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Wikibooks:Importers

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User talk:Ed.spiller

Welcome!
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Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/Virginia Streetcar

Streetcars in Virginia
Streetcars, as they are called in North America, are rail transport vehicles which runs on tramway tracks on public urban streets. They were driven initially by horses like drawn carriages, but electrified carriages largely replaced them in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The main technological components which makes up the streetcars are steel manufacturing, railroad construction and electricity. Their main advantages were their durability, capacity, efficiency, networkability, safety, operating costs and environmental friendliness. They were most commonly deployed in urban areas with high population counts and standards of living. In Virginia, there were multiple places where they were implemented and they are detailed below.

Early period before Streetcars
Before the rise of the streetcars, the most common form of transportation were horse-drawn carts for long distances. For short distances, most people opt to walk on foot. Other modes which were less common were Omnibuses and steam or cable powered streetcars. These methods were riddled with limitations such as uncomfortable rides with wooden wheels on rough roads, slow travelling speed, the need to maintain horses and complex maintenance burdens. The market for transportation was also on the rise as the population in major cities continue to increase. There were railroads before the proliferation of streetcars and hence, people knew about the potential to put miniature versions of them in the urban city to solve transportation problems. Thus, these limitations with previous transport methods and also the rising demand of transport stirred interest in new transport innovations.

Rise of Streetcars
The invention of the streetcar/light rail mode was brought about by the Omnibus companies. They sought to boost profitability of their carts by increasing ridership along their routes and realised that a cart that rode along rails could carry more passengers. Using the previously Omnibus routes, North America's first streetcar line opened in 1832 from downtown New York City to Harlem. This laid the groundwork for railroads in urban environments.

When Thomas Edison founded the Edison Illuminating Company in the early 1880s, he brought the concept of electrical grids to cities and enable the carriages to be powered by electricity. As inspired by Thomas Edison's work, electrical transmission for streetcars was done using an overhead catenary system using direct current. It lowered the operating costs of streetcars when switching from horses to electricity for railroad companies, and transformed the city streets from horse carts to streetcars.

The technology of the streetcars were created by Frank Julian Sprague in 1887. He created the electric motor which functions using a horseshoe magnet wrapped around an armature circuit. When the armature is rotated, the wheel is turned by electricity. After testing his trolley system which allowed the motor to return power to the main supply through a bottom connection, Sprague installed the first successful large electric street railway system. The Richmond Union Passenger Railway in Richmond began passenger operation on February 2, 1888. In the beginning of 1894, most railroad companies which had travelling routes have begun installing the electrical grid to prepare and lay the infrastructure for the streetcars boom from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Early market developments
The early market in Virginia was not dominated by any one company, but each location has their own local railroad company serving the region. Each individual railroad company operated within the regions which they own, slowing building the infrastructure such as rail track, routes, streetcars and powerlines. They also retained the same fare from the horse cart days and instated the municipally mandated five cent fare. These spurred the development of streetcar suburbs as real estate opportunities came and more streetcars were laid. Below is a list of transportation-influenced suburbanised streetcar suburbs which are still left over from that era.

List of Streetcar Suburbs in Richmond

 * Barton Heights
 * Bellevue
 * Ginter Park
 * Hermitage
 * Laburnum Park
 * Highland Park
 * Highland Springs
 * Sherwood Park
 * Washington Park
 * Westover Hills
 * Woodland Heights

Other infrastructural developments were also constructed in tandem with the reduced travel time to passengers, such as the entertainment complex at the peri-urban fringe of Richmond. Despite Virginia having 85% rural residency rate and a population of about 1.8 million, the number of travellers which needed to take the Richmond streetcars were estimated to be 85,000 people. With a growing population and the fame of the Richmond Union Passenger Railway, more railway companies were set-up. The initial line first developed was not due to market demand, but due to the innovation by Frank Julian Sprague. By 1894, the Richmond Union Passenger Railway has a length of 50 miles of streetcar rails under its name.

Initial role for policy
Since 1840, the federal government started promoting transport infrastructures, which resulted in both public and private investments in railroad and streetcars, aiding the initial birth of streetcars. From the 1840s, almost all transport companies were privately owned as it was essential that the streetcar railroad had the public right-of-way to lay tracks in the streets and operate horse carts, cable cars and streetcars. The streetcar railroad companies faced multiple challenges such as susceptibility to the machinations of real estate interests, demands by local politicians and the ire of racial segregationists. While it created the 20th century cities, the peculiar political economy of streetcars brought about the ruin unto itself. The streetcar attracted the attention from a wide variety of local groups, and they used their political power for their own ends to reshape the life of the metropolitan residents. From 1901, protest against segregation of streetcars occurred in all major cities of Virginia, Portsmouth, Lynchburg, Norfolk, Danville, Richmond and Newport News. However, the 1906 legislature mandated the state-wide streetcar segregation and further attempts at boycotting streetcars were short lived.

Growth of Streetcars in Virginia
The growth of individual streetcars companies were short lived. Most of the expansion experienced by the companies were actually acquisition mergers between the smaller railroad companies. Over time, the businessmen who ran the streetcars, called "traction magnates," consolidated ownership of multiple lines, establishing powerful and oftentimes corrupt monopolies in many cities.

There were a series of Jim Crow laws which segregated the streetcars into whites area and blacks area. However, there were news reports of all white women standing while all black women sitting sighted regularly in Southern cities including Richmond. Despite these sightings, the racial segregation remained a deeply rooted issue regarding streetcars.

When Tazewell converted from horses to electricity in 1904, it was the smallest town in America with an electric street car, with 2 miles of track.

Later developments of Streetcars in Virginia
After the streetcars have been built out by their respective regions, the decline of streetcars began almost immediately in Virginia. A 1903 worker's strike by motormen alerted the state militia to respond, resulting in a riot and two gun deaths. John Mitchell Jr., an outspoken African-American newspaper editor led a boycott of the streetcars due to racial segregation enforced by armed traffic man. Weakened by the rioting and unwillingness to relent on the streetcars Jim Crow policy, the most railroad companies went into receivership. Other railroad companies, which were mostly owned by rich people of the Northern states, became easy prey for local state politicians and local railroad directors who often did not have the companies’ best interests at heart. The public animosity against the railroad companies made them easier targets. Coupled by the rise in popularity and therefore demand of automobiles like buses and cars and the Great Depression during 1930s and early 1940s, streetcars were phased out and operations ceased. Richmond’s decline in streetcars was affected by cultural trends. The city maintained an electrically-powered streetcar system for the longest period, starting the state's first in 1888 and being the last to close down in 1949.

In Charlottesville, after the reorganization of the Charlottesville City and Suburban Railway which defaulted on its pay as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway in 1903, the new railway faced hardship in establishing a profitable business. Although they tried to adapt the mode by changing markets and earn profits through their electrical service, it did not last. Their direct current power supply was losing the competition against the municipal natural gas provider. Their streetcar's cheap travel fee and short travel duration hindered them further. They were again bought out and requisitioned by another company to struggle one last time, but the rail line did not survive the Great Depression.

The upgraded version of streetcars, known as the light rail, are the reinvention of this transportation mode. In 2011, The Tide light rail in Norfolk, Virginia began operations, albeit a very shaky start. Other attempts at revitalising this mode of transport in other cities of Virginia has faced significant impediment. In 1996, the City of Chesapeake city council voted in favour of a light rail system. Voters supported it in a 2000 referendum, but no funding was available. The city council declined to provide even partial funding for a light rail study in 2010. In Northern Virginia, a Columbia Pike streetcar was proposed, but was ultimately cast aside.

Quantitative Analysis
To do an overview of the life-cycle of streetcars, S-curve (miles of track length vs. time) is used to identify the periods of birthing, growth, and maturity.

S-curves
Based on The Transportation Experience from page 374, the S-curves are largely displays of data. Assuming the data takes on a logistic shape, smooth curves which best fit the data are added to the somewhat noisier observations. The life cycle model can be represented by the following equation.

S(t)=K/(1+e^((-b(t-to)) )

where:

 * S(t) is the predicted system size, (streetcar track miles) in year t
 * t is time (year),
 * t0 is the (midpoint) inflection time (year in which 1/2 K is achieved),
 * K is saturation status level (final market size) for streetcar track miles,
 * b is a coefficient.

One concern when using this for forecasting is to identify the final market size (K). While we may know the current system size (P), to use an S-curve requires a final system size. The models can be fit for alternative final system sizes, one will best fit the data. To apply the model, it is helpful to estimate the midpoint or the inflection year (t0). Again, this can be done retrospectively, but to do this prospectively requires assumption, though one estimate may fit the data better than others. Knowing K, t0 and b, we can then predict the system size in any given year t.

