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User:Zecuba/sandbox

Ancestry Trees of Kazakh people.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Zecuba/sandbox


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User:Zecuba

Will try to write a book about genealogy of Kazakh people.

title: User:Zecuba


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User:Linah manuh

Information technology student First year Maseno university Kenya Africa

title: User:Linah manuh


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5

Welcome to the sandbox for Approaches to Knowledge seminar group 5, which meets on Tuesdays at 11am - 12 noon.

Below are links to pages on the issues that we will be covering in the first half of term.

 * History
 * Evidence
 * Truth
 * Power


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6

Welcome to the sandbox for Approaches to Knowledge seminar group 6, which meets on Tuesdays at 3-4pm.

Below are links to pages on the issues that we will be covering in the first half of term.

The list of contributors is available here:
 * History
 * Evidence
 * Truth
 * Power

 * James Everest
 * Chelsea Nicole Florea
 * Luiza Kohtanena
 * Victoire Moisset
 * Juliette Hart
 * Yvette Homerlein
 * Jeanne Brocart
 * Wiktoria Magnuszewska
 * Sophie Xu-Tang
 * Geoffrey Boycott
 * Apolline Blein
 * Roxane Martinon
 * Eliza Power
 * Lucia Mari Sanguino
 * Paul Lanchon


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5/James Everest

 * 1) As a teenager I bit the end of my tongue off on a bouncy castle.
 * 2) At university I was in a play with Eddie Redmayne.
 * 3) At an event I once managed (accidentally) to suggest to Grayson Perry that he was dressed somewhat outlandishly.


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6/James Everest

 * 1) As a teenager I bit the end of my tongue off on a bouncy castle.
 * 2) At university I was in a play with Eddie Redmayne.
 * 3) At an event I once managed (accidentally) to suggest to Grayson Perry that he was dressed somewhat outlandishly.


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7

Below you will find a link in which you can add your contributions to each of the Issues.

 * Intro Exercise
 * History
 * Truth
 * Evidence
 * Power


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/Intro Exercise

Write down two truths and a lie about yourself!


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ History

Seminar Group 7 History Contributions


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ Truth

Seminar Group 7 Truth Contributions


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ Evidence

Seminar Group 7 Evidence Contributions


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ Power

Seminar Group 7 Power Contributions


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 13

Below you will find a link in which you can add your contributions to each of the Issues.

 * Intro Exercise
 * History
 * Truth
 * Evidence
 * Power


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User:N.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 8/Intro Exercise

Write down two truths and a lie about yourself!


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7

Below you will find a link in which you can add your contributions to each of the Issues.

 * Intro Exercise
 * History
 * Truth
 * Evidence
 * Power


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 13

Below you will find a link in which you can add your contributions to each of the Issues.

 * Intro Exercise
 * History
 * Truth
 * Evidence
 * Power


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 16

Below you will find a link in which you can add your contributions to each of the Issues.

 * Intro Exercise
 * History
 * Truth
 * Evidence
 * Power


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 16/ History

= Introduction =

A discipline can be defined as a field of study, where a specific strain of knowledge is researched and taught usually within an academic setting. The origins of a discipline can often be confused with the origins of the subject matter itself. In the case of English literature as a discipline, people may often assume that because the first display of English literature began in 800 C.E., this marked the beginnings of English literature as a discipline. Subject matter and the discipline of that subject matter should not be used interchangeably. As English literature became a discrete entity no longer seen as just a social medium, it’s transfer to an academic setting made it capable of being researched and taught. Within any discipline there is a huge range of potential answers. Ultimately it is a formalised network of intellectuals operating on a sort of shared conception of a subject matter. Disciplines are the products of people interacting about subject matter, and they exist within the societies, thus social changes are reflected within disciplines.

The markers of a discipline can often be seen in a formalised teacher-student relationship, establishment of departments within a degree programme, publications or society establishments as markers of the discipline’s existence, and most importantly a set of parameters as the basis of all activities within a discipline. Also, paradigm shift is commonly observed as disciplines develop with time, in other words, referring to get upsurge of evidence that doesn’t fit within that paradigm, causing disruption to some extent, then have a new paradigm emerging, eventually shifting to new approaches or new focus on the subject matter.

= History of Disciplines: Emergence of Economics and the Reemergence of Political Economy =

Introduction
Economics is one social science which studies how people’s unlimited needs and wants could be satisfied by scarce resources. Modelling based on assumptions is one of its distinctive methodological tools. Actually in the early stage, “Economics” was called “political economy”, which originated from philosophy, but experienced demise for long centuries following the beginning of “Economics” as a separate discipline. Later, political economy reemerges and evolves into a degree programme.

Emergence of Economics
Political economy once studied trade, the production and distribution of wealth, and their relations with government, political institutions and law at a national level. However, after Alfred Marshall’s book, Principles of Economics was published in 1890, and more intensive use of mathematical modelling in approaches, the paradigm change happened. Its was replaced by “Economics”, which emerged as a new discipline—a science with more precision, with increased dominance of mathematical knowledge (geometry) in models and analysis compared to previous “comprehensive vision”.

The construction of mathematical economics models simplifies the complex relationship between two variables, thus enables economists to meaningfully make grounded and testable assumptions. Also, graphing is a good technique to visualise the changes in market situations and for future prediction. The rise of Econometrics is even stimulated.

Reemergence of political economy
Economics and Politics in practice, however, cannot be approached in isolation. Re-introduction of political consideration and political science knowledge into Economics brings the increased role of political economy, a widely accepted interdisciplinary approach. It is helpful to understand socio-economic changes and issues confronting the modern society. It is especially valuable for the development of macroeconomics. For example, it studies the relationship between power and resource allocation in different types of economic systems, hence facilitates the process of making public policies which would not be achieved if being “brilliant at esoteric mathematics yet innocent of actual economic life”.

= History of Disciplines: Medical Ethics =

Introduction to Medical Ethics
“Ethics is not definable, is not implementable, because it is not conscious; it involves not only our thinking, but also our feeling” - Valdemar W. Setzer, professor at São Paulo University. Ethics can be described as systems of morals. It is fundamental in many disciplines, such as medicine. The sub-discipline of medical ethics has been historically dynamic, how?

The Historical Emergence of Medical Ethics
Babylonian law from 1800 BCR states what could be medical ethics. The law declares that a medic who killed a patient would have both hands cut off. This law might not fully be based on ethical thinking, but it is the earliest known document limiting a physician’s exercise based on the patient’s wellbeing, which is how medical ethics would develop.

1300 years later, the Greek medic Hippocrates presented an oath that, inter alia, promises not to harm patients or to assist suicide or abortion. Hippocrates’ oath was not replaced until 1803 when physician Tomas Percival published Medical Ethics. Percival’s book is the first to mention ”medical ethics”. It is possible to claim that a discipline does not exist until it holds publications. Thus, it could be argued that Percival’s work founded the sub-discipline of medical ethics.

Percival created the medical ethics of the 19th and 20th centuries. However, during this time, social changes, such as human experiments in Nazi Germany, affected medical ethics. The following trials of the experimenters resulted in the Nuremberg Code stating ethics of human experimentation. The code mentions voluntary participation and the benefit to risk ratio, inter alia.

4 Modern Principles of Medical Ethics
In Tom Beauchamp's text Principles of Biomedical Ethics published in 1979, 4 main principles of Bioethics were identified. The right to autonomy, the principle of non-maleficence, the principle of justice and lastly, the principle of beneficence. These principles, while subject to change, are still considered important in modern healthcare practices.

Medical Ethics and Future Evolvement
After the Nuremberg code, the concept of medical ethics evolved. Today, patient’s rights are advancing and the ethics of Hippocrates are being questioned in areas of abortion and euthanasia. This shows the importance of dynamic disciplines in a dynamic world.

= History of Disciplines: Anthropology as a Discipline and the Paradigm Shift of the Anthropological Method =

Origin of the Discipline
The origin of anthropology, derived from the Greek word anthrōpos meaning “humankind”, traces back to ancient Greece. Acknowledged as one of the world’s first practices of ethnography, Greek historian Herodotus travelled between Greece and Persia during the 5th century to understand the internal conflicts between the two societies, noting the cultural and societal infrastructure of the societies he encountered in detailed accounts.

Modern anthropology emerged in 18th century Europe where scholars and intellectuals were partaking in the greater cultural movement, the ‘Age of Enlightenment’. This era focused on advancing society and knowledge by understanding the fundamentals of human behaviour. It was not until the 19th century, however, that anthropology as a discipline came to be, seeing anthropologists teaching and researching at academic institutions. Additionally between 1839 and 1869 anthropological societies were established in various European and North American cities, advocating for interdisciplinary use of anthropological knowledge in political and commercial spheres.

Guidelines of the Discipline
As anthropology as a discipline gained momentum, five subfields were distinguished: physical/biological, archaeological, linguistic, and applied anthropology. While these departments can be interdisciplinary and overlap, differing fieldwork methods and approaches differentiate them.

