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Arabic/The Alphabet

Reading and Writing Basics
The standard way to write Arabic is with the Arabic writing system. In English, both consonants and vowels are represented prominently. For example, the letter "a" and the letter "b" occupy approximately equal area. Sometimes vowels are omitted for brevity, like in "Scrn Lk" for Screen Lock on a keyboard, but this is unusual. In the Arabic writing system, however, omitting vowels is the standard. Symbols for vowels are an afterthought in the Arabic writing system—they exist but are sprinkled on and are rarely used. So, how do people read Arabic when the writing system does not usually represent vowels? Experienced readers of Arabic are capable of predicting the vowels based on the context. For beginners, extra symbols are written to represent the vowels. In cases where the author of a text anticipates ambiguity, the author can write the minimum vowels necessary to resolve ambiguity. In this book, vowels will be taught in the next chapter.

The direction of writing in the Arabic writing system is also different than in English. Arabic is written from right to left, unlike English, which is written from left to right. However, the vertical direction is the same as English; when a line is completed, the next line is placed below the previous line.

Layouts
How the Arabic alphabet was organized has changed over the centuries. First was the abjad order going "a", "b", "j", "d".

Standard Layout
Eventually, someone decided to organize the alphabet by shapes so that letters made with the same shapes went right after each other (it is one prevalent alphabet organization and used everywhere):

← read from right to left ←

ا ب ت  ث  ج  ح  خ

د ذ  ر  ز

س ش ص ض  ط  ظ

ع غ  ف  ق

ك ل  م  ن  ه  و  ي

Pyramid Alphabet
Recently, someone found a different way to organize the alphabet: by type of tail, then by type of shape, then by type of dot.

Letter Forms
In Arabic, most letters have 4 forms

 * Alone: The form used when not part of a word
 * Beginning: The form used when the letter is first in a word
 * Middle: The form used when a letter is in the middle of a word
 * End: The form used when a letter is the last one in a word

Letter Connections
Arabic letters can be split into two groups called connectors and non-connectors. Every connector will connect to the next letter in a word.

Connectors and non-connectors
Some words may mix both connector and non-connector letters.

Example 1

 * ب+ ت ← بـ ـت ← بـت
 * Notice that  ب (baa) is connected to the next letter because baa is a connector, not because the next letter is one.

Example 2

 *  ه  + ت  + م  ← هـ ـتـ ـم  ← هـتـم
 * Notice that  ه is connected to  ت and  ت is connected to  م.

The above examples also show letters that change form to connect: ه (haa-single form) became هـ (haa-initial form). They are both the same letter but in different forms so they can be handwritten together. How do we know which form a letter is supposed to take on in a word?

Connectors only
When a word has only connector letters, the following rules apply:

 * The first letter is in the initial form.
 * The final letter is in the final form.
 * All other letters are in the middle form.

Example 1

 * If you had to connect five letters of the letter  ت (taa) together...

 *  ت + ت + ت + ت + ت

 * ...then the first letter would be in the initial form (i.e.  تـ ), and the last letter would be in the final form (i.e. ـت ). So:

 *  تـ + ... + ـت

 * All other letters would be in the middle form (i.e. ـتـ ).

 *  ت + ت + ت + ت + ت  ← تـ  ـتـ   ـتـ   ـتـ   ـت  ← تــتــتــتــت

Example 2

 * How to write:  ب + ه + م ?

 *  بـ  ← (baa  initial form)  ←  ب

 *  ـهـ  ← (haa middle form)  ←  ه

 *  ـم  ← (meem final form)  ←  م

 * So the word becomes:

 *  ب + ه + م  ← بـ ـهـ  ـم  ← بـهـم

 * That is how it looks when all connected properly.

With non-connectors
Non-connectors have only two forms: Connected and unconnected. It becomes connected if the previous letter is a connector. If the previous letter is a non-connector or if there is no previous letter, it remains unconnected. Non-connectors do not connect to subsequent letters and therefore create breaks in words.

In the next examples, an ampersand (&) will be used to show that one letter does not connect to the next one (where the breaks are) in the following example. The breaks always occur directly after the non-connector.

Example 1

 * Write in Arabian script: b-b-b-r-b-b

 *  ب + ب + ب + ر + ب + ب

 * First find out where the break is:

 *  ب + ب + ب + ر & ب + ب

 * Do the first part (the part on the right of the ampersand "&"). We know that the first letter  ب (baa) should be in the initial form. The last letter is a non-connector. Which form should it be in? Because the letter before it is a connector, this letter  ر (raa) should be in connected form:

 *  ب + ب + ب + ر  ← بـ  ـبـ   ـبـ   ـر  ← بـبـبـر

 * This was only the first written part of the word. We have to do the part after the non-connector letter.

 *  ب + ب  ← بـ ـب  ← بـب

 * Now, we have to have the parts side by side to make the word.

 *  بـبـبـربـب

 * Although there is a break between the letter ر (raa) and the next letter when it is written by hand, when one word in Arabic is typed the space bar is never touched. The letters automatically get connected properly by the computer.

Example 2

 * Now let's do an actual Arabic word. The following is an Arabic word meaning "he left [something]". It is pronounced ta-ra-ka:

 *  ت + ر + ك

 * First find out where the breaks are:

 *  ت + ر & ك

 * In the first part, we see that the first letter is a connector and is not the only letter, so we know automatically that it should be in initial form. We noticed that ر is a non-connector. The letter before it (i.e.  ت ) is a connector, so ر should be written in connected form.

 *  ت + ر  ← تـ + ـر  ← تر

 * The second part is just one letter so it should be written in single form, which it already has:

 *  ك  ← ك

 * Put them side by side:

 *  ترك

With practice, you will be able to write better and better.

Row 4: ب ت ث ف
All letters are named with the sound they make at the beginning of their names. The letters of row 4 are called baa, taa, tħaa, and faa. Now don't get confused, the first three do look similar, but are different letters because of the dots. The first letter up there has one dot underneath. The second one has two dots on top. The third has three dots snuggled up in a triangle shape. And the fourth letter has a different shape and only one dot. All of these letters have the same tail. They connect to letters after them, within a word. Remember, every letter has four forms.

Exercises
Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form.

Example: بـتـثـفـف= ب + ت + ث + ف + ف

 * 1)  بـت=؟
 * 2)   ثـبـت=؟
 * 3)   بـبـت=؟
 * 4)  بـفـث=؟
 * 5)   ثـت=؟
 * 6)   فـت=؟
 * 7)  بـبـف=؟
 * 8)  ثـث=؟
 * 9)   تـتـتـف=؟
 * 10)     فـتـفـبـفـب=؟
 * 11)    فـفـف=؟
 * 12)      تـفـت=؟
 * 13)     بـب=؟
 * 14)          فـتـف=؟
 * 15)   ثـبـت=؟

Put the letters together connecting each letters properly.
 * 1) ث + ب = ؟
 * 2) ت + ب = ؟
 * 3) ف + ب + ت=؟
 * 4) ب + ب + ف=؟
 * 5) ف + ب + ث + ف=؟
 * 6) ت + ب + ف + ث=؟

A group of letters is shown connecting as they would in a word. Your job is to read the word from right-to-left (that is the way Arabic is written and read), and write the English transliteration letters (from left-to-right). Separate transliterated letters with dashes.

Note: Because you have not learned about writing vowels in Arabic, the transliteration only includes consonants. For example "b-t-t", this means that the word contains the consonants in the word in that order, the vowels are not indicated yet. Because the vowels aren't indicated the pseudo-word might be pronounced /ba-ta-ta/, /bi-ti-ti/, /bit-ti/, /bat-tu/, /bu-tat/, /bat-ta/ and so on.

Example:  بـتـت /b-t-t/
 * 1)  بـت
 * 2) ثـبـث
 * 3)  بـبـت
 * 4) بـفـث
 * 5) ثـت
 * 6) فـت
 * 7) بـبـت
 * 8) ثـث
 * 9) تـتـتـف
 * 10) فـتـفـبـفـب
 * 11) فـفـف
 * 12) تـفـت
 * 13) بـب
 * 14) فـتـف
 * 15) ثـبـت

Print out and trace the following letter combinations. Each of these is the initial, middle and final form of one letter.                                    ببب ببب                                       ببب ببب                                    تتت تتت                                       تتت تتت                                    ﺛﺜﺚ ﺛﺜﺚ                                       ﺛﺜﺚ ﺛﺜﺚ

Answers
The answer is on the far left after the equal sign. The part in the middle shows how they connect

 * 1)   ب + ت  =>  بـ + ـت  =  بت
 * 2)   ث + ب + ت  =>  ثـ + ـبـ + ـت  =  ثـبـت
 * 3)    ب + ب + ت  =>  بـ + ـبـ + ـت  =  بـبـت
 * 4)   ب  + ف + ث  =>  بـ + ـفـ + ـث  =  بـفـث
 * 5)   ث + ت  =>  ثـ + ـت  = ثـت
 * 6)    ف + ت  =>  فـ + ـت  =  فـت
 * 7)   ب + ب + ف  =>  بـ + ـبـ +ـف  =  بـبـف
 * 8)        ث + ث  =>  ثـ  + ـث  =  ثـث
 * 9)    ت + ت + ت + ف  =>  تـ + ـتـ + ـتـ + ـف  =  تـتـتـف
 * 10)     ف + ت + ف + ب + ف + ب  =>  فـ + ـتـ + ـفـ + ـبـ + ـفـ + ـب  =  فـتـفـبـفـب
 * 11)    ف + ف + ف  =>  فـ + ـفـ + ـف  =  فـفـف
 * 12)    ت + ف + ت  =>  تـ + ـفـ + ـت  =  تـفـت
 * 13)     ب + ب =>  بـ + ـب  =  بـب
 * 14)     ف + ت + ف  =>  فـ + ـتـ + ـف  =  فـتـف
 * 15)   ث + ب + ت  =>  ثـ + ـبـ + ـت  =  ثـبـت Exercise 2
 * 16)                       ث + ب = ثـب
 * 17)                        ت + ب = تـب
 * 18)                            ف + ب + ت = فـبـت
 * 19)                                 ب + ب + ف = بـبـف
 * 20)                                  ف + ب + ث + ف = فـبـثـف
 * 21)                                ت + ب + ف + ث = تـبـفـث

 * 1) b-t= بـت
 * 2) θ-b-θ=ثـبـث
 * 3)  b-b-t=بـبـت
 * 4) b-f-θ=بـفـث
 * 5) θ-t=ثـت
 * 6) f-t=فـت
 * 7) b-b-t=بـبـت
 * 8) θ-θ=ثـث
 * 9) t-t-t-f=تـتـتـف
 * 10) f-t-f-b-f-b=فـتـفـبـفـب
 * 11) f-f-f=فـفـف
 * 12) t-f-t=تـفـت
 * 13) b-b=بـب
 * 14) f-t-f=فـتـف
 * 15) θ-b-t=ثـبـت

Rows 1 and 3: ه ك م ي
The letters written above are called haa, kaff, mem, and yaa. The unique thing about ه (haa) is that in most styles of writing all its forms look different.