Data
This is a collection of Electric Railway Directories by McGraw from the late 1800s to early 1900s. Lots of data and other information can be found in these directories. The data from the years 1894, 1897-1914, 1917-1920 were used. These cities in Virginia, VA and their respective residing railroad companies were analysed. Some of these company mergers are recorded below, but from 1910 to 1920, most of these companies were absorbed into the larger conglomerates or traded around, sometimes crossing city borders, and ceased to exist. The last railroad companies which represented the city solely are kept below to give an idea of how the streetcars developed in the different local regions.

The summed total rail track length in Virginia, VA:

Alexandria
Washington, Alexandria & Mt. Vernon Electric Railway Co. [merged into a Washington state railway company]

Berkley
The Berkley Street Railway Co. (1888) → Norfolk, Portsmouth & Newport News Co. [merged 1906]

Charlottesville
Piedmont Improvement & Construction Co. → Charlottesville City & Suburban Railway Co. (1894) → Charlottesville & Albemarle Railway Co. (1903)

Danville
Danville Street Car Co. → Danville Railway & Electric Co. (1900)

Graham
Bluefield & Hinton Electric Railway Co. (1903) → Bluestone Traction Co. (1904)

Hampton, Newport
Hampton & Old Point Railway Co. (1894) → Newport News & Old Point Railway & Electric Co. (1898)

Citizens Railway, Light & Power Co. (1901)

Hampton Roads Railway & Electric Co. (1903)

Norfolk
Norfolk Street Railroad Co. + Norfolk & Ocean View Railroad Co. → Norfolk Railway & Light Co. (1899)

Norfolk & Atlantic Terminal Co. (1900) → Hampton

Port Norfolk Electric Railway Co. → Norfolk, Portsmouth & Newport News Railway Co. (1900)

Bay Shore Terminal Co. (1903)

Chesapeake Transit Co.

Lynchburg
Lynchburg Electric Railway & Light Co. (1898) + Lynchburg & Rivermont Street Railway Co. (1899) → Lynchburg Traction & Light Co. (1901)

Petersburg
Petersburg Street Railway Co. (1896) → South Side Railway & Development Co. (1899) [merged]

Portsmouth
Portsmouth Street Railway Co. → Old Dominion Railway Co. (1901)

Richmond
Richmond Railway & Electric Co. (1890) → Richmond Passenger & Power Co. (1900) + [Richmond Traction Co. (1897) + Richmond & Petersburg Electric Railway Co. (1898) + South Side Railway & Development Co. (1899)] → Virginia Passenger & Power Co. (1901)

Radford
Radford Street Railway Co. (1899) → Radford Water Power Co. (1901)

Roanoke
Roanoke Street Railway Co. (1887) → Roanoke Railway & Electric Co. (1899)

Staunton
City Street Car Co. → Staunton Light and Power Co. (1898)

Results and Discussions
The S-curve parameters:

The S-curve The various stages of the Virginia streetcar development lifecycle have been interpreted on the S-curve profile above. The transition from birthing period appears to be approximately 1900 and the system reached a mature stage of development from approximately 1915.

It can be seen that the optimal value of Smax is 45 mi larger than the maximum installed system extent by 1920. This may reflect some latent system expansion that had not been realised by 1920. Even when the model was analysed excluding the years 1919 and 1920, which displayed an unexpected reduction in installed track extent, the Smax value exceeded the total installed track extent and supports a latent expansion theory.

The R2 value of the modelled S-curve indicates a confidence >86%, indicating that the model is not a very close representation of the measured data. It can be seen from the graph that it tends to under-represent the rate of track installation during the growth period, particularly the period between 1902 to 1906. Whilst this was a period of rapid construction in a highly competitive environment, the methodology of reporting the historic installed track in this period appears to be skewed by the extensive consolidation of streetcar operators over the study period.

Apart from the analysis of the lifecycle of the state-wide streetcar system, individual streetcar systems within each urban area was also supposed to be undertaken. However, the extensive consolidation of streetcar operators due to the economic and political pressure of the railroad companies in Virginia also caused subsequent attempts at S-curves poorly fitting due to having insufficient or incomplete data to undertake a meaningful lifecycle assessment at an individual system level. Even if they were done, the results will not show well as the streetcar railroad companies did not experience a natural growth expansion, but experience sudden growth and losses, making it a numbers game and defeating the purpose of modelling for their futures.


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Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/Wisconsin Streetcar

Streetcar in U.S.
Streetcar (tram), also called as trolley, in the United States is defined as an electrified vehicle of that travels on rails, which the streetcar system was used or still using in the mid-sized to large cities in the United States. Early streetcars were either drawn by horse or depend on batteries which are expensive. The horse-drawn streetcar made its first appearance in the United States on the street of downtown New York in 1832. In 1873, Andrew Hallidie invented and introduced the cable car in San Francisco, in which the streetcars were operated on an endless cabler that ran between the rails and passing over a steam-driven shaft in the powerhouse. In 1886, the first electric streetcar in Wisconsin ran on the streets of Appleton.

Invention of Streetcar
Frank Julian Sprague was the father of electric traction, who contributed to the development of electric railways. He developed the first electric motor for trolley systems in the late 1800s, which the motor he developed was the only practical and reliable motor at that time. Unlike Edison showed his interest in the electric light, Sprague turned his attention to the field of electric motor. At that time, the electric streetcar showed a more significant impact on people's lives than the electric light, since almost all the blue-collar workers need to take the streetcar to work while only rich people were able to afford electric light. Sprague first created a constant-speed, nonsparking motor with fixed brushes, then he developed the method to regenerate the power to the main supply systems of electric-motor-driven equipment, which widely used for interchange of energy in elevator groups. After that, Sprague improved the motor into a motor with three-point, wheelbarrow suspension of axle-mounted geared, which soon been widely used for an electric streetcar system in the US and overseas.

Advantages and Comparison with Other Modes
Before introducing the electric streetcar into the market, there were other mass transit modes that existed. Omnibus was one of the options, which the omnibus an animal-powered four-wheeled carriage (usually horse). The capacity and efficiency of omnibuses depend on the size of the carriage, however, even the largest omnibus can only carry twenty passengers. Although the omnibus was one of the most significant innovations in the Industrial Revolution, it was still soon replaced by streetcar and steam locomotive. Trolleybus system was another of the options, which trolleybus also powered by electricity but they operated with tires on the street. Some cities in the United States, including Los Angelos, Atlanta, Chicago, etc, installed the trolley system, but soon replaced by buses. Compare to other modes of transit, streetcars do have their advantages, which they provide a smoother ride, carry more passengers, and also run on clean energy. Besides the boost in passenger capacity, the cheapness of electric streetcar was another major reason why streetcar was popular in the U.S. According to the article posted on Scientific American in 1899, the operation cost per mile for the electric streetcar was 10.06 cents, which was 7-8 cents cheaper than the operating cost per mile of horse-drawn or cable streetcar.

Development of Streetcar Market
The market of the streetcar system grew rapidly during the early 1900s due to expanding population in the cities. Real estate developers would build streetcar lines to promote a new suburban community, and residents would willing to move to a new suburb with streetcar system. With the establishment of streetcar, people's daily life patterns have changed, which people can travel greater distances to work and shop in the city. In Washington, the streetcar system connected the largest public market with suburb areas, which allowed local citizens to get access to a variety of local or overseas products and also helped for boosting the local economy. By 1917, there were 45,000 miles of streetcar track built in the country, and millions of streetcar passengers.

The same development pattern showed in Wisconsin as well, between 1886-1888, there were only horse-drawn streetcars available in a few of Wisconsin's cities. After several years, with the construction of central power plants across Wisconsin, the market of streetcar keep growing in the state. New streetcar systems were established in multiple cities in the state, including Eau Claire, Merrill, Milwaukee, Western Superior, Janesville, Madison, La Crosse, Green Bay, Oshkosh, Sheboygan, and Fond du Lac. By the beginning of 1900, all the horse-drawn streetcars were replaced by the electric streetcar. The establishment of streetcar lines also led to the growth of suburbs in Wisconsin, such as Wauwatosa and South Milwaukee in Milwaukee, which contributed to the early formation of centralised downtown.