Paradigm Shift Within the Anthropological Approach
The traditional focus of Anthropology was the unbiased observations of exotic societies, ones often subject to colonial rule; ethnography often became a method of colonialism. Often an interdisciplinary approach would be taken, looking to sociology and psychology in order to better convert these “savage” societies. In the 20th century, the German-American anthropologist Franz Boas argued that positionality should be integral to the practice of anthropology and fieldwork, where one observes and understands the practices of another culture through the context of their own culture. With the demise of colonisation and anthropological study in developing countries, reminders of a dark colonial past, anthropology has been forced to evolve due to dynamic social pressures allowing for a more diverse cultural selection of study.

= History of Disciplines: Pharmacology and one of its Subdisciplines =

Origins of Pharmacology
For thousands of years, pharmacological knowledge has been recorded. Ancient medical manuals from as early as 6th century B.C. included ancient prescriptions from the Han Dynasty, with ingredients such as the eastern herb Artemisia annua L. (wormwood) used to treat fevers in China.

Modern pharmacology, however, began in the 19th century after a paradigm shift regarding the understanding of pharmaceutical treatments. Physiologists back then performed many pharmacologic studies, such as Francois Magendie’s study of the action of nux vomica (a plant drug) on dogs. Although he presented his work to the Paris Academy in 1809, the actual emergence of pharmacology as a separate scientific discipline was not until 1847, when its first university position was established with the appointment of Rudolf Buchheim as professor of pharmacology at the University of Dorpat in Estonia. However, his student, Oswald Schmeideberg, is generally recognized as the founder of modern pharmacology. He obtained his medical doctorate in 1866 studying the measurement of chloroform in blood.

The Emergence of Behavioural Pharmacology
Fast forward to the 1950’s, when pharmacology already had many subdisciplines such as psychopharmacology. At the time, drugs were developed and introduced that were effective in treating many psychiatric disorders with chlorpromazine and imipramine, among others. A central theme of research at the time also focused on the effects of drugs on emotional states. Hence, it was then that Peter Dews published his first major finding from the Psychobiology Laboratory of Harvard in 1955 that described how specific behaviours could be modified by drugs. This was followed by studies by Roger Kelleher and William Morse in 1964, resulting in new principles on the relationship between drugs and behaviour. Therefore, behavioural pharmacology was birthed at the hands of Dews, Kelleher, and Morse, at the Psychobiology Laboratory of Harvard. Following their time in the mid 20th century, progress in related disciplines and advances in new technologies have continued to put emphasis on the subdiscipline of behavioural pharmacology.

= History of Forensic Science: The Use of Fingerprint Classification and Identification in the Conviction of Criminals =

History of Forensic Science
Forensic Science is known as the application of scientific techniques and methods in judiciary procedures, where evidence is collected and analysed to aid in matters of criminal investigations. The history of Forensic Science can be traced back to Alexandria in 300 B.C. where the first known autopsies were carried out however, Forensic Science can be said to have emerged as a discipline starting around 1909 when the Institut de police scientifique was founded by Archibald Reiss, this being the first institute of forensic science. Following this, more forensic laboratories and schools started to emerge, with the FBI opening its Scientific Crime Detection laboratory in 1932 the American Academy of Forensic Science’s foundation in 1948 and the establishment of one of the first criminology department at the University of California, Berkeley in 1950.

Forensic Science and Fingerprint Analysis
The introduction of fingerprint analysis as a method of identification created a paradigm shift in the way evidence was collected and revolutionised the manner in which criminals were convicted, allowing for a much higher degree of accuracy than the previous Bertillon method, previously employed in the forensic field.

In 1879, after the rise of photographical evidence, Alphonse Bertillon, a French criminologist created the Bertillon method where photographs of suspects/criminals would be analysed, and measurements would be taken of specific, supposedly unique, anatomical features. This information was then stored in police galleries and was believed to suffice as evidence for convictions.

Fingerprint analysis started to emerge in 1892 after Sir Francis Galton published a text on fingerprint identification, Finger Prints, which prompted Sir Richard Henry to develop a system of fingerprint identification in India and Juan Vucetich to also create a fingerprint system in Argentina in the same year. This along with the William and Will West case caused the Bertillon system to become obsolete. Eventually, this led to the conviction of Harry Jackson through the use of fingerprint identification in the United Kingdom in 1902.

= History of Disciplines: The Emergence and Derision of Herbalism =

The Emergence of Herbalism
Plants have always been the foundation of the human diet — it is therefore unsurprising that we have come to utilise its medicinal benefits. Herbalism is defined as "the study or practice of the medicinal and therapeutic use of plants". The earliest instance of herbalism, dates back to the Paleolithic age, around 60,000 years ago. Subsequent to this was in 3000 BC Mesopotamia where clay tablets, onto which numerous medicinal plants were transcribed, were discovered. Evidently, each region has adopted its own form of this practice, exploiting endemic plant species. Other notable examples include Galen in Ancient Greece and the Grete Herball in 1526, the first herbal.

Herbalism as a Discipline
The word discipline is defined as "a branch of knowledge, typically one studied in higher education". Herbals are canonical evidence of (primeval) herbal medicine, and some therefore may say herbalism was adopted as a discipline when herbals emerged, whilst to others it became a discipline in the Paleolithic age when it was thought to be first practiced. There are records of herbal medicine apprenticeships in Medieval times, which could have been considered a form of higher education then. Moreover, some may argue it never developed into a discipline, and remains a sub-discipline of Pharmacology as it would only become a discipline after it is formally taught at a higher level.

The End of Herbalism as a Discipline — a Paradigm Shift
After the publication of the Flexner Report in 1910 came the derision and termination of “eclectic medicine” education, (this included herbalism) in the United States, regarding them as equivalent to charlatanism and officially considering them “alternative” medicine. This could be deemed the end of herbal medicine as a discipline, or a paradigm shift towards modern medicine. However, this shift is incomplete and/or being reversed as many diverge back into, or continue to advocate herbal medicine.

= Social media, an emerging discipline ? =

History of Social Media
The concept of Social Media is eminently new and modern. The first digital Social Media platform is often considered to be Sixdegrees, which was a website founded in 1997 where the users could add each other to platforms and interact. Five years later, in 2002, another website emerged. This was called Friendster and it was a platform to make friends and find potential love interests. It was not until 2004 when Social Media as we know it emerged, with Mark Zuckerberg founding FaceBook. After Zuckerberg’s creation, Social Media boomed. The two following years, YouTube and MySpace was created and both platforms attracted millions of users. After 2010, Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram and Vine, just to mention a few were created and quickly, millions of accounts were set up on the Social Media sites. Today, Social media have grown to become an inalienable part of our lives. A few years ago I would have only called it a very important part of our lives, however today it has completely merged with us, so to speak, and it’s certainly going to continue that way. In a society where social media are omnipresent, it’s legitimate to wonder if they ought to become a discipline.

Social Media as an emerging Discipline
Let’s first focus on the markers of the existence of a discipline. One of the criteria is the growth of a social organization around the subject matter, but obviously social structure is the very essence of social media, so institutions are already in place. The second element is to publish things. But once again, publications are the heart of the matter, so it wouldn’t be hard to meet this criterion.

My biggest focus goes on the career matter. One could think that because in every career there is an essential effort that goes to social media strategies social media can be considered a discipline. But there isn’t an official degree on social media yet. People who are in charge of it generally studied various things such as advertising, business, digital marketing, media etc. Perhaps it’s that we don’t have enough perspective yet. But I think it’s especially because social media are too big, there are too many sub-categories, different uses of it. Are we talking about being able to create it ? To manage it ? To use it ? To export it ? To analyze it ? All of the above ? Ultimately, social media relies on the fact that it’s a reflection of everyone, everywhere, anybody can use it and make anything out of it. If it is such a huge part of our lives, such a success it’s obviously because it’s incredibly diverse, it’s the epitome of freedom. Would it still be social media if we added rules, conditions to be contributing to « the discipline of social media » ?

At the end of the day, social media are definitely going to grow even bigger, yet should they become a discipline ? I think I like better the idea of that sort of social spectrum of freedom that allows us to share anything, anytime, without any conditions or established rules that might take away all interest from the concept.

= History of Disciplines: Aristotle and Galileo as pioneers of the study of modern physics =

Historical origin of physics as a scholarly discipline
Physics－ one of the earliest disciplines, with foundational roots stretching to Ancient Greece－ is a science that broadly studies “the structure of matter” as well as how foundational components of the universe interconnect with one another. It is also the study of how said components are affected by elemental factors such as “gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear force fields”, as well as the implications that these have on the state of the universe.

The origin of physics as a school of thought is widely considered to date back to the philosopher Aristotle, whose study of physics is equivalent to what would now be referred to as ‘natural philosophy’. In the 4th-century, the publication of Physica－ Aristotle’s most seminal collection of academic writings－formed the foundation to Western science and philosophy including, but not limited to, physics. His studies were characterised by an undisciplined, broad understanding of the biological, chemical and physical sciences as one singular philosophy; thus, while he was not a pioneer of physics as a singular academic discipline, his studies laid the groundwork for physics as it is known today.

