, let's mold some bricks and fire them." Thus, they had bricks for building stones and tar for mortar.||style="font-weight:bold"|Ha tobi hyuitda: "Upu, van yat sanxu hegla mefi ay magxu isi." Huyen, yit bexa mefi av sexmegi ay megyel av sexyanul.
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then, the people said, "Come on, let's build our own city with a tower reaching the sky. In that way, we will be famous and that will prevent us from being scattered all over the earth."||style="font-weight:bold"|Johus, ha tobi da: "Upu, van yat sexu yauta dom bay yabtom pyusea ha mam.  Huyen, yat so yibtrawa ay hus jaebo yata yonzyaben bu hyami bi ha imer."
 * style="font-style:italic"|The Eternal one came down from the sky to see the city with the tower the people of earth had constructed.||style="font-weight:bold"|Ha Hyajeseat yopa bi ha mam av teater ho dom bay ho yabtom ha imerati sexaya.
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then, the Eternal One said, "Behold, they make up one people, all of whom have a common language. This is only their first accomplishment.  After this, anything they plan will be realizable."||style="font-weight:bold"|Johus, ha Hyajeseat da, "Teaxu: Yit sanse ana tyod, ho hyati bexe yansauna dalyen.  His se anay yita aa xal.  Johis, hyes yit ojtexo so vyamxyafwa.
 * style="font-style:italic"|Come, let us go down there to confuse their language so they won't understand one another anymore."||style="font-weight:bold"|Upu, van yat yopu hum av yanmulxer yita dalzeyn von yit hyuittestu gaj."
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then the Eternal one scattered the men far from there to all parts of the earth, and they halted construction of the city and tower.||style="font-weight:bold"|Johus ha Hyajeseat yonzyaba ha tobi yib bi hum ub hyami bi ha imer, ay yit poxa ha sexen bi ha dom ay yabtom.
 * style="font-style:italic"|That is why this place was named Babel, i.e. "Confusion". It is where the Eternal One mixed up the languages of all humans and scattered them all over the earth.||style="font-weight:bold"|Hus se hosav him dyunxwa Babel, be hyua duni: "Yanmulx".  Se hom ha Hyajeseat vyonapxa ha dalzeyni bi hya imerati ay yonzyaba yit bu hyami bi ha imer.
 * }
 * style="font-style:italic"|The Eternal one came down from the sky to see the city with the tower the people of earth had constructed.||style="font-weight:bold"|Ha Hyajeseat yopa bi ha mam av teater ho dom bay ho yabtom ha imerati sexaya.
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then, the Eternal One said, "Behold, they make up one people, all of whom have a common language. This is only their first accomplishment.  After this, anything they plan will be realizable."||style="font-weight:bold"|Johus, ha Hyajeseat da, "Teaxu: Yit sanse ana tyod, ho hyati bexe yansauna dalyen.  His se anay yita aa xal.  Johis, hyes yit ojtexo so vyamxyafwa.
 * style="font-style:italic"|Come, let us go down there to confuse their language so they won't understand one another anymore."||style="font-weight:bold"|Upu, van yat yopu hum av yanmulxer yita dalzeyn von yit hyuittestu gaj."
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then the Eternal one scattered the men far from there to all parts of the earth, and they halted construction of the city and tower.||style="font-weight:bold"|Johus ha Hyajeseat yonzyaba ha tobi yib bi hum ub hyami bi ha imer, ay yit poxa ha sexen bi ha dom ay yabtom.
 * style="font-style:italic"|That is why this place was named Babel, i.e. "Confusion". It is where the Eternal One mixed up the languages of all humans and scattered them all over the earth.||style="font-weight:bold"|Hus se hosav him dyunxwa Babel, be hyua duni: "Yanmulx".  Se hom ha Hyajeseat vyonapxa ha dalzeyni bi hya imerati ay yonzyaba yit bu hyami bi ha imer.
 * }
 * style="font-style:italic"|Then the Eternal one scattered the men far from there to all parts of the earth, and they halted construction of the city and tower.||style="font-weight:bold"|Johus ha Hyajeseat yonzyaba ha tobi yib bi hum ub hyami bi ha imer, ay yit poxa ha sexen bi ha dom ay yabtom.
 * style="font-style:italic"|That is why this place was named Babel, i.e. "Confusion". It is where the Eternal One mixed up the languages of all humans and scattered them all over the earth.||style="font-weight:bold"|Hus se hosav him dyunxwa Babel, be hyua duni: "Yanmulx".  Se hom ha Hyajeseat vyonapxa ha dalzeyni bi hya imerati ay yonzyaba yit bu hyami bi ha imer.
 * }
 * }

