text:
User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 9/Power

This is the sandbox page for the issue: Power.

1979 Iranian Revolution
The Iranian theocracy was established by Ruhollah Khomeini following the 1979 Iranian Revolution which saw the overthrow of the last Shah of Iran. The ultimate rejection of secularism in Iran was due to widespread dissatisfaction with the Shah’s political regime; Khomeini utilised his esteemed position as Marja within the Shi’ite Islamic tradition to rally non-secular support and claim the government’s illegitimacy. The subsequent institutionalisation of the Islamic Republic Party and its Islamic constitution created a dichotomous theocratic and democratic state in which an elected, albeit almost entirely clerical, parliament presided under Khomeini’s position as a supreme religious leader.

Factors leading up to the Iranian Revolution
A complex interplay of secular and non-secular politics, international relations and theological nationalisation led to the establishment of the current Iranian political system. The constitutional movement in Iran began with the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Constitution_of_1906#:~:text=The%20Persian%20Constitution%20of%201906,and%20Ismail%20Mumtaz%2C%20among%20others. 1906 Persian constitution] in response to the exploitation of the decentralised Iranian government by Britain and Russia. Royal loans from such powers led to the imposition of tariffs and trade deals disadvantageous to Iran and resulted in widespread protests ultimately leading to the establishment of an electoral parliament. International powers again played a large role in Iranian politics in 1953 when the CIA initiated a coup d’etat and overthrew Prime minister Mohammed Mossadegh. Some of his non-secular followers formed the National Resistance Movement (NRM) whose ideology blended democracy and Islamic scripture and paved the way for Khomeini's rise to prominence.

The meaning of Power
Power has different meanings across disciplines and contexts, but is generally described as "the ability to exert one's will over others by persuasion, influence or coercion." Power can be visible, hidden or invisible in different situations, and is deeply imbedded in society, acting as a framework for human and social interaction and the relationships between institutions and the public.

Power and Diversity
When thinking about diversity and power, there are multiple ways to connect the two. In positions of high power, there is often a lack of racial, ethnic and gender diversity, which was recently highlighted by the UK 2020 Colour of Power Index, concluding that "just 52 out of the 1099 most powerful roles in the country are filled by non-white individuals." This draws attention to the incredibly important issue of power in society, particularly the question of who is privileged enough to have the power and how the power is then used as a tool for authority. In academia, strong inequalities and power imbalances are also seen, which brings a new dimension to the idea of power and it's impact not only on societal relationships, but on the next generation.

The Power of Racial Diversity in Chemistry in the UK
Diversity is particular problem in the discipline of Chemistry. This is heavily emphasised through analysis of the HESA 2017/2018 data by The Royal Society of Chemistry, showing that 0% of chemistry professors across UK universities were black (figures rounded to the nearest 5). Such racial homogeneousness reinforces racial divides in academia, and restricts the representation of the voices in higher level Chemistry. These statistics show that Chemistry is depicted as racially uniform, and power is ultimately given to those who are given a voice, in this case primarily those of white ethnicity. This has negative implications and reprecussions for the discipline of Chemistry as whole, across a wide range of levels. First is the issue of student intake at degree level Chemistry. A lack of diversity amongst academics has the power to create barriers to certain student groups who are underrepresented in the discipline. This implicit exclusion perpetuates the problem, as it reinforces the idea for students that they do not 'fit in' or shouldn't study Chemistry. This sustains the mobilisation of bias, retaining power for the privileged who can access the education. As a result, minority students can feel marginalised and excluded, leading to increased feelings of isolation, with a consequent impact on motivation. This highlights the power diversity holds in encouraging students to pursue higher education, and the consequent impact this therefore has on the power distribution in society as a whole. If students go on to study at higher levels, publishing research and gaining status and academic authority, they are much more likely to have influence over governmental, scientific and public policy, therefore having higher levels of power. This is a perfect example of hidden power, and its role in undervaluing and silencing groups in society. If certain groups of students feel marginalised and are blocked from further education, their voices simply won't be represented to the same degree, causing whole groups to be denied the same level of power and influence as the commonly represented groups. This is also an example of power being exerted over these minority groups, because restricting access to education and resources is itself a display of the power institutions have over minorities and the power dynamics within society.

