text:
Dictionary of Laboratory Terms/AZ

A

 * Accreditation: Formal recognition of the technical and organizational competence of a calibration, testing, inspection or certification laboratory to perform a specific service within the scope of the accreditation according to internationally governing standards. In many cases, accreditation is according to ISO 17025 "General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories".

 * Accuracy:

 * 1. Closeness of agreement between a measured quantity value and a true quantity value of a measurand ([VIM:2012]).

 * 2. Qualitative designation for the closeness of the approximation of determined results to the reference value. The reference value may be defined or agreed to be the true value of the expected value.

 * 3. The closeness of the agreement between a test result and the accepted reference value. Example: ability of a measuring instrument to deliver output quantities that are close to the true value. For repeated measurements, accuracy requires trueness (absence of systematic errors) and precision. For a single measurement, this need not necessarily be the case.

 * 4. The property of the stated values of a reference material to correspond to their true value.

 * Adjust, to: 1. Set of operations carried out on a measuring system so that it provides prescribed indications corresponding to given values of a quantity to be measured([VIM:2012]).

 * 2. Adjusting is the action of setting a measuring instrument or standard so that the measured value is correct, or deviates as little as possible from the correct value, or the deviation remains within acceptable limits of error. This is obtained in the case of a measuring instrument, through adjusting the manual fine settings of its indication by trained specialist personnel, or semi- or automatically by the user, if the instrument has an adjusting mechanism (self-adjustment).

 * Adjustment: Result of the action of adjusting (to adjust) an instrument.

 * Air humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air. Relative humidity h is the ratio between the actual vapor pressure of water and its saturated vapor pressure.

 * Air pressure: The static pressure prevailing in the mixture of gases that forms the Earth's atmosphere. Mean air pressure at sea level is 1013 hPa (normal pressure) and decreases continuously with increasing height. It also fluctuates constantly with changing weather conditions. The standard deviation of these fluctuations from the local mean value over a period of two or more weeks at temperate latitudes is of the order of 7 hPa, or approximately 0.7% of normal pressure.

 * In meteorology, the local air pressure is referred to as "station pressure", which is abbreviated to STP or QFE. On weather charts, however, the air pressure reduced to sea level is shown, which is indicated by the abbreviation SLP (sea level pressure) or QFF. If the density of air is to be determined for the correction for air buoyancy, station pressure (STP or QFE) must be used.

 * Ambient temperature: Temperature of the air surrounding the instrument and the measurand.

 * Analog data processing device: Electronic device in an instrument that performs the analog-digital conversion of the output signal, performs further processing of these data, and forwards the results in digital form across an interface, but without indicating them.

 * Analog signal: A stepless variable, usually electrical quantity (e.g. current, voltage, resistance) that is proportional to the measurement value.

 * Analog-digital converter: An electronic device for converting analog signals (current, voltage, resistance) into digital signals, e.g. in a digital voltmeter. Often referred to as A/D converter.

 * Analytical balance: 1.Collective term for weighing instrument of special accuracy with high resolution of accuracy class I. Analytical balances are subdivided into microanalytical-, semimicro-, micro- and ultramicro balances. Although the weighing capacity and readability of these balances were originally selected to be suitable for chemical analyses, such balances are used wherever there is a requirement for high resolution and accuracy. On an analytical balance a small quantity can be weighed in a relatively heavy container, which requires a readability of 0.1 mg or less and at least 100000 actual scale intervals. Because of their high resolution (i.e. small readability), analytical balances are fitted with a draft sheld to protect them from disturbing air currents.

 * 2. Strictly by definition: weighing instrument of accuracy class I with a weighing capacity in the range of 100-400 g (typically 200 g) and a readability of 0.1 mg. Also referred to as microanalytical balance.

 * 3. Strictly by definition: weighing instrument according to 2. that satisfies the corresponding legal metrology requirements.

 * Application range of a weighing instrument: Restrictions regarding the intended use and/or environmental conditions under which a laboratory instrument may be used. E.g.: temeperature limits -10 to 40 °C.

 * Areometer: Synonym for "hydrometer".

 * ASTM International: An organization in the United States of America that develops standards as well as related technical information and services that are globally recognized. The organization was formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

 * ATEX: Abbreviation for the French term "atmosphère explosible" (explosive atmosphere) ([94/9/EC, 1999/92/EC]).

 * ATEX 137 directive: This European Directive regulates the organizational and technical measures for the operators of plants to ensure that in hazardous areas there is no safety risk from explosions for persons working in those areas.

 * The operator of a plant must prepare a risk analysis of potential explosion hazards and specify measures to reduce the hazards to an acceptable level (explosion protection document). Equipment, components, and protective systems intended for use in hazardous areas must be installed, operated, and maintained appropriately and according to the manufacturer's instructions. The directive is implemented as national law in the EU. Each country is entitled to define further measures.

 * ATEX 95 directive: This European directive regulates the measures to ensure that equipment, components, and protective systems that are intended for use in hazardous areas may only be put into operation and installed provided that, with appropriate installation and maintenance, they do not present a hazard to people. In addition, the manufacturer must ensure that the affected installations comply with the so-called "essential health and safety requirements" that are listed in the directive. The directive is implemented as national law in the EU.

 * Automatic adjustment: Device for automatic adjustment of a laboratory instrument. The adjustment operation can be performed, for instance, by pressing a button, or automatically after a certain period of time, or by a change of temperature.

B

 * Back-weighing: (Re)weighing of a sample after a chemical or thermal reaction, or physical process, that changes the mass of the sample.

 * Balance: Weighing instrument, intended predominantly for medium to low capacity weighments, with moderate to high resolutions, mostly used indoors, often in laboratory environments and typically of OIML class I or II.

 * Bar code:

In a bar code, numeric and alphanumeric characters are represented as combinations of bars and spaces of different width. The width and separation of the bars represent the coding, which can be read and evaluated with corresponding bar code readers. Different types of code have been developed for different applications. For prepackages, these are the UPC Code (Universal Product Code, in the USA and Canada) and the EAN code in Europe and many countries overseas.

 * Bias: 1. The difference between the expectation (statistical expectation, i.e. the average of several results) of the test results of an accepted reference value and that reference value.

 * 2. Estimate of the systematic measurement error ([VIM:2012]).

 * BIML: Abbreviation for "Bureau International de Métrologie Légale", the International Bureau of Legal Metrology. The headquarters offices of the BIML are in Paris. Its responsibilities include the management and organization of the OIML, the preparation of OIML recommendations and documents, and the convening of meetings, for example to approve such items.

 * BIPM: Abbreviation for the "Bureau International des Poids et Mesures", the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which has its headquarters in Sèvres, a suburb of Paris. The task of the BIPM is to ensure worldwide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI). The BIPM was founded for this purpose within the context of the Meter Convention, and operates under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures.

 * Buoyancy: A force that acts on any body that is immersed in a fluid and acts against gravity, thereby causing an effective reduction in weight. According to Archimedes’ principle, the buoyancy force $$ F_{B} $$ is equal to the weight force of the displaced fluid.

 * $$ F_{B} = m_{F}g = (d_{F} V)g $$

 * where $$ m_{F} $$ mass of the displaced fluid, $$ g $$ local gravity, $$ d_{F} $$ density of the fluid, $$ V $$ volume of the body.

 * Burette: A burette is a glass tube marked with a scale that has a tap at its lower end and is used to dispense known amounts of liquid, mainly for titration. The volume (volumetry) that has been dispensed can be read off the scale. There are also burettes that are integrated into a titration apparatus with supply bottle. A further version consists of a bottle-mounting instrument with a piston-cylinder system. An advantage of this version is the digitally readable volume.

C

 * Calibrate, to: 1. Action of establishing a relation between the quantity values provided by measurement standards and corresponding indications ([VIM:2012]).