 * Word-for-word analysis:

= Interlinguistics =
 * The following text is from the Wikipedia article on Interlinguistics:

= The North Wind and the Sun =
 * The following is the English text of a fable called "The North Wind and the Sun", followed by a translation in Mirad:

= Proverbs =
 * The following are some famous proverbs translated into Mirad:

= Genesis =

= The Colors of the Rainbow =
 * Ha Volzi bi ha Mamiluz

= De Accidentibus Rerum =
 * This passage is the first part of an educational Latin-English lesson book by John Amos Comenius from 1633 found in [|Janua Linguarum Reserata]. It is translated as "on the accidence of things", but should properly be translated in modern English as "on the inflection of substantives", because it has to do with nouns and adjectives and their various forms and agreements.

Gettysburgh Address

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! English !! Mirad
 * + Gettysburgh Address
 * The Gettysburgh Address||Ha Dodal bi Gettysburgh
 * Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.|| Uwa eloni ay yewa jabi jay yata twedi zayaysupa be hia yanmel ejna doob tyunxwa be yivan ay dobuwa bu ha duun van hya tobi saxwa gea.
 * Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.|| Hij yat se eybxwa be aga dita dropek yekuea ven hua doob, ey hyea doob huuyen tyunxwa ay huuyen dobuwa, yafe yagjeser.
 * We are met on a great battle-field of that war.|| Yat se nyanupya be agala dopekem bi hua dropek.
 * We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.|| Yat upaye dobuer gon bi hua dopekem gel ujponem av hoti bua yita teji him av van hua doob teju.
 * It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.|| Se hyagla vyanaba ay vyala van yat xu his.
 * But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground.|| Oy be ga zyaa tes, yat yofe doduer--yat yofe fyabuer---yat yofe fyaaxer---hia mel.
 * The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.|| Hoa yifa tobi, tejea ay tojya, yekra him, fyabuaye is yib ayb yata ukza yafon gaber ey gober.
 * The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.|| Ha mir glo tepio ay igtaxo hos yat de him, oy is yafe toxer hyoj hos yit xa him.
 * It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.|| Se av yat ha tejeati gajwa dobuwer him bu ha oujbwa yex ho hoti ebyexa him zaybaye byuhij huugla fizay zaybaye.
 * It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.|| Se gajwa av yat ser him dobuwa bu ha agala yexun besea za yat--van bi hia fizuwa tojati yat biu gaxwa fyabuen ub hua avson hos av bua ha ujna ika nid bi fyabuen av is--van yat him vafe azay van hia tojati von tojayu boy fyin--van hia doob, oyb Tot, baysu ejna taj bi yivan--ay van dab bi ha tyod, bey ha tyod, av ha tyod, von loteasu bi ha imer.
 * }
 * But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can not hallow—this ground.|| Oy be ga zyaa tes, yat yofe doduer--yat yofe fyabuer---yat yofe fyaaxer---hia mel.
 * The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.|| Hoa yifa tobi, tejea ay tojya, yekra him, fyabuaye is yib ayb yata ukza yafon gaber ey gober.
 * The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.|| Ha mir glo tepio ay igtaxo hos yat de him, oy is yafe toxer hyoj hos yit xa him.
 * It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.|| Se av yat ha tejeati gajwa dobuwer him bu ha oujbwa yex ho hoti ebyexa him zaybaye byuhij huugla fizay zaybaye.
 * It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.|| Se gajwa av yat ser him dobuwa bu ha agala yexun besea za yat--van bi hia fizuwa tojati yat biu gaxwa fyabuen ub hua avson hos av bua ha ujna ika nid bi fyabuen av is--van yat him vafe azay van hia tojati von tojayu boy fyin--van hia doob, oyb Tot, baysu ejna taj bi yivan--ay van dab bi ha tyod, bey ha tyod, av ha tyod, von loteasu bi ha imer.
 * }
 * It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced.|| Se av yat ha tejeati gajwa dobuwer him bu ha oujbwa yex ho hoti ebyexa him zaybaye byuhij huugla fizay zaybaye.
 * It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.|| Se gajwa av yat ser him dobuwa bu ha agala yexun besea za yat--van bi hia fizuwa tojati yat biu gaxwa fyabuen ub hua avson hos av bua ha ujna ika nid bi fyabuen av is--van yat him vafe azay van hia tojati von tojayu boy fyin--van hia doob, oyb Tot, baysu ejna taj bi yivan--ay van dab bi ha tyod, bey ha tyod, av ha tyod, von loteasu bi ha imer.
 * }
 * It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.|| Se gajwa av yat ser him dobuwa bu ha agala yexun besea za yat--van bi hia fizuwa tojati yat biu gaxwa fyabuen ub hua avson hos av bua ha ujna ika nid bi fyabuen av is--van yat him vafe azay van hia tojati von tojayu boy fyin--van hia doob, oyb Tot, baysu ejna taj bi yivan--ay van dab bi ha tyod, bey ha tyod, av ha tyod, von loteasu bi ha imer.
 * }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mirad Grammar/Sample Texts Analyzed


