text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2023/Cuba

Introduction to Streetcars
Streetcar is a rail-based vehicle that is operated on the laid track transporting passengers across streets and cities, and it was a chief public transit mode in the past for many countries and cities in North America. The streetcars at the initial stage were run by horses or powered by a battery. These operation methods were inefficient and high cost. However, the invention of generators allowed streetcars to be continuously powered along the track by the electrified wires placed above the laid tracks. Cuba is one of the earliest countries to construct railways. The streetcar railway system in Havana used a twin trolley pole that was only used by a few in the World, but they also used a single trolley pole in the suburban network.

The Impact of Streetcars
The streetcar was a significant development of transport over horse-drawn vehicles. Similar to horse-drawn vehicles, the first developed streetcar was pulled by horse along the rail. However, the wheels were carefully designed and manufactured to provide a much more comfortable ride than the previous vehicles and to prevent the wheels from rolling off the track. Moreover, a streetcar pulled by a single horse on a rail was bigger and transported more passengers in comparison to the previous vehicles. Therefore, with the low fare, streetcars provided easier access to travel greater distances for all people, especially the middle class for any purpose, such as going to work, to market, or to do social activities.

Horsecar
The horse-drawn streetcar was the initial form of a streetcar that are powered by overhead electrified wires. It is an animal-powered streetcar. Cuba was one of the first countries to use the streetcar system. The horsecar line opened on the 3rd of February 1858. But these trams were designed to only carry freights. On 20th September 1859, horse-drawn streetcars for passengers were added. Havana, the Capital of Cuba was the second city in Latin America to operate the tram system. By 1865, 32 passenger streetcars and 16 freight streetcars were operating in Havana with a total track length of 17 kilometres. However, there were evident limitations to using horsecar to transport goods and people in Cuba. This is because of the limited hours a single animal can run the streetcar, and the horses required caring, which includes grooming, feeding, cleaning and providing shelters or barns for the horses to rest. Moreover, in order to carry passengers and freights for several kilometres, it is reported that each streetcar required more than ten horses to provide stable and secured travel. Therefore, the horsecar system was inefficient and expensive for both operation and management.

Evolving Markets in Cuba
The first railway boom occurred from 1830 to 1868. In 1830, Cuba was already preparing for railroad transports as they were one of the first countries to operate streetcars. In this era, Cuba was a colony of Spain, so the investment into railway transport was supported by the Spanish high authorities and Cuban elites. The first railway tracks were laid between Havana, Güines, and major sugar-producing areas during that time. In this period, Cuba was the main producer of sugar in the World, producing and selling greater than 6 million metric tonnes of sugar to the World annually. So, the main purpose of the railway construction was to improve sugar transportation across the World. Later on, the use of railway transport extended from goods to goods and people. From 1827 to 1877, the population of Cuba was more than doubled, where the population was 704,487 in 1827 and 1,509,291 in 1877. Due to the significant population growth in Cuba, more towns are developed around the main cities, and transportation of people became more significant. And also efficient and bigger transport modes were required to carry more passengers at a time. Therefore, the government invested in passenger streetcars to meet the needs of the people and began operating developed streetcars, such as streetcars with overhead electrified wires, as introduced in the above sections.

Invention of a Streetcar
Frank J. Sprague is the inventor who installed a large electric streetcar system in Richmond, Virginia, in 1888. Sprague worked for Thomas Edison in 1883 to help Edison develop electric lighting. But Sprague showed his interest in electric traction, so he quit working for Edison and became a founder of 'Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company'. During this period, Sprague invented a constant-speed and non-sparking motor with fixed brushes and a regenerative braking system. Regenerative braking allows returning of power to the main supply body through the use of drive motors, which he verified that it is beneficial and practical to be used in streetcars.

These inventions created in 1885 by Sprague significantly improved the design of the streetcars at that time. Sprague's inventions allowed them to design streetcars powered by overhead electrified wires and major improvements on the streetcar motors, gears and also the previous trolley pole design that was introduced by Charles V Depoele in 1885. Then, his electric streetcar system replaced most of the relatively inefficient horsecars in less than a year.

Early Market Development
The initial market niche of a streetcar in Cuba was the buyer and seller of sugar. At that time, Cuba sold more than 6 million metric tonnes of sugar annually, so the first railways were constructed in the sugar production areas and the big cities like Havana to allow faster and easier transport of sugar across the country and the World. Therefore, the first streetcars were freight streetcars, whereas passenger streetcars were later added to the railway system to expand the market niche of streetcars in Cuba from transporting goods to both goods and people. The total length of the track was 17 kilometres during that period.

In 1921, the first closed streetcar constructed by HER, Havana Electric Railway began its operation. It had an arch roof and an additional side window compared to the previous streetcars which had 8 side windows. The new design improved passenger safety and comfort and the advertisement emphasised its speed, convenience in travel, and safety of riding the closed streetcar. This is evident through the message written in the advertisement, which is translated into English as "VERY IMPORTANT. YOUR TIME IS WORTH MONEY. TAKE THE FIRST CAR AND ASK FOR A TRANSFER AT THE APPROPRIATE INTERSECTION . . . TRAVELING BY STREETCAR IS HAVING LIFE INSURANCE WITHOUT BUYING A POLICY" .

Birthing Phase
The very first streetcar only carried freights, and the first passenger streetcar was added on 20th September 1859. The initial passenger streetcar track was laid from Havana to Carmelo 16 days before the opening of the first passenger streetcar. Then in 1859, the Havana urban railway lines extended to Cerro and Jesús del Monte. A year after, the Urban Railway of Havana, 'Ferro Carril Urbano de la Habana' formed Urban railway and Omnibus of Havana, 'Empresa del Ferro-Carril Urbano y Omnibus de La Habana' by merging with the coach company. And in 6 years after the opening of the passenger streetcar system, Havana railway ran 32 passenger and 16 freight streetcars with a total track length of 17 kilometres.

The streetcar system began to grow, and with the increasing population, Havana urban railway ordered large 8-wheel streetcars from Stephenson Company in New York and six steam locomotives from Baldwin. In 1873, the horse-drawn streetcars were replaced by these new streetcars on the Camelo line. In 1882, mule-drawn streetcars on other lines stopped due to the delays on the waterfront, and another line to Castillo del Príncipe was constructed to expand the railway track. As time passed, the Urban railway of Cuba, 'Ferro Carril Urbano' tried to install electrified wires above the track to upgrade the railway system. However, the plan failed by conflict occurred between Cuba and Spain. Four days after the Spanish-American War, when Cuba became independent from Spain, the Urban railway of Cuba, 'Ferro Carril Urbano' sold its railway to the American, Canadian, and French syndicate for 1,472,000 pesos. They gathered and founded the Havana Electric Railway company, HER in January 1899.

Growth Phase
In 1900, HER started to construct electric plants and bought 110 single-truck electric streetcars with twin trolley systems from Jackson & Sharp company in the US. The Twin trolley system is used to protect the underground pipes from heavy rains as the electric current from the overhead electrified wires can be insulated by the ground. The first electric line was constructed from Havana to San Juan de Dios at the beginning of 1901. At the end of 1901, the entire 110 electric streetcars were delivered from Jackson & Sharp company and the electric liens opened in every existing line. So, greater movement with electric streetcars was allowed all over the city. The standard track gauge was recorded as 1435mm in Havana. As the horse-drawn streetcars experienced congestion on the waterfront, they constructed an elevated railway over the waterfront area, 'Calle San Pedro' to solve the severe congestion problem. From 1906, Her built streetcars in Havana by purchasing trucks from McGuire and Brills, and motors from General Electric. And By 1913, HER operated 372 streetcars. When enough streetcars were on the track operating all over the cities, HER constructed the first closed streetcar in 1921 that consists of an arch roof and 9 side windows to improve passenger comfort. This streetcar had an additional window compared to the previous streetcar. Then, all of the existing streetcars were reconstructed to the new design and also the later built streetcars were built to this design. In Havana, 578 streetcars operated on a track with a total length of 244 kilometres at the end. After 1925, there were no new streetcars or tracks constructed and since 1901, the streetcar fare remained at 5 cents.

Maturity and Decline
From 1925, buses and jitneys began to operate and followed the streetcar tracks and took the streetcar passengers as they had the advantage of being unrestricted on the track or railway. With the following national wide strike in 1933, streetcar ridership reduced from 140 million to 69 million passengers by 1935. In 1940, the elevated railway at 'Calle San Pedro' has disassembled due to the reduction in ridership of streetcars. However, during World War II, the ridership of streetcars increased significantly, as oils and tires were restricted and buses couldn't operate without oil. But after the war, oils and tires were unrestricted again and buses operated in Cuba again. Therefore, streetcar ridership decreased back. In 1949, HER replaced old streetcars with 44 secondhand streetcars from Newark, New Jersey. But they couldn't reach the breakeven point and HER proclaimed bankruptcy in mid-1950. A company called Autobuses Modernos S.A. purchased HER and they operated the streetcar system until the 29th of April 1952, when Havana's last streetcar, number 388 operated.

Reinventing Streetcars
In the past, streetcars were the main transport that allowed passengers to travel between cities and towns. But as new transports with greater travel advantages, such as buses began to operate around the country, streetcars lost their competition and lost their passengers. The main reason is the restricted movement of streetcars, as they can only move on the installed railway. In the current World, trains and buses are the main transports to travel between cities. But as the cities grow, some large cities require a long time walking from one end to the other end, such as from Sydney Chinatown to Myer Sydney City, where they are located at the end to another end of Town Hall. Therefore a light rail is installed on this route that is used by many people in Sydney City. The difference between Sydney City light rail is that passengers use light rail to travel inside a large city. But in the past, since the large cities were not as big as the current large cities, buses were more effective in travelling as their movements are not restricted by the railway. Therefore, the Sydney City light rail is good evidence of reinventing streetcars so that they provide services that meets the needs of the people.

Methodology
A quantitative analysis of the Cuban streetcar network is performed to overview the life-cycle of the streetcar system in Cuba. In this analysis, sufficient streetcar railway length in miles by years is required and only Havana Electric Railway, HER in Havana provided enough data to perform an analysis. The data is sourced from McGraw Electric Railway Manual - the red book of American street railway investment from 1902 to 1920 and the few missing data were estimated using linear interpolation.

There are birthing, growth, mature, and decline phases in every life-cycle of a technology and these phases of the Cuban streetcar system are approximated in this section. The obtained data are used to estimate the three-parameter logistics function to create an S-curve.

S(t) = Smax/[1+exp(-b(t-ti)]

where:

 * S(t) is the status measure,  (track length in miles)
 * t is time (in years),
 * ti is the inflection time (year in which 1/2 Smax is achieved),
 * Smax is saturation status level, and
 * b is a coefficient to be estimated.

