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User:Md. Rusydi

Salam!

Ini halaman Md. Rusydi.

Salam.

title: User:Md. Rusydi


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Supplementary mathematics/Integral of Fourier

In differential and integral calculus, mathematical analysis and mathematical expansions, the Fourier integral or the Fourier integral operator has become an important element in the theory of numerical differential and integral equations. The class and function of the Fourier integral is applied in mathematics and as a branch of mathematics. The class of Fourier integral operators is as a differential operator, as well as classical integral operators as special cases.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Module:Message box/cmbox.css

/* */ .cmbox { margin: 3px 0; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; background-color: #dfe8ff;   /* Default "notice" blue */ box-sizing: border-box; }

.cmbox-speedy { border: 4px solid #b32424;   /* Red */ background-color: #ffdbdb;   /* Pink */ }

.cmbox-delete { background-color: #ffdbdb;   /* Pink */ }

.cmbox-content { background-color: #ffe7ce;   /* Orange */ }

.cmbox-style { background-color: #fff9db;   /* Yellow */ }

.cmbox-move { background-color: #e4d8ff;   /* Purple */ }

.cmbox-protection { background-color: #efefe1;   /* Gray-gold */ }

.cmbox .mbox-text { border: none; /* @noflip */ padding: 0.25em 0.9em; width: 100%; }

.cmbox .mbox-image { border: none; /* @noflip */ padding: 2px 0 2px 0.9em; text-align: center; }

.cmbox .mbox-imageright { border: none; /* @noflip */ padding: 2px 0.9em 2px 0; text-align: center; }

/* An empty narrow cell */ .cmbox .mbox-empty-cell { border: none; padding: 0; width: 1px; }

.cmbox .mbox-invalid-type { text-align: center; }

@media (min-width: 720px) { .cmbox { margin: 3px 10%; } }

title: Module:Message box/cmbox.css


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Module:Message box/doc

This is a meta-module that implements the message box templates mbox, ambox, cmbox, fmbox, imbox, ombox, and tmbox. It is intended to be used from Lua modules, and should not be used directly from wiki pages. If you want to use this module's functionality from a wiki page, please use the individual message box templates instead.

Usage
To use this module from another Lua module, first you need to load it.

To create a message box, use the  function. It takes two parameters: the first is the box type (as a string), and the second is a table containing the message box parameters.

There are seven available box types:

See the template page of each box type for the available parameters.

Usage from #invoke
As well as the  function, this module has separate functions for each box type. They are accessed using the code,  , etc. These will work when called from other modules, but they access code used to process arguments passed from #invoke, and so calling them will be less efficient than calling.

Technical details
The module uses the same basic code for each of the templates listed above; the differences between each of them are configured using the data at Module:Message box/configuration. Here are the various configuration options and what they mean:

 * – a table containing data used by the type parameter of the message box. The table keys are the values that can be passed to the type parameter, and the table values are tables containing the class and the image used by that type.
 * – the type to use if no value was passed to the type parameter, or if an invalid value was specified.
 * – whether to show an error if the value passed to the type parameter was invalid.
 * – usually blank values are stripped from parameters passed to the module. However, whitespace is preserved for the parameters included in the allowBlankParams table.
 * – whether a small version of the message box can be produced with "small=yes".
 * – a custom name for the small parameter. For example, if set to "left" you can produce a small message box using "small=left".
 * – the class to use for small message boxes.
 * – whether to perform a subst check or not.
 * – an array of classes to use with the message box.
 * – whether to use an empty  cell if there is no image set. This is used to preserve spacing for message boxes with a width of less than 100% of the screen.
 * – whether empty image cells should be styled.
 * – whether "image=blank" results in no image being displayed.
 * – usually, images used in small message boxes are set to 30x30px. This sets a custom size.
 * – whether to enclose the image in a div enforcing a maximum image size.
 * – whether to use text fields that can be collapsed, i.e. "issue", "fix", "talk", etc. Currently only used in ambox.
 * – whether imageright=none results in no image being displayed on the right-hand side of the message box.
 * – the default name for the "section" parameter. Depends on.
 * – allow categorisation in the main namespace.
 * – the name of a category to be placed on the template page.
 * – whether the  parameter is required to display the template category.
 * – the name of the error category to be used on the template page.
 * – an array of parameter names to check. If any are absent, the  is applied to the template page.

title: Module:Message box/doc


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User talk:2A00:23C4:620D:D401:B4FF:898A:94B2:95D2

Xeverything11 (discuss • contribs) 15:28, 30 April 2023 (UTC)


text: User:Xeverything11/background/assets/items/apple


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Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Masochism

Masochism refers to the tendency to derive pleasure from one's own pain or humiliation. This can manifest in a variety of ways, including sexual activities that involve pain or submission, or non-sexual behaviors such as self-injury or humiliation. Masochism is often considered a part of BDSM (bondage, discipline, dominance/submission, and sadomasochism), although not all individuals who engage in BDSM activities identify as masochists. It's important to note that masochistic activities should always be consensual, safe, and carried out with informed consent from all parties involved.

title: Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Masochism


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Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Frotteurism

Frotteurism is a type of paraphilia, which refers to sexual disorders that involve persistent and intense sexual arousal or fantasies involving unusual or socially unacceptable sexual behaviors or fantasies.

In the case of frotteurism, the person who has this disorder achieves sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing his/her genitals against another person, usually a stranger, in a public place or a crowded area, such as a train or bus. This behavior is usually non-consensual, meaning that the other person may not be aware of or consent to the behavior.

Frotteurism is considered a form of sexual misconduct and is illegal in many jurisdictions. It can cause distress and discomfort to the person who experiences it and to the person who is the target of the behavior.

Treatment for frotteurism usually involves psychotherapy and medication to manage the person's sexual desires and behaviors. It may also involve addressing any underlying psychological issues, such as depression or anxiety, that may contribute to the behavior.

title: Abnormal Sexual Psychology/Frotteurism


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Hybrid Power Amplifier Design

=Preface= This book is about how to design a power amplifier for audio while using tube input and magic eye indication of both output level and push-pull MOS balance. I think that I have come to the conclusion that the nice sound from tube amplifiers actually doesn't come from the tubes but comes from the output transformer so it seems like tubes are not necessary here and I use a pair of MOS transistors (2SK135) instead which also simplifies the output transformer (OPT).

=Amplifier Block Diagram= The amplifier consists of five different modules which I first wanted to reside on a single PCB but have changed my mind and I will now use five different PCBs. The reason is that the different modules may be used for other applications. The first module (KHR) is the rectifier which rectifies 18VAC and filters it, the second module (KHS) is the heater supply which also steps up DC (with the use of a transformer, observe) for input tube usage, the third module (KHB) biases the 7247 input tube and makes it amplify and split, the fourth module (KHO) only sets bias for the output MOS and receives a split input signal from KHB, the fifth module (KHM) indicates offset balance and output level with the aid of a PM84 Magic Eye. It is not shown in the block diagram but there will be a special kind of output transformer also.

KHR, Hybrid Rectifier
This unit supplies the whole amplifier and it does that with a delay given by the double tube diode V1. The delay is done by the heating time of the tube which smoothly onsets the voltage. It is a well known fact that silicon amplifiers has the risk of harming the tweeters due to the onset voltage spike which happens at normal onset without delay. This could be done by using timers but I think it is more smooth to do it with a single tube.

This circuit works in such a way that when SW1 goes on 2x18V is immediatelly there, their smoothed voltage is supplying the V1, EB91 however takes some 15s before it is ready and is thus our timer. During most of this time T3 and T4 is strangled which means that the power transistors T1 and T2 also are strangled. While EB91 is being heated up a voltage is being built up at the bases of T3 and T4 which makes them conduct in such a way that T1 and T2 also are able to supply current.

Here the currents are not less than 4A, they are less than 5A while the output MOSs draw 7Ap each at maximum output. This 5A is however a RMS from full wave 7Ap (while each transistor draw 7Ap alternatingly building a full wave supply signal). Now this current is a RMS. Normally a capacitor filter gives some DC-current and let's say the DC voltage is stable, the the AC current through the transformer is 1,4 times higher. I'm not sure about RMS but if I suppose the same the current at the transformer may be as high as 7A. I will use 8A rectifiers.

My transformer is however of 160VA only, two windings of 18V makes a maximum current of 4,44A. This is a bit from 7A but I reason like this that firstly I don't need to run the amplifier at maximum output (some 5W is enough) secondly a toroidal transformer does actually not have a fuse so for a short time 7A may actually work.

For 7A, the primary fuse will have to be 1,1AT. I'm not sure how fuses work but i think it is the rms current that blows them so maybe I should use 1AT instead because we don't want our transformer to burn (for normal use the fuse should be 0,7A). For toroidal transformers I have learned the hard way that you have to set a higher fuse than normal probably because the high inrush current.

KHS, Hybrid Supply
This unit supplies the high voltage supply for the input tube and the Magic Eye, it also supplies the heater voltages for all the tubes where a 4/6/12V option is built in. With paralleled sekundaries it looks like output voltage at full load (13mA, estimated only) is around 235Vdc. The PM84 works best at around 250Vdc so this voltage is okey. It is however a bit sad that the voltage is over those 200V my capacitors can withstand (in singular) but on the other hand the voltage before the tubes are heated (and current is drawn) is around 318V.

Some cooler will have to be used, the formula for estimating a cooler is

$$\frac{125}{P}=K+Kiso+Kjc$$

where K is the thermal resistance of the cooler, Kiso is for the insulation, Kjc is for junction to case. I am keen on using a push-on cooler for TO220 of 16K/W and the Kiso is around 0,3 (if used) and the Kjc of TO220 is around 2.

