text:
User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5/Power

= Power =

Power in Volunteer Tourism
Volunteer tourism, also known as ‘voluntourism,’ has been defined as “volunteering in an organised way to help aid or alleviate the material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain environments or research into aspects of society or environment." The Earthwatch Institute has been credited as the creator of volunteer tourism as it is known now - paying to volunteer in another country - but its popularity notably increased in the 90s with the development of the British ‘gap-year.'

Despite Wearing’s definition of volunteer tourism, there’s no agreed definition on what volunteer tourism is, as it fails to differentiate from other established forms of tourism such as gap year tourism, backpacking tourism, or eco-tourism, which leads to ambiguity on what constitutes volunteer tourism. A holiday where one visits an underdeveloped country can be described as volunteer tourism, even if volunteering isn't the primary activity, which highlights significant problems within the industry. While there have been some developments in identifying the benefits and drawbacks of volunteer tourism, it must be noted that research in this area is limited and primarily focuses on the impacts of voluntourism in Africa.

Marketing in Volunteer Tourism
Images of poverty and starvation in Africa used as marketing strategies for volunteer tourism reinforces stereotypes of the continent as a helpless, poor state and diminishes any efforts that the government or the local communities may have made. There is a need to look into how volunteer tourism has been used, either purposely or by accident, as a means of power for Western countries.

On an individual scale, it can be seen that the primary motivations for participants of voluntourism have been self-empowering. Such examples include: enhancing one’s CV, cultural immersion, and personal growth. Volunteer tourism was originally perceived as a more ethical, selfless, and sustainable form of tourism, but it has since been argued that more altruistic reasons such as ‘giving back’ and ‘helping the poor’ can be seen as selfish since it’s still focused on self-fulfillment.

Another way volunteer tourism marketing illustrates power is on who they focus on when promoting their programs. For example, on the GoAbroad website it says:
 * “Do you ever sit and ponder the questions, “Why am I here?” or “What is my purpose in life?” Are you unsure what field of study you want to pursue or what career path you want to take? If so, consider volunteering abroad. Volunteer abroad programs can help you figure out who you are and what you want to do with your life. By experiencing life and doing something meaningful with your time in another culture, you might just figure out your calling, while at the same time serving others."

Clearly, the key message that volunteer tourism organisations want to spread is that it is the tourist who will benefit the most. Not only through personal growth, but also economically due to them ‘finding their dream career path while volunteering.’ Crucially, it fails to mention how they are actually benefiting the country they are going to.

The Power Dynamic within Volunteer Tourism
The very nature of volunteer tourism - people in relatively better socioeconomic positions believing they have to help out those who are in what they believe to be a worse position - sets a precedent for an unequal power dynamic between the tourists and the hosts.

Considering how not only are the majority of participants in volunteer tourist activities young, middle and upper-class, British and Australian people, but that the owners of volunteer tourism organisations are also Westerners, it can be argued that the White Saviour Industrial Complex, first coined by Nigerian-American novelist, Teju Cole, is ingrained within the structure of volunteer tourism.

The problem is that those who choose to participate in these programmes are generally not educated on current global inequalities or historical reasons as to why states are impoverished to begin with. Even after returning from these programmes, there is a lack of desire to learn more about the country they have just visited. Garland refers to this mindset as ‘lotto logic’ in which one believes that whether someone is rich or poor depends solely on luck.

This allows an ignorant romanticisation of poverty within the industry as people either ignore or are unaware of the generational benefits they may have received from colonialism. By imagining themselves as ‘heroes’ in countries that need ‘salvation,’ they do not address the fact that volunteer tourism may be reinforcing the inequities they believe they are alleviating.

The Power of Maps - Cartography
Nowadays, maps are used in a lot of press articles, in a large variety of school books, in the academic research field. Maps, as well as a graph or a picture, are used to support an opinion or facts. Therefore, maps are a precise representation of a certain reality and cannot be neutral. In the Power of Maps, Wood D., a cartographer and a former professor of  Design at North Carolina State University, shows how maps can represent a dominant ideology and serve the interest of elites in society. First of all, understanding the difficulties to represent a sphere on a flat surface need to be addressed. Representing the Earth on a plane surface will always result in an approximation of the true shape of the Earth. As stated in The Use of Deformational Data in Evaluating World Map Projections, « deformation […] must occur on any projection »(Robinson,1951,p.3). Thus, the cartographer need to choose the right projection to represent the globe and this implies a choice : should he privileged sizes over angles? Today, the most used world map projection is the Mercator projection, which was developed by the geographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569. This map was drawn to help marine navigation and respect the lines of the coasts of every continent. This choice to privilege the lines is detrimental to the countries sizes and land masses are not respected. For example, Greenland appears to be the same size as Africa on this map but, in reality, Africa is 14 times larger than it is represented. This map projection was hugely criticized because countries near the Equator are shown smaller than they are. Northern countries are shown bigger than they are This distorted representation of reality is the result of a European self centered point of view on the world and was largely criticized. In addition, Mercator's placement of his own county Flanders (modern day Belgium) near the centre of the map reinforces the idea of self-centredness reflected in maps, as it suggests that Flanders is the "centre" and hence most powerful in the world.

This map projection influences people’s views of the world and still continue to do. Today, more and more institutions are understanding the controversy to use the Mercator world map projection as a standard and are using other standards such as the Gall-Peters projection on which every country has the correct size relative to each other.

Power in Architecture
Architecture illustrates a material embodiment of a culture at a given time. Concerning the cultural patterns of a given society, architecture which is the artistic process of constructing, planning, and designing a building, aims to show sturdiness and aesthetics. Within a political context, the building civilization tries to express its national strength with cultural durability, care, and thoughts, through a particular architecture. Thus, the physical manifestation of a structure, designed in a certain way, represents an interaction between the space in its content, and therefore the ability of the latter to control a specific territory. Our spatial interactions can become the exhibition space of an ideology, and architectural works are means of expression for different populations, resulting in proactive political decisions.

Materially represented, cultural acts may be illustrated through public works such as monuments in line with the central spirit of an epoch. For instance, during the 20th-century totalitarian regime, Stalin’s skyscraper: “the Seven Sisters of Moscow”, appropriated architecture as a language that used space to create and embody a new world order influenced by communism and Marxism ideology.

The public space is redefined with architecture as a soft-power through external forces of the present, such as today, socialism, and independent culture.

Building’s power may become a cultural negotiation tool when considered as a cultural resource having the ability to attract, and influence bilateral relations. Upstream from this reasoning, a predetermined set of goals, culturally influenced and embedded in a political process, may probably determine architectural designs.

Power in Cybersecurity Corporations
Power comes from the Latin adjective “potis” which means powerful and intuitively refers to the ability of someone to influence others’ behaviours or actions. Power can also be understood as a concept, with a more symbolic dimension. This relates to “power comparability” and the person who controls ideas and meaning. In social, cultural and professional systems, power disparities and imbalances are produced and reinforced by sources of power differentials.

As Hanna Arendt described, power “spring up” between people and “vanishes when they disperse”. In that sense, power dynamics can be observed within a system of people and leads to intersectionality-a clash between the privileged and the oppressed. Although some forms of oppressions are explicit like slavery, there are more subtle ones like discriminating a colleague at the workplace because they are disabled. No direct physical violence is made but some serious psychological injuries are, which eventually may restrain one’s freedom.

Power dynamics in the cybersecurity sector in the United States reflect this “power comparability”. Salary discrepancies are present displaying higher salaries for Caucasian and White people, but also a higher chance for them to get a salary increase. On average, a Caucasian man earns $124000 per year, while men of colour (Black, Hispanic, Asian or Native) earn $121000 per year. Moreover, Caucasian women earn $121000 per year and women of colour, $115000 per year. This study highlights how discrimination increases with the intersection of racism and sexism, leading especially to low female participation in the cybersecurity workforce. The oppressor is not always the privileged individual, but rather the result of society’s behaviour. A conscious and unconscious marginalizing mindset is thus cultured in the workplace. Even if involuntary, power imbalances are established between the privileged and the discriminated, portraying them as societal stigmas.

Minorities in leadership roles tend to have more prestigious and higher qualifications than privileged managers. Numbers stress that 62% of minorities have masters or higher qualifications compared to 50% for Caucasian and White people. Although higher qualifications are not always synonymous of greater intelligence and skills, it is a hiring prerequisite for most employers and guarantees greater success of an organization. This highlights the extra-work minorities have to put in, in order to aspire to leadership roles, and even then does not guarantee their position. A research on 180 companies conducted by McKinsey&Company showed that diversity in management increases profitability. A firm thus succeeds more by cultivating an inspiring culture and atmosphere for employees which helps them in fine to confidently tackle challenges. Although growth and profits are key goals sought by organizations, developing unique approaches to global issues to protect personal data and information is also primordial in cybersecurity; diversity enables this. As demand exceeds supply in cybersecurity, the increasing need for professionals to work in that field in the future in worrisome. Seeing how the shrinking in the workforce gap, which may reach 1,8 million by 2022, grows bigger day by day, it is necessary to tackle the issue of underrepresentation and underutilisation of minorities in Information Security.