The saturation status level, Smax is unknown for HER as the data after 1920 is inaccessible. Therefore, random trial and error has been conducted to obtain the best value of Smax based on the values of each R-squared and t-statistic. The predicted track length is estimated by using single variable linear regression to obtain the estimated c and b values as shown below.

Y = bX + c

Where:

 * Y = ln(length / Smax - length)
 * X = Year

Havana
The regression result shows that the saturation length from the analysis is 160 miles, and the half the saturation is achieved in early 1916. The predicted track lengths displayed in the graph seems moderately accurate as the general trend of the actual and predicted track length lines are not perfectly alike. The R-squared value of this model is 0.85, which is acceptable for this model, and the greatest difference is approximately 15 miles from the year, 1917. The reason for the minor inaccuracy in the model is the missing data and limited accessibility of the data, as the data before 1902 and after 1920 are unobtainable.

From the graph, it is assumed that the birthing phase of the Havana strreetcar is from 1902 to 1913 as the total track length only increased slightly in this period. The graph shows a significant increase in the track length of the Havana streetcar from 1913 to 1920, which is estimated to be the growth phase. And the mature phase of the Havana streetcar is from 1920 and onwards, however, this is not accurate as the data after 1920 was unavailable from the McGraw Electric Railway Manual.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. c4/2...d5/3. exd5

= Accelerated Panov Attack =

Theory Table
.

1.e4 c6 2.c4 d5


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. c4/2...d5/3. exd5/3...cxd5

=Accelerated Panov Attack=

Theory Table
.

1.e4 c6 2.c4 d5


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. c4/2...d5/3. exd5/3...cxd5/4. cxd5

= Accelerated Panov Attack =

4. cxd5
White and black has now traded pawns. The most usual move here is 4...Qxd5, but black can choose to play 4...Nf6, which is the modern variation.

Theory Table
.

1.e4 c6 2.c4 d5


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2023/Philippine Islands

Technological Characteristics
The streetcar, which is also called a tram or a trolley, is an urban rail transit mode traversing on tramway tracks on the public streets. In the Philippines, the first streetcar system that was implemented during the Spanish colonial period were horse-drawn cars. This was eventually supplemented by steam-powered cars then by electricity-powered cars during the American Colonial period.

Advantages of Streetcar
The main advantages of streetcar system in the Philippines during its operation are as follows:

 * Higher passenger capacity than horse-drawn carriages (e.g., calesa, carruaje, and carromata);

 * Longer distance travelled for steam-powered and electric-powered streetcars as compared to horse-drawn carriages; and

 * Cheaper fare rate due to economies of scale given that streetcar can carry more passengers.

Market
The main market of the implementation of streetcar system in Manila were passengers and commuters traveling from the areas surrounding the Manila area going to the Intramuros, which was the center of economic activity during the Spanish Colonial period.

Transportation Mode Before The Streetcar System
During the 1800s, that was before the introduction of streetcars system in the Philippines, there existed (although some are still plying the streets of Manila to this day) other urban transportation modes that were used to carry people around the streets of Manila. These transport modes were mostly horse-drawn, consisting of the following: The animal-drawn carriages were only able to transport and carry goods and passengers for short distances. Cubeiro (2018) made a comparison of the carriage transport fare rates and found that carriages were more expensive than the streetcar. This is considering that riding the carriage, specifically the carruaje, catered passengers with highest social status. Moreover, streetcar fares were charged per distance travelled while horse-drawn carriages were charged per time travelled.

Early Market Development
The summary of the conception of the Philippine mass transit during the Spanish Colonial Period (1875-1896), particularly on the birth of railways system, is summarized in the timeline below: The City of Manila as the capital of the Philippines turned out to be the center of Spanish government that started in the 1500s. As such, the economic growth of Manila City increased significantly that resulted in the rapid growth in its population. This movement of people from the surrounding areas to the city was supported by the implementation of the streetcar system.

Government Policy
To realize the implementation of the streetcar system in Manila, the Philippine government, on April 22, 1881, awarded the concession to the La Compañia de Tranvías de Filipinas, which was formed thereafter in 1882 by a Filipino entrepreneur Jocobo Zobel de Zangroniz, Spanish engineer Luciano M. Brenon, and Spanish banker Adolfo Bayo. From 1885 to 1889, the proposed five streetcar lines were constructed. However, in 1882, the La Compañia de Tranvías de Filipinas modified the proposal to pass through Binondo bridge thus replacing the Malacañang route to Malabon route. Moreover, it was determined that the Malacañang route would not meet the projected ridership demand, hence the modification to Malabon Line.

Rolling Stock
The total length of the first tranvías line was 16.3 kilometers (km) long and comprised of 4 horse-drawn lines and 1 steam-powered line. The tramway length and the tram engine design for each line of the first tranvías were as follows:

Private Sector Contribution in the Streetcar System Capacity Expansion
The Malabon-Manila Line, a steam-powered line, became more successful and profitable than the horse-drawn lines. The success of this line was due to its high patronage and usage rate from transporting goods from the industries that existed in its surrounding cities and municipalities (e.g., Navotas). This included industries such as the cigar-making shops, milkfish farms, and sugar mills. Subsequently, in 1889, the Malabon-Manila Line expanded its capacity and served three classifications of passengers: i) passengers paying 20 cents; ii) passengers paying 10 cents; and iii) passengers paying 5 cents. During the Spanish administration, the Malabon-Manila Line operated 4 trains with 2 cars in each line (both direction). Aside from the capacity expansion, the frequency of trips also increased to serve the increase in the number of passengers travelling by streetcars. The lines operated in an hourly service each direction. Meanwhile, the operating hours of the Malabon-Manila Line coming from the Tondo station started at 5:30AM until 7:30PM while trips from Malabon station began at 6:00AM until 8:00PM.

On September 26, 1889, Zobel designed a new steam-powered streetcar line that would link Binondo, Manila to Santa Ana, Manila and applied for a 60-year concession under La Compañia de Tranvías de Filipinas. This was inspired by the success of Malabon-Manila Line. In 1890, Zobel presented the proposed line, which was drawn by Architect Joaquín Barraquer Puig, to the government. Moreover, a proposed extension of the Malabon-Manila Line to the Plaza of Old Tambobong Tobacco Factory was also presented to the Government. Moreover, in 1893, due to the rise in tram ridership from Sampaloc to Tondo, Zobel requested an expansion and extension in the tramway line, which was later approved by the government in 1895 by granting the concession. The concession involved the extension of the line from the Plaza de la Iglesia de Tambobong Tobacco Factory connecting to the Plaza of Old Tambobong Tobacco Factory.

American Colonial Period (1900-1945)
The Philippines proclaimed and declared its independence from the Spanish administration on June 12, 1898. However, this also marked the arrival of new colonizers that instigated the transformations of the tramway system in the Philippines. The forces of the Unites States of America (USA) arrived in the Philippines after it won the conflict and claimed the country under the Treaty of Paris. In 1902, the aftermath of the war between the Filipinos and Americans significantly impacted the operations of the tranvía system.

The La Compañia de Tranvías de Filipinas discontinued the expansion of improvement of the tranvía network due to the uncertainty for a possible extension of the concession to operate the tranvía system. Furthermore, the control over the operation of the Malabon-Manila Line was taken over by the US Army. The US Army changed the Line’s name to “Kansas & Utah Short Line” which was used to control the movement of its troops in Manila and its surrounding cities. Aside from this, the number of streetcars that plied the five lines drastically decreased from the hourly services to an average of 10 streetcars operated per day.

Government Policy
In 1902, a law was created by the Philippine Commission to alleviate the rising environmental concerns regarding the outdated horse-car system and the declining economic growth. The law allowed winning bidders to take over the construction and operation of the tramway facilities of the La Compañia de Tranvías de Filipinas. Under the Ordinance 44 passed by the Municipal Board of Manila on March 24, 1903, the concession was granted to Charles M. Swift of Detroit, and American investor. Subsequently, Swift, and other American investors created the Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company (MERALCO) and acquired the assets of the La Compañia de Tranvías de Filipinas to take over the streetcar operations. In 1904, the Malabon-Manila Line was demilitarized then managed under MERALCO’s concession.

Development of a Completely Electric Streetcar System
In 1905, MERALCO operated a streetcar system that was completely run by electricity with a length of 63 km (39 miles). The streetcar networks were operating in a standard gauge, double-tracked system with a maximum of 500 Voltage for its overhead catenary to power the vehicles. Under the concession contract granted under the Ordinance 44, MERALCO had to construct an additional 12 rail lines within two years starting from the signing of the contract to expand the company’s transport services from the already existing five tranvía lines.

By 1925, the whole streetcar network was operating while navigating other areas within Metro Manila, including, among others, streets in Manila (Escolta, San Nicolas, Binondo, Quiapo, Tondo, Santa Mesa, Sampaloc, and Nicolas), Malabon, and Caloocan. To accommodate and complement the increasing transport needs, fleets with bigger streetcars (closed sides and double-wheeled trucks) were added to the system. To salvage the 15-year-old railway system, the government, together with MERALCO, undertook a five-year reconstruction program to design and manufacture streetcars. The fleet consisted of 170 cars.

End of the Manila Tranvia System
In the 1940s, the World War II caused severe damages to the services and facilities of the Manila Tranvia System. This left the streetcars poorly serviced and maintained. Then, in the Battle of Manila in February 1945 against the Imperial Japanese Army, Manila became one of the cities that were severely devastated and destroyed. The war severely affected the Metropolitan Manila that resulted in the complete termination of the operations and services of the Manila Tranvia System. The onslaught of World War II and Battle of Manila left the Manila Tranvia System into an irrecoverable state. The cost for the repair of the damaged facilities of the tranvia system immensely exceeded the construction and procurement of a new infrastructure, thus, the state of the tranvia system became beyond economical repair. MERALCO then scrapped the remaining fleets and dismantled the tracks. Thus, the tranvia was out of business.

Alternative Transportation Mode in Manila
Due to the termination and dismantlement of the services and operation of the tranvia system, the demand for transportation within the Metropolitan Manila during the war was served by army jeeps, which became the existing public utilitily vehicles (PUV) or the jeepneys in the Philippines. Currently, the jeepneys traverse the route of the old tranvia system serving the commuting public in Manila and its surrounding cities.