The Power of Gender Diversity in Chemistry in the UK
Further analysis of data from the HESA by the Royal Society of Chemistry also shows that "the percentage of minority ethnic chemical scientists in academia appears to drop significantly with increasing career stage," highlighting yet again how an increasing lack of diversity with increasing career stage gives power to a much narrower and more limited set of voices. This lack of diversity can also be seen in relation to gender too, as HESA reported in 2015 that only 9% of Chemistry professors were female, which further demonstrates the divides seen in academia and the disproportionality between the two sexes, although the figures are slowly increasing. Suppression of the number of females in academic Chemistry has significant knock on effects, not only on the gender disparity of students entering higher education, but on the public face of Chemistry as a whole. Men are the dominant sex in Chemistry, and this works to reinforce the idea in society that women are inferior, yet another example of indirect and institutionalised power seen in Chemistry.

Background
Education studies and Teaching are described as the ‘study of the process of receiving and giving systematic instructions’. Degrees in these involve a range of critical and specialist perspectives, such as sociology which can discuss factors external to institutions and how these influence education and inclusivity, psychology to look at childhood and learning development, as well as key skills such as learning methods, inclusion, classroom dynamics and communication, amongst many others. As such graduates play a critical role in a range of areas, from working as primary teachers during key childhood development stages to others being responsible for inclusion policies in educational institutions. Power differences can be seen in many forms in the field and discipline of education.

Issues of Power
There is a hierarchy at all levels of education. While degrees such as MA in Teaching and Masters in Education provide specialised skills for micro-level training, and administration and policy respectively, academics in higher education often do not acquire said degrees to be in positions of leadership or power. Higher education academics who specialise in other fields are predominantly seen as more valued, and yet many of them are likely to lack key insights into the sensitivities of teaching through class-room dynamics or policies relating to inclusion for example. There is a potential for conflict between more powerful and rigid disciplines and ‘softer’ specialisations like Education.

Power parities can be seen in terms of representation as well. According to 2017-2018 statistics from the National Centre for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, there was a wide gap in the number of female degree holders and male degree holders, with as many as 52,287 more female graduates with Bachelor's degrees, 80,625 more with Master’s degrees and 4,556 more with Doctoral degrees, relative to male counterparts. In spite of these differences, there exists a wage gap, favouring male teachers despite many women occupying essential support roles in schools. In the same 2017-2018 period, a similar pattern was identified in the UK. Government data showed male teachers with equivalent skills were paid £900-£4000 more than women with equivalent skills despite the field being dominated by female teachers. The National Education Union highlighted how 36% of teachers in secondary schools across the UK were male, and yet 62% of leadership positions in these schools are filled by men. Decision-making and policy as such is influenced by these differences and can be biased.

Issues to do with race have also played out in the field. In the US for example, there has been growing diversity in the demographics of students from Kindergarten to 12th grade. One major problem identified in teacher education and teaching by the National Centre for Education Statistics (NCES, 2016) though was the dominant ‘whiteness’, as 82% of teachers identifying as white were found to be teaching students primarily of colour. Professors involved in the training of these teachers were also predominantly white, with up to 88% identifying as such, and they are said to have “left the ideological, behavioral, epistemological, philosophical, and emotional remnants of whiteness intact.” This ‘hierarchical relationship’ has been investigated to perpetuate stereotypes, drive unwarranted fear with regards to racial stereotypes, maintain dominant racial ideologies, and negatively impact students of colour through instillation and internalisation of cycles of racism. This can be so influential that the meaning of the word 'cultural diversity’ in teacher education research itself has been found to range extensively.

Power can ultimately play out as a mixture of strategy and indirect coercion, if not direct coercion, as seen for example in a study which found power and intimidation being used through language to disadvantage ESL students within the teacher-student relationship and coercion playing out in the selection of research participants in university-based research.

Non-decision making
Non-decision making (Bachrach and Baratz, 1970) is a method where individuals in positions of power block from discussion topics that threaten their status. This has the effect of maintaining the status quo: as the topic is not present in discussions, decisions cannot be made in relation to it. . This process can be seen in action in schools. Men tend to dominate the upper hierarchies of the schooling system: school governing bodies and school senior management teams either have a disproportionate number of male members, or are structured in a way which minimises feminine voices (see: Androcentrism). In England, only 38% of headteachers in secondary schools are women. Through this patriarchal inequality, issues in relation to female discrimination can be dismissed easily, excluding these issues from decision-making. Such issues include school dress code (banning of female students from wearing trousers), the prevention of a rugby training course for girls by a male headmaster, and power struggles between male teaching staff and female technical staff in a science department. Non-decision making in relation to female discrimination may occur in any area of a school system, partly due to academia's patriarchal history.