 * 2. Action of determining the deviation between the measurement value and the true value of the measurand under specific measurement conditions without making any changes.

 * 3. Term used in technical language for "to adjust" especially for pH sensors.

 * Calibration: Result of the action of calibrating an instrument.

 * Calibration laboratory meeting ISO 17025: Testing or calibration laboratory accredited to ISO/IEC 17025. The accreditation confirms that the laboratory possesses the competence to perform tests and/or calibrations according to the requirements of ISO/IEC 17025.

 * Calibration service: Organization for the accreditation and monitoring of calibration laboratories in industrial and other institutions (e.g. technical inspection authorities, university institutes, national authorities) with the aim of ensuring the traceability of measuring equipment and standards to national standards, particularly in industrial metrology.

 * CE mark:

 * By affixing the CE mark, the manufacturer declares that the marked instrument conforms to all applicable European Directives. For laboratory instruments, these are the Low Voltage Directive 2006/95/EC, EMC Directive 2004/108/EC and Measuring Instruments Directive 2004/22/EC (where applicable). In addition to the CE mark on the instrument, the manufacturer issues an Declaration of Conformity, in which conformity with all applicable European Directives is explicitly confirmed.

 * Certificate of conformity: The conformance of verified laboratory instruments to the European directive (EC) type approval is documented by the verification authority by issuing a certificate of conformity at the time of verification.

 * Characteristic curve: The relationship between the input variable and the output variable of a measuring instrument. The characteristic curve is obtained by recording, and usually displaying graphically, the output values for possible values of the input range.

 * CIPM: Abbreviation for "Comité International des poids et mesures", the International Committee for Weights and Measures. The CIPM is made up of eighteen individuals, each from a different Member State under the Metre Convention. Its principal task is to promote world-wide uniformity in units of measurement (International System of Units, SI) by direct action or by submitting draft resolutions to the General Conference (CGPM, General Conference on Weights and Measures).

 * Combined error: A measurement deviation that is composed of several random or systematic components. Known systematic measurement deviations (systematic error) must be taken into account (correction). All other components (random errors and measurement uncertainty of the systematic errors) are considered to be random quantities when the measurement uncertainty is determined.

 * Compulsory verification: According to the Weights and Measures Act, this obligation exists for certain instruments if they are used in commercial and official activities, in the field of public health, or in the preparation and testing of pharmaceutical products.

 * Confidence level: Probability that the expected value of a measurand lies within the (usually symmetrical) coverage interval ±U of the measurement value. For a given coverage interval, the confidence level depends on the probability distribution of the measurement value.

 * Constructional requirements: Legal regulations, guidelines, or standards that apply to laboratory instruments.

 * Control chart: In the control chart, values that were obtained from repeated sample checks of a process are entered, usually graphically. The control chart is used to monitor the process. Should a sample value attain the warning limit or control limit, the process must be corrected if necessary.

 * Control limit: Tolerance of a process relative to its target value. Violation of the tolerance is an infringement of the quality requirements, and therefore requires a correction of the process.

 * Control unit: Electronic device in a laboratory instrument that performs the analog-digital conversion of the output signal, as well as further processing of these data including display of the results.

 * Converter: Device that converts quantities of one medium into quantities of another medium, the converter creating a relationship between the quantities (usually proportionality). Media can be, for example, physical or numerical quantities. Examples of converters are the electrodynamic converter and the analog-digital converter.

 * Coverage interval: Range U (uncertainty interval) on both sides of a measurement value (corrected for systematic error) that contains the expected value of the measurand with a specified confidence level. Assuming that the underlying quantity is normally distributed, the confidence level for k = 1 (expansion factor) is approximately 68%, for k = 2 approximately 95%, and for k = 3 approximately 99.7%.

 * Creep error: The deviation that arises when a drifting measurement value is read, printed, or processed before the gradual approach to the stable state (e.g. of the measurement value) has been completed (settling).

D

 * Damping: Reduction of the amplitude of a periodically varying quantity. In the case of a laboratory instrument, the reduction in amplitude of oscillations until a stable equilibrium is reached (settling). The oscillation energy is directly dissipated, e.g. as frictional heat or electrical heat, or transformed into a different form (e.g. electrical energy in the case of electrodynamically compensating measuring instruments).

 * Data matrix code:

 * Representation of numeric and alphanumeric characters by means of a pattern of square dots in a square surface. A square with a relatively small number of subdivisions can already encode an enormous amount of data. For example, a 10 x 10 matrix code can encode $$2^{100} \approx 10^{30}$$ bits of data. This allows sufficient redundancy to correct any errors that may occur.

displayed.
 * Data plate: Plate on which the designations and inscriptions stipulated in the verification, safety, and other regulations are all

 * 1. Plate containing information for a more detailed identification of the respective product, for example, name of the manufacturer, model, serial number, maximum capacity, operating voltage, power supply frequency, type data, approval data, instructions regarding intended use, safety instructions, etc. The required inscriptions are defined more specifically in the applicable legal regulations for the respective instrument.

 * 2. More specifically, the term "marking" is used for the CE mark (CE marking), while the remaining items of information on the plate are referred to as "inscriptions". In non-technical language, the terms "name plate" and "type plate" are also used synonymously for "data plate".

 * Degree of protection (IP) provided by enclosures: Characteristics defined in standards relating to equipment safety, a.k.a. "ingress protection". IEC 60529 is concerned with the protection of electrical equipment by housings, covers, and the like. The standard concerns the protection of persons against contact with electrically live or moving parts, the protection of equipment against the ingress of solid objects and water, and defines the codes for internationally agreed types and levels of protection (IP Code). The first digit of the IP Code defines the level of protection against contact and the ingress of solid objects, the second digit defines the level of protection against ingress by water.

 * Densitometer: A measuring instrument to determine the density of fluids.

 * Density: The density $$d$$ of a body is the ration of its mass $$m$$ to its volume $$V$$.

 * $$d = \frac{m}{V}$$

 * Density determination:

 * Design qualification: Part of Equipment Qualification (EQ). The Design Qualification defines the specifications of the instrument and documents the decision process that results in selection of the supplier and of the instrument.

 * Deviation:

 * 1. Deviation of a value obtained by measurement, and assigned to the measurand, from the true value.

 * 2. Value minus its reference value (measurement deviation).

 * Differential weighing: 1. A change (increase or decrease) in mass that is determined by two successive weighments, usually of the same object, to which between the weighments a change was made, and wherever possible with the same balance and same tare weight.

 * 2. Comparison of mass of a weighed object with a mass standard (reference normal).

 * Digit: The smallest indicated scale interval on a laboratory instruments that have a digital display.

 * Digital display: In contrast to an analog readout, a readout or printout exclusively in the form of numbers, the last digit being rounded. A digital display or digital printout is unambiguously readable and the transfer of measurement values to data processing systems is possible by very simple means, but a digital value cannot be interpolated without additional information and it is difficult to deduce the dynamics of changing values e.g. during settling.

 * Digital filter: A signal filter that is implemented with a digital algorithm. A computer uses filter coefficients to form the output value from the current and past input values in real time. Digital filters can suppress low-frequency (e.g. ~10 Hz) signal components in the measured signal that are caused by, for instance, air currents, vibrations in the foundations, or noise of electronic components. Suppression of these components stabilizes the displayed measurement value.

 * An example of a simple digital filter is one that calculates the arithmetic mean of all incoming values over a specified period of time.

 * Digital interval: Difference between two successive digits of equal significance.

 * Digital-analog converter: An electronic device for converting digital signals into analog signals (voltages, currents, resistances). Often referred to as D/A converter. Is used, for example, to plot the progress of a change in weight in analog form with a line plotter.

 * Directive on Electromagnetic Compatibility: European Directive for instruments that may cause electromagnetic interference, or whose operation may be impaired by such interference. It stipulates the requirements for protection in this area as well as the corresponding control modalities.

