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Micronations/List of already existing micronations/Nation of Celestial Space

The Nation of Celestial Space (also known as Celestia) is a micronation created by Evergreen Park, Illinois, resident James Thomas Mangan. Celestia comprised the entirety of "outer space", which Mangan laid claim to on behalf of humanity to ensure that no one country might establish a political hegemony there. As "Founder and First Representative", he registered this acquisition with the Recorder of Deeds and Titles of Cook County on January 1, 1949. At its foundation Celestia claimed to have 19 members, among them Mangan's daughter Ruth; a decade later a booklet published by the group claimed that membership had grown to 19,057.

Mangan was active for many years in pursuing his claims on behalf of Celestia; in 1949 he notified the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom and United Nations that Celestia had banned all further atmospheric nuclear tests. Later, as the space race got underway in earnest he sent angry letters of protest to the leaders of the Soviet Union and United States on the occasions that their early space flights encroached upon his "territory" - although he later waived these proscriptions to allow for satellite launches by the latter.

While Mangan and Celestia were politely ignored by the superpowers, there is evidence that at least some others were prepared to entertain his claims with a greater degree of seriousness; the first unfurling of the Celestian flag - featuring a blue sharp symbol within a white disc against a blue field - was broadcast in June 1958 to a television audience of millions across the U.S., and the following day the flag was raised at the United Nations building in New York City, to fly alongside those of the member nations of that organisation.

Despite these efforts, the Nation of Celestial Space is thought to have become defunct with the death of its founder. Its only surviving legacy is the series of stamps and silver and gold coins and passports issued in its name by Mangan from the late 1950s through to the mid-1960s.

Some of the coins minted by Celestia included a silver "1 Joule" of 4.15 grams (.925 silver) and a gold "1 Celeston" of 2.20 grams (.900 gold). Their scarcity ensures that they sell for many hundreds of dollars apiece on the rare occasions they come to market.

James Thomas Mangan's descendants include his son, James C. Mangan (deceased), his daughter Ruth Mangan Stump, "Princess of the Nation of Celestial Space", and three grandsons, Glen Stump, "Duke of Mars", Dean Stump, "Duke of Selenia", and Todd Stump, "Duke of the Milky Way".

Declaration
The Declaration by the Nation of Celestial Space was issued by Celestia on December 21, 1948. It proclaims to establish the nation to "secure for sympathetic people, wherever they may live, the beauties and benefits of a vast domain yet unclaimed by any state or nation." The document goes on to explain the nature of Celestia's claim.


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Micronations/List of past micronations/Freetown Christiania

Christiania, also known as Freetown Christiania is a self-proclaimed autonomous neighbourhood of about 850 residents, covering 34 ha in the borough of Christianshavn in the Danish capital Copenhagen. Civic authorities in Copenhagen regard Christiania as a large commune, but the area has a unique status in that it is regulated by a special law, the Christiania Law of 1989, which transfers parts of the supervision of the area from the municipality of Copenhagen to the state. It was closed by residents in April 2011, whilst discussions continued with the Danish government as to its future, but is now open again.

Christiania has been a source of controversy since its creation in a squatted military area in 1971. Its cannabis trade was tolerated by authorities until 2004. Since then, measures for normalising the legal status of the community have led to conflicts, police raids and negotiations which are ongoing.

Among many Christiania residents, the community is known as "staden" ("the town"), short for "fristaden" ("the freetown").

Barracks and ramparts

The area of Christiania consists of the former military barracks of Bådsmandsstræde and parts of the city ramparts. The ramparts and the borough of Christianshavn (then a separate city) were established in 1617 by King Christian IV by reclaiming the low beaches and islets between Copenhagen and Amager. After the siege of Copenhagen during wars with Sweden, the ramparts were reinforced during 1682 to 1692 under Christian V to form a complete defence ring. The western ramparts of Copenhagen were demolished during the 19th century, but those of Christianshavn were allowed to remain. They are today considered among the finest surviving 17th century defence works in the world.

The barracks of Bådsmandsstræde (Bådsmandsstrædes Kaserne) housed the Royal Artillery Regiment, the Army Materiel Command and ammunition laboratories and depots. Less used after World War II, the barracks were abandoned during 1967 to 1971.

The adjacent area to the north, Holmen, was Denmark's main naval base until the 1990s. It is an area in development, home to the new Copenhagen Opera House (not to be confused with the first and still existing venue called "Operaen", a concert venue in Christiania) and schools. An area further north is still used by the navy, but open to the public during daytime.

The outermost defence line, Enveloppen, has been renamed Dyssen in Christiania language (except for the southernmost tip of it which was not annexed by Christiania). It is connected to central Christiania by a bridge across the main moat or can be reached by the path beginning at Christmas Møllers Plads. Four gunpowder storehouses line the redans. They were built 1779-80 to replace a storage in central Copenhagen, at Østerport, which blasted infamously in 1770, killing 50 people. The buildings are renamed Aircondition, Autogena, Fakirskolen (The Fakir School) and Kosmiske Blomst (Cosmic Flower) and have, although protected, been slightly altered from their historical state. The last Danish execution site, active from 1946 to 1950, can still be seen on the Second Redan close to the building called Aircondition. The wooden execution shed is gone, but the concrete foundation and a drain for the blood remain just next to the path. In total, 29 World War II criminals were executed on the site. The last was Ib Birkedal, a high-level Danish Gestapo collaborator, on 20 July 1950.

Building and area protection
In 2007, the National Heritage Agency proposed protection status for some of the ancient military buildings, now in Christiania. These are:
 * Den grå hal ('The grey hall'), formerly a riding house with a unique Bohlendach roof construction, now Christiania's largest concert venue
 * Den grønne hal ('The green hall'), originally a smaller riding house
 * Mælkebøtten ('The dandelion')
 * The Commander's house, a half-timbered building
 * The 17th and 18th century powder magazines on the bastions.

Some of the historic buildings have been altered somewhat after Christiania's takeover.

Founding of Christiania
After the military moved out, the area was only guarded by a few watchmen and there was sporadic trespassing of homeless people using the empty buildings. On 4 September 1971, inhabitants of the surrounding neighbourhood broke down the fence to take over parts of the unused area as a playground for their children.

Although the takeover was not necessarily organised in the beginning, some claim this happened as a protest against the Danish government. At the time there was a lack of affordable housing in Copenhagen.

On 26 September 1971, Christiania was declared open by Jacob Ludvigsen, a well-known provo and journalist who published a magazine called Hovedbladet ('The main paper'), which was intended for and successfully distributed to mostly young people. In the paper, Ludvigsen wrote an article in which he and five others went on exploration into what he termed 'The Forbidden City of the Military'. The article widely announced the proclamation of the free town, and among other things he wrote the following under the headline Civilians conquered the 'forbidden city' of the military: "Christiania is the land of the settlers. It is the so far biggest opportunity to build up a society from scratch - while nevertheless still incorporating the remaining constructions. Own electricity plant, a bath-house, a giant athletics building, where all the seekers of peace could have their grand meditation - and yoga center. Halls where theater groups can feel at home. Buildings for the stoners who are too paranoid and weak to participate in the race...Yes for those who feel the beating of the pioneer heart there can be no doubt as to the purpose of Christiania. It is the part of the city which has been kept secret to us - but no more."

Ludvigsen was co-author of Christiania's mission statement, dating from 1971, which offers the following: "The objective of Christiania is to create a self-governing society whereby each and every individual holds themselves responsible over the wellbeing of the entire community. Our society is to be economically self-sustaining and, as such, our aspiration is to be steadfast in our conviction that psychological and physical destitution can be averted."

The spirit of Christiania quickly developed into one of the hippie movement, the squatter movement, collectivism and anarchism, in contrast to the site's previous military use.

The 1976 protest song I kan ikke slå os ihjel (translated: "You cannot kill us"), written by Tom Lunden of flower power rock group Bifrost, became the unofficial anthem of Christiania.

The community
Meditation and yoga have always been popular among the Christianites, and for many years Christiania had their own internationally acclaimed theater group Solvognen, who, beyond their theater performances, also staged many happenings in Copenhagen and even throughout Sweden. Ludvigsen had always talked of the acceptance of drug-addicts who could no longer cope with regular society, and the spirit of that belief has still not diminished, even though many problems sprouted due to drug traffic and use (mostly of 'hard drugs', however, which are not tolerated in Christiania). These addicts enter and remain in Christiania and are considered just as integral to the Freetown ethics as the entrepreneurs. For this reason many Danes have seen Christiania as a successful social experiment. However, for years the legal status of the region has been in a limbo due to different Danish governments attempting to remove the Christianites. Such attempts at removal have all been unsuccessful so far.

Christiania is considered to be the fourth largest tourist attractions in Copenhagen (and it has half a million visitors annually); and abroad it is a well-known "brand" for the supposedly progressive and liberated Danish lifestyle. Many Danish businesses and organizations also use Christiania as a show place for their foreign friends and guests. The purpose is to show something Danish that cannot be found anywhere else in the world.

Among the local users are many social security recipients, pensioners, immigrants and clients from social institutions. Single mothers also visit here, not to mention the many homeless and jobless young people. Greenlanders, street people and vagabonds, all find a sanctuary here. But many other people such as students, musicians, artists, intellectuals and academics visit the Freetown often.

In Christiania the creative and recreational values are found in rich measure. In fact, the green ramparts of Christiania appear much more recreational and attractive to visitors than the well kept, deserted areas under the care of municipal Copenhagen. Many people, however, abstain from exploring and using Christiania, simply because they cannot find their way around.

The people in Christiania have developed their own set of rules, independent of the Danish government. The rules forbid stealing, violence, guns, knives, bulletproof vests, hard drugs and bikers' colors.

Famous for its main drag, known as Pusher Street, where hash and skunk weed were sold openly from permanent stands until 2004, it nevertheless does have rules forbidding 'hard drugs', such as cocaine, amphetamine, ecstasy and heroin. The hash commerce is controversial, but since the rules require a consensus they cannot be removed unless everybody agrees. Legalization of cannabis is one of the ideas of many of the citizens in Christiania. The region negotiated an arrangement with the Danish defence ministry (which still owns the land) in 1995. Since 1994, residents have paid taxes and fees for water, electricity, trash disposal, etc.