Emergence of Galilean physics
While Aristotle laid the foundations of modern physics, Galileo’s academics pioneered the formalization of the discipline itself, making revolutionary contributions and advancements to the school of physics. Through his reinvention and building upon of the standards established by Aristotle, regarding concepts such as motion, inertia and astronomical study, Galileo prompted a paradigm shift- a universal overhaul of the Aristotelian systems that had previously “dominated science until the time of Galileo”. Specifically, he unfounded Aristotle’s claim that the speed of an object’s fall correlated to its weight, through his study of aerodynamics that determined that this was not entirely true, as the relationship between the surface area of the object and its resistance to air, was more pivotal to the speed of its fall.

His discoveries aided in the categorization of the sciences into their individual disciplines, forming the basis of modern physics and today, he is considered the ‘father of modern science’ due to his innovative studies, having paved the way for future scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.

= History of Disciplines: The Short-Lived Paradigm Shift between Historical and New Musicology =

Musicology is the field of study and research of music, which differs from composition or performance. While the first forms of musical instruments date about 400—100 BCE (Before the Common Era) and music has been studied, since its discovery, throughout centuries, the term of Musicology was first coined only in 1863, as Musikalische Wissenschaft (German for Science of Music), by Friedrich Chrysander.

The Need for Evolution in the field of Musicology: The Introduction to New Musicology
While music genres have evolved constantly,(50s Rock and Roll evolved into the 60s Psychedelic Rock, 70s Disco evolved into 80s Synth Pop and, today, Electronic Dance Music (EDM) is rooted in the 90s Hip Hop), musicology's evolution remained constant until the mid-80s when professionals realized how the field of study became gradually interdisciplinary, cultural and ideological.

Musicologist first approach was to analyze music historically- in the words of the German musicologist, Heinrich Besseler, from 1931- "What modernity failed to offer was sought and found in history". In the late 70s until the early 90s, there was a great difference between the music analyzed at higher institutions and the music people listened to daily, such as rock music or popular music. Perceiving all forms of music as social constructs, including [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music#:~:text=Classical%20music%20is%20art%20music,(religious)%20and%20secular%20music.&text=The%20central%20norms%20of%20this,as%20the%20common%2Dpractice%20period. classical music], implied that music had to be seen both from a cultural and social point of view. Therefore, the novelty of interdisciplinary in a field that has remained faithful to its roots led to a paradigm shift in Musicology, which resulted in the birth of two subdisciplines: New Musicology and Old/Historical Musicology.

The Effects of the Paradigm Shift on Musicology
Although the discrepancy between subdisciplines was short-lived, since many musicologists started adopting an interdisciplinary approach to analyzing musical pieces afterwards, the short-lived paradigm shift had a long-lasting impact on how musicologists approach their work-no longer disregarding new music, in favor of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music#:~:text=Classical%20music%20is%20art%20music,(religious)%20and%20secular%20music. classical]-and cast light on the importance of evolution in maintaining the relevance of a well-established discipline.

= History of Disciplines: The Emergence of Philosophy and Mathematics as Disciplines=

Introduction
As “the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence,” philosophy, and phrased as “the language in which [the universe] is written” by Galileo, mathematics, are both central to our understanding of other disciplines. How and when did it all begin, then?

The Early Beginnings
One could try to take the starting mark of mathematics as the beginning of counting, just as how one could try to take the starting mark of philosophy as the beginning of thinking and questioning. However, that would mark the start of human history, as cognition has always been in our nature regardless of the development level, and a number sense was evident in almost all the cultures that ever lived, according to anthropologists.

The Beginning of the Subject Matter
If the subject matter of philosophy were to be studied, it would have to start at the beginning of history of time. One of the possible starting points of the subject matter of it would be the first philosophical texts recorded in history: those of the early Upanisads on Indian Philosophy, dating to the eighth-sixth centuries BCE. On the other hand, if the subject matter of mathematics were to be studied, it would have to start by looking at the historical evidence including the notches in the shape of tally marks found in animal bones from the Old Stone Age, the knotted cords of of the Incas of Peru, called quipus, the Eyptian hieroglyphic number systems, hieratic numerals, the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, and the Babylonian Cuneiform script.

Thales of Miletus
One way to choose a beginning mark would be to associate it with the first philosopher or the first mathematician: Thales of Miletus. The general consensus of ancient opinion is that he is the first philosopher, as the first of the Seven Sages of Greece; he is also commonly regarded as the first true mathematician, as he is the first to initiate the deductive method of geometry, with his geometrical theorems as valid today as they were around 26 centuries before.

Start of Education
When we look at the history of the education of the disciplines, we would again have to turn to Ancient Greece. Philosophy was taught in three different ways: firstly, in schools that were organized as confraternities most of which were centred in Athens - the Lyceums were passed on by the masters to their successors: such as Plato, Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemon, Crate, Aristotle, Theophrastus, respectively- secondly, by independent teachers that founded certain cities themselves, such as Epictetus who started a school in Nicopolis and attracted pupils, and finally by “wandering philosophers.” Mathematics, on the other hand, was taught at the “secondary-school stage of education” by teachers of arithmetic and geometry: for instance, at the Diogeneion college in Athens and the gymnasium in Delphi.

First Journals
Another way to mark a starting point would be regarding the first journal published in the discipline as the beginning of it. The first journal of philosophy was the German journal Acta Philosophorum by Christoph August Heumann, published between 1715–1727 and the first journal solely focused on mathematics was the French journal Annales de Mathematiques Pures et Appliquees by J. D. Gergonne, published between 1810-1831.

Conclusion
The vast histories of the disciplines of philosophy and mathematics make it highly challenging to select a specific instant in time as their markers. However, the histories of their subject matters, their first recorded texts, their first founders and teachers, the histories of their ways of teachings, and their first publications can be studied to have a deeper comprehension of the history of the discipline itself.

= History of Disciplines: Political sociology and its interdisciplinarity =

Origins of Political sociology
Political sociology has often been seen as the study of political science and the study of sociology in a sort of separate way. However, over time now tend to see political sociology as a genuine field of its own. This discipline shows a social and political distinction and confrontation between the societies we live in and the states that control them. E. Allardt in “International Encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences” of 2001 explains that there is “three pathbreaking moments” that can bee seen in the development of the discipline. The author describes the mid-nineteenth century as the moment where political sociology was created “when the distinction between society and state was established”. The second pathbreaking moment took place after the second World war when political sociology really became important mostly because of the importance of the roles played by democracies in the outcome of the global conflict. The third one can be considered as happening in the present as the study of regimes and worldwide development has never been as intense. All aspects of states are inspected, analyzed and are break down.

Political sociology now and its interdisciplinarity
The UCL website concerning the political sociology course explains that this discipline focuses on sociology but in its interdisciplinarity nature. .It shows that political study plays a major role in the study of this discipline as it is mainly about the examination of the relationship between state and society while emphasizing on the importance of identity and the notion of power. However, the website also explains that this course also centers around anthropology, history, cultural studies, and economics. All of this being put in relation in order to analyze and understand “the relationships between individuals, groups, institutions, governments and their environments.”.

= History of Disciplines: Oenology and History=

Introduction: Oenology and its roots on ancient civilizations
Oenology is the term used to refer to the study of wine and the process of winemaking, from the seed of the wine to the conservation of the bottle. Old paintings, sculptures and other form of art show that wine existed almost 8000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Vines actually even existed before humankind. Winemaking already was a captivating discipline, you can see it by its frequent in ancient art. Wine fascinates also for its mystic connotation, take for example Dyonosos, the God of the vine and wine who also represent madness and excesses. This discipline indeed is as fascinating as dangerous, because of the effects alcool can have on one.

How History And other contexts shaped Winemaking
Oenology has indeed existed since very long, it’s a discipline that doesn’t require modernity since it all comes from nature and a natural process: vinification. The vinification includes destemming, pressing, maceration and fermentation. If wine already existed before, we can say that oenology really appeared when Roman producers started to choose and select wine and grapes, but also variety and lands. It’s also the romans centurions on their campagnes that participated to the expansion of wine, since drinking was a part of doing war.

With the fall of the Roman Empire on the 5th century and the rise of Christianity, monks slowly started to cultivate vines in order to make money and because wine represents the blood of Jesus in Christianism ( again we find the correlation between wine and religion ). To this day, French monasteries and abbayes still make wine. At the time, having lands, and especially vines, meant having political influence and economic power. Wine becomes more and more a sign of wealth and power, you can find some of the best wines on the table of the the Pope or the French king. At this point, winemaking already is a considerable source of income for France, and knowing oenology is a sign of refinement and distinction, we think that the job of oenologist actually already existed.

After | French Revolution, lands of vines are divided and redistributed among new producers. Indeed Winemaking, and thus, oenology, continues to evolve with the historical, cultural, social or economic context.

Winemaking’s process and analysis really took a turn in the the mid19th-Century with the « pasteurization« (from | Louis Pasteur). The pasteurization offered the opportunity to better understand the process of fermentation and the bacterias involved, which was a great chance for winemakers and/or oenologists to progress in their jobs and to improve their profiency.