Policies
Most of the streetcar companies in the birthing phase were privately owned companies, such as Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Co. The state or city government charged the street companies to regulate their installation of rails. Since each company had its fare system and operated route relate to political relationships, the system leads to the inefficient route which causing long delays and discomfort for commuters

Birthing Phase
In the birthing phase of the streetcar, the streetcars were normally drawn by horses or batteries, which horse-drawn streetcars widely used in the 1880s. In 1834, Thomas Davenport developed a small car operated by a small battery-powered which ran on a short section of track. The streetcar system wasn't developed until the 1860s, which an American, named G.F.Train, opened three lines in London and one line in Birkenhead. Then, the cable streetcar entered the market. The cable streetcar system fit for the operation on steep hills the most and reach the best use in San Francisco and Seattle, which the streetcar system was still been used in these two city. However, cable streetcar was only able to run at a constant speed, and also if breaking or jamming of the cable happened, it will affect all the streetcar. The existence of electrical and cable streetcars eliminated the problem of horse excrement and animal maintenance.

Mature Phase
From 1890 to 1920, the conventional electric streetcar system started to replace the horse-drawn lines in Europe and the United States, and also showed in the larger cities of Asia, Africa, and South America. By 1901, there are 17 electric railway companies operated 446 miles of track in Wisconsin. The growth of the electric streetcar reached its peak in the 1920s in Wisconsin, just like other American states. The largest growth of track was the Pacific Electric system in Los Angeles, which the network expanded for 1,100 miles and contained more than 700 routes.

Decline
During WWI, streetcar companies encountered financial difficulties, which the wage and material cost increased. This caused a rise in fare prices. Meanwhile, the wide use of automobiles also hit the streetcar system. Many cities changed to bus systems for public transportation. In the United States, the streetcars began to switch to automobile and buses system in the 1930s, and the trend grew rapidly during 1940-1950. Streetcar systems around the world also declined, which no trams left running in London in the early 50s, and Paris closed its streetcar line in the 1930s. After the second world war, however, most cities in the U.S. abandoned their streetcar system due decline in passengers, an increase in car ownership, and the cost to renew streetcar infrastructure. By 1965, only Toronto and a handful of US cities still operated the streetcar system along with other mass transit modes.

The Renaissance Phase
The rebirth of the streetcar system in U.S cities started in the late 1980s, which the new lines were mainly used to attract tourists and support downtown redevelopment. In 2001, Portland opened the first new, modern streetcar system in North America, which this system was a strategy for the redevelopment of the central core and inner-city neighborhoods. Many cities soon followed Portland, which cities such as Washington DC, Kansas City, Cincinnati, Detroit also planning or building their system.

Qualitative Analysis
An analysis of the lifecycle of the streetcar system in Wisconsin includes the following system parameters:

 * Growth Rate
 * Inflection Year
 * Developmental Phase
 * Predicted System Size

Due to the growth of streetcar system in Wisconsin in some of the area doesn't fit the S-Curve and quality of the historical data was questionable, adjustments were made for analysing the parameters mentioned above.

Raw Data of Track Length
The data of total track length of Wisconsin streetcar system combined the data of 17 cities' electric streetcar track length. To find the best fitted logistic curve, the data from 1907-1911 were excluded.

The best fitted logistic curve to the mils reported of electric streetcar systems in Wisconsin showed in the following table: The analysis was generally accurate, however, some unexpected growth of track length has been observed during 1907-1911. This unexpected growth or descend after 1911  might due to combine of the companies during that period of time.


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/Tennessee

Introduction of Streetcars
Streetcars, also called trams, are a type of rail vehicles used for local public transit. The first streetcar system in the United States was introduced in the 1830s, which was horse-drawn, though in later decades most systems were electric streetcars powered by overhead wire.

The adaptation of streetcar systems improved the mobility of urban transportation, as population in cities grew and demand for short trips in urban areas increased since the early 19th century. Operated across and within certain downtown districts, this mode provides residents who did not own a wagon or carriage an option to easily travel easily to busiest areas and major business centres, either for employment or leisure, with streetcar services.

Streetcar systems are also more favourable in terms of its relative low cost and facilitation of defined urban environment. Compared to fixed light rails which travel to suburban areas, streetcars only operate on downtown streets, thus resulting in a much lower infrastructure cost and can be an ideal combination with fixed light rails. Passengers may take light rails to travel to downtown and use streetcars to explore within downtown areas.

Preceding Transportation Modes
Before electric streetcars, horse-drawn omnibuses and cable cars were two of the main transportation modes in cities in the United States.

Horse-drawn omnibuses, or horsecars, which were used to transport small groups of passengers on defined routes, started running in New York City as early as in the 1820s. They began operating on a fixed rail system in New York City since 1832, which provided passengers with a stable speed, and soon other cities followed. However, due to its high cost (feeding and replacing horses) and poor regulation, this mode of transport started to fade in the late 1880s.

The cable cars were adopted around the above time to substitute horse-drawn omnibuses due to the necessity of reducing horses and ease of removing manure or snow from the tracks. First introduced in San Francisco, California, they proved to be well suited for hilly routes; however, those cars could only operate at a constant speed and often broke down due to cable damage, causing traffic congestion easily. Beginning from the 1900s, electric streetcars almost replaced all cable cars in the United States.

Technology of Invention
The invention of electric streetcars was dependent on the preceding transportation modes such as horse-drawn omnibuses and electrical products.

The electrical grid invented by Thomas Edison was essential in enabling the invention of electric streetcars. The power, namely electricity, was transmitted via cables to the cars. The electric streetcars were also superior to the horsecars in other aspects, including using steel instead of wood to create the cars and twice the number of wheels (from 4 to 8 wheels), resulting in greater durability and much larger carrying capacity.

Initially, tracks were not compulsory to enable electric transportation, since later there were rubber-tired and electric trolley buses, though batteries were essential to allow electric transportation off the grid. Philadelphia was one of the first states in the United States to see the trial of battery trolleys (streetcars) in the early 1880s.

Early Market Development
Tennessee is a South-eastern state of the United States, with major metropolitan areas being Nashville, Memphis, Knoxville and Chattanooga. The streetcar era of Tennessee started in the late 1870s when four of its major cities began adopting streetcars as a transportation mode. In the beginning, those were mostly intercity rails that were powered by mules.

In Nashville, the largest city in Tennessee, the first streetcar company was the South Nashville Street Railroad, which started operating mule-drawn cars in 1866. The city began running electric streetcars in the late 1880s by the Nashville Railway and Cumberland Electric Light & Power Company. A common characteristic of the market in Nashville was that all of the streetcar companies were privately owned since the introduction of streetcars there. In addition to those companies, the Nashville-Gallatin Interurban and the Nashville-Franklin Interurban companies also connected Nashville metropolitan area and its neighbouring places by street railways.

Similar to the change in Nashville, interurban transportation became readily accessible across the state, and more Tennessean residents, especially middle- or working-class groups, relocated their homes to suburban areas that were further from their employment locations or activity centres. This resulted in an emerging number of residential suburbs, which can be seen as an impact brought by transportation developments.

Birthing Phase
Policies played an impactful role on the development of streetcar systems since its introduction in Tennessee cities.

Initially, the municipal governments imposed little regulation on the private streetcar companies. However, in 1885, a 20-day strike took place in Memphis, the second largest city in the state, which was to achieve better income for streetcar workers, resulted in horse-drawn streetcars as the mass transit option in the region.

The success of this event triggered similar strikes in other cities in Tennessee. At the beginning, streetcar workers formed labour unions within their own areas. Soon after, they transformed the unions to local chapters of the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America (A.A.S. & E.R.E. of A.), which was founded in 1892. This movement was needed, since in the early stages when transportation demand grew, the street transportation workers were not being treated quite well, however there was an increasing demand for them to transport more urban commuters.

Growth Phase
The process of streetcars development in Tennessee mostly includes the introduction of horse-drawn cars and the transition to electric streetcars. A few cities such as Montgomery in Alabama and Richmond in Virginia first applied electric streetcars in 1886. Although not one of the firsts in the United States, both Nashville and Chattanooga soon converted to electric-powered streetcars a few years after, followed by Knoxville and Memphis in the 1890s.

The market of the electric streetcars was to some extent competitive due to the existence of various companies operating the businesses. The competitiveness resulted in negative impacts on society. For example, there were even physical conflicts once between two railway companies, taken place in 1897 in Knoxville, which required armed police to end the conflicts.

Nevertheless, electric streetcars continued to thrive, followed by the growth of the electricity production industry (i.e., public utility companies). The Chattanooga Electric Railway Company, the Electric Light Company in Chattanooga, and the Chattanooga Railway Rapid Transit Company, for instance, merged into one monopoly company, which is the Chattanooga Railway and Light Company in that city. This later evolved to the state-wide company - the Tennessee Power and Light Company (TEPCO), which also annexed the Nashville Railway and Light Company in the early 1900s.