text:
Mirad Grammar/TOC mini

Introduction   Why Mirad?    Alphabet    Pronunciation    Spelling    Nouns    Articles   Adjectives    Adverbs    Determiners    Numbers    Pronouns    Verbs    Prepositions    Conjunctions    Interjections    Hybrid Words    Greetings    Vocabulary Formation    Word Families    Syntax    Sample Texts

title: Mirad Grammar/TOC mini


text: Mirad Grammar/Nouns/TOC mini

title: Mirad Grammar/Nouns/TOC mini


text: Category:Book:Mirad Grammar

title: Category:Book:Mirad Grammar


text:
Précis of epistemology/Principles of psychiatry

Psychiatry is the medicine of the soul (or the spirit), the science of psychic disorders and their healing, and its application.

The dysfunctions of self-consciousness
Psychic disorders are dysfunctions of self-consciousness. We are conscious of ourselves to act voluntarily on ourselves in an appropriate way, to make good decisions, to give ourselves a good program of life. Psychic disorders appear when we no longer know how to use our consciousness to adapt to this reality that we are ourselves and to our environment.

Psychic disorders always involve emotional disorders, because emotional balance is both a condition and a consequence of the proper functioning of self-consciousness.

Self-consciousness is like a centralized administration in the brain, without a central administrator. An administration must inform itself about itself in order to act on itself, to administer itself. Psychic disorders are like an administration that no longer fulfills its functions because it no longer knows how to administer itself.

Self-consciousness keeps transforming itself every time one makes decisions. It wields great power over internal resources because it is in a central position, like a king in his kingdom. Like all power, it can be wielded for better or for worse. Psychic disorders have an unfortunate tendency to worsen of themselves because the power of consciousness ceases to fulfill its protective function, because it becomes a cause of aggravation of the disorders. The patient makes bad decisions. He chooses goals, beliefs and rules that prevent him from adapting to reality. He gives himself bad programs which lead to an increase in his sufferings.

Healing is always about restoring the proper functioning of self-consciousness, the ability to make good decisions to maintain emotional balance and live well, as much as possible.

Self-consciousness is a very powerful healing tool. By giving oneself a good therapeutic program, good rules, adapted goals, realistic beliefs, one can hope to cure most of the disorders. To be cured, one has to restore the protective functions of self-consciousness by replacing bad decisions with better ones. As decisions wield great power over all internal resources, they can be a very effective remedy.

When we have mental disorders, we are often overwhelmed by a feeling of helplessness, as if there is nothing we could do about our inner troubles. This feeling of helplessness is a factor of aggravation of the disorders: there is enough to go crazy when we say to ourselves that we cannot do anything whereas we cannot remain without doing anything. But this feeling of helplessness is also an illusion that must be dispelled. Decisions are naturally very powerful. As long as we do not lose the ability to make decisions and apply them, we do not lose their power. We feel reduced to helplessness because we do not know how to use our power, not because we have lost it.

The unconscious is produced by repression and denial
Denial is like lying to oneself. We refuse to recognize truths we know or could know. We refuse to think about it. Desires and beliefs are repressed when it would be too painful to become aware of them.

Freedom of interpretation makes denial possible. An interpretation selects the beliefs it deems relevant and obscures the others. An observation which contradicts a desired interpretation may simply be discarded. We repress desires and beliefs by giving ourselves the interpretations that suit us and by refusing those that disturb us.

To know what moves us, we must always interpret the situation to relate the emotions we feel to what we perceive. It is often not difficult to identify the cause of an emotion, and the interpretation leaves no room for doubt. But it is also possible to have many illusions about the causes of our emotions (Gazzaniga 1998). We can attribute an emotion to a cause that did not trigger it. We can deny that we want what we want, by attributing our desire to a cause that has not awakened it.

