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Transportation Deployment Casebook/2020/Louisiana Streetcar

Technological Characteristics
A streetcar (other names include “tram” and “trolley”) is defined as a passenger-carrying vehicle that runs on rail tracks typically laid on city streets. Streetcars are typically powered by electricity (which is often transmitted either through overhead wires or the track itself) – which differs them from similar modes of public transport – such as horse-drawn carriages. While modern streetcar systems may be designed to ensure that streetcars have their own right-of-way, the defining characteristic of late-19th Century streetcar design was a mixed traffic system where roads were shared with regular vehicular traffic. This in turn limits their mobility, but also improves their access to public locations – as their routes run in-line with already established streets. Because of this, the streetcar’s primary use is for the distribution and shuttling of commuters within dense urban areas. A defining characteristic of the streetcar which differentiates it from the light rail is that the majority of streetcar routes are small (less than 10 miles in length).

Although streetcars and light rail are often used interchangeably, they are in fact, two distinct systems. The table below presents a comparison between Streetcars and Light Rails.

Advantages and Market
Streetcars have several advantages over other forms of transportation which enabled them to become the dominating transportation system across the United States in the late-19th Century and early-20th Century. For starters, the electric streetcar was far cheaper and more efficient to operate than the traditional horse-drawn modes of transport – as horse feed was expensive, horses were slower, and they tired eventually. The capacity of a streetcar can vary considerably depending on the size and system (articulated vs. single car), however, it is typically in the order of 50-200 passengers. This has the advantage of reducing the number of vehicles on a single road – thus reducing congestion. In addition, streetcars are quite durable and can continue service for up to fifty years – compared to internal combustion vehicles which typically require servicing after twenty years. Although similar to trains in technology, the main advantage they have over heavy rail systems is that since tracks are laid on the city roads, they can take advantage of the fact that they have easier access to passenger locations and can perform stops in short succession of each other. While a streetcar’s mobility is limited to the current rail infrastructure, their mobility on that rail system is quite high as they can achieve short stopping distances and high access to passengers. Therefore, streetcars have the advantage of carrying a large capacity of passengers on the local road system while also ensuring high access for passengers to their destinations.

Public Transit in Louisiana Prior to the Streetcar
As of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 as well as the removal of the Spanish barriers of trade, New Orleans had entered a period of rapid economic growth due to the commercial and population expansion. The population of New Orleans more than doubled from 1830 to 1840, where it raised from 46,082 to 102,193. As such, in order to promote further economic progress, Americans were encouraged to invest in internal public transportation. The beginnings of mass transportation also reflected that there was no need to live close to industry and businesses as walking was now a relic of the past.

One of the oldest forms of mass transit in New Orleans is the New Orleans Streetcar, which came in various forms. Prior to 1835, streetcars were dragged by horses, which used a wooden walkway between the rails. The capitalization of the first streetcar line in New Orleans was worth $300,000 and the line did not have a separate right of way, but shared the streets with carts, drays, carriages, horses, and pedestrians. It also had a restricted speed limit within the city of four miles an hour and some tracks had to be one way only.

Steam streetcars began operating in 1835 as a part of the St. Charles steam streetcar line. The line connected New Orleans and the suburb Carrollton, which has since been absorbed into the city. A major problem of the streetcar was the escape of sparks from the locomotive engines which in many cases burned the dresses of the passengers. As population increased, complaints about congestion on the cars were also on the rise. Additionally, steam locomotives were not practical for city use due to the costly financial constraints, smoke, and loud noise. Some proposed solutions for these issues involved: encouragement in terms of funding for a new innovative engine that would prevent the escape of sparks from its chimney; moving the passengers from steam to horse power during peak hours, and later ordering more locomotives. Lastly, these issues motivated them to start experimenting with other innovative forms of transport such as the overhead-cable-powered railroad (otherwise known as the electric streetcar).

As New Orleans expanded, many investors saw an opportunity to build canals, railroads, streets and levees that would connect the city with the inland of the United States as well as with the rest of the world. The increased coastal traffic between New Orleans and the East Coast cities reflected the growing economic connections of the American people and the industries. For instance, a ship called Ohio carried passengers and cargo between Philadelphia and New Orleans. Also, ocean sailing ships reached the city by sailing up the Mississippi River from the Gulf of Mexico. By the 1850s, New Orleans was the fourth largest port in the world. This resulting increase in both the population and overall economic activity resulted in a greater demand for further mass transit options.

Invention of the Electric Streetcar
The development of the streetcar can be attributed to a combination of various independently developed inventions throughout the 19th Century.

The precursor technology that developed the mother logic for the streetcar can be considered the stage coach. A stage coach is a four-wheeled horse-drawn coach (that was often closed) that was used to transport passengers on large journeys. The earliest stage coach route recorded was in England in 1610 – however, it is believed to have been operating as early as the 13th Century. The stage coach had a capacity of around 4 passengers was able to achieve a range of approximately 60–70 miles per day.

The omnibus is considered to be the first mass transportation vehicle in the United States. The omnibus (Latin: “for all”) was invented by Stanislas Baudry in 1823 in Nantes, France. Baudry’s omnibus had a capacity of 16 passengers. In addition to the invention of the omnibus, however, Baudry can also be credited with innovating the public transit system that is still in use today – although not directly. Although Baudry’s first omnibus route was designed to shuttle passengers from Nantes’ city centre to his bathhouse, passengers were free to enter and exit anywhere along the route. As such, his omnibus service began to be used by passengers who wished to make short trips along the route rather than to simply be transported to the bathhouse. This innovation ushered in the rapid introduction of the omnibus system throughout Europe and was first brought to the United States in 1827. However, unlike modern public transit systems, the omnibus routes did not have dedicated stations – rather, passengers signalled to the driver to stop the coach.

The streetcar was an innovative improvement over the omnibus. The first streetcar service in the United States was developed by John Stephenson in New York City in 1832. This streetcar was similar to an omnibus in that it was a horse-drawn coach that carried approximately 20 passengers. However, it differed in that the coach had steel wheels and travelled along steel rails embedded into the road. This had the advantage of lower frictional resistance, which allowed the streetcar to be pulled by a single horse – thus allowing the streetcar to have lower operational costs than the omnibus. These primitive streetcars were a hit and began to be developed across the United States – with New Orleans, Louisiana becoming the second US city to have a streetcar service.

In 1871, Andrew Smith Hallidie patented the cable car which was one of the first non-animal drawn carriage technologies. Similar to the streetcar, the cable car operated on purpose-built rails located on the streets. However, between the rails existed a chamber (known as a “vault”) which housed the cables that ran the entire length of the route. The cables were operated by “powerhouses” located by the side of the street which housed massive steam engines. The first cable car system began operations in San Francisco in 1873 – and by 1890, most US cities had an operating cable car system.

Although Hallidie’s vision was for the cable car to replace the streetcar, the streetcar had in-fact made a triumphant return – albeit in a different form. In 1888, Frank Julian Sprague invented the electric streetcar in Richmond, Virginia. The electric streetcar was made possible by the mid-19th Century inventions of the generator and transmitted power through overhead wires. The electric streetcar had significant advantages over the cable car which enabled it to supersede the previous transportation technology. For starters, the electric streetcar only required overhead wires compared to the vaults, cables, and powerhouses that a cable car required. Overhead wires were far cheaper and easier to install than the excavation required for the vaults and cables. Another disadvantage of cable cars was that they all travelled at the same constant speed, and the jamming of a cable anywhere along the line caused the stoppage of the entire route.

The electric streetcar that first emerged in 1888 can be considered an amalgamation of the preceding transport technologies and systems before it. The first horse-drawn streetcars sought to improve the efficiency of the omnibus and adopted much of the same principals as the omnibus – such as route design and the ability for passengers to get on and off between the end-destinations. These first streetcars achieved efficiency gains by utilising purpose-built rails – not too different from those of the trains – but built into the roads to operate much of the same market as that of the omnibus.

