text:
Climatology/Temperature of the Atmosphere

Mechanisms of Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere
Heating and cooling of theatmosphere is performed by following processes:--
 * Partial absorption of solar radiation by atmosphere
 * Conduction
 * Terrestrial radiation
 * Convection
 * Advection
 * Latent heat of condensation
 * Expansion and compression of the air

Partial absorption of solar radiation by atmosphere
The solar  radiations  are  coming  to  the  earth  surface  directly  from  the  sun. It is  in  the  form  of short-wave radiation. They are so energized that atmospheric gases are unable to trap them. But the presence  of some  dust  particles  and water  vapour in  the  lower  level  of  troposphere  are capable of holding some energy directly coming from the sun.About 20% of the total incoming solar energy is trapped by the dust particles and vapour in the atmosphere.

Conduction
The literal  meaning  of  the  term  conduction  is passing  on  something  by  a  medium  without  any perceptible movement by itself. It is the transfer of something from one part to the other without any physical movement. Air is a very poor medium of heat conduction. It is a very slow process of transferring heat in a mass of air. By this method, air is heated, but its importance is not that great. Because, the air is in the gaseous state and its particles (molecules or atom) are not very solidly compacted. A very thin layer  which  is  very  close  to  the  earth  surface  is  heated  by  conduction  method.

Terrestrial Radiation
The terrestrial  radiation  is  the  most  important  method  of  atmospheric  heating. Out of  the  total solar electromagnetic radiations reaching at the top layer of the atmosphere, approximately 49% reaches to the earth’s surface.energy  is  reaching  the  earth  surfacein  the  form  of  shortwaveelectromagnetic radiations from the sun. The heated earth radiates back the same but in the form of long  wave  electromagnetic  or  infrared  radiations.Terrestrial  radiations  are  a  continuous  affair  all 24  hours  throughout  the  year. During day  time when sun is in the sky, the solar short wave incoming energy is greater than the energy lost from the earth surface (land and water).warming.htmlIt is also very true that there is a gradual decrease in temperature with increasing altitude within the troposphere. Greater temperature is recorded at the ground surface as the earth is heated first and then  the  heating  of atmosphere  starts.

Convection
The earth’s surface is heated with incoming solar energy. The air in contact with the surface is in gaseous form. Earth’s surface  heating  results  in  heating  of  the  airin  its  contact. But the  air becomes  less  dense  by  heating. It further  results  into  rising  of  the  warmed/  expanded  air molecules  upward. Upward moving  air  molecules  in  large  quantity  createa  convection. The occurrence  of  Hadley  cell, Ferrel’s  cell  and  Polar  cell  are  examples  of  atmospheric  convection. Therefore, convection transfers  the  heat  energy  received  from  the  sun  to  the  surface  and  from  the  surface  to  the atmosphere.

Advection
The meaning  of  advection  is  transfer  of  something  from  one  placeto  another  especially  in horizontal  direction. Atmosphere is  a  huge  body  of  air  and  it  has  differences  in  terms  of  its pressure  depending  on  several  affecting  factors. Due to  varying  pressure  at  local,  regional  and global level, atmospheric gases are continuously on move.The monsoonal air current movement is the example of regional advection while planetary permanent wind system signifiesthe global advection. All of them are transferring the heat from one area to another.

Latent Heat
Heat absorbed  or  released  due  to  change  of  the  state  of  any  matter  is  known  as  latent  heat. During this process, there is no change of temperature of that matter. In another words, it is the heat that  is  required  to  change  the  matter  to  a  higher  state  of  matter.one example; when  water  changes  from  one  state  to  another,  for  example,  water  vapour  to  liquid  water  and liquid water to solid water (ice), it absorbs or releases heat. The energy involved in this process is known  as  latent  heat,  popularlymeant for ‘hidden’ heat.

Latent Heat of Condensation
It is the amount of heat energy released to the atmosphere when condensation takes place. when one gram vapour is changed to water and calories is  released,  it  is  called  latent  heat  of  condensation,  because  it  is  reaching  to  the atmosphere due to the process of condensation.

Expansion and Compression of the Air
The mass is greater downward .It is due to this reason, any parcel of air, if it rises, going upward is expanded.Because the rising air is entering in the zone of less dense air, it results in expansion. Rising air expands and the intermolecular space is expanded and it causes the cooling in the air as well. It is also known as adiabatic cooling. That means, the cooling is caused by simply expansion of the volume of air.

Factors Affecting Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere
The erth is a sphere and the atmosphere is encircling around it .The distribution of energy on the earth surface and in atmosphere is varying to a great degree particularly with respect to latitude. The distribution of heat is affected by several factors important among them are:-
 * Latitude
 * Altitude and nature of earth’s surface
 * Distribution of land and water
 * Nature of ocean currents
 * Transparency of the sky
 * Slope aspects Latitude

Latitude
The light energy of the sun reaches to the earth’s surface to a maximum limit to 180 degree of angle.the low latitude areas are warmer and high latitude areas are colder.high latitude areas are much colder because of less effective heating.

Altitude and Nature of Earth’s Surface
The atmosphere is normally warmed by the longwave terrestrial radiations. Hence, low altitude are a has more temperature than the high altitude areas.The nature of the rock also affects the atmospheric heating and cooling. The areas possessing bare rocks have more intense heating by the sun’s energy. That type of area also radiates back more and more received energy and the result is quick heating of the air laying there.

Distribution of land and water
The earth surface is covered by land and water bodies.The land is an opaque to the incoming solar radiation while water is translucent.Whatever the heat energy reaches to the landbody, it is utilized to heat a thin layer of the land surface while the same amount of heat energy reaching to the water surface is penetrating to much deeper depths.

Ocean currents
Heating and Cooling Low latitude are as are warmer while the high latitude are as are colder. The temperature of the ocean water is also affected by the temperature distribution over the globe. Ocean currents are flowing under the influence of planetary wind system as well as the regional shape of these a coasts. Since the ocean currents are very important medium of heat transfer through advection from low latitude to the high latitude.

Transparency
Apart from the gases, several other minute suspended particle sand water vapour constitute the atmosphere. Though the gases are almost uniformly distributed, but other substances are varying at local and regional level. Their availability and quantity is season dependent also.

Slope Aspects
Slope of the any region or mountain has direct bearing on the heating or cooling of theair.The south facing slope of northern hemisphere and north facing slope of southern hemisphere receive more energy than their counterpart.

Horizontal Temperature Distribution
The energy  coming  from  the  sun  is  not uniform all  through the  globe .equatorial  region  is  hot  and  its  temperature  is  high  throughout  the  year. Generally, from equator  to  polewards, temperature  keeps  on  declining. The lowest  temperature  is  at  and near  the  pole.To represent distribution of temperature isotherms are used. Isotherm is an imaginary line joining the  places with  same temperature. If we draw the isotherm of certain time over the  world  map, we would be in a position to have spatial pattern of the distribution of temperature.We study about two position:--
 * 1) when  the  sun  is  overhead  at  Tropic  of  Cancer
 * 2) when the sun is overhead at Tropic of Capricorn

Sun Overhead on the Tropic of Cancer(July)
The sun  is  overhead at  the Tropic  of  Cancer  by  the  end  of third  week  of  June  (June  21st)  at 23.50N. Entire northern  hemisphere  witnesses  bright  sun,  greater  insolation  leading  to  high temperature throughout. But the maximum average monthly temperature is not recorded in June, but it  so  in  July.July  is  taken  to  study ideal  summer  month  for  northern hemisphere. The highest  temperature  is  recorded  over large  chunk  of  area  comprising Sahara desert  of  northern  Africa  and  desertic  parts  ofwest  central  Asia. This belt  runs  from  Sahara desert, via Arabia to Thar. The high temperature zone is extended to the Indo-Gangetic plain as well asTibetan plateau. This zone attracts the monsoon winds as it has intense low pressure due to high temperature. This low pressure zone is characterized by inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). During northern hemisphere summer days, the isotherms turns towards northward over land as it is hotter thanwater. The condition is reversed on the oceans as the water bodies are not that hot as the land is. Hence, the isotherms turns southward on the oceans of the northern hemisphere. Another low pressure system is developed over the north western Mexico and south western USA due to more intense record of temperature.

Sun Overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn (January)
The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn by the end of third week of December(December 21st)at 23.50S. Entire southern hemisphere witnesses bright sun, greater insolation leading to high temperature  throughout. But maximum  average   monthly   temperature   is   not   recorded   in December,  but  it is so  in  January.Therefore, case  of  January  is  taken  to  study ideal  summer month for southern hemisphere. Both major continents –South America and Africa are tapered towards south. The maximum  mean  temperature  of  January  is  about  320C  over  a  small  area  of  western Australian  desert. Over South  America  and  Africa,  it  is  around  270C. The area  bounded  by  the 270C isotherm is wide over continents as well as on the Indian Ocean. The temperature  gradient  is  increasing. It is greater in  the  northern  hemisphere particularly over the large landmass of Asia and North America. The lowest temperature around -400C is  recorded  on  the  polar  region  of  Canada,  Iceland  and  Asian  Siberia. Over the  northern oceans, isotherms are turned towards pole whereas on landmass their bends are towards south. It is because of the transport of heat from equatorial region to poleward through prevailing winds and ocean currents.

Inversion of Temperature
In certain  conditions,  temperature  is  not  always  declining  with  increasing  altitude but  it  rises. This situation is known as inversion of temperature. The term, inversion, means opposite to the normal. Since normal is fall intemperature with altitude, under inversion, it rises with increasing height.It happens when the air near surface is cooler than upper air.

Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion:--
Temperature inversion takes place only under certain conditions.
 * There has to be long and cool nights so that earth radiates received solar energy.
 * There has tobe clear sky so that terrestrial radiation escapes.
 * There has to be calm and stable air so thatvertical motion in the air is absent.