Repressed desires and beliefs cannot affect us in the same way desires and beliefs that are consciously endorsed do, because they do not benefit from the power of decisions. But they can still have an effect by influencing other desires or other beliefs. One can give oneself honorable ends to satisfy other shameful and repressed ends without even realizing the deception with which one is fooling oneself. One can also ignore repressed beliefs that are the source of other consciously approved beliefs.

When repressed, desires and beliefs cannot be examined by consciousness. We cannot dispute them, criticize them, evaluate them, or reason about their consequences. They can exert their influence unbeknownst to consciousness as if they were the desires and beliefs of another person who dominates us, fools us and manipulates us. “The ego is not the master in its own house." (Freud 1915)

It is not biologically probable that the brain accommodates two competing centralized administrations, one conscious, the other unconscious. Unconscious beliefs and desires therefore have no direct access to control over all of our inner resources. To exercise their power, they must influence conscious desires or beliefs. They are like parasites of consciousness, as if they are harnessing the force of consciousness for their own ends.

The strength of the unconscious comes from the weakness of consciousness. By refusing to face reality, we allow ourselves to be dominated by unconscious forces. The unconscious is not like a foreign power destined to dominate us. Rather, it is the result of a surrender of power, because the consciousness cedes its power to it when it takes refuge in denial.

Denial prevents one from adapting to oneself and gives strength to the unconscious. It is produced by repression. Should we conclude from this that it is always wrong to repress?

It is wrong to repress only if it prevents us from adapting to reality. When repression easily leads to giving up desires that must be given up, it is of course highly desirable. We repress to maintain a good self-image. It is only a mistake if this image is too false, if it prevents us from adapting to the reality that we are for ourselves.

A remark on the unconscious: the theory of the unconscious is here a theory of beliefs and unconscious motivations. We can also reason on the cognitive unconscious: information is unconscious when it is present in the brain without the knowledge of consciousness. This definition poses a puzzle: where are the brain signals that carry the conscious information? And why do these signals become conscious while others remain unconscious?

The fire of emotions
When an effect strengthens the cause that produced it, we are in the presence of a positive feedback loop: even a small deviation from the equilibrium position of a pencil placed on its tip imposes a force of gravity on the pencil which removes it further from its position of equilibrium; in a nuclear bomb, the free neutrons break the heavy nuclei which then release more neutrons; a spark in a flammable vapor releases heat which triggers chemical reactions which in turn release more heat ...

 * Panic attack

We feel an anguish that oppresses us and frightens us because we believe that it will kill us, as if the heart or the chest were going to explode. Believing that we are going to die of it makes us more anxious, we are more oppressed and we are confirmed in our conviction that we are going to die of it. In the panic attack, the anxiety itself is terribly distressing.

 * Depression

We feel sad and we tell ourselves that this sadness deprives us of a good life and will always do. We will never find happiness or peace because we are only able to be sad. In the morning we anticipate a day of sadness and to think in this way makes us disproportionately sad. In depression, sadness itself is saddening.

 * Manic joy

For once we are in a good mood, we feel good, as if we were cured of depression, as if it was a rebirth. This illusion of healing reinforces the joy that we feel. In a manic outbreak, the elation itself is elating.

 * Burning of desire

An intense and unfulfilled desire causes pain. The more one suffers from frustration, the more the fulfillment of desire is desirable, in order to get rid of suffering. Intense desire is itself a cause of increased desire.

 * Haunting memories

The more a memory arouses emotions, the better and more often it is remembered, because emotions signal what is important. But this can have a perverse effect: it is painful to remember a painful past. The more often we remember it, the more painful it is. The more painful it is, the more often it is remembered.

 * Tenacious hatred

Hatred prevents people from enjoying life. We are not even able to enjoy a good time anymore. This permanent incapacity is the main harm inflicted by those who attacked us. Even when they are no longer there to provoke us, the hatred is still there and it eats away at us from within. We have more hatred precisely because we have hatred, because we lost our life before we hated. When hatred is persistent, it is itself a cause of increased hatred. What is most infuriating about hatred is that it infuriates us.

 * To be ashamed to be ashamed

If we blush in public, we feel ridiculous and we blush more, to the point that we think of running away. Shame itself can be a cause of increased shame.

...

We dramatize when we choose an interpretation that amplifies the emotions. To heal emotional disorders, we must always play down, de-dramatize, as much as possible without ceasing to face reality. A self-consciousness who dramatizes aggravates his or her emotional disorders.