 * The EMC directive is implemented as national law in Europe.

 * Dispensing: Separating a quantity into a number of partial quantities within defined tolerance limits.

 * Display: Element of an instrument serving to represent figures, letters, and/or other information.

 * Division: All the divisions of a lined scale or all the numbers of a numeric scale.

 * Drift: The slow change over time in the value of a metrological characteristic (indication) of a measuring instrument under constant or stationary conditions.
 * For example, a slowly changing temperature is referred to as temperature drift.

 * Dry content: The proportion of solid materials contained in a mixture of solids and lilquids, expressed in percent of the total mass of the mixture.

 * Drying oven method: Method for determining the moisture content of a sample, in which the sample is dried in a drying oven at a constant temperature for a defined period of time. The difference in weight before and after drying is used to calculate the moisture content as a percentage.

E

 * EAN: Abbreviation for "European Article Numbering". This numbering system allows products to be uniquely identified internationally by a 13-digit number. In the form of a bar code, this number is in commercial use for inventory control.

 * EDQM: European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines.

 * Electric charge: Physical quantity which, among other things, is the source of the electric field and of force effects. The electric charge can be positive or negative (polarity); charges with opposite polarity attract, those with the same polarity repel.

 * Electrical safety: Non-technical term for the requirements of the Low Voltage Directive.

 * Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC): The ability of an electrical apparatus, device, or system to function satisfactorily (i.e., comply with the error limits) within its electromagnetic environment without itself causing electromagnetic interference that would be unacceptable for all apparatuses, equipment, or systems in this environment.

 * In the European Union, the requirements for instruments are regulated by the European Directive on Electromagnetic Compatibility ([2004/108/EC]).

 * Electromagnetic force compensation: Weighing principle in which the weight force of the weighed object is opposed by a force of equal magnitude that is produced with the aid of an electrodynamic converter. An electronic control system that responds to the displacement of the load cell (position sensor) causes the compensation current to be adjusted so that a disequilibrium of the forces arising from loading or unloading is restored to equilibrium. The weight force is proportional to the mass of the weighed object and in the stable state is completely compensated by the electrodynamically generated force. This force is itself proportional to the electric current flowing in the converter. The current is thus proportional to the mass placed on the balance and can therefore by used as a measurement signal.

 * Electrostatic charging: Electric charge that many accumulate on objects (solids, liquids, or gases) that have low electrical conductivity (so-called electric insulators) such as glass, plastic, organic solvents, seeds, powders, dusts, etc.

 * Electrostatic discharging: When electrostatically charged people or objects touch parts of a weighing instrument, an instantaneous electrostatic discharge can occur (discharge voltage several kilovolts, energy several millijoules). This causes a momentary discharge current to flow through the instrument that has an order of magnitude of several kiloamperes and which can adversely affect the correctness of the measurement value determination or even destroy electronic circuits.

 * Endurance of the printout: Certification requirements exist for the printout of weighing results, e.g. printouts for the intended purpose must be clear and enduring, i.e. good readability must be assured for a minimum of a) two years under the usual archiving obligations; b) one month for price-mark devices and industrial scales; c) one week for scales for public points of sale even under adverse conditions (contact with grease or food, effect of light).

 * Environmental influence: External circumstances that may adversely affect the metrological behavior of a laboratory instrument. These may include, for example, setting up, ambient temperature, air current, weather conditions, magnetic fields, electrostatic forces, and vibrations.

 * Equipment Qualification: Officially undefined but commonly used term in instrument qualification. Qualification is the process that proves and documents that an instrument functions correctly and delivers the expected results (EU Guide on Manufacture).

 * Equipment Qualification (EQ) contains the following qualification steps: Design Qualification (DQ), Installation Qualification (IQ), Operational Qualification (OQ), Performance Qualification (PQ) and Maintenance Qualification (MQ).

random errors. There is a need to differentiate between, for example, maximum permissible error on verification and maximum permissible error in service.
 * Error limits: Maximum amounts for positive or negative deviations. Error limits are mainly specified in relation to systematic errors of the measurement values from the correct value or from another specified or agreed value of the measurement value. It is not permitted for error limits to be exceeded by

 * European Pharmacopeia: Directory of medicines that was given legal status by the signatory states of the European Pharmacopoeia Convention. The European Pharmacopoeia is published, updated, and expanded by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines (EDQM). The mission of the European Pharmacopoeia Convention is to harmonize the standards of the various national European Pharmacopeias as well as the quality standards and control processes for medicines.

 * Expansion factor: Factor $$k$$ that expands the standard uncertainty $$u$$ into the uncertainty interval $$U$$:
 * $$U = k\cdot u$$

 * Explosion protection:

 * Measures to avoid hazardous explosive mixtures of gas and air, or dust and air, and to avoid effective ignition sources.

 * In Europe, the intended use of equipment and protective systems in hazardous areas is legally regulated for manufacturers by the ATEX 95 Directive and for operators by the ATEX 137 Directive. The manufacturer must fulfill the essential health and safety requirements defined in the ATEX 95 Directive by suitable construction of the equipment or protective system, and demonstrate fulfillment by corresponding tests. The operator is responsible for avoiding explosive atmospheres and for using suitable equipment or protective systems as intended at the place of installation. Such equipment and protective systems may only be used in hazardous areas if they are constructed in such manner that they cannot act as effective ignition sources.

F
fine dispensing to ensure that the prescribed distribution is achieved as accurately as possible.
 * Fine dispensing: Gravimetric or volumetric distribution of a constant or discrete material flow. Coarse dispensing is followed by

 * Firmware: Program (software) for the dedicated control of an instrument that is stored in permanent memory. Depending on the memory technology, the firmware may be capable of being updated.

 * Fluid: Substance possessing the physical property of being able to flow. Gases and liquids are fluids.

 * Force: Term first used by Archimedes for the physical quantity that is the cause of all motion or change in shape. There are many sources of force including deformation (spring force), gravitation (weight force, buoyancy), electrostatic and dynamic forces, magnetic forces, kinetic forces (acceleration force, centrifugal force), and friction.

 * The SI unit of force is the newton.

 * Force measuring cell: Measurement transducer that converts the input quantity force into, for instance, an electrical output quantity.

G

 * GAMP: Abbreviation for Good Automated Manufacturing Practice.

 * GLP: Abbreviation for Good Laboratory Practice ([2004/9/EC, 2004/10/EC]).

 * GMP: Abbreviation for Good Manufacturing Practice ([2003/94/EC]).

 * Good Automated Manufacturing Practice: Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) is a technical sub-committee, known as a COP (Community Of Practice) of the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE). The goal of the community is to assist companies in healthcare industries, including pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical devices, to achieve validated and compliant automated systems.

 * GAMP publishes a series of Good Practice Guides for its members on several topics involved in drug manufacturing. GAMP was founded in 1991 in the United Kingdom to deal with the evolving FDA expectations for Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) compliance of manufacturing and related systems.

 * Good Laboratory Practice: Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) is a quality assurance system that is concerned with the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, and monitored. GLP is also concerned with recording, archiving, and reporting of the tests.

 * The principles of Good Laboratory Practice are applied to the non-clinical safety studies of test items that are included in pharmaceutical products, pesticides, cosmetics, and veterinary drugs, as well as food additives, animal feed additives, and industrial chemicals. The purpose of testing these test items is to obtain data about their properties and/or safety for human health and/or the environment. The tests are initiated by the state authorities responsible for the registration or approval of products in the above-mentioned categories. The OECD GLP Principles of 1997 were adopted as European law and formalized in European Directive [2004/10/EC]. Their verification is regulated in European Directive [2004/9/EC]. Both directives are implemented as national law in the EU.