Background
Social sciences overlap when researching human ontology: how did we come to be the way we are, what knowledge have we accumulated, and how having that knowledge gives us power to become better people, and when has it been used badly. One extreme example of manipulating behaviours to achieve a set goal can be seen in Jon Ronson’s Psychopath Test – which looks at behaviour patterns unusual in the general public. Generally, people in positions of power display certain tendencies that allow them to behave in certain ways, sometimes with a certain intention and to act to manipulate (and many exert power through ideology and political theory more subtly). In a simple example, movements like #MeToo have aggregated what anthropologist and philosopher Claude Lévi-Strausscalled binary oppositions of pain over pleasure (he believed all words were binary oppositions) that derived from the power and knowledge (mostly) men held over women and their ability to psychologically manipulate and coerce women into behaviours abhorrent to them. In his book, “Thinking: Fast and Slow”, Daniel Kahnemann referred to this ability for direct coercion as “psychopathic charm.”

Philosopher and historian Michel Foucault called this “pouvoir-savoir” or “power knowledge” to be the entanglement of knowledge and power in historically specific circumstances. For Foucault, it was not just the domination that was resultant, but the “subjectivation” of humans into becoming “subjects”.

The Power Within
Kahnemann’s theory is interesting because he narrows Thinking down to two systems: fast, (automatic response) and slow, taking time to think things through, apply our knowledge and then respond, and change. “Changing one’s view about oneself is even harder” (Kahnemann. 2011. P 172), but it is possible. In his book, “The Happiness Hypothesis,” social psychologist Jonathan Haidt, claims there are three way you can change your mindset to be more positive: meditation, cognitive therapy or Prozac. (Haidt. 2006. P35).

Freudian psychology removes the power from the self and leads into “victimhood” – whatever happened to you as a child is why individuals are the way they are, and to resolve them you must undergo therapy. Aaron Beck, a psychologist in the 1960's at the University of Pennsylvania termed this the “Cognitive triad of depression”: “I am no good,” “My world is Bleak” “My Future is Hopeless” (Haidt. 2006. P37-38). Beck resolved to treat this with his Cognitive Therapy – where the individual takes back the power that has been institutionally removed from them and applies it in a positive way. Applied cognitive methodologies can change the balance of power: there have been documented increases in mental health issues, (many times the focus has been on how bad things are as opposed to how lucky we are – we are not sick, we have our health, we are studying in one of the finest institutions in the world, we have each other, we can go outside etc., there is no enemy!) When connected with other people, the self enlarges its capacity for positive thinking giving a multi-pronged approach to exert the self’s own power over its thinking. The intellect is separate to the mind – the intellect, or wisdom is fact based, the mind is the chit chat, the “monkey mind” or what the intellect/wisdom seeks to control.

The philosopher J. S. Mill wrote in "On Liberty" in 1859 that humans are free to say, think, feel what they want, as long as they do not harm others. He knew that knowledge evolved to a point where opinion converges and acceptance of hitherto unacceptable behaviours become the norm. . Haidt believes, in his 2018 book with Greg Lukianoff, "The Coddling of the American Mind" that Mill's book "is perhaps the most compelling argument ever made for why we need to interact with people who see things differently from ourselves".(Lukianoff and Haidt, 2018. P248)

Nevertheless, The German sociologist Herbert Marcuse wrote an essay entitled, “Repressive Tolerance” claiming having power only entrenches that power and comes to dominate institutions and that tolerance is “repressive”. A “liberating tolerance” is one that favours the weak and inhibits the strong. Marcuse believed this was easily separable into the Right and Left of political thought. He thought it justifiable to subvert Right leaning majorities in favour of Left leaning minorities. If this did not achieve equality, then he thought it would be up to universities to teach this, “The restoration of freedom of thought may necessitate new and rigid restrictions on teaching and practices in the educational institutions, which serve to enclose the mind within the established universe of discourse and behaviour”. (Marcuse, Wolff and Moore jr, 1965. p100-101).

The analysis of power relationships among groups was clearly demarcated by Kimberlé Crenshaw when applying knowledge to the experience of black women, in particular. In her analysis of Intersectionality, discrimination can happen at certain inflections including gender, race, age. In her Ted Talk in 2016, she said, “where there is no name for a problem, you can't see a problem, and when you can’t see a problem, you pretty much can’t solve it.” The words she uses in her table of Privilege (dominant) vs Oppression (subservient) may be binary oppositions and situations are never dichotomous, and so we all intersect at different points. There is a need for understanding and awareness, and the need to avoid tribalism.