When Andrew Smith Hallidie sought a method of mass transit which did not require the use of animal-drawn vehicles, he came up with the concept of the cable car. Horses were expensive to feed, maintain, and were somewhat unreliable – so the cable car had a major advantage over the first streetcars. However, the cable car was not without its problems, and with the advent of electricity transmission in the mid-19th Century, the streetcar was able to replace the technology which had previously replaced it.

The new generation streetcar – electric powered – combined the ideas of the original streetcar and the cable car. The electric streetcar had the advantages of the non-animal powered cable car while also not carrying with it the disadvantages of increased construction costs. The electric streetcar was able to run on much of the same rail as its horse-drawn predecessor with the addition of overhead electric wires. Meanwhile, the cable car required extensive excavation to install the cables as well as the construction of powerhouses to house the steam engines that powered it.

Within New Orleans
New Orleans was quick to implement the electric streetcar after its initial introduction in Virginia in 1888. New Orleans first adopted electric streetcars within five years of Virginia, in 1893, and New Orleans has is fortunate to still be continuously operating some of these lines in the 21st Century. Many of the already-existing horse-drawn streetcar companies replaced their infrastructure and rolling stock to adopt the new electric transit vehicles – which aided in the city’s quick and rapid transition to the new technology. Such companies which made the transition from horse-drawn streetcars to electric streetcars include:

 * New Orleans City Railroad Company
 * St. Charles Street Railroad Company
 * Orleans Railroad Company
 * New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad Company
 * Crescent City Railroad Co.
 * Canal and Claiborne Streets Railroad Co.

As such, pre-existing routes were upgraded to be able to operate its electric counterpart – with most lines maintaining the same routes. In fact, the first Louisiana streetcar route to be opened in 1835 (the St. Charles Avenue line) still operates to this day – which makes it the oldest continuously running streetcar route in the world.

The first route in New Orleans to be upgraded to the electric streetcar was the Carrollton Line – operated by New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad Company. The remaining railroad companies electrified their lines shortly after.

Outside New Orleans
Besides New Orleans, the other major cities that operated electric streetcars in Louisiana at some stage between 1893 and 1920 were: Baton Rouge, Lake Charles, Alexandria, Shreveport, and Monroe.

Baton Rouge’s first streetcar routes were opened in 1890 and were horse-drawn. Two different routes were opened in 1890 but they were both soon consolidated in 1891 to create the Mule Car Line – which looped the downtown area. However, this route was electrified only two years later in 1893 – the same year in which New Orleans opened its first electric streetcar route. In 1913, a second electric streetcar route was added to the city. The peak of Baton Rouge’s electric streetcar service was in 1924 when there were three routes serving the city. Soon after, however, Baton Rouge’s streetcars went into decline, and by 1936, there were no longer any existing streetcar services.

Streetcars were first introduced to Lake Charles in 1894. Between 1894 and 1926, there were four streetcar routes serving the city. Three of these routes were publicly owned and operated, while the fourth was privately owned and operated by Watkins and Missouri Pacific Railroad. These streetcars were immensely popular in Lake Charles, and at one point, even operated 24-hours a day.

Alexandria was late to adopt the electric streetcar. The first streetcar route, the Levin Street Line, opened in the city in 1908 and was operated by the Alexandria Electric Railway Service Company. The second streetcar route was the Belt Line, operated by the Alexandria Electric Railways Co. Both routes were short-lived however, and ceased operations by 1926.

Shreveport was another early adopter of the electric railway. Plans to electrify the existing horse-drawn streetcar network began in 1891 – and by 1893, Shreveport opened its first electric streetcar routes. In these early years, two main private companies operated in the city – the Shreveport Railway and Land Improvement Company and the Shreveport Belt Railway Company. However, by 1897, these two companies consolidated into a single firm. The greatest growth in the Shreveport streetcar network occurred from 1900 to 1902 where three new street railways were chartered (however, two of these charters did not survive to fruition). Growth of the streetcar network in Shreveport continued until 1925. However, after 1925, the Shreveport railway companies began to experience financial hardship due to stagnant fares not rising with inflation, the reduction in ridership, and the Great Depression of 1929. Due to these difficulties, many streetcar companies in Shreveport began to pull out of the industry, and by 1939, barely any streetcars remained in the city.

Monroe opened its first electric streetcar route in 1906. This route was publicly owned and operated by Monroe Transit – and was only the second US city (after West Seattle, Washington) to do so. As such, the Monroe streetcar system can be considered one of the oldest examples of public transit in the United States. The Monroe streetcar operated until 1938 – after which it was dismantled. Although the Monroe streetcar ceased to operate, Monroe Transit shifted their transit model to operating busses – which they still do today.

Within New Orleans
The introduction of the electric streetcar in New Orleans was a smooth transition as the majority of the routes remained unchanged from the already extensive horse-drawn streetcar network. Upgrades were required, primarily to install the overhead wiring, but this was far cheaper and easier to implement than if a completely new form of transportation system was to be introduced (such as, for example, the cable car). Therefore, in the ‘birthing phase’ of the electric streetcars implementation of the city, the new services were owned and operated by the existing major horse-drawn streetcar companies of the city. These companies found it financially viable to privately invest in the new technology.

Therefore, the early years of the electric streetcar’s implementation was a very decentralised system with very little government intervention. In New Orleans, six competing companies each owned and operated various lines. Canal Street, for example, had tracks for two competing streetcar companies (New Orleans & Carrollton Railroad Co. and Canal & Claiborne Railroad Company). However, this decentralised approach was problematic for commuters. As each company invested and operated into their own lines independently, there was no standardised streetcar transit system in New Orleans. The various company’s lines each had different fares, track sizes, rolling stock, and inconsistent timetables. Due to these inconsistencies, there was a social deficiency of the early streetcar network for the New Orleans population – which eventually led to the City of New Orleans incorporating the various networks into a single public entity.

Outside New Orleans
Shreveport had the second largest streetcar network in the state. This network was operated similarly to New Orleans in the early-years of the technology – whereby two competing companies each owned and operated their own lines. These companies were the Shreveport City Railroad Company and the Shreveport Railway & Land Improvement Company. However, by 1905, these companies were consolidated into a single company - Shreveport Traction Company.

The streetcar networks of Lake Charles, Alexandria, and Baton Rouge were all owned and operated by a single company each (Lake Charles Street Railway Company, Alexandria Electric Railways Company, and Home Electric Company respectively).

Monroe was unique in that its streetcar network was a public transportation system. Monroe’s sole electric streetcar route was owned and operated by Monroe Transit from 1906 until its dismantlement in 1938, which made it only the second US city to do so. As such, Monroe’s streetcar network could be considered a form of public transportation – which was a unique form of transportation policy during the early 1900s.

Growth of the Streetcar in Louisiana
The initial adoption of the electric streetcar in Louisiana was marked by a system of decentralisation whereby various private firms privately invested and operated their own services – with little public subsidies. However, as discussed in the previous section, this decentralised system brought with it many social deficiencies, such as an inconsistent route network, fares, timetable, and infrastructure (different track sizes and rolling stock). As such, the City of New Orleans sought to regulate the network in the early 1900s. This period also experienced consolidation in the industry. The first of the mergers happened between the New Orleans and Carrollton Railroad Company and the Canal and Claiborne Streets Railroad Company in 1899. However, full consolidation of the city’s network did not occur until 1902 when the New Orleans Railways Company was chartered (later becoming the New Orleans Railway and Light Company). Although this new company was still privately owned, it was a step in the right direction towards standardisation of the transit service for both the City of New Orleans and its residents. In addition to owning and operating the streetcar service in New Orleans, this company also owned and provided the city’s light and mail service. Under the ownership of the New Orleans Railway and Light Company, the streetcar continued to experience healthy growth in New Orleans until the early 1920s. New lines were opened, and by 1922, there was approximately 225 miles of track in New Orleans. Outside of New Orleans, lines were also opening in various cities and towns throughout Louisiana. The electric streetcar was also brought to Baton Rouge and Shreveport in 1893 (the same year in which New Orleans opened its first electric streetcar route), Lake Charles in 1894, Monroe in 1906, and Alexandria in 1908. Between their inception and the 1920s, these cities continued to steadily grow their networks.