Mature Phase and Decline
The streetcar systems in Tennessee reached a mature phase in the 1910s when their total length roughly reached 480 miles. Despite this, the post-growth phase of streetcars soon faced challenges from inevitable social and economic reasons. Various strikes took place in Tennessee’s major metropolitan areas, including Nashville, Memphis, Chattanooga, and Knoxville, in the early 20th century, which accelerated the replacement of streetcars by buses. In addition to labour movements, other emerging transportation modes such as buses and private vehicles also played important roles in the demise of streetcars. Unlike (electric) streetcars, the operation of buses was simpler and less costly, as they did not need railways to be built and their service routes could be extended easily by constructing more bus stations. As for private vehicles, they provided citizens with the option and freedom of reaching a destination at their own pace and at any time. Therefore, starting from the 1930s, streetcar systems began to disappear in many regions in the United States, including Tennessee.

Quantitative Analysis
The life cycle of the overall streetcar system can be statistically analysed using observed historical data to determine the date and time for each of the above periods (birthing, growth, maturity, and decline). The raw data is extracted from the McGraw Transit Directory.

Selection of Formula
In this analysis, a three-parameter S-curve logistic function is used: S(t) = Smax/[1+exp(-b(t-t0)] where:   S(t) = status measure (in this case it is the length of the streetcar system in miles),    t    = time (in years),    t0   = inflection time (year when half of Smax is obtained),    Smax = saturation status level (in this case it is the maximum length of the streetcar system recorded),    b    = a coefficient to be evaluated.

For ease of calculations, Smax can be named as K. Thus, the above formula becomes S(t) = K/[1+exp(-b(t-t0)] where the value of K varies from the maximum length of the streetcar system recorded to a manually determined maximum value.

Value of Parameters
Approximately 20 different values were selected to perform a regression analysis for each hypothetical K. The final selected K-value was the one that achieved an R-squared result closest to 1, which is recorded in the following table alongside the values of other parameters of the S-curve function.

Substituting the above values for each parameter into the logistic function, the total track lengths (in miles) of all streetcar systems in Tennessee during 1894 and 1920 can be predicted.

Results
The predicted and actual recorded data are tabulated in Table 2 below. The first column represents the year studied, the second column shows the data recorded in the McGraw Transit Directory, and the third column displays the predicted track lengths using the S-curve logistic function.

The actual and predicted life cycle can thus be plotted and compared, as shown in Figure 1 below. The orange line refers to the actual streetcar length extracted from the McGraw Electric Railway Directory, whilst the blue line represents the predictions based on the actual data recorded.

Interpretation and Discussions of Model
Despite the predicted track lengths plotted (Figure 1) may look like a straight line, it in effect illustrates the approximate lifecycle of the streetcar systems in Tennessee.

From Figure 1, it can be seen that while the actual streetcar length fluctuated, the predicted model implies a positive relationship between year and the total streetcar length. An appropriate estimation is that the birthing phase was between 1894 and 1900, the growth phase lasted from 1900 to 1915, and the mature phase was during 1915 and 1920. There seemed no footprint of the decline phase in the predicted line.

The obtained results also demonstrate that they are similar to expectations. The streetcar mileage was increasing in real life and proved to be similar in predictions. However, the logistic model was not able to capture the most dramatic increases or declines (e.g., 1894 and around 1908 and 1912), and reached a lower value for the state-wide streetcar length in its peak period (1919). Nevertheless, the degree of inaccuracy could have been due to manual errors in data extraction or selection of the range of K values.


text:
German/Grammar/Pronomial possessives

Pronomial possessives
First, the title of the section will require some explanation. Pronomial means we're talking about people or things referred to by pronouns. Possessives are words we use to talk about not the people or things themselves, but things or people they own or are closely connected with. In this section we'll be talking about how these ideas combine to form some new word types.

Terminology
Although we'll be using the word possessive here, we don't necessarily mean in sense of ownership. It can mean that, for example "my car" or "my house". But it can also mean there is a close connection, such as the bond between relatives, "my wife", "my father", or some other relationship, "my friend", "my coworker", "my boss", "my job", "my country". And it can mean being a part of, as in "my foot". Fortunately, German and English tend to agree on when this relationship is applicable. We'll use "own" in quotes for this possessive relationship rather than actual ownership.

We'll be introducing two new word types. First, possessive determiners are words that can replace articles and indicate possession. For example, in English, "my" is a possessive determiner because it can replace the articles "the" or "a(n)", and it tells you that the thing is "owned" by me. So instead of saying "The dog is brown," we can say "My dog is brown." We're restricting the discussion specifically to cases where a pronoun is used to refer to the "owner"; we might say pronomial possessive determiners but that's a mouthful. These are sometimes called possessive adjectives because they come before a noun, but since they replace an article and adjectives don't, it's more fitting to call them determiners.

Second, possessive pronouns replace the nouns themselves, as with personal pronouns, but they indicate possession as well. So, in English, while "my" and "our" are possessive determiners, "mine" and "ours" are possessive pronouns, as in "Mine is red," or "Ours is big."

Unlike English, where there is a noticeable difference between the words used as possessive determiners and possessive pronouns, in German the differences are very minor and you must use their position in a sentence to tell them apart. Since German is a more highly inflected than English, all of these words must be declined. Fortunately, the way this is done is very logical and can be derived from the personal pronouns and articles.

Forming possessive determiners
Possessive determiners are all formed by taking a root, which is related to the "owner", and declining it according to the gender, number and case of the thing "owned". If I am the owner then the root is mein-. Note that this looks very similar to the indefinite article ein. In fact, you decline mein in the same way as for ein except that you need to include plurals. Let's decline mein in the nominative case using this principle:

 * mein – "my" (with masculine nouns)
 * meine – "my" (with feminine nouns)
 * mein – "my" (with neuter nouns)
 * meine – "my" (with plural nouns)

The last entry (in bold) does not correspond to any indefinite articles. Examples:
 * Mein Hund schläft. – "My dog is sleeping."
 * Meine Katze schläft. – "My cat is sleeping."
 * Mein Kind schläft. – "My child is sleeping."
 * Meine Kinder schlafen. – "My children are sleeping."

Possessive roots
The possessive roots are summarized in the following table: The most common ending is -ein with the only alternative being -r. Also note that the beginning of each word often matches the beginning of the corresponding pronoun in the accusative case.

Possessive determiner endings
As mentioned above, the endings for the possessive determiners match the declination of ein but with an extra entry for plurals. In the nominative case, these are:
 * - – (masculine nouns)
 * -e – (feminine nouns)
 * - – (neuter nouns)
 * -e – (plural nouns)

As with ein the only difference between the nominative case and the accusative case is an -en for masculine nouns:
 * -en – (masculine nouns)
 * -e – (feminine nouns)
 * - – (neuter nouns)
 * -e – (plural nouns)

Examples

 * Unsere Kinder schlafen. – "Our children are sleeping."
 * Dein Pferd läuft. – "Your (informal) horse is running."
 * Ich sehe euren Hund. – "I see your (plural) dog."
 * Du isst meine Äpfel. – "You're eating my apples."
 * Deine Katze liebt mich. – "Your (informal) cat loves me."
 * Genießen Sie Ihren Urlaub? – "Are you (formal) enjoying your vacation?"

Contractions
The only irregularity you may encounter with this system is that the letters -ere- are often slurred in spoken German, especially in informal or colloquial speech. So you'll often hear unsern instead of unseren, and when this is recorded in writing you may see it spelled this way too. Another possibility, unsren, exists but it seems to be limited to poetry for the most part. If the e is at the end of the word then it's never dropped because it's needed to tell which inflection is being used. This is carried further with euer-, so euere and eueren are almost universally replaced by eure and euren.

Negation with kein
Before moving on to the pronouns, this is a good time to introduce the remaining "ein-word", kein. In general an "ein-word" refers to a determiner which declines as ein does. This includes ein itself, the possessive determiners, and kein.

As mentioned earlier, there are several forms of negation in German; we've already covered nicht but another important one is kein. You put kein in front a noun, appropriately declined of course, to say there is no such noun. It can often be be translated as "no", for example: However, there are many situations where even though such phrasing is possible, English prefers to negate the verb instead. In German, the preference is to use kein when possible. When used with a plural noun, the meaning is more or less the same, though in the English translation you might add "any". It's customary to replace an indefinite article with kein whenever you negate a sentence that has one. But with a definite article you still use nicht.
 * Wir haben keine Bananen. – "We have no bananas."
 * Ich habe keinen Hund. – "I don't have a dog. (lit. I have no dog.)"
 * Ich habe keine Hunde. – "I don't have any dogs.
 * Ich habe den Hund nicht. – "I don't have the dog."