After bitter negotiations that temporarily resulted in the area being sealed off to the public, in June 2011, the residents of Christiania agreed to collectively set up a fund to formally purchase the land at below market prices. The community made its first payment in July 2012, officially becoming legal landowners.

The flag
The flag of Christiania is a red banner with three yellow discs representing the dots in the "i"s in "Christiania". The colours were supposedly chosen because when the original squatters took over the former military base, they reportedly found a large amount of red and yellow paint.

Riots over demolition of house
On May 14, 2007, workers from the governmental Forest and Nature Agency, accompanied by police, entered Christiania to demolish leftovers of the small, abandoned building of Cigarkassen ('the cigar box'). They were met by angry and frightened Christianites, fearing that the police also intended to demolish other houses. Road blocks were built and trucks transporting what was left of the house were sabotaged, so that they could not move. The police then entered the Freetown on a massive scale and were met by resistance. Residents threw stones and shot fireworks at police vehicles. They also built barricades in the street outside Christiania's gate. The police used tear gas on the residents and a number of arrests were made. One activist sneaked behind the police commander and poured a bucket of urine and faeces upon him. Later, the police force retreated from Christiania. As youths barricaded the entrances to Christiania and bombarded the police with stones and Molotov cocktails, the trouble continued into the early morning hours. After several failed attempts to storm the barricades, the police retreated and ultimately gave up. In all, over 50 activists from both Christiania and outside were arrested. Prosecutors are demanding they be imprisoned on the basis that they might otherwise participate in further disturbances in Copenhagen (which prosecutors claim is "in a state of rebellion.")

2005 shooting and murder
On April 24, 2005, a 26-year-old Christiania resident was killed and three other residents injured in a violent gang assault on Pusher Street. The reason for this was a feud over the cannabis market of Copenhagen.

After the open cannabis trade was ended in Christiania the year before, criminal circles outside Christiania were eager to take over the market. Those responsible for the shooting were one such gang, primarily of immigrants residing in Nørrebro, a northwestern borough of the city. They had repeatedly asked the Christiania pushers to allow them on their market and had repeatedly been turned down. On April 23, 2005, this stalemate escalated violently. The pushers of Christiania discovered that a member of the outside gang had infiltrated their organisation by dating a female pusher. He was exposed and just barely escaped - two shots were fired at him. The next day two cars pulled up outside Christiania and 6–8 masked men with automatic weapons got out and headed for Pusher Street. When they arrived they fired at least 35 rounds indiscriminately toward the crowd, killing one Christianite and injuring three others.

Some saw this tragic incident as a sign that the future survival of the community was dubious due to the risk of violence stemming from the cannabis market. Others blamed the incident on the fragmentation of the Copenhagen cannabis market and its expansion to the rest of the city, brought about by the measures of the Anders Fogh Rasmussen government.

Cars
Within Christiania itself no private cars are allowed. However, a total of 132 cars are owned by residents and need to be parked on the streets surrounding the Freetown. After negotiating with city authorities, Christiania has agreed to establish parking areas for residents' own cars on its territory. As of 2005, parking space for only 14 cars had been established within the area.

Before the city council elections of November 2001, residents in one of Christiania's sections proposed a municipal kindergarten just outside Christiania should be torn down and moved some hundred meters away, the area being turned into a parking lot. The proposal was criticised by other Christiania residents and citizens in the borough, but proponents claimed the wooden kindergarten buildings were outdated anyway and the parking space issue needed to be solved before Christiania itself would turn into an area where cars were widely parked. It has also been claimed that taxis and police vehicles add to the traffic problems.

As of 2008 Christiania established a road block robot in the vehicle entrance of Christiania next to The Gray Hall (Grå Hal) to prevent cannabis customers and other visitors from driving into Christiania and park their cars in its narrow streets. Only cargo transport is allowed through these gates. A downside to this was that it moved the problem to another part of Christiania further up the road where the residents now have blocked this entrance entirely until another road block robot will be installed. There are very few entrances to Christiania. With the two entrances blocked by road block robots the Christianites believe they can rid themselves from the problem of harassing traffic.

Gay House
Since the 1970s, the Gay House (Bøssehuset), one of Christiania's autonomous institutions, had been a center for gay activism, parties and theatre. The humorous and artistically high-ranking variety-style shows still have fame among Copenhagen homosexuals.

In 2002, a group of young gay performers and activists, Dunst, were invited to take over the house so it could remain a center for gay activity. Dunst introduced democratic management and established open workshops for photography, art, music, dance, video etc. They also arranged three 'Save Christiania' nights, a cabaret show and three support parties in order to be able to pay down some of the Gay House's debt to Christiania. According to Dunst, however, neighbours would never readily accept them and the newcomers were accused of not understanding "the Christiania lifestyle". Dunst claimed they received verbal abuse, threatening letters, and even in one instance, had a baseball bat brandished against them. Some disliked Dunst's loud parties and their contemporary electro-punk style music being described as techno. After 9 months, they were asked to leave Christiania.

In 2004, Dunst participated in 'Christiania Distortion', an event supportive of Christiania. As they could not make use of the Gay House, Dunst's part of the event took place in a bus circling around Christiania.

Grenade attack
On 24 April 2009, a 22-year-old man had his jaw blown off by a hand grenade thrown into the crowds seated at Cafe Nemoland. Four or five others had minor back and leg injuries. A perpetrator has not been found.

Drugs
Since its opening, Christiania has been famous for its open cannabis trade, taking place in the aptly named and centrally located 'Pusher Street', although named 'Green Light District' by the Christianian council. Although the hash trade is illegal, authorities were for many years reluctant to forcibly stop it. Proponents thought that concentrating the hash trade at one place would limit its dispersion in society, and that it could prevent users from switching to 'harder drugs'. Some wanted to legalize hash altogether. Opponents thought the ban should be enforced, in Christiania as elsewhere, and that there should be no differentiation between 'soft' and 'hard' drugs. It has also been claimed that the open cannabis trade was one of Copenhagen's major tourist attractions, while some said it scared other potential tourists away. Even though the police have attempted to stop the drug trade, the cannabis market is still thriving in Christiania.

Eviction of 'hard drugs'
One of the most significant community accomplishments in the history of Christiania was the 'junk blockade' in November 1979. The government was still very hostile but the community faced other acute challenges as well. Many Christiania residents were interested in mind-altering techniques, including psychotropic substances. During the late 1970s 'hard drugs' such as heroin were considered permissible, but this had grave consequences. In one year, from 1978 to 1979, ten people had died in Christiania from drug overdose; four of them were residents there. Most of them lived in a building called 'The Arc of Peace', which was in an extreme level of disrepair. Doors were missing, there were holes in the floors, and in most rooms there was no furniture except mattresses. One floor was overrun by a feral cat colony. It was a terribly unhealthy environment and the Christianites became increasingly aware that the situation could not continue.

An attempt was made to cooperate with the police in order to get rid of the heroin pushers, which was something many Christianites felt extremely uncomfortable about due to their anarchical tradition and the continuous clashes between Christiania and the police. Despite the shared feelings of distrust, however, some Christianites felt there was no other way to address the problem, and supplied the police with a list of suspected 'hard drug' users. The intention of the Christianites' decision was made very clear: police were to concentrate only on 'hard drugs'. This did not happen, and instead the police ignored the Christianites' requests and made a large crackdown only on the hash network, conspicuously leaving the heroin ring untouched.

The police gave the names of "cooperating Christianites" to the hash dealers, and they had to leave Christiania for fear of reprisals.

Feeling betrayed and bitter the Christianites decided not to cooperate any further with the authorities, and instead launched what was to be known as the Junk Blockade. For 40 days and nights the Christianites—men, women, and children—patrolled 'The Arc of Peace' and whenever they found junkies or pushers they gave them an ultimatum: either quit all activities with hard drugs or leave Christiania. In the end, the pushers were forced to leave, and sixty people entered drug rehabilitation.

It is part of the Christiania mythology that there are no 'hard drugs' consumed in Christiania anymore, but cocaine and speed are found to be carried and/or purchased among more and more visitors. They are still not being sold in Pusher Street, though. The use of cocaine, amphetamines, and other substances has been on the rise for the past decade and is a problem all over Denmark. It does affect Christiania as well, but the ban on hard drugs is still guiding the recreational activities in the community. People in Christiania deal with it frequently but are still willing to keep the community open and their values intact.

Biker gang eviction
Around 1984 a Copenhagen-resident biker gang called Bullshit arrived in Christiania and took control of a part of the cannabis market. Violence in the neighbourhood increased and many Christianites felt unsafe and unhappy with the new residents. This resulted in sabotage acts directed towards the bikers as well as the publication of several provocative manuscripts urging the Christianites to throw out the powerful and armed bikers. This tension culminated when the police found a murdered individual who had been sliced to pieces and buried beneath the floor of a building. Christiania reacted with two colossal community meetings—one outside the building—where it was agreed that the bikers had to leave.

The Hells Angels recently had established themselves in Copenhagen and the leaders of Bullshit were murdered in a war over the drug trade in Copenhagen including Christiania.

A biker war between the Hells Angels and rival gangs over the drug trade continued in Copenhagen from the murder of the leader of Bullshit, 'Makrellen', who controlled the cannabis trade in Christiania, through to 1996.