Types of Temperature Inversion
there are several types of inversion of temperature.
 * Ground inversion,
 * Valley inversion,
 * Subsidence inversion and
 * Frontal inversion

Ground Inversion
Ground inversion occurs when the surface is cooled rapidly by earth radiation under clear sky. In this way, temperature  above  the  ground  is  still  warmer  than  air  near  the  ground. When temperature near surface reaches todew level, the possibility of fog formation increases. Ground inversion is  very  common  in  the  higher  latitude  areas  or  during  winter  in  the  plain  even  inthe tropical regions.

Valley inversion
Valley inversion takes place  on  the  rolling  topography,  particularly  in  hilly  areas. In such situation, mountainslope becomes cool in the night and the air with its contact gets cooler. Cool air creeps  downward  along  the  slope  and  occupies  the  valley.The  warm  air  of  the  valley  is pushed up and thus the inversion of temperature is evident.

Subsidence inversion
Subsidence inversion takes place mostly insubtropical high pressure belts orleeward side of the mountain where  air  subsides. In either  of the  cases, subsiding  air  gets  warmed  in  thisprocess while the  lower  level  preexisting  air  is  cooler. The warming  is  achieved  about  100C  per  km of descending air.

Frontal Inversion
This type  of  inversion  of  temperature  takes  place  under  the  frontal formation  of  two  different  air  masses. Whencold and heavier  air  mass  under cuts warm  sector occupied by warm air mass, the warm air is lifted up. The ground is occupied with cold air, and thus, inversion is observed.


text: Category:Book:Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian Revolts

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text:
Climatology/Air pressure

Introduction
Atmosphere is  an  envelope  of  gases  circling  the  earth. It is  mainly  made  up  colourless  and odorless  gases  of  Nitrogen,  Oxygen,  Carbon-dioxide  and  many  more. Pressure can be defined as the force exerted by the atmosphere at a given place and time. Generally it is expressed in millibar (mb). The atmospheric pressure is determined by the mass of a column of air lying above a certain level or surface. The increase or decrease in pressure of the air is determined by various factors. Atmospheric pressure is a force of dry air exerted on a particular place or surface. The column of dry air causes the pressurization due to its own mass. The air above is exerting pressure on the lower level, and is also known as barometric pressure. Atmospheric pressure declines very rapidly with increasing height above the sea/earth surface.

The first atmospheric pressure measuring instrument was invented by  E.  Torricelliin in 1643. In Torricelli’s barometer, mercury was used. One inch of mercury pressure is equivalent to about 33.8639 mb at sea level. The air pressure is shown on maps using isobars -- lines that join sites with the same air pressure.

Pressure Gradient
The atmospheric pressure gradient refers to the change in the pressure per unit distance between two places  along  a  line  on  an  isobar  map  of  anyarea. The maximum  pressure  gradient  is observed along a line perpendicular to the isobar. It is more when the isobars are closely spaced, but when it is widely spaced, the pressure gradient is lesser.

Variation in the Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric pressure varies from place to place and from time to time. On the basis of time, diurnal and seasonal variations can be observed.

Diurnal Variation
The periodic pressure change is observed on daily basis. Two highs and two lows of air  pressure  is  seen  each  day. The high  point  occurs  at  10am  and 10pm  while the  low pressure  occurs  at  4pm  and  4am. This is  also  called  as semidiurnal  observation  in pressure variation. It is because of difference of 12 hours between them. The mean daily changes in the  air  pressure  can  be  found  out  by  calculating  the  average  hourly  observed  pressure  for  a long  time. Insolation, heating, cooling and radiation are the factors for the diurnal changes in the air pressure.

Seasonal or Annual Variation
The amount of insolation received in a particular region varies from one season to another season. Because of this variation, seasonal or annual variation in the atmospheric pressure  is  found. The amount of insolation received in a particular region varies from one season to another season. Because of this variation, seasonal or annual variation in the atmospheric pressure  is  found.

Factors Affecting Air Pressure
There are  three  important  factors  affecting  the  air  pressure. They are  temperature  of  the  air, altitude  and  moisture. Briefly known  as  TAM.
 * Temperature(T)
 * Altitude  (A)
 * Moisture  (M)

Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure  varies  from place  to  place  and  season  to  season. Its distribution over the globe is not uniform. Variation is seen in both perspectives :--
 * vertical
 * horizontal

Vertical Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure
The air is compressible.Its density is greater in lower layers as compared to the upper layers of the atmosphere.The atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height. The vertical  distribution  of  atmosphere  is  influenced  by  temperature,  water vapors and altitude. In  the   higher  altitude,  atmosphere  becomes  thin  and intermolecular  space  is  more.

Horizontal Distribution of Atmospheric Pressure
The distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure on  the  earth  is  explained across  the  latitude. Distribution of air pressure on the earth's surface is shown by means of isobars.Isobars are line drawn through points of equal pressure. This is considered  as horizontal distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure. distribution of  pressure  belts is  very  distinct  and  classifiable.Based  on  the  characteristics  of  different  belts,  they  are  grouped into four: They are:- Last three belt have  two cases of each –northern and southern hemisphere. In fact the  first belt has also two cases but both north and south cases of equatorial low forms a single belt. That is why, it is call as one.
 * Equatorial low pressure belt
 * Sub-tropical high pressure belt
 * Sub-polar low pressure belt
 * Polar high pressure belt

Equatorial Low Pressure  Belt
The Equatorial belt extends  from  10°  north  to  10°  south  latitude. It is  a thermally induced belt because here the temperature remains very high throughout the year due to the vertical sun’s rays.The average pressure in this belt is less rhan 1013millibars,but in the eastern hemisphere it is generally less than 1009milibars.there is almost an absence of horizontal movement of wind, the calm condition is termed as doldrum. The winds converging from both hemisphere’s high pressure belts results into a zone of convergence. It is known as inter tropical convergence zone  (ITCZ). The risen  air  from  the  equatorial  low  reaches  to  the  upper  troposphere  and  dragged  towards poles. By reaching in the tropics, air descends from 200to 350 latitudes in both the hemispheres. It is caused by cooling of the air. Cool air is heavier.

Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts
These belts are extended from 20°to 35°latitudes in both hemisphere. These belts are situated over tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn. There is subsidence of air from the upper troposphere in this zone. The wind moves equatorward to fill the temporarily created vacuum/ gap produced  by  rising  air  at  the  low  pressure  zone. Hence, an  atmospheric  cell  is  created  by rising air at equator –moving up –getting drifted towards pole –getting subsided due to cooling –becoming heavier –climbing down at sub-tropical high and finally moving towards equator to fill  the  gap  created  by  rising  air,This  cell  (circular  motion)  is  known  asHedley  cell .A  calm  and  feeble  wind  is  created  in  this  region  which  is known as horse latitude. In early day sailing vessel  with cargo  of  horses  was  very  difficult under such calm conditions. The horses were thrown into thesea to reduce the load of the ship.

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belts
These belts are found between 50° to 70° latitudes in both the hemispheres. These belts  are  induced  due  to  ascend  of  air  as  a  result  of  convergence  of  wind coming   from sub-tropical   high   pressure   belts   (westerlies)   and   polar   high   pressure   belts (easterlies).The air moving fromsub-tropical high to sub-polar low – rises above – gets cooled – diverted  towards  equatorward  and  descends  at  sub-tropical  high – makes  a  cell  (circulation motion) known as Ferrel’s cell.During  winter  season,  because  of  high  contrast  of temperature between  land  and  sea,  this  belt is  broken  into  two  low  pressure  centers  in  northern hemisphere one  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Aleutian  Island,  and  other  between  Iceland  and  Green Land. During the summer season, the variation is less.

Polar High Pressure Belts
High pressure prevails over both the polar regions due to excessive cold condition. The cold climatic condition itself is caused by slanting sun’s ray at the poles.These pressure zones, thermal factor is more important than dynamic factor. The air coming from polar region –rises  up  at  the  sub-polar  low –finally  pushed  towards  pole  and  descends  at  the polar high. This also makes a cell known as Polar cell.

Factors Controlling Pressure Belt System
There are  two  main  factors  controlling  the  pressure  belt  system  over  the  globe are following:--
 * Thermal factor
 * Dynamic factor

Thermal factor
Equatorial  region   receive   intense   solar   energy throughout  the  year. Polar regions  are  extremely  cold  throughout  the  year  due  to  less  effective and inclined solar rays. More solar energy in the equatorial region causes the air to expand and thus low air pressure is created.At poles, due to extreme cold conditions the air is very  cold  and  hence,  high  air  pressure  is  observed. Therefore, the  creation  of  equatorial  low and  polar  high  are  caused  by  thermal  factor. That is  why,  they  are  called  asthermally  induced pressure belts.

Dynamic Factor
The equatorial low as well as polar highs are explained by the thermal factors. But sub-tropical highs and sub-polar lows are not coming  into  the  line  of  thermal explanation. The warm  air  uplifted  from  the equatorial low is pushed towards pole and due to cooling it subsides over tropics. It is considered as a dynamic factor of the development of subtropical highs. wind blows from the subtropical highs to equatorial low as  well  as  towards  pole. Since pole  has  thermally  induced  high  pressure. Both winds meet in the subpolar low around 50 to 70 degree latitudes in both the hemispheres. Therefore, subpolar lows also have dynamic origin.