Exercises
Instructions: Write the Arabic letter that represents the sound that the English word starts with. If an English word has a silent letter, that letter does not count. Think about the sound, not the English spelling when doing this exercise.

Example: think   ث
 * 1) king
 * 2) hate
 * 3) father
 * 4) hamper
 * 5) mass
 * 6) mother
 * 7) yacht
 * 8) matter
 * 9) clan
 * 10) master
 * 11) Yemen
 * 12) coat
 * 13) match
 * 14) foremost
 * 15) boot
 * 16) first
 * 17) taste
 * 18) cave
 * 19) banner
 * 20) third
 * 21) mom
 * 22) track
 * 23) cast
 * 24) thistle
 * 25) main
 * 26) fate
 * 27) base
 * 28) yes
 * 29) captain

Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form. Example: هكمي = ه + ك + م + ي

 * 1)  كم=؟
 * 2)   بثـكه=؟
 * 3)   ثـفهمف=؟
 * 4)  فهم=؟
 * 5)   فم=؟
 * 6)   كميم=؟
 * 7)  كف=؟
 * 8)  هيثم=؟
 * 9)   كهم=؟
 * 10)     كيثـتميي=؟
 * 11)    كيمي=؟
 * 12)      كفف=؟
 * 13)     يكم=؟
 * 14)          يـم=؟
 * 15)   هههههه=؟

Put the letters together, connecting each letters properly.

 * 1) ك + ي + م + ث =؟
 * 2) ت + ه + م + ي + ب = ؟
 * 3) ف + م=؟
 * 4) ب + م + ي + م + ي + ه + م + ب + ف + ه=؟
 * 5) ه +ه +ه+ م + ك + ك=؟
 * 6) ك + م=؟
 * 7)  ب +ك +م +ي +ف =؟
 * 8)   ه + ي + ه =؟
 * 9)  ب + ك + ي + ك +  ه + ي + ي =؟
 * 10)  ت + ه + م=؟
 * 11)  ب + ه + ف + ه =؟
 * 12)  ب + م + ي + م +  ه + ي + ب =؟
 * 13)  ب +م +ث +ه=؟

Answers

 * 1) king-ك
 * 2) hate-ه
 * 3) father-ف
 * 4) hamper-ه
 * 5) mass-م
 * 6) mother-م
 * 7) yacht-ي
 * 8) matter-م
 * 9) clan-ك
 * 10) master-م
 * 11) Yemen-ي
 * 12) coat-ك
 * 13) match-م
 * 14) foremost-ف
 * 15) boot-ب
 * 16) first-ف
 * 17) taste-ت
 * 18) cave-ك
 * 19) banner-ب
 * 20) third-ث
 * 21) mom-م
 * 22) track-ت
 * 23) cast-ك
 * 24) thistle-ث
 * 25) main-م
 * 26) fate-ف
 * 27) base-ب
 * 28) yes-ي
 * 29) captain-ك

 * 1)  كم= ك + م
 * 2)   بثـكه = ب + ث + ك + ه
 * 3)   ثـفـهـمـف = ث + ف + ه + م + ف
 * 4)  فهم = ف + ه + م
 * 5)   فم = ف + م
 * 6)   كميم = ك + م + ي + م
 * 7)  كف = ك + ف
 * 8)  هيثم = ه + ي + ث + م
 * 9)   كهم = ك + ه + م
 * 10)     كيثـتميي = ك + ي + ث + ت + م + ي + ي
 * 11)    كيمي = ك + ي + م + ي
 * 12)      كفف = ك + ف + ف
 * 13)     يكم = ي + ك + م
 * 14)          يـم = ي + م
 * 15)   هههههه= ه + ه + ه + ه + ه + ه   Exercise 3
 * 16)                       ك + ي + م + ث =كـيـمـث
 * 17)                        ت + ه + م + ي + ب = تـهـمـيـب
 * 18)                            ف + م=فـم
 * 19)          ب + م + ي + م + ي + ه + م + ب + ف + ه = بـمـيـمـيـهـمـبـفـه
 * 20)                                  ه +ه +ه+ م + ك + ك=هـهـهـمـكـك
 * 21)                                ك + م = كـم
 * 22)  ب + ك + م + ي + ف = بـكـمـيـف
 * 23)   ه + ي + ه = هـيـه
 * 24)  ب + ك + ي + ك +  ه + ي + ي = بـكـيـكـهـيـي
 * 25)  ت + ه + م= تـهـم
 * 26)  ب + ه + ف + ه = بـهـفـه
 * 27)  ب + م + ي + م + ه + ي + ب = بـمـيـمـهـيـب
 * 28)  ب +م +ث +ه = بـمـثـه

Row 2: ط ظ
These letters are often called emphatic. This means that the sound is both pharyngealized and partly velarized. The very back of the tongue is pushed against the back of the throat. In layman's terms, think of pronouncing the sound while simultaneously choking yourself. Phonetically, we write this by adding ˁ right after the sound.

Exercises
Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form.

Example:  بـت=؟

 * 1)   هش=؟
 * 2)   مراكش=؟

Answers
Answers are on the left side of the equal sign.
 * 1) هش = ﻩ + ﺶ
 * 2) مراكش = م + ر + ا + ك + ش

Row 5: ج ح خ ع غ
These letters have the hook tail that looks like an L. Remember that tails only show up in the end and the lonely form of the letter.

Row 6: ا د ذ ر ز و
All these letters are non-connectors and therefore have only two forms: connected and non-connected.

Exercises
Write the Arabic letter that represents the first sound in the English word:
 * 1) this-
 * 2) zap-
 * 3) damn-
 * 4) think-
 * 5) daisy-
 * 6) boot-
 * 7) family-
 * 8) handsome-
 * 9) case-
 * 10) basic-
 * 11) therefore-
 * 12) wait-
 * 13) weight-
 * 14) doctor-
 * 15) Robert-
 * 16) ram-
 * 17) basic-
 * 18) yawn-
 * 19) doctor-
 * 20) thoughtful-
 * 21) there-
 * 22) maybe-
 * 23) might-
 * 24) castle-
 * 25) deaf-
 * 26) king-
 * 27) destruction-
 * 28) camp-
 * 29) them-
 * 30) him-
 * 31) yes-
 * 32) mouth-
 * 33) rabbit-
 * 34) zipper-
 * 35) fourth-
 * 36) dad-
 * 37) demonstration-
 * 38) third-
 * 39) three-
 * 40) table-
 * 41) zero-
 * 42) master-
 * 43) distance-
 * 44) apple-
 * 45) information-
 * 46) earth
 * 47) upset-
 * 48) darling-
 * 49) under-
 * 50) zebra-
 * 51) eat-

Write the Arabic letter that represents the last sound in the English word:
 * 1) printer-
 * 2) fake-
 * 3) numb-
 * 4) bath-
 * 5) maybe-
 * 6) say-
 * 7) jumper-
 * 8) denominator-
 * 9) rake-
 * 10) bathe (they bathe in the pool)-
 * 11) murder-
 * 12) bite-
 * 13) jade-
 * 14) Jake-
 * 15) hay-
 * 16) breath-
 * 17) breathe (they breathe)-
 * 18) expand-
 * 19) ate-
 * 20) calculate-
 * 21) number-
 * 22) eight-
 * 23) fate-
 * 24) gulf-
 * 25) golf-
 * 26) bay-
 * 27) sore-
 * 28) compute-
 * 29) amaze-
 * 30) mouth-
 * 31) rye-
 * 32) lay-
 * 33) more-
 * 34) random-
 * 35) band-
 * 36) zoom-
 * 37) Dubai-
 * 38) back-
 * 39) wolf-
 * 40) soothe-
 * 41) maze-
 * 42) yolk-
 * 43) rate-
 * 44) math-
 * 45) folklore-

A group of letters is shown connecting as they would in a word. Your job is to read the word from right to left (that is the way Arabic is written and read), and write the English transliteration letters (from left to right). Separate transliterated letters with dashes.

Note: Because you have not learned about writing vowels in Arabic, the transliteration only includes consonants. For example, "b-t-t": this means that the word contains the consonants in the word in that order, while the vowels are not indicated yet. Because the vowels aren't indicated the pseudo-word might be pronounced /ba-ta-ta/, /bi-ti-ti/, /bit-ti/, /bat-tu/, /bu-tat/, /bat-ta/ and so on.

We learnt previously that the letter ب (baa) makes the "b" sound, its name is "baa". So بتت b-t-t can be spelt out (baa, taa, taa) but the pronunciation of the word is not the same as how it is spelt. Once you learn about writing vowels, you will be able to read words with vowels.

Examples:  بـتـت /b-t-t/

 بـثـبـتـف /b-θ-b-t-f/

 * 1)  بـت
 * 2)  دذر
 * 3)  رذد
 * 4)  وث
 * 5)  رث
 * 6)  ثذ
 * 7)  تر
 * 8)  وث
 * 9)  رثو
 * 10)  تدذ
 * 11)  ذدبت
 * 12)  بتي
 * 13)  ثثث
 * 14)  بووو
 * 15)  برررريي
 * 16)  يووو
 * 17)  رذدرردذردتذدثـتبدذ
 * 18)  ردذ
 * 19)  رد
 * 20)  ذد
 * 21)  رث
 * 22)  روث
 * 23)  تيث
 * 24)  ثرد
 * 25)  رب
 * 26)  رذي
 * 27)  ييذ
 * 28)  رر
 * 29)  وو
 * 30)  بب
 * 31)  ذذ
 * 32)  دد
 * 33)  يي
 * 34)  روي
 * 35)  ذدر
 * 36)  دود
 * 37)  وذد
 * 38)  دذر
 * 39)  ردد
 * 40)  ردذ
 * 41)  وود
 * 42)  ود
 * 43)  كرردذودذ

Write out the letters that the word is made up of. Write out the letters in lonely form.