Opportunity to "Re-invent" the Mode
While the revival of tranvia system or similar technology (i.e., streetcar and tramway) did not materialize, the government implemented better mass transportation systems to service the increasing travel demand in the country. This includes the construction and operation of light rail transit systems and commuter rail services that traverse different cities and provinces. Moreover, to complement the jeepney services, other types of PUVs also operate in the streets of Manila such as buses, taxis and other ride hailing services, tricycles, among others. In comparison to the cost of the revival of tranvia system or the construction of a new tramway, the implementation of PUVs require cheaper investment cost. Thus, the rapid growth of a more convenient and cheaper mode of transport, such as PUVs, magnified the cost of reestablishing the tranvia system.

Quantitative Analysis
Using the track length data of the Manila Tranvías System that were constructed under the Spanish Colonial Period (1875-1896) gathered from various journals and websites as well as the track length data constructed during the American Colonial Period (1900-1945) recorded in the "McGraw electric railway manual - the red book of American street railway investment," the S-curve is generated to identify the life cycle stages (i.e., birth, growth, maturity, and decline) of the development of streetcar as a transportation mode in Manila, Philippines. The three-parameter function fitted to the data is presented in the equation below:

$${\displaystyle S(t)=K/[1+exp(-b(t-t_{i}))]}$$

Wherein: To estimate the saturation status level/final market size, $${\displaystyle K}$$, and the coefficient, $${\displaystyle b}$$, the Ordinary Least Squares Regression is used. The coefficients are calculated using the slope intercept formula:

$${\displaystyle Y=bX+c}$$Wherein:

S-Curve and Life Cycle Stage of the Manila Tranvia System
The resulting s-curve and life cycle analysis graphs as well as the output of the regression analysis are as follows:

Manila Tranvia System S-Curve and Life Cycle Stage (1883-1920)

The figure (below) illustrates the S-Curve and the life cycle stages of the Manila Tranvia System based on the track length completed and operated from 1883 to1920. In comparison with the predicted track length, the actual total track length of the Manila Tranvia System presents a good fit while reflecting the growth and maturity life cycle stages. The birth stage started during the conception of the Manila Tranvia System, which was before 1883 as mentioned earlier in the birth stage of this page. Meanwhile, there are numerous growth stages (i.e., when the actual mileage is above the s-curve line) that can be observed in the S-Curve that happened from 1885 to 1889 when all the five lines were completed and opened. Also, there was a steep growth from 1901 to 1904 when the government started transitioning horse-powered tram lines to electric-powered. The maturity stages (i.e., the actual mileage intersects and under the s-curve), on the other hand, entered after 1889 and 1903 when there were no expansion for several years. The maturity stage also coincides with the inflection point at 1903 as calculated using the regression analysis (see Table 1). The decline stage was beyond the time frame with available data. However, the system ceased its operation after the World War II due the severe damage in its facilities. The S-curve is sliced into two graphs to reflect the stages during the Spanish colonial period and American colonial period.

Manila Tranvia System: Life Cycle Stages during the Spanish Colonial Period.
The birth stage started during the planning stage of the tranvia system. The tranvia system started operation in 1883 as can be seen in the graph (below).

The prediction has a good fit. Moreover, the growth stage started in 1885 when the lines started opening to the public as mode of transport in Manila. The maturity stage, on the other hand, started in 1887, i.e., the year where the inflection point coincides (See Table 2). The length of the tranvia system remained the same until the arrival of the Americans in 1900.

Manila Tranvia System: Life Cycle Stages during the American Colonial Period
The prediction has a good fit. The growth stage started in 1901 when the horse-powered lines were converted to electric-powered trams due to environmental concerns brought about by the outdated technology. Moreover, electric tramways accommodated large areas, thus, the increase in ridership and patronage.The maturity stage started in 1903, i.e., the year where the inflection point coincides (See Table 3). The length of the tranvia system remained the same until 1912 then it expanded which went beyond the predicted length as can be seen in the graph (above). The decline stage is not reflected as data was not available. After the World War II, the tranvia system was closed and then stopped operating.

Conclusion
The Manila Tranvia System underwent all the stages of its technological life cycle. From the conception and planning of the construction and implementation of the tranvia system, the growth of the system through the expansion of its services to serve the increasing ridership demand in Manila during the Spanish and American colonial periods as well as the transition to the new technology (i.e., from animal-drawn carriages to electric tramway lines), and the termination of operation after the World War II. Moreover, the revival of the system was deemed financially and economically infeasible that resulted in the shift to PUVs such as the rise of the jeepney system and other mass transit system (e.g., light rails, heavy rails, buses, among others).


text:
Talk:A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program/AS2023

modifications
does anyone know any modifications for the code

2001:8F8:1335:2206:20AB:9D01:6687:6AC0 (discuss) 11:27, 17 March 2023 (UTC)


text:
User talk:174.130.21.74

Kids

Disruptive test edits
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title: User talk:174.130.21.74


text:
User talk:80.3.202.173

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 09:38, 18 March 2023 (UTC)

Disruptive edits and block
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title: User talk:80.3.202.173


text: Talk:Wikimedia/Wikinews

title: Talk:Wikimedia/Wikinews


text:
Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/petal

Petal of the Leau-Fatou flower

definition of the petal

"The petals ... are interesting not only because they give a rather good intuitive idea of the dynamics that arise near a parabolic point, but also because that the dynamic of f0 on a petal can be linearized, i.e., it is conjugated to the shift map T of C defined by T(w) := w + 1." (Laurea Triennale )

 * There is no unified definition of petals
 * "The petals are Jordan domains invariant by $$f^q$$" R PEREZ-MARCO (where q is a child period. and parabolic c parameter is a root point between parent and child component of Mandelbrot set)
 * Petal is trap which captures any orbit tending to parabolic point
 * petal is a part of the flower

Petal of a flower can be:
 * attracting / repelling
 * small/alfa/big/ (small attracting petals do not ovelap with repelling petals, but big do)

Each petal is invariant under f^period. In other words it is mapped to itself by f^period.

Attracting petal P is a:
 * Each petal is invariant under $$f^n $$. In other words it is mapped to itself by $$f^n $$: $$f^n(\overline{P}) \subset P \cup \left\{ p \right\} $$
 * domain (topological disc) containing:
 * parabolic periodic point p in its boundary $$\overline{P} \ni \left\{ p \right\} $$ (precisely in its root, which is a common points of all attracting and repelling petals = center of the Lea-Fatou flower)
 * critical point or it's n=period images on the other side (only small ??)
 * trap which captures any orbit tending to parabolic point
 * set contained inside component of filled-in Julia set. The attracting petals of parabolic fixed point are contained in it's basin of attraction
 * " ... is maximal with respect to this property. This preferred petal P max always has one or more critical points on its boundary."
 * "an attracting petal is the interior of an analytic curve which lies entirely in the Fatou set, has the right tangency property at the fixed point, and is mapped into its interior by the correct power of the map" Scott Sutherland
 * "... an attracting petal is a set of points in a sufficient small disk around the periodic point whose forward orbits always remain in the disk under powers of return map." (W P Thurston: On the geometry and dynamics of Iterated rational maps)

Petals $$P_j$$ are symmetric with respect to the d-1 directions:

$$ arg(z) = \frac{2 \Pi l}{d - 1}  $$

where:
 * d is (to do)
 * l is from 0 to d-2

Petals can have different size.

If $$\lambda^n = 1 $$ then Julia set should approach parabolic periodic point in n directions, between n petals.

"Using the language of holomorphic dynamics, people would say that you are studying the dynamics of a polynomial near the parabolic fixed point $$z=0$$. By a simple linear change of variables, the study of any such parabolic fixed point can be reduced to the study of $$z \mapsto z+z^{2}+O(z^3)$$. Then you can apply another change $$w=-\frac{1}{z}$$. Thus you are reduced to the study of $$f(w)=w+1+O(1/w)$$. If the real part $Re(w)$ is large enough you will obtain $$f^{n}(w)=w+n+O(\log n)$$. This will give you what you want (when going back to the z-variable).

The domain $$Re(w)>R$$ (for large $$R$$) looks like some kind of cardioid (in your particular case) when you visualize it in the z-variable (it's poetically called an attracting petal)." Sylvain Bonnot

Constructing the petal

Trap parameters:
 * shape
 * center
 * size

How to choose size of attracting trap such that level curves cross at critical point ?

Target set for the components for child period:
 * 1 and 2 target set can be circle with parabolic fixed point on it's boundary ( target set is inside component )
 * for period 3 and higher ( p > 2) target set is a triangle fragment of the circle with center at parabolic fixed point.

0/1 or 1/1
First attracting petal is a circle with:
 * center on the x axis
 * radius = (cabs(zf) + cabs(z))/2

Other (bigger) attracting petals are preimages of first petal which include first petal.

where:
 * z is the last point of critical orbit.
 * zf is a fixed point.

1/2
circular attracting petal:
 * center is between fixed point and critical point.
 * radius smaller than half of the distance between fixed and critical point.

1/3
Method by Scott Sutherland:
 * choose the connected component containing the critical point
 * find an analytic curve which lies entirely in the Fatou set, has the right tangency property at the fixed point, and is mapped into its interior by the correct power of the map
 * the other two are just the image of this curve under the first and second iterates.

Number of petals

For quadratic polynomials:

Multiplicity = ParentPeriod + ChildPeriod

NumberOfPetals = multiplicity - ParentPeriod

It is because in parabolic case fixed point coincidence with periodic cycle. Length of cycle (child period) is equal to number of petals.

For other polynomial maps:

For f(z)= -z+z^(p+1) parabolic flower has:
 * 2p petals for p odd
 * p petals for p even

... (to do)


text: Category:Pet recipes

title: Category:Pet recipes


text:
Analytic Combinatorics/Tauberian Theorem

Introduction
'Tauberian' refers to a class of theorems with many applications. The full scope of Tauberian theorems is too large to cover here.

We prove here only a particular Tauberian theorem due to Hardy, Littlewood and Karamata, which is useful in analytic combinatorics.

Theorem
Theorem due to Hardy.

If $$f(y) \sim y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1})$$ as $$y \to 0$$, where $$\sigma > 0$$ and $$L(y)$$ is a slowly varying function, then $$a_n \sim \frac{n^{\sigma-1}}{\Gamma(\sigma)} L(n)$$ when $$n \to \infty$$.

Bear in mind that if $$f(x) = \sum a_n x^n = \frac{1}{(1 - x)^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - x})$$ we can convert it to a General Dirichlet series (without changing the value of the coefficients we are interested in) by the substitution $$x = e^{-y}$$ such that
 * $$f(y) = \sum a_n (e^{-y})^n = \frac{1}{(1 - e^{-y})^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - e^{-y}}) \sim y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1})$$

as $$y \to 0$$.

This gives us
 * $$[x^n]\frac{1}{(1 - x)^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - x}) \sim \frac{n^{\sigma-1}}{\Gamma(\sigma)} L(n)$$

which is the form it is given in Flajolet and Sedgewick 2009, pp. 435.