Changing Seasons and Pressure Belts
The earth’s  axis  is  inclined  by  66030’from  the  horizontal  plane. On this  inclined  axis,  it  is revolving around the sun. Due to this reason, the orbit around the sun is elliptical in shape The sun’s rays are vertical on equator on 21 March and 22 September. This situation is known as equinox. Equinox means the day and night areequal throughout the globe. The  wind   coming   from   both   the   hemispheres   converges   at   equator. It  is   inter   tropical convergence  zone  (ITCZ). After 21  March,  the  northern  hemisphere  starts  tilting  towards  the sun.January being on of the summer months in the southern hemisphere,the continent of Australia, Africa,and South America are warmer. there are distinct low pressure cell over them.Vertical sun rays in the northern hemisphere is marked by increasing energy. This energy heats the areas/ air. Therefore, ITCZ migrates towards north along the thermal equator. Since the ITCZ is temperature induced low pressure (already discussed before) the migration of ITCZ is marked by the shifting of all pressure belts northward.The maximum northward departure of sun is seen by 22 June, the effective maximum average energy received in the northern hemisphere is observed in  July. The northward  maximum  departure  of  ITCZ  is  seen  upto  25 degree from  equator .Land  is  getting  heated  much  quickly  as  well  as  greater  temperature  is  recorded  there,  but  the same  is  not  with  water  body/  oceans. Greater effective  energy  is  accumulated  over  the  land, ITCZ  is  also  havethe  tendency  to  depart  more  over  the  land. After 22  June,  the  retreat  is  seen  and  sun  again  shines  vertically  over  the  equator  by  22 September. Further onward the southern hemisphere is inclined towards the sun. The same case is repeated  in  the  case  of  southern  hemisphere  what  it  has  been  discussed  above. By 21 December,  sun  shines  vertically  over  the  tropics  of  Capricorn. After this  it  starts  northward migration and reached over the equator again by 21 March.

Seasonal Variations during July
End of  third  week  of  June,  the  sun  shines  directly  over  the  tropic  of  Cancer. After that sun’s  rays  starts  turning  towards  south. July is  the  hottest  month  recorded  in  the  northern hemisphere. Northward departures  of  the  inclination  of  sun’s  rays  from  last  week  of  March increases  the  temperature  in  northern  hemisphere. the ITCZ  keeps  on  moving northwards. Its maximum departure is seen upto 25 degree north latitude in the large chunk of land of Asia. the ITCZ shifting is northwards, its shift is minimum on the large water bodies of Pacific and Atlantic.The effectiveness  of  the  sun’s  departure  is  observed  till  July  as  it  is  the  hottest  month  for northern  hemisphere,  while  the  southern  hemisphere  witness  the  coldest  conditions  in  July.

Seasonal Variations during January
End of  third  week  of  September  the  sun’s  rays  become  vertical  towards  southern hemisphere. The effectiveness  of  solar  radiation  increases  in  southern  hemisphere  with  the passage  of  time,  but  simultaneously  it  keeps  on  decreasing  in  the  northern  hemisphere. It all happens due to inclined rays of the sun in the northern hemisphere.Increasing temperature  causes  the  high  atmospheric  pressure  region  turnsinto a  low  air  pressure  zone. The continuous  widespread  high  pressure  belt  is  confined  only  to the southern parts of Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. The subpolar low pressure belt is also reduces to a narrower belt in comparison to July. So the  case  of  northern  hemisphere  is  reversed  in  January  in  comparison  to  July. Everything is due  to  seasonal  changes due to  earth’s  revolution  round  the  sun. A huge  area  is  under  the influence  of  high  atmospheric  pressure.

title: Climatology/Air pressure


text: Category:Book:Climatology

title: Category:Book:Climatology


text:
User:Cynanthus

This page is under development.

title: User:Cynanthus


text: User talk:Poti Berik

title: User talk:Poti Berik


text: User talk:46.60.254.15

title: User talk:46.60.254.15


text:
User talk:RonnieV

Welcome, RonnieV!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 08:01, 16 July 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:RonnieV


text:
User talk:Andy Dingley

Welcome, Andy Dingley!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 08:02, 16 July 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Andy Dingley


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User:EricSharp/sandbox

i am curious. what does this all mean

title: User:EricSharp/sandbox


text:
SPM/CI

Continuous Integration

 * https://www.mathworks.com/help/matlab/matlab-unit-test-framework.html
 * https://github.com/matlab-actions
 * https://circleci.com/orbs/registry/orb/mathworks/matlab
 * https://marketplace.visualstudio.com/items?itemName=MathWorks.matlab-azure-devops-extension
 * https://blogs.mathworks.com/developer/category/continuous-integration/
 * Travis CI, CircleCI, Azure Pipelines
 * Jenkins, Artenolis
 * MOxUnit, MOcov, MOdox

title: SPM/CI


text:
FreedomBox for Communities/Digital Library

A community digital library might host files of various types like documents, books, audio, video, software etc. Hence a generic cloud solution must be used instead of specialized library software like Calibre which only manages ebooks.

A NextCloud server on the FreedomBox can be used to host the files for a community digital library. NextCloud does not have an official Debian package and must be installed manually.

Installing dependencies
Install the necessary Debian packages required for NextCloud. The following installation instructions are for NextCloud 16. Check whether all the required dependencies are installed against this checklist

Database setup
Setup PostgreSQL database. The following instructions are for PostgreSQL 11.

Open the psql console as user postgres Create a new user and database for nextcloud. Please use a strong password. Exit the console by pressing  or by typing   and enter.

Web installer
The easiest way to install NextCloud is using its web installer.

Add the web installer script to your Apache server root and set the permissions as follows: Access the web installer at the path https://<freedombox-url>/setup-nextcloud.php from a web browser. If the installer says that any dependencies are missing, install the corresponding Debian packages.

After the nextcloud files are setup, you will be prompted with a screen to enter admin credentials and database credentials.

After submitting the above details, the NextCloud installer will finish installation and log you in as the administrator user.


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Climatology/Wind

Introduction
Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn. Winds have various aspects: velocity (wind speed); the density of the gas involved; energy content or wind energy. Wind is also an important means of transportation for seeds and small birds; with time things can travel thousands of miles in the wind. Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions. Wind also affects the spread of wildfires.

Factor Affecting Wind Motion

 * 1) Horizontal Pressure (Gradient)
 * 2) Rotation of the Earth (The coriolis Force)
 * 3) Frictional Forces
 * 4) Centrifugal action of wind

Horizontal Pressure (Gradient)
Pressure gradient  is the  change  in  the  air pressure  per  unit  of  distance  travelled  along  a  certain line. In another words, it is an average change in barometric pressure per unit of distance along a certain linear direction in a given region. The pressure gradient  determines  the  direction  as  well  as  the  intensity  of  the  wind  blow. The winds always  blow  from  the  high  pressure  areas  to  the  low  pressure areas.Pressure  gradient  can  be  calculated  by  the  change  in  the  isobaric  values  (barometric  pressure generally in millibars per km (distance)).

Rotation of the earth - The Coriolis Force
Coriolis, practically speaking is not a force but it an effect which is observed on a mass of body in a rotating system. It results from the rotational movement of the earth and the movement of air in relation to the earth. It acts perpendicular to the axis of the earth.It is determined by the mass of the  body  and  its  rate  of  rotation. The earth  rotates  from  west  to  east  on  its axis. Hence, the Coriolis  force operates  in  north-south  direction. The Coriolis  force  is  zero  at  the  equator  and maximum  at  the  poles. This concept  was  first  explained  by  French  engineer  G.  G.  Coriolis in 1835, thus it is known by his name. One rotation  takes  about  24 hours. The velocity  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  is 1670  km/hour  (the  circumference  is  about 40000 km) along the equator which comesdown to half (835 km/hour) along 600 north and south latitudes.We  know  that  the  earth  is not  a  non-rotating body but, it rotateson its axis. When the air moves equatorward on the spinning earth in the northern hemisphere, the air is deflected to the right as the surface itself moves forward. The same thing also happens when the air is moving from equator to pole, i.e., rightward turning in the northern hemisphere.

Frictional Force
Air friction is the resistance to motion of air in relation to the surface roughness and irregularity  through  which  the wind  is  blowing. Frictional force  reduces the  velocity  of  the wind  near  the ground. Therefore, wind  is  most  affected  by  the  friction  andit  is  maximum  near the  ground. Above the  ground,  the  friction  is  reduced  very drastically.The surface irregularity and undulation is impacting the blowing winds. Within a height of about one km from the ground, the wind is creating eddies and straight blow is  heavily  affected. After that  the  velocity  is  increasing. Right moving  arrows  shows  the direction as well as the velocity of the winds.

Centripetal Force
Centripetal force operates at right angles to the blowing wind. It is the inward pulling force i.e. towards the  centers  of  rotation. Vertically above about a height of around 5.5 km, the  air  pressure  is  approximately  500  mb. By this  height,  the  friction  force  is almost terminated except over the highlands and mountains. Coriolis force  is  equal  to  centripetal  force  plus  pressure  gradient  force. But in case  of  high  pressure  where  anticyclone  is  developed  in  upper  troposphere,  pressure  gradient force is equal to Coriolis force plus centripetal force. In these conditions, the winds are blowing parallel to the isobars. It is called geostrophic winds by which the jet stream is developed.

Classification of Wind
They are classified in two broad categories:-
 * Permanent Winds or Invariable Winds or Planetary Winds
 * Variable Winds

Permanent Wind
Direction of winds remains more or less same throughout the year though their area change seasonally, such winds are called permanent winds these are related to thermally and dynamically induced pressure belts and rotation of the earth ,hence they are called planetary winds. these winds include trade winds,Westerlies and polar winds.

Winds in the Tropical Region
Areas extending between 30°N and 30°S latitude are include in tropical zone.trade winds blow from the subtropical high pressure belt to the Equatorial low pressure belts.there is a belt of calm or doldrum characterized by feeble air circulation.

Equatorial Westerlies
The westerlies, anti-trades,prevailing westerlies, are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30° and 60° latitude. They originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and trend towards the poles and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner. The westerlies are strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, in areas where land is absent, because land amplifies the flow pattern, making the current more north-south oriented, slowing the westerlies. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the roaring forties, between 40° and 50° latitude. The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents, especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.