Example:  بـت=؟

 * 1)  هكمي=؟
 * 2)  ردذ=؟
 * 3)  رثمرو=؟
 * 4)  ميو=؟
 * 5)  يثـتب=؟
 * 6)  يثمب=؟
 * 7)  يـيث=؟
 * 8)  هك=؟
 * 9)    ومز=؟
 * 10)   ذرع=؟
 * 11)     ذهك=؟
 * 12)    كه=؟
 * 13)         روكه=؟
 * 14)  كروده=؟
 * 15)  كير=؟
 * 16)  كرد=؟
 * 17)  دت=؟
 * 18)  ذوت=؟
 * 19)  ذيت=؟
 * 20)  رور=؟
 * 21)  دير=؟
 * 22)  دوير=؟
 * 23)  ذث=؟
 * 24)    تذب=؟
 * 25)   ذبتـثوي=؟
 * 26)     ييتـب=؟
 * 27)    ييثر=؟
 * 28)         زذي=؟
 * 29)  يرو=؟
 * 30)  وريرر=؟
 * 31)  روبرت=؟
 * 32)  روي=؟
 * 33)  تبتـثـي=؟
 * 34)  توتـتر=؟
 * 35)  زور=؟
 * 36)  وي=؟
 * 37)  يـيـوت=؟
 * 38)  بـيت=؟
 * 39)    يوت=؟
 * 40)   بيوت=؟
 * 41)     ريت=؟
 * 42)    زيت=؟
 * 43)         ويت=؟
 * 44)  زيت=؟
 * 45)  زيوت=؟
 * 46)  موت=؟
 * 47)  موووت=؟
 * 48)  مرت=؟
 * 49)  ميت=؟
 * 50)  مث=؟
 * 51)  ميث=؟
 * 52)  ريت=؟
 * 53)  ريوت=؟
 * 54)    كيت=؟
 * 55)   كيوت=؟
 * 56)     ثثث=؟
 * 57)    ببب=؟
 * 58)         كتت=؟
 * 59)  مت=؟
 * 60)  بت=؟

Answers
Note that any word written with a vowel sound is written beginning with an alif in Arabic.
 * 1) this-ذ
 * 2) zap-ز
 * 3) damn-د
 * 4) think-ث
 * 5) daisy-د
 * 6) boot-ب
 * 7) family-ف
 * 8) handsome-ه
 * 9) case-ك
 * 10) basic-ب
 * 11) therefore-ذ
 * 12) wait-و
 * 13) weight-و
 * 14) doctor-د
 * 15) Robert-ر
 * 16) ram-ر
 * 17) basic-ب
 * 18) yawn-ي
 * 19) doctor-د
 * 20) thoughtful-ث
 * 21) there-ذ
 * 22) maybe-م
 * 23) might-م
 * 24) castle-ك
 * 25) deaf-د
 * 26) king-ك
 * 27) destruction-د
 * 28) camp-ك
 * 29) them-ذ
 * 30) him-ه
 * 31) yes-ي
 * 32) mouth-م
 * 33) rabbit-ر
 * 34) zipper-ز
 * 35) fourth-ف
 * 36) dad-د
 * 37) demonstration-د
 * 38) third-ث
 * 39) three-ث
 * 40) table-ت
 * 41) zero-ز
 * 42) master-م
 * 43) distance-د
 * 44) apple-ا
 * 45) information-ا
 * 46) earthا
 * 47) upset-ا
 * 48) darling-د
 * 49) under-ا
 * 50) zebra-ز
 * 51) eat-ا

 * 1) printer-ر
 * 2) fake-ك
 * 3) numb-م
 * 4) bath-ث
 * 5) maybe-ي
 * 6) say-ي
 * 7) jumper-ر
 * 8) denominator-ر
 * 9) rake-ك
 * 10) bathe (they bathe in the pool)-ذ
 * 11) murder-ر
 * 12) bite-ت
 * 13) jade-د
 * 14) Jake-ك
 * 15) hay-ي
 * 16) breath-ث
 * 17) breathe (they breathe)-ذ
 * 18) expand-د
 * 19) ate-ت
 * 20) calculate-ت
 * 21) number-ر
 * 22) eight-ت
 * 23) fate-ت
 * 24) gulf-ف
 * 25) golf-ف
 * 26) bay-ي
 * 27) sore-ر
 * 28) compute-ت
 * 29) amaze-ز
 * 30) mouth-ث
 * 31) rye-ي
 * 32) lay-ي
 * 33) more-ر
 * 34) random-م
 * 35) band-د
 * 36) zoom-م
 * 37) Dubai-ي
 * 38) back-ك
 * 39) wolf-ف
 * 40) soothe-ذ
 * 41) maze-ز
 * 42) yolk-ك
 * 43) rate-ت
 * 44) math-ث
 * 45) folklore-ر

 * 1) d-dh-r دذر
 * 2) r-dh-d رذد
 * 3) w-th وث
 * 4) r-th رث
 * 5) th-dh ثذ
 * 6) t-r تر
 * 7) w-th وث
 * 8) r-th-w رثو
 * 9) t-d-dh تدذ
 * 10) dh-d-b-t ذدبت
 * 11) b-t-y بتي
 * 12) th-th-th ثثث
 * 13) b-w-w-w بووو
 * 14) b-r-r-r-r-y-y برررريي
 * 15) y-w-w-w يووو
 * 16) r-dh-d-r-r-d-dh-r-d-t-dh-d-th-t-b-d-dh رذدرردذردتذدثـتبدذ
 * 17) r-d-dh ردذ
 * 18) r-d رد
 * 19) dh-d ذد
 * 20) r-th رث
 * 21) r-w-th روث
 * 22) t-y-th تيث
 * 23) th-r-d ثرد
 * 24) r-b رب
 * 25) r-dh-y رذي
 * 26) y-y-dh ييذ
 * 27) r-r رر
 * 28) w-w وو
 * 29) b-b بب
 * 30) dh-dh ذذ
 * 31) d-d دد
 * 32) y-y يي
 * 33) r-w-y روي
 * 34) dh-d-r ذدر
 * 35) d-w-d دود
 * 36) w-dh-d وذد
 * 37) d-dh-r دذر
 * 38) r-d-d ردد
 * 39) r-d-dh ردذ
 * 40) w-w-d وود
 * 41) w-d ود
 * 42) k-r-r-d-dh-w-d-dh كرردذودذ

Answers are on the left side of the equal sign.
 * 1)  هكمي=ه + ك + م + ي
 * 2)  ردذ=ر + د + ذ
 * 3)  رثمرو=ر + ث + م + ر + و
 * 4)  ميو=م + ي + و
 * 5)  يثـتب = ي + ث + ت + ب
 * 6)  يثمب=ي + ث + م + ب
 * 7)  يـيث=ي + ي + ث
 * 8)  هك=ه + ك
 * 9)    ومز=و + م + ز
 * 10)   ذرع=ذ + ر + ع
 * 11)     ذهك=ذ + ه + ك
 * 12)    كه= ك + ه
 * 13)         روكه=ر + و + ك + ه
 * 14)  كروده= ك + ر + و + د + ه
 * 15)  كير= ك + ي + ر
 * 16)  كرد= ك + ر + د
 * 17)  دت= د + ت
 * 18)  ذوت= ذ + و + ت
 * 19)  ذيت=ذ + ي + ت
 * 20)  رور=ر + و + ر
 * 21)  دير=د + ي + ر
 * 22)  دوير=د + و + ي + ر
 * 23)  ذث=ذ + ث
 * 24)    تذب=ت + ذ + ب
 * 25)   ذبتـثوي=ذ + ب + ت + ث + و + ي
 * 26)     ييتـب=ي + ي + ت + ب
 * 27)    ييثر=ي + ي + ث + ر
 * 28)         زذي=ز + ذ + ي
 * 29)  يرو=ي + ر + و
 * 30)  وريرر=و + ر + ي + ر + ر
 * 31)  روبرت=ر + و + ب + ر + ت
 * 32)  روي=ر + و + ي
 * 33)  تبتـثـي=ت + ب + ت + ث + ي
 * 34)  توتـتر= ت + و + ت + ت + ر
 * 35)  زور=ز + و + ر
 * 36)  وي=و + ي
 * 37)  يـيـوت= ي + ي + و + ت
 * 38)  بـيت= ب + ي + ت
 * 39)    يوت=ي + و + ت
 * 40)   بيوت=ب + ي + و + ت
 * 41)     ريت=ر + ي + ت
 * 42)    زيت=ز + ي + ت
 * 43)         ويت=و + ي + ت
 * 44)  زيت=ز + ي + ت
 * 45)  زيوت=ز + ي + و + ت
 * 46)  موت=م + و + ت
 * 47)  موووت=م + و + و + و + ت
 * 48)  مرت=م + ر + ت
 * 49)  ميت=م + ي + ت
 * 50)  مث=م + ث
 * 51)  ميث=م + ي + ث
 * 52)  ريت=ر + ي + ت
 * 53)  ريوت=ر + ي + و + ت
 * 54)    كيت= ك + ي + ت
 * 55)   كيوت=ك + ي + و + ت
 * 56)     ثـثـث=ث + ث + ث
 * 57)    ببب=ب + ب + ب
 * 58)         كتت= ك + ت + ت
 * 59)  مت=م + ت
 * 60)  بت=ب + ت

title: Arabic/The Alphabet


text:
Arabic/Vowels

 * The short vowels: a, i, u
 * fatḥah (فتحة) fatħah
 * Alif (ألف)
 * ḍammah and wāw(ضمة و واو)
 * Kasrah and Yā' (كسرة و ياء)
 * Tanwīn: -an, -in, -un (تنوين)
 * ـَي (ai)
 * Sukūn (سكون) and Shaddah (شدة)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Arabic/Vowels


text:
Arabic/Special Cases

 * Lām Alif (لام ألف)
 * Ligatures
 * Alif Maqsuura: ى vs. ي (yaa)
 * Hamzä (همزة)
 * -ah: tā’ marbūṭah): (ة: تاء مربوطة)
 * Al (ال)

title: Arabic/Special Cases


text:
User:Semjoel/common.js

mw.loader.load('//www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?title=User:Semjoel/common.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript')

title: User:Semjoel/common.js


text:
Wikijunior talk:Early phonics readers

Letters and Sounds
Letters and Sounds is a systematic approach for teaching children to read using phonics. It is used in many schools in England

Phase 1
Phase 1 supports children’s (age 3-4) developing skills to link sounds and letters. Activities are divided into seven groups:

 * Environmental sounds.
 * Instrumental sounds.
 * Body percussion.
 * Rhythm and rhyme.
 * Alliteration.
 * Voice sounds.
 * Oral blending and segmenting.

The focus of this phase is on repeating sounds, rather than reading words.

Phase 3
Phase 3 is the third in an educational approach developed in the UK. 25 new graphemes are taught at Phase 3. These are introduced one at a time in the following order: j, v, w, x, y, z (including zz), qu, ch, sh, th, ng, ai, ee, igh, oa, oo, ar, or, ur, ow, oi, ear, air, ure, er.

 * https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a7aa7b6e5274a34770e630c/Letters_and_Sounds_-_DFES-00281-2007.pdf
 * https://home.oxfordowl.co.uk/reading/what-is-letters-and-sounds/
 * https://primarysite-prod-sorted.s3.amazonaws.com/intack-primary-school/UploadedDocument/d9d5af84-d2aa-4ee0-9fdc-9c20f26f5a66/phase-3-grapheme-chart.pdf

Digraphs are two letters which work together to make one sound and trigraphs are three letters which make one sound. Jerimee (discuss • contribs) 18:10, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Early phonics readers


text:
Talk:Moving objects in retarded gravitational potentials of an expanding spherical shell

Wikibook
This instructional Wikibook wasn't created by accident and it is neither a test nor an essay, since it describes the application of retarded gravitational potentials on large scales with huge masses. The content is based on the well-established theories of retarded potentials and gravitational potentials. The intention was already described in the last section "Summary of the project". The text is not annotated, and should enable students to understand the principles and the application of retarded potentials including their historical background. It uses both algebraic formulations and geometric representations to increase comprehensibility. It can be used in a traditional classroom, an accredited or respected institution, a home-school environment, as part of a Wikiversity course, or for self-learning. As explicitely explained in the summary, co-authors are welcome. --Bautsch (discuss • contribs) 23:22, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Since there was no evidence that this page was created by accident or as a test, the corresponding template was removed. --Bautsch (discuss • contribs) 14:26, 1 April 2024 (UTC)


text:
Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2023/November

The "community" and "sister projects" headings in the sidebars should be capitalized for consistency
All other headings start with an upper case letter and these exceptions look bad.