 * Good Manufacturing Practice: Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) is a quality assurance system that ensures that products are consistently produced and controlled to the quality standards appropriate to their intended use and as required by the marketing authorization. The prime focus is to avoid cross-contamination (in particular of unexpected contaminants) and mix-ups caused by, for example, false labeling.

 * GMP rules exist for various product groups as medicinal products, medical devices, food, or blood. For medicinal products, the rules are formalized in European Directive [2003/94/EC].

 * Gravimetry

 * 1. Method of quantitative analysis in which the mass, or a property that depends upon the mass, is determined by measuring the mass; gravimetric determination.

 * 2. Theory of the Earth’s gravitational field and methods of determining gravity.

 * Gross value: Indication of the weight value of a load placed on a weighing instrument, with no tare device or preset tare device in operation.

 * Gross weight: Total weight on the platform of a weighing instrument, i.e. the weight of the weighed object (net weight or sample) plus the weight of its container or packaging.

 * GxP: Non official common collective abbreviation for "GLP" (Good Laboratory Practice).

H

 * Halogen lamp: Infrared heater in which the radiation is produced with the aid of a halogen lamp.

 * Hardware

 * 1. Generic term for mechanical components such as screws, bolts, nuts, etc.

 * 2. A term that applies to all of the mechanical and electrical components of a computer system or electronic circuit (e.g. printed circuit boards, transistors, integrated circuits, etc.) as well as to entire instruments.

 * Housing: A fixed cover that protects the sensitive parts of a laboratory instrument and prevents inadmissible tampering with the instrument.

 * Hydrometer: Instrument for determining the density of liquids or the concentration of dissolved substances (e.g. Oechsle hydrometer) that takes the form of a glass tube with a scale that floats in the liquid whose density is to be determined. A hydrometer functions on the principle of buoyancy, i.e. it floats higher or lower depending on the density of the liquid.

 * Hydrostatic balance: Balance for determining the density of a liquid by measuring the buoyancy of a sinker in the liquid, or for determining the density of a solid body in a liquid of known density.

 * Hysteresis:

 * The phenomenon that a measuring instrument indicates two different measurement values for the same measurand, depending on whether the measurand is increasing or decreasing. This results in a split characteristic curve: the lower curve is for the increasing, the upper for the decreasing measurand.

 * Hysteresis can be compensated for. If hysteresis is overcompensated, the characteristic curve reverses its course.

I

 * Identification mark: A marking, usually a manufacturer’s number, that is applied to the main devices of the laboratory instrument consisting of separate units to ensure their unambiguous association.

 * IEC: Abbreviation for International Electrotechnical Commission

 * ILAC: International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation

 * Indication: Value that is represented on a display and can be read (measurement value).

chamber can thus lead to mass changes in the weighing sample and hence cause drift in the weighing instrument display. Corrective measures include the use of clean, dry weighing vessels. In addition, instead of cork or cardboard surfaces, which may absorb or release a considerable amount of moisture, non-hygroscopic auxiliary equipment (e.g. triangular support) should be used.
 * Influence of moisture: Air humidity results in an adsorbed film of moisture on virtually all surfaces. An equilibrium between the adsorption film and the surrounding humidity arises. E.g. moisture differences between the sample and the air in the weighing

 * Influence quantities:

 * 1. Quantity that is not the measurand but that affects the result of the measurement.

 * 2. Quantity that, in a direct measurement, does not affect the quantity that is actually measured, but affects the relation between the indication and the measurement result.

 * Inscriptions:

 * Specifications and designations used for a more detailed description of a laboratory instrument on its data plate and in its operating instructions. The inscriptions may include the name of the manufacturer and the model, serial number, operating voltage and power supply frequency. There may also be references to type data, approval data, instructions, or possible uses and applications of the instrument, etc.

 * Installation Qualification: Part of Equipment Qualification (EQ). The Installation Qualification (IQ) verifies that the instrument is delivered as specified, that it is correctly installed, and that the environment is suitable for its operation.

 * Integration time: The time required by an (electronic) measuring instrument to form a measurement value. The expression derives from the time during which the partial measurement values output by a measurement converter are added (integrated) to form a measurement value with sufficient resolution or stability.

 * In the case of digital filters, the integration time is not normally fixed, but comprises an increasing and decreasing weighting

with which completed partial results are summed to form the momentary measurement value.

those of the plug, the pin assignments, the voltage and current levels, the data format and coding, as well as the data and commands that are transferred.
 * Interface: Point of contact or connection between two data transmission devices. The term "interface" embraces all of the characteristics that describe its physical, electrical, and logical functions at the point of transfer. The characteristics include

 * International Electrotechnical Commission: International organization with permanent headquarters in Geneva. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) develops and publishes standards for electrical, electronic, and related technologies.

 * International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation: International cooperation of laboratory and inspection accreditation bodies to help remove technical barriers to trade. The aim of the ILAC arrangement is the increased use and acceptance by industry as well as regulators of the results from accredited laboratories and inspection bodies, including results from laboratories in other countries.

issues recommendations and documents (OIML Recommendations and Documents) for individual measuring instruments.
 * International Organization for Legal Metrology: International organization with permanent headquarters in Paris. The mission of the International Organization for Legal Metrology (OIML) is the international harmonization of the administrative and technical regulations for measurement methods and measuring instruments in the field of legal metrology. For this purpose, the organization

 * International Organization for Standardization: International organization that has its headquarters in Geneva. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) undertakes the international standardization of terminology, measurement methods, tolerances, etc. in the industrial field.

 * International Prototype of the Kilogram

 * Until 2019, it was the definition and representation of the mass unit. This prototype is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), Pavillon de Breteuil, Sèvres, France. The International Prototype of the Kilogram was created and sanctioned by the CIPM in 1889. It is a cylinder with both height and diameter of approximately 39 mm. It is made of an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium with a density of 21500 kg/m3.

 * The kilogram was the last of the base units of the International System of Units to be defined by an artefact, i.e., a manufactured object.

 * International System of Units: International system of units, also called SI (abbreviation of the French name "Système international d’unités"), that embodies the metric system of units and is the most widespread system of physical and chemical units.

 * The international System of Units has seven base units:

 * Other units are derived by means of simple relationships, e.g.: area (m$$^2$$), volume (m$$^3$$), speed (m/s), density (kg/m$$^3$$) ...

 * Various derived units have been given specific names and specific unit symbols, e.g.: frequency (hertz Hz), force (newton N), electrical resistance (ohm $$\Omega$$) ...

 * ISO: Abbreviation for "International Organization for Standardization".

 * ISO 17025: International standard "General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories" which describes the requirements for calibration and testing laboratories. The requirements cover the areas of personnel, technical infrastructure and organizational structure. This insures that the product or service of the laboratory is competently produced or provided and satisfies the requirements.

J

 * J:

K

 * k: Expansion factor.

 * kg: Unit symbol for the mass unit (kilogram).

 * Kilogram: The kilogram (unit symbol "kg") is the unit of mass in the International System of Units. It is one of the seven base units of this system.

L

 * Laboratory balance: Designation for balances that are mainly used in laboratories and usually referring to precision balances or analytical balances.

measurement, measuring instruments and methods of measurement and which are performed by competent bodies.
 * Legal metrology: Part of metrology relating to activities which result from statutory requirements and concern measurement, units of

 * The scope of legal metrology may be different from country to country. The competent bodies responsible for all or part of these legal metrology activities are usually called legal metrology services.

 * Legal metrology requirements: Regulations that must be fulfilled by a measuring instrument to be used in applications subject to legal metrology.