Doldrums
The doldrums, usually located between 5° north to 5° south of the equator, are also known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone or (ITCZ ). The trade winds converge in the region of the ITCZ, producing convectional storms that produce some of the world's heaviest precipitation regions.The ITCZ moves north and south of the equator depending on the season and solar energy received. The location of the ITCZ can vary as much as 40° to 45° of latitude north or south of the equator based on the pattern of land and ocean. The Intertropical Convergence Zone is also known as the Equatorial Convergence Zone or Intertropical Front.

Trade winds
Trade winds blow in a belt lying between5°N-30°N in the northern hemisphere and 5°S-30°S in the southern hemisphere.As we all know that air travels through high pressure to low pressure. There is low pressure on the equator, while high pressure at the sub tropics. So, air moves from tropics toward equator. Due to corolis force and rotation of earth winds move toward left hand side in southern hemisphere and right hand side in northern hemisphere.

Polar Winds
Polar winds begin near the North and South Poles. Frigid air in the winter sinks toward the ground creating a high pressure area at the poles. These winds occur in both hemispheres.The polar easterlies Winds are also called Polar Hadley cells. they are dry, cold prevailing winds ,blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles towards low-pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes.

Variable Wind
It is type of local winds.Local Winds are produced due to local variability in temperature and pressure condition. Thus, they are more localised in their extent and cover limited horizontal and vertical dimensions and confined to the lower levels of the troposphere.

Surface winds
Surface friction plays an important role in the speed and direction of surface winds.it moves over the ground, wind blows across the isobars into a center of low pressure and out of a center of high pressure.the effects of surface friction, the winds, locally, do not always show the speed and direction that would be expected from the isobars on the surface weather map. These variations are usually due to geographical features such as hills, mountains and large bodies of water.Except in mountainous regions, the effect of terrain features that cause local variations in wind extends usually no higher than about 2000 feet above the ground.

Land and sea breezes
It is caused by the differences in temperature over land and water. The sea breeze occurs during the day when the land area heats more rapidly than the water surface. This results in the pressure over the land being lower than over the water. The pressure gradient is often strong enough for a wind to blow from the water to the land.The land breeze blows at night when the land becomes cooler.Then the wind blows towards the warm, low-pressure area over the water.Land and sea breezes are very local and affect only a narrow area along the coast.

Mountain Winds
Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow associated with the prevailing pressure system and the pressure gradient. Strong up and down drafts and eddies develop as the air flows up over hills and down into valleys.lines of hills and mountain ranges will act as a barrier. If there is a pass in the mountain range, the wind will rush through this pass as through a tunnel with considerable speed. Daytime heating and nighttime cooling of the hilly slopes lead to day to night variations in the airflow. At night, the sides of the hills cool by radiation. The air in contact with them becomes cooler and therefore denser and it blows down the slope into the valley. This is a mountain winds, also called katabatic wind or mountain breeze. If the slopes are covered with ice and snow, the katabatic wind will blow, not only at night, but also during the day, carrying the cold dense air into the warmer valleys. The slopes of hills not covered by snow will be warmed during the day. The air in contact with them becomes warmer and less dense. This is an anabatic wind or valley breeze. In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow is even more severe. Rocky surfaces, high ridges, sheer cliffs, steep valleys, all combine to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence.

Hot Local Winds
Hot Local winds are produced generally by the mechanism of downslope compressional heating also known as adiabatic heating. The examples of the Hot Local Winds include Chinook, Harmattan, Foehn, Sirocco, Norwester,, Khamsi, Loo etc.

Chinook
These are warm and dry winds blowing on the eastern slopes (leeward side) of the Rocky Mountain. They are the result of adiabatic heating which occurs due to downslope compression on the leeward side, as the mountain barrier creates frictional drag which tends to pull the air from the higher level down on the leeward and air forced down is heated adiabatically and at the same time its relative humidity is also lowered.The temperature in Chinook is so warm that it can remove the underlying snow cover/ice and sometimes these winds are so dry.

Foehn
Foehn is dry and warm wind resulting due to adiabatic heating on the leeward side of the Mountain range.These winds are more common on the northern side of Alps in Switzerland and with the arrival of these winds, there is a rapid rise in temperature. The Foehn winds are present throughout the winter and due to the presence of such winds the temperature increases, and valleys of Switzerland are called Climatic Oasis during the winter season.

Harmattan
These hot and dry wind originate from the Sahara Desert and blow towards the Guinea coast of Africa.Due to their journey over the Sahara Desert, these winds become extremely dry and as they pass over the Sahara Desert they pick up more sand especially red sand and turn dusty.these winds arrive in the western coast of Africa, the weather which is warm and moist before its arrival, turns into pleasant dry weather with low relative humidity, thus bringing great relief to the people. Due to this reason, they are also known as doctor winds in the Guinea coast area of Western Africa.

Sirocco
Sirocco is the warm, dry, dusty local wind which blows from the Sahara Desert over the central Mediterranean, southern Italy and Spain etc.the Sirocco descend through the northern slope of the Atlas Mountain they become extremely warm and dry. These winds carry red sand particle from Sahara due to which they cause red colour rainfall in southern Europe and this rainfall is called as Blood Rain.Sirocco winds are known as Levech in Spain and Leste in Morocco and Madeira, Gibli in Lybia, Chilli in Tunisia.

Loo
It originates from the Thar desert and has north-westerly to a westerly direction. They dominate during early summer in the months of March to May and create heat waves like condition in Northern India and adjoining parts.They have desiccating effects and are considered as environmental hazards.

Cold Local Winds
Cold local winds are dust-laden winds and they have a temperature below freezing point, they create Cold Wave condition.examples of Cold Local winds are - Mistral, Bora, Blizzard, Purga, Laventer, Pampero, Bise etc.

Mistral
It is a cold and dry wind which blows in the Spain and France from North-west to South-East direction, mostly occur during winter months.Due to the presence of the Rhome River, these winds are channelized into the Rhome valley due to which they become extremely cold. they pass through the narrow Rhome Valley, they turn into stormy northerly cold winds and their average velocity which is 55-65 km/hr to 128km/hr.

Boro
These are cold and dry north-easterly winds which blow from the mountains towards the eastern shore of Adriatic Sea.Bora is more effective in North Italy ,it descends the southern slopes of the Alps, although due to descend it gets adiabatically heated still its temperature is very low in comparison to the coastal area and these are the typical example of fall winds.These winds blow with strong gusts with velocities in the range of 128-200 km/hr.

Blizzard
Blizzard is cold, violent, powdery polar winds (pick dry snow from the ground). They are prevalent in the north and south polar regions, Canada, USA, Siberia etc. Due to the absence of any east-west Mountain barrier, these winds reach to the southern states of USA.

Buran
It is an extremely cold north-easterly or easterly wind which blows in the central Siberia and eastern Russia.

Jet Stream
Jet Stream are defined as swift geostrophic air streams in the upper troposphere that meander in relatively narrow belts.It exist in the higher levels of the atmosphere at altitudes ranging from 20,000 to 40,000 feet or more. A jet stream in the mid latitudes is generally the strongest.Jet Streams extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in both hemispheres.jet Streams develop where air masses of differing temperatures meet.So, usually surface temperatures determine where the Jet Stream will form.Greater the difference in temperature, faster is the wind velocity inside the jet stream.

Types of Jet Streams
There are three types of jet stream:-

Sub Tropical Jet Streams
It is developed in winter and early spring. Their maximum speed approaches 300 knots which are associated with the merger with polar-front jets. A subsidence motion accompanies subtropical jets and gives rise to predominantly fair weather in areas they pass over. Sometimes they drift northward and merge with a polar-front jet.

Tropical Easterly Jet Stream
It occurs near the tropopause over Southeast Asia, India, and Africa during summer. This jet implies a deep layer of warm air to the north of the jet and colder air to the south over the Indian Ocean.

Polar-Night Jet Stream
It meanders through the upper stratosphere over the poles. They are present in the convergence zone above the sub polar low pressure belt.

Characteristics of Jet Streams

 * Its genesis is associated with the thermal contrast of air cells, for example Hadley cell, Ferrel cell.
 * The meandering or the whirl movement of the Jet Stream is called Rossby Wave.
 * Equatorial extension of the Jet Stream is more in winter because of the southern shift of the pressure belts.
 * During winters, the thermal contrast increases and the intensity of the high pressure centre at the pole increases. It intensifies the formation of Jet Streams, its extension as well as its velocity.

title: Climatology/Wind


text:
FreedomBox for Communities/Media Streaming

Streaming of audio and video content for educational and entertainment purposes.

A multimedia server hosted on FreedomBox hosts content which is streamed to client devices over the network. The free software server chosen for this purpose is Jellyfin, a fork of the now proprietary Emby media server.

Installation instructions
Jellyfin has an unofficial Debian package which can either be installed manually or from their repository. Install it onFreedomBox by following the instructions for Debian.

Setting up Apache as reverse proxy
Create the file  with the following contents. Note: Do not set the path to /jellyfin as Jellyfin is served at /jellyfin by default. This would cause an infinite redirect.

Enable the above Apache configuration by running the following commands. Now the Jellyfin server should be available at https:///media


text:
Climatology/The Monsoon

The word ‘monsoon’ has been derived from the Arabic word Mausim which means season. The climate of India is described as the monsoon type. The monsoon word was used by Arab traders to describe a system of seasonal reversal of winds along the shores of the Indian Ocean. Monsoons are especially prominent within the tropics on the eastern sides of the great landmass, but in Asia, it occurs outside the tropics in China, Korea and Japan. In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in the south and the southeast.