The declension pattern for kein is the same as for the possessive determiners except that the root is kein-. Some examples:
 * Keine Kinder schlafen. – "No children sleep."
 * Kein Pferd läuft. – "No horse is running."
 * Ich sehe keinen Hund. – "I don't see a dog."
 * Du isst keine Äpfel. – "You don't eat apples."
 * Keine Katze liebt mich. – "No cat loves me."
 * Genießen Sie keinen Urlaub? – "Aren't you enjoying a vacation?"

Forming possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are formed by the same process as forming possessive determiners. The roots are the same and there is only a slight difference in the endings. In the nominative case they are:
 * -er – (masculine nouns)
 * -e – (feminine nouns)
 * -es – (neuter nouns)
 * -e – (plural nouns)

And in the accusative case they are:
 * -en – (masculine nouns)
 * -e – (feminine nouns)
 * -es – (neuter nouns)
 * -e – (plural nouns)

The differences between these and the possessive determiners is in bold.

Whether or not the -er and -es endings are influenced by the corresponding pronouns er and es, it seems like a useful mnemonic. In the accusative, again, the only change from the nominative is for masculine, where an -en replaces the -er. As with the ere combination, the -es ending is often contracted to -s.

Example:
 * Mein Hund schläft. Deiner läuft. – "My dog is sleeping. Yours (informal) is running."
 * Eure Kinder spielen. Unsere essen. – "Your (plural) children are playing. Ours are eating."
 * Ich singe mein Lied. Du singst deines. – "I'm singing my song. You're singing yours."

Body parts
When it is clear whose body part is meant, German can use the definite article instead of a possessive determiner. English works the same way at times: "Ow, that hit me on the arm!" German, however, often takes this idea a bit further than English. For example "He's opening his eyes." can be translated as either Er öffnet die Augen. or Er öffnet seine Augen.

title: German/Grammar/Pronomial possessives


text:
User talk:Ferien

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, Belwine!

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-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 22:15, 22 March 2021 (UTC)

thanks for the welcome, I will try to contribute when I can :) -- Belwine (discuss • contribs) 22:33, 22 March 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ferien


text:
User:Sage1057

Test

title: User:Sage1057


text:
User:Sage1057/test

test2

title: User:Sage1057/test


text: Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/Kentucky Street Cars


text:
Abstract Algebra/Shear and Slope

The first terms needed are triangle, base, vertex, and area. For instance, the proposition that for a triangle of given base and area, the locus of the vertex is a line parallel to the base. Imagine that the vertex is dragged along this line, deforming the triangle. Imagine also that the whole plane is similarly deformed by a transformation taking lines to lines. This transformation is a shear mapping.

The shear mapping is expressed as a linear transformation:
 * $$(t,x)\begin{pmatrix}1 & v \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} = (t, tv + x) .$$

Here it is written in the kinetic interpretation with a vertical (x) space axis as time (t) evolves horizontally, such as used in time series studies.

At t=1 the shear has transformed (1,0) to (1,v), the point where a slope v line intersects t=1. Thus the parameter v in the shear transformation can be called slope.

The rectangles given by constant t and x are transformed by the shear to parallelograms, but the area of one of these parallelograms equals the area of the rectangle before transformation. Thus shear transformations preserve area.

Let $$ e = \begin{pmatrix}0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 \end{pmatrix}$$ and note that e2 = 0, the zero matrix, and that the shear matrix is ve plus the identity matrix. Dual numbers are used in abstract algebra to provide a short-hand for the matrix subalgebra $$\begin{pmatrix}a & b \\ 0 & a \end{pmatrix} :$$

Definition: $$N = \{a + be : a, b \in R, \ e^2 = 0 \}$$ is the set of dual numbers. The basis {1,e} characterizes it as a 2-algebra over R. If z = a+be, let z* = a−be, a conjugate. Then
 * $$(a+be)(a-be) = a^2$$ since e2 = 0.

Note that zz* = 1 implies z = ± 1 + be for some b in R. Furthermore, exp(be) = 1 + be since the exponential series is truncated after two terms when applied to the e-axis. Consequently the logarithm of 1 + ve is v. Thus v can be considered the angle of 1+ve in the same way that the logarithm of a point on the unit circle is the radian angle of the point, as in Euler’s formula (exp and log are inverses).

The shear mappings acting on the plane form a multiplicative group that is isomorphic to the additive group of real numbers.

The three angles
In Euclidean plane geometry there is the trichotomy right angle, acute angle, obtuse angle. Here a trichotomy of linear motions distinguishes three species of angle.

Each of the angles pivots on its peculiar motion: rotation for circular angle, squeeze mapping for hyperbolic angle, and shear for the slope. Furthermore, each motion evolves into its peculiar algebra of complexity: the dual numbers for shear, the split-binarions for hyperbolic angle, and the rotation and circular angle correspond to the plane of division binarions, called "complex numbers" by some. In fact, in the sense of a real 2-algebra, "complex" is ambiguous: each of the division binarions, split-binarions, and dual numbers forms a plane of "complex numbers".

A property of arc length on a circle is that it stays the same under rotation. It is said that "arc length is an invariant of rotation." A segment on t=1 that is transformed by a shear has the same length after the shear as before. Similarly, a hyperbolic angle is invariant under a squeeze. These three invariances can be seen together as consequences of area-invariance of the three motions: The hyperbolic angle is the area of the corresponding hyperbolic sector to xy=1, which has minimal radius √2 to (1,1). A circular angle corresponds to the area of its sector in a circle of radius √2. Finally, the slope is equal to the area of the triangle with base on t= √2 and hypotenuse corresponding to the slope. Since squeeze, shear, and rotation are all area-preserving, their motions in their corresponding planes preserve the central angles there. The traditional term for study of angle-preservation is conformal mapping, often presuming circular angles.

These three species of angle provide a parameter for polar coordinates in each of the three 2-algebras found as subspaces of 2 × 2 real matrices.

title: Abstract Algebra/Shear and Slope


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/Michigan

Introduction
Streetcar, also called tram or trolley, vehicle that runs on track laid in the streets, operated usually in single units and usually driven by electric motor power by an overhead wire. The streetcar network was mainly providing local public transportation within cities. Originally streetcar was powered by horses and mule and only able to operate at few mile-per-hour. In the late 1880s, electric motor powered by a small battery was introduced to replace horses and mule that completely changed to mode of transportation. Electric streetcars were cheaper, cleaner, and more efficient than animals, less time and money were spent on maintaining the condition of horses, streetcar companies no longer had to put effort on manure produced by horses. With the more effective streetcar system, local populations in Michigan were able to commute within local cities and even further to neighbouring states as the technology and system network improved. The streetcar network aided the economy growth as people can travel longer distance.

Before streetcars and their limitations
Prior to the introduction of electric streetcars, omnibus is the main transportation methods in the United States. From the end of 1820s, house-drawn omnibus started to serve in New York City. Horses could only work for limited hours a day, and lots of daily maintenance were required to keep horses in a good condition, such as grooming, feeding, and caring. Horse-powered omnibus had many drawbacks and limitations. Horses required lots of maintenance which is time consuming and not cost effective, around $125-$200 per horse. The life expectancy of horses was short. The omnibus company also had to take care of the large amounts of manure produced from the horses, which was also time consuming and ineffective. In the 1860s, omnibus was put onto rails instead of operating on road with the advent of mass-produced steel at that period. Same horses can handle as much as 10 times more passengers than before. However, this was still not quite effective as the same time and cost still required for horse maintenance.

Michigan
Detroit is the largest and most-populous city in Michigan. Before Detroit’s first horse drawn rail cars in 1863, omnibus and horse-powered cabs were used mainly for connecting railroad depots and boat docks. The privately owned Detroit City Railway Co. began with eight horse-drawn cars operating along Jefferson. The fare was five cents. The lines would soon expand to Woodward, Gratiot and Michigan avenues. Above, horses pull a streetcar down Woodward at Campus Martius, circa 1885. By 1880, the city population had grown to 116,340. The streetcar network was rapidly increasing with the population growth, the network kept expanding to reach more places. However, longer routes were more expensive to maintain using horses as they could only work for limited hours. It often required 10 horses for each streetcar. This transportation mode was becoming more inefficient with the expansion of streetcar network.

Birthing Phase and conflicts
In 1886, the first electric streetcars began operating in Detroit. The line went along the Dix Avenue (now known as West Vernor) from 24th Street to Livernois Avenue. The line was operated by Detroit Electric Railway Company with the electrical system developed by Charles J. Van Depoele. The system utilized double overhead wires where a train up to three cars was capable to be pulled. Although the system was quite successful all across the United States, there were some opposition by the public of Detroit had concerns on the objectionable rumbling noises and electric arching system. The Detroit Common Council had ordered to withdrawn electric streetcars in 1889 and the first electric streetcar line had converted back to horse-powered streetcars.