As a possible recommendation, executives should proactively review their internal policy, in order to determine whether or not minorities are underrepresented or discriminated within their organization. Increasing employee's job satisfaction and their sense of being valued may also in turn reduce power imbalances.

Power in Fashion
Since the twentieth century, the fashion industry has been commonly recognised as an oligarchy in which power is shared between the cities Paris, London, New York and Milan, who are referred as the “Big Four” of fashion capitals by the mass media to this day. There is no formal constitution of what is considered a ‘fashion capital’, but it is generally accepted that “the existence of ‘Fashion Week’ shows that are routinely covered by major international fashion magazines” is a suitable determinant.

Emergence of Luxury Fashion and the Fashion Capitals
Throughout history, fashion has been associated with the monarchy, as sovereign rulers had garments of the finest quality designed and created exclusively for them. This idea was reinforced by Louis XIV of France, whose financial advisor Jean-Baptise Colbert famously said that “fashion for France should be what gold mines of Peru were to Spain”, hence marking the beginning of Parisian pre-eminence in fashion. Queen Marie Antoinette, being of Austrian birth, subsequently utilized her taste for fashion to consolidate her otherwise lacking authority in the French court.

While Paris in the nineteenth century was the fashion capital for womenswear, Victorian London was simultaneously known for their menswear. Despite this, Paris remained at the centre of the European fashion stage. This is demonstrated by how London fashion designer Charles Fredrick Worth relocated to Paris to commercialise his creations in 1845. Indeed, Worth solidified the link between fashion and the monarchy by designing one-of-a-kind pieces for Empress Eugénie, but he is most known for creating the first modern fashion shows.

It was only after World War II when New York established themselves as a major fashion capital, transforming the fashion industry from a monopoly into an oligarchy. New York was already challenging the dominance of French haute couture through the innovation of sportswear and machine made ready-to-wear prior to the war. As the fashion industry declined in Paris and London due to clothing and fabric restrictions imposed during the War and had to prioritize rebuilding their economies, New York was thus able to consolidate their position in the industry.

In contrast, the fashion industry was of the highest importance in the reconstruction of the Italian economy and led to the eventual recognition of Milan as a new fashion capital in the late 1970s. Additionally, the emphasis on wearability in Italian fashion suited the tastes of US consumers who furthered their attack on French superiority by rejecting their clothing as being too ‘imperialistic’. Nevertheless, Paris retained their power in the industry with the comeback of haute couture through the creations of Christian Dior (New Look, 1947) Yves Saint Laurent and Coco Chanel.

Challenges to Luxury Fashion and the Fashion Capitals
It is undeniable that accessibility of ready-to-wear contested the demand and power for luxury clothing in the nineteenth century. However, the contrast between low-price standardised clothing and embellished, fitted garments only increased the power of haute couture as it symbolised the ability to deploy wealth. Meanwhile, luxury fashion houses face a similar problem today with the popularity of fast fashion, which refers to low-cost clothing that imitate current trends in luxury fashion. Their accessibility allows them to determine what is deemed fashionable, which poses a much greater threat to the power of luxury fashion houses than ready-to-wear as fast fashion garments are often direct imitations of luxury pieces. With the coming of globalisation, the power of the four fashion capitals are threatened as well. There is a vast number of fashion weeks worldwide, in cities such as Shanghai, Hong Kong, Seoul, Tokyo, Los Angeles, Sao Paulo, Berlin and Mumbai. It is thus very much possible for the fashion industry to develop from an oligarchy to a polyarchy, especially with the current general trend towards market liberalisation and pressure for equal representation in the media.

Introduction
According to the fifth edition of the Longman Active Study Dictionary published by Pearson Education Limited in 2010, power refers to “the ability to control or influence people or events”, and education is the “process of teaching and learning”. The expression “Knowledge is power”, often attributed to Francis Bacon, shows how much being educated is valued in societies. Nowadays, education represents one of the most important institution of society, and has the power of shaping the mind of the individual. However, the power of education is complex as it lies on different disciplines and has interdisciplinary benefits as well.

Background: Religion’s impact on education
As religion represented an essential part of someone’s life in the past, religious organizations started to build schools in order to spread religion to children and make them read their sacred book. Religious studies and learning the faith became a duty and being educated implied to follow a behavior and norms to respect. Jewish fathers were deeply encouraged to send their boys to school so they could learn to read the Torah; Muslims followed an education in order to understand the words of their God; Christians built schools so that children could read the Bible. Religious organizations had an authority on the people and influenced their way of living as they chose what subjects should be taught in schools. In medieval France for instance, the Catholic Church had full control on Education and therefore on the production and preservation of knowledge and made sure that knowledge was not in contradiction with the dogma. The power of the Church on education extended to the spiritual, intellectual, moral, and even artistical life. The situation is very different today but religious schools have still in many western countries a significant share of the Education market.

Power of schools
The French sociologist Emile Durkheim argued on the importance of schools in education. According to his point of view, the role of schools is to form young people so they can adapt to social life. He sees two essential points that could explain why schools exercise a form of power: schools share values and skills required for the division of labor. Indeed, schools teach to children how to live in a society by complying them to social rules, and also to cooperate with others they are not related to, or not friends with. By doing so, schools spread a social solidarity shared among every child. In addition, Durkheim asserts that society evolved with science and technology and created new complex skills that couldn’t be taught in the family area. He argues that solidarity is about cooperating with people that have those different skills and expertise, and school is the only place where children can learn to do that, as it reunites children with different interests. The education system itself is subject to internal power plays. Indeed, as schools work as a hierarchical system, power can be determined throughout the relation between heads and teachers on one side, and students on the other. In the fifth chapter of Theories of Educational Leadership and Management’s fourth edition published in SAGE publications in 2011, Toney Bush talks about several forms of power that heads and teachers can benefit from and explain their legitimate authority, influence and leadership. Indeed, he explains that they can take advantage of their positional power as their work in the educational institution gives them the right to make decisions. This right comes with the recognition of their intellect and required knowledge for practicing, letting them to exercise an authority of expertise (Handy, 1993: 130). However, their knowledge is necessary but not sufficient: they are also required to have a personal power, meaning qualities as having charism or oral abilities that can have an influence on people (Bolman and Deal, 1991: 19). Plus, their position gives them a control of rewards as well as a coercive power: they have both the rights of attributing rewards, or sanctioning (Bolman and Deal, 1991: 196).

Education based on gender stereotypes
The sociologist and psychologist Anne Dafflon Novelle, writer of Filles-garçons: socialisation différenciée? (Girls-Boys: differentiated socialisation?), participated in a seminar called “Girls, boys: a same school?” organized by the Department of Equal Opportunities and Distance Education of the Ministry of the French Community of Belgium in 2009. By supporting her discourse on research, she explains that within the two institutions in which children grow up and build their identity and personality, family and school, there are gender-stereotyped expectations. Indeed, she asserts that society pushes parents and faculty members to encourage or discourage boys and girls towards different directions. For instance, whereas parents are most likely to foster independence and taking initiatives with their sons, they are most likely to help their daughters step by step in their life’s ascension. Moreover, Anne Dafflon Novelle showed that parents are used to give specific presents to their sons and different one for their daughters: typical boys toys are more professional, technical or scientifical oriented, whereas girls toys refer to domestic or esthetical spheres. Schools are functioning the same way as parents as teachers are most likely to give more opportunities of speech to boys or congratulating them more than girls. These two places of socialisation get boys and girls to adopt their categorized gendered behavior and have consequences on their future. Indeed, in their socialisation’s process children assimilate those attitudes and society’s norms which do not allow them, in a sense, of freely developing themselves towards their wants but urge them to conform to stereotypes. The outcomes are different directions taken by boys and girls in the professional area which will result in different wages and level of professional success. While it is generally admitted that "knowledge is power", in this case we could say that knowledge shapes various kinds of power and influence schemes depending on gender.

Education benefits regarding politics, psychology and health, and economics
Education can be viewed as power in a way that it develops the individual and shapes his future. Indeed, an educational achievement has been linked to a wealthier life, a healthier life, and an involvement in politics. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics proved that the higher the education is, the higher the wage will be. This organization made a survey in 2019 on 25-aged and over salary workers and found that the median usual weekly earning of an individual with less than a high school diploma was $592 compared to $1.883 for someone with a doctoral degree. Education improves health and the psychology of the individual as well. Indeed, the environments of schools and family develop such skills as “conscientiousness, perseverance, a sense of personal control, flexibility, the capacity for negotiation, and the ability to form relationships and establish social networks”. Moreover, as education provides jobs with higher incomes, it also leads the individual to choose a job whereby he can have access to health benefits. A family that pursued a higher education and has a high household wage is more likely to know which products to buy in order to stay in good health.