Manek775 (discuss • contribs) 09:48, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

 * I hadn't noticed this before, but it's true. @MarcGarver @Leaderboard do either of you know how this could be changed? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 16:51, 10 November 2023 (UTC)
 * , this was done by in preparation for some phabricator change (see history of MediaWiki:Sidebar), so we'll need to check with him first. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 18:54, 10 November 2023 (UTC)
 * I've fixed this by creating MediaWiki:Community and MediaWiki:Sister-projects. Note the keys in MediaWiki:Sidebar are meant to be IDs used by gadgets/code - not the labels themselves. Let me know if there's any other labels that are still incorrect and you need help fixing them. Jon (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 17:51, 17 November 2023 (UTC)


text:
User talk:193.188.114.194

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 09:24, 17 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:193.188.114.194


text:
User talk:41.116.193.122

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 13:50, 17 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:41.116.193.122


text:
Cookbook talk:Tirana Fërgesë with Peppers

Chili pepper?
What is meant by chili pepper here? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:37, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Faten Tsaki (Corn Porridge)

Chile?
What variety of chile should be used? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:37, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Eggplant Pasta

Chile?
What variety of chile pepper should be used? Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:39, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Eggplant Pasta


text:
Cookbook talk:Efo Amunututu (Nigerian Malabar Spinach Soup)

Chile?
What variety of chile should be used? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:39, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Edikang Ikong Soup I

Chile?
Should the ground chile be fresh or dried here? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:40, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Edikang Ikong Soup I


text:
Cookbook talk:Denderu (Kanuri Baked Mutton)

Chile?
What kind of chile should be used here? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:42, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Deep Fried Chiles Stuffed with Potato (Mirchi Bada)

Chili powder?
Should this be pure chile powder or a chili powder spice blend? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:43, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Damoda (Groundnut Stew)

Chiles?
What variety of chiles should be used here? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:44, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Damoda (Groundnut Stew)


text:
Cookbook talk:Chukauni (Nepalese Potato Salad)

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:50, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Chola and Roti

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:50, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Chola and Roti


text:
Cookbook talk:Bhel Puri (Indian Puffed Rice and Vegetable Snack)

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:56, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Basin Ki Kadi (Sindhi Chickpea Flour Curry)

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:58, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Agidi Jollof

Ground chile?
Should the ground chile be fresh or powdered? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:59, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Agidi Jollof


text:
Cookbook talk:Onion Pakoras

Chili powder
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:02, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Onion Pakoras


text:
Cookbook talk:Nigerian Fried Fish

Ground chile?
Should the ground chile be fresh or powdered? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:04, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Nigerian Fried Fish


text:
Cookbook talk:Nigerian Egg Stew

Ground chile?
Should the ground chile be fresh or powdered? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:04, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Nigerian Egg Stew


text:
Cookbook talk:Nigerian Bokolisa Soup

Ground chile?
Should the ground chile be fresh or powdered? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:05, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Nigerian Bokolisa Soup


text:
Cookbook talk:Nigerian Assorted Beef Pepper Soup

Ground chile?
Should the ground chile be fresh or powdered? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:06, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Murgh Musallam (Indian Stewed Spiced Chicken)

Chili powder?
Should it be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:07, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Masyaura Curry

Chili powder
Should it be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:09, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Masyaura Curry


text:
Cookbook talk:Maharashtrian Deep Fried Chickpea Dough Curry Snacks (Pakoda)

Chili powder?
Should it be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:10, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Maharashtrian Baingan Bartha (South Indian Eggplant with Chili)

Chili powder?
Should it be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:11, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Hyderabad Biryani

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:15, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Hyderabad Biryani


text:
Cookbook talk:Gobi Bhagi (Spiced Cauliflower Stew)

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 02:17, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Chqaz

Welcome!
Welcome, Chqaz!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 03:38, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chqaz


text:
User talk:2405:201:AC02:6CF2:BDE3:F618:D43E:A38B

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 03:39, 18 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
User talk:BillbyBobRUNNOFT

You cannot edit indefinitely due to disruptive editing. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

--Xania   talk 05:28, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:BillbyBobRUNNOFT


text:
Cookbook:Grape Leaf

Selection and storage
When great quantities of grape leaves are to be stored for a long period of time, they can be stored in one's deep freezer. However, they should be stored without rinsing the leaves in water, since this destroys them. Only when thawed out should they be rinsed.

title: Cookbook:Grape Leaf


text:
Cookbook:Shatkora

Shatkora, also called hatkhora or hatxora, is a variety of citrus native to Bangladesh.

title: Cookbook:Shatkora


text:
Cookbook talk:Charcuterie

no category? (newbie question)
Just wondering why this book does to has a red-linked category? Thanks in advance, Ottawahitech (discuss • contribs) 19:41, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

 * This page was originally part of another undeveloped book, and I moved it to the Cookbook. Because I forgot to remove the bookcat template, it incorrectly auto-categorized the page. I have since removed the template, and it should be fixed. —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:47, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Charcuterie


text:
User:Ottawahitech/affordable housing measures

British Columbia

 * 1) Foreign buyers tax
 * 2) Vancouver empty house tax
 * 3) Speculation and Vacancy tax
 * 4) https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/taxes/speculation-vacancy-tax
 * 5) Annual declaration required by all homeowners


text:
User:Erictleung

I have the same User:Erictleung at Wikipedia.org for more of my Wiki contributions

Books I have interest in contributing to:

 * https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Data_Science:_An_Introduction

Books I have interest in creating:

 * Elementary Algebra using Python
 * Introductory Geometry using Python
 * Introductory Statistics using Python
 * Pre-Calculus using Python
 * College Algebra using Python
 * Calculus using Python
 * Calculus 2 using Python

Inspiration:

 * https://openstax.org/subjects/math

title: User:Erictleung


text:
User talk:2600:387:0:809:0:0:0:29

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 01:06, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:2600:387:0:809:0:0:0:29


text:
Cookbook talk:Thalassery Biryani

Chili powder?
Is this supposed to be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:30, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Thalassery Biryani


text:
Cookbook talk:Sylheti Beef Curry

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:31, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sylheti Beef Curry


text:
Cookbook talk:Spinach Pakoras

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:32, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Spinach Pakoras


text:
Cookbook talk:Spicy Fried Rice

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:36, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Spicy Fried Rice


text:
Cookbook talk:Sindhi Vegetable Kofta

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:37, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sindhi Vegetable Kofta


text:
Cookbook talk:Sindhi Spiced Moong Dal

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:38, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sindhi Spiced Moong Dal


text:
Cookbook talk:Sindhi Pulao

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:39, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sindhi Pulao


text:
Chamteela/Part 2

Basic Phrases
The following table shows basic phrases and greetings in the Chamteela language. Refer back to Part 1 for information on the pronunciation.

title: Chamteela/Part 2


text:
Cookbook talk:Sai Bhaji (Sindhi Vegetable Curry)

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:53, 19 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Rajma (Sindhi Kidney Bean Curry)

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:54, 19 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook talk:Potato Pakora

Chili powder?
Should this be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:56, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Potato Pakora


text:
Cookbook:Chili Powder I

Ingredients

 * 6 ancho chiles, stemmed and finely chopped
 * 3 dried arbol chiles, stemmed and finely chopped
 * 2 tbsp garlic powder
 * 1 tbsp dried oregano
 * 2 tbsp whole toasted cumin

Procedure

 * 1) Give everything a run in a blender, food processor, or spice grinder until it's a fine powder.

title: Cookbook:Chili Powder I


text:
Cookbook:Chili Powder II

Ingredients

 * 3–8 dried chilies (mix and match depending upon availability and taste)
 * Ancho (mild)
 * Pasilla (mild)
 * Mulato (mild)
 * New Mexico/ristra (medium)
 * Cascabel (medium)
 * Chiltepin (very hot)
 * 1 tablespoon cumin seed
 * 1 tablespoon coriander seed
 * 1 tablespoon ground paprika
 * 2 teaspoons whole cloves or allspice
 * 1 teaspoon oregano
 * 1 teaspoon ground red cayenne pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Wearing protective gloves, break up the chilies into small pieces, and remove the seeds (or leave the seeds in for a hotter and slightly bitter flavor).
 * 2) Toast the chilies, cumin, coriander, cloves, and allspice in a dry skillet over low heat, stirring continually until you can smell the peppers (about 2 minutes). Depending on the size of the skillet and the amount of peppers, you may need to do more than one batch.
 * 3) When the toasted ingredients are cool, transfer them to a food-processor or blender along with the other ingredients, and grind it into a powder. Do not open the food processor lid until the powder settles.
 * 4) Store in an airtight jar.

title: Cookbook:Chili Powder II


text:
Talk:General Astronomy/History of the Black Hole

black hole
speed and gravity of black hole Zohaib Ismail (discuss • contribs) 03:59, 19 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Zoe Szymon

A page you created, THE SEA HAWK, has been flagged because it may not be suitable for Wikibooks. Please see Using Wikibooks to find out what is acceptable on Wikibooks. The page may be deleted soon.--Xania   talk 04:58, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zoe Szymon


text:
User talk:SnappyDragonPennyroyal

Welcome!
Welcome, SnappyDragonPennyroyal!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally.