Here we then have the power dissipations IC1: (25-4)*0,3A=6,3W IC2: (25-6)*0,3A=5,7W IC3: (25-12)*0,15A=2W

Using my formula it can be shown that a 16K/W cooler can cool 7W so my approach works. 2W is by the way the limit for a naked TO220 whatever.

KHB, Hybrid Bias
Here I use a double triode to amplify the input signal to the saturation level of the output stage. This level is lower than 10Vp and a Line level is defined as 0,5Vp so if we want to saturate the output stage we need a gain of 20. A ECC82 has a my of 20 but the gain can't be so much, a practical ECC82 gain is about 15 tops. While we need to hit rather exactly 7Vp a ECC82 may actually work but then we have to bias it for a gain of 15. I however am of the opinion that while feedback is kind of magical low a feedback as possible is the best. On the other hand we here have a transformer of rather unlinear properties where we need feedback to linearlize the output transformer. So a gain of 15 will not suffice, we need another tube. A ECC83 could be used but it works poorly as splitter. This is why a 7247 is my choice because it combines ECC83 with ECC82. Here I then have some power to linearlize both the transformer and the tube with feedback.

The gain for the first stage (V1:b) may be written

$$Av=\frac{\mu Ra}{rp+Ra+(\mu+1)Rk)}=\frac{100 \cdot 470k}{100k+470k+101\cdot 470}=76$$

here 470*101 is only 47k which is less than 10% of the denominator so we could have skipped that, but this is the correct expression, on the other hand none of this is that exact.

The gain of the splitter (V1:a) is very close to 1 at both ends which means that our sensitivity is around 7Vp/76 or approximatelly 0,1Vp. Line level is said to be 0,5Vp which means that we have a margin of 5 for feedback. The only thing to then consider is that the output impedance of the anode is quite high (approximatelly Ra and thus 44k) which means that we can not load this stage so much, somewhere around 470k is perfect which I also do.

Actually I don't want to use R3 but it is needed for the possibility of feedback. Here we then have a curious situation because while my estimated anode current is 400uA the R3 voltage is only some 0,2V. An output of my hopeful 35W means an output voltage of 12Vrms (or 17Vp) in a 4 Ohm speaker, if feedback of 5 is supposed to be relayed back to R3 the voltage will be around 3V which overshoots 0,2V. Here one may suspect hard distorsion (which would happen in a solid state amplifier) but I have noticed that this high feedback voltage actually can be handled! The only problem is that DC-bias of the amplifying tube (V1:b) drifts somewhat which also is the reason why the splitter is capacitivelly coupled from the amplifying tube.

The input impedance to V1:a is not trivial but according to Morgan Jones

$$Rin_{eff}=\frac{Rin}{1-\beta Av}$$

here beta is

$$\frac{R8b}{R8b+R8a}=\frac{39k}{39k+3,9k}=0,91$$

and the gain is

$$Av=\frac{\mu Rk_{tot}}{rp+(\mu +1)Rk_{tot}}=\frac{20\cdot 42,9k}{7k+(20+1)42,9k}=0,95$$

while Rin=R9=1M, this sums up to

$$Rin_{eff}=\frac{1M}{1-0,91\cdot 0,95}=7,38M$$

Here we see that the input resistor is amplified, in other words the input resistance is not the input resistor but some 7 times higher! This is actually rather important because feedback may sound simple but it "draws" the zeroes together making the response being unstable if care is not taken. I have learned that for two zeroes it is a good approach to keep them BF apart so if we want the feedback (BF) to be 5 times, we should keep them 5 times apart. If they are the same there will be a rather large peak low in frequency. This peak may not be heard because outside of the audible spectra but to me this is rather irritating, I want a smooth response. I think this also will alter the step response, maybe to instability. I have measured the input resistance of the Edison biased V1:b tube being some 800k.

KHO, Hybrid Output
Here I regulate the bias for the MOSs. I think it is important to regulate the bias especially when running Class B which is my plan. The regulator voltages used are also so much lower than the supply voltage so any spike will not interfere with the bias. Class A generates no spikes but Class B does because current is supplied one half-cycle at the time so this current jerks in the supply. Input signal is capacitivelly coupled to the trimmer and the trimmer sets bias. Depending on bias the zero will differ because the impedance the capacitor sees is different but I have set minimum zero to an acceptable frequency level.

For JFET/MOS transistors and pentodes the gain formula is rather simple

$$Av=gm\cdot Ra$$

this while transistors behave like current generators, triodes however behave like voltage generators where there is a not so negligable bleeding current. Here the 2SK135 gm is rather exactly 1S so the gain is Ra so to speak. I use a reflected Ra of some 2,8Ohms so the gain is 2,8.

We have above calculated the driving circuit gain of some 76, total gain to the drains is thus 213. When the MOS are loaded with 2,8Ohm each, their swing capacity at 25V supply is around 20V so we have a sensitivity of 20/213=90mV for full power output. At the same time the gate doesn't have to swing more than some 7Vp and this is what we have to hit as driving voltage.

Swinging 7V at the gates gives a peak drain current of some 7A (gm=1S). Running Class B means that this peak current is supplied to one of the MOS over one half of the cycle. The rms current through this MOS is then

$$Irms[HW]=\frac{Ip}{2}$$

so the rms current through this transistor is 3,5A (and of course also through the other transistor). The net full input current is 7Ap (5Ae), I then use a transformer of the turn ratio 150/250 which makes the secondary current be 250/150*7Ap=11,7Ap, rms this means (while it is full wave) 8,2Ae. So it seems like the different primary windings work with 3,5Ae while the secondary works with 8,2Ae.

Below I have estimated Rp/2 to 1,7Ohm and Rs to 1,4Ohm, running these currents through them gives a copper loss of 21W and 94W respectively which is kind of rediculous. So my transformer winding resistances are too high, I need much thicker threads because here I have a copper loss of some 2x21W+94W=136W and my transformer will burn up!

The primary current density is around 14A/mm^2 and the secondary current density is around 21A/mm^2 this while I know that professional transformer manufacturers run 3A/mm^2. So the different wires are too thin. I have calculated that the overall use of 1mm wire will give 4,4A/mm^2 and 10A/mm^2 respectively. This will probably lessen the copper loss from 136W to around 50W which may be acceptable(?).

In any case, there is no need to run maximum output power (which including copper losses seems to be around 42W). If maximum output power of the amplifier is 42W and you normally play at 12 o'clock you play at some tenth of the maximum output power and thus some 5W. So this fantastic amplifier may work anyway.

KHM, Hybrid Magic Eye
This unit sniffs MOS bias unbalance and output level and shows them with the help of a Magic Eye. The bias offset will be very low due to Class B (read almost no bias current) so in this case it only sniffs output level.

This is a rather special circuit, I have designed it to be able to sniff tube power amplifiers too which mean around 500V of supply (B+). T5 needs some voltage over it, in the tube case this is not a problem while output transformers have copper losses. In my case the difference between B+ and the drain potentials are however not that much, on the other hand I have attenuated the input with the aid of for instance R1/R16 which means that the input level at Class B (which means that input voltage is the same as B+) is attenuated 2M2/(1M+2M2)=0,69. At an Class B input of 25V, the voltage at input will be 17V and this is 8V below rail so this circuit may actually work even for Class B.

The DM formula for the gain in this special case is

$$Av_{DM}/2=\frac{\beta Rc}{Rs+hie+Rc+(\beta+1)Re}$$

here we see that if

$$Rs+hie+Rc<<\beta Re$$

and beta>>1, which is the normal case, we have

$$Av_{DM}/2=\frac{Rc}{Re}$$

so for little higher Re the gain is determined by the Rc/Re ratio only. I have set Re to 2k7 and Rc to 3k9 to give the amplifier a gain of slightly more than 1. Let's say the gain is one, then each input gives a replica at the the collector resistance Rc. D3+C3+R12 is a peak detector (with a 50ms time constant to be able to sniff changes). Into this peak detector thus comes the (varying) drain potential. The peak value controls the opening of the Magic Eye (ME). Now we have two scenarios, we wish to sniff balance (DC) as well as VU (AC). The dynamic limitation of the ME is some 11V so the input voltage has to stay within 11V. For KHP the maximum input swing is around 20V so here we would want a attenuation, what's worse is if we connect this to a tube power amplifier we will have a input swing of around 300V. This can't be handled by the ME so in the case of AC-signals I have attenuated the signal some 20dB using for instance R1 and C1. At DC we then have the sensitivity of 11V, at AC the maximum level we can detect is around 100V which is rather appropriate while we often play at 12 o'clock (-10dB i.e Pmax/10).

KHT, Hybrid Output Transformer
In my book OPT Design almost everything about OPT design is explained. If high bandwidth is required it is a sport to design a good output transformer. I will here add actual dimensions of the used LL-core and the nice LL-coils which Lundahl Transformers so thankfully have sold and manufactured for me.

The turn ratio is 500/300 totally. The primary is of 0,56mm diameter copper wire, the secondary is of 0,71mm. Both primary and secondary consist of two coils of half the total turns to fit on the LL C-Core as push-pull coils.

Transformer Loss Model
I have the coils but have not measured their copper resistances. I have however estimated them. The full primary is 3,4Ohm (Rp), the full secondary is 1,4Ohm (Rs) and using the model we see that the attenuation is

$$\frac{Uo}{Us}=\frac{RL}{RL+Rs+n^2Rp}$$

which for a speaker (RL) of 4Ohms gives an attenuation of -4,4dB (60%).