In 2003, Thomas Dee made a study research that he entitled “Are there civic returns to education?”. In his work paper, he argues that educational attainment has an impact on “the quantity and quality of civic participation” and vote, and promotes the values of democracy such as the liberty of speech. Furthermore, education is a fundamental institution that pushes people to be “politically active”, as could been seen during the Arabic Spring movement in Tunisia in which young educated adults fought for democracy, freedom, and participation in politics. However, inequalities exist within the institution of school. In First Strike: Educational Enclosures in Black Los Angeles written in 2016, Damien Sojoyner argues that the U.S. government grants funds to schools according to the success rate of their students. This leads to the increase of inequality between schools, as some of them have access to more resources than others, and therefore do not deliver the same quality of education. In order to fight against discrimination and to provide the same opportunities for everyone whatever their race, colour, or origin, the U.S. government launched the affirmative action program since the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This program requires institutions such as schools and universities to have a certain percentage of minorities in their system as a condition to receiving government aids.

Power in Philosophy - Eurocentrism in the discipline of Philosophy
Eurocentrism promotes the institutionalised idea of ‘European/ Western superiority’, with regards to history, values and intellect, and aims to establish their world-views as being dominant, having spread globally during the European Enlightenment through colonisation.

A well-known philosopher is Immanuel Kant (a philosopher during the Enlightenment period), who perpetuated the idea of power in philosophy as indirect (institutionalised) coercion, as he based his philosophical ideas on racist and Eurocentric views – his attitude to seeking knowledge of the world excluded people who were not from Europe/ the West (in addition to excluding people from lower classes in society and women). Although, European philosophy during this time period was highly influential, it was considered (through a Eurocentric viewpoint) to be of the highest standard, which also contributed to other philosophers disregarding non-European philosophies, focusing mainly on philosophy during antiquity (ancient Greece) until the Enlightenment period in Europe.

Moreover, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who was also an Enlightenment period philosopher came up with a definition of the philosophical canon, which consequently denoted that pure thinking (i.e. “true” philosophy) could only exist in Europe, thus furthering the indirect (institutionalised) power of Eurocentrism, by excluding many non-Western world philosophies from the general framework of understanding, as well as suggesting that his idea is a universal standard and can be applied worldwide (by the West) to determine what is seen as “proper” philosophy.

For example, Hegel saw constitutional freedom as a prerequisite for “true” philosophy and did not consider this to have been met in Asia and thus thought Asian philosophies were not “proper”. Even though, he (and western civilisation at the time) believed that the beginning of philosophy was in ancient Greece (as a result of political freedom being achieved through democracy), non-Western scholars and epistemological thought have in many ways shaped European philosophy.

Prior to the European Enlightenment period, it was accepted that philosophy began in ancient Asia and Africa before commencing in Europe (e.g. among the Greeks, who actually studied philosophy from Egyptians in Africa). However, during and after the Enlightenment, philosophies in Africa were seen as “myths” due to their oral tradition as opposed to the tradition of written documentation of knowledge and philosophy in Europe. Similarly, Hegel did not perceive Indian philosophy as “proper”, because the ideas were closely interweaved with mythology, which according to him could not be part of “true” philosophy. Likewise, indigenous thoughts were also excluded from the discipline, due to the oral traditions of how they practiced philosophy and its strong link to their spirituality.

Another reason for the lack of representation of non-European/ non-Western thought in academic philosophy is as a result of the power of the English language being the “Lingua Franca of academia”, therefore limiting the reach of non-English speaking philosophers (e.g. some Latin American philosophers who primarily write in Spanish and Portuguese).

The institutionalised racism of defining what is considered philosophy in the academic discipline, choosing to primarily study European ideas and thinkers, and the lack of diversity among the educators in the higher education system, creates a narrow and restrictive curriculum. Although the main way of teaching what philosophy is, is through teaching the history of the discipline, this has an inevitable relationship to the dominant Eurocentric view of its origin and the Western ideology within the field. This is especially due to the fact that during the Enlightenment period, Hegel’s beliefs influenced many departments of philosophy in universities and in the 1950s, in the USA, McCarthyism majorly disrupted any production of academia, which questioned Western ideals.

The discipline has also been criticised, as non-Western scholars are often required to uphold Eurocentric frameworks of knowledge production and dissemination (created as a result of the relationship between academia and geopolitical power). These include the expectation to mention European history, concepts, values and produce work in English (often in renowned anglophone journals, which hold a certain amount of power themselves) in order to be acknowledged internationally.

Many are critical of the Eurocentrism and Western normativity within the discipline and want to decolonise philosophy, not just by diversifying the reading lists, but also by aiming for a paradigm shift in including non-Western philosophies as part of the discipline from the start. According to them, decolonising philosophy should subsequently transform and overcome institutionalised hierarchies, which hinder its potential, thereby academia should treat all philosophies on an equal level and explore the relationships between them.

Power in Politics - Power Allocation in the U.S. Government
In Politics, a distinction is made between the three main pillars of most current political systems: the legislative, the executive and the judiciary branch. On the official website of the U.S. government, those three entities are described as follows:

“Legislative—Makes laws”, “Executive—Carries out laws”, “Judicial—Evaluates laws”

It is difficult to judge which one of these responsibilities brings about more power, but analyzing how the branches influence each other’s activities can be helpful:

It is noted that the Constitution provides a separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial and that all powers can influence decisions made in other pillars, in a system called “checks and balances”.

In fact, the three pillars are far from being independent, as the interactions they have, shape the political organization of the country. For instance, the judges of the Supreme Court are elected for lifetime by the president and need to be approved by the Congress. Some may argue that electing a judge for lifetime makes them independent of the executive and legislative, which will eventually be replaced by new elected officials. But as Bruce Peabody put it: “Justices may vote their policy preferences, but the appointments and confirmation process ensures that those policy preferences are palatable to elected officials”.

Hence, representation is of paramount importance in such a connected system yet there are only little signs of that: in History there has only been 5 women, who have been elected as Supreme Court justices. Similarly, only 2 Supreme Court justices have been African American and only one Hispanic.

In particular for the Supreme Court appointments is this problematic since nominations are on lifetime and therefore bringing change becomes a long-winded process. One could argue that this is a sign of the allocation of power not changing significantly over time and permitting the same group of people to shape the political landscape.

Power in Law
The law is paramount to maintaining order in society, it is a force that can both impede or ignite positive social change. When one considers power in the law, it is clear that those in high positions of government are able to enforce laws with the intention of protecting themselves and their citizens. Nevertheless, there are times when the law can do more harm than good, as it may fail to protect the rights of all people, prioritising some over others. This is natural, as it is a socially constructed institution.

Due to the current political climate in Nigeria, the Nigerian government has began to reconsider the need for an Anti-social media bill. The rapid distribution of information which social media provides can be considered useful, however, it can also be considered dangerous if the information which circulates is proven to be false. Nigeria's minister of information, Lai Mohammed, recognises this, thus refuses to be passive in the dissemination of "fake news". This is not the first time the government has considered establishing this bill, however, the #ENDSARS protests of 2020, in which social media was utilised as a powerful medium, reinstated their fears. Under the Anti-social media bill that was first constructed in 2019, Nigerians could face a fine of up to three hundred thousand Naira, and, or, up to three years in prison, if found guilty of spreading misinformation which could "destabilise" the country. This form of censorship greatly infringes on Nigerians' freedom of expression, as it virtually divests them of the power which they have to express themselves without fear of punishment. Amnesty International commented on the Anti-social media bill when it was first being contemplated in 2019 and referred to it as "harsh", "urging the Nigerian authorities to drop these bills, which are open to vague and broad interpretations." The bill was, and still is, viewed as the Nigerian government's way of controlling and monitoring its citizens, thus, maintaining an authoritative power dynamic.The power which the law has to restrict one's actions is immense and when used without reason and, or, empathy can lead to complete deprivation of one's human rights.

The Power of Economics
The power of economics plays a role for quite some time now, simply for the reason, that a world without an economy and different economic roles within it would not work. Economic power can be defined as the state a country or a whole economy can be in, which enables it to change its policies regarding businesses and freedom in the market at any time and to improve the quality of the country, in simple terms to be independent from other countries policies and measures.

Economic Power in a free market
The power of economics can differ gradually across markets. If we talk about a simple free market economy, which exists of different market structures, such as perfect competitive markets, which have almost no power in the market, as for the principle that these are price takers and cannot adapt the prices or the quality of their goods by themselves. In contrasts, to a perfect competitive market, some markets consist only of a single firm, called Monopoly. A Monopoly has full control over its economic market, therefore, full power, which means it is the only supplier of the good or service which is supplied in the market, it is the price maker instead of price taker and has the power to raise prices without a loss of sales. Those three characteristics of a firm in a free market economy decide how much power a firm really has and by how much it can influence the market. In the case of a Monopoly it is independent from other Monopolies in other markets and has been given the power and trust, usually with help from the government, to prevent the market from collapsing. This form of economic power is usually the case for natural monopolies, such as gas and electricity networks.