Oenology and Winemaking Today
Today, oenologist is a full-fledged job since 1955, but the definition and credibility depends on the country. Many of the winemakers are also oenologists, and some even sell their services to clients. Oenology doesn’t concern exclusively the farming process, it Actually also requires a strong knowledge in Biology or Chemistry and among others, a good personal taste appreciation.

=References=


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 16/ Truth

Seminar Group 16 Truth Contributions

=Introduction=

Tell all the truth but tell it slant —

by Emily Dickinson (1830-1886)

Tell all the truth but tell it slant —

Success in Circuit lies

Too bright for our infirm Delight

The Truth's superb surprise

As Lightning to the Children eased

With explanation kind

The Truth must dazzle gradually

Or every man be blind —

As Emily Dickinson warns us, truth is too vast and powerful for human beings to face all at once. It must be sought and told, as a notion that encompasses everything, however it must be exposed gradually. The ambiguity on what she means by truth makes the poem open to any interpretations, just as the subject of truth itself. The poem published in 1890 is still relevant today, as we try to answer questions about truth. Etymologically, the word truth comes from Old English “triewð” (West Saxon) or “treowð” (Mercian) which used to mean "faith, faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty; veracity, quality of being true; pledge, covenant." However, today we use it in so many various ways and meanings that it is highly difficult to give a single definition for it. Different disciplines across the humanities, sciences and social sciences approach the notion of truth in ways which can be both very different and very similar in relation to each other. The methodologies of obtaining truth and the ways of defining it can also have certain similarities and differences across disciplines.

Theories of Knowledge (Epistemology) and Truth

Mirror (Realist, Positivist)

The idea that knowledge is produced mirroring the reality it exists in. It is positivist because it views data in its unmediated form taken from the real world. In this way, we can project a mirror of reality back to ourselves in an accurate way.

Interpretive, Perceive (Phenomenological)

Direct interpretations and perceptions of certain things give us direct access to certain data on which we can generate logically constructed truths. These perceptions help build truths that format our authoritative knowledge.

Constructive (Social Constructionism)

Objective truths may change as they are dependent on society. As our forms of representation, languages and the way we create knowledge are social, they are also specific to a particular society.

This sandbox explores the applications and approaches of truth in various disciplines.

= Truth in Cultural Anthropology =

Anthropology is defined as ‘the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space and in relation to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture’.

Positivism in Cultural Anthropology
A realist approach is often used to identify truths in the physical world. For example, sources such as fossils and artefacts serve to show us immediate proof of the existence of an object or an occurrence, as it can be perceived in an unmediated manner, optically and tactically. However, this imposes that objective truths are confined only to methodological naturalism, and therefore other measures of knowledge are viewed as inferior. Using Balinese Hindu cockfighting as an example, the Batur Bang Inscriptions from 933 AD and the Batuan Inscription from 944 AD reveal that this traditional ritual has existed for centuries. Moreover, this ceremony still occurs in the present day and can be observed, and is therefore true.

Interpretive Anthropology as a Response
Culture, as defined by Clifford Geertz, is ‘a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life’. In Geertz’ article, ‘Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight’, he concluded that “cocks are symbolic expressions of their owner's self, the narcissistic male ego” and that they are also “expressions of what the Balinese regard as the direct inversion of human status: animality.” It is argued that cultural anthropology is better understood through a hermeneutic approach, accompanied by thick description — a term predominantly associated with Geertz’ work defined as ‘a detailed account of field experiences in which the researcher makes explicit the patterns of cultural and social relationships and puts them in context’. This is very much an interpretive technique that is seen as necessary in the anthropological world — without this method, our positivist findings hold trivial significance.

A Venn Diagram
Combined to explain traditions and unveil symbols behind customs, both positivist and interpretive methodologies are imperative in uncovering truth in cultural anthropology, bringing to light a better apprehension of society — the fundamental principle of this discipline.

= Truth in Musicology =

Introduction
What could the notion of 'truth' mean in musicology? The fact that music is an artistic discipline that affects people in a way that often goes beyond our comprehension and conscience, does not mean that you can’t find any rationality in musicology. The fact that it has been theorised anyway shows that we must have an idea of what we consider to be the truth in music.

The correlation between music and mathematics
Firstly there is a fundamental correlation between music and mathematics. You can see it with the rhythms that are basically regular divisions of rather small patterns of time, in a particular way. But the mathematical knowledge you need in order to understand music theory lies in the tuning and harmony system. You can explain music with science because for example one particular chord, frequency is gonna trigger one particular area of the brain. Geometry is very important as well, for example on an aesthetic level when it comes to the disposition of notes and the carving of rhythms on the music score. In Antiquity, Pythagoras managed to calculate the sound ratios of the most harmonious musical intervals, but according to whom?

The varying truth of Musicology in different cultures
This diatonic scale established by him is indeed the most important one in the Western tradition, but many other cultures have used and suggested a myriad of other scales, other ways of approaching and creating music. For example, Indian music might sound exotic to western cultures because they don’t have the same truth than us in music theory. For us, harmony doesn’t mean the same thing than for them, a note that’s going to be off key for us is not going to be for them. As a matter of fact, Western music divides an octave into the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, and base their approach of music on two different tones, major and minor. Even if they also have twelve notes, Indians see things differently, as they focus their interest on the relative relationship between the notes, and not on looking for absolute frequencies. Thus, the tuning system differs as well, depending on many different factors, such as the music’s texture or even its most commonly used instruments, which would, in that case, be the piano in western music and the Tanpura in Indian music. Lastly, unlike westerners, Indians use the concept of a shruti, which is a smaller interval than the ones we consider to exist between notes. This is also why Indian music can sound weirdly out of tune to someone used to this Western operation. Thus, even if music is fundamentally related to mathematics which is a pretty rational discipline, we could believe that there would be some consensus on the vision of truth in music theory. But as we can see, it is still something that is perceived differently according to the different times and cultures, that cannot be fixed and captured as a whole, and that is probably what makes the richness of music, and keeps its mystery alive.

= Truth in Film and TV studies =

Film and TV as mediums to express truth
Film and television are influential mediums through which various truths can be expressed; truths of oneself, societal truths and interpretative truths. The notion of ‘truth’ is multi-faceted and ambiguous, but can be generally defined as "[...] the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what is the case [...] truth is the aim of belief". However, this traditionalistic view suggests that truth is a fixed concept, universally objective, which denies it the thoughtful nuance required to truly determine it’s meaning. Truths are highly variable depending on the demographic in question, shaped by individual experiences, ideologies and beliefs; thus, it is a particularly paradoxical concept to examine. Film and television, from their inceptions to the current day, have embodied this paradox, with reception to their content- amongst other factors- being used to fuel academic study, demonstrated by the abundance of higher education programs rooted in their analysis, with the establishment of the London Film School in 1956 suggesting that this is not a recent phenomenon.

The influential power of film and TV and how they affect truth
The influence of film and TV cannot be overstated; in the United Kingdom alone, there were 26.8 million households in 2019 that owned at least one television, with Netflix subscriptions reaching over 13 million in 2020 , a figure that has been "rising steadily over the last six years". Microcosmically, this evidences the great extent to which the global population has access to film and TV and, by extension, ideological truths presented by them. Through the veil of entertainment, film and TV have the capability to alter one's perceptions of oneself, of other people, and constructivist truths about society as a whole; this is achieved in a variety of ways, i.e. unification of viewers via a ‘shared anticipation’, revolutionizing ‘views of reality’ through on-screen representation of minorities and educational programming that serves to introduce people to different truths and modes of living.

= Truth in History = Understanding the past is imperative to constructing our future, but what is the truth in history? It can be said that the past does not change so does it guarantee an objective reality or is this notion problematic as we reconstruct our views on the basis of evidence which exists in the present?

Positivism in History
Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism, argued that a mirror approach previously dominant in scientific knowledge could be extended to finding the truth in history. In discovering the laws guiding the development of human society, like the natural laws in the science, historical evidence requires no interpretation, with primary sources acting as the main ‘truth’ of the past. Postmodernism critics reject this thinking as a sensory experience cannot be unambiguous and accurate if it is ‘mediated by the concepts we use to analyse it’, therefore we cannot take history at face value without interpretation.

Interpretive History
History is sensitive to paradigm shifts and historical truths are in constant fluctuation. Contrary to the positivist claim to objectivity, the degree of interpretation of data means that memory is falliable, evidence is ambiguous and prejudice is common. Unlike science where robust evidence and laws can be replicated, the evaluation of sources, concerning context and primary origin, must be ingrained in the critical thinking of history as a discipline. History is a selection of a selection, that being the primary sources available to us are subject to the lens of the curator who have their own truths based on personal experience or even national loyalties. Despite this, it is the aim of the historian in finding the truth in history to analyse multiple, diverse source materials with extreme scepticism to achieve the broadest and less opaque truth as possible.