The 2SK135 MOS at my bias gives a maximum output power of some 70W, 70W-4,4dB is then 42W and around that is probably what I with a 4 Ohm speaker (RL) can get.

For curiosity I did not get more than 11W with my Tube Power Amplifier (KPA) using the fantastic tube 807 in push-pull.

title: Hybrid Power Amplifier Design


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User:Nouxinf

Hi I just started editing on wikibooks.

title: User:Nouxinf


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Professionalism/The Johnson & Johnson Baby Powder Case

Background
Johnson & Johnson, founded in 1886 by Robert, Edward, and James Johnson, is the world's largest producer of health-related goods, offering a diverse range of products across consumer health, medical technology, and pharmaceuticals. The company was inspired by the work of Joseph Lister on sterile surgical methods and its first products were wound care products. In 1888, the company published "Modern Methods of Antiseptic Wound Treatment," which quickly became a standard text for antiseptic surgery, promoting sterile surgery globally. That same year, Johnson & Johnson also released the first commercial first aid kits. In 1894, the company expanded its product line to include maternity and infant-care products, launching its iconic Johnson & Johnson baby powder. Today, Johnson & Johnson continues to lead the health-related products industry, reporting a revenue of $93.8 billion in 2021.

Timeline leading up to the Baby Powder Controversy
In the 1930s, the first recorded account of the harmful effects of talc on humans emerged. Subsequently, in 1971, a British Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology study discovered talc particles in 75% of ovarian tumors, while in 1975 an internal Johnson & Johnson memo acknowledges the problematic link between genital talc use and ovarian cancer. Faced with the possibility of a federal ban on cosmetic talcum powder in 1977, Johnson & Johnson began testing baby powder with cornstarch as a replacement. In 1982, Daniel Cramer conducted the first case-control study to link genital talc use with ovarian cancer, discovering that women have 92% increased risk of ovarian cancer when using talc for feminine hygiene purposes. In 1992, an internal Johnson & Johnson memo outlined the planned targeting of Black and Hispanic women through increased marketing to counter a decline in sales of talc-containing products. Following this, the National Toxicology Program reported in 1993 that cosmetic talc could cause tumors in animals, and the condom industry removed talc from all products in 1996 due to ovarian cancer concerns. A large-scale review published by the Anticancer Research Journal in 2003 found a 33% increased risk of ovarian cancer with long-term use. In 2011, Daniel Cramer published a 10-year case-control study that found women with long-term genital talc use had a two-thirds increased risk of developing ovarian cancer. In 2013, Deanne Bergs, the first person to go to trial, won her lawsuit against Johnson & Johnson after it failed to warn consumers of the risk of developing ovarian cancer due to its talcum powder products.

Johnson & Johnson's Failure to Disclose Presence of Asbestos in Talcum Products
Talcum is a mineral that is mined from the earth. In its natural form, talcum can occur in the same geological formations as asbestos. Because of this, when it is mined, some talcum will contain asbestos. The plaintiffs of the Johnson & Johnson baby powder lawsuits allege that the powder led them to develop mesothelioma or ovarian cancer. Asbestos is a known carcinogen and exposure to it is the cause of most cases of mesothelioma and the Mesothelioma Center does not recognize any "safe" level exposure to it. As for talcum, there is currently no scientific consensus on its carcinogenicity. In 2010, the International Agency for Research on Cancer reported that perineal use of talc-based body powders is "possibly carcinogenic to humans." While the National Cancer Institute stated that "studies of women who used talcum powder (talc) dusted on the perineum...have not found clear evidence of an increased risk of ovarian cancer." UVA professor of public health, Joellen Schildkraut, in reference to her studies showing an association between talc and ovarian cancer says "it's not proof positive... these studies are suggestive."

On December 14, 2018, Reuters released a report that claimed that Johnson & Johnson knew that their baby powder products contained asbestos and did not disclose this information to consumers or regulators. Evidence from the report showed that on three occasions between 1972 and 1975, in different labs and tests, there was asbestos found in Johnson & Johnson's talc products, with one of these samples having a "rather high" level of asbestos reported. Despite this, in 1976, Johnson & Johnson told regulators at the FDA that there was no asbestos detect in any of their tested talc samples.

Daniel Cramer
Daniel Cramer is a obstetrics and gynecology professor at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston and Harvard Medical School professor. In 1982, he conducted the first epidemiological study on the use of talcum powder in the female genital area, publishing his findings in the journal Cancer. After the study was published, Cramer was approached by Bruce Semple, a Johnson & Johnson executive, and advised him to include a warning on the company's talc-based body powder product. However, Semple did not heed Cramer's advice, despite the evidence presented in in his study.

Undeterred, Cramer continued to advocate for greater awareness of the potential risks of talc-based products and called for companies like Johnson & Johnson to include warnings on their talcum powder products in a 1985 article. Despite the lack of action from Johnson & Johnson, Cramer has remained committed to raising awareness about the potential link between ovarian cancer and the use of talc-based products in the genital area. He has served a a paid consultant in several ovarian cancer cases against Johnson & Johnson.

In a 2011 court filing, Cramer recounted his encounter with Semple, stating, "Dr. Semple spent his time trying to convince that talc use was a harmless habit, while I spent my time trying to persuade him to consider the possibility that my study could be correct and that women should be advised of this potential risk of talc. Cramer's work has been pivotal in raising awareness about the potential risks of talc-based products and advocating for greater transparency and warning labels.

Gavin Hildick-Smith
Gavin Hildick-Smith was the director of medical affairs in the corporate office of science and technology at Johnson & Johnson for 37 years. A blog dedicated to the Hildick-Smith family history states that Dr. Hildick-Smith was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1919, and he later studied Pediatrics at Guy's Hospital in London. Notably, Dr. Hildick-Smith's father was a mining engineer and mine manager. In the late 1960s, scientists were starting to report the presence of asbestos in cosmetic talc products. As a result, in 1971, the FDA held a meeting with federal officials, researchers, and cosmetic companies to discuss the safety of talc and the testing of talc products for asbestos. In the following years, the FDA continued to receive reports from labs about the presence of asbestos in various talc products, while simultaneously being pressured by Johnson & Johnson to not release some of these reports as they believed that the reports were "inaccurate" and that their findings were "erroneous".

A Reuters investigation revealed that in 1974, while working at Johnson & Johnson, Dr. Hildick-Smith sent money to an Italian talc exporter-physician to have him hire a team of researchers. In a letter to the lead researcher, Dr. Hildick-Smith stated that he was interested in obtaining data that "show that the incidence of cancer in these subjects (talc miners and millers) is no different from that of the Italian population," and that he wanted these data to be "published in a suitable journal." To this end, Dr. Hildick-Smith sent a draft of the results from the Italian study to a scientific ghostwriter who would rewrite it and make it meet "form and style" requirements.

In 1976 Dr. Hildick-Smith also wrote a review article titled "The Biology of Talc" in which he cited unpublished research and concluded that “concern … about the possible health hazard from consumer exposure to cosmetic talc is unwarranted … no evidence that its normal use poses a hazard to health.” He cited the Italian study in this review article. Notably, in this article, he is only listed as a Rutgers University clinical assistant and does not disclose his association with Johnson & Johnson. Dr. Hildick-Smith’s actions show that he was someone who was very committed to his career and loyal to his company, but at times he failed to act in alignment with his profession in prioritizing the truth and the well-being of the people potentially affected by his work.

Alex Gorksy
Alex Gorsky served as CEO of Johnson & Johnson from 2012 to 2020, overseeing the company's growth and response to various legal and ethical challenges, including talc powder. Despite this, he faced criticism for allegedly not taking sufficient action to resolve the issue of baby powder.

He was on the witness stand for more than four hours, questioned by lawyers for plaintiffs and J&J. During the trial, the lawyer representing the plaintiffs asked Mr. Gorsky with a collection of company documents dating back to the 1970s. These papers contained statements made by employees and consultants who expressed their reluctance to adopt a new laboratory testing method that could detect asbestos in talc a lower concentrations than the techniques employed by J&J at that time. The plaintiffs' attorney referred to the FDA test results and questioned Mr. Gorsky whether he could swear under oath that there were no test indicating the presence of asbestos in J&J powders. Mr. Gorksy said "That's correct". He also stated that J&J baby powder did not contain asbestos in response to allegations that the product was unsafe and potentially carcinogenic.

In a video posted on J&J's website and a television interview on CNBC's "Mad Money with Jim Cramer" in December 2018, according to Mr. Gorsky, J&J had collaborated with regulatory authorities, and numerous test had confirmed the safety of its talcum powders. However, the plaintiff's attorneys argued that Mr.Gorsky's statements made him a critical witness. They contended that his statements helped to perpetuate the company's efforts to hid the potential risks associated with talcum powders. After his testimony, the US Food and Drug Administration discovered asbestos, a know carcinogen, in a bottle of Johnson's baby powder, raising concerns about the accuracy of Mr. Gorsky's statement.

J&J attempted to prevent Mr. Gorsky from testifying, citing his lack of involvement in the research, development, or testing of J&J's talc-powders. In addition, they claimed that most plaintiffs had used the powders before Mr. Gorsky became the company CEO.

Texas Two Step
The " Texas two-step" is a controversial bankruptcy maneuver that Johnson & Johnson (J&J) has employed to offload its talc liability onto a subsidiary. However, an appeals court invalidated this tactic. As a result, J&J subsidiary, LTL Management, filed for bankruptcy protection for the second time with the intention of presenting a reorganization plan to a judge, The subsidiary has claimed that about 60,000 talc claimants have agreed to the proposed settlement. J&J has created new financing arrangements to avoid running afoul of the appeals court ruling. The ruling determined that LTL Management had no legitimate claim to bankruptcy since it was not in financial distress. Despite this, J&J board has approved the settlement, which involves paying a larger amount to plaintiffs with various gynecological cancers and mesothelioma.