Proof
Proof due to Hardy.

If $$f(x) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - x}) = \sum_0^\infty a_n x^n$$ then this method actually finds the asymptotic estimate of $$s_n = \sum_{i=0}^n a_i$$ after which we can find $$a_n$$ by $$s_n - s_{n-1}$$ or by finding $$s_n$$ in $$(1 - x) f(x)$$.

Let $$a(t)$$ be a step function where $$a(n) - a(n-1) = a_n$$, $$a(n) = \sum_{i=0}^n a_i$$ and $$a(0) = 0$$.

 * $$a(y^{-1}) = \int_0^{y^{-1}} da(t)$$

Using integration by parts :
 * $$\int_0^{y^{-1}} da(t) = a(y^{-1}) - a(0) - \int_0^{y^{-1}} a(t) d1 = a(y^{-1})$$

Because $$a(0) = \int_0^{y^{-1}} a(t) d1 = 0$$.

If $$g(x) = x^{-1} \quad (e^{-1} \leq x \leq 1), \quad g(x) = 0 \quad (0 \leq x < e^{-1})$$ then

 * $$\int_0^{y^{-1}} da(t) = \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t)$$

Because when $$0 \leq t \leq y^{-1}$$ then $$e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt})$$ ranges from $$e^{-1} g(e^{-1})$$ to $$e^0 g(e^0)$$ so $$e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) = \frac{e^{yt}}{e^{yt}} = 1$$ and when $$t > y^{-1}$$ then $$e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) = 0$$.

Lemma 1

 * $$\int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t) \sim \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt$$

as $$y \to 0$$.

To prove this we need two further lemmas.

Lemma 2

 * $$\int_0^\infty e^{-yt} Q(e^{-yt}) da(t) \sim \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} Q(e^{-t}) dt$$

where $$Q$$ is any polynomial and as $$y \to 0$$.

 * $$\int_0^\infty e^{-yt} Q(e^{-yt}) da(t) = \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} (\cdots + e^{-ytn} + \cdots) da(t) = \int_0^\infty \cdots + \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} e^{-ytn} da(t) + \int_0^\infty \cdots$$

 * $$\int_0^\infty e^{-yt} e^{-ytn} da(t) = \int_0^\infty e^{-(n + 1)yt} da(t) \sim (n + 1)^{-\sigma} y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{(n + 1)y})$$

as $$y \to 0$$ by assumption in the theorem.

 * $$(n + 1)^{-\sigma} y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{(n + 1)y}) \sim (n + 1)^{-\sigma} y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{y})$$

by definition of slowly varying function.

 * $$(n + 1)^{-\sigma} y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{y}) = y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{y}) \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} \int_0^\infty e^{-t} e^{-tn} t^{\sigma-1} dt$$

 * $$\cdots + y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{y}) \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} \int_0^\infty e^{-t} e^{-tm} t^{\sigma-1} dt + y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{y}) \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} \int_0^\infty e^{-t} e^{-tn} t^{\sigma-1} dt + \cdots = y^{-\sigma} L(\frac{1}{y}) \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} \int_0^\infty e^{-t} Q(e^{-t}) t^{\sigma-1} dt$$

Lemma 3
If $$g(x)$$ is real-valued and Riemann integrable in the open interval $$(0, 1)$$ and $$\sigma > 0$$ then there exist polynomials $$p(x)$$ and $$P(x)$$ such that $$p(x) < g(x) < P(x)$$ and

 * $$\int_0^1 (P(x) - p(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx = \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} (P(e^{-t}) - p(e^{-t})) dt < \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

Construct continuous functions $$h$$ and $$H$$ such that

 * $$h \leq g \leq H, \quad \int_0^1 (H - g) dx < \epsilon, \quad \int_0^1 (g - h) dx < \epsilon$$

Then

 * $$\int_0^1 (H - g) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < \epsilon \int_0^1 (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx = \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

and

 * $$\int_0^1 (g - h) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < \epsilon \int_0^1 (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx = \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

By the Weierstrass approximation theorem there are polynomials $$q$$ and $$Q$$ such that $$|Q - h| < \epsilon$$ and $$|h - q| < \epsilon$$. If $$p(x) = q(x) - \epsilon$$ and $$P(x) = Q(x) + \epsilon$$ then $$p(x) < g(x) < P(x)$$ as required by the lemma and

 * $$\int_0^1 (P(x) - g(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx \leq \int_0^1 (P(x) - Q(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx + \int_0^1 |Q(x) - h(x)| (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx + \int_0^1 (h(x) - g(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < 3 \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

By virtue of $$g(x)$$ being Riemann-integrable, we can find finite step functions $$g_1$$ and $$g_2$$ such that $$g_1(x) \leq g(x) \leq g_2(x)$$ and

 * $$\int_0^1 (g_2(x) - g_1(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < 3 \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

Then, we have proven above there are polynomials $$p(x)$$ and $$P(x)$$ such that $$p(x) < g_1(x) \leq g(x) \leq g_2(x) < P(x)$$ and

 * $$\int_0^1 (P(x) - g_2(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma), \quad \int_0^1 (g_1(x) - p(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

Combining these we can complete the proof of lemma 3:

 * $$\int_0^1 (P(x) - p(x)) (log\frac{1}{x})^{\sigma-1} dx < 5 \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

Going back to the proof of lemma 1

 * $$\limsup_{y \to \infty} \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t) \leq \lim_{y \to \infty} \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} P(e^{-yt}) da(t) = \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} P(e^{-t}) dt$$

by lemma 2.

Lemma 3 implies that

 * $$\int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} (P(e^{-t}) - g(e^{-t})) dt < \epsilon \Gamma(\sigma)$$

so that

 * $$\frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} P(e^{-t}) dt - \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt < \epsilon$$

and

 * $$\frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} P(e^{-t}) dt < \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt + \epsilon$$

and finally

 * $$\limsup_{y \to \infty} \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t) < \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt + \epsilon$$

By a similar argument, one can prove

 * $$\liminf_{y \to \infty} \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t) > \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt - \epsilon$$

Combining both these results we conclude the proof of lemma 1

 * $$\int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t) \sim \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt$$

Putting it all together:
 * $$a(y^{-1}) = \int_0^{y^{-1}} da(t) = \int_0^\infty e^{-yt} g(e^{-yt}) da(t) \sim \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^\infty e^{-t} t^{\sigma-1} g(e^{-t}) dt = \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1}) \int_0^1 t^{\sigma-1} dt = \frac{1}{\Gamma(\sigma + 1)} y^{-\sigma} L(y^{-1})$$

or

 * $$a(y) = \frac{y^\sigma}{\Gamma(\sigma + 1)} L(y)$$.

As $$y \to \infty$$. Then, if $$f(x) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - x})$$

 * $$a_n = [x^n]\frac{1}{(1 - x)^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - x}) = [s_n]\frac{(1 - x)}{(1 - x)^\sigma} L(\frac{1}{1 - x}) = [s_n]\frac{1}{(1 - x)^{\sigma-1}} L(\frac{1}{1 - x}) = \frac{n^{\sigma-1}}{\Gamma(\sigma)} L(n)$$


text:
Salut Jonathan!/Kapitro 1

Un mey (1 mey)
Un vir starar in un civ. Lo vir skribar un jornal. Lo vir vidar un civ.

Cu lo vir starar in un civ? Ya, il starar in un civ.

Cu lo vir starar in... un vir? No, il no starar in un vir. Il starar in un civ.

Cu lo vir starar in un tren? No, il no starar in un tren. Il starar in un civ. Lo vir starar in un civ.

Cu lo vir skribar un jornal? Ya, il skribar un jornal.

Cu lo jornal skribar lo vir? No, lo jornal no skribar lo vir. Un jornal no skribar. Un vir skribar. Lo vir skribar lo jornal.

Cu lo civ vidar lo vir? No, lo civ no vidar lo vir. Un civ no vidar. Un vir vidar. Cu lo vir vidar lo civ? Ya, lo vir vidar lo civ.

Vo starar lo vir? Il starar in un civ. Ke lo vir skribar? Il skribar un jornal. Ke lo vir vidar? Il vidar un civ. Il starar in un civ, ed il skribar un jornal, ed il vidar un civ.

Cu lo vir starar in un jornal? No, il skribar in un jornal. Cu lo vir vidar un vir? No, il no vidar un vir; il vidar un civ.

Lo vir sar grana. Lo vir sar bona, e lo vir sar kleva. Il pensar. Il pensar pri lo civ. Il pensar: “Ka sar lo civ? Cu lo civ sar bona? Cu lo civ sar grana?”

Cu lo vir skribar un civ? No, il no skribar un civ; un civ sar grana. Il skribar un jornal; un jornal no sar grana.

Cu lo jornal pensar pril vir? No, un jornal no pensar. Un vir pensar. Il pensar pril jornal, e pensar pril civ.

Ed il skribar in lo jornal. Il no skribar pril civ. Il skribar: “Lo civ sar bona, ed lo civ sar grana.”

Il pensar: “Lo civ sar bona”; il pensar ke lo civ sar bona. Il pensar: “Lo civ es grana”; il pensar ke lo civ sar grana. Il pensar pril civ, ed il pensar pril jornal.

Ko sar lo jornal? Lo jornal sar vo lo vir skribar; il skribar nel jornal. Nel jornal, lo vir skribar pril civ. Nel jornal, lo vir no skribar pril tren; lo man starar nel civ, no nel tren. Il no pensar pril tren; il pensar pril civ, lo civ Munik.

Ka sar lo civ? It sar Munik. Vo sar Munik? It sar vo lo vir starar. Vo sar lo vir? Il sar in Munik.

Ya, Munik sar un grana civ, ed un bona civ. Lo vir pensar ke Munik sar un bona civ, ed il pensar ke it sar un grana civ. Lo vir sar kleva. Il dicar: “Salut, Munik!” Il sar bona vir!

Lo vir starar e pensar: “Vo sar tren?” Il vidar... il vidar lo tren! Il pensar: “Lo tren!” Nun il no pensar pril jornal e no pensar pril civ; il pensar pril tren!

Cu

 * cu = ?
 * Un vir starar in un civ.
 * Cu un vir starar in un civ?

E, ed

 * Lo vir vidar lo civ. Lo vir vidar lo tren. Lo vir vidar lo civ e lo tren.
 * E + a..., + e..., + i..., + o..., + u... = ed.
 * Lo vir vidar un civ. Lo vir vidar un tren. Lo vir vidar un civ ed un tren.