Action against open drug selling
Since its opening in 1971, the open drug trade of Christiania was a thorn in the side of Danish authorities, a constant source of public discussion, and led to protests from neighbouring countries as well (especially Sweden with its no-tolerance drug policy). When the centre-right cabinet of Anders Fogh Rasmussen took office in 2001, one of its promises was to end illegal activities at Christiania. These were, including the obvious cannabis market, a long list of alleged criminal activities; the politicians demanded the end of 'hard drugs' sales, such as cocaine and amphetamines, weapons trade, dealing with contraband etc. The Christiania residents claim them to be purely speculative accusations and that they are obviously based upon sinister rumors and political spin to take the focus away from the real meaning of the Freetown. It is observed to be another weapon in the government's fight against the community and the "normalization" of the area. It is a common left-wing observation that by emphasizing the most illegal part of the Freetown (the Cannabis trade) and associating it with the local bikers, street gangs and other groups of criminal intent, the basis of the community becomes more confusing to the public, causing sympathy for the Freetown to drop. As of 2010 this tactic has not scared the tourists away.

In 2002, the government began aiming to make the cannabis trade less visible. In response, the cannabis sellers covered their stands in military camouflage nets as a humorous reply. On January 4, 2004, the stands were finally demolished by the cannabis dealers the day before a large scale police operation. They knew about this operation, and decided to take the stands down themselves. The police made more than twenty arrests in the following weeks, and a large part of the organised dealer network of Pusher Street was then eliminated. Before they were demolished, the National Museum of Denmark was able to get one of the more colourful stands, which is now part of an exhibit.

On March 16, 2004, police raided the area. Allegedly, many dealers started to move huge amounts of cannabis out into Copenhagen and the rest of the country instead. This was done in order to avoid the heavy police-presence in Christiania and to meet the demand for cannabis by customers. According to both police and other sources the number of marijuana clubs in Copenhagen grew rapidly to at least five times as many as before the police crackdown on Pusher Street, and in these clubs the sale of hash was mixed with other drugs such as amphetamine, cocaine, ecstasy and GHB. Especially in the northwestern part of the city (Nørrebro and the Nordvest borough) many clubs arrived and were controlled by armed gangs who had long tried to enter the cannabis sales in Christiania. The gang responsible for the shootings of 2005 was one of these. See above: 2005 shooting and murder

The open cannabis trade has since returned to the way it was before the 2004 raids.

Further developments
The open cannabis trade in Christiania has been hailed by some Danes and seen as a source of constant annoyance by others. The center-right government took a number of steps to enforce the law in Christiania. The first step in this process was a police crackdown on the cannabis trade. Both politicians and police declared that the cannabis trade would not be allowed to return. The second (and currently ongoing) phase is the registration of all buildings in Christiania. The third step will be the demolition of a number of wooden private residences situated in a nature conservation area (the historic naval fortress of Copenhagen). These buildings had all been approved by the authorities before the new government passed the current law on Christiania. For the last 15 years the government has not allowed construction in Christiania. This is now being enforced on a zero-tolerance policy with the help of a massive police presence. This is regarded by Christiania community as a government strategy to undermine the collective self-government of Christiania. They believe the government is planning to sell out building rights to private enterprises, in an attempt to force the freetown to accept the paradigm of private ownership and market capitalization of private property. The 900 or so inhabitants of Christiania have staked a claim for collective rights of use to all of Christiania, but this has been ignored by the government.

Governmental normalisation measures
In 2004, the Danish government passed a law abolishing the collective and treating its 900 members as individuals. Beginning in the summer of 2005, a series of protests were staged by Christiania members. During the same time, Danish police have made frequent sweeps of the area.

The Christiania Café Månefiskeren set up a board recording the number of police patrols on Christiania in November 2005. In the summer of 2006 this passed the 1000th patrol (about 4–6 patrols a day). These patrols normally consisted of 6 to 20 police officers, often dressed in combat uniform and sometimes with police dogs.

This has, however, not affected the street prices of cannabis in- or out-side of Christiania. There has been no notable change in the rate of "regular crime" in the area.

In January 2006, the government proposed that Christiania would be turned into a mixed alternative community and residential area adding condominiums for 400 new residents. Current residents, now paying DKK 1450 (USD 250) per month, would be allowed to remain but need to begin paying normal rent for the facilities, albeit below market rent levels. Christiania has rejected this scenario, fearing the freetown would turn into a normal Copenhagen neighbourhood. In particular, the concept of privately owned dwellings is claimed to be incompatible with Christiania's collective ownership.

In September 2007, the representatives of Christiania and Copenhagen's city council reached an agreement to cede control of Christiania to the city over the course of 10 years for the purposes of business development. Also, as of May 2009, the Eastern High Court upheld a 2004 Act of Parliament which reaffirmed the state's legal claim to control of the base.

Quotes from politicians
"Christiania is a dwelling for people who wish to live in a different manner... But it is crucial that varied ownership-models are introduced, so that there will be both private and partially owned houses."

- Christian Wedell-Neergaard, the Christiania-spokesperson for the governing Conservative Party

"(Christiania's) demand that there be a collective fund is not fair, It doesn't meet the wish for a normalization. We (the government) have emphasized that there should be varied ownership-models, such as private ownership ... it is natural that there are also privately owned buildings in an area like Christiania... Because it is the case for the surrounding society in general, that there are variety in the ownership."

- Christian Wedell-Neergaard

"It’s a question of principle, whether a group of people should be allowed to occupy a large part of government property in central Copenhagen. There’s no question that what they’ve been doing is illegal… they seized government property and have been living on it and that’s worth a lot of money now."

- Karsten Lauritzen, Member of Parliament from Danish party Venstre

The Minister of Finance from the Liberal Party (Venstre), part of the then ruling coalition, who to the question in parliament whether the new buildings at Christiania were only economically motivated, answered:

"It is a political priority that there be built new houses as suggested, to ensure a development of the Christiania-area with varied ownership-models."

- Thor Pedersen (Finance Minister and member of the Danish Liberal party Venstre)

Architectural competition
In order to present a reasonable use of area after an eventual "cleaning", the Danish government commissioned an architectural competition. 17 proposals were received, of which only eight have met the formal competition requirements. All of the proposals were rejected by the jury. The cost of the architectural competition was 850,000 Danish Kroner (113,900 EUR, 177,700 USD, 89,500 GBP).

Christiania's development plan
Christiania has countered the government's plans for normalisation with its own community driven planning proposal, which after 8 months of internal workshops and meetings gained consensus at the common meeting before being published in early 2006. Christiania's own development plan was awarded the Initiative Award of the Society for the Beautification of Copenhagen in November 2006 and the plan has received positive attention from the municipality of Copenhagen and the Agenda 21 Society for its sustainability goals and democratic process.

2004 TV feature
The political satirical TV show Den halve sandhed (The half truth) featured Christiania in its March 26, 2004 episode. As a tongue-in-cheek action, a journalist started to erect a small wooden hut in one of Christiania's open areas, claiming he assumed everyone could settle in the freetown.

Within minutes, Christiania residents arrived and told him this was totally unacceptable. The journalist was violently threatened and told to make himself scarce. Other residents, however, took the time to peacefully explain Christiania building rules (approval by the community meeting is needed for construction). Later, journalists set up a stall attempting to sell 'non-politically correct' products such as Coca-Cola, arguing this was no worse than selling cannabis to minors.

Christiana was highlighted in the Season 8 episode "The Last Free City In America" of the YouTube comedy series "Good Mythical Morning".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Micronations/List of already existing micronations/Conch Republic

The Conch Republic is a micronation declared as a tongue-in-cheek secession of the city of Key West, Florida, from the United States on April 23, 1982. It has been maintained as a tourism booster for the city. Since then, the term "Conch Republic" has been expanded to refer to "all of the Florida Keys, or, that geographic apportionment of land that falls within the legally defined boundaries of Monroe County, Florida, northward to 'Skeeter's Last Chance Saloon' in Florida City, Dade County, Florida, with Key West as the nation's capital and all territories north of Key West being referred to as 'The Northern Territories'.

While the protests that sparked the creation of the Conch Republic (and others since then) have been described by some as "tongue-in-cheek," they were motivated by frustrations over genuine concerns. The original protest event was motivated by a U.S. Border Patrol roadblock and checkpoint that greatly inconvenienced residents and tourists.

The Conch Republic celebrates Independence Day every April 23 as part of a week-long festival of activities involving numerous businesses in Key West. The organization — a "Sovereign State of Mind", seeking only to bring more "Humor, Warmth and Respect" to a world in sore need of all three according to its late Secretary General, Peter Anderson — is a key tourism booster for the area.

Pre-Invasions of 1995
In 1982, the United States Border Patrol set up a roadblock and inspection point on US 1 just north of the merger of Monroe County Road 905A/Miami-Dade County Road 905A onto US 1 (they are the only two roads connecting the Florida Keys with the mainland), in front of the Last Chance Saloon just south of Florida City. Vehicles were stopped and searched for narcotics and illegal immigrants. The Key West City Council complained repeatedly about the inconvenience for travelers to and from Key West, claiming that it hurt the Keys' important tourism industry. Eastern Air Lines, which had a hub at Miami International Airport, saw a window of opportunity when the roadblocks were established; Eastern was at the time the only airline to establish jet service to Key West International Airport, counting on travelers from Key West to Miami preferring to fly rather than to wait for police to search their vehicles.

When the City Council's complaints went unanswered by the U.S. federal government and attempts to get an injunction against the roadblock failed in court, as a form of protest Mayor Dennis Wardlow and the council declared Key West's independence on April 23, 1982. In the eyes of the council, since the U.S. federal government had set up the equivalent of a border station as if they were a foreign nation, they might as well become one. As many of the local citizens were referred to as Conchs, the nation took the name of the Conch Republic.

As part of the protest, Mayor Wardlow was proclaimed Prime Minister of the Republic, which immediately declared war against the United States (symbolically breaking a loaf of stale Cuban bread over the head of a man dressed in a naval uniform), quickly surrendered after one minute (to the man in the uniform), and applied for one billion dollars in foreign aid.

Conch Republic officials were invited to the Summit of the Americas in Miami in 1994, and Conch representatives were officially invited to 1995's Florida Jubilee.

The faux secession and the events surrounding it generated great publicity for the Keys' plight — the roadblock and inspection station were removed soon afterward. It also resulted in the creation of a new avenue of tourism for the Keys.