To enhance its previous proposal to talc claimants, LTL is filing for Chapter 11 with a plan support agreement that includes an $8.9 billion commitment from LTL and J&J. this commitment will be funded in a trust over 25 years to settle current and future talc-related claims. However, attorneys representing thousands of plaintiffs have issued a statement opposing the settlement. The Texas two step has been portrayed as an abuse of the bankruptcy system by a multinational conglomerate with a marked capitalization exceeding $400 billion and in little danger of running out of money to pay victims.


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User talk:MathXplore/Archive 1

Visual physics and mathematics
Hi. I currently work on Visual physics and mathematics to improve it. I divided it in chapters. Is it a problem? Thank you for all your contributions to Wikibooks. TD (discuss • contribs) 14:38, 31 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Dividing into chapters is OK. On the other hand, I saw some subpages that did not have any sentences. In general, pages without sentences may be quickly deleted without discussion. Adding some kind of explanation would make them better, that is what I thought. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 14:40, 31 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Before the division, all animations were on the first page without explanation. I'm working to give explanations, but I need time.--TD (discuss • contribs) 16:00, 31 January 2024 (UTC)
 * If you don't have enough time, you can move pages to your userspace so you can take more time to expand. Wikibooks reviewers can move pages without redirects. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 03:12, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

wikidata book import into enwb
Hi, I wonder if you have the time and interest in bringing over the wikidata book from the Japanese wikibooks? I can do some of the running around to have the file imported into the transwiki namespace, but will require the help of someone with a good understanding of both English and Japanese for the translation.

As always there is no urgency in responding. Cheers, Ottawahitech (discuss • contribs) 19:29, 18 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Hello, I assume that we are talking about ja:ウィキデータ (no subpages here). I have checked the JA version. One section is remaining incomplete, and the others are already covered at d:Help:Linking Wikipedia pages, etc. If my understanding is correct, we usually prefer books with subpages rather than a single page. If there is anyone working on the translation, I may take a look, but I don't think the import of ja:ウィキデータ can be accepted here. Please feel free to use Reading room/General for secondary opinions. I hope this can help you. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 07:39, 19 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:MathXplore/Archive 1


text: Category:Book:Analytic Combinatorics

title: Category:Book:Analytic Combinatorics


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Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2023/March

Reminder: Office hours about updating the Wikimedia Terms of Use

 * You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.
 *  metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Legal department/2023 ToU updates/Office hours/Reminder •

Hello everyone,

This a reminder that the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Department is hosting office hours with community members about updating the Wikimedia Terms of Use.

The office hours will be held on March 2, at 17:00 UTC to 18:30 UTC. See for more details here on Meta.

Another office hours will be held on April 4.

We hereby kindly invite you to participate in the discussion. Please note that this meeting will be held in English language and led by the members of the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Team, who will take and answer your questions. Facilitators from the Movement Strategy and Governance Team will provide the necessary assistance and other meeting-related services.

On behalf of the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Team, Mervat (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 18:18, 1 March 2023 (UTC)

Emboldened span in preformatted text.
Hi, Near the bottom of this page is PROCEDURE ARPRequest with "ARPRequest" emboldened. https://web.archive.org/web/20190831185607/http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/SYSTEM.html I'm reconstructing the page in the sandbox and haven't found a way to preserve the emboldening. Ideas?
 * Thanks, ... PeterEasthope (discuss • contribs) 13:41, 15 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I've left a partial solution. Format the line "PROCEDURE ARPRequest ..." separate from the rest of the procedure. Line spacing is spoiled. Otherwise appearance is correct. A better solution is always welcome. Thx, ... PeterEasthope (discuss • contribs) 16:31, 20 March 2023 (UTC)

Wikimania 2023 Welcoming Program Submissions
Do you want to host an in-person or virtual session at Wikimania 2023? Maybe a hands-on workshop, a lively discussion, a fun performance, a catchy poster, or a memorable lightning talk? Submissions are open until March 28. The event will have dedicated hybrid blocks, so virtual submissions and pre-recorded content are also welcome. If you have any questions, please join us at an upcoming conversation on March 12 or 19, or reach out by email at wikimania@wikimedia.org or on Telegram. More information on-wiki.

Board of Trustees have ratified the UCoC Enforcement Guidelines

 * You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.
 *  metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Revised enforcement guidelines/Announcement - Board ratification •

Hello all, an important update on the UCoC Enforcement Guidelines:

The vote on the Enforcement Guidelines in January 2023 showed a majority approval of the Enforcement Guidelines. There were 369 comments received and a detailed summary of the comments will be published shortly. Just over three-thousand (3097) voters voted and 76% approved of the Enforcement Guidelines. You can view the vote statistics on Meta-wiki.

As the support increased, this signifies to the Board that the current version has addressed some of the issues indicated during the last review in 2022. The Board of Trustees voted to ratify the Enforcement Guidelines. The resolution can be found on Foundation wiki and you can read more about the process behind the 2023 Enforcement Guidelines review on Diff.

There are some next steps to take with the important recommendations provided by the Enforcement Guidelines. More details will come soon about timelines. Thank you for your interest and participation.

On behalf of the UCoC Project Team, Mervat (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 11:53, 23 March 2023 (UTC)

Improving native language books
Should I improve the books related to my native language (Bengali)? Also, should I use transliteration (i.e. based on spelling) or transcription (i.e. based on pronunciation) to romanise the words not written in Latin script? --Sbb1413 (he) (talk • contribs) 07:17, 28 March 2023 (UTC)

 * Well, I'm too foolish to ask this question. I'll improve the language book by myself. Sbb1413 (he) (talk • contribs) 07:31, 28 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Welcome @Sbb1413! It's great to have a native speaker who can improve books on their native language. Absolutely feel free to work on the books yourself. For more information on general Wikibooks policies, you can visit the dedicated page. Cheers! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 12:02, 28 March 2023 (UTC)

Reminder: Office hours about updating the Wikimedia Terms of Use

 * You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.
 *  metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Legal department/2023 ToU updates/Office hours/Reminder •

Hello everyone,

This a reminder that the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Department is hosting office hours with community members about updating the Wikimedia Terms of Use.

The office hours will be held on April 4, at 17:00 UTC to 18:30 UTC. See for more details here on Meta.

We hereby kindly invite you to participate in the discussion. Please note that this meeting will be held in English language and led by the members of the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Team, who will take and answer your questions. Facilitators from the Movement Strategy and Governance Team will provide the necessary assistance and other meeting-related services.

On behalf of the Wikimedia Foundation Legal Team, Mervat (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 12:53, 31 March 2023 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/General Warrants

What is meningitis
What is meningitis 41.116.193.159 (discuss) 10:07, 1 May 2023 (UTC)


text:
Category:Potentially illegible navboxes

__HIDDENCAT__

title: Category:Potentially illegible navboxes


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4/2...Ne7

= Bishop's Opening - Sideline 2... Ne7 = The move 2...Ne7 in response to the Bishop's Opening is a less common choice for Black, but it can lead to flexible setups like the Hungarian Defense or transpositions into other openings. Also, it is a passive move to prepare d5 when the classical 2. ..., Nf6! accomplishes the same goal placing it in a better developing and natural square. It aims to avoid exchanges with a move like d3. The knight on e7 is also vulnerable to attacks from the f3 knight and/or the c4 bishop and can be a target for a future Bxf7+ sacrifice.

White Central Control and Space:

 * 1) Maintain e4 Pawn: White's pawn on e4 remains a central figure in maintaining a spatial advantage and central control. Depending on Black's play, White may opt to support it with d2-d3 or even a timely f2-f4.
 * 2) Nf3 Development: Developing the knight to f3 not only supports the e5 pawn but also prepares to castle kingside swiftly.
 * 3) d2-d3 and c2-c3: These pawn moves help support the central pawn structure, allow the bishop on c1 to be developed (often to e3 or g5), and sometimes provide a stepping stone for the d2 pawn to push to d4, striking at the heart of Black's center.

Piece Play and Tactical Ideas:

 * 1) Bg5 Pin: Depending on how Black develops, the move Bg5 can be a strong pin against the knight on e7, especially if Black has already moved its d7 pawn.
 * 2) Central Pawn Break: If Black remains passive or overly defensive, White can consider a central pawn break with d4, challenging Black's central pawn on e5.
 * 3) King's Safety: White should be quick to castle kingside, connecting the rooks and preparing for central or kingside operations.
 * 4) Flexible Queen's Knight Development: Depending on the situation, White's queen's knight can develop to c3 or d2, with each square having its benefits. Nc3 supports the e4 pawn, while Nd2 can offer added support for a future d3-d4 push or even prepare to reroute to the kingside via f1 and g3.

Longer-term Plans:

 * 1) Kingside Pawn Storm: If Black castles kingside and White's center is secure, a pawn storm with moves like h2-h4 can become a potent weapon, especially if combined with pieces targeting Black's king.
 * 2) Positional Pressure: The bishop on c4, combined with a knight on f3 and a rook on e1, can exert significant pressure on the f7 pawn, which is often a vulnerable spot in Black's position.
 * 3) Control of d5: The d5 square is of particular importance. White's bishop on c4 already eyes this square. If Black ever plays ...c6 and ...d5, White should be ready to challenge or, if appropriate, allow a pawn exchange to open lines of play.