Between 1894 and 1920, the total amount of streetcar track in the state rose from 75 miles to 325 miles. New Orleans accounted for approximately 70-80 percent of the streetcar network in Louisiana. New Orleans experienced the greatest growth in this new technology in the state, rising quickly from 61 miles in 1894 to an impressive 225 miles in 1922 (approximately a 73% increase in 28 years). The next largest streetcar network in the state belonged to Shreveport, where in 1920 there was approximately 33 miles of track. This too, was also a significant increase from when the first tracks were laid in 1893 of approximately 7 miles (approximately 79% increase in 27 years). Other networks in the state featured less significant growth - primarily as they were located in smaller cities with only a few lines each. Growth in these cities, such as Baton Rouge, Alexandria, and Monroe, was sparodic - only occuring when new lines were laid (if new lines were introduced at all).

Maturity
The heydays of the streetcar throughout the United States occurred during the 1920s – and Louisiana was no different. The peak for the streetcar in New Orleans occurred in 1926, when it recorded over 148 million passenger trips. In 1926, there were nine distinct lines operating in the city.

The 1920s also saw policy changes occur regarding streetcar operation in New Orleans. On 8 August 1922, the New Orleans Public Service Incorporated (NOPSI) was formed. This new company was incorporated by the New Orleans City Government as a way to own and operate all of the city’s utilities and transit systems. As such, NOPSI acquired the city’s streetcar network by acquiring the New Orleans Railway and Light Company. Although this new charter was still a private company, it was incorporated in a special partnership agreement with the City that included strict controls. This move consolidated the city’s utilities and transportation services into a single entity that was closely aligned with the council to ensure public interests were aligned. After almost three decades since its introduction, this moment was a milestone move that brought the city’s transportation networks closer to the public domain. However, it was not until 1979, when the Regional Transit Authority was established by the Louisiana State Legislature that the network finally became public transport.

Decline
The maturity period of the streetcar was short-lived, however, throughout the United States as busses began to be introduced to replace streetcars. The first bus service was introduced in New Orleans in 1924. In the late 1920s and 1930s, the bus network continued to grow and even replaced many of the city’s streetcar lines. There is a widespread belief that General Motors were behind a conspiracy to replace the various streetcar services throughout the United States with bus networks, commonly referred to as the ‘General Motors Streetcar Conspiracy’ – however, this conspiracy has been debunked. Throughout the 1930s, General Motors bought up much of the country’s bankrupt streetcar services and converted them into bus networks.

Although streetcars were heavily used in this period, they ran into some problems as populations grew and the subsequent networks grew. The rise of the automobile in the 1920s meant that streetcars had to share the right of way on the roads they operated. This reduced their efficiency and grid-lock began to become a phenomenon that many cities began to experience. To add further insult to injury, many streetcar companies had contract requirements to repair and maintain the roads they operated – and as the roads underwent additional stress due to the increasing use of automobiles, the maintenance costs for the streetcar companies also rose. This compounded with stagnant fare prices caused many companies financial hardship – with most becoming bankrupt.

The financial issues of the streetcar companies compounded with the new competition from other forms of transit (the automobile and the bus) caused the eventual decline of the streetcar system throughout the United States in the 1930s. Many streetcar lines were ripped up and replaced with bus routes, which were considered more efficient and more flexible (didn’t require much infrastructure).

Most of Louisiana’s streetcar systems were effectively removed or replaced by the late 1930s. The year in which cities besides New Orleans that once operated streetcars ceased operations are as follows:
 * Baton Rouge, which at one point had three streetcar lines, removed its final streetcar route in 1936.
 * Lake Charles, which at one point had four streetcar lines, removed its final streetcar route in 1924.
 * Alexandria was a late adopter of the electric streetcar, opening its first line in 1908. However, by 1926, the city no longer had any streetcar services operational.
 * Shreveport had the largest streetcar network in the state after New Orleans, however, barely any of the streetcar lines existed by 1939.
 * Monroe had a single streetcar route that opened in 1906 and operated for over three decades. However, this line was dismantled in 1938.

Similar to the rest of the state (and the rest of the country for that matter), the New Orleans streetcar network also experienced a massive decline in the 1930s. However, New Orleans is fortunate compared to most other cities in that it still operates streetcars in the modern day – albeit far smaller than at its heyday. The St. Charles Avenue Streetcar line, which first opened in 1835, still operates today – which makes it the longest continuously operated streetcar system. However, whilst New Orleans once had nine lines operating, today only four still exist (the St. Charles Streetcar, the Canal Streetcar, the Layola-UPT Streetcar, and the Riverfront Streetcar). The streetcar somewhat survived in New Orleans due to its unique right-of-way which allowed it to avoid some of the issues that other streetcar systems faced with increasing automobile use. In the modern day, many conservation efforts push for the continuation of the streetcar service in New Orleans, as it provides the city with historical, cultural, and architectural importance.


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Transportation Deployment Casebook/2020/Washington Streetcar

Streetcars or trolley(car)s (North American English for the European word tram) were once the main mode of public transit in hundreds of North American cities and towns. Most of the original urban streetcar systems were either dismantled in the mid-20th century or converted to other modes of operation, such as light rail.

Technological Characteristics
Streetcars run on track laid in the streets, usually operated in single units and usually driven by the electric motor. Early streetcars were either horse-drawn or depended for power on storage batteries that were expensive and inefficient. The invention of the dynamo (generator) led to the application of transmitted power using overhead electrified wires to streetcar lines, which subsequently increased in Britain, Europe, and the United States. Streetcars runs on streetcar tracks along public urban streets. Some of the streetcars include segments of segregated right-of-way. Streetcars are usually lighter and shorter than mainline and rapid transit trains. Most of the streetcars in the early age were fed by a trolley hole or a bow collector. Streetcars were propelled by power lines drawn over their routes, which carried electric current. The current travelled through an extension attached to the car, and the metal wheels against the metal tracks acted as the “grounding” for the electric circuit. electric motors commonly drove streetcars, but there are streetcars driven by horse, steam and cable.

Advantages and Compression of other Modes
The world's first passenger streetcar was first built in the UK, drawn by a horse. In the nineteenth century, as most of the streets were still paved with cobblestone, the horsecar provides a much more comfortable ride than omnibus. Horses could only work in limited hours on a given day, had to be housed, groomed, fed and cared for day in and day out, which makes the operation cost significantly increase. Horsecars were largely replaced by electric-powered trams following the improvement of an overhead trolley system on trams for collecting electricity from overhead wires by Frank J. Sprague.

Cablecar was introduced in San Francisco in 1873. The cablecars were drawn by an endless cable running in a slot between the rails and passing over a steam-driven shaft in the powerhouse. The system was well-adapted for operation on steep hills and reached its most extensive use in San Francisco and Seattle. The cars operated more smoothly than did early electric cars, but they could run only at a constant speed. Breaking or jamming of the cable tied up all the cars on the line. With the improvement of electric motors, cablecar started losing advantage.

One of the advantages of streetcars over earlier forms of transit was the low rolling resistance of metal wheels on steel rails, allowing the trams to haul a greater load for a given effort. Streetcars were cheaper to build than heavy rapid transit. Back in the 19th century, buses weren't a cost-effective option due to technology limitations.

Main Markets
Streetcars were mainly used for passengers, but there are existing cargo trams in operation. Streetcars were historically widely used in Europe, North America, Oceania.