Invasions of 1995
On September 20, 1995, it was reported that the 478th Civil Affairs Battalion of the United States Army Reserve was to conduct a training exercise simulating an invasion of a foreign island. They were to land on Key West and conduct affairs as if the islanders were foreign. However, no one from the 478th notified Conch officials of the exercise.

Seeing another chance at publicity, Wardlow and the forces behind the 1982 Conch Republic secession mobilized the island for a full-scale war, sending the Western Union out to attack an incoming Coast Guard Cutter with water balloons, conch fritters and stale Cuban bread, to which the Coast Guard responded with their fire hoses (quickly ending the battle), and protested to the Department of Defense for arranging this exercise without consulting the City of Key West. The leaders of the 478th issued an apology the next day, saying they "in no way meant to challenge or impugn the sovereignty of the Conch Republic", and submitted to a surrender ceremony on September 22.

During the U.S. federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, as a protest, the Republic sent a flotilla of Conch Navy civilian and fire department boats to Fort Jefferson, located in Dry Tortugas National Park, to reopen it. The action was dubbed a "full scale invasion" by the Conch Republic. Inspired by efforts of the Smithsonian Institution to keep its museums open by private donations, local residents had raised private money to keep the park running (a closed park would damage the tourist-dependent local economy), but could find no one to accept the money and reopen the park.

When officials attempted to enter the monument, they were cited. When the citation was contested in court the following year, the resultant case, The United States of America v. Peter Anderson, was quickly dropped.

The annexation of Seven Mile Bridge
In yet another protest on January 13, 2006, Peter Anderson (the defendant in the Dry Tortugas case from 1995–1996) purported to annex the abandoned span of Seven Mile Bridge, which had been replaced by a parallel span in 1982. The move was in response to a recent event regarding Cuban refugees. On the previous January 4, fifteen Cuban refugees reached the bridge, but were returned to Cuba by the U.S. Border Patrol because the U.S. government had declared the bridge a "wet feet" location under the wet feet, dry feet policy. The rationale was that, since two sections of the span had been removed and it was no longer connected to land, it was not part of U.S. territory subject to the "dry feet" rule, and thus the refugees could not stay.

Anderson, seizing upon the U.S.'s apparent disavowal of the abandoned span, claimed it for the Republic. He expressed hope to use the bridge for affordable, ecologically friendly housing. In response, Russel Schweiss, spokesman for Florida governor Jeb Bush, declared "With all due respect to the Conch Republic, the bridge belongs to all the people of Florida, and we're not currently in negotiations to sell it." The refugee decision was later overturned, but only after the refugees had been returned to Cuba.

Recent history
In another protest, beginning in 2008, the northern keys including Key Largo formed a separation of the Conch Republic known as the Independent Northernmost Territories of the Conch Republic. Proponents claim this separation is a result of disagreements over the definition and use of the term 'Conch Republic'.

Souvenir passports and vehicle registration
Through their website, the Republic issues souvenir passports. These are issued as souvenirs, but some have evidently bought them in the mistaken belief they are legitimate travel and identity documents. Shortly after the September 11 attacks, FBI investigators thought that hijacker Mohamed Atta had possibly purchased a Conch Republic passport from the website. International vehicle registration code stickers can also be purchased from vendors in Key West, bearing the initials "KW" and "CR"—the country codes for Kuwait and Costa Rica, respectively.

Military
The Conch Republic actively maintains an Army, Navy, and Air Force whose primary duties are to help re-enact the Great Sea Battle of 1982 and the retaking of Fort Jefferson. The Conch Republic Navy comprises no fewer than 10 civilian boats and the Wolf (schooner) under the command of Admiral Finbar Gittelman. The Army consists of the 1st Conch Artillery, garrisoned in Fort Taylor. The Conch Republic Air Force has more than a dozen appointed aircraft in its fleet. The flagship, a 1942 Waco, was flown by Fred R. Cabanas, a legendary stunt pilot and Ambassador for the Conch Republic at air shows worldwide. He flew "Conch Fury" in the 2005 Reno Air Races. Fred was declared General of the Air Force by the mayor of Key West after intercepting a defecting Cuban MiG-23 with his Pitts Special in 1991. Following his death in January 2013, Fred was succeeded by his son, Raymond Cabanas.

In literature
Some of the action in Joe Haldeman's 1989 science fiction novel Buying Time (published in UK as The Long Habit of Living) takes place in the Conch Republic, a lawless place where assassination and other activities are perfectly legal.

Science fiction writer Spider Robinson's Callahan's Crosstime Saloon series - about an Irish bar full of time travellers, aliens and musicians - find themselves relocated to the Conch Republic in the 2000 novel Callahans Key.

In popular culture
Between 1994 and 1995, WCW wrestler Kevin Sullivan was billed and announced as someone who "now seeks sanctuary in the Conch Republic".

National anthem
In 1994, Joe and Meri-Lynn Britz wrote the National Anthem for the Conch Republic, Conch Republic. It was recorded by the Key Lime Pie band and voted on and accepted by the city of Key West City Commissioners. The song "Working in the Conch Republic" is a BMI tune and can be found on YouTube.


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User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar)/Group 1/Truth/Laws & Physics

I would argue that physics as a discipline is relatively more objective than law, due to it being a natural sciences discipline and basing its findings on experimental data rather than human judgement, however I don't think its any less "constructed". The "facts" within physics are only valid during that time and space. For example, the smallest unit of matter was thought to be atoms, and that was accepted as a "fact", however later, protons, electrons, neutrons and even quarks were discovered which replaced the "fact" about atoms. Moreover, it could be argued that physics consist of models that can evolve over time, as it was with Newton's law of gravitation and Einstein's theory of relativity. Also, mathematics is just a constructed model that is used to understand and solve physics problems. So, I would argue that although physics use experimental and scientific methods to construct its facts for that specific time and space, every model in physics is just an approximation that is accepted by scholars.Zbaykam (discuss • contribs) 22:34, 27 November 2019 (UTC)


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User:Ncanana Lindelani

Izaga(Proverbs) zesizulu

 * 1) Isala kutshelwa sibona ngomopho
 * 2) Indlu yegagu iyanetha
 * 3) Ikhotha eyikhothayo

title: User:Ncanana Lindelani


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User talk:Ncanana Lindelani

Talk about anything
Hi guys how are you? Ncanana Lindelani (discuss • contribs) 23:18, 27 November 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ncanana Lindelani


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LMIs in Control/pages/Delay Independent Time-Delay Stabilization

Stabilization of Time-Delay Systems - Delay Independent Case

Suppose, for instance, there was a system where a time-delay was introduced. In that instance, stabilization would have to be done in a different manner. The following example demonstrates how one can stabilize such a system independent of the delay.

The System
For this particular problem, suppose that we were given the time-delayed system in the form of:

\begin{align} \begin{cases} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)+A_d(t-d)+Bu(t),\\ x(t)&=\phi(t), t\in[0,d], 0 < d \leq \bar{d},\\ \end{cases} \end{align}$$

where

\begin{align} &A\, A_d\in\mathbb{R}^{n\times n}, B\in\mathbb{R}^{nxr}\text{ are the system coefficient matrices,}\\ &\phi(t)\text{ is the initial condition,}\\ &d\text{ represents the time-delay, and}\\ &\bar{d}\text{ is a known upper-bound of }d\\ \end{align}$$ Then the LMI for determining the Time-Delay System for the Delay-Independent case would be obtained as described below.

The Data
In order to obtain the LMI, we need the following 3 matrices: $$A, A_d,$$ and $$B$$.

The Optimization Problem
Suppose - for the time-delayed system given above - we were asked to design a memoryless state-feedback control law where $$u=Kx$$ such that the closed-loop system:

\begin{align} \begin{cases} \dot x(t)&=(A+BK)x(t)+A_d(t-d),\\ x(t)&=\phi(t), t\in[0,d], 0 < d \leq \bar{d},\\ \end{cases} \end{align}$$ is simultaneously both uniform and asymptotically stable, then the system would be stabilized as follows.

The LMI: The Delay-Independent Stabilization of Time-Delay Systems
From the given pieces of information, it is clear that the optimization problem only has a solution if there exists a matrix$$W\in\mathbb{R}^{r\times n}$$ and 2 symmetric matrices $$X>0$$ and $$Y>0$$ that satisfy the following:

\begin{align} \begin{bmatrix}X{A^T}+AX+BW+{W^T}{B^T}+Y&&{A_d}X\\X{A_d}^T&&-Y\end{bmatrix}&<0\\ \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Given the resulting feedback gain matrix $$K=WX^{-1}$$, it can be observed that the matrix is asymptotically stable while simultaneously ensuring that the solution is delay-independent from the time-delay system where this gain matrix was derived.

Implementation

 * Example Code - A GitHub link that contains code (titled "DelayIndependentTimeDelay.m") that demonstrates how this LMI can be implemented using MATLAB-YALMIP.

Related LMIs

 * ../Delay Dependent Time-Delay Stabilization/ - Equivalent LMI for delay-dependent time-delay stabilization.


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Talk:Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power in corporate aggregation and bundling

Hello! We are currently editing in google docs. Here is a view link https://docs.google.com/document/d/1E4f7b6moEMq4eQbVH-IzpEt1uS-UXqP1Rg8RJCc67SA/edit?usp=sharing

We will also need to change the name at some point, we think :(


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Talk:Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power in Voluntourism

 * Power def.jpg Definition of power (with the slide from the lecture). What do you think ? Iris Perigaud Grünfeld (discuss • contribs) 10:53, 28 November 2019 (UTC)

 * Great! I have made the notes into a paragraph, do feel free to edit!--Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 18:57, 29 November 2019 (UTC)

 * I love it: thank you so much ! Iris Perigaud Grünfeld (discuss • contribs) 20:16, 29 November 2019 (UTC)

 * Some ideas about the structure of the Wikibooks. The structure of the introduction, the first paragraph and the transition have been done yesterday during a group meeting.