Economic Power in International Relations and Politics
A discipline in which economic power is an important part is politics, therefore, influential in international relations. Economic performance is the ground battle for any political association within the system of the country. Economic theories have the power to decide in which direction the economy goes into a more supply side orientated direction or a more demand and government regulated point of view. The political system always wants to act into the direction, which the majority of people prefer, so there is a higher a chance of re-election, this shows the first point in which economics is so influential. A usual popularity among citizens of a country is the direction of supply-side policies, which lead the path of the economy towards deregulation and tax cuts, so more independency of private associations. It is assumed that most of todays political power comes from economic decisions, such as policies, which leads to the assumption that economics and their solutions and models to frame real world issues, work closely together with politics to enable a stable and powerful system.

Lastly, the illustration of economical power in international relations is very important to consider, as it was approached and contributed by Karl Marx in 1867 in his book 'Das Kaptial'. Marx who emphasised the idea of social relations and relations of power, stated that economics is politics and politics is economics. He approached the principle of different class with the same relations, i.e. working class. Karl Marx clear picture came from the elements of social-economic relations determine the power which is embedded in the state. In Marx view, any conflicts between states came from the measurement of how much power of economics is in a states politics. This states, that the power of a countries superstructure, regarding knowledge, norms and ideas, come from the base of economics.

Power in Families
The Cambridge English dictionary defines family as "a group of people who are related to each other, such as a mother, a father, and their children". The nature of the family has changed over time, especially the power constructs within it.

Traditional Power Dynamics in Families
Traditionally, families were nuclear, meaning there is a mother, father and their dependent children, and there were set gender roles in families. The man is the breadwinner, meaning that he earns the money to support the family and the woman stays at home and does domestic tasks such as housework and caring for children. Evidence of this can be found from Ann Oakley, who found that 15% of men participated significantly in household tasks and 30% in childcare, showing that they are not typically involved in this type of task. Many traditional sociologists, primarily from a functionalist point of view, called the gender inequalities in roles in the home divisions of labour .Parsons was a prominent writer on this issue; he famously named the male role as the 'instrumental role' and the female role as the 'expressive' role. He thought that the differing roles of men and women played to their natural strengths and made family life efficient, helping society to work by being a "warm bath" to soak away the stresses of daily life. He did not associate these roles with power in the home so much as he did with a stable society and functional unit. Furthermore, religious texts promote the belief that women should have a different place to men in the family. For example, the Bible says in 1 Corinthians 11:3 "the head of a wife is her husband", promoting that women are below men in a hierarchy of power. These family dynamics have been labelled as patriarchal by many feminist sociologists who claim that men exert power in the home and oppress women. Feminist Marxist Ansley is an example of someone who wrote about the inequalities of power in the home, claiming that 'women are the takers of shit', as they are expected to take care of men and handle their stress and emotions. Radical feminists often highlight that men express their power in the family through domestic abuse.

Changes in Power Dynamics in Families
Since World War II where women became involved in the labour market on a large scale, family power dynamics have rapidly changed.. Much of this can be inferred from the financial position of women in the family. The earning statistics show that women can be seen becoming the breadwinners in their families, meaning that they are playing the 'instrumental role' aforementioned. In 2014, it was found that there had been an 83% rise in female breadwinners since 1996/97. Almost 30% of women with dependent children are the breadwinner of their family. This shows an astronomical change in the family structure since the time that Parsons was making his judgements (1949). Sue Sharpe studied the priorities of high school girls. When she first studied them in the 1970s, she found that the girls prioritised love and marriage over their career. This changed when she studied another group in the 1990s and girls were putting their careers higher. This had an impact as it means that women are likely to be financially independent when they start a family, and they will be more likely have jobs. This gives them more financial power in the home, which men previously had.

Therborn discussed how the dynamics of the family had changed due to the (partial) elimination of patriarchy and the introduction and changes in legislation around contraception and abortion. Women have more control over sex and its outcomes, changing their position in the family which is traditionally associated with taking care of children. This implies that women are in more of a position of power in the family after huge changes in the latter 20th century, such as the National Health Service (Family Planning) Act 1967 that gave them this autonomy over fertility.

Thus, it can be concluded that women have gained more power in the family setting in the latter 20th and 21st century, and the roles that Parsons wrote about are less relevant today, making families more equal.

Criticisms to the Assumption that Power is Equal in Families in the 21st Century
There is evidence to suggest that women are still not equal in power in the home. For example, Crime Statistics for England and Wales reported in 2018 that they had observed little change in domestic violence in recent years, and women are still twice as likely to experience domestic violence than men. Therefore, there is still an observation that there is this kind of inequality in the home.

Additionally, it can be argued that men experience the works of power inequalities in the home, just as women do. There is a crisis in masculinity where men are losing their historical place in society, such as being breadwinners in the family; this erodes at male power and can have a negative impact on their sense of masculinity, adding a perspective that is often overlooked.

This is also a Western-centric view, as this data and inference are primarily based on Western societies. Not all societies have these kinds of changes in power dynamics, and it is naïve to suggest as such. For example, Bedouin societies still have traditional roles, including ones that mean women must sit separately from men and communicate differently with and around men. Ergo, power in families is not necessarily shifting in all societies.

The Power of Marketing over Gender Roles
Marketing is the field which specialises in entertaining a relationship between the company and customer which incites consumption. Much of it therefore involves trying to understand the public, or potential customer, in order to cater to their needs and desires, but also to influence them. These methods include for instance the use of Consumer Mindset Metrics (CMMs), which affect customer behaviour, notably the acquisition, satisfaction and retention of customers, and the company's subsequent profit.

A major component of marketing is advertising, which increases brand awareness, and drives the public to fulfil needs, and desires, or even discover new ones. In that sense, we can see how powerful it is in changing people's behaviour and thoughts, as it is a carefully calculated mode of manipulation. On one hand, advertising can be direct coercion, if it simply convinces the customer to buy a product or service from one brand rather than an other. However, advertising can also affect us in a much more profound, and longterm way. This is called indirect coercion, because it institutionalises the need and desire for a certain product, creating an illusion of choice. For example, the institutionalisation of women removing body hair has been exploited to increase profit. Women are not only directly coerced into choosing a certain brand of razors, but they have been indirectly coerced into thinking they need to buy razors in the first place. In 1915 for example, Gillette created the first razor marketed towards women, with an advert which said "A beautiful addition to Milady's toilet table -- and one that solves an embarrassing personal problem." This participated in a culture in which body hair on women is shameful, leading to a hair removal industry worth 2.2 billion USD in 2018, with no plans of decreasing. Making non-vital products like razors seem necessary to women through advertising has also led to phenomenon such as the Pink Tax, whereby products marketed to women are more expensive that the same products marketed to men. Indeed, corporations can get away with increasing the price of these types of products as they are not vital, but women ultimately don't have a choice but to purchase them if they want to fit in to society's idea of femininity, while men on the other hand still need to be convinced, in part through a decrease of cost.

Marketing and advertising have taken gender roles which were already present, either due to the biological nature of gender, or simply ancient culture, and have emphasized them to make them more profitable; so much so that gender roles are now highly defined, and imprinted onto every aspect of our society. Notably, Goffman, in Gender Advertisements (1979), explores the repeated use of certain symbols in advertisement has shaped gender roles. The widespread objectification of women's bodies for example, can be attributed to certain techniques used in advertisement. "The Feminine Touch", is what Goffman calls the repeated use of women touching objects as well as their bodies, which has created an idea that the woman's body is a prized possession, on the same terms as the advertised object was. Another method which was analyzed by feminist cultural critic Jean Kilbourne is "Body Cropping", which consists in using cropped images of a woman's body in adverts. Over time, this practice has led to an internalized belief that women are a combination of parts, which dehumanizes them. Another way which gender roles are impacted by publicity is the stark difference in representation of men vs women. While men are portrayed as dominant, active and professional; women are portrayed as passive, domestic, and subordinate. This is because creating an exaggerated version of reality creates a somewhat attainable ideal, which we are made to think can be attained through the purchase of the product which is being marketed to us. The consumerist society which we live in has therefore led to our culture, identity, and functioning to be shaped by powerful marketing strategies such as advertising.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 5

Today in 1998 version 1 of The GIMP was released.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 5


text: Category:Book:Linear Algebra over a Ring


text: Category:Book:Topological Modules

title: Category:Book:Topological Modules


text: Category:Book:Sequences and Series

title: Category:Book:Sequences and Series


text: Category:Book:Linux Basics

title: Category:Book:Linux Basics


text: Category:Book:Homological Algebra

title: Category:Book:Homological Algebra


text: Category:Book:Introduction to model railways


text:
3D Printing/Color Printing

Methods of 3D printing in color
One way to achieve color 3D printing is to use a multimaterial printer. This requires loading different color materials into the printer, as well as setting up the model(s) and printer software correctly.