 * Level indicator:

 * Device that indicates the inclination. A level indicator usually comprises a sealed container (of glass or clear plastic) that is filled with liquid on which a gas bubble floats. Depending on the application, different shapes such as tubular, cross-shaped or circular level indicators are used.

the vertical. This usually means setting the housing of the instrument horizontal.
 * Level, to: Adjusting a laboratory instrument to its reference position (usually horizontal) so that its axis of action is parallel to

N

 * N:

O

 * P:

Q

 * Q:

R

 * R:

S

 * S:

T

 * T:

U

 * U:

V

 * V:

W

 * W:

X

 * X:

Y

 * Y:

Z

 * Z:

title: Dictionary of Laboratory Terms/AZ


text:
Music Theory/Arabic

Arabic music is traditional music played in what is now called the Arab world. It has many similarities with Turkish and Persian music and generally exists, in some form, in places and cultures that are historically Muslim.

Tuning and Notation
Arabic music doesn't necessarily stick to the twelve notes (in an octave) that Western music uses. Although it isn't a very accurate representation, most musicians use a system of 24 notes in an octave, also known as the system of quarter tones, to describe the notes that they play.

A quarter tone is precisely one half of a semitone or half step; imagine a piano but an extra key in between every adjacent pair of keys.

To notate quarter tones, musicians use extra accidentals:

 * A half-flat or semi-flat lowers a note by a quarter tone, and is notated as a reversed flat, or more often a flat with stroke in Arabic circles. (We will use a reversed flat in this page.)
 * A half-sharp or semi-sharp raises a note by a quarter tone, and is notated as the left half of sharp sign.
 * A three-halves-flat or sesqui-flat lowers a note by three quarter tones, and is notated as a reversed flat next to a regular flat, or more often a double flat with stroke in Arabic circles. (We will use a reversed flat next to a regular flat.)
 * A three-halves-sharp or sesqui-sharp raises a note by three quarter tones, and is notates as a sharp with three vertical lines.

So, a quarter tone chromatic scale would look like this:

Note that these are considered notational conventions, and aren't quite representative of the pitches musicians play. Most Arabic music students have to learn the fine microtonal details by ear.

Maqam
The maqam (plural maqamat) is the rough equivalent of a scale in Western music, although there are several differences:

 * Maqamat often stick to one "key", and are only ever transposed to a handful of different keys. This is due in part to the technical limitations of Arabic instruments.
 * Maqamat describe not just tonal content, but melodic phrases and improvisatory possibilites that shape the aesthetic of Arabic music along with the tonal content.

Ajnas
Maqamat are composed of ajnas (singular jins), which are usually sets of four notes spanning a perfect fourth, although several ajnas have three or five notes. It is through these building blocks that maqamat get their mood.

All ajnas have a tonic and a ghammaz, which is an intermediate resting place for melodies and is often a point for modulation, a lot like the dominant in Western harmony.

There are the nine main ajnas (the tonic and ghammaz are marked with open noteheads):

 * Jins 'Ajam
 * Jins Bayati
 * Jins Hijaz
 * Jins Kurd
 * Jins Nahawand
 * Jins Nikriz
 * Jins Saba  (two ghammaz possibilites)
 * Jins Sikah
 * Jins Rast

These are not the only ajnas, of course.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Music Theory/Arabic


text:
Cookbook:Tisane ma Louisa (Algerian Lemon Herb Tea)

 * Beverages | Cuisine of Algeria

Tisane ma Louisa (شاي ماء لويزة, Louisa's Water Remedy Tea) is an Algerian herbal remedy tea.

Ingredients

 * 2 g (around 3 tsp) dried verbena leaves
 * 250 ml water
 * ½ ea. lemon, juiced
 * Sugar to taste (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Heat the water in a saucepan and bring it to a boil.
 * 2) Add the verbena leaves to the boiling water.
 * 3) Let the verbena leaves steep in water for about 10 minutes.
 * 4) Stir the leaves in the water (attempt to crush them as small as possible), then strain out the leaves.
 * 5) Add the lemon juice and sugar.


text:
Swahili/Verbs/Present

Present
The present tense is constructed with the use of the infix/TENS-marker "-na-" and the use of the prefix that marks the respective subject.

Negation
The negation in the present uses the respective negative prefixes for marking the subject. But unlike the positive, it omits the TENS-marker and changes the last vovel ("-a" in the regular case) into an "-i".

Habitual
The habitual is much simpler to form and usually indicates an action that is usually done.

No subject prefix is used, just the prefix "Hu-" is added in front. (Hu-penda) As this lacks the information about the acting subject, the personal pronoun is used to clarify on the subject, if not clear from the context.

Example: Wewe hufanya (You usually do)

title: Swahili/Verbs/Present


text:
Dictionary of Laboratory Terms/References

 * [GUM:2008] |GUM: Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement

 * [SI:2019] | SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI)

 * [VIM:2012] | VIM3: International Vocabulary of Metrology

 * [1994/9/EC] | Directive 94/9/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres

 * [1999/92/EC] | Directive 1999/92/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 1999 on minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres

 * 2003/94/EC | Commission Directive 2003/94/EC of 8 October 2003 laying down the principles and guidelines of good manufacturing practice in respect of medicinal products for human use and investigational medicinal products for human use

 * 2004/9/EC | Directive 2004/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 on the inspection and verification of good laboratory practice (GLP)

 * 2004/10/EC | Directive 2004/10/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 on the harmonisation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the application of the principles of good laboratory practice and the verification of their applications for tests on chemical substances

 * [2004/108/EC] | Directive 2004/108/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to electromagnetic compatibility and repealing Directive 89/336/EEC Text with EEA relevance


text:
User:Lee yun betty/sandbox/Geology and Climate

Tectonic Plates
The slow continental drifting of landmasses are called tectonic plates (or lithospheric plates) and they drift across the lines of latitude and longitude. The tectonic plates have been moving since the beginning of time. Movement of the tectonic plates affects the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, climate, storm tracks, and the duration and timing of seasons. Each year, the tectonic plates move slowly across the Earth by several inches. When the continents collide, one plate will usually be forced underneath the other plate, which will result in the upthrust of mountain chains. Movements of these faults can turn a flat plain into a massive mountain range. As the mountains take form, biomes begin to develop along their slopes.

Tucson Mountains
Located west of Tucson, Arizona, the Tucson Mountains is not impressively high as they only reach up to 4,687 feet. They may be short in stature, but they are big in beauty. The Tucson Mountains are the remains of a collapsed volcano ranging 15 miles long. Towering stratovolcanoes erupted here ejecting hot volcanic debris about 70 million years ago. The Tucson Mountains were pulled westward for miles across the detachment fault to where they are today. As I stated before, the Tucson mountains were once a volcano located on the western side of the Santa Catalina Mountain. For 20 miles, the top of the volcano slid to the west and formed a valley between the Tucson and Santa Catalina Mountains. The occurrence of detachment faulting was discovered by scientists from the University of Arizona in the Santa Catalinas. The Tucson Mountains are composed of an extrusive ingenious rock created by the eruption of the volcano called rhyolite.

Santa Catalina Mountains

About 70 million years ago, a massive volcano formed where the Santa Catalina Mountains are today. The volcano then created a circular basin called a caldera after it collapsed on itself. Then 40 million years later, detachment faults caused the upper part of the caldera to slide 20 miles off the lower region due to detachment faults. The creation of the faults produced mountain ranges and valleys. This caused Tucson to drop 3,300 meters down, creating the valley that has since been filled with 1,650 meters of sediment. The upper caldera became the Tucson Mountains, while the lower caldera and underlying granite that was left higher on the north side of the valley became Rincon Mountains and Santa Catalina Mountains.

The Santa Catalina Mountain lies north and northeast of Tucson, Arizona. It is often referred to as Catalina Mountain or Catalinas. The highest point in Catalina Mountain is Mount Lemmon with an elevation of over 9,157 feet above the sea level. Annually, this region receives about 180 inches of snow. The Catalina is the most prominent of the other five regions. One of the most popular activities on this mountain is hiking. The Santa Catalina Mountain is composed of an intrusive ingenious rock formed from the solidified magma below the volcano called granite.