Detroit’s second electric streetcar line began service at a similar time, operated by the Highland Park Railway Company. Passengers could travel from Highland Park to Baltimore Avenue and make connections with the Woodward horse-powered streetcar line. The Highland Park line originally operated with a slotted third rail type system, and converted to an overhead trolley operation later on n 1889.

As American cities were walking cities in the 19th century, that means most of the residents were commute on foot, they worked and shopped only within walking distance to their home. However, as electric streetcars were introduced in the 1880s, people had the opportunities to travel further away from home, which changed people’s daily life. Some decided to move new trolley suburbs.

Growth Phase
As the technology of overhead electric trolley operation became mature, the use of electric powered streetcar system was more popular. The Detroit Citizens’ Street Railway decided to electrify 50% of its streetcar system. In 1892, the electric streetcars could finally begin to operate the city-base line on Jefferson Avenue. The Woodward Avenue line and Mack Avenue line had converted to electric streetcar system. Other non-electric streetcar lines were slowly converted into electric streetcar system. The three electric streetcar line had begun 24-hour service to provide non-stop service for local population in Detroit. At the beginning of 1893, a smaller, independent Fort Wayne and Belle Isle Railway had completely converted to electric operation. The last horse-powered streetcar was removed in 1895.

Mature and Decline of streetcar
In the early 1900s, streetcars were the main transport network that filled the national needs, over 45,000 miles of streetcar tracks were built with millions of passengers. However, with the limitations of streetcar system, choice of consumers, and government policies and alternative developments, streetcars in Michigan and the entire country had started to diminish. Buses started to replace streetcars in the 1910s. Buses had a big improvement that provided a modern and more comfortable ride for commuters. They were more flexible and cheaper to operate compared to streetcars. Many automotive and oil companies were interested in encouraging the conversion from streetcar to bus. In 1937, around 50% of the country had buses as their only public transit.

Another reason that caused the decline of streetcar was the birth of automotive. People had more options on commuting and didn’t have to rely on streetcars. As more cars were on the road, they could drive on streetcar tracks, and the streetcar system could no longer be efficient as the road wasn’t designed for both cars and streetcars on the road as the same time.

Many streetcars’ contracts required to maintain the pavement surrounding the tracks. Those contracts had permanently locked the fare of taking streetcars, which is 5-cents. With the new commuting alternatives such as cars and buses and couldn’t increase the fare, streetcar companies had faced a very difficult situation. Those companies went into bankruptcy, which forced them to cut the service further pushing people to commute with buses and cars. Some companies had started to invest into buses, which leaded to the death of streetcars.

Quantitative Analysis of the Michigan Streetcar Network
The length (miles) of the streetcar system of Michigan from 1894 to 1920 was recorded from McGraw Electric Railway Manual – the red book of American Street Railway Investments. Table 1 below is the actual and predicted length of tracks in Michigan.

Model
The data can be estimated a three-parameter logistic function:

S(t) = Smax/[1+exp(-b(t-ti)]

where:

S(t) is the status measure,  (e.g. Miles of Tracks)

t is time (years),

ti is the inflection time (year in which 1/2 Smax is achieved),

Smax is saturation status level,

b is a coefficient to be estimated

Figure 1 below is the actual and predicted track length of Michigan's streetcar network.

Table 2 below is the variables that estimate the accuracy of the model. The R square value is 0.9329, which can prove the model is quite accuracy as the R square value is high than 0.9.

Based on the graph, the three life cycle phases can be divided as:

Birthing phases: 1880-1900

Growth development: 1901-1909

Maturity: 1909-


text: World Stamp Catalogue/Malaysia/1967

title: World Stamp Catalogue/Malaysia/1967


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 7

Today in 1959 the Explorer 6 satellite was launched. It took the first photograph of Earth from orbit. It was the humble beginning of looking at the Earth from outside, which transformed people’s view of their home, especially once the first color images of the whole earth got published.

After an inspiring LSD trip, technology visionary Stewart Brand petitioned NASA to release one of the first color photographs (ATS-3, 1967) and he put it on the cover of his influential Whole Earth Catalog. This colorful island in the black void became a significant symbol, especially for the at least partially technophile hippie counterculture, and contributed to the rise of the environmental movement as people began to speak of “Spaceship Earth” and celebrate Earth Day. The social ambitions of the hippie movement and its search for a new perspective on everything, for a “planetary consciousness”, the associated use of psychedelic drugs – it all constituted an important background for the emergence of the free software movement and the entire Silicon Valley IT industry. The later Blue Marble composite image became one of the most reproduced images in history.


text:
Mario franchise strategy guide/Games/Donkey Kong

About the game
Donkey Kong is a video game launched by Nintendo on July 19th, 1981 on the Japanese arcade scene. It was later released on the 31st for the North American export market, in Europe on August 2nd, and in Oceania on November 22nd. The game (originally developed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Gunpei Yokoi has since been ported to various home computer and video game console platforms. Here are listed the more "mainstream" versions, thus excluding the 1994 Game Boy remake or the dedicated electronic games.

Donkey Kong is famous as the first appearances of "Jumpman" (later renamed "Mario") and the titular giant ape.

Gameplay
The player controls Jumpman/Mario inside an in-construction building, trying to rescue his girlfriend Lady/Pauline from Donkey Kong. Donkey Kong is usually at the top of a level, throwing objects at Jumpman. Jumpman loses a life when being hit by Kong's barrels and other obstacles.

The principal objective of the game is for Jumpman to reach the point of the screen where Lady is, usually forming the shape of a heart between the two, only for her to be grabbed by Kong and taken one stage further in the building.

Levels
Level 22 is the highest level reachable in many versions of the game, and is impossible to beat for most human players.

List of versions
In alphabetical order:

Amstrad CPC

 * Developer: Arcana Software Design (original by Nintendo)
 * Publisher:  Ocean Software
 * Release date:
 * PAL: July 26th, 1986
 * Requirements:
 * Computer.


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2021/New Jersey Streetcar

= Introduction =

The term “Streetcars” may be unfamiliar to an individual in the modern century. Streetcars, trolleys, Trams, they may name differently, but they are equivalent and is the same mode of transport that carriage of passengers by horse-drawn, electricity and diesel. The streetcar was an important element for a city in the nineteen century. They are designed to reduce the endurance of travel within the city and enable to connect of cities together. The linkages of cities by the extension of the railway line enable cities development and economic growth. Besides economic growth, streetcars play an important role in the future development of the transportation industries. For instance, the aviation industry, road network and even during World War I & II. The following analysis will focus on the historic life cycle of street in the New Jersey state in America.

= History =

Technological Characteristics
Before popularity of the streetcars system with numerous competitions around most of the states in the United States during the twentieth century. The streetcar was begun with a wooden rectangular container with the wheel on each side attached to horses, all the wheels were on top of a railway to maintain a constant direction. Gilbert Vanderwerken’s Omnibuses was the early example of horse-drawn street that operated in New Jersey, this was a transportation service from one city to another city within the state. With the increase in population and the invention of new technologies, electricity was widely applied to the daily living. Electric streetcar became a symbol of modernity for urban cities in the United State. With the used of Frank Sprague’s inventions of the overhead electric line for electric streetcar, the major constraint of continuous electrical power supply was resolved. Later the years, Sprague’s continue to distribute to the streetcar industry by innovated Carles Van Depoele’s invention with a more efficient design and placement.

Electric Streetcar is an important invention for the modern world, the technological improvement toward the evolve on electric streetcar lead to more efficiency and economy growth to a city. Prior to the existing of overhead electric wire, a horse-drawn streetcar was first stated in 1807. There are several constraints for the horse-drawn streetcar. The speed and distance travelled are never be compatible with machinery. Horses were required to maintain a strong and healthy to be able to pull such heavy streetcar container. The operational costs of a horse can be higher than machinery as a horse needs a suitable environment to stay in, the cost of a health check and feed can be as expensive as machinery. Furthermore, a horse required to have a day off to reduce stress and fatigue, an additional horse is needed to substitute when a horse is on break. With the development of more advance technology, the first mechanical steam-powered streetcars were replaced horse-drawn streetcars, steam powered is capable to travel a further distance than Horse with a higher speed. However, a steam powered train was not efficient enough, an additional weight of coal were necessary to carry for the system to boil water. The steam generated by the steam engine was a major reason that faded the steam-powered streetcar. With the safety and installation of condensers to avoid visible steam that resulted in power lost, Steam-powered streetcars were then replaced by electric streetcars. Electric streetcars included all the advantages of horse-drawn and steam streetcars. Moreover, the electric street resolved all the problem of the all the former streetcars. Electric streetcars can provide pleasant ride quality and minimize the noise level compared to an internal combustion engine and steam engine. The electric motor able to generate a smooth acceleration output than an engine that produced power by the explosion. Besides the comparison of the benefit for different streetcars, streetcars are also had few volume outputs and with better ride quality than other buses. The variety of combination and size of streetcars are capable to accommodate more passengers than buses, the torque generated by the electric motor is able to link-up with more than one carriage each time. Each carriage is also able to create a different environment to serve a variety of customer. For example, first class cabin and economy class etc. The designs on streetcar can be serving a wide range of customer, the attractiveness of the design can improve the demand which assists with the issue of traffic congestion and reduce air pollution. This is a network externalizes effect that the positive feedback of streetcar can lead to a positive outcome for other events.