Invention of Streetcar
The first streetcar was pulled by a horse, rolling along special steel rails that were placed in the middle of the street instead of riding along the street. The horsecar provides a more comfortable, more affordable and more efficient trips than omnibus. With the invention of horsecar, the tracked were installed widely in the United States. Horses and mules could only work for about two hours at a time, so companies had to keep 8-10 animals on hand to keep just one car operating. They ate their weight in food every day, and the resulting manure littered the streets, which was more than a mild inconvenience to pedestrians. An outbreak of equine influenza in 1872 wiped out thousands of horses and slowed many transit systems considerably.

Andrew Smith Hallidie developed the first cable car in San Francisco. The cable car was driven by an endless cable running in a slot between the rails with passed over a steam-driven shaft in the powerhouse. The new cablecar system eliminated the need for horses to struggle to pull the carriages up the never-ending hills in San Francisco. Even though the system was certainly an improvement over horsecar, the first cable cars were quite unsafe. Cables were prone to snapping, sometimes causing dangerous accidents on the steep San Francisco hills. Most of the able cars went out of service not long after their inception.

Electric streetcars were invented by Frank Julian Sprague. Frank invented spring-loaded trolley poles in 1880, which uses the wheel to travel along the wire. In 1888, Frank invented a system on streetcars for collecting electricity from overhead wires. With the existing electric motor technology, the streetcar system was built by Sprague in Richmond, Virginia. The overhead wire was installed over a city street in order to provide electricity to the streetcars. During operation, the streetcar would touch this electric wire with a long pole on its roof. Big steam engines in the powerhouse would need to turn generators to produce electricity for streetcars operation. Since the streetcar was able to use existing rails and carriages from the horsecar and cable car systems, making the switch was pretty easy.

Early Market Development
Washington’s earliest streetcars, operated by transit innovator Frank Osgood, ran down Second Avenue starting in 1884, pulled by horses. As horse-drawn public transportation system wasn’t entirely practical to serve an entire city as hilly as Seattle, in 1889, Some other investors started operating cablecars, like in similarly-hilly San Francisco.

After 1888, many cities turned to electric streetcars. Within a year, electric streetcars had replaced more costly horsecars in many cities. In 1889, Seattle had the first electric streetcars to replace horsecar. With the significant advantage of streetcar over horsecar, the boom starts. By 1892, which is three years after testing the first electric streetcar, Seattle had almost 50 miles of streetcar track, plus 22 miles of cable rail.

Policy in the 'Birth Phase'
Since 1840, the federal government starts promoting transport infrastructures such as railroad and streetcars. As a result, a large sum of private and public money went into transport infrastructures, which helps the birth and the boom of streetcars. From 1830s to 1960s, almost all transits are privately owned. The use of the franchise was essential for the street railway, which had to intrude on public rights-of-way to lay track in the street to operate horsecars, and later, cablecars and electric streetcars. By limiting the franchise of streetcars, unnecessary competition is prevented, which makes the streetcar system to overlay more areas and protect the income of the streetcar operation company. The transit industry should be recognized for having possessed an entrepreneurial spirit in the best private enterprise tradition for more than a century.

Mature and Decline
By the eve of World War I, Seattle Electric (the largest streetcar operation company) was losing money due to mandated nickel fares, numerous strikes, and growing competition from automobiles and private buses. Commuters had also grown impatient with aging equipment and erratic service. After failing to buy the Seattle-Renton interurban in 1911, Seattle developed its first municipal streetcar line between downtown and Ballard in 1914. With the mandated nickel fares, numerous strikes, government involvement and growing competition from automobiles and private buses, private investors become less interested in streetcars, which slows down the streetcar growth.

After World War 1, the streetcars start to decline when cars began to arrive on city streets. The mandated nickel fares make the companies more and more difficult to pay for the maintenance. Especially after World War I, the value of 5 cents plummeted, but streetcars had to get approval from municipal commissions for any fare hikes, and nobody on these commissions would approve fare increases to cover costs, because that would get them in trouble with their constituents. Since the 1920s, some streetcar companies began going into bankruptcy, when they were still their cities' dominant mode of transportation. Huge costs and the falling value of fares forced them to cut back on service, steadily pushing people to the available, increasingly affordable automobile. As they fought to stay alive during the Great Depression, many companies invested in buses, which were cheaper and more flexible. By the 1950s, virtually all streetcar companies were in terrible shape. Nation City, owned by General Motors and other oil and tire companies, had bought in a total of 46 transit networks. National City ripped up streetcar lines and replaced them with buses, which benefits GM and other oil and tire companies in a longterm by increasing the use of buses. Even though Nation City was only involved in about 10 percent of cases, but it still speeded up the process of the death of streetcars.

Reborn
In 2001, Portland, Oregon became the first city in North America in more than 50 years to open a new streetcar system. With higher capacity, higher speed and exclusive right-of-way, the modern version of streetcar are normally called the light rail. With modern technologies, light rails provide a more comfortable ride than buses. Light right could provide a higher passenger capacity than buses. Light rail has no gas emission during operation, which is really good for high raise area. Light rails are efficient to support high-density development. Pedestrians are easier to cross the light rail than traffic. With the advantage, the modern light rail had become more and more popular globally. As light rail has to run no the track, once there is a disruption on the track, the light rail has to stop operation. It could take years to lay light rail tracks and causing major disruption to local economies, such as Sydney Light Rail. The initial investment is significantly higher than the buses. A new technology 'Trackless Tram' could overcome these disadvantage of modern light rails. Trackless trams are neither a tram nor a bus, though they have rubber wheels and run on streets. Trackless trams are more cyclist-friendly as no tracks are needed, which eliminate the possibility of cyclist falling over when crossing tracks. Trackless trams have a similar capacity and ride quality as light rails but don't require to build tracks. The Trackless trams' vehicle-based system could interact with an intelligent signal communication feature enabling priority pass at traffic lights just like modern light rails. With the low construction and maintenance cost, trackless trams are expected to become more and more popular in the near future.

Quantitative Analysis
The 'McGraw Electric Railway Manual - the red book of American street railway investment' was used in order to analyze the lifecycle of streetcars in Washington from 1894 to 1920. It was expected that the total track length forms an S-curve, the S-curve model uses the three-parameter equation below:

$$S(t)=\left ( \frac{K}{[1+e^{(-b(t-t_i)}]} \right )$$

Where:
 * $$S(t)$$ is the status measure (e.g. miles of track)
 * $$t$$ is time (years)
 * $$t_i$$ is the inflection time (year in which $$\frac{1}{2}K$$ is achieved
 * $$K$$ is the saturation status level
 * $$b$$ is a coefficient

Due to and the quality of the historical data, adjustments were made. Only electric streetcars were analyzed in this study. The cities were grouped by metropolitan area, where each metropolitan area is considered as a system. The study was done for the state sum and each metropolitan area.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2020/California Streetcar

California due to its exceptionally complicated and challenging topography is a region of extremes. With the gold rush starting from 1847, gold mining became an important factor of economy, this also bought in the economy for agriculture and Cattle ranching factored by the difficulty in bringing supplies from the west side of California on account of no rail link. Thus area in east California was left out. First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 to California ended its physical isolation from the rest of the United States. This saw large numbers of people coming to California. The mass transport modes were not in place, the destinations in cities were mostly reached by walking, the rich people had wagon or carriages.

The first form of streetcars deployed in California were the horse-driven streetcars on unpaved surfaces. As the existing roads at that time were generally poor, ride on the road was slow and bumpy, especially in poor weather conditions difficult to operate.

Early period
The history of the development of streetcar in America started from the 1820s. The earliest city street railways consisted of streetcars drawn by horses and sometimes mules on track. The streetcars pulled by horse or mule on rails improved the comfort, speed and efficiency of operations as there is less rolling resistance on a rail in comparison to roads. The first streetcar in San Francisco in 1860 started was operated by steam dummies, later by horses.