Rincon Mountains
The Rincon Mountains is one of the five mountains surrounding the Tucson valley located on the east of Tucson, Arizona. The sun rises on the east side of the Rincon Mountains. The mountain is steep and rugged with many rocky ridges and deep canyons to explore. It is composed of a highly eroded mass of bedrock known as a metaphoric core complex. The Rincon Mountains' highest peaks include the Mica Mountain with an elevation of 8,664 feet and Rincon Peak at 8,482 feet. The Mica Mountain's high elevation supports the spruce vegetation and Ponderosa Pine, while lower elevations have oak-pine forests. Some special places to explore in this mountain include Rincon Mountains Wilderness and the Saguaro National Park, Rincon Mountain District. Rincon Mountains also provides many hiking trails to explore including Douglas Spring Trail, Rincon Peak, Cactus Forest Trail, etc.

Santa Rita Mountains
The Santa Rita Mountains lie south of the Tucson Basin. It has the highest point in the Tucson area with the highest peak at Mount Wrightson with an elevation of 9,453 feet. Within the range is Madera Canyon that is used as a resting area for migrating birds and is a premier bird-watching area. Santa Rita Mountains is also home to "El Jefe," an adult male jaguar that was first identified in 2011. Santa Rita Mountain also contains trails like the Bog Springs Trail, Cave Creek, and Old Baldy Trail.

Tortolita Mountains
The Tortolita Mountains are located northwest of Tucson, Arizona. Its highest peak elevation is 4,696 feet. Established in 1986 by the Pima County, the Tortolita Mountain Park protects most of the mountain range.

Riparian Zones
Riparian zones encompass the vegetation and wildlife around a body of water such as rivers, creeks, washes, etc. Riparian zones are a crucial part maintaining various ecosystems and preserving wildlife native to the Sonoran Desert. Many species that call Arizona’s Sonoran Desert their home rely on a riparian area at some point in their lives; it is said that 60-70% do. Compared to other riparian areas in the United States, the difference between an upland and a riparian terrestrial system in the southwest United States is not as defined. Other parts have a more gradual change in zones due to the amount of precipitation in the area, meanwhile in the southwest less rainfall occurs. Not only are riparian zones home to many species there are also many benefits that come from a healthy and prosperous riparian area. In riparian areas air temperature can be reduced, the riverbanks have greater protection from erosion, and water and soil qualities are improved. Some examples of a riparian community in the Arizona Uplands include Cienega Creek, San Pedro Riparian, Gila Box Riparian, Salt River Canyon Riparian, and Sonoita Creek.

Cienega Creek
Cienega Creek is located within Las Cienegas National Conservation Area in a zone between the Sonoran Desert and the Chihuahua Desert. Las Cienegas National Conservation Area contains rare vegetation which contributes to some of its rare habitats. Some of these habitats include cienegas, cottonwood-willow riparian forests, mesquite bosques, semidesert grasslands, and sacaton grasslands. These habitats are home to many species of animals and plants that depend on this riparian for survival.

San Pedro Riparian
The San Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area lies on 57,000 acres of public land. The San Pedro Riparian consist of 40 miles of upper San Pedro River. This riparian area is abundantly populated with vegetation and animals containing many native species including more than 80 mammal species, 40 amphibian and reptile species and many bird species both breeding and migrant.

Gila Box Riparian
The Gila Box Riparian National Conservation is an area, approximately 23,000 acres, filled with many different species of creatures and vegetation. Large cottonwoods, sycamores, and willows are some of the various plant life that can be found within the area that make up the riparian forest. The Gila Box Riparian National Conservation has four perennial waterways that all join together to create the Gila Box Riparian. These include Bonita creek, Eagle creek, the Gila River, and the San Francisco River. Considering that four waterways make up this area, there are countless numbers of plant and animal species that make the riparian unique.

Salt River Canyon Riparian
The Salt River Canyon is filled with breathtaking geological formations. These formations include salt banks, granite, sandstone, quartzite along with cliffs and creeks. Within the canyon are canyon creek faults and cherry creek faults. Like many riparian zones, the Salt River Canyon Riparian has a diverse array of wildlife and vegetation. With approximately 32 miles of river there is lots of room for a large riparian corridor.

Sonoita Creek
Sonoita Creek lies within the Sonoita Creek State Natural Area or also known as Patagonia-Sonoita Creek Reserve. Sonoita creek spans about 2.8 miles and is filled with a variety of vegetation within its riparian forest and animal species that inhabit it. There are many uncommon plants found within the area including mixed deciduous broadleaf riparian forest. Animal that are found include 36 species of amphibians and reptiles, 49 damsel and dragonfly species, 130 butterfly species, 5 bats and a high diversity of 106 bird species making this location an excellent birdwatching haven. Sonoita Creek flowing from the Santa Cruz River is also home to a rare native fish called the Gila Topminnow.

Hadley Cells
The Hadley Cell is a global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the Equator, flowing poleward at a height of 10 to 15 kilometers above the earth's surface, descending in the subtropics, and then returning equatorward near the surface. This whole process starts out because the equator region receives a higher amount of sun radiation so there is warmer air and lots of evaporation there. The whole region is usually very humid because warm air is capable of holding more moisture than cool air. Warmer air tends to rise and it will do so until it gets to about 10 to 15 kilometers high. As air rises temperature decreases and there is a lot of precipitation event as the air massed rise and and start to hear towards the North and South. Air masses will continue flowing southward and northward but as they do they will get drier and drier because of the rain events and also colder and colder since they are leaving the equator and going towards the poles at around 30° South and 30° North. Air masses tend to descend towards the planet's surface resulting in these regions being dominated by dry air without much precipitation. This creates the perfect environment for deserts to form.

* around 30° North and South of the Equator * interior of continents (this is because they may be farther from the main sources of moist air like oceans) * rain shadows of large mountain belts (perfect settings for deserts to form) **The Mojave, Black Rock, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan deserts all are in regions which are rain shadowed.

Life Zone
According to C. Hart Merriam, life zone was developed to describe areas with similar plants and animals communities. This changes are observed when there is an increase in latitude but a constant elevation and also an increase in elevation at a constant latitude.

Merriam's Life zone:
* Lower Sonoran Life Zone * Upper Sonoran Life Zone * Transition Life Zone * Canadian Life Zone * Hudsonian Life Zone * Arctic- Alpine Life Zone

Upper Sonoran Life Zone:
Upper Sonoran is described as desrt steppe or chapparral and transition which are like open woodland. it contains grasslaands and woodlands. Some common mammals include the Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), sometimes wrongly called antelope, the Cliff Chipmunk (Tamias dorsalis), and Black-tailed Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Some of the plants found in the upper soronan is sagebrush, scrub oak, Colorado pinyon,

Rosemont Mine
One of the greatest natural resources used in today's society is copper. Copper is used as a conductor, construction, and industrial machinery. The Rosemont Mine is a large open copper mine located in Arizona near Pima County built by Hdbay Minerals. This mine is located within the Coronado National Forest and Santa Rita Mountains which are valuable habitats for native animals and plants. This mine is not open yet due to legal allegations made for the protection of the environment. The arguments against the mine consist of destroying the Cienega Creek watershed, contaminated mine runoff worsening water quality, destroying natural habitats, endangering wildlife, and causing regional air pollution. Proponents suggest the mine will create jobs, generating more revenue, and decrease the dependency on other countries for copper. The geological area contains around 550 million tons of 0.45% copper with molybdenum, and silver credits. This area is dominated by Precambrian granite, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic sediments. The Paleozoic sedimentary carbonate units are host rocks for copper mineralization. The units include conglomerates, sandstones, and siltstones. The existence of porphyry copper deposits in this area suggests there were granitic intrusions and felsic volcanic eruptions during the Laramide orogeny (period of mountain building). During this period both low-angle thrust and high-angle slips extended tectonic activity causing volcanic eruptions which led to copper deposits as well as the creation of basin and range in the southwestern region.