Lo, un

 * lo = 1
 * Lo vir starar in un civ. Lo vir skribar in un jornal. Lo vir vidar un tren. = 1
 * un = +1
 * Un vir starar in un civ. Un vir skribar in un jornal. Un vir vidar un tren. = 3

Nel

 * Lo vir starar in lo civ = lo vir starar nel civ.
 * Lo vir skribar in lo jornal = lo vir skribar nel jornal.

Pri, pril

 * Lo vir pensar pri Munik.
 * Lo vir skribar pri Munik.
 * Lo vir skribar: "Mi vidar un tren!" Il skribar pri un tren.
 * Lo vir pensar pri lo tren = lo vir pensar pril tren.
 * Lo vir skribar pri lo civ = lo vir skribar pril civ.

Vokablar

 * bona 👍
 * civ 🏙
 * cu ❓
 * e(d) &
 * dicar 💬
 * grana
 * il
 * in, nel
 * it
 * jornal 📝
 * kleva 🧠
 * no ↔ ya
 * pensar 💭
 * pri(l)
 * salut 👋
 * sar
 * skribar ✍
 * starar 🧍
 * tren 🚂
 * un = 1
 * vidar 👀
 * vir 👨
 * vo 🗺

Pronunco

 * c = ch, ts
 * dicar: dichar, ditsar
 * civ: chiv, tsiv

|1

title: Salut Jonathan!/Kapitro 1


text: File:Wario's Woods Gameplay Screenshot.jpg


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2023/Hong Kong MTR

1.   Introduction
The MTR is a domestic railway system operating in Hong Kong consisting of nine local railway lines, Airport Express line and Guangzhou-Shenzhen- Hong Kong Express Rail Link. These lines connect Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. Hong Kong’s MTR also consists of light rail networks connecting the communities in the New Territories such as Tuen Mun and Yuen Long. The total length of the overall routes is approximately 271 kilometres and is the backbone of the public transport system in Hong Kong as it accounts for 41% of the trips out of all forms of public transport. The first MTR line from Shek Kip Mei to Kwun Tong opened on the 1st of October 1979 and was a 15-kilometre-long line that consisted of nine stations. The primary reason for the introduction of the MTR was to help solve and relieve the severe traffic and congestion problems within Hong Kong, the main market for the MTR is the Hong Kong commuters, allowing for quicker and more accessible travel around Hong Kong. The main advantages of the MTR in Hong Kong since its introduction is it allows for quicker and more accessible travel around Hong Kong, furthermore it has also helped to reduce traffic flow around Hong Kong.

2.1 Existing Modes of Transport
Before the introduction of Hong Kong’s MTR on the 1st of October 1979 there were many alternative and existing forms of transport within Hong Kong such as the basic forms of transportation such rickshaws and sedans, until 1888 when the Peak Tram line in Central was introduced, the Peak Tram line which is a 7-minute ride running from Garden Road Station to Peak Tower on the Hill Side of the Peak. In 1904 Street Trams better known as the “Ding Ding '' was introduced and started off with a single track located on Hong Kong Island running from Kennedy Town to Causeway Bay, street trams would later expand by adding more additional lines making Hong Kong more accessible by trams. In the 1920s private companies began operating public bus routes. After the war, the local demand for bus services exponentially increased due to the population boom, in 1960 double-decker buses were introduced to help carry more commuters and meet the demand of the rising population. There are varying opinions but it is believed that taxis were introduced to Hong Kong around 1920-1950s, due to the post-war shortage of public transport in 1960, there was a rise in illegal unlicensed taxis operating outside of government regulations. In 1969 the minibus was introduced to Hong Kong and instantly became popular as many “red plate” taxi drivers and passengers ended up switching to minibuses.

2.2 Limitation of Existing of Mode
Before the opening of the first MTR line in 1979, Hong Kong was experiencing severe traffic congestion due to the rapid increase in population and the increased need to travel. The Rickshaws and sedan limitation was that it was very slow in terms of speed and very limited in terms of distance travelled as a man would be pulling a rickshaw, in addition, the rickshaw was very limited in terms of space as it could at max carry two people. The introduction of trams allowed for quicker and easier travel in Hong Kong, this is because trams can carry a large number of passengers from one place to another, sparking interest in mass transport for the commuter in Hong Kong. However, many positives came with the introduction of trams. There were limitations. The main limitation of trams is accessibility because existing tram lines only exist on Hong Kong Island and not Kowloon which affected the accessibility of the mode for the population in Kowloon. Furthermore, trams are also affected by traffic and congestion as trams run on tracks along the main roads of the city hence trams must wait for any possible obstacles such as cars and buses. Buses, minibuses, and taxis are also affected by the traffic and congestion problems that plague Hong Kong, since they must wait for the obstacles such as other vehicles to move. Also due to the large number of people travelling in small areas and narrow streets to get to and from home and work, there is limited space for roads generating congestion.

3.1 Innovation
After nearly twenty years of consultations between the Hong Kong government and transport consultants, the MTR was developed to counteract Hong Kong’s growing traffic and congestion problems. The MTR was designed to provide off-street, efficient mass transport through urban areas. The first batch of MTR trains known as the M-Stock trains now named the CM-Stock trains were electric-powered trains from Metro Cammell and were used on the modified initial system (initial route from Admiralty to Kwun Tong). Along with the first MTR trains, a central control room was established at Kowloon Bay Depot to manage the operations of the first MTR. In 1982 the T-Stock trains now known as the CT-Stock trains were introduced, later as more lines were introduced in the 1980s the central control room was expanded to manage lines such as Tsuen Wan and Island lines.

3.2 Early Market Development
In the early developmental stages of MTR, the primary market of the MTR was identified to be the Hong Kong commuter. The initial line (Modified Initial System) was designed to reflect and predict the changes in the general population and growing residential areas. After the initial launch of the first MTR line Shek Kip Mei to Kwun Tong, months later the line was extended to Tsim Sha Tsui and later on 12th February 1980 the initial line was then extended to Admiralty across Victoria Harbour was opened. The opening of these new lines allowed for quicker and easier travel around Kowloon and Hong Kong Island. The first MTR line featured a Central Control Room located in Kowloon Bay to help manage signals and communication.

3.3 Functional improvement
Functional improvements were made to the MTR to improve the experience, efficiency and ride for passengers. As more lines and routes were slowly introduced into the systems the trains and control centres were slowly upgraded. As previously stated, when the MTR opened in 1979 the Central Control Room located in Kowloon Bay and was later expanded to manage lines such as Kwun Tong, Tsuen Wan and Island lines these control rooms were manned with a chief controller overseeing all lines, line controller in charge of decision making and communications and a train service regulator responsible for signalling systems. In the 1980s when the Kowloon Canton Railway (KCR) was upgraded and electrified, allowing for public train travel in the Northern areas of Hong Kong, with the modernisation of the Kowloon Canton Railway a signal room was opened at Hung Hom to manage the trains in the northern regions of Hong Kong. In 1994 the Kowloon Canton Railway control room was moved to Fo Tan, during this time from 1995 to 1998 the MTR upgraded to a computerised control system that brought more operation efficiency with a mimic display panel that would allow all actors to view incidents and train positions and two traffic controllers share control of a line which allowed for better management of incidents. In the 1990s when the Lantau Airport Railway project was started the control room at Kowloon Bay was at max capacity and it was decided to build a new control room at Tsing Yi station and was designed to incorporate existing and future lines. In 2007 when the MTR and KCR merged, a decision was made to have one single control room at the Tsing Yi control room. In 2012 there was a 117 million Hong Kong dollar upgrade of the control centre.

3.4 Policy in the birthing phase
Since the beginning of the MTR, the Hong Kong government have implemented policies to help the growth of the MTR as well as help to integrate the MTR into Hong Kong. When the MTR began operations in 1979 the Hong Kong government implemented a policy that curbed bus competition, the way the policy worked was it stated that half of the newly introduced bus routes could run parallel to the MTR routes, but the bus fares must be comparable to the MTR fares by doing this it provided incentive people to choose the new MTR over buses, helping the MTR slowly integrate into Hong Kong. In addition, the policy also stated that no bus routes from New Territories could go to Tsim Sha Tsui or cross the harbour to Hong Kong Island. Implementing these policies during the start of the MTR, it helped reduce traffic flow and allowed for more efficient allocation of resources such as buses, in addition, it allowed the MTR to smoothly integrate the MTR into Hong Kong’s transit system.

4.1 Growth of MTR
As the MTR continued to grow in the 1990s, policies began to change to match the growth of the MTR. With new lines such as the Airport Express line and the Tung Chung Line, Hong Kong adapted to the new demands and exponential growth in ridership. In the 1990s Hong Kong’s new transport policies focused more on healthy competition between modes of transport by applying an inter-modal coordination policy, developing a balanced transport network with buses and rail at the core, improving transport infrastructure, expanding, and upgrading service-revolving around public transport and managing road usage. In the 1994s Hong Kong’s transport policy also had a focus on expanding railway infrastructure to help improve the mobility of the population. With the help of the rail-favoured transport policies, it helped the MTR and the rapid addition of new lines from 1984 to 1994 there was an increase of approximately 9% in average annual growth in rail car-km and ridership.

4.2 Expansion and improvements MTR network
After the initial launch of the first MTR line the Modified Initial System and the extension Tsim Sha Tsui, the network would later be expanded and is still expanding to meet the population demands of Hong Kong and would change from 6 cars to 8 cars in the 1990s. In 1982 Tsuen Line was opened and would later undergo extensions in 1985 (Admiralty to Chai Wan) and in 1991 (Lai King to Mei Foo). Between 1880 and 1990 3 new lines would be added to the MTR. Between 1991 to 2019 nine new lines were added to the MTR, which included Disneyland Resort Line and the Shatin to Central Link line. Along with these expansions new trains were introduced and refurbished old trains, and new trains such as Adtranz-CAF A-Stock from Europe, Rotem K-Stock from Korea and the CNR Changchun C-Stock from China were implemented on these new lines. These changes to the trains provide a quicker and nicer train experience while travelling on the MTR and improve rider experience.

4.3 Mature Phase of MTR
The MTR entered the mature phase in 2019 before COVID-19 and the Hong Kong protest. The ridership was gradually increasing annually until it reached the peak of 6.8 billion passengers in 2019 before declining to 3.6 billion the following year in 2020. From there onward, the data indicates that the ridership is continuing to decline; this can be attributed to the main factors of the COVID-19 pandemic causing city-wide lockdowns and limiting travel around Hong Kong. In addition, the Hong Kong Riots forced people to stop using MTR as many stations were damaged during the riots forcing closures of stations. To combat the loss in ridership and the impact of the pandemic on the economy the MTR has decided to make changes in the fare concessions policies with a fare reduction of 1.85% and a 5% rebate for every trip from April 1st, 2021, to June 26th, 2021. Furthermore, there was a reduction in prices to the MTR City Saver and Monthly Pass Extra.