The purpose of streetcars is carriage passenger in order to increase customer’s efficiency and extended the travel distance. The development of the streetcar is proportional to the revenue of streetcar’s businesses. The more the customer can be carry by streetcar, the more profit the streetcar company can earn. Hence, the best and most suitable environment for the operational of streetcars is in urban areas, like inside a city instead of a rural location. The major audience of streetcars in the nineteenth century was the higher income group. The residential location factors of different wage groups have a different perspective. A higher-income group where living farther tend to ridden streetcars whereas low-income group prefer walking. The high-income group prefer to spent slightly more money to exchange for more comfortable and time-saving transport to commute.

Previous Modes of Transport & Limitation
As we mentioned above, the first generation of streetcar was a horse-drawn streetcar invented in UK, the model of early streetcar was began to service after the passing the Mumbles railway Act by the British Parliament in the early nineteenth century. After 25 years later, the technology was delivered to the United State by John Stephenson. Horse-drawn Streetcars car simple and cost saving method for a transportation. With the technology at the time, machinery was mysterious, the operation of mechanical energy was still under development. Although horse-drawn streetcar is economical in our modern standard, the cost for one health young house was a large investment. The operational cost to maintain a horse with health body and emotional are costly and time consuming. Unlike machinery, horses has limited energy and travel distance, they are necessary to take break and require a suitable living environment. As each horse can work in a limited hours, additional horses may needed to conduct a shift duty for every horses in order to minimize stress and unnecessary illness. With the limitations of horse, a machinery is essential to improve the constraint on horse-drawn streetcar. The second generation of streetcar was innovated from a technology that from Thomas Savery. Steam streetcar able to travel a further distance than horse in a longer duration and without any rest. Steam streetcars were a large improvement than former design, all the limitation on horse were resolved by the combination of coal and water resulted in high pressure. However, in order to generated heat to boil water within the system, coal was essential to carry for a long distance travel. With the under power of the steam engine and additional weight, the steam streetcars were not able to travel in a high speed. Furthermore, the most unique feature for steam streetcar was a reason for steam engine to became an end. The white smoke produces from the tunnels by steam engine whether should be limited are debatable. The steam from the tunnel on top of the engine can be an representative of steam engine, but some may argue that the steam are harmful for the environment. Nevertheless, individual argued that the smoke and noise produced from the steam engine were negative to the surrounding. Move on to the third generation, which is the tram for individual who are from overseas. Electric Tram are the last generation of streetcars before they were replaced by other mode of transport. Electric streetcars was powered by electricity connected to an overhead wires by Frank J. Sprague. Although the technology of electric streetcars were more advance that the first two generation, the ride quality and noise were limited to minimum. Electric streetcars able to reduce traffic congestion and ease the delay on public roads. Electric streetcars were a great invention for transportation industry, they are still operate on some country nowadays. However, during the mid-twentieth country in the United State,  the country were moving toward another century, a petroleum and private vehicles were popular during the time. The population of private vehicle was dramatically increased while the time. Streetcars was focus to came to an end as the demand was decreased significantly.

Early Market Development
Jersey City & Bergen Railroad Co. was the first operator for streetcars in New Jersey around the early 1860s. The company was responsible provide transportation service throughout the Hudson City with a horse-drawn streetcar. With the development of new technology, electric streetcars were began to replace the slow and unreliable horses. Hudson & Bergen Traction Co. was the first few companies that operate with electric streetcar at the 1893. The company used of advanced technology as an investment during their development stage. Their service were surrounded the Jersey City, connecting the ferry terminal and middle of the city together. At the early twentieth century, there were more than 20 streetcars companies operating within in New Jersey. A large competition between streetcar companies at the time for more profitability.

Policy in the “Birth Phase”
The 150 years of development for streetcars has gone from different major changes, the different stages of policies forced the streetcars industry to grew. With the increase on movement of upper and middle class for resident in New Jersey. The way to move resident around the state was by transport mode. Hence, the federal government began to promote and encourage the development of streetcar from 1840s. This approval lead to a dramatically increase the number of private streetcars businesses. At the time, the Urban Mass transportation were strongly encouraging to be privatization, this lead to an even strong outcome of the privatization in streetcar industry. The streetcars business has a lot of competition at the time, businesses were trying to move to the top of the state. The competition between each streetcars company could reduce costs and improve efficiency. The fares was set by the government, the policy was set at 5 cents in 1904 to minimize over pricing and as a protection to public. This is a “Lock-in” strategy to eliminate general public moving toward other mode which was their competitors. After a further development on the streetcars industry for a few decent, the industry was operating in a privatization strategy. At the late 1880s, this was the period when the streetcar industry began to be popular. All the streetcars were converted toward electricity powered for several years, the speed of electric streetcars could travel near as twice the speed of horse-drawn streetcar. Furthermore, the fare was reduced almost half that usual, the strategy on this industry has a huge demand, made the industry was developed rapidly.

Mature and Decline
During the early twentieth century, this was the period when the streetcar industry was at the peak. Unfortunately, the industry was began to decline a few years later. Since the streetcar industry was an important element for high-income group back during the time and to the transportation industry. The Federal government established a Federal Electric Railway Commission to investigated the problem with electric streetcar. There were many professional and industry expert did analysis on the issue and reported back to the commission. Dr. Delos F Wilcox conducted analysis to the problem and made up the reasons of failure and provided some suggestions to resolve the issue. Dr. Wilcox found that the industry has financial failure, policies failures and competition that causes the streetcars industry to decline. The extreme regulations on streetcars fares to public and financial management were the major elements of the failure. He also illustrated a few suggestion to eased the issue for the industry, the solutions were required the assistance from the government. A removal on additional tax for electric streetcar and increase the fare in order to cover the cost of maintenance and increase of labour costs as well as came up with a solution to eliminated competition. The competition that mentioned by Dr. Wilcox was not their own competitor only. There were automobiles, like bus existing which share the same customers. The streetcars industry no longer to be monopoly for the transportation market, most of the customers/ passengers prefer the alternate as they were more flexible and able to travel in a higher speed.

Opportunity to “Re-invent” the mode for today and tomorrow
Taking all the investment and lesson learnt from the development of streetcar in the past 200 years, streetcars still serve our public in the modern in a similar form. The streetcars nowadays are working in different cities in the world, there are providing a different sensation than the transportation other modern transport mode. They are able to provide a calm and point-to-point service than the existing transport. There are a few potential opportunities for streetcar to ‘re-invent’ to better serve the needs of modern world and tomorrow.

In order to reduce the air pollution emission and lower the Co2 produced by road transport, several developed countries are involved in a Paris Agreement regarding to 100% electric cars by 2050. There are no longer combustion engine or any mechanical powered that will generate emission allow to roll on public road. The agreement would lead to a decrease of private vehicle. Hence, electric streetcar can be a choose of mode for travelling in a short distance, due to streetcars are more cost-efficiency and accessible as well as greater capacity than buses.

Since streetcars are a rail system, they are designed to operate in a fixed railway. The system are secured and is impossible to be congested. Streetcars are generally has a higher safety rating than buses, the possible of human errors from drivers are comparably less than automobile. Moreover, even though all the vehicle on public road are forced to be electric, the issue of congestion are still existed. However, streetcars are not affected by any road condition as they are the only user on the railway road. They are still able to operate normally when the public are congested.

= Quantitative analysis of the New Jersey Streetcar Network =

THE Life-Cycle Model
As we discuss above, there are 3 major cycles of streetcars throughout the approximately 150 years of development. The life-cycle model able to demonstrate the  growth and evolution over time. as shown above, the cycles are separated into 3 stages, they are birth phase, growing phase and mature phase. Each phase has a different technology and challenges for streetcars operation.