Origin of Monsoon
Monsoon is a complex meteorological phenomenon. Experts of meteorology have developed a number of concepts about the origin of the monsoon:

Thermal Concept
Halley proposed the thermal concept. According to this hypothesis, monsoons are the extended land breeze and sea breeze on a large scale. During winter the huge landmass of Asia cools more rapidly than the surrounding oceans with the result that a strong high pressure centre develops over the continent. The pressure over adjacent oceans is relatively lower. As a consequence the pressure-gradient is directed from land to sea. In summer the temperature and pressure conditions are reversed. The huge landmass of Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low pressure centre.

Criticism of Halley's hipothesis includes:
 * It fails to explain the intricacies of monsoon such as sudden burst of monsoon, breaks in monsoon, spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon.
 * The low pressure areas are not stationary.
 * The rainfall is not only convectional but a mix of orographic, cyclonic and convectional rainfall.

Regional aspects of monsoons
The regional aspects of monsoons are as follows:
 * 1) Summer monsoon or SW monsoon in India and Southeast Asia.
 * 2) The Australian NW monsoon.
 * 3) The West African monsoon.
 * 4) The winter monsoon over Malaysia and Indonesia.

Recent Concept of the Origin of Indian Monsoon
After the Second World War, the upper atmospheric circulation has been studied significantly. It is believed that the differential heating of sea and land alone can’t produce the monsoon circulation. Recent concepts of monsoons heavily on the role of:
 * Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as a physical barrier and a source of high-level heat.
 * Circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
 * Existence of an upper air circumpolar whirl over north and south poles in the troposphere.
 * The occurrence of ENSO (El-Nino and Southern Oscillation) in the South Pacific ocean.
 * Walker cell in Indian Ocean.
 * Indian Ocean Dipole.

The Onset of the Monsoon
Out of a total of 4 seasonal divisions of India, monsoon occupy 2 divisions:
 *  The southwest monsoon season: Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June and September.
 * The retreating monsoon season: The months of October and November are known for retreating monsoons.

Onset of the South-West Monsoon
The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by over the warm tropical seas. The duration of the monsoon is between 100 and 120 days from early June to mid-September. The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the apparent movement of the Sun. During the month of June, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards. The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start blowing in southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis force. These winds collect moisture as they travel over the warm Indian Ocean. In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25° N latitude. It located in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. These winds approach the land, and their southwesterly direction is modified by the relief and thermal low pressure over northwest India.

The monsoon approaches the Indian landmass in two branches:
 * The Arabian Sea branch - The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea.
 *  The Bay of Bengal branch - The Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction.

Retreating Monsoon Season
The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rising temperatures.The land is still moist.the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the October heat. In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in northern India. The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it is associated with rain in the eastern part of the Peninsula. Here, October and November are the rainiest months of the year. The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions which originate over the Andaman Sea. These tropical cyclones are very destructive. A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from these depressions and cyclones.

title: Climatology/The Monsoon


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/ENglond be glad pluk vp thy lusty hart (Unattributed)

[ff. 100v-102r]

ENglond be glad pluk vp thy lusty hart. help now thi kyng and tak his part Ageynst the frenchmen in the feld to fyght In the quarell of the church and in the ryght with spers and sheldes on goodly horsys lyght. 5 bowys and arows to put them all to flyght

helpe now thi kyng

Textual Commentary
Providing a brief and optimistic characterization of battle (ll. 5–6) and summation of the cause for Henry’s war with France of 1513 (l. 4), this lyric urges support for the king in that campaign, on which he was accompanied by the Chapel Royal. “Pray we to god that all may gyde” (H 65), which follows this lyric, is of the same occasion.

 * 1   . . . pluk vp thy lusty hart  Cf. “Comfort at hand! Pluck up thy heart” (in DBla), attributed to Wyatt.

 * 4   quarrell   Cause, ground or occasion of complaint leading to hostile feeling or action (OED “quarrel” n.3 2).

The unattributed “ENglond be glad pluk vp thy lusty hart” is through-set in three voices.

This piece is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 134.5 and Ringler MS TM76. It is reprinted in Chappell Account 383, Flügel Anglia 250, Flügel Neuengl 161, Stevens M&P 417–18, and Stevens MCH8 74.

Texts Collated
H1,2,3 (ff. 100v–102r).

 * 1   lusty hart.] hart^ H2

 * 2   and tak his part] and tak his part and take hys part. H1,3, and take his and take his part. H2

 * 4   in the ryght.]  in thi ryght. H2, thi ryght. H3

 * 6   to put them all to flyght] to put them all to flyght to put them all to flyght. H1, to put them all to flyght to put them all to flyght. H2, to put them all to flyght. H3

 * 7   helpe now] now helpe H3


text:
User:Asimpson08/sandbox

Name of the script (author's variation of the script if applicable)
Describe the context and purpose of the script.

Status:
Under development

Primary nature of group task:
Convergent Divergent Evaluative Presentation

Time
Preparation time: 0 minutes

Time required during session: 30 minutes

Follow-up time: 0 minutes

Materials

 * 1) Post-its
 * 2) Markers

Inputs:

 * Causal Loop Diagram(s) or Stock and Flow Diagram(s) created by the group, posted in the room or projected on the screen

Outputs:

 * A list of action ideas created by the participant group
 * A visual representation of where each action impacts the model

Roles

 * Facilitator
 * Runner

Steps

 * 1) Step 1
 * 2) Step 2
 * 3) * Substep 2.1
 * 4) * Substep 2.2

Evaluation Criteria:

 * First criteria
 * Second criteria

Authors
List the names of the people or community that created the script along with the year

History
This script was in response to the feeling that interventions lost any connection to the model in the traditional "Action Ideas" script

Revisions
Revisions since the script was last published

title: User:Asimpson08/sandbox


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Pray we to god that all may gyde (Unattributed)

[f. 103r]

Pray we to god that all may gyde that for or kyng so to provid to send hym power to hys corage he may acheffe this gret viage. now let vs syngg this rownd all thre                                      5 sent george graunt hym the victory.

Textual Commentary
“Pray we to god that all may gyde” is a prayer for victory in France (1513). “ENglond be glad pluk vp thy lusty hart” (H 64), which precedes this lyric, is of the same occasion; see the commentary to that lyric.

 * 2   or  Our.

 * 3   corage  Boldness, bravery, and valour; see Henry’s “The tyme of youthe is to be spent” (H 19.10, note).

 * 4   viage  Voyage, a journey, task, or expedition undertaken with a military purpose (OED “voyage” n 2).

The unattributed “Pray we to god that all may gyde” is transcribed here as a round.

The piece is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 2766.8 and Ringler MS TM1335. It is reprinted in Chappell Account 383, Flügel Anglia 250, Flügel Neuengl 161, Stevens M&P 418, and Stevens MCH8 75.

Texts Collated
H1 (f. 103r).

 * [7]   omit pray H1


text:
User:A diehard editor

Hello! I am A diehard editor. I like to edit articles on Wikitravel, Wikipedia, and here, Wikibooks. My main interest in Wikibooks is editing the Wikijunior section. I like to make books that kids will enjoy.

I decided to contribute to the Wikimedia Foundation as it sounds like an adventure. I also like to edit when I’m bored and can’t find something to do. I have a really great ammount of intelligence.

title: User:A diehard editor


text:
User:BigBendRegion

Hello! I am a retired statistics professor. I have a Ph.D. from the University of California at Davis in Statistics, am a Fellow of both the American Statistical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and am former editor of The American Statistician. My "main" claim to fame is my development of resampling methods for familywise error rate-controlling multiple testing/comparison methods, but more recently I have become interested in correcting outdated and incorrect notions of kurtosis that are remarkably persistent.

title: User:BigBendRegion


text:
Baroque Macedonia and the Macedonian Revolts/Chapter 2 : Early life of a rebellion leader

Chapter 2
Early life of a rebellion leader

It was winter the month of December, 1685 the Wallachian countryside was covered with thick snow, Karposh was outside cutting firewood preparing for the cold winter months ahead. A snow leopard was howling in the distance, the time was approximately 6:00 pm the winter sun had already descended into the mountainous region of the town. Karposh was living in Wallachia and working as a miner. The mining industry was booming in Wallachia. Karposh would go to work with his neighbor and work at a Tin mine located 20 kilometres from the small town of Craiova. The tin mine was in the Oltenia region of Wallachia. Back in 1417 Wallachia accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, and by the early 1680's the Ottoman Empire increasingly relied heavily on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of it's military equipment and a military force was established. The local Wallachian army however soon disappeared, due to the increased costs and the more efficient mercenary troops that replaced the local army had a better chance at maintaining order for a reduced salary. Karposh was born in the village of Vojnica, Ottoman Macedonia, the village of Vojnica was part of the Caska Municipality, it was a very small village with a population of roughly 340 people, most of them of Macedonian origin but there were also Aromanian locals living in Vojnica.

At an early age Karposh's father was executed by the Ottoman authorities for planning a rebellion and providing the Macedonian revolutionary groups with ammunition and guns. The Ottoman authorities were always out on patrols looking for suspicious activities especially from the young Macedonian communities. What Karposh wanted to do later in life was to go back to Ottoman Macedonia and join a revolutionary army, one that was known to him. After gaining experience working as a mining labourer in Wallachia, Karposh began to feel like he wanted to do more with his life. Because of the repetitive work Karposh felt that it was time to change his whole life around.

Mining work was a very difficult occupation, most of the time Karposh spent many hours underground away from the fresh air and environment. Sometimes while digging the soil fell on Karposh's head and also in his eyes. His supervisor gave Karposh a helmet. After a day's work Karposh would sometimes go for a long walk on the grassy hills just a few metres from the cottage. This was to clear his head and to breathe some clean air. Karposh lived in a village one that was scattered miles away from any town. In order for Karposh to visit a doctor he would need to travel 20 kilometres to reach the closest town. While staying at the cottage in Wallachia, Karposh had to feed a number of cows, the cows were very stubborn and required a cattle dog to chase them so they do not wander off out of the fenced perimeter of his landlord's property. Some of the cows were white and some were brown, their fur and milk was important to their landlord. Karposh sometimes helped his landlord with the milking of the cows. Milking was a time-consuming activity and required to start at 5:00 am, early morning. Karposh was also required to help his landlord to gather the cows into the barn.