--Xania   talk 05:18, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:SnappyDragonPennyroyal


text:
User talk:Zohaib Ismail

Recent edits to General Astronomy/History of the Black Hole have been undone. You removed large amounts of good quality text and replaced it with text which contained numerous errors. If you choose to re-add your edits then I would suggest keeping the existing text or adapting it somehow.--Xania   talk 05:20, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

 * what I had left in information? 37.111.158.144 (discuss) 14:53, 31 May 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zohaib Ismail


text:
The Christian meaning of life/Matthew 25

The meaning of Christian life is expressed in the three parables of chapter 25 of the Gospel of Matthew. The first 2 parables are preparatory, in view of the final meaning expressed in the third parable, so it is appropriate to immediately highlight the third:

Matthew 25:31-46 (The Last Judgment)
31 “When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, he will sit on his glorious throne. 32 All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate the people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats. 33 He will put the sheep on his right and the goats on his left. 34 “Then the King will say to those on his right, ‘Come, you who are blessed by my Father; take your inheritance, the kingdom prepared for you since the creation of the world. 35 For I was hungry and you gave me something to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me something to drink, I was a stranger and you invited me in, 36 I needed clothes and you clothed me, I was sick and you looked after me, I was in prison and you came to visit me.’ 37 “Then the righteous will answer him, ‘Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give you something to drink? 38 When did we see you a stranger and invite you in, or needing clothes and clothe you? 39 When did we see you sick or in prison and go to visit you?’ 40 “The King will reply, ‘Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me.’ 41 “Then he will say to those on his left, ‘Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels. 42 For I was hungry and you gave me nothing to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me nothing to drink, 43 I was a stranger and you did not invite me in, I needed clothes and you did not clothe me, I was sick and in prison and you did not look after me.’ 44 “They also will answer, ‘Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty or a stranger or needing clothes or sick or in prison, and did not help you?’ 45 “He will reply, ‘Truly I tell you, whatever you did not do for one of the least of these, you did not do for me.’ 46 “Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life.”

What is certainly striking is the harshness with which Jesus expresses himself in this parable, which seems not to be reconciled with the revelation of a God of Love, but upon reflection, since the theme is the defense of the hungry, thirsty, foreign, naked, sick man, a prisoner who risks being left alone in his suffering, the harshness with which Jesus expresses himself is perfectly justifiable, also because Jesus knows the human soul and knows that man often tends to do something to get something in return. Therefore Jesus tells us that if we want eternal life we cannot for any reason in the world leave our neighbor in suffering. God, in his mercy, can forgive all our sins but he is not willing to compromise on this. God suffers when he sees man suffer and he cannot tolerate us living our lives peacefully while leaving others in suffering. Jesus not only sides decisively in favor of the least but identifies with them, so despite our possible indifference, God is with them and in them and we can serve God by serving them. The meaning of Christian life is therefore this. Prayer, the sacraments, our personal efforts to improve ourselves must be aimed solely at this purpose which is none other than the will of God. But how should we prepare to achieve this arduous objective? The first 2 parables of chapter 25 of Matthew explain it to us:

Matthew 25:1-13 (Parable of the Ten Virgins)
1 “At that time the kingdom of heaven will be like ten virgins who took their lamps and went out to meet the bridegroom. 2 Five of them were foolish and five were wise. 3 The foolish ones took their lamps but did not take any oil with them. 4 The wise ones, however, took oil in jars along with their lamps. 5 The bridegroom was a long time in coming, and they all became drowsy and fell asleep. 6 “At midnight the cry rang out: ‘Here’s the bridegroom! Come out to meet him!’ 7 “Then all the virgins woke up and trimmed their lamps. 8 The foolish ones said to the wise, ‘Give us some of your oil; our lamps are going out.’ 9 “ ‘No,’ they replied, ‘there may not be enough for both us and you. Instead, go to those who sell oil and buy some for yourselves.’ 10 “But while they were on their way to buy the oil, the bridegroom arrived. The virgins who were ready went in with him to the wedding banquet. And the door was shut. 11 “Later the others also came. ‘Lord, Lord,’ they said, ‘open the door for us!’ 12 “But he replied, ‘Truly I tell you, I don’t know you.’ 13 “Therefore keep watch, because you do not know the day or the hour.

Even in this case we note the harshness with which Jesus expresses himself, because to achieve the purposes expressed in the parable of the last judgment previously transcribed, nWe cannot think of not preparing ourselves spiritually. For whatever you do in life it is necessary to follow a training itinerary. No doctor can practice the profession of medicine unless he has first studied hard for several years. Therefore the parable of the ten virgins wants to tell us that we cannot ignore prayer, the sacraments, reading the Bible, etc. to achieve the purposes expressed in the parable of the Last Judgment. In fact, as we read in the Bible, oil is a symbol of the Spirit. The anointing of the sick with oil as we read in the Bible is a symbol of the action of the Spirit in us. We cannot expect to do anything good if God is not with us because as Jesus says in the parable of the vine and the branches: "Without me you can do nothing". It is our task to supply ourselves with "oil" through prayer, the sacraments, reading the Bible, offering our body, our mind, our soul as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God to achieve the purposes expressed in the parable of universal judgement, that is, protecting and helping those who are hungry, thirsty, foreigners, naked, sick, in prison, etc. But this is still not enough, hence the next parable which precedes that of the universal judgement:

Matthew 25:14-30 (The Parable of the Bags of Gold)
14 “Again, it will be like a man going on a journey, who called his servants and entrusted his wealth to them. 15 To one he gave five bags of gold, to another two bags, and to another one bag, each according to his ability. Then he went on his journey. 16 The man who had received five bags of gold went at once and put his money to work and gained five bags more. 17 So also, the one with two bags of gold gained two more. 18 But the man who had received one bag went off, dug a hole in the ground and hid his master’s money. 19 “After a long time the master of those servants returned and settled accounts with them. 20 The man who had received five bags of gold brought the other five. ‘Master,’ he said, ‘you entrusted me with five bags of gold. See, I have gained five more.’ 21 “His master replied, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things. Come and share your master’s happiness!’ 22 “The man with two bags of gold also came. ‘Master,’ he said, ‘you entrusted me with two bags of gold; see, I have gained two more.’ 23 “His master replied, ‘Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things. Come and share your master’s happiness!’ 24 “Then the man who had received one bag of gold came. ‘Master,’ he said, ‘I knew that you are a hard man, harvesting where you have not sown and gathering where you have not scattered seed. 25 So I was afraid and went out and hid your gold in the ground. See, here is what belongs to you.’ 26 “His master replied, ‘You wicked, lazy servant! So you knew that I harvest where I have not sown and gather where I have not scattered seed? 27 Well then, you should have put my money on deposit with the bankers, so that when I returned I would have received it back with interest. 28 “ ‘So take the bag of gold from him and give it to the one who has ten bags. 29 For whoever has will be given more, and they will have an abundance. Whoever does not have, even what they have will be taken from them. 30 And throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’

The harshness with which Jesus expresses himself remains in this parable. If we want to protect and help those who are hungry, thirsty, they are foreigners, naked, sick, in prison, etc. we cannot ignore cultivating our talents and natural gifts. Anyone who can be a doctor because he has the natural ability cannot ignore studying for several years before being able to carry out the profession. If a doctor capable of carrying out this profession did not cultivate his natural talent, his fault would be very serious because many sick people would not be able to alleviate their suffering thanks to his help. Therefore, even in this case, God's judgment is very harsh towards the lazy doctor but always in view of the protection of the last expressed in the parable of the Last Judgment.


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The Christian meaning of life/Mutual love

After the washing of the feet and the institution of the Eucharist, Jesus gives a long private speech to his disciples contained in chapters 13,14,15,16,17 of the Gospel of John. In this speech Jesus is not addressing the people, the Pharisees, the scribes but specifically his disciples, therefore it is a speech that concerns those who adhere and will adhere to his teaching.

John 13-15
John 13:14 “Now that I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also should wash one another’s feet.”

John 13:34-35 “A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another.”

John 14:21 “ Whoever has my commands and keeps them is the one who loves me. The one who loves me will be loved by my Father, and I too will love them and show myself to them.”

John 15:4-7 “ Remain in me, as I also remain in you. No branch can bear fruit by itself; it must remain in the vine. Neither can you bear fruit unless you remain in me. I am the vine; you are the branches. If you remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit; apart from me you can do nothing. If you do not remain in me, you are like a branch that is thrown away and withers; such branches are picked up, thrown into the fire and burned. If you remain in me and my words remain in you, ask whatever you wish, and it will be done for you."

John 15:10-12 “ If you keep my commands, you will remain in my love, just as I have kept my Father’s commands and remain in his love. I have told you this so that my joy may be in you and that your joy may be complete. My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you. "

John 15:17 “This is my command: Love each other.”

Jesus specifically to his disciples and therefore to those who adhere to his teaching from a new commandment 3 times, different from "love your neighbor as yourself" which was already contained in the Old Testament (book of Leviticus) and whose meaning it is explained by Jesus in the Gospel of Luke with the parable of the Good Samaritan. This new commandment is "love one another, as I have loved you" therefore Jesus asks his disciples to be in communion of love, just as He is in communion of love with the Father. Being in communion of love between the disciples allows Jesus to manifest himself to them as we read in John 14:21 "I also will love him and will manifest myself to him". And being in communion with Jesus makes his disciples grafted into the vine and therefore capable of bearing fruit as we read in John 15:4-7. On this occasion, Jesus makes a concrete gesture to explain in what sense the disciples are called to love each other, that is, the washing of feet. In essence, mutual love between believers in Christ must go as far as taking care of what may seem reprehensible (washing someone's feet). The aim of a Christian's life is therefore to be in communion with God and with his brothers.


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The Christian meaning of life/Love for others

The aim of a Christian's life is to live in communion with God and with his brothers according to the new commandment of Jesus contained in the Gospel of John, but the commandment of love towards one's neighbor contained in the book of Leviticus remains and Jesus explains its meaning with the parable of the good Samaritan:

Leviticus 19:18 “ Do not seek revenge or bear a grudge against anyone among your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. I am the LORD. “

Luke 10:25-37 The Parable of the Good Samaritan 25 On one occasion an expert in the law stood up to test Jesus. “Teacher,” he asked, “what must I do to inherit eternal life?” 26 “What is written in the Law?” he replied. “How do you read it?” 27 He answered, “ ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind’ ; and, ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’ ” 28 “You have answered correctly,” Jesus replied. “Do this and you will live.” 29 But he wanted to justify himself, so he asked Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?” 30 In reply Jesus said: “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by robbers. They stripped him of his clothes, beat him and went away, leaving him half dead. 31 A priest happened to be going down the same road, and when he saw the man, he passed by on the other side. 32 So too, a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. 33 But a Samaritan, as he traveled, came where the man was; and when he saw him, he took pity on him. 34 He went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. Then he put the man on his own donkey, brought him to an inn and took care of him. 35 The next day he took out two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper. ‘Look after him,’ he said, ‘and when I return, I will reimburse you for any extra expense you may have.’ 36 “Which of these three do you think was a neighbor to the man who fell into the hands of robbers?” 37 The expert in the law replied, “The one who had mercy on him.” Jesus told him, “Go and do likewise.”


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The Christian meaning of life/Purifying suffering

1 Corinthians 5:1-5
As we read in Saint Paul's first letter to the Corinthians, there can be a type of purifying suffering due to one's sins which serves to obtain "salvation on the day of the Lord":

1 It is actually reported that there is sexual immorality among you, and of a kind that even pagans do not tolerate: A man is sleeping with his father’s wife. 2 And you are proud! Shouldn’t you rather have gone into mourning and have put out of your fellowship the man who has been doing this? 3 For my part, even though I am not physically present, I am with you in spirit. As one who is present with you in this way, I have already passed judgment in the name of our Lord Jesus on the one who has been doing this. 4 So when you are assembled and I am with you in spirit, and the power of our Lord Jesus is present, 5 hand this man over to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, so that his spirit may be saved on the day of the Lord.