Iris Perigaud Grünfeld (discuss • contribs) 13:14, 28 November 2019 (UTC)

Comments /thoughts/ ideas (working conversation space)[edit] I am cautious that our framework is too cut and paste ideologies- do you remember in the Royal Hotel and they were saying BE WARY OF NOT JUST DOING DISCIPLINES X,Y,Z and then conclusion? I'm not saying let's not do it, but worth being aware of being overly explicit in our discipline categorisations?

 * I know what you mean, but I think the main thing is to not just leave the article at the disciplines, it is to really delve into power as an interdisciplinary issue, which we do (though we need to cut 700 words...) I think the categorisations help with the structure of the piece. We can check with Nicola.Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 00:00, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

due to word count, I am thinking we skip anthropology all together
 * I agree --Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 00:00, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

We can use terminology 'VSAs' to refer to Volunteer Sending Agencies

Power "needing the needy"

Two questions: (I will explain them today) - how should we present the sources? - Foucault has been published in French and English, which dates should I choose ? + Cut words + interdisciplinarity paragraph Iris Perigaud Grünfeld (discuss • contribs) 08:36, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Group Meeting (3/12)

- looked through ideas and agreed to skip anthropology - improved and shorten "History" - talked about power issues in interdisciplinarity research

What we need to do: Next meetings on 4/12 and on the 6/12. -check if we used Vancouver system -read, improve and shorten when needed the different paragraphs

 * After meeting with Nicola (seminar leader), we have decided to cut philosophy in order to focus on power within each discipline and between disciplines themselves (previous version focussed to much on case study). Here is the Philosophy section cut, incase it is useful.

Philosophy : Altruism, Cultural Relativism & Narratives[edit] Voluntourism is often done with altruistic intentions as 'selfless behaviour, which benefits the welfare of others without expected favours in return'[9]. Yet this concretes the idea that the source community has valuable to give back and the voluntourists have little to gain. Cultural relativism informs us that 'cultural values and practices are usually perceived by members of a society as uniquely satisfying and superior to all other.' [10] When a group 'invades' another, albeit honourable intentions, there is a power clash; the host feels superior in their natural living space whereas the international volunteers behave empowered by their altruistic governance.

There has been a shift in paradigms from pure altruism to 'egoistic motives', or reciprocal altruism.[11] Western society has seen a need to cultivate a digital identity on social media; and provided the typical voluntourist is in adolescence/young adult, volunteering provides an opportunity to create a 'travel narrative'[12] that enriches their social desirability [13]. A recent controversy with Stacey Dooley's Instagram post [14] sparked rage at it flaunting her contributions to the vulnerable people instead of the individuals themselves. Power must be recognised in the VolunTourism phenomena for it is only permitted through affluence in affording to take time off work to travel. In crafting their own 'travel narratives', seldom do storytellers realise the power inequality they are exerting on the host community by condoning notions of 'the other'. Boundaries of "us/them, local/global, developed/developing, problem-causer/problem-solvers"[15] are further cemented. --Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 12:33, 4 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Yes, talking with Nicola I think the group has more clarity on the task at hand. We realise prior to this we were engaging with the case study through disciplinary lens, when in fact we should be addressing the issue of power in our selected disciplines through the case study as vehicle. What this means (as Lydia has shown above) is reducing to just 2 disciplines in our discussion (History and Engineering) for they epitomise power issues within their own discipline as well as interdisciplinary discussions.

Key ideas: History (voluntourism as neocolonialism) --> colonialism shaped history books as THOSE IN POWER wrote it Engineering (volutouring disregards local approaches to knowledge, opportunity to enrich western approaches to construction and create engineers of the future) --> Power in discipline is assuming large responsibilities in creating structures supporting society, dangers of not understanding the social contexts surrounding them?

Engineering(E) vs history (H) (E) -> (H) = engineering as an academic discipline provided much more funding than humanities meaning this effects research depth and knowledge pools and opportunities. not fair to students. (H) -> (E) = you sending people out there can be read as act of colonialism, seeing vulnerable people as learning opportunity to enrich western bodies of knowledge illustrating power hierarchies between disciplines

PIVITOL CONVERSATION = how has power shaped disciplinary bodies of knowledge? how does power present as an issue from monodisicplinary perspectives also?

Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)

Post Nicola Contribs.

 * Engineering section - we need to talk more about how power has shaped the discipline (wary of slipping into history?)

the lecture slides detail how 'power has shaped these disciplines and continues to influence the bodies of research' so its that notion I am trying to capture in my contributions to the intro Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)

 * Through this lens, VolunTourism is criticized: awareness of power issues is arising, with even VSO condemning it as a “a new form of colonialism”[6]. The ‘white saviour’ concept encompasses the superiority of Western countries executing their idea of development

BRILLIANT! Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)

 * local knowledge links

https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/cy/researchoutputs/taking-local-knowledge-about-trees-seriously(fdf45a7e-5025-46bd-9bb4-e4d8d61ee151).html

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/bridging/papers/joshi.laxman.pdf

http://www.kerpic.org/2008/abstracts/09_ompakash_joshi.pdf

 * Great concept. Interesting as it takes the 'power' out of academia... Definitely one for engineering, plus a great link between history and engineering. --Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 19:35, 5 December 2019 (UTC)

Suggested History edit:

History is intrinsically bias due to the power of the writer, in the case of colonialism: white Western men, with Postcolonial theory claiming that “discourse is socially constructed”[1]. The justification of colonialism, in the need of the Global South to be ‘developed’, is looked down upon, but Postcolonial theory argues that colonization has affected West-South relationships in the long-term. Historical academia have failed to exhibits complexities in the power within the relationship between the “colonizer and colonized”.

Thus, VolunTourism is criticized, with even VSO condemning it as a “a new form of colonialism”[2]. The ‘white saviour’ concept encompasses the superiority of Western countries executing their idea of development. Despite shifts in vocabulary from 'civilising' a country, to ‘developing', to 'saving' the environment and the local population, the outcome is the same[3]: western countries retain control over resources and the population, acting without consulting communities. Power inequalities are sustained through modern media coverage of the Global South: Kolkata is reduced by the media as “a city on the verge of collapse”[4] despite it also being one of the richest cities in India. Focusing on poverty induces a power heirachy between the west and south through the power of western media writing the narratives. Subsequently, this legitimises the need to help and intervene and attracts western volunteers.

Postcolonial theory aims to give voice to the subaltern. However, academia is still controlled by the west, so it could be argued that until there is no power heirachy in real life, it is impossible to truly address power hierarchies within the discipline. --Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 19:32, 5 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Live Different

Canadian charity Live Different[5], it's website asking: "have you ever wanted to learn more about how you can be a voice for those who have no voice?”[1]: it describes the Global South as "monolithic, voiceless Other”[1].

This is a great example, but I looked at their website and they have changed their name and goals since 2012 to encompass a more collaborative style (though not fully, they still have young teens building walls...), so it is not relevant to today (Though still maybe useful if we want to show the recent awareness of the detrimental effects of voluntourism? --Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 19:32, 5 December 2019 (UTC)

However, we still lack the viewpoint of hosts in academia: is postcolonial theory rewriting history from another viewpoint and stealing once more the voice of the subalterns?

 * on history note, I think perhaps this is too bold a claim ? "Postcolonial theory aims to give voice to the subaltern. However, academia is still controlled by the west, so it could be argued that until there is no power heirachy in real life, it is impossible to truly address power hierarchies within the discipline." Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)

Zoe notes on Power, L&I @ Student Centre "Each discipline fails to acknowledge useful and relevant research from other disciplines." -- brilliant Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)

 * CLASH

Each discipline has its own scale of thinking about VolunTourism; history bridges relationships with the past and engineering explores infrastructures of the present and for the future. There are many viewpoints from other disciplines, but any monodisciplyinary explanation lacks understanding of complex problems, such as voluntourism.

Power issues exist between the academic and the real-life community in which VolunTourism takes place. The aim of interdisciplinary research is to solve a problem in the real-life, but academic research struggles to take root in real-life. The cultural dominance of academia above vocational knowledge in the western world inhibits connection between theory and practice. History is often thought of as working at a theoretical level and therefore may not feel the need to communicate with a vocational subject like engineering.

There remains a lack of communication because the disciplines do not recognise the value of the other's ideas within their own. This friction between disciplines escalates into a power issue when the hierarchy of disciplines is applied. Hard, applied sciences are viewed as more reliable than the humanities: engineering is valued more highly than history due its objective methodologies in comparison to interpretivist methods. This is epitomised through financial distribution in academia whereby more funding is directed to engineering degrees than history degrees. Methodolgies: Engineering can yield visible, measurable change, whereas history has a tendency towards subjective. For these reasons, dangerous questions such as Why should engineering concern itself with history?

Power issues create resistance to holistic progression by inhibiting collaboration. Absence of communication, linked to a power hierarchy between disciplines, causes lack of progressive interdisciplinary research. Charities send western unskilled volunteers out to 'help’ on engineering projects in Global Southern countries, often without addressing historical research and influence of colonialism. Each discipline fails to acknowledge useful and relevant research from other disciplines.

Foucault said, “power and knowledge directly imply one another”. The power dynamic between the disciplines could lead to conflict and superiority if lacking communication, due to clashing interests, methods and vocabulary.

 * Old power discussion

Each discipline has its own scale of thinking about VolunTourism; history bridges relationships with the past and engineering explores infrastructures of the present and for the future. There are many viewpoints from other disciplines, but any monodisciplyinary explanation lacks understanding of complex problems, such as voluntourism, showing the necessity of interdisciplinarity. However as Foucault said, “power and knowledge directly imply one another”, which leads to resistance to holistic progression.

Absence of communication, linked to a power hierarchy between disciplines, causes lack of progressive interdisciplinary research. Charities send western unskilled volunteers out to 'help’ on engineering projects in Global Southern countries, often without addressing historical research and influence of colonialism. Thus, each discipline fails to acknowledge useful and relevant research from other disciplines.