5.1 S-Curve
The MTR life cycle was visualised and modelled using ridership data of the MTR from 1979 to 2021 to determine the birthing, growth and maturity phases of the Hong Kong MTR. The data used was gathered from Chatgpt which sourced the data from the official MTR website, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, Hong Kong Yearbook and South China Morning Post. The data from years 1986-1989 was estimated by Chatgp, as such the data provided by Chatgpt is not entirely accurate, so the most realistic set of data provided by Chatgpt was used in the analysis of the Hong Kong MTR. In addition, data from after 2019 was removed from the analysis of the model as it is affected by the external factor of COVID-19 which caused lockdowns within Hong Kong impacting the population's ability to travel.

The following model was graphed in excel using equation 1.

S(t) = K/[1+exp(-b(t-ti)]

Equation 1

Where:

 * S(t): represents the status measured (ridership)
 * t: time in years
 * ti: inflexion time (years in which ½ Smax (k) is achieved)
 * K: Saturation status level
 * b: coefficient to be estimated

Find estimation of ridership, the single variable of linear regression estimates the coefficients c and b in model form equation 2:

Y=bX+c

Equation 2

 * Y: ln(Passengers/(Smax(k)-Passengers)
 * X: Years

Different values of K were tested and analysed to find the maximum value of R2 closest to 1. This was achieved by using the single variable linear regression for each year under the corresponding K value. RSQ function was used to calculate the R2, if the R2 value is closest to 1 out of the K values tested, the INTERCEPT and SLOPE functions were used to find the values of b and c. These coefficients were then subbed back in the three-parameter logistics equation to find ti and find predicted passengers (ridership).

6. Results and Discussion
The results indicated in Figure 1, show that between 1979-1984 is the birthing phase of the MTR, while 1985-2008 is the growth phase of the MTR and the maturity phase is indicated to be in 2019 as the ridership peaks at 1.7 billion. Furthermore, Figure 1 shows that there is a slight correlation in the predicted ridership and ridership data in 2005 while the other years predicted and actual passengers are off by millions at certain years. The model also indicates a decrease in ridership compared to projected ridership from 2008-2017 and a sudden increase in ridership from 2018-2019 when the curve reaches maximum saturation of passengers at 1.7 billion.

Although there is a slight correlation in the year of 2005, the predicted data and the actual data of the analysed S-shaped curve does not accurately portray or predict the ridership data as the ridership data is different from the predicted passenger data by millions, the data used for the years 1986-1989 were an estimate affecting the reliability of the data. In addition, the graph's data in the early and late 2010s is below the predicted values until 2018. The decline in passengers compared to the predicted passengers could be influenced by external factors such as Global Finance Crisis which severely affected Hong Kong causing some job losses and increases in cost of living possibly affecting the usage of Hong Kong MTR, which the predicted passengers model cannot account for as it assumes growth and does not take into account external factors. Overall, the model generated from the data does not accurately illustrate the trends and life cycle of the MTR and further research, and better data collection is needed to create a more accurate model. Another reason why this graph is inaccurate is because Chatgpt provides multiple sources of data and continuously changes the data, for that reason the most accurate set provided from Chatgpt was chosen for the analysis and because the MTR provides vague estimates of annual ridership or is missing data from early periods of operation.

References

1.      (2022) Transport Department - Railways. Available at: https://www.td.gov.hk/en/transport_in_hong_kong/public_transport/railways/index.html (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

2.      How did Hong Kong's public transport system become so celebrated? (2018) South China Morning Post. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/community/article/2131681/how-did-hong-kongs-public-transport-system-become-so (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

3.      MTR website (no date) MTR > Home. Available at: https://www.mtr.com.hk/en/customer/main/index.html (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

4.      Wong, M. (2015) Overview of the MTR network, Checkerboard Hill. Available at: https://www.checkerboardhill.com/2010/12/overview-of-the-mtr-network/ (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

5.      Keep cities moving sustainably (no date) MTR Sustainability Report 2021 - Home. Available at: https://www.mtr.com.hk/sustainability/en/home.php (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

6.      MTR trains - MTR (no date) Google Sites: Sign-in. Available at: https://sites.google.com/site/mtr01fans/interesting-facts/mtr-trains (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

7.      Wong, M. (2021) The evolution of MTR network maps over time, Checkerboard Hill. Available at: https://www.checkerboardhill.com/2021/03/mtr-network-map-evolution/ (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

8.      ago, 5 hours, 19 Mar, 2023 and 18 Mar, 2023 (no date) ''Face off JRA 2015: Should we remove trams from central? (affirmative), Young Post''. South China Morning Post. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/yp/discover/your-voice/opinion/article/3066982/face-jra-2015-should-we-remove-trams-central (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

9.      Cluelessyanni (2021) A quick guide to Hong Kong's trains, Medium. RailPub. Available at: https://medium.com/railpub/a-quick-guide-to-hong-kongs-trains-6fc0dc8f660f (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

10.  (no date) OpenAI API. Available at: https://platform.openai.com/onboarding?app=chat (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

11.  MTR Metro Cammell EMU (DC) - Alchetron, the Free Social Encyclopedia (2022) Alchetron.com. Available at: https://alchetron.com/MTR-Metro-Cammell-EMU-(DC) (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

12.  Transport in Hong Kong: Coping with change - jstor.org (no date). Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/23286705.pdf (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

13.  Chcom (2021) MTR corporation, CompaniesHistory.com - The largest companies and brands in the world. Available at: https://www.companieshistory.com/mtr-corporation/ (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

14.  Revell, H. and Salson, R. (no date) INNOVATIVE SYSTEM APPLICATION AND INTEGRATION ENGINEERING FOR ASIA – PACIFIC [Preprint].

15.  Managing the accessibility on mass public transit the case of Hong Kong ... (no date). Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26201613 (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

16.  The history of the MTR - the loop HK (no date). Available at: https://theloophk.com/hong-kong-city-guide-history-mtr-mass-transit-train-system/ (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

17.  Wong, M. (2022) A history of MTR train control centres, Checkerboard Hill. Available at: https://www.checkerboardhill.com/2020/02/a-history-of-mtr-train-control-centres/ (Accessed: March 19, 2023).

18.  Wong, M. (2020) Farewelling the first generation MTR trains, Checkerboard Hill. Available at: https://www.checkerboardhill.com/2016/11/farewelling-first-generation-mtr-trains/ (Accessed: March 19, 2023).


text:
Cookbook:Masala Dosa

Batter

 * 1 cup uncooked ponni or sona masuri rice
 * 1 cup boiled rice
 * ¾ cup dried urad dal (whole skinless black gram)
 * Non-iodized salt to taste

Filling

 * 6 medium sized potatoes, boiled and coarsely mashed
 * 2 medium sized onions, finely chopped
 * 3–6 green chile pepper, finely chopped
 * 1 tsp finely-grated ginger
 * 1 tsp finely-grated garlic
 * 2 Tbsp oil
 * ½ tsp mustard seeds
 * 1 Tbsp finely-chopped cilantro
 * 1 tsp chana dal
 * 1 tsp turmeric
 * 1 tsp coarsely-chopped curry leaves
 * Onion chutney
 * Coconut chutney

Cooking

 * ½ cup mixture of ghee and vegetable shortening

Batter

 * 1) On the day before cooking the dosa, grind all the batter ingredients in a blender or specialized dosa grinder with water. The final consistency of the batter must be similar to pancake batter.
 * 2) Leave batter overnight in a warm spot and allow it to ferment. This is a very important process and must not be skipped. During fermentation the batter may rise to almost twice its volume, and therefore the container for the batter must allow for this.

Filling

 * 1) Heat the oil in a wok or other deep pan.
 * 2) When the oil is hot add mustard seeds, and allow them to splutter.
 * 3) When the spluttering starts to recede, add chopped green chilies, curry leaves, and channa dal. Stir until the channa dal turns brown. Be careful, as channa dal can go from browned to burnt within seconds.
 * 4) Add onions and fry until browned. Add turmeric and sauté for 2 minutes. Add ginger and garlic and sauté for a few seconds.
 * 5) Add boiled and coarsely-mashed potatoes to the preparation, and mix well.
 * 6) Turn off the heat and add lemon juice and coriander leaves, then mix well.

Cooking

 * 1) Dosa can easily be made on a tava, iron frying pan, or non-stick pan. Heat the pan on a medium heat until a drop of water evaporates on contact.
 * 2) Spread about ½ cup of batter on the pan (like for crêpes) slowing spreading it outwards to form a thin, circular dosa.
 * 3) Allow it to cook for a minute and, using a flat spatula, flip it over to the other side to cook. As the other side cooks, spread a layer of ghee-shortening mixture on the topside.
 * 4) Flip it over again. As the bottom crisps add 1 teaspoon of onion chutney on the top, and spread it evenly.
 * 5) Add some of the filling onto one half of the dosa and fold the other side over. Serve with coconut chutney.

title: Cookbook:Masala Dosa


text:
Cookbook:Dosa I

Ingredients

 * 3 cups uncooked white rice
 * 1 cup urad dal (black gram)
 * 1 handful of cooked rice (if required)
 * 1 pinch of sugar (if desired)
 * ¼ teaspoon salt

Batter

 * 1) Put the rice and dal in a large pot and wash twice.
 * 2) Fill with water until the rice and dal are submerged by 2 inches.
 * 3) Soak for 6 hours.
 * 4) Grind in a blender, water and all, for 30 minutes. If the weather is cold, grind in a handful of cooked rice and a pinch of sugar to help with the fermentation process.
 * 5) Let ferment overnight in a warm place. Make sure the pot is twice as large as the amount of batter, as it will rise a great deal.
 * 6) Add salt; at this point the batter can be kept in the refrigerator for more than a week until you wish to fry the dosas.