Beginnings
The uneven terrain of parts in California made it difficult for a horse-driven street cart to operate. This paved the way for the cable pulled streetcars.

The operation of cable cars is done through a stationary engine which pulls the cable throughout Rail-line. The Grip cars by gripping the moving cable in line tow trailer cars, for stopping the grip car un-grips the cable. Cable Pulled Street Cars offered greater Speed, Safety and Cleanliness Improvement (horse faeces) over horse-driven streetcars.

The high upfront cost for building and high operation cost made cable railway system unattractive. Further, the cable systems were not scalable as were the other evolving technologies.

The electric propulsion was explored, the initial electric cars developed were capable of transporting people quickly, but technical problems, breakdowns delayed the service frequently. Technological and design improvement in electric streetcars made the deployment of successful large electric street railway system possible. This made major streetcar systems to shift to electric and attracted electric utility companies to jump in for streetcar operation.

As the system grew larger and demand increased for the services, the frequency of operation also increased, the time tables also evolved, which were placed for the general public and operational convenience.

Market Development
Before Streetcars in California, the urban areas were small, Cities started expanding due to increased mobility from streetcars, now people could settle or make houses over larger distances from the centre of the Town and still be able to reach their jobs and downtown businesses as required. This benefitted real estate development and residents.

Polices
In California the birthing phase started from the 1860s, the policies were already in place for the rail road and the same were emulated to streetcars. The Governments of the times were pro Rail roads, and thus issued charters for development of railroad considering safety, service and fares. Also, few other policies were locked in in this period, for example, the width of the track was made standard as 4 feet 8 1/2 inches for track gauge. The narrow gauge streetcars died and were converted to standard gauge.
 * The construction policies were borrowed from the construction techniques of Railroads.
 * Common carrier model for freight and passengers was taken from canal services
 * The formation of the timetable for coordination to ensure reliability and safety in operation.

Decline
In 1914 world war-I started due which the business was impacted and the ridership may have also declined. By 1920s the streetcar system in California reached its maturity and started losing its popularity owing to the deployment of buses and automobile. The automobile was an attractive option as against the streetcars, they provided better speed, comfort, the convenience of going anywhere the people desired. Even though the new improved streetcar featuring automobile-style controls, fast acceleration and deceleration were fast to come, however, the new streetcars were not able to compete with the automobile.

Quantitative Analysis
The life cycle analysis for most of the transport mode follows the S-Curve representing the birthing, growth and maturity phases. The logistic relationship for the lifecycle can be defined by the equation

S(t)=K/(1+e^((-b(t-to)) )

where:
 * S(t) is the status measure, (streetcar track miles)
 * t is time (year),
 * t0 is the inflection time (year in which 1/2 K is achieved),
 * K is saturation status level for streetcar track miles,
 * b is a coefficient.

The above equation can be rearranged to obtain a linear relationship with t( Time )as :

ln(S(t)/(K-S(to) ))=b×t+c

Where c =-b/to Comparing it with Y= bX+c

This three-parameter function is required to be solved for K, b and c. The value of K is assumed and linear regression analysis for values of time (t) as X parameter and Ln( s(t)/(K-s(to))) as Y parameter is done using Microsoft Excel to find the intercept and slope by best-fitting model, the Solver tool is employed to maximise the value of RSq nearest to 1, t-statistics more than 2.

In the instant case, the track miles of the streetcars in California U.S. is analysed with time(year). The data for the streetcar track miles for the state of California was obtained from “McGraw electric railway manual - the red book of American street railway investment” from the year 1894-1920 however the data for the year 1895,1896,1915 and 1916 could not be obtained.

Lifecycle analysis streetcars for California State.
The S-curve parameters

The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The birthing phase is very small, the growth phase starts from 1899 and the period continued till 1914. The system started reaching the maturity from 1914 onwards.

Quantitative analysis for Urban Areas and streetcar system is
In the same way, the lifecycle analysis is carried out for the track length (Miles) of the streetcar for the urban places for which the streetcar system data is seen to be available consistently, also the streetcar system in those places have been analysed for which the system has sufficient data points, the results are presented as under:-

Fresno urban area
The S-curve parameters The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

From the above figures, it is seen that the transport system in Fresno is birth phase is little long and the growth seems to start from 1910 comparison to its lifecycle considering the current form of system takes its own course without any intervention.

In Fresno 2 streetcar systems emerged, for the purpose of analysis the track length of all the companies forming one consolidation has been taken as a system from the initial years to 1920, there were 2 Streetcar system described as-

 * 1) Fresno Traction Company:- In Fresno the streetcar was operated through horses, operated by the Fresno Railroad Co., in 1900 new company Fresno, Belmont & Yosemite Railroad Co also started operation of horse-driven streetcar, in 1903 Fresno City Railway Co. was formed, it merged  Fresno, Belmont & Yosemite Railroad Co in itself and started operating electric streetcars. In 1905 both Fresno Railroad Co & Fresno City Railway company consolidated to form Fresno Traction Company with electric streetcars.
 * 2) Fresno Interurban Railway Co.:- In 1913 San Joaquin Light & Power Corporation started is electric streetcars, this later became Fresno interurban Railway Co.

Fresno traction company
The S-curve parameters The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

From the chart the growth phase of Fresno Traction company is till 1899, the growth period is from 1899 onwards the system is to attain maturity in near future as the growth has slowed in the years from 1917.

For Fresno interurban
As there is only 2 points lifecycle analysis not carried out.

Los Angeles
Analysis of lifecycle of streetcar for the urban area and system is as under:-

For Los Angeles urban area.
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

Here it is evident that the decline in the streetcar deployment started from 1914 onwards, but the S-curve projections show that if the external factors won’t have been there the growth, should have taken to further period.

For Los Angeles till 1920, 2 streetcar systems evolved after merging and consolidating.
 * 1) a.	Los Angeles Railway Corporation.
 * 2) b.	Pacific Electric Railway.

Los Angeles Railway Corporation (streetcar system) of Los Angeles
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The system in initial years till 1899 was in birthing stage then till 1914 was in growth stage. The system started maturing 1914 onwards and there no growth as can be inferred by the deployment rate of track.

Pacific Electric Railway.
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The system was in birthing phase till 1903, thereafter the growth phase continued till 1914 when the system declined and became stagnant in its maturity.

Sacramento
For Sacramento till 1920, 2 streetcar systems evolved after merging and consolidating.
 * 1) Pacific Gas & Electric Co. this company is the successor of the company operating since 1894.
 * 2) Sacramento Northern Railroad. This has started operating since 1919 and is interurban Rail. The same has not been considered for analysis.

Analysis of lifecycle of the streetcar for the urban area and system is for Sacramento will be same as there is only one system which has operated for the period. The track length of the interurban line have not been considered for analysis of urban area:-

Sacramento Urban area/ Pacific Gas & Electric Co
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The Street car system of Sacramento in 1894 was already in growth phase and it was shifting to its maturity from 1906 the same can be seenfrom the S-curve that has started declining in the deployment.

San Diego urban Area
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The street car system in San Diego had a birthing phase till 1906 and the growth period started from1906 onwards, the system is in its growth phase by the 1920 data and the system may further grow.

For Sandiego till 1920, 5 streetcar systems were functioning but only 1 system has been considered for analysis. The details of the system along with consideration for analysis are as under:-

 * 1) Bay Shore R. R. Co -not analysed as there is no change in track length deployed.
 * 2) Los Angeles & San Diego Beach Railway- not analysed as only there is no change in track length deployed.
 * 3) Point Loma Railroad Co.- not analysed as only 2 data points available.
 * 4) San Diego Electric Railway Co- analysed.
 * 5) San Diego & Arizona Ry. Co.- analysed.