Hard, applied sciences are viewed as more reliable than the humanities due to the clash between objective and interpretivist methodologies. Engineering can yield visible, measurable change, whereas history has a tendency towards subjective. The hierarchy is exemplified within academia as there is an economical power imbalance: more funding is directed to engineering degrees than history degrees.

Power issues exist between the academic and the real-life communities in which voluntourism takes place. The aim of interdisciplinary research is to solve a problem in the real-life, but academic research struggles to take root in real-life. The cultural dominance of academia above vocational knowledge in the western world inhibits connection between theory and practice.

I have replaced with most recent contributions Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)

 * I have taken this out of history to clarify main point and for word count:

showing a power issue facing engineering as a discipline that's status is heavily shaped by research and funding.

Similarly, universities are placing thousands of professionals and students worldwide through for short/mid-term placements through initiatives such as Engineers Without Borders. These groups aim to produce 'citizen engineers',

The case study illustrates a power issue within the discipline as often one society is designing for another which it does not have sufficient understanding about due to their economic superirority.

VolunTourism does provide life-changing international development and is beginning to see these power dynamics be addressed. --Lydia Kenny (discuss • contribs) 10:50, 6 December 2019 (UTC)


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Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power of the Unconscious in Decision Making

Introduction
The concept of the unconscious was developed in the early twentieth century by Sigmund Freud. Defined as the ‘reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories outside of our conscious awareness', he proposed that the ‘unconscious’ guides and justifies most of human behaviour.

Freud's conceptions did not achieve much conclusive support among scientists then. However, today, greater emphasis has been given to unconscious mental processes by “individuals working in different disciplines, on different problems, but linked by a common goal of wishing to elucidate the properties of the mind"

Specifically, this work focuses on the role of the unconscious in decision making, where "a preferred option or a course of actions is chosen from among a set of alternatives based on certain criteria". It discusses the power of the unconscious within Neuropsychology, Economics and Sociology; and address its implications in Law.

Overview of decision making : A complex brain process
Experiments have demonstrated that the decision-making behavior was mainly associated with the prefrontal cortex. Decision-making comprises of two processes: Evaluation and Classification. Evaluation involves a judgment based upon different options, compared to a set of normative goals. Whereas, Classification involves comparing and evaluating the possible outcomes of the available options.

There are four levels to decision-making:

The first is reached automatically, namely a recognition-primed decision; the second defines a decision based upon one’s values to prefer one option. The third incorporates long-term or contextual information, opening for emotional weight. Finally, the last level consists of unprecedented decisions, leading new options to be created.

Role of the Unconscious in Decision-making
Scientists have been led to think that choices are the result of an elaborate conscious process. However, neuropsychological studies have proven the contrary. American brain scientist, Benjamin Libet, conducted an experiment aimed at discerning the inner brain activity when one makes a decision. He discovered the so-called "readiness-potential", a brain signal occurring a fraction of a second before the decision was consciously made. Although results can be debated, this experiment challenges our perception of “free will”. From this perspective, humans’ consciousness is not responsible for making a decision, the brain is.

A Sociological Perspective
Sociologists have increasingly been arguing that 'the social world leaves enduring imprints on individuals' minds which then serve as foundations for these individuals' future actions'. Studies have emphasized the importance of social interaction in understanding the role of the unconscious in choice-making. Constructed environments and human interactions within it are two contributing social contextual factors.

Constructed Environments
Socially constructed environments include, for instance, schools and neighbourhoods. People’s choices are highly sensitive to “features of choice environments.” For example, research explored how conditions of scarcity— with regards to time, resources and energy— can mold individuals' decisions. Through vast experiments, it is shown that time pressure or poverty tends to lead to fewer humans' subconscious trade-offs. Furthermore, social norms derived from a culture within a context is another significant factor forming the unconscious part of decision-making.

The Group of "Others"
'The more similar the comparison situation is to one’s own, the more powerful the effect of others’ behavior.'. Other than the environment, the impact of 'other individuals' is also remarkable when understanding unconscious decisions. According to social categorization theory, individuals usually perceive people around as members of one’s “ingroup” (like me) and “outgroup”(not like me), and people tend to support or act like fellow members. This concept is also revealed in peer influence— individuals show they belong to a group by adopting a taste or an action. The need for a sense of belonging and social approval is the underlying cause of unconscious decision making.

Behavioral economics
While decision-making is unconsciously affected by emotions or external factors, we can perceive humans as unpredictable actors as opposed to classic economists assumption that humans are rational. Behavioral economists tend to anticipate irrational decisions by dissecting the unconscious decision making process through a psychological lens to understand the consumer's brain and thus adjust marketing strategies.

Unconscious consumption patterns
Several patterns have been highlighted by behavioral economists. According to David Brooks in The Social Animal, individuals proceed to a choice architecture before making decisions, relying on few principles. One of these principles notably illustrates that we make choices based on comparison. He also stated that ‘Every decision gets framed within a certain linguistic context’. Indeed, if the formula ‘Limited Units’ appears next to a product, the consumer is likely to buy more units than he would normally. Likewise, the environment in which we consume (odours, music...) is also highly influential. Therefore, depending on our unconscious emotional state, external factors can seriously influence if not control economic choices.

Overall, the concept of unconsciousness provides economists and market researchers with a new perspective to understand consumer behaviors, empowering them to better coordinate the market and the economy.

Implications of Unconscious Bias in Law
The concept of an unconscious bias was introduced as 'the new science of unconscious mental processes...(with) substantial bearing on discrimination law'. They are beliefs and stereotypes about certain social groups that develop outside of a person's conscious awareness explaining why people act on them without meaning to.

While fairness is striven for, implicit bias and its implications on decision-making compromises this right. As racial disparities pervade the system, discussions about bias in this context mostly surround implicit racial biases. Across studies, there is consensus that people of colored skin are victims of inequality arising from bias. For example, black defendants have a higher possibility of being treated harshly in the courtroom as opposed to their white counterparts. Similarly, juries often exhibit bias against defendants of a race different from that of the majority.

From this, we witness how the unconscious helps perpetuate cycles of inequality. Hence, the awareness and understanding of unconsciouness is fundamental to eliminating discrimination and reshaping power dynamics in our society.

Power of the Unconscious in Decision-Making as an Interdisciplinary Issue
Developments in the role of the unconscious within decision-making across disciplines have contributed to the philosophical debate around free will, where individuals are self-determined. Accepting the unconscious as the driving force of our decision making process implies that free will is an illusion. This view inevitably challenges the foundation of disciplines and their way of approaching issues. For instance, in law, presuming that free will is an illusion undermines the criminal legal system by putting into question the moral responsibility of individuals.

If we live in a society governed by the unconscious and its biases, what then are the implications for interdisciplinary research? Do experts possess unconscious biases against their counterparts from other disciplines? Do they unconsciously undermine research done by experts of a different ethnicity or gender?

In this wikibook, we have explored how the concept of the unconscious revolutionized ways of thinking across disciplines. Furthermore, we have highlighted how unconscious decision-making can perpetuate inequality in society, and potentially create barriers in interdisciplinary research.


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User:GretaMile/sandbox

Evolution is mostly defined as the change in inheritable characteristics over the course of multiple generations, which are the expression of genes passed down from the previous generations. Evolution can be influenced by multiple different factors such as mutation or natural selection due to outside factors, which in the end constitute biodiversity. Evidence for evolution comes from many different areas of biology, such as anatomy, molecular biology or biogeography. One of the most influential works discussing evolution is Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" (1859) which details the evolutionary history of animal species had has since been widely debated across a range of disciplines. Some schools still deny the existence of evolution or regard it as a theoretical case that needs to be supported by more evidence.

Types of Evidence in Evolutionary Biology Anatomy

Species may share similar physical features because the feature was present in a common ancestor (homologous structures).

Molecular biology

DNA and the genetic code reflect the shared ancestry of life. DNA comparisons can show how related species are.

Biogeography

The global distribution of organisms and the unique features of island species reflect the evolution and geological change.

Fossils

Fossils document the existence of now-extinct past species that are related to present-day species.

Direct observation

We can directly observe small-scale evolution in organisms with short lifecycles (e.g., pesticide-resistant insects).

Evidence of Common Descent File:Darwin's finches.jpg Darwin's_finches.jpg|Four of the 13 finch species found on the Island of Galapagos, displaying how adaptive radiation affected their beak shapes.

Sources: Wikipedia-Evolution, Khan Academy- Evidence for Evolution

Evidence in Criminal Cases

title: User:GretaMile/sandbox


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Talk:Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Evidence of the Vichy-Regime after World War Two

We changed our subject because this fitted the task better


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Cookbook:Palm Fruit with Syrup

Palm fruit with syrup is a Thai dessert. Thailand is a tropical country, so one must find desserts or foods that can help reduce the heat, such as palm fruit with syrup.

Ingredients

 * 1 kg palmyra palm fruit (Borassus flabellifer)
 * 500 grams white sugar
 * 6 cups water
 * 2 pandan leaves
 * Ice

Procedure

 * 1) Peel the palm fruit, and slice it.
 * 2) Put the water in a pan, add the white sugar, and let it simmer over medium heat.
 * 3) Add the palm fruit to the syrup, and heat it again.
 * 4) Add the pandan leaves to the syrup.
 * 5) Chill the fruit in syrup. Serve it cold with ice on top.

title: Cookbook:Palm Fruit with Syrup


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Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Evidence of the Vichy-Regime after World War Two

Introduction
From 1940 to 1945, the French State committed to a collaboration with Germany under the Vichy-Regime which lead to a division of beliefs in society in the post-war period. There was a lack of ‘official truth’ in France during that somber period as a result of the privatization of the main sources of evidence, such as official archives. This paper aims to study the evidence used to shape the truth in that time, and how interdisciplinary research helped set the collective memory of the French people.

Construction of the collective memory
By studying infrastructural and geographical changes one can learn about a region's history and subsequently that of its residents. Hence, the concept of evidence in geography is an important factor in the process of establishing a memory of past events. History restores and generates geographical evidence. Plaques, memorials, museums amongst other symbols built all over the country illustrate a government's aim to create a collective memory. Their geographical omnipresence or absence in the public space, shaping the landscape and the urbanism, strongly influences the psychology of people and reconstructs their memories. The territorial distribution plays a major part in this process.