The positive method in psychiatry
The positive method is based on the following principle: we are better off with reassuring thoughts than with distressing ones, provided we face reality.

The positive method is generally ineffective to cure serious somatic (bodily) disorders, but it can still be effective, especially if the disorders are mild, thanks to psychosomatic effects. The production of hormones that regulate the functioning of the body depends on our emotions, and therefore on our thoughts. In addition, the nervous pathways are generally two-way. Since the nervous system innervates most of the body, all of our reactions can also depend on what we think.

The positive method has much more importance in psychiatry. Giving ourselves reassuring and realistic thoughts is part of the proper functioning of self-consciousness. Those who have little or no psychic disorders apply the positive method on a daily basis to overcome their anxiety in the face of life's difficulties. Anxiety disorders (the most common psychic disorders) appear when patients no longer know how to apply the positive method.

In psychiatry, it is very important not to make fun of the positive method. If we despise it, we can only worsen psychic disorders.

An example of the application of the positive method in a particularly painful situation: “Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." (Luke, 23:34)

Healing by the thought
The Buddha (the awakened one):

''"He insulted me, he beat me, he defeated me, he stole me". Do they attach themselves to these reproaches: there is no appeasement for their hatred.''

''"He insulted me, he beat me, he defeated me, he stole me". Do they not attach themselves to these reproaches: appeasement for their hatred.''

Certainly, in this world never hatred appeases hatred, but absence of hatred does : eternal law.

(Dhammapada 3-5)

Interpretation is part of perception. The perception of reality therefore depends on our decisions. As reality exists for us only from its perception, we make our own reality when we choose our interpretations.

The Buddha awakened when he understood that he was the creator of his perception of reality, like a dreamer who wakes up realizing that he has dreamed.

The perception of reality does not depend only on our decisions. We are not free to invent perceived reality in the same way that we are free to invent any fantasy. We must take into account the testimony of the senses and introspection.

The perception of reality can be more or less adapted to what is not dependent on us, to the external or internal reality that we have not decided.

When we suffer from psychic disorders, it is not reality alone but the perception of reality that causes pain. Since we choose our perception, we ourselves are one of the causes of our own suffering. But that does not mean that we are doomed to inflict perpetual torment on ourselves. By replacing a perception which destabilizes by one which gives balance, we can hope to cure the majority of the psychic disorders.

The interpretation of reality depends on our presuppositions. We give ourselves schemas, systems of presuppositions, which determine our expectations and our ways of perceiving. Psychic disorders are very generally caused or aggravated by early maladaptive schemas (Young 2003). Replacing inappropriate schemas with better ones is always a good therapeutic program.

Emotional troubles make us feel overwhelmed by our emotions. As we do not control their triggering we feel invaded by internal forces against which we believe we can do nothing. But it is an illusion. Emotions depend on our interpretations. By voluntarily controlling our interpretations, we can gain mastery over our emotions. Through thought, self-consciousness is powerful enough to appease or extinguish the fire of emotions.

Psychic health is always about making good use of one's self-consciousness in order to live well. We must give ourselves a good life program. No ethical thinking, no healing.

Three fundamental errors of psychoanalysis
To speak of the Oedipus complex about ordinary emotional disturbances of infancy is to turn minor problems of everyday life into tragedy. This can only aggravate the troubles. To cure psychic disorders, one must always restore the natural powers of self-consciousness. Making people believe that we are dominated by unconscious forces against which we can do nothing, or almost nothing, can only prevent healing. All natural impulses are self-protective. Natural selection does not allow life forms to evolve when they tend to self-destruction. When self-destructive tendencies appear, it is always a dysfunction of our natural tendencies, not a fatality imposed by Nature.
 * Dramatize when it is necessary to de-dramatize.
 * Denigrate the power of self-consciousness.
 * Postulate the existence of natural self-destructive impulses.

Forgiveness
When we do not know how to forgive, we cannot regain our calm before having revenged ourselves, we can no longer appreciate life, we make ourselves incapable of enjoying the present moment and loving, we condemn ourselves to suffering, we become mad with anger and rage. We then feel revenge as a necessity, to restore our ability to appreciate life. When we do not know how to forgive, the first annoyance that arises is enough to make us incapable of living well.

Revenge is one of the major causes of crimes.

We do not forgive only for the good of those to whom we forgive but also for our own good, to keep our balance, so as not to be eaten away by hatred and criminal tendencies.

The effectiveness of prayer
Those who do not know prayer believe that it is based on superstition: as if there was a good Lord who was going to grant our wishes, as if we believed in Santa Claus.