Theory table
.

'''1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Ne7'''


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Talk:Principles of Microeconomics/How a Profit-Maximizing Monopoly Chooses Output and Price

Microeconomics
state the basic microeconomic principle that relate to profit maximization Johndinho (discuss • contribs) 16:58, 1 May 2023 (UTC)


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Talk:Hobo tourism/Viktor Pinchuk's expedition to Papua New Guinea

Years
@Виктор Пинчук: Wasn't this 2012-2013, not 2008, as Hobo tourism/Six months by islands... and countries says? Heavy Water (discuss • contribs) 17:17, 1 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Mistake, of course. In the Russian version it is correct. Виктор Пинчук (discuss • contribs) 17:29, 1 May 2023 (UTC)

authors: Виктор Пинчук


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Among Us/Crewmate Gameplay and Strategy

A Crewmate is one of the roles in Among Us. Knowing whether you are a Crewmate or not should be easy enough, since the game shows you text that tells you your role. All of the advice in this chapter applies exclusively to crewmates. Being a Crewmate boils down to two things: voting, and doing your tasks. Doing these two things is how you win. Do these correctly, and it will increase your chances of winning substantially.

Voting
If you see a body (bodies look like players lying on the ground with a bone sticking out), you can press the 'Report' button on your screen. This will trigger an emergency meeting, where you and the other players can discuss it and vote out the player you think is one of the Imposters. If you happen upon a body, report it. There is also a button in the center of the Cafeteria (or the office, in The Skeld map) that can trigger an emergency meeting, if you press it. You usually shouldn’t do this unless you are at least 90% sure who the imposter is. Voting is the core of Among Us, so remember this section.

In an emergency meeting, remember to mention which room you found the body, and anyone who was nearby the body. People who were nearby the body could potentially be Imposters. In an emergency meeting, click on or press the box with the username of the player you believe is one of the Imposter, or 'Skip Vote' if you don't know who. The people with an X next to their name are dead, so you can't vote for them.

Usually, in an emergency meeting, the players discuss and make accusations. These activities take place in the Chat, which can be accessed by clicking the speech bubble in the upper right corner of the screen. There, you can type in whatever you want to say. After the discussion, voting will begin. If you are accused of being an imposter, try to get another player to vouch for you. If they were with you while you were doing tasks (especially visual tasks, which will be explored later in this chapter), then this can work. (If visual tasks are disabled, sadly you cannot do this.) Remember to vouch for other players, too! If nobody can vouch for you, propose that someone follow you to see you do a visual task, to verify that you are a crewmate. If you are concerned about people thinking you are an imposter, do this before someone accuses you, preferably in a meeting where there isn't much evidence of any imposter. If this doesn't work, just be calm and deny the accusations. If the person who is accusing you isn't giving a good reason, state this in the chat.

After a vote, the results will be tallied up. Whoever has the most votes will be ejected from the game and become a Ghost. If this happens to you, don't fret! Continue to do your tasks, and hopefully your fellow Crewmates will win out in the end.

Tasks
In the upper right corner of the screen, you will see a list of tasks you have to do. There should also be an arrow that points in the direction of the room where you have to do your task. Tasks are usually mundane, boring things like connecting wires together or swiping cards. Doing your tasks is very important, since if everyone does all of their tasks, the Crewmates win. You can see the general task progress of all crewmates by looking at the progress bar in the upper left corner of the screen. A list of tasks for each map is available in the chapter focusing on that map.

There are three main categories of tasks:
 * Short tasks usually only have a single stage. You clean the vent, align the telescope, clean the toilet, etc. After that, you are done with it.
 * Long tasks take a long time or have multiple stages. You clear the asteroids in multiple places, or align the engine output on both the lower and upper engine
 * Common tasks are tasks that every Crewmate has to do. If one Crewmate doesn't have it nobody has it, and vice versa. These tasks are first on the list of tasks. Common tasks are a good way to find a Imposter, because if you see them doing a common task you don't have, it probably means they are an Imposter.

Visual tasks are tasks that all players can see being done (if visual effects for tasks hasn't been turned off by the game host). These tasks are very important, because they have the aforementioned use of being able to prove if someone is not the imposter.

title: Among Us/Crewmate Gameplay and Strategy


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User:Joystickdwag

Welcome
Bellow is a list of ebooks from Wikibooks junior, that you must read with understanding becouse you will be required to answer related questions on the talk page.

[c] Dogs [d]

[a] A dog is a domestic animal and a human best friend. [b]

Books
1.Learning HTML

title: User:Joystickdwag


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User talk:36.73.235.83

-SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 10:42, 2 May 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:36.73.235.83


text:
Category:Household Cyclopedia sauce recipes

Sauce recipes from the Household Cyclopedia.


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User:Adekoya Abiodun/sandbox

Adekoya Abiodun, I am on thi

title: User:Adekoya Abiodun/sandbox


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Professionalism/Norbert Wiener and the Expert’s Responsibility for Weapons

Introduction
Norbert Wiener was born November 26, 1894 to Leo and Bertha Wiener. His father, a lecturer at Harvard, tutored Wiener privately from a young age and he graduated High School at the age of 11, considered to be a prodigy child. After graduating from Tufts college Wiener completed a PHD in mathematics at Harvard, receiving his doctorate in 1913. At the start of World War I, Wiener attempted enlisting in the military but was rejected due to poor eyesight. Wiener was unable to find a teaching position at Harvard and work a variety of jobs after WW1 including teaching, writing and journalism. Eventually he found a position at MIT, where he worked until his death in 1964. While at MIT, his early research set the foundation for stochastic processes and Brownian motion. During WWII Wiener worked to develop the first automatic anti-aircraft weaponry, but became critical of the relationship between scientists and the military afterwards. His later work included the foundation of cybernetics as a field, which gained popularity in the scientific community after the release of his book Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine in 1948. Throughout his life Wiener wrote about the ethical implications of the work of scientists and advocated for researchers and intellectuals to consider the dangers that new technologies presented alongside their potential new benefits.

Research on Weapons
Norbert Wiener was one of the first and most prominent researchers in the field of cybernetics. Cybernetics refers to an integration of computing and a physical process. In World War II, Wiener found himself working with a team of MIT scientists on auto-aiming anti-aircraft weaponry.

In order to make the guns auto-aiming, they had to not only account for where the aircraft was, but also where it was going to be at any given moment. To do this, the team applied a “Wiener filter”, by which they performed a stationary transformation to data points collected by the system using a Fourier transform, and could then determine where the aircraft would be when the gun is fired. Today, Wiener filters have been replaced by FFTs (fast Fourier transforms) as a less accurate, but quicker way of processing signals. Given the deadly nature of anti-aircraft weaponry, Wiener swore off helping any army in the Cold War, and devoted the rest of his time working to improving his cybernetic research.

Books and Statements
After WWII ended, Wiener became extremely disillusioned with military research. The dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to a widespread moral reckoning among the scientific community. Many researchers, including Wiener, reflected on their role in the destruction from weapons of their design. This, coupled by the end of the war, caused numerous scientists to explore other fields. Wiener took it a step further, cutting ties entirely with defense contractors and becoming a critic of the military and researchers that continued to work with it. After continued requests to join a weapons project for his expertise in guided missiles, Wiener replied to a military contractor in a letter which he also sent to a magazine for publication. The article, titled “A Scientist Rebels,” was soon published by The Atlantic. In it, Wiener lambasted the contractor while simultaneously challenging the preconception that knowledge should be available for all. He asserted that military actions during the war, to include the use of nuclear weapons, caused him to reconsider his role in enabling destruction, concluding that “to provide scientific information is not a necessarily innocent act, and may entail the gravest consequences.” Wiener published this article not only as a form of protest, but also as a call to action and warning for other scientists to heed. He called upon the scientific community to think critically about how available their research is as well as who they choose to share it with. He again referenced his particular distrust in the military, denouncing any future work with “irresponsible militarists.” Wiener drove the point home stating that any sharing of information or ideas must “receive certain limitations when the scientist becomes an arbiter of life and death.” Wiener continued to write on this topic, later publishing “Moral Reflections of a Mathematician” and other works about the role of ethics in scientific research.

Oppenheimer
J. Robert Oppenheimer was famously the lead scientist of the Manhattan Project, where he was charged with creating the first nuclear weapon. After years of work, the Trinity test showed the first successful detonation of an atomic bomb. In seeing the sheer power released in the explosion, Oppenheimer stated: “Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds,” a quote from a chapter of the Bhagavad Gita outlining the end of the world. Oppenheimer was filled with regret for the weapon he helped create, and he is known to have faced severe remorse following the use of the atomic bombs on Japan. Like Wiener, Oppenheimer became a devout pacifist and advocate for nuclear disarmament. He believed that his creation would ultimately lead to a nuclear apocalypse, going so far as to request an audience with President Truman to help clear his conscience. In the meeting, Oppenheimer admitted that he felt that he had blood on his hands. President Truman replied that any guilt for the Japanese deaths was his own. Oppenheimer, however, was talking about the future blood of those to die in the case of total nuclear annihilation.

Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein never worked on the atomic bomb, however he still had a hand in its creation. After discovering that the Germans were attempting to make their own atomic bomb, Einstein endorsed the Einstein-Szilard letter, which encouraged President Roosevelt to increase funding towards nuclear research in order to beat the Germans to it. Einstein was never admitted into the Manhattan Project, as he was denied a security clearance due to his ties to socialism. Einstein after the war, Einstein stated in an interview that he regretted his early encouragement, saying “had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing.”