Conclusion
The psychological toolbox includes meditation (visualisation, vipassana, breath work), mindfulness (awareness) and cognitive therapy. Learning these from a young age shows reductions in anxiety and depression and our ability for tolerance. There is power in knowing that we are not our thoughts and that everything change.(If I wrote this again, I would not be able to write it exactly the same because it has changed, I have changed, my thoughts have changed in that time.) Thus knowledge gives us multiple strategies for using power to create a positive environment, where we can all thrive, and have a happier, more compassionate society.

Background
As social media takes an increasing place in today's society, fake news and misinformation are emerging through all social media platforms. Many people are relying on social media as a source of news. A study shows that one-fifth of adults and most young people between 18 - 25 years old in America go to social networks to access news in 2018. We define online social media as websites and mobile applications that allow users to network with friends and that promote social interaction between individuals, groups of individuals or organisations. In 2020, over 3.6 billion people were using social media worldwide and this number keeps increasing. Consequently, untrue content has influenced audiences unable to distinguish truth from fact or news from propaganda. This matters when politics are at stake, for example in times of presidential elections in the midst of a global pandemic. As a result, social media holds power over people. Such power can sometimes be positive, but also harmful.

Social media as a means of communication in politics
Politics today is in the midst of change. If before the politician was inaccessible, a refugee in his instances, he has now become a friend. Twitter, Facebook and Instagram have become means of local communication with the population. The era of political information has given way to the era of political communication. In addition to this, one acquires political knowledge by visiting websites developed for political campaigns. These sponsored posts ensure the happiness of the brands that use them to promote products to new buyers and politicians because these advertising messages are digital display tools for electoral purposes. This notion is very well illustrated by the American presidential election of 2020. The two opponents, Joe Biden and Donald Trump have 14 million and 32.3 million subscribers respectively. To show the importance of social networks, a Master Social Media Guidance was published by Joe Biden's team during the presidential campaign.

Social media & company perceptions in economics

Social media are an integral part of the daily life of Internet users. It is therefore critical for companies to manage their online presence proactively for brand perception and recruitment. Internet penetration is broad in the Sweden market, with 9 million Internet users in 2019 (98% of the country's population). A business has the power to reach out to social media. Indeed, the graph shows us that 76% of large companies in Sweden use social networks in a greater extent, as to recruit employees or to develop the company and its image.

Social media in the business sphere have many benefits. First of all, it is an excellent way to communicate about promotions, events, or any other announcement. Indeed, communicating on social networks offers additional advantages compared to traditional media such as the low cost. Social media allows you to improve the visibility and referencing of your site, generating more traffic and ultimately in an increase in customers. The more traffic a page or account generates, the larger the community will become. As a result, thanks to social networks, Internet users will be able to relay information provided by the company, with the aim of informing their own communities and ultimately increasing the customer base. While social media have many advantages in the business environment, they can also be harmful to a company's image. It is therefore important to manage them with care and manage the associated risks (negative image, wrong tone in posts). Furthermore, a page or account can very quickly be discredited through negative comments or the rapid spread of false rumours, enabled by the power of social media.

How power plays a role in psychology: the example of lockdown
A team of researchers from King's College London in the United Kingdom analysed the results of 24 scientific studies. These studies looked at the psychological effects of quarantine in a dozen different countries affected by epidemics such as SARS, Ebola, H1N1 influenza, etc. Their results were published on 14 March 2020 in the medical journal The Lancet. The fear of being infected or of transmitting the virus to one's family was present among many participants, as was the fear of not having enough basic supplies. The loss of the usual routine and the reduction of social and physical contact often proved to be the cause of boredom, frustration and feelings of isolation among the interviewees.

The study also showed that confining the population for several weeks is far from harmless for our mental health.

Since 23 March 2020, the first day of the English COVID-induced, scientists have been trying to measure the importance of social networks in the daily lives of English people. Researchers from the University of Manchester reveal that many people find each other and maintain the link thanks to social networks: mostly to keep in touch with their loved ones, but also to get information, to have fun, to work or to play sports.

However, social media has not always been a benefit during isolation. The time spent on social networks has increased during this pandemic. Social media posts are filled with inaccuracies about science. According to CNN Health, a quarter of YouTube videos on this topic contain false information. The issue is that 70% of adults go online to find health advice and 62 million people have watched these misleading videos.

One of the big problems for controlling the Social Media platforms is that they have expanded so quickly, and so massively, that there is no regulation. In the UK, people like Helena Kennedy QC, who sits in the House of Lords are helping to formulate regulation with bodies like 5 Rights Foundation.