To unify its post-war divided country, the French government led by De Gaulle constructed a new collective memory overemphasizing the myth of the Résistancialisme and omitting the dark sides of their history. However, most of the official museums and memorials dedicated to the resistance and deportations during WW2 appeared decades after the war as a result of the restoration of the truth. Most of them are settled in the Vichy area. Although resistance occurred there, it might be perceived as an attempt to boast its role in the region which collaborated the most. Prior to this, only a few private memorials were disseminated across the country. This absence of official museums suggests a struggle of the government to forget its past.

Museums are needed as pedagogical tools to pass on memories. Without this type of evidence, it becomes easier to erase parts of history. Evidence-based education uses evidence to identify starting points for teaching and learning. Information on past experiences from teachers are points used as evidence to establish academic curriculums.

Duty of remembrance designates a moral obligation to commemorate a tragic historical event to prevent its reoccurrence. Politics impact what evidence is taken into consideration to expand throughout education. In this case study, the duty of remembrance influences the evidence French education is based on. Consequently, pedagogy allows scholars to acquire constructed memory, thus considered as an 'official truth'.

Law and justice, presumed as a moral concept within the judiciary, approach evidence epistemologically. Validity and justification, as well as truth, are crucial elements when considering evidence in a legal sense. However, approaches to evidence in justice and the law vary distinctively with respect to different legislatures. Even if there is no consensus concerning its definition, legal evidence has to be viewed as an independent concept. It is primarily seen as a means in the process of proving a claim or accusation to be true or false. When referring to evidence in a court case, this is the most common meaning. In this particular sense, evidence can be oral in the form of testimonies, visual as in documents or physical with regard to objects. Evidence in the law has to be factual and valid.

Under the rule of the Vichy-Regime, France’s legislation changed drastically. Whilst collaborating with Germany, France’s defeat was mainly believed to be the fault of Jews and foreigners which prompted several anti-Semitic statues and xenophobic laws to be imposed. These statues led to the deportation and mass-murder of many French Jews as they were being denaturalized as citizens. Proving the Vichy-Regime’s complicity with Germany after the war was deemed difficult as there was a lack of legal evidence. The first time France admitted to being partially at fault for deportations and the genocide of WW2 was 1995 by then-president Chirac. This period of failed recognition of France's fault was crucial in shaping the collective memory, as the lack of evidence meant that living in denial was easy. Despite Vichy France’s undeniable antisemitism, they did not actively want to aid the Germans in their crimes against French Jews. Regardless, the issue itself was that they discriminated against a minority and thus singled them out, which consequently enabled the Germans even further.

Construction of the individual memory
Phenomenology uses experimental neuropsychology and philosophical qualitative research methodologies to understand how experience is lived by an individual. This discipline observes how identities evolve throughout time and how memories are recalled. Testimonies are therefore biased evidence, constantly modified in the consciousness by time and environment. Phenomenological methods include oral history, diary methods and qualitative interviews paying particular attention to individuality. Oral history allows to subjectively and realistically describe an event as lived by an individual for instance, whereas interviews supply information on the perception of concepts such as forgiveness and reconciliation. These methods are critiqued for their lack of quantitative research methods resulting in low generalizability.

Testimonies found in literature, art and documentaries are considered by many as controversial types of evidence. After WW2, testimonies and personal pieces played a crucial role in forging a collective truth and giving a voice to victims of the collaboration. Based on deeply personal experiences, artwork from this period became a persuasive and forceful testament to the effects and consequences of the Vichy-Regime. Art, literature, and film making from this period all approach evidence in a similar manner, namely by looking at the human experience and trying to convey their reality and emotions. However, evidence expressed in these forms is considered subjective and deemed inferior or unviable by other disciplines, such as justice and sciences, which require empirical data. Whilst this vast body of artistic expression is a testament to experiences of the collaboration, it is not considered sufficiently factual or objective by all disciplines. In the field of psychology, it is increasingly accepted that expressing lived phenomena through art fosters psychological resilience. This can allow one to uncover truthful events. For example, a long investigation consisting of survivors describing their different coping processes was conducted. These documentaries were often censored by the government. The movie "The Sorrow and the Pity” by Marcel Ophuls which described the life of the French during the occupation and showed that they were actually very few to resist, for instance, was censored until 1981.

Conclusion
Regardless of Vichy France’s collaboration with Nazi Germany and thus its liability for many crimes, deportations, and murders, committed during that period, it seemed rather difficult to find evidence of any misconduct. Through interdisciplinary research, encompassing evidence in law, art, geography, and education, the truth was finally established and France's malpractice during the collaboration was acknowledged. This illustrates the value of interdisciplinary methods. They help to understand complex problems and gain an adequate understanding of issues, often englobing different disciplines. The importance of variability in approaches to knowledge is considerable in terms of taking all aspects and perspectives into account and thus in finding an adequate and more truthful response.


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Micronations/List of past micronations/Sultanate of M'Simbati

The Sultanate of M'Simbati was a now defunct micronation founded in 1959 in Tanganyika by Englishman Latham Leslie Moore, approximately 40 km southeast of Mtwara.

Life events of Latham Leslie-Moore
Latham Leslie-Moore was born in Paddington, London, United Kingdom in 1893, died in 1980 and was buried in the Old Soldiers' Cemetery in Nanyuki, Kenya. During World War I, he served as a second lieutenant and then lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery. Moore purchased the physical property of the sultanate in 1924.

Formation of the nation
In 1959 the country of Tanganyika was a colony of the United Kingdom— Leslie-Moore purchased an island/ peninsula and corresponded with the colonial governors of the colony declaring his succession and asking for formal recognition of his sultanate. When Tanganyika later merged with the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba to form modern day Tanzania, Leslie-Moore also corresponded with the nation's new president, Julius Nyerere, requesting recognition of his state, as well as to the United Nations. None of these requests was ever honored, however.

Flag
The flag was loosely based upon other contemporary traditional British Empire flags containing a tricolor of orange, blue and green with a Union flag in the canton.

In popular culture
Moore and the sultanate were featured in a 1983 book NO MAN'S LAND. The Last of White Africa. By John Heminway.

The Sultanate was also featured in the book Colours of the Fleet, by Malcolm Farrow, OBE, which strived to provide a compendium of all known instances of flags based on British designs.


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LMIs in Control/pages/Hinfinityoptimalfilter

Optimal filtering is a means of adaptive extraction of a weak desired signal in the presence of noise and interfering signals. The goal of optimal filtering is to design a filter that acts on the output $$ z $$ of the generalized plant and optimizes the transfer matrix from w to the filtered output.

The System:
Consider the continuous-time generalized LTI plant with minimal states-space realization

\begin{align} \dot x &=Ax + B_1w\\ z &=C_1x + D_{11}w,\\ y &=C_2x + D_{21}w, \end{align}$$

where it is assumed that $$ A $$ is Hurwitz.

The Data
The matrices needed as inputs are $$ A, B_1, C_2, C_1, ,D_{11},D_{21} $$.

The Optimization Problem:
An $$ H\infin $$-optimal filter is designed to minimize the $$ H_\infin$$ norm of $$ \tilde{P}(s) $$ in following equation.

\begin{align} \tilde{P}(s) = \tilde{C}_1 (sI - \tilde{A})^-1 \tilde{B}_1 + \tilde{D}_{11},\\ \text{where} \\ \tilde{A} = \begin{bmatrix} A && 0\\ B_fC_2 && A_f\end{bmatrix}&<0\\ \tilde{B}_1 = \begin{bmatrix} B_1\\ B_fD_{21}\end{bmatrix}&<0\\ \tilde{C}_1 = \begin{bmatrix} C_1-D_fC_2 -C_f\end{bmatrix}&<0\\ \tilde{D}_{11} = D_{11}-D_fD_{21}\\ \end{align} $$

The LMI: $$ H_\infin $$- Optimal filter
Solve for $$ A_n \in \mathbb{R}^{n_x \times n_x}, B_n \in \mathbb{R}^{n_x \times n_y}, C_f \in \mathbb{R}^{n_x \times n_x} $$, $$ X,Y \in \mathbb{S}^{n_x}$$ and $$ \nu \in \mathbb{R}_{>0} $$ that minimize $$ \zeta(\nu) =\nu $$ subject to $$ X >0, Y >0 $$.

\begin{align}

\begin{bmatrix} YA + A^TY+B_nC_2 && A_n+C_2^TB_n^T+A^TX && YB_1+B_nD_{21} && {C_1}^T-{C_2}^T{D_f}^T\\ \star && A_n+A_n^T && XB_1+B_nD_{21} && -{C_f}^T\\ \star && \star && -\gamma I && {D_11}^T-{D_21}^T{D_f}^T\\ \star && \star && \star && -\gamma I \end{bmatrix}&<0\\ \\ Y-X >0 \\ \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
The filter is recovered by $$ A_f=X^{-1}A_n $$ and $$ B_f=X^{-1}B_n $$.

Implementation

 * https://github.com/Ricky-10/coding107/blob/master/Hinfinity%20Optimal%20filter- $$ H\infin $$- Optimal Filter


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LMIs in Control/pages/H2Optimalobserver

State observer is a system that provides estimates of internal states of a given real system, from measurements of the inputs and outputs of the real system.The goal of $$ H_2$$ -optimal state estimation is to design an observer that minimizes the $$ H_2 $$ norm of the closed-loop transfer matrix from w to z. Kalman filter is a form of Optimal Observer.

The System
Consider the continuous-time generalized plant $$ P $$ with state-space realization

\begin{align} \dot x&=Ax+B_1w(t),\\ y&=C_2x+D_{21}w\\ \end{align}$$

The Data
The matrices needed as input are $$ A,B,C,D $$.