On December 1686, he moved back to Ottoman Macedonia and was happy with how much money he had saved while living in Wallachia. During Karposh's time in Ottoman Macedonia he witnessed a situation with the community in the town. The people of the town where Karposh lived drastically converted their religion, to follow the Ottoman Turkish religion of Islam. This, at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, led to mass conversions to Islam in the Tikvesh, Kichevo and Debar regions as well as in Razlog and Bregalnica. The Macedonians always spoke a Slavic dialect regardless whether they were under Ottoman occupation, however some of them or most of them also knew Ottoman Turkish as their main language. Most Macedonians lived next to other Macedonians, it was very rare for a Macedonian family to be living in a city that was over populated with Turkish communities. Slavic-speakers of Ottoman Macedonia predominating in the rural parts of the country, laboured in Turkish chifliks in the plains or inhabited free mountainous villages and worked as itinerant specialized craftsmen. Macedonians were also seen working as merchant men or women having their own shops or stores. It was also common for Macedonians to work as farmers, many worked on apple, orange, grapes, or tobacco fields, some would also work as agronomists or greenhouse technicians.

Karposh had many reasons for going to Wallachia, one reason was to gain a steady income and to save money. The other reason was to live a stress free life away from Ottoman Macedonia. Karposh was back in Ottoman Macedonia now and decided to join a revolutionary group. In preparing for an uncertain future ahead he purchased a rifle and a sword and began training extensively. His combat skills had increased overnight and he would also visit certain schools in a number of towns and managed to organize the collecting of money. Which will later be used to purchase ammunition and guns. He decided that in order to start an uprising or a revolt, he would need the assistance of many men, an uprising was a very crucial and important situation one that required the right time, and the right people.

In the beginning it was very difficult to find men who were good with guns, all types of guns or even swords. Men that were not afraid of being injured or killed in the struggle for freedom. He managed to sign up at least 10 men from the town of Dospat which was very interesting to him. He later travelled to the town of Kratovo and signed up a total of 15 men. He was aware that in the Macedonian forests located in the north-eastern region there was a cottage where a man produced gunpowder, and ammunition. Karposh would visit this man and asked him if he could sell him ammunition at a reduced price, and the man agreed. Karposh continued to look for men within Ottoman Macedonia, and eventually signed up a total of 112 men, most of them being Macedonian, who were very young and able to shoot with 100% accuracy.

The most vulnerable people during the Ottoman-Macedonian wars were the peasants, in order to prevent further torture and exploitation, they hid their grain and refused to plough their land or more appropriately their landlords farms. To protect their villages from the Ottoman bashi-bazouks they joined revolutionary groups. Bands of peasant deserters took to brigandage and some of them were offered commander roles or positions. Contemporaries and historians have often referred to some or all of these various forces as " voivoda or voivode ".

So with a total of 137 men Karposh had decided that now is the time to start an uprising. Most of the revolutionaries were very young and most of them were from Ottoman Macedonia. According to historical sources Karposh had signed up approximately 200 revolutionaries, most of them being from cities like : Uskup, Kumanovo, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka and so on. But there were also rebels from the region of Demir Hisar, from cities like : Monastir (Bitola), Ohrid, Resen, and so on. One evening Karposh was alone at his home in Vojnica and was thinking to himself, what is most necessary in starting an uprising and he thought that there are three things that are fundamentally necessary in starting a successful uprising and these were the following factors : 1) Money, 2) Men and 3) Courage. Of those three factors money was the most important one. Without money you could not buy any guns, ammunition, or gunpowder. Another less important factor was also horses, some of Karposh's men had no horses and this was very common among the young revolutionaries who did not own a horse or a donkey. Karposh was interested in forming cavalry units or groups as these types were very effective in circling or surrounding the enemies.


text:
Conlang/Intermediate/Grammar/Forms/Sources

 * Head
 * The Head Parameter in Morphology and Syntax, Jack Hoeksemam, 1990.
 * Righthand head rule, Wikipedia.


text:
Interesting social sciences/Political science

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hjm4vhZ_Hc&ab_channel=%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2

Origin and functions of the state.

English subtitles exist in this video. Various theories of the origin of the state. The political system as an open system.

Political power
The political power is an ability to exercise social control over activity of people in the sphere of policy. The politician - controller has an opportunity to present norms, for example, in the form of laws and to apply sanctions against citizens. The politician - controller has an opportunity to introduce of political stereotypes in consciousness of citizens with help of mass media.

The political sphere includes of relations between such social groups as strata and classes. The political sphere includes of relations between the countries. The political relations consist of the relations of the conflict and control between strata and classes. The political relations consist of the relations between the countries. Politics is the art of governance. The policy is an art of social control and conducting the social conflicts. The main examples of political conflicts is war and elections. The main examples of political norms are laws. The main examples of political sanctions is a death penalty, imprisonment, the exile, tortures.

'''Is the State a tool of oppression or defender of the interests of all citizens (and rich and poor citizens)? '''

From the point of view of marxism, three formations, three eras of domination of three exploiter classes – slaveholders, feudal lords and capitalists replace each other in the history of society. Slaveholders exploited of slaves, feudal lords exploited of serfs, capitalists  exploited of hired workers. According to Vladimir Lenin, the state is tool of the oppression.

According to democrats and liberals, the state protects of interests of all citizens, the state protects of interests of the rich and the poor citizens, the state is a great social invention which will never disappear.

A political system
The political system is an open developing system which consists of such elements as the government, parliament or in other words legislative authority, political parties, army, court, police, bureaucracy. A development of political system happened in the course of historical development of society. A development of political system was shown, in particular, in an invention of all new and new elements of political system. As any open system, political system has an entrance and an exit and political system seeks to maintain balance. If challenges and threats arise on an entrance of political system, that answers have to appear to these challenges at the exit of political system. These answers have to be adequate to challenges, otherwise the political system can lose balance and political system can die from these challenges and threats.

Examples of this challenges:
 * Threat of invasion and war from other country. The adequate answer is modernization of army with help of more modern weapon, increase in number of army and military expenses.

 * Threat of hunger among the population. The adequate answer is economic reforms, introduction of the market relations and a private property, conquest of new fertile lands in colonies, taxation by a tribute of the subdued people.

 * Rebellion on the outskirts of the country. The adequate answer is sending of troops to these areas and punishment of instigators of a mutiny, another adequate answer is the economic help to inhabitants of these margins of the country.

Violation of balance of political system leads to civil war and mass riots. The state is a legal, lawful center of the power during period of maintaining balance. The state seeks to destroy and weaken the power of criminal world during this period by means of court and police. Criminal world is the spare illegal center of the power during period of maintaining balance. There is a weakening of the power of the state and temporary strengthening of the power of criminal world during violation of balance, during revolution, during the period of civil war and mass riots.

The criminal world takes away partially of his function at the state during this revolutionary period of history:

 * The criminal world begins to collect of taxes instead of bureaucracy in the form of racketeering (crime),

 * The criminal world begins to judge and resolve economic disputes instead of court. The criminal world begins to punish of guilty persons instead of police.

Violation of balance is named revolutionary situation. Revolution is a process when one social group takes away of political power from other social group by force of arms.

The State
Many definitions of notion of the state exist because scientific disputes exist around definition of this notion. In my opinion, the state is a political organization which controls activity of citizens in society. The state is a complex developing system which consists of several organizations – the government, local government, bureaucracy, army, branches of criminal justice system (police, court, prison). The government directs of all these organizations. The state is built as the bureaucratic organization, that is as hierarchy or a pyramid on the basis of administrative control. It is necessary to distinguish notions of the state as the political organization, and the state as the country having the territory. It is necessary to consider here that the state is the political organization.

The police has function of detection of facts of crime, of search of suspect people, of their arrest, of investigations of criminal case, of referral of the criminal case to the court, of delivery of the suspect man in court. The court has function of consideration of the criminal case and judgement about guilt or innocence of the defendant man. The executioner has function enforcement of the sentence – to torture or to execute of criminal man. Defendant men and criminal men are contained in prison in the conditions of strict isolation, other type of punishment  (imprisonment for a certain term in prison) began to be applied instead of tortures and executions  later. The purpose of this reform consists in that to try to cancel inhuman tortures and executions, inhuman corporal punishments, but this attempt couldn't be finished because it is impossible to cancel of any great social invention in society, including it is impossible to cancel of corporal punishments and prison. Anyway guard in prison or policeman has to apply of murder in case of need in the course of arrest or attempt of escape from prison of the criminal people. For example, it is impossible often to arrest of the criminal man without fight and infliction of bodily injury of actively resisting and armed criminal man. Guard can subordinate of the rebellious criminal in prison only by means of a rubber baton often. Guard can put  of handcuffs on criminal man,  guard can kill of criminal man, under attempt of escape from prison or attack on guard,  guard can place of criminal man  to the solitary prison cell and to feed with one bread and water, to maintain air temperature in prison cell not higher than +14 degrees. Other softer sanctions don't affect on some criminal men.

The food and money are necessary that to feed and to dress of ruler, his army and branches of criminal justice system (police, court, prison). Bureaucracy has this first function of taxation from citizens. This is first function of bureaucracy. Kiev Prince was forced to travel over the territory at the head of armed team and to collect of tribute from tribes subordinated to him before emergence of bureaucracy in Russia. Military revolts of subordinated to him tribes happened sometimes at that time, for example, Drevlyans have killed of Prince Igor of Kiev for this reason in 945 because of too high norm of a tribute.