= Truth in Music =

The idea of truth in music is often seen as an ‘unfashionable idea’ (Furedi),, hence there are many different interpretations of what truth in music means. It is important to remember that truth in music is highly subjective, and as a musician myself, depends greatly on individual experiences. Therefore, music is a perceiver truth, and the following sections will explain the different aspects of music as a perceiver truth.

Music and the Arts
One thing to note is that there is a difference between truth in the arts as a whole and truth in music. Truth in representational works of art (e.g. novels or paintings) often have real subjects. Meaning, the work of art can represent the world in an either truthful or untruthful way. An example given by Levinson (1981) states that although a novel portrayed New York Society as cruel in the 1890’s, was it really so? However, music usually doesn’t represent anything, nor does it generate a fictional world, but it does have other content, such as expression. Listening to music might bring to mind certain ideas and/or feelings.

Music and Time
There have also been varying ideas on truth in music in the past compared to truth in music in the present. Back in the 1800’s, music was believed to reveal to the listener the truth of their existence. This is summarized by Robert Browning in his poetry, ‘There is no truer truth obtainable / By Man than comes of music.’ However, truth in music is a term uncomfortably used today, partly because ideas are more often justified on evidence rather than being good or true. For example, by using the claim ‘research shows’: in music, research claims that babies exposed to music before birth remember it, having long-term positive effects. This mindset takes away from experiencing music in its own terms.

Music and Expression
To conclude, truth in music is often determined by the expression it emotes in individuals. Truth about music helps to illustrate this idea. For example, if a sonata was composed in the eighteenth century, or that certain scales were common in Indian music, those facts could be checked, and they can influence listening experience. Therefore, the structure of music might mirror the emotions is expresses, and because of this successful correlation, it can be said that the piece of music is “true.”

= The Controversy regarding Truth in Theology =

Theology is the study of the divine; of religious faith, practice, and experience. The term derives from the Greek theologia (θεολογία): theos (Θεός, 'god') and logia (λογία, 'utterances, sayings, oracles'). Religion plays a major role in society: there are roughly 10.000 different religions worldwide, which include Christianity, Buddhism, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism#:~:text=Hinduism%20is%20an%20Indian%20religion,global%20population%2C%20known%20as%20Hindus. Hinduism], Islam, Judaism, and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism#:~:text=Atheism%20is%20in%20the%20broadest,that%20there%20are%20no%20deities. Atheism]. Despite theology's prevalence in history and social evolution, scientists often view this field of study deprecatingly, due to its lack of vigor and evidence in claims; that being said, theology's truth does not lie in evidence, but faith.

Truth in Theology and Faith
Theology uses mainly constructive truth in its studies since it is rooted in tradition and social evolution, perception. Despite the emphasis on perception, the use of reason and logic is discouraged in theological studies; in Christianity, logic, and reason can interfere with the biblical truth, distorting its ground beliefs, allowing the misinterpretation of prophecies and values.

The Questions in Truth
One lingering question in theology is the relation between God and time. While the Greeks viewed God as a "static perfection inhabiting eternity, detached from the flux of the world", modern theological perceptions-process theology-view God as evolving within time. Because of the theological materials'(such as the bible) open-to-interpretation factor, questions arise about the validity of the information presented in them.

Evolution in Theology
Queer Theology emerged in the late 20th century and it emphasizes the rudimentary interpretation of passages from the bible and the importance of evolution in theology along with societal evolution. Although Queer Theology does not disregard the fact that homosexual acts were looked down upon in the bible, it is believed that this interpretation was a matter of social beliefs that reflected the times the Old and New Testament were written in (165 BC, first century AD), rather than actual religious beliefs. Despite that, sociologists found traces of queer stories in the bible that were not condemned, only brushed off, such as in the Epistle to the Romans where Paul visits 'unusual households' not led by married men. . Because of society's constant evolution and theology's ground materials for practice and study, such as the bible, being unclear and left open-to-interpretation, the truth in theology lies in beliefs rather than logic and evidence.

= Truth in Art and Literature =

Introduction
Can truth be created out of nothing? Is there any place for truth within art, within literature? Such questions have been raised and answered in various ways since Plato questioned whether a work of art was anything more than an illusion, and whether or not it existed “independent” of an audience, to which Aristotle argued against, by saying that art is “something that is both thingly and cognitive, physical and metaphysical, substantial and insubstantial, concrete and intellectual.”

Truth in Art
Throughout history, there was a quest for knowing where art existed. According to the art historian Panofsky, the debates around the question revolved around ideas such as art being a reflection of what is already existing in nature, being born in the mind of its creator as a response to the surrounding world of the artist, and simply acting as a mirroring of God. One can argue that art can exist in all of those things, or none. The Journal of Philosophy lists three different kinds of truths in art: the “surface truths” which consist of true assertions such as those in “historical or sociological novels and didactic poetry,” the “embedded truths” which consist of the truths underlying in metaphorical expressions, and the “embodied truths” which are the ideas that the works try to get across - such as dehumanization caused by war in Picasso’s Guernica.

Truth, Lies, and Fiction
Some remarks on the subject of truth in art stress the value of art in reflecting the truth, while suggesting that it isn’t the truth by its nature. In Picasso's definition, "art is the lie that enables us to realize the truth.” Regarding the place of art in our lives, Nietzche said “We have art in order not to die of the truth.” His aphorism asserts that the lies of art can save us humans from the cruel truths of life. American novelist Tim O'Brien explores the relationship between truth and fiction - which according to him is “... the lie that helps us understand the truth” - in his book The Things They Carried, about a platoon of soldiers fighting in the Vietnam War. Throughout the book, he often twists the truth and makes it challenging for his authors to tell the events that actually occurred apart from the ones that didn’t, because to him, “That's what fiction is for. It's for getting at the truth when the truth isn't sufficient for the truth.”

Endnote
The notion of truth in art and literature has been and will be challenging to address. While approaching it, both the nature of the external world, the nature of the internal world of the artists and their audiences, and the nature of the works themselves have to be examined.

= Different perspectives on truth in cognitive behavioral therapy in Psychology =

Introduction
Truth is an interesting concept when regarded in an academic perspective. The definition of truth has a long philosophical history, today however, there are many ways to define truth. Two definitions according to the Merriam Webster Dictionary are: ”The state of being the case” and ”a judgment, proposition, or idea that is true or accepted as true”. In the academic and scientific discipline of psychology, a common method of treatment is cognitive behavioral therapy, also known as CBT. This kind of therapy emerged using two different approaches to truth: A positivist or mirror approach as well as a perceived or interpretive approach.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
In 1964, the method of cognitive behavioral therapy was created by Dr Aaron T. Beck. Doctor Becks work was however based of behavior research conducted by John B. Watson in 1913. Cognitive behavioral therapy is focused on human behaviors, what causes them and how the individual at issue experiences emotions regarding the cause and behavior. This type of therapy became a common approach to dealing with psychological disorders in the early 1980s, and today it is one of the most common methods of psychotherapy.

Positivist Perspective on CBT
As previously mentioned, cognitive behavioral therapy consists of different kinds of truth. The first one being the positivist idea of truth. This approach is distinguished by the principle that truth is considered to be found or created using empirical evidence. The positivist perspective could also be described as a mirror whose aim is to show the world. This concept is used in cognitive behavioral therapy when approaching the causes behind a particular behavioral pattern, for instance. When commencing the research on cognitive behavioral therapy, Dr Beck searched for truth through a positivist lens by emphasising the importance of quantifying the symptoms a patient was experiencing by using a general method. The use of direct methods to find or create truth is a crucial part of positivist truth.

Interpretive Perspective on CBT
Moving ahead to the second way of viewing truth: perceived or interpretive truth. This is focused on individual experiences or perceptions of an issue, rather than to mirror the objective reality. Regarding cognitive behavioral therapy, the part where the patient expresses feelings and thoughts about the actual behaviors or their origin is based on interpretive truth. Research in psychotherapy has throughout its history been focused on finding truth via an perceptive lens. And this principle is, as seen, still widely conducted today.

Conclusion and Further Research
To conclude, the two approaches to truth are different from each other, thus making a comparative analysis between the two interesting. However, it could be even more interesting to investigate how they can be coordinated to enhance each others functions - similar to the case in cognitive behavioral therapy.

= The role of truth in politics =

Introduction
It is no secret that truth and politics were always in conflictual terms and people nowadays have increasing difficulties trusting politicians. In the UK for example, it is estimated that only 15 % of the population trusted politicians in 2016. Why is trust so difficult to obtain for politician and what is the role of truth in politics ?

History of the conflict between truth and politics
This conflict between truth and politics is nothing new. In fact in the past, spreading the truth was seen as dangerous activity. In the best-case scenario, people that took part in activities such as spreading truth would be considered as ridicule, however in the worst scenarios they would be killed. In his cave allegory, Plato says that “If they could lay hands on [such a man] … they would kill him”. Thus we understand that it can be argued that the people back in history would rather stay in the comfort of their ignorance (the darkness of the cave in Plato’s allegory) than being illuminated by the truth as they would kill anybody that disrupts the peacefulness of their ignorance. I would argue that this is still the case today and that Plato’s cave allegory still can be seen as valid in our current times. It takes time for people to accept or assimilate the truths. This is particularly true today as can be seen with the situation in China concerning the persecution of the Uighurs. Even though evidence shows that there is a persecution of Uighurs in China, today only very few international actions were taken in order to fight it.