Cooking

 * 1) Heat a tava (large flat pan) or griddle over a high flame.
 * 2) Sprinkle water on the pan to cool it a little.
 * 3) Pour ½–¾ cup batter in the middle of the pan, depending on preferred thickness and crispiness.
 * 4) Spread the batter with the back of a spoon, starting from the centre and spiralling outwards until the dosa is about 10 inches across and very thin.
 * 5) Sprinkle a little oil around the edges of the dosa.
 * 6) Cover until the dosa shows brown through the thinnest parts.
 * 7) Flip the dosa to the other side, and allow it to cook for a few seconds.
 * 8) Fold in half and remove with a metal spatula.

title: Cookbook:Dosa I


text:
Cookbook:Dosa II

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (360 g) rice, preferably parboiled
 * ½ cup (90 g) split and husked urad dal (dhuli urad)
 * ½ tsp fenugreek seeds (methi dana)
 * 2 tsp salt
 * Oil for cooking dosa

Procedure

 * 1) Soak rice, dal, and fenugreek seeds separately overnight. Don't soak the dal longer than 3-4 hours. Do soak the rice for at least 6-8 hours.
 * 2) Grind the soaked rice, dal, and fenugreek together to a very smooth consistency; use a blender for best results.
 * 3) Add the salt and enough water to make into a dropping consistency, and leave to rise for 5–6 hours, or overnight.
 * 4) Check consistency of the batter, and if needed, add enough water to make into a smooth pouring consistency.
 * 5) Heat a tava (dosa pan) until very hot, and splash a little water over it. With a ladle, immediately pour some batter onto the pan, spreading it thin with a circular motion, without pressing too hard. You will need some practice to get it right.
 * 6) Lower the heat and dribble a little oil around the edges. When edges start browning a bit, it is almost done.
 * 7) Flip the dosa to the other side, and allow it to cook for a few seconds.
 * 8) Add desired filling and fold over.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * This tastes better if you used skinned split urad dal and manually take the skin off after soaking in the water for three hours.

title: Cookbook:Dosa II


text:
Salut Jonathan!/Kapitro 2

Du Mey (2 Mey)
Nun lo vir sar nel tren. Il no sar in Munik; il sar in un tren. Il travelar. Il pensar: “Nun mi travelar da Munik a Wien. Sar un bona travel. Mi amar travelos.”

Il pensar pri Munik. Il pensar: “Nun mi sar nel tren, mo yer mi sir in Munik. E nun mi skribar nel tren, mo yer mi skribir in Munik. E nun mi pensar nel tren, mo yer mi pensir in Munik. Yer mi pensir pri Munik nel Munik, e nun mi pensar pri Wien nel tren. Nun mi sar nel tren, no in Wien. Mo mi pensar e skribar pri Wien.”

Cu lo vir pensar nun in Munik? No il no pensar nun in Munik. Il pensar nel tren. Yer li pensir in Munik. Il dicar: “Salut, tren!”

Lo vir sar nel tren, ed il travelar a un civ. Lo civ no sar Munik; Munik sar lo civ de yer. Lo civ sar Wien; Wien sar lo civ de oje.

Lo vir pensar pri Munik e Wien. Il pensar: “Munik sir lo civ de yer, e Munik sir bona. Sar nun oje, e mi sar in un tren; lo tren sar bona. Cu Wien sor bona?”

Lo vir pensar pri Munik: Munik sir lo civ de yet. Il pensar nel tren: il sar oje nel tren. Ed il pensar pri Wien: Wien sor lo civ de kras.”

Ed il pensar: “Munik sir grana. Lo tren sar grana. Cu Wien sor grana?”

Ed il pensar: “In Munik mi skribir in un jornal. Nel tren mi skribar in un jornal. Cu in Wien mi skribor in un jornal? Ya, kras in Wien, mi skribor in un jornal. Mi amar jornalos.” Lo vir pensar mule (li pensar mule = li pensar e pensar a pensar), ed il skribar mule. Ya, il sar un kleva vir. Kleva viros skribar mule e pensar mule. Il sar Jonathan; Jonathan sar un kleva vir.

Il skribar: “Mi sar Jonathan. Mi sar in un tren. Yer mi starir in Munik; kras mi staror in Wien.”

Il pensar e skribar: “Lo tren... it sar bona, mo olda. It no sar nuva; it sar olda. Cu in Munik lo trenos sar olda? Ya, lo trenos in Munik sar olda. Mo lo trenos in Munik sar bona, e mi amar lo trenos in Munik. Yer mi amir lo tren in Munik, e oje mi amar lo tren nun, e kras mi amor lo tren in Wien. Mi amar trenos!”

Jonathan skribar: “Munik sar un bona civ ed un olda civ, e Wien sar un bona civ ed un olda civ. Munik e Wien no sar nuva, mo Munik e Wien sar bona. Munik e Wien sar olda, mo bona civos. Lo civos no sar nuva, mo lo civos sar bona. Mi amar civos!”

Jonathan pensar ke lo dua id de travel sar bon. Il dicar: “Oje sir un bona dua id de travel. Mi amar travelos!”

Yer, oje, kras

 * yer = un Mey (05.01)
 * oje = du Mey (05.02)
 * kras = tre Mey (05.03)

-ir

 * skribi: oje mi skribar, yer mi skribir
 * pensi: oje mi pensar, yer mi pensir
 * vidi: oje mi vidar, yer mi vidir

-or

 * skribi: oje mi skribar, kras mi skribor
 * pensi: oje mi pensar, kras mi pensor
 * vidi: oje mi vidar, kras mi vidor

da, a

 * Da Munik a Wien:
 * Munik → Wien
 * Da Wien a Munik:
 * Munik ← Wien

Vokablar

 * amar ❤
 * id 🌤📆
 * kras (yer → oje → kras)
 * mule
 * nun
 * oje (yer → oje → kras)
 * olda ↔ nuva
 * travel
 * travelar
 * yer (yer → oje → kras)

title: Salut Jonathan!/Kapitro 2


text: Piano Solo Music: An Encyclopedia/Composers born in the 19th century/Chaminade, Cécile


text:
Mirad Grammar/Onomatopoeia

 * Onomatopoeia refers the words in languages that represent sounds as they are heard by the speakers of those languages. They are the noise words you see in comics, such as pow or bang bang.  These charts show equivalent sound words in Mirad.  Often, they are reduplicated, hyphenated expressions like pop-pop.  Any onomatopoetic word can be made into an action verb by suffixing some form of -der, if a human or animal vocalization, or -xer if it is a noise made by an object.  Some example:
 * hihi....ha ha
 * hihider....to laugh
 * plop-plop....plop, splat
 * plop-plopxer....to go plop, to go splat

Animal Noises

 * Animal noises are formed by replacing the final -t of an animal name to a form of -der, eg.:
 * kapet....dog
 * kapeder....to bark, to bow-wow
 * fepet....cat
 * fepeder....to meow, to mew
 * bopet....cattle
 * bopeder....to moo
 * kapyot....wolf
 * kapyoder....to howl
 * serpyet....snake
 * serpyeder....to hiss

 * Here is a fuller list. If you replace the final der of the noise word with t, you'll get the animal that produces it.

 * afekpeder....to bray, to hee-haw
 * akorpelder....to chirp
 * akpyader....to squawk, to screech
 * alcerpoder....to bellow
 * anpiader....to quack, to honk
 * anpiyeder....to croak, to rivet
 * ansanpiader....to honk
 * appelader....to buzz, do drone, to thrum
 * apwader....to cockadoodledoo, to crow
 * bopeder....to beloow, to low, to moo
 * bradepiider....to creak
 * bubopoder....to snort
 * cerpoyder....to bleat
 * cihempelder....to chirp
 * dipelader....to buzz
 * ekpeder....to hinny, to neigh, to whinny, to sneer
 * elpoder....to trumpet
 * epleder....to wail
 * famarpoder....to shriek
 * fepeder....to meow, to mew, to purr
 * fepyoder....to growl
 * fumuspoder....to dook
 * gafapader....to crow
 * gafapayder....to cluck
 * gafapaytuder....to cheep
 * gepiader....to cry
 * gipiader....to quack
 * hirpaspader....to squall, to squeal
 * kampoder....to hum
 * mefapader....to gobble
 * stripyader....to hoot
 * urpyoder....to growl, to roar
 * yopyeder....to croak

title: Mirad Grammar/Onomatopoeia


text:
Cookbook:Senegalese Okra Soup

Kandia soup is a popular Senegalese okra soup. It can be served with souloukhou, a peanut butter sauce.

Ingredients

 * Okra, washed and sliced
 * Fish
 * Beef
 * Onions, chopped
 * Garlic, minced
 * Pepper
 * Salt
 * Stock cubes
 * Palm oil
 * Chile pepper
 * Cooked white rice

Equipment

 * Bowl
 * Pot
 * Stovetop
 * Knife
 * Plate and spoon for serving

Procedures

 * 1) Place the okra in a bowl with a lot of water. Swish around in the water to remove the stickiness, then drain the okra.
 * 2) Wash the fish and cut into 3 pieces.
 * 3) Bring water to a boil in a pot. Add the beef, fish, and okra, and allow to cook for 15 minutes
 * 4) Remove the fish and beef from the pot. Cut the beef into small pieces, and return to the pot.
 * 5) Add onion, garlic, pepper, salt, stock cubes, palm oil, and chili pepper to the pot. Mix well, and cook for 15 minutes.
 * 6) Add the fish back into the pot, and cook for another 10 minutes
 * 7) Serve hot with rice.

title: Cookbook:Senegalese Okra Soup


text:
The Pollen Programming Language/About this book

= About this book =

This book is about Pollen programming language - a modern programming language designed to be a safe portable assembler. The C language was created to be a simple language that works like an assembly language that is portable between different machine architectures and operating systems. Pollen tries to be like C in the aspect of being portable and having constructs that can be easily and intuitively mapped to machine instructions and data.


text:
The Pollen Programming Language/Introduction

= Introduction =

Pollen is based on a previous programming language written by myself that was codenamed webutils. webutils was designed to be a web template language. It didn't gain much attention because there are many web template languages out there and "webutils" was already a generic name for many web template languages out there on the internet.

Currently, there is only an interpreter for Pollen, but other code generation libraries will be supported soon. Multiple code generation libraries are intended to be supported by using an abstraction layer for them. This creates a slight and most of the times negligible performance penalty, but makes the language portable across different platforms and operating systems, including embedded systems.


text:
The Pollen Programming Language/Operating system development in modern languages

= Operating system development in modern languages and static libraries =

It is difficult, in my opinion, to write C programs that include multiple static libraries in them in modern programming languages. Modern programming languages usually include a runtime library. Rust, D and Ada all include a runtime.

The Rust runtime is very minimal but it is required because it includes definitions for basic integer types, vectors and others. The no_std macro leaves only operating system independent code that do not depend on allocations.

That is analogous to betterC in D. betterC removes the runtime library entirely. There is no GC, TypeInfo, or allocations.

 * Rust does not require runtime initialization when Rust libraries are linked statically.
 * Ada requires a runtime initialization by calling adainit and adafinal.
 * D also requires runtime initialization when not in betterC mode for initializing the GC and other globals as well as calling some operating system functions for setting state such as pthreads.