Vassal‐fief system was invented in Western Europe in the conditions of lack of bureaucracy in the Middle Ages when the vassal collected himself a tribute from serfs subject to him, vassal spent this tribute that to feed and to dress of himself and purchase of weapon.

The second function of bureaucracy were the leadership of building of irrigational systems and grandiose constructions – the Egyptian pyramids, the Chinese wall, temples, palaces and city walls in the Ancient East, building of the plants and hydroelectric power stations in the USSR.

The bureaucracy has function of control over an education system, health care, the system of social insurance, to some extent – over the sphere of economy in the modern states. There was a democratic revolution that has led to radical reform of the state in the West during the late modern period during the American Revolution. There was a system separation of three branches of the power – executive power, legislative power and judicial power.

Executive power controlled two others earlier, and these three branches control each other today. This system of separation of powers is created with the purpose to prevent cruel government of the ruler (tyrant). The ruler inherited of throne earlier, the ruler took of throne by means of military force or ruler received a throne on elections in the aristocratic senate earlier. All citizens of the country began to choose of ruler for limited term on a general election in the conditions of representative democracy today.

Decrees and actions of the ruler are limited by the law. Decrees and actions of the ruler shouldn't contradict to articles of the constitution in the conditions of representative democracy today. The ruler issued laws himself earlier, and the ruler is forced to obey laws issued by Parliament today. The parliament is a legislative power. The parliament consists from deputies. Citizens of the country have the right to elect of deputies and the president of country for limited term. The constitutional court monitors for observance of articles of the constitution. The constitution is accepted at the constituent assembly or on a referendum. Citizens have the right to elect deputies of the constituent assembly or to vote for adoption of the new constitution or against adoption of the new constitution. The state was invented in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia. Construction of irrigating systems was the main function of the state in those ancient times.

The modern state has three main functions:

 * Maintenance of public order in the country. This function is performed by branches of criminal justice system (police, court, prison)

 * Protection of borders and the territory from the external enemy. This function is performed by army.

 * Tax collection. This function is performed by bureaucracy. The financial means collected as taxes are spent for the maintenance of the government, army, branches of criminal justice system (police, court, prison), local government, the bureaucracy and also for the maintenance of education, health care, development of  culture, sciences and for social policy (pensions and benefits of social welfare).

Theories of origin for the State

Formation of the state at the different nations went by various ways. It has caused various points of view in an explanation of the causes of emergence of the state.

 * Theological theory as one of the most ancient theories of emergence of the state. Theological theory recognizes that the emergence and existence of the state is result manifestations of God's will therefore the government power is eternal, firm and submission of government power is natural. Governors act on behalf of God, and the laws issued by governors correspond to divine justice. This theological theory has found accurate expression in the remained literary monuments of the Ancient East where God hands to the Pharaoh the power and the code of laws. This theory have received widest circulation  during an era of the Middle Ages and this theory had the main goal - justification of superiority of the church power over secular power. The monarch has to submit to church. However supporters of the independent imperial power, on the contrary, claimed that emperors have received the sword directly from god, but not from the Pope. Most of scientists are atheists (non-believers in God) therefore  this theory is unsubstantiated for  most of scientists.

 * The patriarchal theory treats origin of the state as result of historical growth of patriarchal family. Aristotle treated the state as a product of propagation, resettlements and associations of families. The government power is continuation and development of the fatherly power. This theory was developed by Confucius in China. The power of the emperor likened to the power of the father where younger people depend from senior men and citizens have to be devoted to rulers. Rulers have to care for the citizens as it is accepted in family. Robert Filmer (17 century) was a supporter of the patriarchal theory, Robert Filmer proved in the work "Patriarcha, or The Natural Power of Kings" that the power of the monarch is unlimited because power of the monarch proceeds from Adam, and  Adam, in turn, has received own power from God. Adam was not only a father of mankind, but also his lord. Monarchs are Adam's successors and monarchs have inherited  own power from Adam. The Russian sociologist Nikolay Mikhaylovsky (years of life: 1842 - 1904) was a follower of the patriarchal theory. This theory has received modern sounding in the idea of the state paternalism, that is acceptance by the state on themselves of care about own citizens when these citizens get into a difficult situation when citizens get into in a condition of a disease, disability or unemployment.

 * According social contract theory, the state has arisen as a result of the conclusion of social contract. People have agreed among themselves to unite in the state union, to create the government power and to submit to the government power. Social contract theory has spread in 17-18 centuries, and Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Alexander Radishchev were brightest representatives of this theory. They considered that the contract on formation of the state was signed between each member of society and the state.  People have transferred part of own rights on social contract to the state which undertakes to protect their property and safety. These authors recognized that the state of nature preceded to the state. State of nature was interpreted by various scientists in different ways. For example, Thomas Hobbes considered that state of nature was a condition "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes).  Jean-Jacques Rousseau, on the contrary, recognized that people had natural, born rights and freedoms in conditions of state of nature that state of nature was  "Golden Age" of mankind. But social inequality has arisen after emergence of a private property. According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, sovereignty in the state belongs to the people in general, and rulers act only as representatives of the people and rulers are obliged to report before people. Rulers can be replaced at will of the people including with help of a revolt.

 * Theory of violence explains the emergence of State with help of idea of conquest of some tribes by other tribes. Winners aspire after conquest with help of violence to strengthen of own domination and winners form the state organization for these purposes. Representative of the theory of violence Karl Kautsky (1854 - 1938) claimed that slavery arises from war with foreign tribes, the tribe of winners subordinates to itself defeated tribe, the tribe of winners appropriates of earth of defeated tribe and then the tribe of winners forces of defeated tribe to work on winners, the tribe of winners forces of defeated tribe to render tribute or taxes for benefit of winners. An enforcement apparatus arises for management of defeated tribe also. Eugen Dühring, Ludwig Gumplovich adhered to this concept. For example, the German tribe of francs has won the Roman province Gallia and the German tribe of Francs has created of the state here,  the leader by the name of Clovis I directed by conquerors, the empire of Francs was created by Charlemagne. Alexander the Great  has conquered Greece, Persia, Egypt and other countries of the Ancient East and Alexander the Great has created the state here. Ancient Rome has conquered the countries of the Mediterranean and Ancient Rome has created the state here.

 * Organic theory. Herbert Spencer was her leading representative. Herbert Spencer used analogies and terms from biology, Herbert Spencer compared society with a biological organism, carefully finding out their similarity and distinctions. The state reminds a brain in a social organism.

 * Marxist theory of origin of the state. Her main postulates are stated in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels works who considered that the state is a tool of oppression of poor classes in hands of a ruling class. This role of the state is provided with help of creation of enforcement apparatus (army, police, court, prison and so on).

 * Psychological theory. One of her founders professor Leon Petrazycki (1867 - 1931) explained emergence of the state with help of  special characteristics of human psyche, in particular with help of aspiration of people to submission, with help of aspiration of people to search of the authority which can subdue these people. The constant dependence of primitive people from the authority of leaders, from shamans and sorcerers, fear before their magic force led to emergence of the government power which people submit voluntarily. Such scientists as Gabriel Tarde, James George Frazer, Nikolai Korkunov, Maksim Kovalevsky adhered to the psychological theory.

 * The irrigational theory is connected with a name of the German scientist Karl August Vittfogel. Karl August Vittfogel explains of emergence of the state in the work "East despotism"with help of need of building of huge irrigational constructions in agrarian areas. And it is fact that processes of creation of huge irrigational systems were in the first city - states of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China. The layer of officials was created in this regard, officials directed these works. These works, according to  Karl August Vittfogel, demanded the rigid centralized management, distribution, account and so on. This theory reflected of some real processes happening in the countries of the Ancient East.

Conclusion: in my opinion, the main reason of emergence of the state were the need to construct the system of social control in society, the system of norms (laws) and the system of sanctions (originally, mainly,   such sanctions were corporal punishments). Both the leader, and the conqueror could be builders of this control system. The state has arisen in Kievan Rus' in such way as the invitation on a throne in Novgorod of Varangian (Swedish) princes – Rurik, Sineus and Truvor with team. Then the prince Oleg has conquered of Kiev and prince Oleg has made Kiev by the capital of the new country – Kievan Rus'. Varangians have taught of Russians to build of army, to issue of laws. The Norman theory has arisen later, according to this Norman theory, Russians aren't able to govern without Germans. But much and other teachers were in Russia, except Germans, for example, Greeks, Mongol - Tatars, Englishmen and Americans. By the way, Mongol - Tatars and Golden Horde have taught of Russians to collect taxes, to build bureaucracy and tyranny. Englishmen and Americans have taught of Russians to build representative democracy. Russians surpassed and won against own "teachers" in war and Russians even turned of own "teachers" into own colony sometimes, that is Russians turned of own "teachers" into own "pupils" sometimes. For example, Russia was colony of the Golden Horde from 1237 to 1480 (Tatar - Mongolian yoke). Then Russia has won against the Golden Horde under Ivan the Terrible. Russia has taken Kazan (in 1552) and Astrakhan (in 1556), as a result Russia has taken the Volga region, Siberia (The Siberian campaign of Yermak Timofeyevich in 1581 — 1585) and the Russian Far East which are the Russian colony today. The Russian emperor Peter the Great has won against Charles XII of Sweden in 1721. Peter the Great has taken away Estonia (the Russian colony till 1991), Latvia (the Russian colony till 1991), Ingria from Swedes. Peter the Great has made these lands by own colony. Then Finland became by Russian colony from 1809 to 1917. Sweden was "teacher" for Russia until this moment. The Russian empress Catherine the Great has won against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Catherine the Great has made the main part of Poland (russian colony from 1815 to 1915) and Lithuania (russian colony from 1795 to 1991) by own colony as a result of 3 partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795) and victory of Russia and Britain over France under Napoleon 1 (Congress of Vienna 1815). Poland was "teacher" for Russia until this moment too. Russia has won against Germany in union with the USA, Britain and France in 1945 and Russia has made East Germany, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia by own colonies till 1989. East Prussia together with capital Konigsberg became by region of Russia with 1945, the German population was evicted from there.