Alan Turing
Alan Turing, a British mathematician, invented the computer, at that point called a Bombe Machine. The machine was invented to crack German codes played over radios so the Allied troops could stay ahead of them. For his work, Turing was granted the OBE by the British government.

However, after this, Turing was arrested by the British government for homosexuality and charged with “gross indecency”. Turing agreed to take medication, otherwise known as “chemical castration”, in order to avoid jail time. Turing was found dead in his home 2 years later from cyanide poisoning, assumed to be suicide.

Turing’s story helps us question what an engineer’s role is in war. If his wartime inventions stayed connected to him, it would be unlikely the British government would drive him to suicide after awarding him a high honor. Therefore, this can lead us to believe that, unlike Oppenheimer’s disdain of his connection to a device of death and destruction, Turing was separated from his invention that saved countless Allied forces’ lives.

In 2013, Alan Turing received a posthumous pardon for his crime of gross indecency, and in 2017, Britain passed “Alan Turing’s Law”, a law deeming that other deceased individuals charged with similar crimes will be pardoned.

Other Work and Ethical Advocacy
With the publishing of his book Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, Wiener introduced the field of Cybernetics to the world. Cybernetics is the “the science of communication and control theory that is concerned especially with the comparative study of automatic control systems. ” At the recommendation of friends and colleagues, Wiener published a follow up book in 1950 titled :The Human Use of Human Beings, which was aimed towards non-scientists and described both the field of Cybernetics and the possible effects of such systems in the future. In this book Wiener questioned the role of the scientist in society, claiming that the creators of new systems and technology must also be aware of the damage they can do to society. In regards to Cybernetics, Wiener predicted that the incentives of profit and political motives could skew this new field from opening new pathways for people to communicate and spread information, to controlling information and exasperate issues that are already plaguing the world. Wiener also saw similarities in the feedback loops and logical workings between machines and animal brains, writing “it is my thesis that the operation of the living individuals and the operation of some of the newer communication machines are precisely parallel. ” Wiener’s thoughts gave rise to the field of Artificial Intelligence, and his concerns mirror debates that computer scientists are still having today.

Future Work on this Page
Further work on this chapter can include more of Wiener's work on wartime research, as well as other research he has performed. In addition to this, including philosophical ideas as to the engineer’s role in war could be explored as well, exploring questions such as whether or not the engineer is responsible for his inventions. Since history often repeats itself, reviewing more current scientists, rather than just World War II scientists, and their ideas about this issue could provide a modern application.


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User talk:LucasZak

Your new page
Your page has been moved to the correct location - Professionalism/Norbert Wiener and the Expert’s Responsibility for Weapons MarcGarver (discuss • contribs) 15:37, 2 May 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:LucasZak


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Among Us/Finding Games

If you want to play Among Us, the first thing you will have to do is find a game. If you want to join a specific game being set up on local Wi-Fi, just click the Local button on the homescreen. There you will find a list of local games that can be played. If you want to join a specific game being played online, click the online button, and then click the 'Enter Code' button. There you can enter in the code of the online game, which you should get from the host. Ask the host of the game you want to join if you are unsure if the game is an online or local game. A general rule is that if the host computer is too distant for it to be on the same Wi-Fi network, then it is an online game. After you join a game, you will be sent to the Lobby, which will be talked about in the next section.

If you don't want to join a specific game and merely wish to play Among Us with random people, click the online button, then click the "Find Game" button. There you will see a list of current games going on. Try to join ones with more players in them; they will start earlier.

Lobby
After joining a game, you will be in a lobby that looks something like a spaceship. In the lobby, you can chat with other players, by pressing the speech bubble in the upper right corner. You can also see the game options and what roles are available on the left side of the screen. If you want to change your outfit, you can do this in the lobby too, by going near the box with a top hat on it, and pressing the button with a hanger on it that pops up.

title: Among Us/Finding Games


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User:Adekoya Abiodun

Good day, I am new here, please give me more guide here

title: User:Adekoya Abiodun


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User talk:Love of Corey

I am the Wikipedian Saint Peter.

title: User talk:Love of Corey


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Professionalism/Avondale Mills, Norfolk Southern, and the E.P.A

Graniteville Train Derailment
On January 6, 2005, Norfolk Southern train 192 collided with train P22 at 2:39 a.m. EST in Graniteville, South Carolina. While moving at 47 mph, a switch malfunction diverted the northbound train 192. 1 of the 16 derailed cars was breached and released chlorine gas. The release killed nine people, including the train engineer.

Pre-Derailment Events
On January 5, 2005, train 192's conductor went on vacation, and the brakeman assumed their role. The train engineer also took the day off, but their replacement arrived late. After the new engineer arrived, the crew met to discuss the train's course, and the train departed from Aiken, South Carolina. The train returned to Aiken at 1:00 p.m. EST and departed at 2:10 p.m. EST. At 4:00 p.m. EST, the crew realized they were behind schedule and increased the pace of their work. No briefings were held prior to servicing the Avondale Mills, and the engineer later said the conductor and brakeman were "in a hurry".

All tracks in this area required authorization to be used. The train dispatcher in Greenville, South Carolina grants such warrants. Before the day's end, all line switches must be re-lined properly. Prior to the derailment, the line switches were not properly re-lined, but the dispatcher cleared track warrants at the conductor's request. The conductor had not talked with the engineer or brakemen about the switches.

January 6, 2005
The train dispatcher on duty at 11:00 p.m. EST did not give authorization for usage of the Graniteville track until after 2:00 a.m. EST on January 6, 2005. The outbound crew boarded train 192 at 12:30 a.m. EST and departed for Columbia, South Carolina. In Graniteville the train was diverted and collided with train P22. Prior to the crash, the emergency brakes activated. The engineer had noticed the target switch banner was "wrong".

Post-Derailment Events
The chlorine gas cloud spanned at least 6.8 million square feet. An Avondale Mills employee called the police to report to the collision. Other callers mentioned a "yellow haze". Firefighters were called at 2:40 a.m. EST. Police arrived at 2:42 a.m. EST. Ambulances, mutual aid, and hazardous material response crews were called at 2:50 a.m. EST. About 5,400 residents living in a 1-mile radius of the collision were evacuated. Residents did not return home until January 13 through 19. At 1:00 p.m. EST on January 6, a fire broke out in the Avondale Mills plant. Clean-up efforts continued until 8:00 a.m. EST on January 14, 2005.

In 2006, Avondale Mills closed plants in North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia. Millions were spent on repairs at the Graniteville plant. The company sued Norfolk Southern for damages. Some Avondale Mills employees believed the company was "pushing [the cost of settlement] more than they should". Others wanted Avondale to share the settlement money with laid off workers. Norfolk Southern attorneys argued Avondale Mills was going to shutter before the crash. The believed the company was using the crash as a cash-grab. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sued Norfolk Southern. The DOJ and EPA filed a complaint in 2009 for violations of the Clean Water Act (CWA). The lawsuit was settled in 2010, and Norfolk Southern paid $4 million in fines for the Graniteville disaster.

Chemical Hazards
The crash released ninety tons of chlorine gas into the environment. Chlorine is fatal if inhaled, and toxic to marine life. It is 2.5 times denser than air, so chlorine gas travels close to the ground; making it more deadly. In the crash, chlorine and diesel fuel were released into nearby waterways, killing thousands of fish.

The volunteer firefighters responding to the crash were the first to identify a hazardous materials spill occurred when one of the firefighters began to experience chlorine poisoning. Due to a lack of hazardous release training, they initially issued a shelter in place order, not an evacuation. Though the train engineers reported the crash to Norfolk Southern, they seemed unaware of the chlorine release, and failed to inform emergency responders, the EPA as required by law, or take safety precautions themselves.

The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found in their investigation if the chlorine tank cars had been further back on the train or if the train was going slower or carrying less weight, the probability of the chlorine release occurring decreased significantly.

Norfolk Southern chose to prioritize the profitability of carrying more cars over the safety concerns of doing so. This incident is similar to the Boeing 737 Max disaster; Boeing's safety culture declined as the company focused on short term profitability, and the public ultimately was harmed.

Public Response
The collision impacted Graniteville and its residents. Lifelong resident Roger Boyd said "[he] could not breathe" and the town looked "eerie." Michael Reed, an Avondale Mills worker, noticed "green stuff" in the air when fleeing to his car. Another worker, Gary Spires, could smell chlorine "coming through the ducts" of the plant and recalled "gasping for breath."

Avondale Mills
Avondale Mills shut down for 18 months in an attempt to clean and repair the facility, which cost over $40 million. Due to the toxic clouds of chlorine released in the plant, the entire facility was heavily corroded. Lisa Detter-Hoskin, a Materials Scientist from the Georgia Tech Research Institute, said, "It was as if we had the Graniteville plants sitting in an acid bottle." She found the humidity in the region allowed the chlorine to settle, and the heat caused more aggressive corrosion of the plant, maximizing the impact of the corrosion.

Norfolk Southern paid an undisclosed amount to Avondale Mills, estimated around $13 million based on Norfolk Southern’s quarterly earnings. This was not enough to cover the cost of repairs, and Avondale Mills went out of business; 4,000 people were unemployed as a result.

Brief History of Norfolk Southern
A. Feb. 5, 1976 - Conrail (The Consolidated Rail Corporation) is created through the Revitalization Regulatory Reform Act in Congress.

B. Sept. 29, 1980- Congress deregulates railroads using the Staggers Rail Act. This legalized railroad shipping contracts and allowed the railroad industries’ financial health to recover. The act also “Relieves a carrier of liability for losses caused by the negligence of a shipper, owner, or consignee.”