San Diego Electric Railway Co.
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The growth phase started from 1900, the growth phase lasted till 1914 and thereafter entered in its maturity phase as the decline started.

San Diego & Arizona Ry. Co
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

Here the data is not converging and not giving the S-curve. There seems to be small phases of linear growth and then stagnation for longer periods. It seems to be the system is in growth phase with slow rate of growth.

San Francisco
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

Here in San Francisco the S-curve was not achieved in the period 1894-1920, as the trend shows the system was already in maturity phase. This can further be seen that the systems comprising the streetcar network of San Francisco were already stagnant or were in maturity as under:-

The other systems which were added later:-

The increase in the track mile length overall is attributed to few new streetcar system starting their operation and not expanding.

San Jose
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

The data for deployment of Streetcar in sanjose is not converging to give the S-curve, for the assumed value of track miles just higher than track miles in year 1920. Further from the track length curve it is seen that the the system is growing since 1894, after 1914 the system has started declining or became almost sagnant, this may be due to the externalities.

Stockton
The projected track length (miles) as per the variable values is tabulated as:-

In Stockton the S-curve for track length deployment shows that the birthing phase is till 1900. The phase from 1900-1914 marks to be growth period and the maturity phase starts from 1914 onwards.

Conclusion
The deployment of Streetcars in California was attributed to the demand due to the influx and settlement of people in the places as a result of Goldrush, for providing better and faster transportation modes. The improved linkages to the larger urban area further extended the reaches of the towns.

The initial deployment of horse-driven street cars gradually transformed to cable-driven and then to electric driven streetcars as a result of technological developments.

The streetcar deployment rate in major places started declining from 1914, this could be attributed to the California Alien Land Law of 1913 which led to discrimination in citizenship to Asian communities, limiting the number of passengers and trips. World War-I in 1917 further affected the streetcar operation.

Another factor which led to the maturity of the streetcar systems was the availability of better and efficient transport through the automobile. If these factors won't have come into effect then the maturity period will be delayed for the deployment of Streetcar systems, though the S-curve for streetcars for California as a state is a fitting curve the maturity phase is attributed to saturation of deployment of streetcars and oversupply due to exodus of the communities discriminated of citizenship in areas of California.


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Transportation Deployment Casebook/2020/Georgia Streetcar

Overview
Over the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the streetcar (more popularly known as the trolley), provided great opportunities resulting in the expansion and creation of social geography and new economic possibilities. Streetcars progressed through a number of fuel methods (such as horse-drawn, steam, gas and electric), before becoming what is known today as modern ‘light rail’. The traditional streetcar routes often had a strong influence on the arrangement of suburban development during this time. Streetcars served a variety of services in addition to its primary function of transportation such as delivery and freight transport.

The networks of streetcar lines throughout cities were called tramways, in some cities they shared the street with pedestrians, horses and later on automobiles, while in some other or certain parts of cities they had their own right of way.

The introduction of the streetcar in Georgia were delayed until after the Civil War had ended. Unlike more northern and Midwest states which were the home of many commercial and industrial cities, Georgia was primarily rural and relied on agriculture as the primary driver of their economy. The first streetcar line in Georgia only became operational in January 1868, consisting of seven miles of mule-drawn passenger lines and an additional one-and-a-half miles for a steam locomotive (freight track).

The streetcar came with additional benefits other than that of transportation. New roads and re-paving as well as other infrastructure improvements also came along with the growth of streetcar systems. Streetcar companies also developed recreational areas for locals as well as additional tourism spots as a means to generate traffic and increase ridership for their transit business.

Unfortunately there were also some negative aspects to the expansion of streetcar routes. The same way the lines allowed for the creation of suburbs and economic growth, it also brought more division. In the 19th century, people were forced to live in close proximity to people of different races and incomes, however the rise of suburbs, communities became more divided by race and wealth.

The traditional streetcar left as quickly as it came. In Atlanta, Georgia, the original streetcars were eventually upgraded. They were made electric and refashioned to have rubber wheels so to function without tracks. These were also eventually replaced by buses, with the tracks paved over to make way for the popular automobile.

Technological Characteristics
The streetcar, also known as a tram or trolley, was a vehicle running on tracks that were laid in the streets. The tracks used for running of streetcars were composed of cast iron strap rails, with the idea that the steel wheels running on the steel rails would reduce friction. The result of this reduced friction was that two horses were able to haul a much larger vehicle with the capacity to carry twice the number of passengers that was previously possible (up to 50). Steel rails also provided a much more comfortable ride for occupants, with smaller tram wheels allowing the tram floor to be closer to the road, allowing for an easier entrance and exit of the vehicle.

Unlike locomotives, streetcars usually operated in single units (cars). Early versions of the streetcar were either drawn by horses or mules, some also operated on power provided by storage batters, however these were very expensive and inefficient. Bells were often hung on the harnesses of the horses or mules drawing the car as a method of notifying customers of the impending arrival of the streetcar. The invention of the generator led to the application of transmitted by, allowing overhead and electrified wires to power streetcar lines. This development led to the introduction of the electric streetcar, which took over the use of steam-powered cars and was later replaced by gas or petrol engine streetcars. Traditional streetcars (before they were made trackless) featured cast iron wheels, often had cloth padded interior walls and doors located at the rear of the car. They often had to capacity to carry approximately 40 passengers.

Main Advantages
In the early nineteenth century many American cities were known as ‘walking cities’, with most residents working and shopping close by to where they lived. The introduction of electric streetcar systems in the late 1800s and its development into the early to mid 1900s allowed for the expansion of cities. New suburbs were created, and known as ‘trolley suburbs’ and were very popular among the white city residents. New streetcar lines also turned outlying and previously more ‘rural’ areas into new and more populated neighborhoods. Real estate developers would often invest in streetcar lines in order to promote new suburban communities. The trolley systems made it much easier to travel greater distances, allowing people to live further away from city centres and still able to work, shop and socialize in other parts of a town. This new-found connectivity within and between cities allowed shoppers to find produce and meat from regional farms as well as fruits and vegetables from all places across the country.

Main Markets
The streetcar found a new market in the middle-class workers as they began to live and expand into new types of communities, suburbs. This allowed people to enjoy the quieter and more pastoral surroundings on the outskirts of cities, while still being able to commute into the city centres for work and shopping. These suburbs were only made possible by the new modes of transport such as streetcars and other railroads. This way of life became more popular as many people were eager to leave the city and get away from poor immigrants and migrants, and also since many believed that more quiet and less-congested areas were better areas to start families. With fees being charged to customers based on the distance of their trip, many transport companies, investment banks and high net worth individuals were eager to take advantage of the idea of mass transportation.

Previous Transport Modes
Prior to the streetcar was the omnibus. Omnibuses were introduced to America in the early 1800s, initially they were horse drawn, but by the mid nineteenth century the first steam-powered buses were introduced. Followed by the omnibus was the cable car. Invented by Andrew Hallidie, it was first introduced in San Francisco in 1873. The car war drawn by seemingly endless cables that ran in a slot between the car rails and passing over a steam-driven shaft located in a powerhouse. The system was well-suited for areas with steep hills and was most extensively used in Seattle and San Francisco. They also operated more smoothly than earlier electric cars, but had a drawback of only being able to operate at a constant speed. Another major disadvantage was that the breaking or jamming of the cable would tie up all the cars using the line. In 1900 most cable trackage and horsecar lines were beginning to be replaced by electric cars. The replacement rate of horsecars in the United States was particularly rapid from 1902 to 1917.