The Optimization Problem
The task is to design an observer of the following form:

\begin{align} \dot{\hat{x}}=A\hat{x} + L(y - \hat{y}),\\ \hat{y} = C_2\hat{x}\\ \end{align}$$

The LMI: $$ H_2 $$ Optimal Observer
LMIs in the variables $$ P, G, Z, \nu $$ are given by:

\begin{align}

\begin{bmatrix} PA+ A^TP-GC_2-{C_2}^TG^T && PB_1-GD_{21}\\ \star && -1 \end{bmatrix} <0\\ trZ < \nu \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
The $$ H_2$$ -optimal observer gain is recovered by $$ L = P^{-1}G $$ and the $$ H_2 $$ norm of T(s) is $$ \mu = \sqrt {\nu} $$

Implementation
https://github.com/Ricky-10/coding107/blob/master/H2%20Optimal%20Observer

= External Links =

A list of references documenting and validating the LMI.

 * LMI Methods in Optimal and Robust Control - A course on LMIs in Control by Matthew Peet.
 * LMI Properties and Applications in Systems, Stability, and Control Theory - A List of LMIs by Ryan Caverly and James Forbes.
 * LMIs in Systems and Control Theory - A downloadable book on LMIs by Stephen Boyd.
 * https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/rnc.1310

title: LMIs in Control/pages/H2Optimalobserver


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LMIs in Control/pages/Delay Dependent Time-Delay Stabilization

Stabilization of Time-Delay Systems - Delay Dependent Case

Suppose, for instance, there was a system where a time-delay was introduced. In that instance, stabilization would have to be done in a different manner. The following example demonstrates how one can stabilize such a system while being dependent on the delay.

The System
For this particular problem, suppose that we were given the time-delayed system in the form of:

\begin{align} \begin{cases} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)+A_d(t-d)+Bu(t),\\ x(t)&=\phi(t), t\in[0,d], 0 < d \leq \bar{d},\\ \end{cases} \end{align}$$

where

\begin{align} &A\text{, }{A_d}\in\mathbb{R}^{n\times n}\text{, }{B}\in\mathbb{R}^{n\times r}\text{ are the system coefficient matrices,}\\ &\phi(t)\text{ is the initial condition,}\\ &d\text{ represents the time-delay, and}\\ &\bar{d}\text{ is a known upper-bound of }d\\ \end{align}$$ Then the LMI for determining the Time-Delay System for the Delay-Dependent case would be obtained as described below.

The Data
In order to obtain the LMI, we need the following 3 matrices: $$A\text{, }{A_d}\text{, and }B$$.

The Optimization Problem
Suppose - for the time-delayed system given above - we were asked to design a memoryless feedback control law where $$u(t)=Kx(t)$$ such that the closed-loop system:

\begin{align} \begin{cases} \dot x(t)&=(A+BK)x(t)+A_d(t-d),\\ x(t)&=\phi(t), t\in[0,d], 0 < d \leq \bar{d},\\ \end{cases} \end{align}$$ is simultaneously both uniform and asymptotically stable, then the system would be stabilized as follows.

The LMI: The Delay-Dependent Stabilization of Time-Delay Systems
From the given pieces of information, it is clear that the optimization problem only has a solution if there exists a scalar $$0<\beta<1$$, a symmetric matrix $$X>0$$ and a matrix $$W$$ that satisfy the following:

\begin{align} \begin{bmatrix}\Phi(X,W)&&\bar{d}(X{A^T}+{W^T}{B^T})&&\bar{d}X{A^T_d}\\ \bar{d}(AX+BW)&&-\bar{d}{\beta}I&&0\\ \bar{d}{A_d}X&&0&&-\bar{d}(1-\beta)I\end{bmatrix}&<0\\ \end{align}$$

where$$\Phi(X,W)=X{(A+{A_d})^T}+(A+{A_d})X+BW+{W^T}{B^T}+\bar{d}{A_d}{A^T_d}$$

Conclusion:
Given the resulting stabilizing control gain matrix $$K=WX^{-1}$$, it can be observed that the matrix is asymptotically stable from the time-delay system where this gain matrix was derived.

Implementation

 * Example Code - A GitHub link that contains code (titled "DelayDependentTimeDelay.m") that demonstrates how this LMI can be implemented using MATLAB-YALMIP.

Related LMIs

 * ../Delay Independent Time-Delay Stabilization/ - Equivalent LMI for delay-independent time-delay stabilization.


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Talk:Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power in climate action

Hi I think the research for the page is great but I also have some criticisms because I think that it doesn't say clearly enough how the definition or concept of power within the different disciplines. I think we should change the subheadings from 'Power in discipline X' to something like 'how the concept of power within discipline X creates conflict within climate action'. I think this will make it easier to talk about how it makes it hard for scholars in different disciplines to communicate and solve problems as a result of their different concepts of power. I also think we could make it more specific by talking about just one climate action movement for example XR. I think in the introduction or as an intro to each dicsipline we should define each disciplines concept of power. I think that we should also include post colonial studies as one of the disciplines and replace politics with this;


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User talk:Asior Derrick

You cannot edit indefinitely due to advertising/spam. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 20:43, 28 November 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Asior Derrick


text: User talk:50.50.112.52

title: User talk:50.50.112.52


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LMIs in Control/pages/LQ Regulation via H2 Control

LQ Regulation via H2 Control

Suppose people were interested in quadratic optimal regulation problem, where instead of the Ricatti equation approach (which is traditionally used in such situations), it is approached using LMI's instead (thereby making it a Linear Quadratic (LQ) problem). Such an approach would be possible by converting the LQ problem into a standard $${H2}$$ problem.

The System
Consider, for example, constant linear multi-variable system in the form of:

\begin{align} \dot x&=Ax+Bu, x(0)={x_0},\\ \end{align}$$

where

\begin{align} &x\in\mathbb{R}^{n}\text{ and }u\in\mathbb{R}^{r}\text{ are the state and input vectors, respectively, and }\\ &A\text{ and }B\text{ are the system coefficient matrices of appropriate dimensions,}\\ \end{align}$$ Then the LQ optimal regulation problem for the given system is stated as described below.

The Data
In order to obtain the LMI, we need the following 3 matrices: $$A$$, $$B$$, $$Q$$, and $$R$$ (the latter two of which are obtained as follows).

The Optimization Problem
Using the multi-variable system as described above, we can see that the optimal state feedback controller $$u=Kx$$ is obtained where

\begin{align} J(x,u) &=\int_0^\infty ({x^T}Qx+{u^T}Ru)\mathrm{d}t\\ \end{align}$$

is minimized where $$Q={Q^T}{\geq}0$$ and $$R={R^T}{\geq}0$$. However, it is to be noted that in order for the problem to have a solution, two assumptions are made - both of which must be held true at all times:
 * $$ 1)\quad (A,B)\text{ is stabilizable, and}$$
 * $$ 2)\quad (A,L)\text{ is observable, where }L={Q^{1/2}}$$.

Relating this to $${H_2}$$ performance, let us now consider the auxiliary system:

\begin{align} \begin{cases} \dot{x} &= Ax + Bu + {x_0}\omega\\ y &= Cx + Du\\ \end{cases} \end{align}$$,

where $$\omega$$ represents an impulse disturbance, and

\begin{align} C = \begin{bmatrix}{Q^{1/2}}\\0\end{bmatrix}&& D = \begin{bmatrix}0\\{R^{1/2}}\end{bmatrix}\\ \end{align}$$

Using the state feedback controller $$u=Kx$$ and applying it on the above auxiliary system results in the closed-loop system:

\begin{align} \begin{cases} \dot{x} &= (A+BK)x + {x_0}\omega\\ y &= (C+DK)x\\ \end{cases} \end{align}$$,

and the resulting transfer function from disturbance $$\omega$$ to output $$y$$ being:

\begin{align} {G_{y\omega}}=(C+DK)[sI-(A+BK)]^{-1}{x_0} \end{align}$$ thereby resulting in $$J(x,u)=||{G_{y\omega}}||^2_2$$.

The LMI: LQ Regulation via H2 Control
From the given pieces of information, and letting the 2 assumptions as described above hold, then there exist matrices $$X\in\mathbb{S}^n$$, $$Y\in\mathbb{S}^r$$ and $$W\in\mathbb{R}^{rxn}$$ satisfying:

\begin{align} (AX+BW)+{(AX+BW)^T}+{x_0}{x^T_0}&<0\\ trace({Q^{1/2}}X({Q^{1/2}})^T)+trace(Y)&<\gamma\\ \begin{bmatrix}-Y&&{R^{1/2}}W\\({R^{1/2}}W)^T&&-X\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
From the LMI, it can be seen that the state feedback control in the form of $$u=Kx$$ (where $$K=WX^{-1}$$) exists such that $$J(x,u)<\gamma$$ if and only if the matrices $$X\text{, }Y\text{, and }W$$ are of the appropriate matrix sizes.

Implementation

 * Example Code - A GitHub link that contains code (titled "LQRegH2.m") that demonstrates how this LMI can be implemented using MATLAB-YALMIP.

Related LMIs

 * ../LMI for System H2 Norm/ - LMI to determine the $$H_2$$-norm of a system.


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Wikibooks:Requests for import/Archives/2019/August

Request for Import
Would SKS (of the Administrator kind) please import:

 * w:Draft:Primary_Care_Occupational_Therapy_Annotated_Bibliography → Primary_Care_Occupational_Therapy_Annotated_Bibliography Mackenzieraeday (discuss • contribs) 16:47, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

My colleague Katie60smith and I have developed an annotated bibliography, which we attempted to publish to Wikipedia. They redirected us here, as they felt our content was more appropriate for Wikibooks. We have worked hard to establish a usable format on the Wikipedia page, and would like to transfer over so that we maintain clickable content that is well organized and formatted.

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Katie60smith (discuss • contribs) 17:05, 14 August 2019 (UTC) Mackenzieraeday (discuss • contribs) 17:06, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

 * Imported. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 19:46, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

Thank you! Mackenzieraeday (discuss • contribs) 06:12, 15 August 2019 (UTC)