Dark Night of St. John of the Cross
Then there is a type of purifying suffering as passive personal purification, which prepares the soul for perfect union with God...Such purification ... appears necessary to remove the defects of the proficient (those who are on the path to perfection) of which Saint John of the Cross speaks in the Dark Night:

CHAPTER 9 Where we talk about the signs by which we recognize that the spiritual person is in this night or purification of the senses. 1. This dryness can often derive not from the night or purification of the senses, but from sins, imperfections, weaknesses, lukewarmness, or from some bad mood or physical ailment. For this reason I will indicate here some signs to discern whether this aridity has its origin in the purification of the senses or one of the defects listed above. In this regard there are three main signs. 2. The first is the absence of taste and consolation in the things of God and in anything created. In fact, when God introduces the soul into this dark night to lead it to aridity and purify it from sensitive appetite, he does not allow it to feel consolation in anything. ... 3. The second sign that confirms the presence of purification of the senses consists in habitually remembering God with a concern and attention that causes pain; we worry about not serving God, or rather about regressing, because we no longer enjoy divine things. This shows that disgust and aridity do not come from weakness and lukewarmness. ... 8. The third sign to recognize the purification of the senses is the inability on the part of the soul to meditate or speak using the imagination, as he did before, no matter how much effort he makes. Now God begins to communicate himself to the soul not through the senses, as previously; not through the discursive activity that composes and orders cognitions; but through the pure spirit, in which reasoning does not develop.


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The Christian meaning of life/Reparative suffering

Even those who are unable to pursue the Christian meaning of life highlighted in Matthew 25, for example due to a disabling disease, have their own Christian meaning, that is, that of contributing to completing in their flesh what is missing from Christ's sufferings in favor of his body which is the Church as we read in Colossians 1.24

Colossians 1:24
24 Therefore I am happy in the sufferings that I endure for you and I complete in my flesh what is lacking in the sufferings of Christ, for the sake of his body which is the Church.

With this verse from the letter to the Colossians, Saint Paul highlights the Church as the body of Christ and that there is a type of human suffering that has the function of completing the redemptive suffering of Christ on behalf of the Church.

Apostolic Letter SALVIFICI DOLORIS by John Paul II
In the apostolic letter "Salvifici Doloris" it is explained how the completion of Christ's sufferings in favor of his body which is the Church by those who have this type of suffering:

In this way, with such openness to all human suffering, Christ brought about the redemption of the world with his own suffering. In fact, at the same time, this redemption, even if accomplished in all its fullness with the suffering of Christ, lives and develops in his way in the history of man. It lives and develops as the body of Christ, which is the Church, and in this dimension every human suffering, by virtue of union in love with Christ, completes the suffering of Christ. It completes it just as the Church completes the redemptive work of Christ. The mystery of the Church - of that body which in itself also completes the crucified and resurrected body of Christ - simultaneously indicates that space in which human sufferings complete the sufferings of Christ. Only in this radius and in this dimension of the Church-body of Christ, which continually develops in space and time, can one think and speak of "what is missing" from Christ's sufferings. The Apostle, moreover, clearly highlights this when he writes of the completion of "what is missing from the sufferings of Christ, in favor of his body which is the Church".

Be my light page 388
As we read in the book "Be my light" about Mother Teresa, this type of redemptive or reparative suffering can also exist in servants of God without necessarily any disabling disease, but with a tribulation that would be like that indicated by Saint Paul in Colossians 1 ,24:

Reading the works of Saint John of the Cross leads us to consider the night of the soul mainly as a passive personal purification, which prepares the soul for perfect union with God...Such purification... appears necessary to remove the defects of the proficient (those who are on the path to perfection) of which the author speaks in the Dark Night Book II chapter 10. The lives of some great servants of God dedicated in a particular way to reparation, to immolation for the salvation of souls or to the apostolate through interior suffering, however, suggest a prolongation of the night of the soul even after their entry into union transforming. In such cases, such a tribulation would no longer be primarily purifying but would be reparative.

Benedetta Bianchi Porro
A clear example of this meaning of life linked to redemptive and reparative suffering is the Blessed Benedetta Bianchi Porro, deaf, blind and capable in recent years of moving only a few fingers of her right hand with which she communicated with the world. These are some thoughts contained in her apistolario:

"We are the land that hopes under the snow - because all things are where they must be and go where they must go, in the place assigned by a Wisdom that is not ours"

"I always offer my pains to the Lord, but I don't ask him to use them for some purpose. He knows better than me what purpose they can serve him"

"Heroism is not rebelling. Accept everything with courage. And everything by magic, it will become fatally simple and full of heavenly peace."


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Category:Book:The Christian meaning of life

The Christian meaning of life


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User:MathXplore/vector.js

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User:Mahbubslt

My books:

1. Modern Standard Syloti

Modern Standard Syloti
Modern Standard Syloti (MSS) is the everyday spoken language of the Sylheti people living in the Sylhet division of Bangladesh, the Seven Sisters of India, the Middle East, North America, Europe, and Oceania. It is a member of the Indo-European language family and evolved from the Old Syloti language. According to a Canadian-based survey, it is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, with over 20 million native speakers. It is also a popular second language, spoken by about 5 million people worldwide. The language attracts people from other ethnicities with its unique scientific and health-friendly form, melodiousness, and simplicity. Unlike most Indian languages which are aspirated, it relies on tone to change meaning or expression instead of aspiration.

Syloti's closest relatives are Bengali, Assamese, Urdu, and Hindi. It shares a considerable amount of grammatical and lexical similarities with these languages. Additionally, it has exchanged a significant number of words with Arabic, Persian, English, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, and Chinese. Modern Standard Syloti is usually written in the Latin alphabet, while Classical Syloti was written in the Syloti Nagri or Purbi Nagari script.

Syloti is a tonal and phonemic language that assigns pronunciation based on the sound of its letters and changes meaning through its own tones. Modern Standard Syloti has 5 vowels and 21 consonants. Each of the five vowels has 4 tones, for a total of 20 tones. The language has a total of 29 sounds. In Modern Syloti, vowels are called Bfaoel and consonants are called Konsent.

Modern Standard Syloti is regulated by the International Syloti Language Academy (ISLA). The language has different dialects in different parts of the world, and there are differences in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, tone, and stress between the dialects, but there is no difference in writing. Modern Standard Syloti is also known as Modern International Syloti (MIS).

Modern Standard Siloti or Modern International Siloti is essentially a standard form of the Syloti language. Previously, the Syloti language had no standard form and was practiced individually in the traditional Syloti language using complex or Bengali-based rules with Purbi Nagari or Syloti Nagri script. Sir Mahbubul Alom introduced or popularized Modern Standard Syloti also known as Modern International Sylheti using the Latin alphabet with distinct rules for the Syloti language to be practiced and used universally.

Sir Mahbubul Alom also invented a simple pangram for the Syloti language and introduced the Sylheti calendar also known as the Mahbubian Calendar.

Alphabet
Modern Standard Syloti Alphabet, Names of the Letters and Sounds Represented by the Letters:

The following are the additional and exceptional sounds of the Syloti language:

title: User:Mahbubslt


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User:Mikesh6990

secret-world

title: User:Mikesh6990


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User talk:2402:4000:B187:CEB3:1:0:BA18:C2C6

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Annotated King Reference Manual/Introduction

King is a high-level, strongly typed, general-purpose language for engineering software. The content of this wikibook is based on the original work available at King repository.

As this work is on going, the present wikibook should rather be titled the "Incomplete Annotated King Reference Manual".

The main objective of this wikibook is to provide some formalization of King programming language and its programming environment. Thus, future tool designs, librairies and so on may rely on strong detailed and annotated définitions.

One side objective is to submit language definition discussions in order to elaborate some language enhancements. For this purpose, for each definition, a discussion section is available to collect proposals. When agreed these proposals may be applied to the definition. It is understood that until these new definitions are included in the original work, they cannot be considered part of the King language.


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Evalution of Online Sources/Introduction

 * What is in this book?

Information on how to decide a video, audio, text, book or any similar source is reliable or not. A step by step guide and list of the reliable sources on various themes.

 * How this book came into existence?

I/User:QueerEcofeminist do use internet to find sources for Wikipedia editing and my research work in my capacity as a researcher for various institutions and my own projects too. So I have learned a few methods, ways to find out reliable sources online. I would try and share most of it here in this book.

 * Why I/We am/are writing this book?

Many a times I was asked to see a video, text or listen to a audio which was shared to them via Whatsapp, Facebook or similar mediums and I was asked to comment on it. When I examined that source I realized it's not just fake but its spreading misinformation. There I decided I should create a easy to read book on how to evaluate a online source for laymen/non-academic/non-researcher persons.


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User talk:186.137.254.31

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 03:07, 22 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:186.137.254.31


text: Talk:Formulations/Inks/Writing

title: Talk:Formulations/Inks/Writing


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User talk:49.149.79.40

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title: User talk:49.149.79.40


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User talk:196.241.86.246

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 08:19, 22 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:196.241.86.246


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Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Viet Cong Tunnel Network

This casebook is a case study on The Viet Cong Tunnels by Kheira Bekkadja, Chloe Duncan, and Camille Fulton as part of the Infrastructure Past, Present and Future: GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-005 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) Spring 2024 course at George Mason University's Schar School of Policy and Government and the Volgenau School of Engineering Sid and Reva Dewberry Department of Civil, Environmental, and Infrastructure Engineering. Modeled after the Transportation Systems Casebook. Under the instruction of Prof. Jonathan Gifford.

Summary

The Viet Cong Tunnels were created by Viet Minh soldiers trying to escape the French Colonization and expanded by Viet Cong soldiers in an attempt to better combat American soldiers during the Vietnam War. These tunnels were used to ambush and transport for the Viet Cong army. It is now a memorial in Ho Chi Minh City to the Vietnam War. Tunnels were dug mostly by hand. Americans tended to bomb from planes, so the Viet Cong went underground. These tunnels were extremely small, often only a few feet wide, and often dropped off or angled violently without warning. They were fortified to resist blasts from above, meaning it was difficult to destroy these tunnels, and the army within would survive the bombs. These tunnels contained hospitals, sleeping areas, and kitchens. There was even a tank found within these tunnels.

A United States Marine exploring the inside of a Viet Cong Tunnel network.

Notable Actors

French Indochina: Former French colonial territories in Southeast Asia. Established in 19th century Vietnam and later disestablished in 1954.

Viet Minh: An anti-colonial political group formed from the Indochinese Communist Party. Mainly comprised of North Vietnamese citizens and active during French colonial occupation.

Viet Cong: The primary militaristic force of North Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Responsible for the construction and planning of Viet Cong Tunnel Networks.

The United States Marine Corps: Responsible for Operation Cedar Falls and the partial deconstruction of Viet Cong Tunnel networks inside the Iron Triangle.