Tucson Mountains
The Tucson Mountains range form part of the Arizona Uplands, they are now widely protected since they are within the limits of national parks. These mountains were once mined for various metallic elements. Totaling up to over 120 mines throughout these mountains. The ores and minerals in this location derived from volcanic eruptions. Minerals found in this region: *Copper *Gold *Lead *Mineral specimens *Molybdenum *Silver *Vanadium *Zinc

Ironwood Forest National Monument
The Ironwood Forest National Monument is located in Pima county near Tucson, Arizona. This forest is 188,819 acres which contain many important cultural features: 200+ Hohokam sites, cattle grazing, and mining. Threatened species like Ferruginous pygmy owl, desert bighorn sheep, lesser long-nosed bat, Turk's head cactus also reside in this area. This location is constructed of Basin & Range Province, Roskruge Mountains, Samaniego Hills, Sawtooth Mountains, Silver Bell Mountains, Sonoran Desert, and Western Silver Bell Mountains.

Silver Bell Mine
The Silver Bell Mine is located in Silver Bell Moutain portions of the Ironwood Forest. This mine has been operational for over the past 130 years and it is still one of the mines used for copper. The mine has major porphyry copper deposits which most of the mining revolves around the copper. Other deposits that have been found in this area and are now minor productions are silver, molybdenum, zinc, lead, and gold. Over the past several years the Silver Mine has produced: 2.27 billion pounds of copper, 6.6 million pounds of molybdenum, 3.7 million pounds of lead, 40.8 million pounds of zinc, 2,100 ounces of gold, and 5.95 million ounces of silver.

Sonoran Plains
Mexico has an abundance of natural resources. Some of these resources are found in the Sonoran Plains region. This region was a site for various minerals. The most abundant have been copper, silver, and lead. In the area near Hermosillo, Sonora there have been seventeen mines and seventeen occurrence locations. These regions have had copper, gold, iron, lead, molybdenum, quartz, silica, silver, and tungsten.

La Colorada Mine
La Colorada Mine is a gold mine located in the state of Sonora near Hermosillo. This mine is an open-pit mine that is still functional. The primary commodities found are gold and silver, as well as secondary commodities: copper, lead, and zinc. This mine has been divided into different districts based on its' deposits. There is the Creston deposit, Gran Central deposit, La Colorada Deposit, and Veta Madre zone.


text:
Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/MandelbrotSetExteriorComplex potential

Complex potential on the parameter plane

The green procedure is named after the British mathematician George Green

Complex potential is a complex number, so it has 2 parts:
 * a real part = real potential = absolute value
 * an imaginary part = external angle

One can take also its:
 * curl
 * divergence

So on one image one can use more than one variable to color image.

Implementations:
 * Matemathica

Names:
 * Boettcher coordinate

Real potential = CPM/M
Names:
 * eponimes:
 * Douady-Hubbard Potential
 * Hubbard-Douady potential
 * electric:
 * The electric potential
 * the voltage
 * Green function = G(c)

$$ G(c) = \lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{1}{2^n} ln|z_n|$$

$$V(c) \approx V_n(c) = \frac{log|z_n|}{2^n}$$

In Fractint : potential = log(modulus)/2^iterations

One can use real potential to:
 * smooth (continuous) coloring
 * discrete coloring ( level sets of potential)
 * 3D view

Code:
 * c code from mandel by Wolf Jung

Here is Delphi function which gives level of potential :

External angle and external ( parameter) ray
Example code ( Mathematica)

conjugate ange
Conjugate angle
 * angles of the wake

For the Mandelbrot set, considering strictly periodic rays with period >= 2, the other in the pair can be found in O(period^2) time using Henk Bruin and Dierk Schleicher's Symbolic Dynamics of Quadratic Polynomials : Algorithm 13.3:

Code:
 * https://code.mathr.co.uk/mandelbrot-symbolics/blob/82378e281c6ef149c7280d2b10076fffd83e0a8c:/c/lib/m_q_unlinked.c
 * https://code.mathr.co.uk/mandelbrot-symbolics/blob/82378e281c6ef149c7280d2b10076fffd83e0a8c:/c/lib/m_q_conjugate.c

Methods
First find angle of last iteration. It is easy to compute and shows some external rays as a borders of level sets. Then one go further.
 * binary decomposition of LSM/M
 * nth-decomposition : color of exterior is proportional to quadrant in which last iteration lands. ( see below )
 * exterior grid coordinates: (arg(final z),log(|final z|)/log(escaperadius))
 * stripe average coloring
 * automatically calculate external angles from nucleus and period by Claude Heiland-Allen

Methods:
 * newton method
 * Tomoki Kawahira paper
 * Wolf Jung explanation
 * speeding up external ray tracing by Mandelbrot set Newton basins - Claude Heiland-Allen
 * lines perpendicular to equipotential lines
 * field line calculations, images and videos by Michael T Everest
 * field lines by Chris M. Thomasson
 * using Runge-Kutta integration by
 * images
 * mandelbrot-phase-angle-gif-loop

The Wolf Jung test
The external parameter rays for angles (in turns)
 * 321685687669320/2251799813685247 (period 51, lands on c1 = -0.088891642419446 +0.650955631292636i )
 * 321685687669322/2251799813685247 ( period 51 lands on c2 = -0.090588078906990 +0.655983860334813i )
 * 1/7 ( period 3, lands on c3 = -0.125000000000000  +0.649519052838329i  )

Angles differ by about $$10^{-15}$$, but the landing points of the corresponding parameter rays are about 0.035 apart. It can be computed with Maxima CAS : (%i1) c1: -0.088891642419446 +0.650955631292636*%i; (%o1) 0.650955631292636*%i−0.088891642419446 (%i2) c2:-0.090588078906990 +0.655983860334813*%i; (%o2) 0.655983860334813*%i−0.09058807890699 (%i3) abs(c2-c1); (%o3) .005306692383854863 (%i4) c3: -0.125000000000000 +0.649519052838329*%i$ (%i5) abs(c3-c1); (%o5) .03613692356607755 (%i6) a3:1/7$ (%i7) float(abs(a3-a1)); (%o7) 4.440892098500628*10^−16 Informations from W Jung program : The angle 1/7  or  p001 has  preperiod = 0  and  period = 3. The conjugate angle is 2/7  or  p010. The kneading sequence is AA*  and the internal address is  1-3. The corresponding parameter rays are landing at the root of a satellite component of period 3. It is bifurcating from period 1.

The angle 321685687669320/2251799813685247  or  p001001001001001001001001001001001001001001001001000 has  preperiod = 0  and  period = 51. The conjugate angle is 321685687669319/2251799813685247  or  p001001001001001001001001001001001001001001001000111. The kneading sequence is AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABB*  and the internal address is  1-49-50-51. The corresponding parameter rays are landing at the root of a primitive component of period 51.

The angle 321685687669322/2251799813685247  or  p001001001001001001001001001001001001001001001001010 has  preperiod = 0  and  period = 51. The conjugate angle is 321685687669329/2251799813685247  or  p001001001001001001001001001001001001001001001010001. The kneading sequence is AABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAABAA*  and the internal address is  1-3-51. The corresponding parameter rays are landing at the root of a satellite component of period 51. It is bifurcating from period 3.