Prayer can be very effective because it is a way of acting on oneself. By praying we come to endure what would otherwise be unbearable, and it is not necessary for that to believe in Santa Claus. A rationalist believer does not renounce reason when he prays because he is not asking for the impossible. Saying "Lord, help me not to sink" helps not to sink. Prayer is a way to restore inner balance.

Faith can heal psychic disorders. It is a natural psychological effect. For believers, faith is a gift from God, and natural effects are part of divine wisdom.

A psychology which does not understand the meaning of prayer is necessarily bad psychology, because it ignores fundamental truths about the nature of the spirit.


text:
How to Ace FYLSE/June 2019 Exam

Fact Summary
A wanted to hire S for a job and asked B to do a background check on S. B didn't know S but read about a convict named S so B told A that S was a convict. S was turned down and A told S that A believed him to be a convict. S got angry and got into a fight with D resulting in S's car being damaged by D.

Interrogatories

 * 1) S v. B (defamation)
 * 2) S v. D (intentional torts)

DEFAMATION
1. False and Defamatory Statement 2. Of or About the Plaintiff 3. Publication 4. Damages - Constitutional Issues: Private Person in a Private Matter; - Bob Acted Negligently 5. Defenses (항변) - Truth - Consent - Qualified Privilege

IIED
Defenses - Duress

Fact Summary
N drafted a contract stating that Nate will provide lawn care services to Ed for five years, with the full amount to be paid in advance, at the time the contract is signed. Nate intended the amount to be for $100 per month, for a total of $6,000 due in advance. N made a mistake in the price. The contract contained a final merger clause.

Interrogatories

 * 1) N v. E

Valid Contract

 * 1) Offer
 * 2) Acceptance
 * 3) Consideration
 * 4) Statute of Frauds
 * 5) Parol Evidence
 * 6) Mistake
 * 7) Misrepresentation
 * 8) Incapacity
 * 9) Duress
 * 10) Anticipatory Repudiation
 * 11) Damages / Conclusion

Fact Summary
A planned to C's house to take two paintings and sell them. A told B of her plan and offered to pay him a part of the proceeds if B gave her a ride and helped her load the paintings into his van. B said he needed to think it over. Shortly after sunset on Saturday night, Ben picked Ava up and they drove in his van to Claire’s house. Ava used a copy she had made of a key that Claire had given her to open the locked front door. Claire was sick with the flu and had decided not to go to her book club meeting. Claire walked into her living room just as Ava and Ben were taking down the first painting. Claire suffered from a serious heart condition. Claire screamed when she saw Ava and Ben, had a heart attack, collapsed, and died. Ben, not realizing that Claire had died, told Ava that he was through doing jobs with her and used his cell phone to call an ambulance. After Ben hung up the phone, Ava ran out without the paintings, but saw Claire’s diamond watch on a table, grabbed it, and took it with her as she fled.

Interrogatories

 * 1) People v. B

CONSPIRACY
PINKERTON RULE ACCOMPLICE ASSAULT COMMON LAW BURGLARY MODERN BURGLARY ATTEMPTED LARCENY ATTEMPT LARCENY HOMICIDE CAUSATION ACTUAL CAUSE PROXIMATE CAUSE MURDER MALICE INTENT TO KILL INTENT TO CAUSE SERIOUS BODILY HARM DEPRAVED HEART KILLING FELONY MURDER DEGREE OF MURDER First Degree Murder/Second Degree MITIGATION INVOLUNTARY MANSLAUGHTER

DEFENSES
Withdrawal from Conspiracy

GOVERNING LAW
OFFER ACCEPTANCE CONSIDERATION ENFORCEABILITY STATUTE OF FRAUDS BREACH MINOR BREACH? WAIVER OF CONDITION MAJOR BREACH FRUSTRATION OF PURPOSE ANTICIPATORY REPUDIATION MITIGATION DAMAGES EXPECTATION DAMAGES CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES LIQUIDATED DAMAGES RELIANCE DAMAGES NOMINAL DAMAGES INCIDENTAL DAMAGES OUTCOME

title: How to Ace FYLSE/June 2019 Exam


text: How to Ace FYLSE/June 2017 Exam

title: How to Ace FYLSE/June 2017 Exam


text:
User talk:Movbe

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title: User talk:Movbe


text:
User:Alandmanson

Using Wikibooks/Starting a New Book Example of an Annotated Bibliography

https://www.archive.org

Crop production in KwaZulu-Natal (Wikiversity)

title: User:Alandmanson