C. 1987 - Conrail Becomes Privatized, with the largest initial public offering at the time raising 1.9 billion dollars from investors.

D. 1997 - Norfolk Southern Acquires half of Conrail through a joint stock purchase.

E. Jan. 6, 2005 - Graniteville Train Collision

F. Oct. 20, 2006 - New Brighton Train Derailment, just over a year later. This is another NS derailment involving hazardous chemicals.

Norfolk Southern's Response to Graniteville S.C. Crash
After the Graniteville S.C. crash, Norfolk Southern's attorneys response to a class action lawsuit against them wrote: “Plaintiffs emotional evocations of ‘deadly chemicals,’ ‘mangled metal,’ or ‘deadly liquid chlorine’ forming a gas that ‘crept through Graniteville’ and ‘killed those who could not outrun it’ can have no use other than to divert this court from the issue at hand – whether certain of plaintiffs claims are preempted by federal law.”

After a settlement was reached, the firm representing Norfolk Southern in their case vs. Avondale Mills proceeded to publish a press release discussing their pride in reaching a 'favorable settlement' for their client.“Hollingsworth LLP has successfully defended some of the world’s largest companies in suits involving personal injury, medical monitoring, and property damage claims arising from exposures to allegedly hazardous substances. "When the stakes are high and the issues are complex, our experience allows us to keep a clear focus on the resolution that best serves our clients’ interests.”

It's interesting to note nowhere in this release does Hollingsworth LLP express any sentiment of remorse for the lives lost or the devastation Avondale Mills suffered due to the crash.

Norfolk Southern's Ethics Guidelines and Reporting System
It's imperative that Norfolk Southern have a ethics guideline. Their 2005 Investors Book references how potential investors can obtain a copy of their guidelines by contacting them. Currently, no copy of their 2005/2006 ethics guidelines have been found. In 2014, NS boasts about the major revisions their guidelines undertook, but again no online copy is to be found. The current digital copy of their guideline was published in August of 2022. Consistent of 44 total pages, the guidelines includes various segments on things like DEI, harassment, discrimination, substance abuse, and employment law resources. The "We do business the right way" section of their guidelines appears the most influential. They stress that any gifts they give as a company they do following procedures and that any monetary gifts accepted by their employees need to be reviewed by their management. Several times in this document, NS mentions how they simply always default to following required business obligations per government rules. This can be seen as shifting blame away from NS and onto the government for setting the appropriate standard. The document also mentions how antitrust laws and their compliance guide is important. This links to an external "Antitrust Compliance Guide" that is under lock and key for employees only. On the login page, NS threatens legal action against a user for 'misuse'.

Norfolk Southern employees are asked to use the following "Ethical Decision-making Model":

When faced with a tough decision, ask the following questions:

 * Is it legal?
 * Does it comply with our policies, procedures, and values?
 * Is it equitable and inclusive of others? How would it affect customers, vendors, competitors, employees, and our brand and reputation?
 * How would I feel if this decision were published?
 * Should I ask for help before acting?

This model actively passes responsibility onto their employees and therefore could be argued that a particular issue wasn't a company issue but more a individual issue as they didn't follow their model. This model however is vague and responses vary heavily depending on the situation and the employee.

Norfolk Southern's Lobbying Practices
In the years since the Graniteville train crash, Norfolk Southern's monetary investment in lobbying has drastically changed. In 2008, three years after the crash, their total lobbying spending doubled, reaching approximately $1.5 million every fiscal quarter. They are currently lobbying against penalties for railroads that would apply stricter safety rules to trains with dangerous loads, bill S.576. Hiring lobbyists for both parties, Norfolk Southern is retaining at least 9 external lobbying firms. This bill would also give local residents and first responders information about trains carrying hazardous materials.

E.P.A
Graniteville residents criticized the EPA for their initial response to the incident. Chlorine monitors placed around the crash only monitored up to 1.5 ppm, when the immediately life-threatening concentration of chlorine gas is 10 ppm. Using monitors that only measured up to 1.5 ppm made it impossible to determine the true amount of chlorine present in the environment surrounding the crash.

While cleaning up the chlorine spill, the EPA only evacuated residents within a mile radius of the crash where the 10 ppm immediately life-threatening concentration of chlorine was present. However, within a 2.5 mile radius of the crash, chlorine poisoning caused severe health impacts for many residents.

The EPA sued Norfolk Southern $4 million for violating the Clean Water Act when the chlorine and diesel fuel contaminated the nearby waterways. They were also fined for failing to alert the EPA immediately after the chemical spill occurred, as required by law; instead, the train crew waited over an hour to report the event. The EPA required Norfolk Southern to implement a hazardous materials training program that included the use of the hazardous spill hotline, and replace the fish killed from the chlorine release.

Conclusion

Using their Code of Ethics and Ethical Decision making model, Norfolk Southern shifts blame from their company onto their employees. This can also be seen in their documented responses after the Graniteville, SC Crash and unfortunately other disasters. Lobbying against stricter regulation like S.576 combined with their hazardous accident track record indicates a larger company wide problem of unwillingness to take accountability for their actions and refusal of change. It is also interesting how many of Norfolk Southern's resources regarding their formal ethics policies are difficult to find and/or locked away with users being under threat of legal action for ‘misuse’.

This attitude has had disastrous consequences for public safety, as well as for Avondale Mills, and the environment due to the release of chlorine gas in the Graniteville crash.

Future Work
Future work could be done to improve this casebook. Authors may be able to communicate with Norfolk Southern themselves to obtain a 2005 and 2014 copy of the ethics guidelines to see their revisions. It would also be interesting to further research into residents lives after the crash. More research could be done into the effects of the crash on Avondale Mills and the workers there, and on the role the EPA played in remediating the chlorine release.


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Professionalism/Labor Organizing at Google

Motivation
Unionization efforts in Big Tech are often met with confusion: “Why would employees at a company famous for high salaries and free lunches want a union?” While workers in retail typically unionize to improve wages and working conditions, workers in Big Tech often unionize to demand stronger policies against sexual harassment and discrimination and accountability for their company’s unethical uses of technology. The most prominent unionization efforts in Big Tech have come from Google employees. Several of these employees recall joining Google with the simple mantra and founding slogan “Don’t be evil,” which motivated them to create technology to benefit society and make the world better and more equal. As Google poorly responded to sexual harassment charges and engaged in controversial business decisions, many Google employees realized their pledge was not consistent with the decisions made by their company’s senior executives.

Walkout for Real Change
In 2018, The New York Times reported that Google had protected several senior executives accused of sexual misconduct, including Android founder Andy Rubin, who was paid $90 million in severance after he left the company. A week later, Google employees organized a “Walkout for Real Change” in protest of sexual harassment and Google’s history of pay discrimination and systemic racism. Around 20,000 Google employees from across the globe took part in the protest and compiled a list of five demands: end Forced Arbitration in cases of harassment and discrimination, a commitment to end pay and opportunity inequity, a publicly disclosed sexual harassment transparency report, a clear, uniform, and globally inclusive process for reporting sexual misconduct safely and anonymously, and to elevate the Chief Diversity Officer to answer directly to the CEO. Claire Stapleton, then marketing manager at YouTube, lamented that Google “did not ever address, acknowledge, the list of demands, nor did they adequately provide solutions to all the five." Stapleton mentions Google “did drop forced arbitration, but for sexual harassment only, not discrimination, which was a key omission. Nothing was addressed regarding TVCs [contract workers] ... I think we didn’t see accountability in action.”

The Thanksgiving Five
In late 2019, five employees were fired by Google directly after their involvement in the organization and participation in petitions or protests against the company, most notably the Walkout for Real Change. One of these employees was Katheryn Spiers. She was fired just three hours after she published a piece of code that notified employees of their organizing rights without keeping to the Google code approval process. When interviewed about why she did it, she said “I had been involved in other workplace organizing in the past, but the reason I wanted to push this change was a combination of Google hiring IRI and four of my co-workers being fired the same day... I thought a lot of my co-workers could use a reminder of their rights.”

IRI Consultants
Shortly after the Walkout for Real Change, Google hired IRI Consultants, an anti-union consulting firm known for shady tactics such as "collecting data on workers' personality, motivations, and work ethic to bust unions." While it is illegal under the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 for companies and managers to spy on workers' labor organizing activity, IRI consultants train managers to gather and use data to advise managers on how to best manipulate workers into harboring resentment towards unions. A Google spokesperson told reporters that “No-one at Google, nor any consultant or firm who we've ever engaged or worked with, has done what you've described."

History
On January 4, 2021, Alphabet Workers Union (AWU) formed as a local chapter of the Communication Workers of America Union (CWA). Standing at 1400+ members as of 2023, AWU advocates for equality among full time employees and contract workers, a welcoming environment, project transparency, democratic decision-making, and overall ensuring that Alphabet, Google's parent company, acts ethically, referencing Google's founding slogan: "Don't Be Evil."

Challenges
Unlike traditional unions, minority unions cannot enroll a majority of a work force and petition a state or federal labor board like the National Labor Relations Board to hold an election. Therefore, they legally cannot bargain with their employer on a contract. Instead, the AWU can use other tactics to pressure Google into changing its policies, labor experts said. According to Kate Conger, a technology reporter at the New York Times, "Minority unions often turn to public pressure campaigns and lobby legislative or regulatory bodies to influence employers."