One solution to color FFF 3D prints is to simply place markers along the feed of a white filament.

Failing anything, color can be added in post processing steps, such as by painting the print.

title: 3D Printing/Color Printing


text:
3D Printing/Models

Manual
It is possible to design a 3D model from the ground up for 3D printing using standard 3D software.

3D Scanning
3D Scanning through techniques such as photogrammetry can be used to duplicate real world objects.

Editing
Some models, such as those created by 3D scanning, require cleanup before they can be printed.

3D models on a computer can represent things that are impossible to recreate in reality. Thus for a model to be 3D printable, it must represent an actual object, without errors in an object that would cause the interior of the model to not be watertight.

STL
.stl has become a defacto standard for many 3D printer slicer programs.

3MF
3MF is an open source format that offers a number of improvements over .stl, such as being more error resistant and including color information.

Related Wikibooks

 * Blender 3D: Noob to Pro
 * Wings 3D

title: 3D Printing/Models


text:
3D Printing/History

Origins
In 1982 modern 3D Printing was devised by Dr. Hideo Kodama.

In Charles Hull invented sterolithography in 1984. Scott Crump would invent FDM (FFF) printing in 1989.

Starting in 2004 the Open Source Rep Rap project resulted in a number of derivative commercial printers being made that were more affordable then previous offerings.

Adoption
The then cheap and open source 3D printers offered by Makerbot caught the public imagination around 2010. In 2012 Makerbot stopped open sourcing hardware and soon was acquired by Stratasys, where it would soon cease manufacturing their own printers in 2016.

The 3D printer market contracted a bit in 2015. Budget Creality printers became popular during this time.

In the 2010's, both LulzBot and Prusa operated their own commercial scale printer farms to produce parts for their commercial 3D Printers.

In 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, makers used tools like 3D printers to produce millions of PPE parts while supply lines were disrupted.

title: 3D Printing/History


text:
3D Printing/Applications

Rapid Prototyping
When making prototypes, having quick tangible feedback is of great importance for spotting facets of a work which are not immediately clear on paper or in computer models.

One off production
When producing just one or a few items, the inherent inefficiencies of 3D printing matter much less, especially if the properties of 3D printed materials are adequate or if the time to begin production is limited (Taking just a few hours or days assuming the model is ready).

Accessibility
3D printing can be used to create tactile versions of visual media like artwork or maps for the blind.

Logistic stopgap
When supply chains are disrupted in an emergency, local 3D printer owners are able to produce low quantities of vital materials and parts, ensuring a constant, if very small stream of new supplies, while logistical challenges are fixed. This very scenario was seen in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, when 3D printer operators made PPE and ventilator parts for hospital staff. It is also a strategy employed by some disaster preparedness strategies.

title: 3D Printing/Applications


text:
The Story of Rhodesia/Kingdom of Mutapa

Introduction
The Kingdom of Mutapa was a kingdom located between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers in areas which are today part of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It flourished between the mid-15th and mid-17th. It is sometimes described as an empire, however there is little evidence that Mutapa ever established such control over the region. Mutapa prospered due to local resources of gold and ivory. It traded with Muslim merchants and the Portuguese merchants. The kingdom went into decline when it was weakened by civil wars, and then the Portuguese conquered it around 1633. The meaning of the word Mutapa is “the conquered lands”.

Decline of Great Zimbabwe
In the 15th century, the kingdom of Great Zimbabwe was in decline (see Kingdom of Zimbabwe). By the second half of the 15th century, the Bantu-speaking people migrated north to lands inhabited by smaller tribes who fled to the forests and deserts. The relationship between the Kingdom of Mutapa and the Kingdom of Zimbabwe is unknown, but it is known that both kingdoms had very similar pottery, weapons, tools, and jewellery.

Government
The kings of Mutapa held the title Mwene Mutapa meaning “lord of metals” or “master pillager”. They were also the religious head of the kingdom. The king, who ruled as absolute monarch, was assisted by ariosos officials such as the head of the army and chief of medicine. The ministers had their own estates and also some judicial powers: for example, they had the ability to impose death sentences on those found guilty of serious crimes.

Art and Architecture
Unlike other kingdoms in Southern Africa, there were no local stone deposits in Mutapa, so they were unable to build impressive structures. The capital was enclosed by a wooden fence, and buildings were made with mud and wooden poles. At its peak, around 4,000 people lived in Mupangubwe (Mutapu’s capital).

Mutapu produces local pottery that was burnished using graphite and red ochre. Mutapu’s jewellery included necklaces and anklets made from long coils of iron, bronze, copper, or gold wiring. It was described by European explorers and found in local burial sites.

Decline
Following the voyage of Vasco De Gama around the Cape of Good Hopes, and up the East Coast of Africa in 1488-1489, the Portuguese started establishing a presence in the lucrative Swahili coast trade cites. Attempts were made to establish trade with Mutapa, interfere with its rules, and even convert its king to Christianity, but they all failed. Another contact came from Muslim Swahili merchants but the people of Mutapa never converted to Islam and held onto their Bantu beliefs.

Around 1633, the Portuguese decided to attack and conquer the Kingdom of Mutapa to control the regions' resources and cut out their great rivals - the Swahili merchants. The Portuguese created the first written records about the Southern African people. However, due to tropical disease and the fact there was far less gold in the area than in other places such as West Africa and Peru, the Portuguese presence was only a temporary one. What remained of the Mutapa was later taken over by the Batua (a rival Shona kingdom) in 1693.

title: The Story of Rhodesia/Kingdom of Mutapa


text:
User talk:FcoonerBCA

Welcome
Welcome to Wikibooks, FcoonerBCA!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
 * Please fill in the edit summary and preview your edits before saving.
 * Sign your name on discussion pages by typing ~~~~
 * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the Gadgets tab of my preferences; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit save!

-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 10:56, 7 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you, Mrjulesd. FcoonerBCA (discuss • contribs) 11:00, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:FcoonerBCA


text: Category:Book:Ceramicware Defects Handbook


text:
User:TimRJordan/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 3/Power

Power in Translation
Translation is a discipline concerned with the communication of a text's meaning from one language to another. The separate discipline of Translation Studies, which is offered as a graduate degree at many UK universities including UCL, deals with the theory and application of translation in its social, cultural and historical context. The perspective of Translation Studies reveals significant power dynamics at play in the process of translation itself.

Far from viewing translation as a straightforward mechanical process of converting text from one language into another, Translation Studies generally assert that translation is a rewriting of the source texts. There is a transformation that occurs through translation and it has important implications for meaning as the politics of what is included, excluded, emphasised, and dismissed comes into consideration.

Our view of literature is often characterised by a romantic conception of the author as a "uniquely gifted creative genius endowed with profound insight and a mastery of their native language," leading us to bestow significant power on the original author and, by extension, the source text. Since the source text holds a certain authority of its own, the translator approaches the task of translation on the expectation that they will honour the source text. Therefore, the translator must sacrifice their personal perspective and creative liberties and conform to the ideas and creative choices that stand dominant within the source text.

However, consideration of the power dynamics of translation must take into account the power that the translator holds in each decision they make regarding structure, wording, and every other aspect of the translation capable of manipulating the meaning of the original text. This is particularly significant in the context of cross-cultural translation, as language is deeply intertwined with the culture of its production. The issue extends beyond the search for equivalent words because the cultural context of these words must be taken into account to understand the subtleties of what they express. Arguably, the outcome of this is that translation becomes an exercise in manipulation, a power struggle between the source text and the translator, who approaches the source text with their own personal prejudices and a necessarily limited understanding of its cultural context.

Links between Power, Law and Society
In many regards, law is often seen as the foundation of society and politics, and as tightly linked to power within both these elements. Indeed, law is used to keep order within a society, shaping individuals’ relationships towards each other and ultimately holding power over a society’s citizens, thus institutionalising power.

Michel Foucault on Law and Power
Michel Foucault was a French 20th Century philosopher, author of philosophical literature such as “Truth and Power”, exploring themes of power within society and the relationship between law and power. He defines power as not being limited to forms of prohibition, coercion or physical restraint, but also as being good in the sense that power can be used to help others or to acquire and spread knowledge, for example. As James Nickolas puts it in “Law and Power: Ten Lessons From Foucault”, “If I say or do something that shapes or influences your experienced reality, I am exercising power over you”, resuming Foucault’s idea of power not necessarily being a bad thing, as it is otherwise often portrayed to be. According to Foucault, the use of power not solely for repression but also for good is what makes it possible for it to be accepted and respected in society. Nickolas also goes on to interpret Foucault’s views on power and truth, consisting of truth essentially being a product of power, creating “competing truth claims” between opposing sides in various disciplines such as politics, for instance.