Using lies as a tool
Lies are seen as necessary and justifiable tools for politicians as they are essential in order for them to achieve their objectives and to be able to persuade their people. Lies are not only used in negative ways and for manipulative purposes. It has been used in the past to protect a nation’s prestige as American president Dwight D. Eisenhower did during the cold war when he “denied that the Soviet Union had shot down a United States spy plane.” Lying has been used for good reasons in the past, however politicians do use this tool for their own good. There is countless examples of politicians lying to exploit public ignorance. Voter ignorance is widely used by politicians by lying about the concrete actions of their policies by overselling their benefits and by hiding as much as possible the downsides. A recent example of this is Obama’s “affordable care act” in which he promised to the people that if “you like your health care plan, you can keep it” when he knew perfectly well that millions of people would have to abandon their plans.

Conclusion
Truth and politics have historically be in conflict for ages as people would rather stay in the comfort of their ignorance than be disturbed by the ‘difficulties’ truth brings. It so very difficult for politics to be trusted as they manipulate the truth and use lies as a major tool in their campaigns and actions. However, even though lies are often used in manipulative manners, they sometimes can be seen as used for the general good.

=The Conception of Truth in Economics=

How Economics knowledge is produced
In Economics, the approaches to truth could reflect the combination of 3 streams of epistemology: Realist, Phenomenological and Constructionism.

Through observation, firstly economists discover common phenomena or behaviours of consumers and firms in the market, which are part of the reality itself. Once the certain characteristic is clearly and accurately perceived, then a truth is built on it with the support from substantial corporate and government data (mathematical graphs are plotted to validate and demonstrate the perceptions by using data). This truth provides a basis on which we can build a form of authoritative knowledge. For example, the law of demand as one truth is shaped in this way. It states that “consumers demand more of a good the lower its price, holding constant other factors that influence the amount they consume” and is strongly supported by the empirical evidence available.

Evaluation of the production of “truth”
The constructed Economics theories largely mirror the existence of objective reality. However, exceptions to the well-established “truth” exist. Inferences obtained from the laws may not always be right as social situation or reality based on to construct the truth is changing. For example, in Tulipmania that happened in Dutch in 17th century, people at that time placed a high value on tulips, a symbol of social status. The higher the price, the larger the quantity demanded to tulips was when many insanely hoarded large quantities of tulips at home. In the Covid-19 epidemic, the overall trend of hoarding goods being priced even higher than before is displayed as consumers make purchases based on intuitive expectations rather than actual needs. The two cases both breach the law of demand stated above.

Besides, to determine the truth, deductive reasoning in Economics always starts from and heavily relies on assumptions, followed by theoretical analysis. Assumptions refer to “something that you accept as true without question or proof", which could lead economists to try to create a particular form of knowledge in a particular kind of way.

What is valued by Economists in the construction of truth
Although the theories “only sometimes explain or provide insights into ‘real’ phenomena”, they allow us to gain insights into the behaviours of rational mans. Their nature of being “admittedly incomplete” implies that the criterion used to judge them should not rigid. During the process of construction, “we are trying to organize our thoughts and observations in a useful manner” e.g. applying theories to make testable predictions. “How often has it been useful? How useful has it been?” matters more than “Is it right or is it wrong?”

= Truth in Criminal Justice=

Criminal Justice System is defined as ‘the system in a society by which people who are accused of crimes are judged in court’

Production of Truth in a Trial
For the jury, there is one question that predominates the court regarding the parties : When do we know that we hold the Truth ? A trial’s goal is to evaluate a sentence that is fair for all the parties of the action. The goal also indeed is to establish a common truth To all parties. To be fair and impartial, the jury should judge exclusively with the Truth, and nothing else, such as impression or hypothesis. From this point, we can establish that the jury would try avoid anything other than a Mirror way of thinking about Truth. The concept of a trial is almost to recreate the action in the most realistic way possible, for example, lawyers or prosecutors often go through Every details of the entire action and reenact them to make their point. Witnesses, prooves, objects , alibis are concret things that help to create an actual representation of the scene of interest, as if the jury is looking in a mirror. To illustrate the importance of Realist truth in a trial, we can look at France Glessner Lee’s famous nutshells. These little dollhouses offered a perfected and perfectly detailed reduced representation of a crime scene ( usually called Dioramas ). An Harvard magazine resume her motive by saying that France Lee was ‘convinced by criminological theory that crimes could be solved by scientific analysis of visual and material evidence［...］ If only the setting could be seen properly, the truth, “in a nutshell,” would be exposed.’ She also advocated a geometrical method to extract the most knowledge possible : a clockwise spiral search pattern to study the evidences in a crime scene.

Dysfunction of Truth in the Judicial System
Most of the time, there isn’t enough elements to reconstitute a safe and sure representation of the truth. While we said that a jury must be very aware of  epistemological dimension when examining If the parties’ claims legitimacy. Indeed, the jury often needs to make use of an interpretive way of thinking about Truth. When the versions of the parties clashes, when there is no witnesses to confirm the parties’ statements or when proofs are missing the jury still have to pronounce a sentence, usually. The idea of Truth thus transform into the idea of the most realist and likely scenario. The basis on which the correction will be defined become ‘unsure’ which can cause controversy. In the USA, some Sentenced to death have proven to be innocent after their execution. For instance, Carlos de Luna was condemned to electric chair for stabbing someone in a convinience store in Texas (1989). After 20 years, a proof was founded that proved him to be innocent and that instead another man who was already confessing the crime at the time, was guilty. This example shows how Justice and Trial doesn’t always means Truth and how one element can make a Truth go from a fair sentence to an unfair execution.

= References =


text:
User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 16/ Evidence

Seminar Group 16 Evidence Contributions

= Introduction =

Evicence is by the Cambridge Dictionary of English defined as: ”one or more reasons for believing that something is or is not true”. According to the Scientific Method, empirical evidence is required to verify a hypothesis. Although, in the modern world of research there are other types of evidence as well. A few examples are documentary evidence, such as documents presented as proof in a courtroom as well as historical evidence , which could be the study of fossils to provide support for the theory of biological Evolution. This sandbox provides an introduction to these varying sorts of evidence in varying disciplines.

= Evidence of the Effect of Magic Mushrooms on Mental Disorders =

Magic mushrooms are toadstools with hallucinogenic properties, containing the compound psilocybin, the prodrug of psilocin. They have been used for over 6000 years but were popularised in the 1960s until they were made illegal (in most countries) by the UN in 1971.

The first psilocybin study after the previously mentioned War on Drugs was conducted in 1997 at the University of Zurich, led by Dr Franz Vollenweider. It was found that the drug increased cerebral glucose metabolism (brain activity), while decreasing the default mode network (a network of brain regions active when a person is not focused on the outside world, associated with the ego), and more importantly that brain function under the influence of psilocybin was in complete contrast with that of schizophrenic patients. This study triggered research at countless other reputable institutions such as John Hopkins University and the University of Toronto.

Another landmark investigation was the Psilocybin for Depression study done by the Beckley/Imperial Research Programme. Oral psilocybin was given to 20 patients with refractory depression — each person was given two doses, 7 days apart and underwent brain scans. Subsequently, it was shown that all patients had reductions in their depression scores at 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 5 weeks, and 3 months.

However, these studies were done on a relatively small-scale and placebos were used in just the first study, thus making it not completely valid. Nevertheless, the results offer promising opportunities for further investigation.

Evidence with regards to modern drug research will indubitably be difficult to be concordantly accepted due to the lack of large scale long term studies, done with precautions for a margin of error (ie. placebos, double blind tests), thus needing further experimentation. For this to be viable, central governmental legislation regarding hallucinogenics, or hallucinogenics within the scientific world, must be reevaluated, as there is little and possibly unreliable, though distinctly supporting, evidence substantiating the favourable effects of this type of drug.

= Evidence in Law=

The Nature and Types of Evidence
In the discipline of Law, it is the rules of evidence that govern the proof of facts. To help the Judge and/or Jury reach decisions, the evidence “covers the burden of proof, admissibility, relevance, weight and sufficiency of what should be admitted into the record of a legal proceeding” which depends on the specific situation of case. The types of evidence basically include oral testimonials, evidence written in the form of documents, and physical objects (“real evidence”).

Evaluation of the Use of Evidence
There is broad distinction between the use of evidence in traditional scientific disciplines and that in Law. It is worth considering to what extent the use of evidence in Law is compelling.

It is clear that a majority are qualitative evidence. The physical objects admissible to be presented to the court are relatively undisputed e.g. knife, hair or blood samples collected as forensic evidence from crime scenes. Oral testimonies, however, are less trustworthy. As witnesses narrate their testimonies in front of the court, the act of recalling memories and personal experiences is highly subjective, thus unreliable. One research has shown the “audience-tuning effect” that both messages and memory itself are changed when one memory is described to different audiences. This implies the fallibility of memory after it is manipulated unconsciously, and that testimonials used as evidence are not 100% accurate. The intentional interpretation of testimonies and inferences made from them by attorneys for the sake of one side even makes the use of evidence at disposal more biased.