The test by G. Pastor and Miguel Romera
The external parameter rays for angles (in turns) the central babies Mandelbrot sets of the cauliflowers located at -0.153756141 + 1.030383223i
 * 6871947673/34359738367 ( period 35 )
 * 9162596898/34359738367 ( period 35 )

(not that 34359738367 = 2^35 - 1)

test by M. Romera,1 G. Pastor, A. B. Orue,1 A. Martin, M.-F. Danca,and F. Montoya
G Pastor gave an example of external rays for which the resolution of the IEEE 754 is not sufficient:
 * $$\theta_{267}^- = 0.((001)^{88}010)_2 = \frac{33877456965431938318210482471113262183356704085033125021829876006886584214655562}{237142198758023568227473377297792835283496928595231875152809132048206089502588927}$$
 * $$\theta_{267}^+ = 0.((001)^{87}010001)_2 = \frac{33877456965431938318210482471113262183356704085033125021829876006886584214655569}{237142198758023568227473377297792835283496928595231875152809132048206089502588927}$$
 * $$\theta_{3}^- = 0.(001)_2 = \frac{1}{7} =  0.(142857)_{10}$$   ( period 3, lands on root point of period 3 component c3 = -0.125000000000000 +0.649519052838329i )
 * $$\theta_{268}^- = 0.((001)^{88}0001)_2 = \frac{67754913930863876636420964942226524366713408170066250043659752013773168429311121}{474284397516047136454946754595585670566993857190463750305618264096412179005177855}$$
 * $$\theta_{268}^+ = 0.((001)^{88}0010)_2 = \frac{67754913930863876636420964942226524366713408170066250043659752013773168429311122}{474284397516047136454946754595585670566993857190463750305618264096412179005177855}$$

One can analyze these angles using program by Claude Heiland-Allen :

Landing points of above rays are roots with angled internal addresses ( description by Claude Heiland-Allen) :
 * the upper one will be 1 -> 1/3 -> 3 -> 1/(period/3) -> period because it's the nearest bulb to the lower root cusp of 1/3 bulb and child bulbs of 1/3 bulb have periods 3 * denominator(internal angle) ie, 1 -> 1/3 -> 3 -> 1/89 -> 267
 * the lower one will be 1 -> floor(period/3)/period -> period because it's the nearest bulb below the 1/3 cusp ie, 1 -> 89/268 -> 268
 * the middle ray .(001) lands at the root of 1 -> 1/3 -> 3, from the cusp on the lower side (which is on the right in a standard unrotated view)

=References=


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User:Heward01

What are the Different Types of Captioning? Captioning services are basically comprised of showing text counterparts of the words being said and spoken. Some television programs, online videos, and educational training tools are mostly in need of captioning services. And there are various methods where captions can be displayed on the screen. Example, in broadcast captioning services, the captions are laid out at the bottom part of the video. Mostly, this type of captioning services is coloured for the purpose of indicating the speaker. These can be a contributing factor that can generally affect the captioning rates. Types of Captioning Services Here are the different types of captioning services: 1.      Closed captioning services In UK, closed captions are also known as “subtitling”. The viewers have the choice to view the captions or not. However, they need to turn the captions on or off while utilizing this kind of captioning services. It is very easy to distinguish if a certain program uses closed captioning. They are frequently determined in the program manuals or video covers. Generally, the closed captioning symbol [CC] is written in the cover. 2.      Open captioning services The goal of open captions is to let everyone see the message of the video by displaying the captions. They are generally fixed and embedded on the video file. Other terms for these captioning services are “burned in” or “hardcoded”. One can play on various caption fonts and styles when using these captioning services. Open caption includes those foreign films with subtitles. 3. 	Live captioning services Generally, this type of caption is converted for use of live TV shows like sports coverage, program finale, and the news and current affairs. Aside from that, it is also useful for business settings, educational trainings, and events. For live captions, two methods are being utilized: the steno-captioning and the respeaking. ·        Stenocaptioning The process of producing live captions that includes the utilization of stenotype machine is called as “stenocaptioning”. The process of word creation using phonetic sounds is somehow similar to the way a pianist produces chords through different piano keys. This method of live captioning service is being used generally for reporting on courtroom to capture every word being delivered. ·        Respeaking The difference of respeaking is that it primarily depends on a software that generally recognize voice. This is the method in which the captioners listen to the audio of live events and using their voice recognition software, they duplicate the speech. It is the voice recognition software that develops the captions as a written context. Live captions are produced at the exact time of broadcast. It can also be utilized during real-time events for classroom discussions, meetings, or lectures. The words are displayed right after they are being delivered by the speaker. Moreover, this type of captioning is also popularly known as the “Communication Access Real-time Translation”. 4.      Closed and Open Captioning This type of captions is generally created ahead of the airing or broadcasting time. Sometimes, the closed and open captions are made upon uploading and publishing of video. The closed and open captioning method permits the most detailed captions. Quality control and checking can be done prior to the completion of captioning in this method. Moreover, this type of captions can be displayed in an appropriate position. It can also be colored to permit the ease of identification of speakers. This also includes sound effects that are necessary to the scene.

title: User:Heward01


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User talk:Sachien 5

iam just 13 years old

title: User talk:Sachien 5


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Cookbook:Hlib Tmer (Algerian Date Milk)

 * Beverages | Cuisine of Algeria

Hlib t'mer (حليب التمر, Date Milk) is an Algerian drink from the Sahara.

Ingredients

 * 250 ml camel milk
 * 7 plump, ripe dates
 * A little bit of sugar
 * Water

Procedure

 * 1) Remove the seeds from the dates and check if there are any worms inside them.
 * 2) Boil the dates with water and sugar for a few minutes until you feel the dates are well-cooked.
 * 3) Turn off the heat, blend the date mixture, and strain it as well as possible.
 * 4) Pour the resulting date syrup into your cup of milk.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Any milk could be used for this drink as camel milk isn't easily available; either cow milk or soy milk could work out just fine.
 * Alternatively, you can simmer the dates directly in the milk over low heat until the colour of the milk changes to a nice brown shade before straining.

title: Cookbook:Hlib Tmer (Algerian Date Milk)


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Scribbling On Regardless/Making ArtDice

This project is about making Art Dice - roll the dice and decide which arty activity you should do! A fun way to get ideas, or get you through any artistic block. Your art ideas can go in the sketchbook you made in the first activity.

Materials you'll need for the art dice

 * Art Dice template (see below)
 * Colouring pens or pencils
 * Glue
 * Scissors

Instructions
Watch our video for a step-by-step guide
 * 1) Print out / trace your art dice template
 * 2) Give you art dice some background colour - the more vibrant and bright the better!
 * 3) You've got 2 dice for a reason - one is for activity, and one is for subject.
 * 4) Decide which activities you want on the first one - drawing, painting, collage, stickers... and write one on each side of the dice
 * 5) Decide which subjects you want for the second one - out your window, animals, food... and write one on each side of the other dice
 * 6) Carefully cut out your dice
 * 7) Fold over the dotted lines, and glue together
 * 8) Now get rolling!

Art Dice templates - click to expand

Next Project
3 Colour Drawing

Previous Project
Making a BoomBuddy

title: Scribbling On Regardless/Making ArtDice


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Scribbling On Regardless/3 Colour Drawing

Fun & easy drawings using only three colours! See what ideas you can come up with when you're limited to just three colours... no more, no less...

Materials you'll need

 * Paper (use your sketchbook)
 * 3 colours of pen or pencil

Instructions
Watch our video for a step-by-step guide
 * 1) Test out your colour combinations in your sketchbook or on a spare piece of paper
 * 2) How do they look together?  What different styles and patterns can you make?

Cityscape

 * 1) Try doing a cityscape, like in the video.  At its most basic, you draw a square, and then make it a cube with three diagonal lines, and then join and connect them.
 * 2) How do different cubes and boxes fit together?
 * 3) Add windows to your buildings - maybe a door, or a chimney?  Is there a garden?  What's in the garden?

Stack 'em up

 * 1) Start with a small idea - like a star - at the bottom of your page
 * 2) Draw different bubbles stacked on top of each other - each one must be connected to the bit below it
 * 3) Now turn each of these into a character - what faces are they pulling?  Are they wearing a hat?  Do they have different clothes?

Next Project
Making Stickers

Previous Project
Making ArtDice