Foucault also describes power as having moved away from law and the judicial system. He presents it instead as decentralised in modern society, coercion now being at the heart of discipline within society through the development of a “modern episteme”. This is linked to the acquisition of new knowledge within various disciplines leading to new modes of surveillance and regulation. Indeed, this may contrast with the historical links between power and law, an example being that of public torture or executions in the 18th Century, these being manifestations of sovereign power through judicial punishment.

A view into "Feminism and the Power of Law"
In “Feminism and the Power of Law”, Carol Smart explores the rise of feminism and its position in regards to the law and its power. According to her, law gains its power through its presentation as a supreme unified knowledge which stands in the face of challenges and contradictions, including feminism. She explores some Foucaultian ideas, particularly in regards to his ideas of power coming to those who claim truth. For instance, scientific discourse is often used as the ultimate justification for a claim, undermining and discrediting other point of views or forms of knowledge. There is thus a certain power which comes with the supposed scientific claim, Smart pointing out that although law does not associate itself with scientificity and truth (Foucault), this discipline may still stand out and exercise power in a similar way. Through her work Smart challenges this power that law and the judicial system have over women and feminism, pointing out a range of flaws in the legal system and explaining that it is in part only so powerful because we view it as such.

Different powers involved in Biology
In biology, the notion of power can be linked to various ideas/mechanisms very different from one another. For instance, power can be linked to energy used by the cell to power its reactions, but power is also present in biology as gender inequalities (a form of social power) found in the number of women biologists compared to men biologists.

Mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell
To function, the eukaryotic cells require energy. This energy is provided by the mitochondrion, an organelle that probably entered the cell through primary endosymbiosis. This organelle is often referred to as the “powerhouse” of the cell. In this context, “power” is used to describe a force, a source of energy. Mitochondria provide near 90% of ATP necessary for cell life, produced through cellular respiration.

ATP, Adenosine Triphosphate, provides a thermodynamic driving force through its hydrolysis. In a very important number of cells, essential reactions are energy-dependent and therefore rely on this ATP synthesis. Different tissues have different needs in terms of energy. Energy is needed for instance for maintenance of neuronal membranes, organelle transport, or electrochemical signaling in the brain (requiring significant energy, reflected in a high consumption rate of cerebral glucose and oxygen) - the brain being one of the most ATP-needing organs. Energy can also be provided through other nucleotides like guanosine triphosphate (GTP) for specific energy-dependent processes, but ATP remains the central source of energy in the cell.

Social power in biology
Another important role of power in biology is the social power in this discipline. In biology, and in sciences in general, gender inequalities are very present. Out of the 603 Nobel Prizes that have been given out since 1901, only 57 have been awarded to women. 389 of these 603 concerned sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Medicine and Economic Sciences) and only 25 out of these 389 went to women - 4 in Physics, 7 in Chemistry, 12 in Medicine and 2 in Economic Sciences. Likewise, the NIH R01 is a support for all health-related research and only 30% of its recipients are women.

Gender stereotypes concerning science are formed and changed through direct (e.g. social interactions) and indirect (e.g. media) observations of men and women in science-related roles, like scientists and science teachers. This social phenomena is explored in social role theory. These gender stereotypes can influence people in their decision to pursue higher education, for instance women who have a more pronounced masculine view of science are less inclined to have science aspirations. This forms a vicious cycle of underrepresentation of women in science, reinforcing gender stereotypes, which then in turn plays a part in the underrepresentation of women in science, etc. This is a type of institutional power that makes it inherently difficult to increase women participation in science. However, the frequent exposure to counter-stereotypic women, such as successful female scientists and female science teachers, can weaken gender stereotypes and encourage more female students to take up higher education in science. One study focusing on this patriarchal vision in biology found that an intervention program, getting high school students to attend workshops administered by female biology teachers, challenged the stereotypical image of scientists held by many students. More intervention programs and policies to increase women participation in science should therefore be put into place, in order to overcome the gender barriers present in biology (and science in general) today.

There are multiple types of power when it comes to biology, playing different roles within and around the disicipline, involving very contrasted themes like energy-dependent reactions in the cell, as well as gender inequalities and gender barriers in this domain.

Power in Nursing
Nursing is an important part in the health care system, including tasks related to taking care of people with potential health problems. The power issue in nursing consists in gender inequality in this field. In most domains, and scientific ones in particular, we can often see a disequilibrium between the number of men and women, counting a majority of men and a small percentage of women. However in the nursing discipline, the desiquilibrium observed is reversed. In the UK medical system, only 11% of nurses are male, while the rest 89% are female. Moreover, male students in nursing schools are reported to experience more negative feelings like isolation, and they are also with a higher drop out rate compared with female students.

Historical context
The stereotype of nursing as a feminine profession roots deeply in history when Ms. Nightingale opened her nursing training school in 1860, which served as a model for other nursing education programs across Western countries. Though Nightingale’s efforts in professional nursing training elevated the status of female nurses and provided more career options for unmarried women, the organisation of nursing school was mobilised as a female-oriented system, excluding male students from the career. Most training schools at that time were built by mimicking the environment in religious sisterhood, requiring female students to preserve virtues and to be subordinate to physicians who were mostly males. Thus, nurses were classified as a second class accessory and the ubiquitous stereotypes of female characteristics were extended into the medical world. The mobilised bias of the nurse icon act as indirect coercion, preventing males to enter the nursing world by defining it as a feminine profession. Such stereotypes are also reinforced in popular culture when male nurses are portrayed as homosexual, putting pressure on males who want to pursue a nursing career.

The role of language and education
Due to the exclusiveness toward men in early nursing schools and the continuation of education traditions, the language use in nursing is biased against men. For example, in many nursing textbooks, the use of both pronouns and nouns are found in feminine forms, thus assuming all students are female. The use of the phrase “male nurse” also segregates the two genders and marginalise male students in nursing by categorising men as the minority. In addition, it is found out that in nursing training, the ways of communication with patients are usually taught based on the female mode of emotional expression, making male students struggle to find their own ways to establish connections with patients. Moreover, eventhough male nurses took active roles in history like during wartimes, their contributions were rarely recorded in nursing textbooks. Additionally, the percentage of male teachers in nursing schools is only 5%, which is lower than the percentage of males students enrolled. Both the use of gender-biased language and the lack of male role models in nursing education act as power, giving stress to male students and discourage them from continuing to study.

What is Literature ?
What is Literature? Cambridge Dictionary answers that Literature is all written artistic works, especially those with a high and lasting artistic value. However, many consider that defining Literature is nearly impossible. Literature finds its power in its multiplicity, in fact, there are multiple forms of literature each having different purposes: novels, biographies, poetry, theatre, History books, testimonies, fairy tales, comics, religious books, political books, Philosophical essays, encyclopedias, dictionaries and even scientific treaties. Each of them teaches something new or different to the reader. As Henry Miller says « We should read to give our souls a chance to luxuriate ».

Powers of books
The Power of Literature really is in its ability to relate to everybody as it has many approaches. One of the first goals of a book is to make the reader dream and travel in time and space. It stimulates imagination and emotions. Ann Hood explains that what made her love reading was being brought to places she would have never imagined. She argues that reading makes the reader escape his life and confront new situations. F Scott Fitzgerald goes further by saying that it connects the reader to others: ''« That is part of the beauty of literature. You discover that your longings are universal longings, that you’re not lonely and isolated from anyone. You belong. »''. Therefore, Literature is essential in understanding human nature. Ann Hood explains that this why we still read Shakespeare and many others today, even if the society has changed, human nature never will. The writers develop an intimate relationship with the reader's mind. They offer ideas, a certain way of thinking or seeing the world to people. A book can change a life because reading shapes reflection. Moreover, having a wide culture is only profitable for a person as it brings knowledge. Haruki Murakami illustrates this idea saying that« If you only read the books that everyone else is reading, you can only think what everyone else is thinking ». Power is always connected to diversity.

Literature has the power to change a vocation and a life. Many authors escaped their condition by writing masterpieces. Proust, for example, was an asthmatic sick man who wrote À la Recherche du Temps Perdu, In Search of Lost Time in English, a 4 215 pages philosophical novel about involuntary memory, Art and Time. It is sometimes considered as one of the greatest novels of the 20th century. It has not only gone beyond the man who wrote it but also inspired countless vocations.

Literature is immortal. As the human itself doesn’t change but does its society, stories remain in Time. Reading the Iliad by Homer composed around the 8th century BC is still something interesting even if our societies don’t believe in Ancient History’s gods and heroes. It tells stories of love and betrayal, war and loss, which are forever relatable as common, human experiences.

Literature’s power can even be quantified. Current studies in neurosciences strengthen this argument. It has been proven that reading poetry activates the primary reward circuitry and can provoke emotional responses like chills, goosebumps or tears.