However, witness testimonials are assumed to be a convincing form of evidence because people who are qualified as witnesses are “presumed to have a legal obligation to serve as witnesses if their testimony is sought” where solemnity is demonstrated. They have legal duty known as “Burden of proof”. When more new evidences are obtained, the “weight” of argument will increases despite the uncertain change of the degree of “probability”. Besides, the mature nature of legal system works to examine the quality of evidences. Opposed positions of prosecution and defence in court form the vital counterbalance relationship. The authoritative jurisdiction including the jury system exists to assess the verifiability in hope to reduce erroneous judgements as well.

= Evidence in Anthropology =

The essence of knowledge is that it is organised information. But what does it mean for anthropology specifically ? The knowledge that anthropologists use as evidence relies on information that they gather concerning our ways of living in the world and contributing to it. According to the danish philosopher Lars-Henrik Schmidt, for it to be considered as knowledge, the information collected needs to be « reductive » and « selective ». Reductive because you try to turn universal complexity and mystery into something clearer, therefore limited, and selective because for it to become knowledge, you obviously need to neglect some information, in order to organize it better. So when anthropologists inquire on a particular insight, they need to look at the object of interest but also its mode of interest, thus constantly asking themselves how they are going to organize the data they collected into evidence. As a matter of fact, anthropologists generally perceive knowledge as a social phenomenon, in the sense that it is often a matter of perspective, that’s why the evidence that they are going to use is mainly qualitative. As a human science, there are some notions on human life, human perspective that you can not capture with numbers.

If anthropological knowledge is indeed part of a subjective process based on interpretation, it doesn’t mean that this process isn’t disciplined .There are two implicit regulations that allow us to filter evidence. The first one would be the registration filter of the ethnographer directly on the filed: when anthropologists collect data, they choose what they believe would be relevant information. The second filter is the institutional one, which involves all the academic discipline markers, such as a particular way of reasoning, but also of communicating and organising the data. Thus, by framing it in an academic context, the subjective evidence collected becomes, in a way, rather objective.

But how do anthropologists really collect evidence then ? Fieldwork definitely plays an essential role in the process. For example in material and visual culture, case studies on objects will consist in analyzing objects directly while using all your senses, to report everything you observed, discovered about the object. In fieldwork, social relations are essential to acquire knowledge. It’s this relational aspect, wether it is between an object and a person or even between two cultures, that will help establishing relevant facts. Moreover, the anthropologist is a double agent when he collects data on the field: he is both in the position of a researcher and of an actor in the world that he’s observing. He needs to take this in consideration every time he searches for evidence. Finally, even if qualitative evidence is the main source of anthropological knowledge, quantitative evidence exists too, and helps finding numerical patterns that can explain human behavior, especially through surveys, maps, charts, graphs, textual descriptions and statistical analyses.

= The evidence of doping in competitive sports and its impact on the human body =

Sports at a professional level is the organized playing of competitive games following specific rules .[22] Doping on the other hand is the administration of drugs in order to enhance sporting performance. It is clear in people’s mind that doping represents a form of cheating. Why is it so common and what are the effect of doping on the human body ?

First, we will start by stating the fact that doping in competitive sports is far more common that what the general opinion thinks it is. The Guardian published an article that stated that an “anonymous survey carried out at two athletics competitions in 2011” showed that 57 % of the athletes have admitted doping in at least the past year. [23] Doping is so popular among athletes because it makes possible for their bodies to “endure even more stress and exhaustion”.[24] In addition, doping is such a big part of sports because of the pressure created by all the money and sponsors involved in the most competitive leagues.[24] So what are the impacts on an individual’s health ?

A campaign by the Australian sports anti-doping authority which aims to prevent the use of drugs in order to enhance physical performances stated that athletes that used steroids are at risk of heart attacks, strokes and had increased risks of liver and cardiovascular diseases[25]. It was also shown that between 1987 and 1990 “20 young Belgian and Dutch cyclists died” after the use of injections of erythropoietin ( blood doping).[26] Therefore, we understand that there is evidence that can support the fact that doping and the use of drugs is something common in competitive sports. Furthermore, evidence also shows the negative impact on health that doping can have on the human body and how it can and has killed young and strong athletes.

= Evidence in Economics: GDP vs GDH =

Lately, evidence in economics is abundant due to increasing convenient access to datasets and improvements in statistical methods. With traditionally quantitative data outweighing the qualitative, economics has seen a paradigm shift, with the emergence of behavioural economics, catalysing economists into research about ‘happiness’ as economic indicators.

GDP as Evidence for Economic Health
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is often the standard for measuring a nation’s productivity and overall economic health. Ways of calculating GDP and the evidence that goes with it varies. Often, data is collected on a national scale, communicating with companies through sample based surveys about their output, expenditure and income measures. However, there are limitations to using GDP as the guiding measurement of growth with many factors statistics might not take into account: Unpaid work like household work isn’t noted in official figures. Additionally income inequality is greatly disproportionate as GDP growth doesn’t represent how income is divided across demographics. Valued factors in life are not fully captured by GDP, but can be measured by metrics of areas like health and education.

GNH as Evidence for Economic Health
Economists then came to consider the palpable needs and desires of people. Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the economic philosophy that guides governments like Bhutan measuring the well-being and happiness of a population. The GNH Index includes nine domains: Psychological well being, Health, Education, Time use, Cultural diversity and resilience, Good governance, Community vitality, Ecological diversity and resilience and Living standards.

These domains are guided by Bhutan’s four pillars of spiritual growth: Good governance, Economic development, Culture and Economic conservation. The GNH can be broken down by demographics e.g. among men and among women, or by district, to show what domain is lacking in certain areas. Again, this evidence is obtained through regular sample based surveys. With the qualitative nature of the data, the subjective perspectives towards ‘happiness’ will vary with individuals. Another possible limitation of survey data usefulness is based on respondent bias. For example, if the data could represent government performance, their responses perspective may shift away from personal well-being.

= Evidence in Underwater Archaeology =

Archeology itself can be defined as the search, collection, and study of historical evidence. Underwater archeology involves the same practices, but only in regards to the evidence found underwater. Underwater archaeological sites are mainly consisted of the following four kinds: “discarded refuse and 'lost' material; submerged sites of former human occupation; shrines or places of  offerings; and shipwrecks.” Archaeological sites that are underwater are especially significant because the clues are better preserved under the surface of water compared to the ones on the land, which is called the “time-capsule-effect.”

The evidence that is searched for can be divided into three categories: “structure, sediments, and contents.” Structures give away information about certain buildings or vessels, as well as shedding light on the historical and cultural context about the period they were built in. Sediments are “geological materials formed by earth processes under ordinary surface conditions by the action of water, wind, ice, gravitation, and biological organisms.” On sites that are submerged, sediments can be crucial pieces of evidence about the landscape studied, its surrounding environment, and the people who used to inhabit it. They can help draw a clearer picture of what the site was like when it used to be on land. Lastly, the contents encompass all the objects that act as evidence on the thoughts, ways of life, and knowledge of the people that they were associated with. They might be artefacts, ecofacts, human, animal, or invertebrate remains, botanical materials, or micro-organisms.

Once the evidence is found and documented, it must be comprehended and interpreted. The methods of making use of the evidence involves looking for the answers to the following questions: “where (position and association), what (recognition, description and typology), how (context) and when (dating).” Regarding the historical evidence, both primary and secondary sources are used. However, secondary sources may reflect certain myths, and should be complemented by primary sources - “such as ships’ and lighthousekeepers’ logs” - although sometimes even those can be unreliable.

Due to the complexity of the field of underwater archaeology, a comprehensive search for evidence is critical when making conclusions, and each piece of evidence must be examined in a large context, in relation with other pieces of evidence that might have a meaningful connection.

= Evidence in Clinical Psychology: Evidence-Based Practice =

Evidence-based practice applies to many disciplines, but in clinical psychology, evidence is crucial in order to provide the best patient care.

Introduction to evidence-based practice (EBP)
According to Gray, Haynes, and Richardson (1996), evidence-based medicine is “the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.” There are three parts to evidence-based practice: best available research evidence, clinical expertise, and patient characteristics. Research evidence includes previous case studies and even evidence derived directly from previous clinical practice. This part is probably the most quantitative. The other two parts are more qualitative; clinical expertise relies on the health care professional’s skills (in this case a clinical psychologist) to treat a patient, all the while considering the patient’s individual circumstances. While both qualitative and quantitative evidence are used, the qualitative data is arguably more important in any health care field due to the fact that each patient and their concerns are different.