Prior to the widespread use of electric streetcars, steam dummy engines and horse or mule drawn streetcars were predominantly used. They were often criticized for being dirty and dangerous. Dummy engines were usually not permitted on city streets due to their high levels of noise and pollution. Accidents resulting in disfigurement and/or pedestrian deaths caused by startled horses or out-of-control cars were unfortunately common in busy American streets during the late nineteenth century. Horses and mules leading cars were estimated to produce an average of 10.5 pounds of manure a day, only contributing further to the already dirty streets. Horse-drawn cars over time came to be viewed as overly cramped and slow, with speeds normally only reaching an average of five to six miles per hour. The capital and operational costs for horse-drawn cars were quite high due to the expenses related to food and stabling, large trolley lines also required large numbers of horses or mules to maintain operations. The constant stopping and starting of the cars, especially once loaded were also quite hard on the animals, meaning that each animal would only work a few hours a day. The cost of maintaining a horse or mule, in combination with its lower efficiency meant that its replacement by motorization was inevitable.

Limitations
Many transit companies recognized the flaws and limitations of using a technology that was reliant on animals and committed to finding cheaper, and cleaner, alternatives to horse-drawn carts. This was realized to be particularly important during the “Great Epizootic” which was a large outbreak of equine influenza in 1872. Over the duration of the epidemic, between 175 and 200 horses a day were killed in some cities. This drastically effected and sometimes even eliminated services in affected areas. This ordeal proved to be a major driving force for the development of newer mechanical systems for streetcar operation.

In the early nineteenth century, innovators from all over the world, including Hungary, the Netherlands as well as the United States began considering the concept of battery-powered vehicles. However it wasn’t until later in the century when French and English inventors built the first practical versions of an electric car. These battery-powered vehicles, though not reliant on animals for operation, had a more limited range, not being able to travel far before recharging, rendering them very inefficient. Other limitations of the battery was the underdeveloped electric grid in most cities and also the lack of charging station. After the implementation of some battery-powered streetcars, diminishing returns were observed quickly. Many engineers identified the range and energy per unit weight of batteries in comparison with gasoline engines as a key weakness in the very early 1900s.

Evolving Markets and Future Possibilities
Although in the early 1900s the streetcar systems helped to fill America’s transport needs, in the next few decades the limitations of the system in combination with government and corporate policies and consumer choice of the bus and car eventually made the trolleys obsolete. Buses had already began replacing trolley systems in the 1910s. They were often considered more modern and comfortable compared to the trolleys. They also made more sense from a business perspective as they were more flexible and cheaper to run. By 1937, more than 50 per cent of the American cities that had previously had public transit systems were then served by bus systems alone. The automobile also began to take over, initially being used for recreational travel by the rich it slowly began to be used more commonly as a means for travel to work and shopping. Although the use of streetcars began to slowly decline after the Great Depression, primarily due to the popularity of the automobile, it’s principle concepts have become more popular in modern society as public transport becomes increasingly popular, taking form as light rail systems.

A Combination of Expertise
The idea of electric batteries as a source of locomotive power began in the 1820s and 1830s. However, it was not until the success of the first electric generator (between 1860 and 1870) that significant steps were made in implementing electric railroad systems. The German inventor, Ernst Werner von Seimens, is often regarded as being the first to build a commercial electric railroad prototype in 1881, however the system had a major design flaw, often shocking bystanders and animals with the power running through the rails. British inventor, Leo Daft also came up with the idea of a tractor-based streetcar model which was used in some American cities during the late 1880s. This was followed by the development of overhead electric wire lines developed by the Belgian-born inventor Charles J. Van Depoele. However, engineer Frank J. Sprague is generally credited with the development and expansion of the modern electric streetcar in the United States and abroad. Sprague’s work focused on the conversion of the New York’s transit system from steam power to electric. His experiments resulted in designs for spring-mounted, two gear-drive motor, independent truck frames. These “wheelbarrow fashion” mounts would later revolutionize the streetcar industry.

The electric car was a technically feasible idea, however economically it was quite impractical due to the costs associated with the generation of electricity, as well as its transmission and storage. It wasn’t until the electric grid was developed by Edison and others, that electricity could be properly applied to the streetcar.

Effect of Operation
Despite the initial popularity of horse-drawn streetcars, there were efforts to improve upon the low speeds, uncomfortable ride, high costs and dirtiness that came with it. Many transit companies transitioned to using mules rather than horses for streetcar service as they were generally cheaper to purchase and feed, and were only marginally weaker.

The use of steam-powered streetcars after their implementation was also limited as some cities prohibited the use of steam engines on city streets. This ultimately led to the establishment of an electrified streetcar system. Atlanta businessman Joel Hurt was the first to do this in Georgia. He was determined to find a solution to the lack of direct access to the eastern edges of the city and was intrigued by Sprague’s success with electric traction. Operation of this first electrified line in Atlanta began in August 1889, with three cars maintaining a regular 30-minute round trip schedule. Quickly after Hurt’s success, additional electric streetcar companies were established throughout Georgia. The integration of many companies into one assisted in the progression to newer and better technologies, however it also allowed for a more uniform system with a better network and greater connectivity.

The popularity of the streetcar systems also created demand for much greater carrying capacity of the cars. This was solved by the tine four-wheeled cars with wooden frames being replaced by heavy eight-wheeled cars with steel bodies.

Early Market Development and Niches
Up until the 1890s, many of Georgia’s larger and mid-sized cities were home to multiple lines built by different transit companies, with smaller towns having nothing more than a few horses or mules and a couple of second-hand passenger cars. Sprague’s success with the electric streetcar in 1888 led to an explosion in the use of electrified track. Prior to his triumph only 86 miles of track in the United States were electrified. By the turn of the century, more than 22,000 miles were powered by electricity. This rapid deployment of electric railways between 1895 and 1915 led to a sharp cost advantage over previous systems. Cost savings of the cable car over horse cars are estimated to be about 20 per cent. Car size and service frequency also developed and adjusted to the markets they supplied and streetcars quickly won over cable car markets, with the exception of their use in hilly terrain.

There was an introduction of rural and intercity electric railway services during a short period starting in the late nineteenth century through to WWI. These services, commonly known as interurbans, were heavier and faster electric-powered lines. They were often operated as an extension of city public transit services into outlying areas. They served the niche but growing market of people moving away from city centres. The system proposed a cheaper alternative for riders than major railroad companies. This was due to the fact that larger railroad companies were moving towards more profitable long-haul passenger and freight services over commuter services.

Functional Enhancement
Not long after Joel Hurt’s establishment of the first electrified streetcar line in Atlanta, he began moving to consolidate many of the cities larger transit systems under his control. Most of these companies were older and were financially unable (or unwilling) to invest in the substantial infrastructure required for electric traction. By doing this Hurt began to serve Atlanta’s pre-existing market for the streetcar, however his moves to convert all the lines to electrification aimed to serve them better, making trips faster, safer and more reliable.

Implementation
Like most utility enterprises in the nineteenth and early twentieth century such as gas lighting and canals, the streetcar systems were financed entirely by private corporations.

In the late 1800s there was a strong desire to shift away from the reliance in horses and other animals for both personal and mass transport for a variety of reasons. One of the main motives was the high cost associate with the ongoing food and stable costs as well as their short working lives and hours (especially with streetcars). The high risk of disease from close interaction with the animals was also a strong driver. Due to this the shift from animals and their feed to fossil fuels as an energy source became more justified and widely embraced.

The rise in rail-like services and streetcars pushed other services to the side. Public policy then ensured that streetcar systems were given charters and were franchised by the cities, so as to guide safety, service and fare prices. The city governments imposed a flat fare policy to most streetcar systems which was usually about five cents. Although this fare restriction was not an issue early on and the public took advantage of this increasingly low cost, after World War I when there was a major inflation in prices, the city governments prohibited any fare increases. This became a much larger issue when transit worker unions began demanding better working conditions and higher wages. These labour problems led to a huge number of strikes over the years all over the country, one strike in Pittsburgh in 1954 lasted 56 days.

Birthing and Growth
The growth and development of streetcar systems in cities across North America was strongly related to the extensive technological and socioeconomic changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century. With the assistance of railroads and canals, this booming industrialization yielded exceptional population growth. This also resulted in a lot of displacement as people ventured from the country into crowded towns in search for employment.