Future of Literature
In an age where technology is omnipresent and reading is being lost, many people, from scholars to students, realize that saving Literature is essential. The famous quote by Pulitzer price-winning scientist E.O. Wilson « We are drowning in information while starving for wisdom » highlights the importance of taking the time to concentrate and read. It has this capacity to shape the human brain in a unique way.

Along with younger people that start to realize the importance of literacy and reading , governments are concerned about the future. Many create policies to promote reading among young people. The power that Literature provides must be saved.

Power in History
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, history is « the study of past events considered together, especially events of a particular period, country, or a subject ». Thus we can state that history requires an objective approach to fully analyze a certain event. Furthermore, we can decipher a form of trust bestowed on historians, as most of history taught in schools, for example, is secondary evidence. Although the drafting of school books is the result of a collective process involving a committee of qualified historians, it is important to take into account factors that might pollute the academic neutrality.

Historical nihilism
Let’s take a look at « historical nihilism »: a term used by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to designate any scepticism in regards to the government's version of the country’s history, defined by the party itself as that which « seek[s] to distort the history of modern China's revolution, the CCP and the armed forces under the guise of reevaluating existing narratives ». The CCP is well known for enforcing harsh censorship rules, such as the « Great Firewall of China » controlling the Internet, isolating China from the rest of the world. This is a prime example of what power can mean in history: influencing and moulding young minds after not only concealing events, but recreating a new past. This also echoes the danger of fake news or the spread of false information.

Gender gap in history
Another example of how power is considered in history could be through the gender gap amongst historians: in 1979, more than two-thirds of public historians were men, whereas they represented a little over 30% of all public historian in 2009. This is an important subject of historiography. The object is to « assess, in terms of modern standards, the value of historical works for us ». A sub-division of which is feminist history, which aims to go over history from a female point of view. Because historians have been predominantly male for so long, there has been an institutionalized unconscious bias towards analyzing events from a male perspective. This reinforces the idea of gender being another form of power in History.

Social psychology
Social psychology is a sub-discipline of psychology that deals with how our social interactions affect our opinions and behaviors. Social psychology and politics are often studied together as many social psychologies dedicate their work to investigating how people interact with political processes and form their political opinions. This then enables them to shed light on political events and policy.

Political bias in research
As social psychology examines ideologically controversial topics, political diversity in the field would mitigate the effects of confirmation bias and empower minorities to challenge the view of the majority, pushing them to consider different perspectives and have a more informed opinion. Studies have shown that in the field of social psychology, there are disproportionately more socially liberal than conservative researchers. In 2011, social psychologist Jonathan Haidt gave an unprecedented speech at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology about the lack of ideological diversity in social psychology and the benefits it would bring. During this speech to illustrate his point, he asked an audience of around 1,000 social psychologies to raise their hand if they were conservative. Exactly three hands went up. He then detailed another attempt to identify conservatives in the field, searching “conservative social psychologist” on Google which yielded no active conservatives. Another study of over 800 social psychologists found that only 6% described themselves as conservative and that they are afraid of biased treatment if they revealed their political beliefs to their colleagues. This study also found that the more liberal researchers were, the more likely they were to discriminate against their conservative colleagues, in ways such as making them less likely to award them a grant and invite them to conferences. When it comes to research, there is evidence that there is confirmation bias present amongst academic reviewers as they tend to evaluate a scientific finding more positively if it was written by a researcher of similar political views than if the writer was on the opposite side of the political spectrum. Due to these biases, conservative psychologists claim that it is more difficult for them to publish and disseminate research that challenge liberal views, ultimately creating an inherently hostile research environment that discourages new conservatives from entering the field.

A process that is inherently inclined to produce a particular outcome is systemically biased and thus systemic bias manifests as a form of power as institutionalised coercion. From the reasons outlined above, it can be inferred that there is systemic bias against conservatives in the field of social psychology and that liberals in the field have power over the conservatives as they have more influence on what is produced from the field.

That said, biased treatment against conservatives might not be the main reason why conservatives are underrepresented in the field of social psychology. Liberals tend to more open-minded and curious than conservatives, meaning that they are more interested in exploring unconventional ideas on how to use science to improve society. Thus, it is inevitable that scientific fields lean more left on the political spectrum. It can also be argued that if the science seems to confirm one political viewpoint more than the other, then that viewpoint might be more closely aligned to science.

Power of Gender Bias in Medicine
Gender bias is the act of privileging one gender over another. This is reflected in many disciplines, such as in medicine, in which a patient’s gender has an impact on the treatment he receives and his inclusion in clinical research. It is important to note that while sex represents an individual’s biological and reproductive features, gender is a social construct. There are many genders but most of the studies here focus on gender inequality between men and women.

Gender bias in medicine is a form of power as a strategy. This means that gender bias is not voluntary and is unconsciously embedded in our society. It is as a type of power because it is a form of authority that has repercussions on our daily lives.

Gender Bias in Clinical Treatment
First of all, gender bias has an impact on the treatment of patients. For example, women’s symptoms are more often attributed to psychological and emotional reasons, and many physicians believe that 25% of women make excessive demands, compared to 14% of men. However, no studies prove that this true, and this shows how stereotypes can play a role in a doctor’s way of treating patients. Thus, women are prescribed more often psychoactive drugs. Older women also have less probability of being admitted to intensive healthcare than men.

Gender Bias in Medical Research
Secondly, women are very often excluded from clinical research. This is mainly due to the fact that there is less knowledge on the physiology of a woman’s body. Furthermore, women are often excluded from drug trials since they could represent a danger on their reproductive system. Hence, there are often lack of funds for research on women’s disease. For example, most of the research on the coronary artery disease was made on men, even though it mostly affects women. As a consequence, men are treated more than twice as much of the coronary artery disease than women, creating a real gender disparity.

Causes and Consequences of Gender Bias in Medicine
In conclusion, evidence in medicine is gender biased, contributing to the unequal treatment of patients according to their gender. There are many explanations for this, that Katharina Hamberg explores. Historically, women’s body have been less studied due to “gender order”, which means that in some societies women are often less valued than men. The "two-way view" is also a key concept: we tend to overestimate or underestimate differences between men’s and women’s bodies. Finally, stereotypes play an important role. This indirect coercion has consequences on women’s and men’s health, and is a real interdisciplinary issue.

Furthermore, we can also consider power dynamics between genders in the medical professions. For instance, even though there are more and more female physicians, it is rare for them to access leading positions, mostly taken up by men. They also suffer discriminations, such as sexism and sexual harassment: 30% of them have already experienced sexual harassment at work. Even though this is different from gender bias, it is a form of power not to be neglected in medicine.

Introduction
As the Cambridge Dictionary puts it, “politics is the job of holding position of power in the government.”. These positions are in definition very few in numbers and are most of the time reserved to a socio-economic elite. As a result, a small number of people end up with the power to influence the government and the majority of the population. This power can take different forms but regarding to politics, two mains strains come out: Direct Coercion and Indirect Coercion.

Power as Direct Coercion
For many of us the first role of politics is to control a country. Let it be by creating rules, laws and institutions which maintain order, punish criminals, or protect and give some rights to the people. At the end, politicians decides for the population.This is known as direct and indirect coercion. The more explicit one is ‘direct coercion’ and reflects a situation where, as Dahl explains, “A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do”. This can be seen in everyday life. Like the law that prohibited people from smoking inside in 2007 in the UK or more recently the law in France that forced people to park their electric scooters in designated parking places. In both cases, politics played a role in making the population change their habits that would not have occurred otherwise.

Power as Indirect Coercion
More implicitly is power as indirect or institutionalized coercion. Not when direct rules are put in place to target certain people but when, as Bachrach and Baratz say, “a mobilization of bias exists which allows a preferred population to benefit from advantages at the detriment of the rest.”. This type of power if abused is a lot more difficult to take down as it cannot be traced to one particular individual or law but rather exists in the mind of everyone. In America, the Jim Crow laws were direct coercion but even after the Civil Rights act of 1964, criticism of minorities and their exclusion from the white population took place under de facto segregation. Stereotypes like the fact black people were lazy, smelled bad, were ugly or were inferior continued to exist and spread for years on. The Clark Doll experiment showed that a majority of kids still considered whiteness as more beautiful in the 21st century providing evidence for this and showing how difficult it is for institutionalized power to change.

Power Within Art History
Art history is an interdisciplinary subject which encompasses a variety of different approaches. At the simplest level, art history is the study of artworks and artefacts throughout history.

Art history, as a discipline, has a power imbalance; both in terms of the demographics of people who engage with art history as a subject and the historical significance and importance placed on Western verses non-Western artwork. In terms of demographics, not a single history of art professor was listed on the Runnymede Trust’s 2017 list of all the Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) female professors in the UK. In addition, DataUSA shows the majority of Art History, Criticism and Conservation graduates between 2012 and 2017 to be white (the highest percentage within this range being 69.9% white graduates in 2012).