 Timeline of Events

Late 1940s: An early, rudimentary network of tunnels was formed during the First Indochina War, a war for independence fought between colonial France and Vietnam.

Example of Viet Cong Tunnel Network.

August 1954: Operation Passage to Freedom benchmarks a display of the United States’ opposition to rising communist ideas in Vietnam. This is not the first action taken by the United States to show opposition, but it did further the divide between the two nations and strengthened support for the Viet Cong.

Early 1960s: Increasing support for a communist Vietnam amid new independence provides aid in expanding the tunnel network.

January 1966-1969: Operation Cedar Falls begins carpet bombing by the United States military rendering tunnels unusable. “ [United States] Army Engineers explored, plotted, and destroyed over 10,900 yards of Viet Cong tunnels and tunnel complexes in the "Iron Triangle" of South Vietnam.”

Map of Operation Cedar Falls.

Early 1968: Viet Cong forces reinfiltrated tunnels and prepared for the Tet Offensive.

1975: Tunnels are memorialized by the Vietnamese government and preserved within a memorial park network.

November 1994: Tunnels open to the public as a tourist attraction.

Funding and Financing

The Viet Cong tunnels are a unique piece of infrastructure as most of these tunnels did not require funding or financing. They were made entirely by hand by people who volunteered or were forced to dig the tunnels to assist the Viet Cong. This means that there were no funds allocated in a traditional sense, as all of the funding came from those who supported the Viet Cong and wanted to help dig the tunnels or were forced into digging the tunnels. This was free labor, the Viet Cong was able to make this huge network of tunnels without actually having to pay someone. The tunnels did not need much funding, as they were made simply by people digging through the dirt. While there were booby traps and other things to stop intruders, these were homemade and also did not require funding. The tools used to dig these tunnels had been acquired due to the pilfering of battle sites, meaning that these tools were not purchased or funded.

Institutional Arrangements

 * The Viet Minh: an anti-colonial political group formed from the Indochinese Communist Party.
 * The Viet Cong

Narrative of the Case

The Viet Cong tunnels were created as a way to think outside the box when it came to war strategies. The Viet Cong knew that the army they were fighting against was not used to the terrain and thick jungle around them, so they created these tunnels as a way to better ambush the troops they were fighting against. This allowed the Viet Cong to have the element of surprise on their side and gave them an advantage as they could quickly escape without being noticed due to the fact they were traveling underground. This proved challenging for the US army, as these tunnels gave their enemy an advantage. The US army attempted to destroy these tunnels many times, often unsuccessfully due to the dense nature of the soil in Vietnam, and eventually resorted to sending American troops into the tunnels to fight hand-to-hand with the Viet Cong soldiers they encountered. These tunnels were extremely confusing and no set of tunnels were the same, making it extremely difficult for the US army to gain any headway against the Viet Cong. However, the US army was able to persevere and find other ways to combat the Viet Cong despite the challenges they were faced with by using chemicals such as Agent Orange and strong explosive devices to fight the Viet Cong soldiers in the tunnels. The takeaways from this experience should be that warfare is never easy and that thinking out of the box is necessary for victory. The Viet Cong’s creative approach to warfare made them a formidable enemy, and the US Army’s flexible and adaptive approaches made them a good challenger to the Viet Cong’s ideas.

Policy Issues

The Viet Cong tunnels, also known as the Cu Chi tunnels, were an extensive network of underground tunnels used by the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. These tunnels were crucial to the Viet Cong's guerrilla warfare tactics. In terms of infrastructure, the key policy issues included counterinsurgency- defined as any political or military action taken against the activities of guerrillas and military tactics.

These primitive constructions were incredibly important to the Viet Cong during the Vietnam war. The groundwork of the tunnels was laid by the Viet Minh while fighting France’s colonial control and was expanded upon by the Viet Cong. Inside, these tunnels stretched for miles and contained hospitals, ammunition and equipment stores, living areas, headquarters, and fighting positions.

The initial response of US officials upon encountering the Viet Cong tunnels was to employ a strategy reliant on sheer force to eradicate them. Operations such as Operation Crimp involved the deployment of thousands of troops to scour the jungles of Vietnam in search of these underground passages. Upon discovery, the tunnels were targeted for destruction through methods such as "crimping" with explosives or inundation with gas or water. However, it swiftly became apparent that these approaches were ineffective. In response to the overwhelming technological superiority of US and allied forces during the Vietnam Conflict, the Viet Cong devised a strategic policy centered on the development of an extensive network of subterranean tunnel complexes. These complexes, primarily concentrated in regions like Cu Chi but extending to the outskirts of Saigon, provided the Viet Cong with a tactical advantage, enabling them to launch ambushes against American forces before retreating into the safety of the tunnels. Over time, the tunnels evolved into sophisticated underground communities, featuring amenities such as armories, hospitals, mess halls, manufacturing centers, and storage facilities. Some tunnel systems extended for up to 40 miles, with the Cu Chi complex alone boasting an intricate network spanning 130 miles of passageways.

While the Viet Cong's extensive network of underground tunnels indeed posed challenges to US and allied forces, it was not solely a response to their technological advantage. Instead, it was a strategic adaptation born out of necessity in the face of overwhelming firepower. The tunnels, primarily concentrated around Cu Chi but extending to the outskirts of Saigon, were not only used for ambushes but also served as vital logistical hubs and shelters for Viet Cong fighters.

Reliance on tunnel warfare tied down significant resources and manpower for the Viet Cong. Constructing and maintaining such extensive tunnel networks required labor-intensive efforts and diverted resources away from other potentially more effective strategies. Additionally, the static nature of tunnel warfare limited the Viet Cong's ability to conduct large-scale offensives and seize and hold territory.

Takeaways

The Viet Cong tunnel infrastructure primarily pertains to the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War, which lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s, saw extensive use of guerrilla tactics by the Viet Cong, including the construction and utilization of underground tunnel networks. The Vietnam War revealed that in the face of technologically superior adversaries, innovative and adaptable tactics can provide significant advantages to insurgent forces. The Viet Cong's utilization of an extensive underground tunnel network, meticulously constructed and strategically deployed, showcased the effectiveness of unconventional warfare methods.

Discussion Questions

 * 1) Regarding infrastructure provision, which of the three transaction costs (coordination, information, strategic) were greatest for the Viet Cong Tunnels? How?
 * 2) If a group has the resources and the need, should they pursue tunnel warfare as an effective military strategy?
 * 3) Regarding infrastructure provision, which of the three types of transaction costs (coordination, information, strategic) were greatest for the Viet Cong tunnels?
 * 4) How did the Viet Cong's ability to maintain and utilize their extensive tunnel infrastructure despite sustained bombing and ground operations highlight their resilience and commitment to their cause during the Vietnam War?
 * 5) Considering the extensive network of tunnels utilized by the Viet Cong, what lessons can be drawn regarding the effectiveness of unconventional warfare tactics?

References


text: Category:Chive recipes

title: Category:Chive recipes


text:
User:Sondrest/Collections/XML

Managing Data Exchange

 * XML - Managing Data Exchange
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Introduction to XML
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/A single entity
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Basic data structures
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/The one-to-many relationship
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/The one-to-one relationship
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/The many-to-many relationship
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Recursive relationships
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Data schemas
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/DTD
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XHTML
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XPath
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XLink
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/CSS
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XSLT and Style Sheets
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Cocoon
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Parsing XML files
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XUL
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/AJAX
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Web Services
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XMLHTTP
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Database and XML
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/SyncML
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/SVG
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/VoiceXML
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/DocBook
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/SMIL
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XBRL
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/WDDX
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/RPC
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/JSTL
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/RDF - Resource Description Framework
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/RSS
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/JDNC
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Namespace
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Business Intelligence and XML
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Handling XML with MySQL
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML Encryption
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XQL
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XQuery
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Exchanger XML Lite
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML and JDBC
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XForms
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XMLWebAudio
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/OpenOffice.org & OpenDocument Format
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Google earth
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/acord
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Glossary
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Contributors
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Author guidelines
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML Editor
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML Colors
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Stylesheet section workspace
 * XML - Managing Data Exchange/Resources

title: User:Sondrest/Collections/XML


text: User:Dom walden/Multivariate Analytic Combinatorics/Multiple Point


text: User:Dom walden/Multivariate Analytic Combinatorics/Cone Point


text:
User:Sondrest/Collections/LIS

Introduction to Library and Information Science

 * Introduction to Library and Information Science
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/LSSC alignment
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information Infrastructure
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Ethics and Values in the Information Professions
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Policy
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Organization
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Seeking
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Re-contextualizing Libraries: Considering Libraries within Their Communities
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Library Cooperation
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Transcending Boundaries: Global Issues and Trends
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Learning More: Free LIS Resources
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/List of Contributors
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Local Style Guide

title: User:Sondrest/Collections/LIS


text:
User:Sondrest/Collections/Introduction to Library and Information Science

Introduction to Library and Information Science

 * Introduction to Library and Information Science
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information Infrastructure
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Ethics and Values in the Information Professions
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Policy
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Organization
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Seeking
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Re-contextualizing Libraries: Considering Libraries within Their Communities
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Library Cooperation
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Transcending Boundaries: Global Issues and Trends
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Learning More: Free LIS Resources

 * About this book
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/List of Contributors
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/LSSC alignment
 * Introduction to Library and Information Science/Local Style Guide


text:
Cookbook:Reverse-searing

Reverse-searing is a method of cooking steaks, chops, and roasts. The meat is first placed in an oven at a low temperature to cook for an hour or two, until the temperature of the deepest part of the meat is several degrees *below* your target temperature. The meat is then seared to rapidly brown the exterior of the meat. The meat should still be a few degrees below your target temperature, since the temperature will continue to rise while resting thanks to carry-over cooking. There are two major reasons why a person would consider using this method. The first reason is to get better browning on their meat. Raw meat tends to have a fair deal of moisture on the surface, which evaporates and whisks away heat while searing. Slowly cooking the meat before searing dries out the exterior, which gets you better browning. The second reason is to get more consistent doneness inside the meat. When you sear the meat, you get a grey ring of overcooked meat in between the crust formed by the sear and the perfectly cooked meat inside. Conventional searing gets you a worse grey ring, since you need to expose the meat to high heat longer in order to get good browning. Because reverse-seared meats brown better, you don't need to expose the meat as long, getting you wall-to-wall perfection.

title: Cookbook:Reverse-searing


text:
User:AmandaThompson1234

Hello, I live in Brooklyn, NY I am currently a sophomore in high school. I write articles for school and take care of my younger siblings. I also believe that the world is filled with Toxic people. So don’t be them. Thank you. Sincerely, Amanda Thompson.

title: User:AmandaThompson1234


text:
User:S. A. M. Bruin

I am Simon.

I've had a brain haemorrhage.

Now I have aphasia. That's a language disorder.

I can't communicate in a conventional way.

It's challenging to express myself, but I want to communicate anyway.

I can't read well.