Ludwig Gumplovich
The main his book is "The Race Struggle". (1883) Other his work is "The Outlines of Sociology". (1899).

Social evolution begins where one primary social group - the horde or race - faces with other similar group. According to Ludwig Gumplovich, the state has arisen in results from fight of races, tribes or hordes. The state has arisen by violent way with help of conquest and enslavement of one race by another race. Unlike other representatives of Social Darwinism and racism, Ludwig Gumplovich doesn't define of race by biologically. According to Ludwig Gumplovich, the race represents historically developed ethnic community united by the sociocultural moments. These collisions lead, at last, to conquest of weak group by strong group. The minority wins majority always thanks to military discipline and intellectual superiority of minority.

Domination of one social group over another social group has to be organized in the known way. The state is the organization of domination of minority over the majority. The state creates a family, a property and a right. The ruling class carries out domination, forcing of subordinate class to work for itself. Originally, the ruling class carries out domination with help of brute force. Subsequently, the ruling class carries out domination with help of maintenance of a certain law and order in the state. Life of the state goes like circulation: state is born, state endures the period of blossoming and perishes. Then state passes the same cycle again. Ludwig Gumplovich connects death of the state with change of a ruling class in state.

The form of government passes in any state from "unlimited" autocracy to "limited" autocracy, and the form of government comes to "representative democracy" at the end of development. Any right is order of inequality because of such history of the origin of right. Based on this view of right, Ludwig Gumplovich estimated as negative to Rule and Ludwig Gumplovich considered socialism as false theory based on the principles of freedom and equality. Such alternative exist before mankind always: or to recognize the state as the organization of domination, or to agree on anarchy which is intolerable for cultural society.

Conclusion: In my opinion society is constructed not on violence and domination, but society is constructed on social control and social conflicts. Though domination, slaveholding and violence are one of types and elements of social control. The controller can apply to defeated people except violence and softer types of sanctions – a penalty, dismissal and so on. Really, the state arose with help of conquest sometimes. And today the illegal power of criminal man arises over some territory or the sphere of business sometimes with help of violence and with help of a victory in war with other criminal groups with connivance of branches of criminal justice system. The political power was constructed with help of the armed force always and the political power will be to some extent constructed with help of the armed force always.

The history of relations between the bureaucracy, army, police and government
The bureaucracy, army and branches of criminal justice system (police, court, prison) were invented during the same epoch (epoch of early of slaveholding formation). These three organizations have to be under control of the government, but on the contrary, bureaucracy, the police or army seek to control the government sometimes. When the bureaucracy manages to subordinate government to own influence, then a bureaucratic power arises. When the army manages to subordinate government to own influence, then military junta or military regime arises. When the political police manages to subordinate government to own influence, then a police state arises, this power is constructed on the state terror against own citizens, shadowing and denunciations.


text:
Talk:Conlang/Advanced/Grammar/Natural

Constraints on natural languages
Some miscellanious things to touch on:
 * Constituency grammar
 * Government and binding theory

--Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 20:45, 18 July 2019 (UTC) – 21:14, 18 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Dependency grammar
 * Construction grammar
 * Optimality theory
 * Contrastive hierarchy
 * Some earlier discussions perhaps inspirational for an overall discussion here:
 * /Intermediate
 * /Advanced
 * /Advanced/Grammar
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 18:05, 21 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Another miscellaneous relevant item:
 * Blake's case hierarchy
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 20:05, 2 February 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Conlang/Advanced/Grammar/Natural


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Ffors solemant (de Févin, after Ockeghem / Incipit)

[ff. 103v-104r]

ffors solemant

Textual Commentary
“ffors solemant” appears as an incipit in H in only the second of three voices. No initial capital is provided, no space is left for one in any of the voices, and there is no room left in most of the piece for lyrics. This piece is not listed in the manuscript’s table of contents.

“ffors solemant” is a piece that saw a wide dispersal, and is here adapted by Anthoine de Févin, after Ockeghem. Of the thirty separate sub-traditions of this piece documented by Picker (Fors Seulement xxii), that appearing in H is representative of the twenty-eighth, which appears also in C1848 (102–103), CaP1760 (ff. 58v–60r), Mu1516 (#29), Pa9822/3 (ff. 23r–24r), PBCha (ff. 4r–v, ff. 52v–53r), PBP504 (3, #51), PBPre (ff. 12v–13r), PBFm (#31), PBTie (#11), PBTri (#73), and SG463 (#46); of these, PBCha and Pa9822/3 are without text. This version is a parody of others in the larger tradition, particularly that attributed to Matthaeus Pipelare—found extant in Br228 (ff. 17v–18r), T/Br (ff. 22r–v / ff. 22v–23r), P1597 (ff. 60v–61r), PBP504 (1, #31), SAM (f. 92r), and SG461 (8–9)—and the anonymous version found extant in L35087 (ff. 80v–81r), PBCha (ff. 10v–11r, ff. 60r–v), PBFm (#46).

The text most popularly attached to the tradition represented by H—PBPre, PBTie, SG463, and PBCha (ff. 4r–v, ff. 52v–53r)—is suggested by Picker (Fors xxii, xxx) to be that best found in PBCha (ff. 4r–v, ff. 52v–53r):

 * Fors seullement la mort, sans nul autre attente
 * De reconfort, souz douloureuse tante,
 * Ay pris se jour despiteuse demeure,
 * Comme celuy qui desolé demeure,
 * Prochain d’ennuy et loing de son attente.

An adaptation of the refrain from the larger tradition—which itself is found in LLa380 (f. 251r), P1597 (ff. 36v–37r), P1719 (f. 34r), SG461 (2–3), and WLab (ff. 99v–100r), among others—this text also parodies that refrain. Alternatively, there is that found in CaP1760, which gestures towards the parodic text, but reverts to the text of the original refrain (Picker [Fors xxx]), it reads (first voice only):

 * FOrs seullement … la mort sans aultre lactente que ie meure
 * En mon las cueur Nul espoir ne demeure
 * Car mon malheur si tresfort me tourmente
 * Qui nest douleur que pour vous ie ne sente
 * pour ce que suys de vous perdre bien seure

Not related to that of H, another text for the larger tradition of the music is suggested by RG27 (ff. 97v–98r / ff. 104v–105r), which contains the incipit “Frayres y dexedes me” (“brothers, leave me here”).

“ffors solemant” is reprinted in Stevens, Wolf (ed. Obrecht vii.90), Picker (Fors xxii, xxx), and Geneti (Seay, ed. 1.150), among others.


text: User talk:98.151.16.69

title: User talk:98.151.16.69


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/And I war a maydyn (Unattributed)

[ff. 106v-107r]

And I war a maydyn as many one ys for all the golde in englond I wold not do amysse

When I was a wanton wench                                     5 of  .xii. yere of age. Thes cowrtyers with ther amorus they kyndyld my corage.

When I was come to the age of .xv. yere. 10 In all this lond nowther fre nor bond me thought I had no pere.

Textual Commentary
This seemingly incomplete lyric begins a tale spoken by a female, in retrospect, of her growth in the “corage” (l. 8) kindled by amorous courtiers. “And I war a maydyn” is a popular tune. “Swet Iesu is cum to vs / this good tym of crystmas” (OxEP ff. 45v–47v; Greene #93) is stated to be “A song in the tune of / And y were a mayden”; its burden is “hey now now now.” As well, a lyric with a similar name is mentioned in the interlude Thersites: “‘And I were a maid again’ now may be here song” (Hazlitt and Dodsley, eds. i.405).

 * 7   amorus  Amours, loves.

 * 8   corage   Sexual vigour and inclination, the desire to love, the amorous spirit; see Henry’s “The tyme of youthe is to be spent” (H 19.10, note).

The first stanza of the unattributed “And I war a maydyn” is through-set for five voices. The remaining lines are underlaid, and appear to be incomplete. LTho contains an incipit and several lines in English, with Latin following.

This piece is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 302.5 and Ringler MS TM154. It is reprinted in Flügel Anglia 250, Stevens M&P 42, and Stevens MCH8 78–9.

Texts Collated
H1,2,3,4,5 (ff. 106v–107r, ll. 1–4 H2,3,4,5), LTho (f. 59r, ll. 1–4).

 * 2   one] here LTho

 * 3   englond] this lonne LTho


text:
The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Why shall not I (Unattributed)

[ff. 107v-108r]

Why shall not I. why shall not I to my lady. why shall not I be trew why shall not I.

my lady hath me in that grace                                     5 she takes me as her howne her mynd is in non other place now sith it ys thus known why shall not I

my lady sayth of trouth. it ys                                     10 no loue that can be lost alas alas what word ys this her to remember mest why shall not I.

Textual Commentary
Meditating on his lady’s statement that “trouth … ys no loue that can be lost” (ll. 10–11), the speaker of this lyric asks himself the rhetorical question posed in the incipit.

 * 6   howne  Own.

The unattributed “Why shall not I” is through-set in three voices.

This piece is indexed in Robbins Index & Suppl. 2250.5, Boffey, and Ringler MS TM1051. Reprinted in Flügel Anglia 250–51, Flügel Neuengl 137, Stevens M&P 419, and Stevens MCH8 79.

Texts Collated
H1,2,3 (ff. 107v–108r).

 * 9   not I] I not H3

 * 10 trouth.] non trouth^ H2, trouth^ H3

 * 13 remember] reme H1, remember H2,3;     mest] est H1,2,3 (Stevens M&P 419 and others)

 * 14 not I] I not H3