There have been attempts to shift the balance of power between Western and non-Western art. Several key exhibitions can be pinpointed as important steps towards this decolonisation. The Havana Biennial, set up in 1984, exhibited artworks by a variety of non-Western artists, notably Latin American and Caribbean artists within the first biennial and African, Asian and Middle Eastern artists within the second. The 1989 exhibition Magiciens de la Terre was curated by Jean-Hubert Martin and featured artists from all across the globe. This exhibition was subject to criticism for its two-dimensional, westernised perspective through which it considered many of the artefacts on display.

This movement to make art history more inclusive reflects the wider campaign to decolonise the curriculum. In the context of the UK, this campaign examines how British colonialism continues to impact the epistemology of the education system.

When it comes to decolonising art history, there are mixed views surrounding the existence of a core canon, which definitively marks out the most important and historically significant works. Arguments exist both supporting the broadening of the canon (in order to include works from previously underrepresented cultures and marginalised groups) and supporting the eradication of the entire notion of an artistic canon.

Power in Philosophy
Philosophy is one of the oldest disciplines, dating back to 600BC with records of work by Thales of Miletus. It is a highly respected and popular degree that allows its students to intellectually challenge themselves, granting unique perspectives to prepare them for many fields of work. However, as it is not a degree that directly leads into a job, such as medicine, law, and dentistry, it can be considered a privilege to study. Patrice Haynes, a senior philosophy lecturer in Liverpool Hope University descried philosophy “for posh, white boys with trust funds” in an interview with the Guardian. The field is certainly dominated by men. The American Philosophical Association did a survey on its membership diversity in 2018. The data states that 74% of its membership are male. Interestingly, the share of female and male students who enrol in philosophy degrees is fairly well balanced. In 2014/15, Higher Education Student Statistics in the UK recorded 46,070 female students and 40,235 male students joining historical and philosophical studies. Since the numbers of female and male students have a negligible difference, this begs the question as to why so few female professors of philosophy emerge out of the degree. This is an example of power as indirect coercion. Whilst there have always been female philosophers, such as Hypatia of Alexandria, a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher born in 355 BCE, philosophy has still been widely dominated by men since its generation. Catherine Bateson, a dean at Amherst College, discussed in an interview the hiring process at her university. She described the process as one being that would hire many female workers, often more than men, and then would let them go soon after. The result being that the university could claim having hired more women than men, but of course not providing the opportunities they were entitled to. Professor Jennifer Saul, head of philosophy department at the University of Sheffield started a blog in attempts to convey and learn more about what is was like to be a woman in philosophy. Through this blog she received great numbers of contacts daily telling stories of sexual assault and harassment in the field. Many of these women described leaving their positions in philosophy as a result of these incidents.

Here there is a clear imbalance of power, in terms of systemic power making women marginalised in the workplace and thus, vulnerable.

How language shapes the way we think
“Language shapes the way we think” is a popular claim that could be heard from a High School English teacher, from a Linguistics professor or even from a cognitive scientist. The truthfulness of the claim is backed up by evidence from studies of native tribes’ languages and their comparison to modern languages, such as English. An example would be the study of the Native American language Hopi. A main difference between Hopi and English is the way they express past and present tense. In English, the verb changes accordingly to indicate the time of occurrence of an event, while in Hopi -- it doesn’t and instead, the focus is placed on the circumstances surrounding the event. For example, a Hopi speaker would use two very distinct verb forms to indicate whether the knowledge is first-hand or generally known, while in English the verb form remains unchanged. For example, in English, the verb form is the same in both “Yesterday was New Year's Eve” (generally known), and in “Yesterday I broke my ankle” (first-hand). The linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf who studied the Hopi language in the 1940s believed that because of that major difference between the two languages, speakers of each may think about events differently. For example, an English speaker may focus more on the time of an event, while a Hopi speaker -- on the source of information about the event.

Language in Education
Following the logic that language does, to a great extent, shape the way we think about events and information, it could also be argued that language possesses power in the discipline of Education. Primary School Education, specifically, plays a big role in shaping the way children think, and it does that through the use of Language. An example would be the words present under each topic in children's vocabulary books. A vocabulary book would typically include words from different topics, such as Colors, Numbers, Environment, Technology and aims to develop a child’s vocabulary equally in every topic. This way, a child would have the same capacity to think about information within each topic. However, the rapid expansion of the technological fields in real life and the new vocabulary emerging within those raises the question of whether children’s vocabulary books should reflect this expansion? Should children be learning more words within the topic of Technology than Environment, for example? If yes, that may result in children being able to think more about Technology than Environment. So, putting this hypothetical situation into perspective, a child may be more likely to be interested in technological advancements than in taking action to preserve the environment. It could be argued that the presence of more words within the topic of Technology than other topics in vocabulary books is a form of Power. More specifically, this Power could be seen as a strategy, in other words, a normalised coercion of power. Power as a strategy in this example could be interpreted as a creation of a system of thought within children where certain choices (certain topics to think about) are more available than others.

Power in Ecological Study
When examining the relationships between organisms within ecosystems we can often adopt an anthropocentric view where we view ourselves as the most highly evolved and most successful organisms. However, we fail to take into account the fact that we as humans have only existed in our current form for approximately 250 thousand years, less than one percent of the 3.77 to 4 billion years that life has existed on earth.

Taxonomic Chauvinism
As humans we favour taxa that are more closely related to us and neglect others - this phenomena is known as taxonomic chauvinism. Studies have demonstrated that birds and mammals are highly overrepresented in studies of vertebrates, whereas fish, reptiles and amphibians are underrepresented. Scientists questioning our intrinsic anthropocentric biases place the blame on our inherent social tendency for empathy for us anthropomorphizing the behaviour of other species. Behavioural science teaches us to be aware of our biases, but without knowledge of what it is like to be another species we simply cannot correctly interpret all behaviours. Kokko draws a comparison with physics, where our intuition simply falls away when we begin to operate at a much smaller or larger scale than we are used to thinking about.

Plant-Blindness
The term plant-blindness has also been coined to describe our self-centred view of our world. In terms of ecosystems and the construction of environments, we are far less important and far less abundant than plants, and yet we are often blind to their value. However, plants participate in many symbiotic relationships as they form the fabric of many ecosystems - for example with mammals which eat fruit that trees grow to gain nutrients, which helps the trees with seed dispersal - a seemingly mutualistic relationship whereby both species become reliant on each other.

Economic Geography
According to the dictionary, economic geography is “a branch of geography that deals with the relation of physical and economic conditions to the production and utilization of raw materials and their manufacture into finished products” There are four main keys to the geographic economy:

Firstly, there is the role of natural resources. In order to create a more thriving economy, access to water for example is primordial for agriculture, energy, industry… You also need rich soil for agriculture as raw materials such as minerals, oi, wood for the industry). Finally, beaches, mountains… can attract tourism participating greatly to the growth of the economy.

Secondly, there is the role of the population. Are there people for labor? Is the population young enough? Is labor cheap or expensive? Then comes education, as well as schools and universities, create educated and skilled workers. The economy also needs consumers, usually in urbanized places with a high purchasing power. Lastly, with the development of a ‘knowledge economy’, firms focusing on technological advances tend to relocate where others do the same and close to research and education centers (Silicon Valley).

Thirdly, there is the role of communications infrastructures and access to transport through roads, rivers… A country with a sea, rivers, roads, airports will be able to transport people and goods easier and therefore help the economy. It is the same thing with information infrastructure with cell towers, telecommunications, internet…

Finally, there are the criteria taken into account by firms depending on the geography and type of economy. When firms chose to relocate their production facilities or even the whole company they tend to do so in a country where transport (usually maritime) is easy and cheap. They also look at the population (the price of labor), the neighboring countries (to see if the region is unstable), and the image it would give the world to move there. Therefore, in company choices, geography plays a great part as well.

Tim Marshall’s Analysis Of The USA
The correlation between geography, economics, and politics is made evident in Tim Marshall’s Prisoner of Geographies. A perfect example of it is the United States. The author exposes the geographical advantage they have which was reflected through history. They are bordered by 2 oceans and have a mass of land well suited for various agricultural and mining endeavors, added to the mountains offering them protection. In his words: “there is a ‘strategic depth’ for a defending force to fall back to”. Furthermore, the U.S.’ neighboring countries are either too nice (Canada) or too small (Mexico) to pose a direct threat. All of these factors allowed America to grow quickly to become one of the world’s biggest economic, maritime, and military power: they are an example of the advantages that a good geographical setup brings. Moreover, he also shows that their isolated state created an entrepreneurial, can-do, and can-fix attitude which wasn’t always to their advantage. Indeed it is this belief that created their impulse to force-democratize other nations with different cultural and historical backgrounds, which in most cases was doomed to failure. Therefore, the U.S.A. is the perfect example of the influence that has geographies on other disciplines.