Controversial business decisions
Google also has a history of engaging in controversial business practices. In 2015, Google hosted applications of the Saudi government, including an app called Absher that allowed men to track and control the movement of their female family members. Google received backlash from human rights activists and lawmakers for carrying the app, but it is still available on the Google app store. In 2017, Google secretly developed a censored search engine for users in China, code-named “Dragonfly,” catering to the Chinese government’s censorship demands. About 1,400 Google employees signed a letter to company executives requesting more details about the project and demanding employees get more transparency and input on future decisions. In a senate judiciary hearing in 2019, Google confirmed the project had been terminated. Google employees, enraged that their executives prioritized profits over human rights, felt the company’s slogan “Don’t be evil” was no longer a reflection of the company’s values; it had become nothing more than another corporate marketing tool. Workers looked to unionize to hold Google accountable for unethical uses of their technology.

AWU Organizing Efforts
In a survey conducted of 1,853 Alphabet contractor's workers AWU discovered that Alphabet's wages and benefits standards were provided to contracted workers, unlike what Alphabet promised. As part of AWU's mission to "ensure Alphabet acts ethically" AWU has pressured Alphabet and their contracted companies to provide promised worker privileges and protections.

Modis
In 2021 Shannon Wait, a worker at a Google data center, was suspended from her job after posting on Facebook about worker condtions including not receiving hazard pay and water breaks. The AWU filed cases to the National Labor Relations Board on her behalf and overturned her suspension with Alphabet confirming that employees "have the right to discuss wage rates, bonuses, and working conditions". This success allowed unionized Modis data center workers to organize an emailing campaign forcing Modis to resume paying their promised $200 bonus for each full week they worked.

BOLD Internship Program
Tyrese Thomas and Jacob Ngai, interns under Google's BOLD internship program, were concerned with their ability to work remotely in their houses with Ngai "sharing a room with [his] brother" and having "constant Wi-Fi issues". They, with the advice of AWU organizer Raksha Muthukumar on how to write and convince interns to sign their petition, secured a $5,000 stipend for interns to use "however they deem best, including their WFH experience".

Cognizant
Google Maps workers, concerned by the "unsafe working conditions" from Cognizant's June 6th 2022 return to office order, worked with AWU to pressure Cognizant to extend the deadline. After over 70% of workers signed a petition and threatened a strike, Cognizant extended their return to office deadline by 90 days.

RaterLabs
In May 2022, RaterLabs workers, who responsible for rating Google search ads' quality, and the AWU petitioned Google's vice president to increase their pay to Alphabet's basic pay standard of $15 per hour. Through this petition and repeated meetings with RaterLabs management, the AWU was able to secure a pay raise to $14-$14.50 per hour from $10 per hour.

YouTube Music
YouTube Music workers became the 2nd fully AWU unionized workplace in October 2022 preceded by 10 Google Fiber workers unionizing their workplace in March. After unionization, the AWU alleges that Cognizant tried to break the union by requiring all workers to return to their office by Febuary 2023. To resist the order, YouTube Music workers organized a strike with the AWU offering support and spreading the links to the strike's GoFundMe and fundraising album.

Google's 2023 Layoffs
On January 20th, 2023, Alphabet announce that 12,000 Google employees were fired, with many of them first discovering their firing when they tried to log in. Google workers in countries with workers councils, like France and Germany, were able to prevent the firing of their employees while other European workers organized walkouts with their respective unions in response to Google's layoffs. The AWU, being a minority union, was not able to negotiate with Alphabet to prevent Google's layoffs, but they were able to increase their notoriety through public campaigns. On the same day as the layoffs, the AWU protested in front of Google's New York office, hosted good-bye card write-a-thons, and created a discord server which offers financial and work related advice. As a result of the layoffs and the increased union noteriety, Google employees in Europe and United States have increased unionization resulting in the AWU growing to over 1,400 members as of May 2023.


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HTML 5 Programming and Web development/tags and attributes

Welcome to HTML5 tags and attributes.

This book teach learners about HTML5 tags and attributes as well as how HTML5, is used to develop static webpages.

Table of content
1.What is HTML5?

Objective : Learners will learn the meaning of HTML and it's brief history.

This will allow learners to be able to explain the meaning of HTML5 as well as to summaries it's brief history to others.

2.Where is it used?

Objective : Learners will learn more about real life applications where HTML5 is used.

This will allow learners to pin point different applications where HTML5 is used in real life.

3.What are HTML5 tags?

Objective : Learners are going to learn more about different HTML5 tags and their uses.

This will allow learners to identify different HTML5 tags and their functions.

4.How to use HTML5?

Objective : Learners will learn how to use HTML5 to develop real life applications(webpages).

This will allow learners to gain basic skills and knowledge on how to use HTML5 in real life.

What is HTML5?
HTML5 is one of HTML versions starting from HTML 1,2,3 and 4. HTML is an acronym which stands for Hyper Text Mark-up Language.

Tim Bernes Lee was the first computer scientist to develop HTML. He developed the first version of HTML in 1990.

In short HTML5 is just a version which was developed to improve all other versions. The difference between HTML5 and other versions is through changes and addition of tags.

When Tim died, someone had to take where he left of and that was the W3C. This organization is the one which is responsible for the development of other HTML versions excluding HTML1. It also issue instructions known as specifications to the public to notify them on what tags have changed and how to use HTML versions in general.

 The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web. Founded in 1994 and led by Tim Berners-Lee, the consortium is made up of member organizations that maintain full-time staff working together in the development of standards for the World Wide Web.

HTML5 was released to the public on October 2014 by W3C.

Where is it used?
HTML5 is used by both simple and complex websites across the internet today.

Almost all websites you visit, are written using HTML5. Some mobile applications installed on your mobile device, are written using HTML. Some ebooks you download use HTML5 including almost all games you play online.

Bellow is illustrations of popular websites using HTML5 to present content on their webpages.

1.Google.com

Google is a website which list other websites links on its webpages. When a user click on a website listed on Google, is an HTML5 tag known as the anchor() tag to display.

2.facebook.com

The most popular social media uses HTML5 to present its contents on browsers. Links, images, textboxes and input fields on Facebook, use HTML5 tags and attributes.

3.Wikipedia.org

The world greatest encyclopaedia uses HTML5 as well. Wikipedia contributor's use HTML5 tags to edit Wikipedia content and they are not limited to include HTML5 tags when adding content.

What are HTML5 tags?
In simple terms HTML5 tags are instructions written on a .html document by web developers. These instructions instruct browsers(Google Chrome, Edge, Firefox, Operamini...) on how to display websites pages on our computer or mobile device screens.

This means that HTML5 tags are a means by which developers can communicate with browsers.

Browsers are software tools that interpret HTML5 tags into human readable forms such as website pages to visitors.

HTML tags are lines of text which are made up of the "<" and ">" signs with the abbreviation of the tag name as shown below :

1.< : the less than sign.

2.p : abbreviation of the "paragraph" tag, which allows for the display of text on webpages.

3.> : the greater than sign.

Some html tags have opening and closing tags.

Bellow is an opening HTML tag with a closing tag.

The closing tag of the paragraph tag is differentiated by the forward back-slash "/" sign before the abbreviation of the tag name "p".

Almost all HTML tags have attributes. Attributes are properties of tags, like names, age, gender etc are human properties. This attributes uniquely describes tags.

Bellow is an example of an HTML tag with an "id" attribute.

The id attribute allows the paragraph tag to be styled using CSS or JavaScript.

Once you fully understand HTML5, you will need to learn CSS and JavaScript. Note that this book does not cover CSS and JavaScript topics to avoid confusion. Activity 1

Answer the following questions to measure your understanding.

1.What is HTML5?

2.What are HTML5 tags?

3.Name one of your favourite browsers.

4.Name one of your favourite websites.

5.Do you use a computer or mobile device to access the internet ?

6.What is a browser?

7.Write two signs that marks an HTML tag.

8.What is the full word of the abbreviation of ?

9.What is the difference between the opening and closing HTML tags?

10.What is an attribute ?

HTML5 tags
There more than 100 HTML5 tags in use today and all have unique functions. Bellow is a list of HTML5 tags and their meaning.

This is the first tag you will see on the .html document or file. It is called HTML declaration tag. It's function is to inform browsers that the version of html used on a certain webpage is HTML5. This helps the browser to load the page faster and in an appropriate manner by using correct ASCII standards in case of the presence of Unicode characters such as your &, $, #, @, 😃etc.

It is a good coding practice to open the .html document with this tag.

⭐ A .html document it is an electronic text file which allows writing, editing and storing of HTML5 tags.

To create a .html document on a computer you need a software called notepad and to create a .html document on your mobile device, you need an app called ES file explorer.

This is the tag you will see on line number 2 on a .html document. It has a closing tag. Its main purpose is to house all other HTML tags. All other HTML tags are written between the opening and closing "html" tags.

Bellow is an example of how the "html" tag house all other HTML tags. Note line 2 and 10.

HTML structure
Output :  Hello World This is a basic webpage

Above is an example of a basic HTML structure on a .html document.

An HTML structure is a combination of HTML tags working together to instruct browsers on how to display website pages on our device screens.

Browsers are software or apps that allows us to  read HTML structures in form of websites pages.

Websites are a combination of webpages linked together by the HTML anchor tag.

HTML structures act as a foundation that developers use to build a webpage on.

Developers are people who write websites and other related digital applications such as computer software and mobile applications.

You are reading this book because your main objective is to become a developer.

The size of the structure in terms of lines, is influenced by the purpose of a website. Simple structures are made up of 10 to 50 lines of tags, while online game structures consist of 50 and upwards lines of tags.

HTML structures are commonly called HTML code and html tags are commonly called HTML elements. Note that in this book we hardly use the above terms to avoid confusion.


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