EBP in Clinical Psychology
Evidence-based practice is used often by psychologists when treating patients. Since psychological issues are often very complex and wide-ranging, the American Psychological Association recommends that comprehensive research from different sources (e.g. clinical observation and public health research among others) will help with treatment effectiveness. Researchers and clinical psychology practitioners should also work together to ensure the research is up-to-date and relevant. Hence, clinical psychologists are trained as scientists as well as practitioners. This allows them to have both the knowledge and the skills needed to treat a patient to the best of their abilities. Clinical psychologists also use qualitative evidence from the patient (even their sociocultural context) to set treatment goals and a likely prognosis.

The fundamental point behind evidence in clinical psychology is that the only way to determine whether a course of treatment works is through the scientific method (previous studies). For this reason, the type of data used as evidence in the practice of clinical psychology is developed over time and constantly changing.

= Cooperative Evidence in the discipline of Physics =

Introduction to Evidence
The Greek philosopher Aristotle first mentioned the concept of evidence-based reasoning approximately 350 BCE. He explained the principle by reasoning around cause and consequence. Since then, the perception of evidence has changed. Today, evidence is defined as something that supports a claim. Different academic and scientific disciplines use different sorts of evidence to support claims, such as historical evidence, mathematical evidence or empirical evidence. An interesting discipline in the aspect of evidence is physics.

Empirical Evidence
The discipline of physics uses varying types of evidence. A first example is empirical evidence. Empirical evidence is also known as experimental evidence, and it is found by conducting practical observations or experiments. Said observations or experiments have to be performed several times and a consistency in results in the different attempts is required. The practical research should also be based on a hypothesis, and the research method should be easily repeatable.

Cooperation between Empirical Evidence and Mathematical Evidence
Another way physicists can provide support for a claim is by mathematical evidence. An example in this area is the discovery of dark matter. Dark matter is matter that cannot be seen. In 1933, the astronomer Fritz Zwicky mathematically realised that galaxies did not contain enough matter for Newton’s equations of gravity to be applicable. Thereby Zwicky reached the conclusion that invisible, or dark, matter must exist. In 2006 NASA were able to identify dark matter with the use of advanced telescopes, hence additional empirical evidence supported Zwicky’s theory of dark matter.

Conclusion
To conclude, varying evidence used is in Physics. The different sorts of evidence can cooperate and provide support for each other. However, it is important to note that nothing is ever certain in the scientific world. Evidence is only a factor that provides support for a claim, meaning evidence does not promise that a claim is true. The evidence-based system of thought shows that knowledge is dynamic which is why dynamic disciplines are crucial.

= The Use of Evidence in Journalism & its Fight for Relevance in the Digital Age =

Journalism has continuously been in a perpetual state of evolution because of technological advancements. It is perceived that with the emergence of a new information-sharing platform, another one dies; therefore, the debate regarding journalism's future has been grim since the upheaval of social media. It is believed that journalists fears' are inclined towards how to attract new audiences and how to stay relevant in the new media era.

Forms of Data Journalism Uses in the New Media Era
Journalists use both quantitative and qualitative data in their writings. Multiple data gathering methods have been used since the beginning of newspapers, in the late 1400s' Europe, such as eyewitness observation, the interview. Recently, technological advancements expanded the options journalists have in collecting data-photography, videos, online interviews-making it easier to find evidence, both quantitative and qualitative in backing up stories. The type of evidence used depends on the tone of an article(politically and health-related coverages require quantitative evidence, empirical data, to stay relevant), while other articles stand out through their story, stemming from qualitative data.

How the New Media Era influences Journalism's Practice of Displaying Evidence
Journalism goes through a popularity fight, with all other media platforms, since being earnest and providing useful pieces of information is no longer required for staying relevant. The audience's availability puts pressure on how journalists structure articles because people are prone to consume media based on how easily they can access it, rather than based on their personal preferences. Since sensational headlines catch the readers' attention easily and fact-checking news information is becoming increasingly hard with the numerous online media content available, there has been a great rise in 'Fake Media'. 'Fake Media' manages to be successfully spread to a wide audience through 'relevance' algorithms which are based on popularity (the more popular a topic is, regardless of its truth value, the more it is displayed on social media). That being said, 'Breaking News' stories could become easily viral, regardless of their content (their truth value), therefore journalism can stay relevant in the digital age while providing true information to its readers.

= Paleontology and comparative biochemistry as evidence for evolution =

Paleontological investigations of fossils
Prehistoric fossils are studied as evidence of biological evolution. In observing the similarities in the anatomical composition of fossils, scientists can show how organisms have evolved from the same ancestors. Fossils are formed when animals and plant structures are preserved in a soft substance like mud or clay and over time, ‘sediment builds over the top and hardens into rock’. The different layers of sediment correspond to different ‘geological eras’, thus giving a distinguished temporal framing of each fossil, allowing scientists to place these structures sequentially. From these fossils, one can inspect the molecular biological compositions of organisms and the biogeographical patterns that are shared between species with a common ancestor, providing a baseline that can consequently be used to observe divergent evolution.

Comparative biochemistry
The study of proteins and other ‘molecular sequences’ is another significant type of evidence used in determining the relation of multiple species and how they evolved from a shared common ancestor. Species that are closely related share more common proteins and DNA. This method is often paired with palaeontology to observe shared ancestry between species. Through the inspection of the chemical compositions of organisms, researchers can use the evidence acquired to form links that demonstrate how species have evolved over periods of time. Moreover, findings of this practice can be reinforced by those of comparative anatomy, which investigates the ‘homologies, or inherited similarities among organisms’. The process is used in relation to living species due to the decomposition of certain soft-bodied organisms that are too rapid for them to be fossilised. This is exemplified in Darwin's observation of how the beaks of finches were adapted to food available on the island they inhabited, using historical developments as a baseline to observe their evolution. The development of these processes have provided credence to the evolution of species; ultimately, serving as prime evidence for it. As time goes on, scientific developments in such processes render the evidence more and more reliable.

=Evidence in Behavioral Economics=

Behavioral Economics reunites mainly Psychology, Social Studies and Economics to understand how psychological, cultural, emotional and social context can lead to a certain choice from a consumer. This discipline reunites Three others that traditionally use different type of evidence.

Evidence in Economics
For the Economics part, it is more about studying the result of all the factors we talked about on the consumer. While psychological, cultural, emotional and social context can’t ( exactly) be observed in action, we need to look at their consequences to understand them better. Pure quantitative Evidence that shows the concret dimension of a consumer habit : his spendings. What does he buy ? How much does he buy ? How often ? Indeed, it is all about measures and numbers.

The main tools used to calculate these habits are data. For example, if we want to see the effect of a a passing on a consumer’s habit, we can compare their expense before the passing and after. Creating a ratio for each kind of products bought and see which category is the more affected by looking at the ratio obtained helps to understand how a consumer changed (or not) his spending habits.

But Economics and data can only see things ‘all things apart’, which means that by only looking at numbers, you may fail to notice that there is a pattern in this habit or that a factor considered as minor had a bigger impact then it should have.

Evidence in Psychology
When Economics says that a choice is mainly the result of an unconscious calculus between benefit and cost, Psychology and neuroscience say otherwise. Qualitative Evidence shows how one’s preference evolve when you change factors like price, emotion, social context,... changes that could be considered as irrational following. For example, Dan Ariely led an experiment which showed that people Automatically valued something labeled as ‘Free’, ‘A free chocolate is disproportionately more attractive relative to a $0.14 chocolate than a $0.01 chocolate is compared to one priced at $0.15‘. These kind of social experiment offers qualitative evidence for the analysis of consumer behavior. The evolution of ethics have improved the condition of th

Polls, surveys, interviews or experiments like Ariely’s and observation are tools that help to understand the process in someone’s psychology that will maje him choose something economics say he wouldn’t choose over something economics say he would choose.

Evidence in Social Sciences
Social science is defined by Britannica as ‘any branch of academic study or science that deals with human behaviour in its social and cultural aspects’. As this discipline is about understanding behavior Or social phenomena ( things that we can’t evaluate or measure), Social sciences are usually associated with Qualitative evidence. It indeed use the same tools as Psychology for example ( it’s also since Psychology is one of the roots of social Science). Social sciences applied to Behavioral economics also use ‘Behavioral Experiments ‘. For instance, Gary Charness made a book of all the social behavioral experiments he has done, assembling a lot of important data. In one of them he explores the decrease in someone’s willingness to sacrifice when other adopt unfair behavior or don’t sacrifice as much. It’s called the reciprocity motive. This motive couldn’t have been Underlined by the economics or psychology Evidence as it requires to not focus on people’s brain or consuming habits, but to focus on his behavior in and towards society.

= References =

[22] NCBI, "Performance enhancing hormone doping in sport", David J. Handelsman, last updated on February 29, 2020 [23] The Guardian, "Sport doping study revealing wider usage published after 'scandelous' delay", Nicola Davis, Tuesday 29 August 2017. [24] Michael Kummer, "Is doping unfair and why athletes do it ?", Michael Kummer, September 2, 2013, last updated october 9 2020. [25] ASADA, "Danger of doping" [26] The Guardian, "Blood doping : what is it and has anyone died as a result of it ?" , Haroon Siddique, Dunday 2 august 2015.