In order to identify each of the phase throughout the development of streetcar, S-curves is a useful tools to predicts the lifecycle of the mode of transport mathematically. The phases can be identify by the following equation:

S(t) =  K/(1+e)^(-b(t-t0))

-      S(t) is the technology size (mile of track)

-      K is the saturation status level

-      t is the time (In Year)

-      b is the coefficient

-      t0 is a inflection time (the point of downturns)

Hence, by knowing K,, b, we are able to assume any given year (t) by the S-Curve equation.

Analysis of the New Jersey Streetcar Network
With a comprehensive record on each streetcars company in United States which sorted by annual record inside the McGraw Electric Railway Manual, we are able to conduct the below table to analysis the mile of streetcar track in New Jersey of a yearly basis. The manual consist a range of details on each streetcars businesses between 1894 to 1911

The result was similar to our expectation,  a slight increased on mile of track from 1897, here was the birth phase of the industry where each streetcars businesses in New Jersey were developing. The development on the growing phase is higher than expected, showing the streetcar industry was dramatically improving during the era. The peak of the industry was growing until 1908, streetcars in New Jersey was began to experience the difficulties that we had discussed above, the industry began to fading to reduce the growth rate. The graph could show how the industry perform after 1919 on the decline phase. However, due to constraints and limited resources, we are not able to analysis the mile of track for streetcars in New Jersey.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 28

Today in 1992 the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit decided in the Sega vs. Accolade case. The ruling allows the copying and reverse engineering of copyrighted code for legitimate reasons as fair use if it is necessary for finding out the (unprotectable) “ideas and functional elements” of a program code. It also helped to establish that functional principles of computer software cannot be protected by copyright law.


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/October 7

Today in 1954 IBM demonstrated the first calculating machine based entirely on solid-state transistors. It was a cheaper, cooler, 95 % more energy-efficient experimental conversion of a vacuum tube machine.


text:
Active Learning In Virtual Environment/Pro and Con Grid

Activity: #in-class/short-term, #individual-work, #quick-preparation

Outline
A rather effective way to encourage students to develop their critical thinking skills could be creating a list of advantages and disadvantages on a given matter. Furthermore, students have an opportunity to compare and contrast their viewpoints. This strategy determines a person to analyse the information deeper and therefore state more constructive responses. Moreover, completed lists of points could become a starting point for a class debate. Students have to create two columns on a spreadsheet - one with benefits and another one with drawbacks regarding a certain topic. Depending on the time given and complexity of the topic, the number of points varies. If activity is held during an online class some platforms can be used such as any document editor, Google documents or Blackboard Discussion Boards.

Activity arrangement

 * pick a specific topic based on some problem or issue students are already familiar with, provide students with a clear statement or a question
 * state the number of pros and cons students should list
 * decide on the platform students will be using
 * set the approximate time of the activity, for example, 20 minutes give or take
 * divide the class into small groups or assign the task to be done individually
 * after the task is completed, encourage students to share their ideas

Pointers

 * develops analytical and evaluative skills
 * makes students to think beyond their initial response
 * students list ideas on both sides of a topic, not only their preferable opinion
 * may become a starting activity before going into details of a certain subject

How to use this method in online class?
The simplest way to conduct this activity would be to set a statement or a question and then ask students to create a table. The table can be created in any document editor. The most accessible to everyone is google documents. A simple or a more complicated table can be created. An example of such a table would be the following: If you need a detailed instruction of how to create the table, it is available here: Add and edit tables. Blackboard Discussion Boards is great for creating class discussions during online meetings. However, most of the content is accessible only by a fee.


text:
Alien Hominid

Table of Contents

 * /About/
 * /General tips/
 * /Boss 1/
 * /Level 2/
 * /Final Boss/

title: Alien Hominid


text:
Active Learning In Virtual Environment/Peer Review

Activity: #in-class/short-term, #offline/long-term, #individual-work

Outline
The main point of peer review activity is to give an opportunity for students to test their abilities in commenting and analysing their classmate’s work. As a matter of fact, it encourages students to communicate or collaborate with peers in a project. During this activity, students provide feedback for each other’s assignments, stating constructive critique on the issue. For more efficiency, a teacher should create a list of prompts students should pay attention to while providing feedback. Once comments are written down, students then should verbally go through their overviews. Consequently, students learn essential communicative skills as well as taking other people’s opinions into account.

Activity arrangement
''The task does not necessarily need to be held online, it is suitable as an offline activity as well. But then, a clear deadline has to be set.''
 * create a guideline students should follow that may consist of several steps. An example of a scheme could be as follows:
 * 1) Read the piece
 * 2) Say what you like about it
 * 3) Ask what the main idea is
 * 4) Listen
 * 5) Say “Add that, please” when you hear a good detail
 * give examples of what constructive critique should look like so that no one ends up in a situation where someone is offended
 * divide the class either into pairs if individual assignments are reviewed or groups for team tasks
 * set the approximate time when the task has to be finished

Pointers

 * less grading workload on a teacher during introductory-level courses
 * students are able to develop crucial skills such as reviewing, criticizing, developing arguments, describing and more
 * students may become more inspired to study the course further
 * if the activity is to be done outside of the class, students are able to schedule their time independently

How to use this method in online class?
This type of assignment can be done in Zoom breakout rooms or in Google Meet breakout rooms. Students exchange their documents in a chat box and then review it in their preferable document editor. If the task is assigned to be done offline, a teacher should make sure students are able to contact each other and exchange their works.


text:
Active Learning In Virtual Environment/Think pair share

Activity: #in-class/short-term, #group-work, #discussion, #quick-preparation

Outline
The point of this learning method is to get the students to activate themselves in different ways. First the students think about the problem themselves then in pairs where they share their ideas on the topic which they firstly thought about themselves. Lastly, the students will share their individual ideas and pair ideas with the whole class. Think-pair-share enabled the students to understand the concept of the class as well as teach the students how to draw conclusions and discuss the topic in general. Think-pair-share speaks for itself, first the student thinks on their own then discusses with their pair and then the pair shares their ideas with the class.

Activity arrangement

 * Choose a topic that you want to discuss in the class
 * Ask the students to think about a question that you presented them about the topic
 * Next divide the class into pairs and ask them to discuss about the question that you presented and their thoughts on it
 * Ask the pairs to present their ideas to the class
 * Discuss the questions and the topic with the whole class

Pointers

 * Allows the students to interpret the topic with their own way
 * When working together the students learn from each other
 * Enables the all the students to be an active participant in class

How to use this method in online class?
This method is very easy to use in online classes since many different formats have the possibility to put the students into pairs and have them working together. For example in Zoom it is possible to divide the class into pairs and then ask the pairs to share their ideas and thoughts with the whole class after the discussing in pairs part is done. For example, divide students into breakout rooms for two people and then discuss with class after they first discussed with their partner.


text:
Active Learning In Virtual Environment/The muddiest point

Activity: #offline/long-term, #individual-work, #quick-preparation, #feedback

Outline
The point of the muddiest point is to determine the issues that the students might have with the topic that was discussed in class. In the most simple way the point is to find the muddiest point. This technique finds what the students thought was difficult in class, what was unclear and what would have needed more elaboration. The muddiest point gives the students a chance to reflect on the class as well as their own learning the class. It also enables the teacher to determine the strong and weak points of the class topic. The muddiest point is a quick way to get feedback as well as get improvement ideas on the lectures or the topics.

Activity arrangement

 * Determine a subject or matter on which you want feedback on. What do you want to know about the class that they found difficult?
 * Reserve time for the students to provide their feedback to platform of your choice
 * Collect the responses or have a look at them from the platform. Provide answers and further explain the topics that were the ones students had difficulties with
 * Discuss these results with the students in the next class. Provide them feedback in the form of answers and further explanations

Pointers

 * Gives the teacher an insight of what subjects the students might struggle with in the particular class.
 * The students have to think about their learning and analyse further the subject that was discussed in the class which deepens their understanding
 * Gives also the chance for the more hesitant students to express their misunderstandings

How to use this method in online class?
This is an easy active learning method to apply in online learning. For example in Moodle create a platform where the students can go and provide their answers to. Then have a look at them and provide them answers to the matters that they according to their feedback found difficult.


text:
User talk:Docknato

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, Docknato!

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  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
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-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:05, 23 March 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Docknato


text:
User talk:Putukas01

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, Putukas01!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
 * Please fill in the edit summary and preview your edits before saving.
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 * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the Gadgets tab of my preferences; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit save!

-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:07, 23 March 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Putukas01


text: Category:Book:Active Learning In Virtual Environment


text: Category:Book:Alien Hominid

title: Category:Book:Alien Hominid