Possession of a streetcar line became essential for growing towns, and often led to the development of new ones. Larger systems also eventually extended their own systems further into the suburbs. In Atlanta, Georgia (1902) the city allowed for the merging of all street railroad, electric light and steam power utilities under the control of one company, Georgia Railway and Electric Company. This was a common event in cities all across America, and boosted the growth of the streetcar system, often resulting in redundant lines being abandoned while more profitable ones were upgraded and double-tracked to make for more efficient services.

Maturity and Decline
Growth of the system slowed down and allowed for some maturing as many streetcar enterprises found themselves in financial complications during and after WWI due to an increase in wages and material costs. They also suffered due to the “lock-in” policies implemented by many governments, forcing them to adhere to a fixed fare set by municipal franchises and preventing them from adapting to the mode changing market and competitive conditions. This franchise agreement also meant that although the high construction costs were often subsidized by the states, any line extensions were not financially feasible for the owning companies. This meant that streetcar companies were often locked into using expensive and often failing lines. These same franchise agreements also placed heavy tax burdens on the rail transit sector, something that was not placed on bus companies. By the time fare raises were permitted the use of the automobile had taken off, along with more bus systems.

In 1900 Georgia only had 80 registered motor vehicles, but by 1905 there were 780, any by 1910 the number had spiked to 4,490. This also led to the unexpected challenge of unlicensed taxi operators, known as ‘jitneys’ which took over city streets and competed with the streetcars for passenger fares.

Unprofitable lines in towns all across Georgia such as Gainesville and Albany had been completely discontinued as early as 1920, with bus services being introduce in most towns and cities by the 1930s.

Increased operating expenses, decreased fare revenues, popularity of the automobile and poor transport policy led to the demise of the streetcar system. Transport policies were often part of larger policies such as public service, economic recovery and urban planning, perhaps allowing for policy issues to arise, with the solution (such as removing fare restrictions) coming too late. The division between the public and private sector in addition to the high number of companies operating separately possibly led to a system with little uniformity and poor planning.

Although the bus and automobile took over the need for the streetcar system, most modern societies are returning to this concept as road congestion and mass commutes to city centres increase through the system of light rail. However, rather than suburbs being built around streetcar systems, there is more of a need to bring better transport systems and rail lines to the already existing suburbs and towns.

Model Outline
Transport modes, like most forms of technological advancement follow a trend of birthing, growth, maturity, and sometimes, decline. This lifecycle allows for the modelling and prediction of how a technology may behave or advance over time. The streetcars systems located in Georgia were tracked and recorded from 1894 to 1920, with a logistic function applied to model the predicted lifecycle of the transport mode.

Defining the Model
A three parameter logistic function was used to calculate the model using the equation below;

$$S(t)=\left ( \frac{K}{[1+e^{(-b(t-t_0)}]} \right )$$

Where:
 * $$S(t)$$ is the status measure (e.g. miles of track)
 * $$t$$ is time (years)
 * $$t_0$$ is the inflection time (year in which $$\frac{1}{2}K$$ is achieved
 * $$K$$ is the saturation status level
 * $$b$$ is a coefficient

Due to the restricted timeframe that the data used was available for, meaning that not all aspects of the lifecycle were measured/predicted for each system (e.g. steam, gas, electricity etc.), the values for $$K$$ and $$b$$ had to be estimated using a process of Ordinary Least Squares Regression. A single variable linear regression system using the following formula was used to estimate the relevant coefficients;

$$Y = bX + c $$

Where:
 * $$Y=LN\left ( \frac{Miles}{K-Miles} \right )$$
 * $$X=$$ year

Model Analysis
Four different streetcar systems were found to be used int Georgia between 1894 and 1920, being the horse or mule-drawn, steam-powered, electric and gas/petrol engine powered streetcar. Although battery powered was another method used in some systems, they were not found in this area in this timeframe. The overall analysis was split up between these four systems, however, only the electric system (as well as overall) showed a clear trend for birth, growth and maturity. The graph displaying the measured and predicted track mileage for all streetcar systems in total, and the estimated parameters can be seen in figure 1 and table 1.

Table 1: Overall System Parameters

The overall mileage for all system shows a clear trend illustrating the growth and maturity phases of the lifecycle. However, the study period does not extend early or late enough in time to show an obvious birthing or decline stage.

Electric System The graph showing the actual (measured) miles and the predicted miles, as well as the parameters used for the model can be seen in figure 2 and table 2 below, respectively.

Table 2: Electric System Parameters

The model shows the birthing stage to be in the first stage of the time period, possibly beginning prior to the dates analysed. The growth stage is then shown to be approximately from 1894-1902 when the rate of increase is increasing, while maturity is assumed to be after the point of inflection (1902) where the rate of increase begins to decrease. The electric system shows a clear S-curve and exhibits the clear growth and maturity of the system, however it probably does not extend far enough to see an obvious decline.

Gas System The graph showing the actual (measured) miles and the predicted miles, as well as the parameters used for the model can be seen in figure 3 and table 3 below, respectively.

Table 3: Gas System Parameters

The model for the gas system does not reflect the same S-curve shape as the electric system. The actual birthing phase can be seen to begin from about 1911 and the growth starting in 1915. This system was developed later than the other systems in Georgia and during the time frame studied, does not appear to have a stage of maturity. The accuracy of this model is analysed below.

Steam System The graph showing the actual (measured) miles and the predicted miles, as well as the parameters used for the model can be seen in figure 4 and table 4 below, respectively.

Table 4: Steam System Parameters

The model for the steam system also does not reflect the same S-curve shape as the electric system, nor the growth of the gas system. The trend shown for this system is a decline for the whole period studied. Although the total number of miles for streetcars was increasing, the steam system was slowly being replaced by more modern systems, which accounts for this decline shown. The accuracy of this model is also analysed below.

Horse-drawn System The graph showing the actual (measured) miles and the predicted miles, as well as the parameters used for the model can be seen in figure 5 and table 5 below.

Table 5: Horse-drawn System Parameters

The model for the horse or mule-drawn system reflects the same decline trend as the steam system unlike the gas or electric system. Although the total number of miles for streetcars was increasing, the horse-drawn system, like the steam system, was slowly being replaced by more modern systems, which accounts for this decline shown. The accuracy of this model is also analysed below.

Model Accuracy
The actual data as well as the predicted models for each system seem to give a somewhat accurate idea of the trend for each of them. The most accurate is most likely the electric system as it covers an appropriate timeframe for the system, displaying the birthing, growth and maturity of the system. The model for the gas/petrol system also clearly shows the birthing and growth trend, however it does not show any other stage of the lifecycle as it was only introduce towards the end of the period of study. The least accurate models are those for the horse-drawn and steam-powered systems. It is difficult to model for these systems as they were introduced before the study period and were slowly being replaced by other systems at a varying rate. The inaccuracy of the horse-drawn model can especially be seen through the K value or 100,000. Although this value for the parameter produces the best fit model for the data through trial and error and regression analysis, it is highly unlikely, or even impossible, that there was anywhere close to 100,000 miles of horse-drawn track for streetcars in Georgia.

Other possible reasons for inaccuracy in the model involve the data source. Some years had missing data which required interpolation, and whilst collected from a reputable source, there also seemed to be some discrepancies in the data for each company over the years which could affect the accuracy of the model. The regression results for the system models are seen in table 6.

Table 6: Regression Results

The R Squared value determines the fitness of the model, with a higher value suggesting that a higher percentage of the points fall on the regression line, and a value of 1 being ideal. The models for combined data, electrical and gas systems all have a reasonably high t-stat value (over 2) suggesting the variable is more statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. The electric (and total) system also have a much smaller P-value than the other systems, indicating that the estimated coefficients are more accurate and reliable.


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