I can't speak well.

I can't write.

I can't understand well people: I need people speak to me slowly.

I feel a deep energy in myself to write a book about God and Science.

I have asked my friends to help me writing this book using a copyleft licence to encourage collaboration and sharing.

Please see my draft :-)

title: User:S. A. M. Bruin


text:
Guitar/Major Patterns

 * Translated by Google

=The Major Patterns=
 * Preface and overview of the upcoming lessons

In the following lessons we want to deal with the major scale and scales derived from the major scale (especially the natural minor).

We assume certain basic knowledge in playing guitar.

The major and minor scales cover a wide range of music. However, I want to say right away that this doesn't cover everything. Especially in blues and blues-influenced rock improvisations, other scales are required. And if you're hoping to improvise like this in the near future because someone on some video portal told you to do that, then I'll have to temper your expectations a bit. This is primarily about pop and rock songs that are set in a major or minor scale. Other scales and genres will be the subject of another lesson.

But you have to start improvising somewhere, and the following so-called CAGED scales are a good way to get started.

Foundation
We'll start with the C major scale, which you can hopefully already understand in the first three frets.

 * [[File:Scala C-Am.svg]]

It is a good exercise to write down the arrangement of the tones of the entire fretboard on a calculator sheet, while observing the correct spacing (half and whole tone steps).
 * [[File:C-Major-Scale on the fretboard.svg]]

So that we can transpose the scale as desired, we will only consider the intervals of the major scales.

 * C major scale
 * C = 1, D = 2, E = 3, F = 4, G = 5, A = 6, B = j7

These intervals can be transferred to any other key.
 * D major scale
 * D = 1, E = 2, F# = 3, G = 4, A = 5, B = 6, C# = j7

The following scale contains all the notes of a major scale. The scales can be transposed like a barre chord. Think of it as if you were working with a capo.

The number "1" indicates the position of the root note of a major scale. the position of the barre chords, will help you find the root notes. You discover the root of the major scale by looking for the semitone steps.
 * [[Image:Scala Carree.svg]]

So all you have to do is move the scale back and forth on your fingerboard until the "1" is on the root note of your desired major scale, then you can use the scale.
 * [[File:Scala_Griffbrett.svg]]

However, the entire scale across the entire fingerboard is a bit too much, so we'd better divide it into smaller, useful sections.

=Attention: Don't learn everything at once!= Trying to learn everything at once is quite tiring. You don't learn to improvise in a weekend. So plan enough time for learning and practicing. And don't expect your first attempts at improvisation to sound particularly good. They don't have to do that at all. It should only fit halfway, because you're not supposed to be able to improvise, you're supposed to learn it.

However, all musical scales can be broken down into many small elements, which can then be found and learned very easily. You can then assemble the scales from the small elements like in a Lego game. And with that you can conquer one scale after the other.

We will first start by learning the 5 so-called CAGED scales.

Don't get carried away
Don't be blinded by unrealistic promises on video portals and don't listen to anything that's only intended for advanced players. The first exercises are plain and simple. It's just a matter of getting your hands on the fingerings. The first improvisations on songs are also carried out at a moderate tempo (i.e. slowly). It must initially not be rhythmically demanding and sophisticated. And there is no intention of an independent solo yet. This is what you work on when you have the scales in your fingers safely and without thinking. If an exercise example is too demanding, postpone it until a later repetition and in the meantime practice the somewhat simpler exercises on all string positions.

Slide module
Although the 5 CAGED scales are fundamental to improvising on the fretboard, they do not cover everything that one may encounter when improvising on major and minor scales.

We will learn how you can easily slide from one scale form into the neighboring scale form. Maybe the barre chords or power chords are easier to grasp there, or you can get a run or a lick or an ornament (e.g. hammering) easier.

For this we will use the slide module that you have already seen in the animation.
 * [[File:Scala 6 71 2-2 34 5.svg]]

or between the G and B strings:
 * [[File:Scala_6_71_2-2_34_5_GB.svg]]

This will allow you to improvise across the entire fretboard and at the same time learn that no one is forcing you to stay locked in a scale, as the English word CAGED suggests. View a particular pattern more like an orientation in city maps, where the transition to neighboring towns and suburbs is smooth.

 * Animation is not printed out

In the animation you can clearly see how the individual scale sections overlap. If you know the simple basic chords, you can clearly assign the scale sections to a major chord shape.

(Tip: when all graphics are fully loaded, start the page again. (F5 key) Then both animations run synchronously, which makes things even clearer.)
 * The 5 major scale shapes spread across the fingerboard
 * [[Image:Scala_Griffbrett_ani.gif]]

The small blue rectangles mark the semitone steps that will serve as a guide and will later show you a way to easily move from one scale shape to the next one.
 * The 5 minor scale shapes spread across the fingerboard
 * [[Image:Scala_Griffbrett_moll_ani.gif]]

Excursus: Minor scales can be derived from the major scales
Before you try to memorize the correct intervals of the minor scales, let's make learning a little easier by initially viewing each minor scale as a parallel to the major scale.

The only thing you have to keep in mind is that the root of the minor chords here does not start with the "1", as is usually the case, but with the "6", since the root of a minor chord corresponds to the sixth note of the parallel chord Major scale corresponds.

Actually, the intervals of a minor scale are not counted like this:
 * 6 - j7 - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6

but the intervals should correctly be counted like this.
 * 1 - 2 - 3b - 4 - 5 - 6b - 7 - 1

The intervals for the minor scale would then be set correctly, but it wouldn't be of much use for your initial orientation. It confuses more than it helps at this point. This doesn't make the scales any clearer. Therefore, it is much easier if the major scales fit the parallel minor keys at the same time.

In this case we are usually talking about a pattern, i.e. a pattern that fits several scales (major or minor and also church keys). By scale we usually mean a specific scale, by pattern the pure fingering that has not yet been determined in major or minor or another mode. But don't be surprised if we accidentally use the terms interchangeably.

So we proceed like reading music. The music reader first uses the accidentals to determine the underlying major key and only in the second step does he check based on the chords or the tone sequence whether there is a minor key or another mode.

You can catch up later on what the intervals look like in detail if you are more interested in jazz chords and jazz harmony.

Speaking of jazz chords; We assume that you initially prefer the barre chords of the E and A forms for finding the root tones and will therefore focus more on these. Later, the other chord shapes that you get to know in fingerstyle and jazz will also serve as your orientation.

Expand CAGED
The 5 CAGED scales do not always provide a convenient transition between barre chords, arpeggios and improvisation. They also contain some difficult chord shapes. And if you seeIf you want to play quickly, the place where there are only two notes on one string disrupts the flow of the game. A few hammerings or slides don't work at all because the corresponding notes are on different strings. You will learn that every fingering on every string (and consequently also on all CAGED scales) can be extended anywhere by two frets to the right or to the left. This of course changes the fingering and causes individual fingers to overextend, but some licks and riffs work better this way. We will derive other scale concepts from the CAGED scales in this way. This way you keep the orientation you acquired with CAGED, because you always know where the square or where the next semitone steps are.

 * [[File:Extension of the first and second fingering.svg]]
 * [[File:Extension of the third fingering.svg]]

3NPS
We use the above-mentioned extension for the 3-Notes-Per-String Scales (3NPS for short), which opens up further possibilities for us. (Especially the Sweeping).
 * 3. alternative fingering
 * [[File:Scala 5 6 7-1 2 3-4 5 6.svg]]

As you can see, you have to stretch your fingers too much and you have to change position several times with the 3NPS scales. In addition, you can no longer easily extend this fingering by two frets to the right or left, as was possible with the 5 CAGED scales. But we still have the 1st and 2nd fingering of the CAGED scales that we learned before, so not everything will be completely new for you.

Modal Scales with 3NSP explained
You can easily switch from a barré chord to improvisation via the 3NPS, no matter what function the chord currently has (tonic, subdominant, dominant or their parallels). In this way you are gradually introduced to modal improvisation (church scale for the AST = chord scale theory).

Berklee Scales
If you later want to play more demanding polyphonic arrangements (especially jazz, classical and fingerstyle), you can expand the CAGED and 3NPS scales to the so-called Berklee scales by William Levitt. It avoids changing position, but does not require hyperextension. And it is not structured as systematically as the previous ones. It uses all the notes in one position, and you can sometimes use more handy chord shapes than with the previous scales. If you discover the proximity to the CAGED and 3NpS scales, not everything will be completely new to you, and you will easily keep your bearings even with the Berklee scales.

3 scale concepts
With the ability to expand a CAGED scale by two frets to the right or left at any time, you can work on both the 3NPS scales and then the Berklee scales.

Each of the 3 scale concepts has its particular strengths.
 * Simplified
 * Use CAGED for orientation and quick learning.
 * Use 3NPS for fast scale runs.
 * Use Berkelee for polyphonic arrangements.

 * Start with
 * Major scale shapes as individual lessons

title: Guitar/Major Patterns


text:
User:RakuProgrammingCode

A Basic Array In The Raku Programming Language. Here An Optional Function / Subroutine Has Been Incorporated Into This Code Example.

sub new-array{

my @first-array = ("Bill","Bob","Ted","Fred");

say @first-array;

}

new-array;

 * 1) output = [Bill Bob Ted Fred]

Accessing Elements In The Raku Array.

sub new-array{

my @first-array = ("Bill","Bob","Ted","Fred");

say @first-array[0];

say @first-array[1];

}

new-array;

 * 1) output1 = Bill

 * 1) output2 = Bob

title: User:RakuProgrammingCode


text:
Guitar/ Navi

 * Guitar | Guitar/

 * First comes the title of the book project.
 * then the main navigation of the volume
 * then the detailed navigation
 * then further detailed navigation for content overviews

Main and detailed navigations are also integrated as templates. They are located as a subordinate page in the home page of the volume.

 * Example book title: Campfire Diploma
 * Example image: img=Campfire.gif
 * Example main navigation: Guitar/Campfire Diploma
 * Example detailed navigation: Guitar/Major Patterns

title: Guitar/ Navi


text:
Guitar: Lead Guitar/Navi

Lead Guitar • Scales • Scale Theory • Major Patterns • Picking and Plucking • Arpeggios and Sweep Picking • Slides • Hammer-ons, Pull-offs, and Trills • Bending and Vibrato • Harmonics • Tremolo Bar Techniques • Tapping • Octaves

title: Guitar: Lead Guitar/Navi


text:
Guitar: Lead Guitar/Navi Major Patterns

Guitar/Major Patterns • Structure of CAGED • natural notes • C-Form • (A-)Bb-Form • G-Form • (E-)F-Form • D-Form • Determine keys • Connect scales • CAGED-Longform • expand scales • 3-per-String (3NPS) • 7 modes • Berklee • 3 scale concepts • Intervals

title: Guitar: Lead Guitar/Navi Major Patterns


text:
User talk:2600:1017:B4A2:A08:95B1:AFB4:C05:986F

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 15:31, 24 March 2024 (UTC)