In previous versions, cargo init created libraries by default instead of binaries. Those modules contained Rust-only code which were linked to static or dynamic libraries written in C, including the C standard library or any operating system library. Similarly, Ada libraries contain only Ada code. In fact, .a libraries can be linked just like .o object files, which in turn map to a source file written in a specific language.


text:
Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)/Chapitro 9

Iniciala pagino – Chapitro 8 – Chapitro 9 – Chapitro 10

Nonesma chapitro
La veturo stacas avan la kastelo kun la dormanta Jonathan. Ma pos mikra tempo, lu ne dormas: lu es vekinta. “Quo?! Me esas avan la kastelo!” lu pensas. Lu vidas la kastelo en la nokto, ed ol semblas tre, tre granda. La kastelo semblas esar interesanta; ol interesas lu. Ma esas nokte, e Jonathan ne esas tre felica; lu pensas pri la volfi e la mala kozi dum la voyajo. Ma Jonathan esas kelke felica, pro ke lu arivis al kastelo. Lu pensas pri manjajo e drinkajo, e pri dormar en bona lito.

Pensante ca kozi, lu vidas la pordo. Quale enirar? La duktisto esas fore, Jonathan esas sola, e la pordo esas granda. Pensante ankorfoye pri la forta duktisto, lu vidas la pordo. Quon facar? La pordo esas silencanta, ed ol esas grandega. Stacante avan la pordo, Jonathan pensas pri quon facar. Jonathan pensas: “Ka me dormas?” Ma no, Jonathan savas ke lu ne dormas.

Jonathan stacas avan la pordo; lu ne stacas dop la pordo. Avan la pordo esas la nokto; dop la pordo esas la kastelo. Ma nun Jonathan audas sono dop la pordo: KRRRRR…..CHIKKK…. La pordo esas apertata (persono apertas la pordo).

Dop la pordo, Jonathan vidas viro. Lu es alta, olda e havas longa blanka labiobarbo (ne barbo). Esas la Komto Dracula.

“Bonvenez, Jonathan! Voluntez enirar!” dicas Dracula. Dracula prenas la manuo di Jonathan. Oh! Anke Dracula esas fortega, e lua manuo esas kolda. Jonathan dicas a su: “Ca manuo di Dracula ne semblas vivanta; ka lu vivas? Ol semblas mortinta! …no, ne pensez stupida kozi, Jonathan! Lu vivas; lu es viro. Lu es vivanta viro.”

Dracula parolas plu: “Me esas Dracula, e bonvenez a mea domo. La nokto esas kolda, e vu devas manjor, e vu devas dormor. Voluntez donar a me vua bagajo.”

Jonathan: “Mea bagajo? Ma vu esas siorulo, ed en vua kastelo esas altra personi qua…”

Dracula: “No, vu esas mea amiko, e mea personi dormas. Voluntez donar a me vua bagajo.”

Dracula komencas irar kun la bagajo; Jonathan sequas lu. La kastelo esas vere granda, e sequante Dracula, Jonathan vidas multa kozi: eskaleri, e fenestri, ed altra kozi. Nun li stacas avan granda pordo. Dracula apertas la pordo, e li vidas chambro. En la chambro Jonathan vidas fairo (fairo esas multa flami), ed aquo. Jonathan volas lavar su kun la aquo, pro ke la voyajo esis longa.

Dracula dicas: “Voluntez lavar vu kun la aquo. E pos lavir vu kun la aquo, voluntez venar en la altra chambro por manjar.”

Jonathan pensas: “Oh, esas manjajo! Me devas lavar me rapide. Me vere volas manjar.”

Plu tarde, pos lavir su, Jonathan eniras la altra chambro. Lu vidas la manjajo. Dracula sideskas avan granda fairo. Lu movas sua manui e dicas: “Voluntez manjar. Me ja manjis.”

Jonathan dicas: “Ante ke me manjos, me havas ulo por donar a vu. Yen letro de London. Mea chefo skribis la letro.”

Dracula apertas la letro, lektas ol, ed esas felica. Lu donas la letro a Jonathan e dicas: “Vua chefo dicas bona kozi pri vu. Nun anke vu povas lektar la letro.”

Jonathan lektas la letro e vidas ke yes, lua chefo en London skribis bona kozi pri Jonathan. En la letro la chefo di Jonathan skribis ke Jonathan esas inteligenta, bona viro, e tacema. Nun Jonathan pensas pri pro quo lu esas en la kastelo di Dracula. Lu esas en lua kastelo pro ke Dracula dicas ke lu volas komprar domi en London. Dracula havas multa pekunio e volas komprar domi, e lu skribis letri al firmo di Jonathan dicante: “Voluntez helpar me komprar domi en London.”

Nun Dracula montras la manjajo: ol esas hanokarno kun fromajo. Dum ke Jonathan manjas, la Komto Dracula questionas lu pri la voyajo. La Komto volas savar multa kozi pri Anglia, pri la voyajo, e pri Jonathan. Pos manjir, la Komto Dracula donas sigaro a lu, e Jonathan prenas ol. Ma Dracula dicas ke lu ne fumas sigari, e Jonathan fumas la sigaro sole. Jonathan vidas Dracula ankorfoye e pensas: “Ca viro esas tre, tre blanka, e tre forta. Blankega e fortega viro.”

Nun la du viri esas tacanta. Jonathan vidas exter la fenestro; la matino balde arivos. Ma Jonathan povas ankore audar la ululado di la volfi. Dracula dicas: “Audez li! Li facas muziko!” Jonathan pensas ke Dracula dicis stranja kozo.

Dracula dicas: “Ah, vu esas urbano, vu habitas en urbo. La urbani ne povas komprenar. Ma bone – vu facis longa voyajo, e vu devas dormar. Morge me havos multa kozi por facar. Me vidos vu plu tarde.”

Nun Jonathan eniras sua chambro. Lu skribas en sua jurnalo: “Du hori ante nun me esis en veturo. Nun me esas en la kastelo. Du hori pos nun me esos dormanta, pro ke me balde dormeskos.” Lu skribas plu kozi, e pose, lu dormeskas.

-eg-
-eg- = tre, tre
 * granda -> grandega
 * forta -> fortega

pos, ante
pos (tempo), ante (tempo)

 * Ante hodie lu ne savis, ma pos hodie lu savos.

pos ke, ante ke

 * Me vidis viro. Pose, lu dicis “saluto”. Ante ke lu dicis “saluto”, me vidis lu.

pos + -ir

 * Me skribis en mea jurnalo. Pose, me dormis. Pos skribir en mea jurnalo, me dormis.

dum, dum ke
dum + tempo

 * Dum la voyajo, Jonathan vidis la arbori.
 * Dum un horo, lu pensis pri nulo.

dum ke: verbo + dum ke + verbo

 * Lu skribis en sua jurnalo. Lu pensis pri Rumania. Lu skribis en sua jurnalo dum ke lu pensis pri Rumania.

silencanta o tacanta
Tacar = dicar nulo. Personi ed animali povas tacar (ed esar tacanta).

 * Me dicas nulo; me esas tacanta.
 * La volfi ne ululas; li esas tacanta.

Silencar = ne facar sono. Kozi povas silencar (ed esar silencanta), ma kozi ne povas tacar.

 * La nokto esis silencanta.
 * Kande la pordo facas sono, ol ne esas silencanta.

tacanta o tacema

 * Jonathan nune dicas nulo. Lu esas tacanta.
 * Jonathan nultempe dicas multe. Lu esas tacema.

Vortaro

 * arivar
 * aquo
 * balde: ne multa tempo pos nun
 * blanka
 * chefo
 * dop
 * dum
 * enirar
 * en.ir.ar
 * eskalero
 * fairo
 * fenestro
 * firmo
 * fromajo
 * fumar
 * hanokarno
 * han.o + karn.o
 * helpar
 * komprar
 * labiobarbo
 * labi.o + barb.o
 * lavar su
 * lito
 * mortinta ↔ vivanta
 * muziko
 * pekunio
 * pordo
 * pos
 * prenar
 * semblar
 * sequar
 * sigaro
 * silencanta
 * silenc.ant.a
 * stupida ↔ inteligenta
 * urbano
 * urb.an.o
 * vekinta ↔ dormanta

Iniciala pagino – Chapitro 8 – Chapitro 9 – Chapitro 10

title: Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)/Chapitro 9


text:
User:CrystalWhite1

Hello @all what are the best contexts most of the users are engaged with here?

title: User:CrystalWhite1


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Fractals/Iterations in the complex plane/mset components number

Number of the Mandelbrot set's components

Whole number of all components by period
 * M. Lutzky, Counting hyperbolic components of the Mandelbrot set, Physics Letters A, Volume 177, Issues 4–5, 1993, Pages 338-340, ISSN 0375-9601, https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-9601(93)90011-N. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037596019390011N) Abstract: Expressions are given for the number of hyperbolic components, cardioids, and discs which are associated with N-cycles for the Mandelbrot set. We also discuss the distribution of hyperbolic components along the real axis.

Counting Hyperbolic Components in the Main Molecule

=See also=
 * order of hyperbolic components
 * centers lists
 * shape of components

=References=


text:
Wikijunior:IPA English/θ

 θ  -   θ ʌm

title: Wikijunior:IPA English/θ


text:
MediaWiki User Guide/Sound files

The chapter on sound files is yet to be written. In the meantime, you can have a look at how e.g. Wiktionary shows pronunciation sound files to users.

title: MediaWiki User Guide/Sound files


text:
Module:Module wikitext

local p = {}

p.text = ''

function p.main return p.text end

function p._addText(text, preprocessFrame) if preprocessFrame ~= false then text = (preprocessFrame or mw.getCurrentFrame):preprocess(text) end p.text = p.text .. text end

return p

title: Module:Module wikitext


text:
Guide to the Godot game engine/Installation

The Godot game engine is free to use, and can be obtained at their official website. Choose the Godot 4 download if you have modern hardware, or Godot 3 if you have, or want to target, older hardware.

Then you need to download the file you need. For example, for windows, you need to download the windows file. You can ignore the export templates for now.

After downloading the  folder, unzip it and move the contents to anywhere you want. You may want to add a few shortcuts as well.

Alternatively, you can install Godot via Steam, Itch.io, or the Epic Store for free. This is a great way to do it if you don't like manually moving files into your  folder. However, downloading Godot this way will not include mono support, meaning you won't be able to use c# in your game.

If you get both the official website desktop version and a Steam installation, your project files will be kept separate between both installations.

You can also use the web editor, linked on the main page of Godot's website. However, it is slow, unstable, and has very limited functionality (for example, no debugging). So this is not recommended for developing big games/apps, just for experimenting with the engine for the first time.

The android editor for mobile is also unstable. Always prefer to get the desktop version of the editor if you can.

After you have done that, simply run the engine and and go to the next page to continue.


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User talk:2600:6C5E:1D00:842D:18D7:B87C:F89D:D57E

21:18, 21 March 2023 (UTC)