Another issue is the use of data - our data is collected, mainly for free, and is used by the technology companies to target us with personalised ads, news stories and anything else they believe would fall into our interest categories. This is why people see different news stories, the "fake news", conspiracy theories and other anecdotally referenced news rather than fact based news - we do not all see the same news.

Conclusion
The birth of social media is very recent, started in the early 2000s. Several billion people in the world use them today, and some say that they control our lives. They have the power to influence us in our political and administrative decisions for example. However, they also have the power to help us keep in touch with our friends and family. Social networks assume a kind of fifth "raw" power, next of the traditional media and press. Journalists speak about The Fifth Estate.

Introduction
Anthropology, the study of humanity, was described by Dell Hynes as specialising "in the study of Others". The concept of the Other, which was first developed by Hegel, was defined in the context of anthropology by Jacob Pandian as "characteristics which are alien to the western tradition". Historically, the interest of anthropologists was with cultures seen as "primitive", and was steeped in colonial thought. The link between the discipline and colonialism is inextricable: its initial purpose in the 1930s was to aid colonialism, for example the British expansion into Eastern Nigeria during this time period. Colonialism is seen as an important issue in modern anthropology, as a phenomenon in human history, and also in relation to the discipline's history. Colonialism is described as a nation exerting control and exploiting another country, region or culture. This aligns well with R. A. Dahl's definition of power as direct coercion, that "A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do". In the context of colonialism the “A” nation has the power to exploit and control the “B” nation, even against its best interests.

Case Study: The Yanomami
There is an intrinsic power dynamic in ethnographic field work between the researcher and the subject. This can be seen in the research of the Yanomami, an Amazonian indigenous group that inhabit numerous separate villages in Venezuela and Brazil which have been subject to a multiplicity of Western anthropological studies since the 20th Century. The work of Napoleon Chagnon are the most publicised, yet not without controversy. Chagnon was accused of not practicing cultural relativism: in his writings he portrayed the group as particularly violent, perpetuating the primitive savage stereotype of indigenous cultures. His methods of ethnographic field work were also criticised, as anthropologist Marshall Sahlins argued that trading of steel weaponry for ethnographic information with the Yanomami helped to escalate violence between villages. The power held by researchers over their subjects include the ability to represent their culture to the world, the capacity for exploitation, and the power of interference.

Power in Subjectivation
Michel Foucault held this "pouvoir-savoir" or "power-knowledge" to be the entanglement of knowledge and power in historically specific circumstances. For Foucault, it was not just domination that was resultant, but the "subjectivation" of humans, into becoming "subjects". The acquiescence of experts, people and societies under intense pressure to conform to power reduces the freedom for intellectual curiosity and is reductionist and abusive in its nature.

The acquiescence to power, or subjectivation, is easily demonstrated through the process of colonisation. Many European nations sacked Africa and beyond for territory, resources and manpower. The "subjects" learned how to think and act according to institutionalised Colonialist power structures and systems. From an historical anthropologic point of view, one easily accessible aspect, "Orientalism", Edward Said wrote, was a Western (Colonial) representation of the Arab Islamic world. There is a discourse on "Power Knowledge: the Powerful (the West) vs the Powerless (the Orient), an intrinsic part of the West's political unconscious bias that is still widespread today. The belief that one culture is superior to another. Said argued Orientalism "failed to identify with human experience". Indigenous Maori woman Linda Smith wrote that "history is mostly about power", and that hers are “genealogical, cultural and political set of experiences” (Smith.2012.p12)

Modern Day
Although anthropology has shifted focus away from studying the Other in more recent years, there is still an issue of power even when studying other groups. Firstly, there is the contentious idea that the anthropological "gaze" is voyeuristic, that it doesn't give the subject a voice. Recently developed branches of anthropology often focus on marginalised groups, for example queer studies and black studies. A non-white or non-queer researcher in these fields are in a position of privilege over their subjects, and are able to step away from the issues that their subjects are experiencing. These pervasive issues, in addition to anthropology's difficult colonial past, show there is much work to be done by anthropologists to deal with the issue of power within their discipline.

Power in Cartography
Maps, and the processes of map-making, with their various demarcations or deliberate omissions, are inextricable expressions of knowledge-power. From even the first generally accepted pre-modern map, the Babylonian Imago Mundi, cartographers have both directly and indirectly exerted power over the naïve map consumer. Regardless of context, from early colonial mapping techniques to the development of highly sophisticated geographic information systems (GIS) as a result of the U.S. military-industrial complex, cartography as a discipline sits directly at the intersection of many forms of power.

Cartography as Direct Coercion
Considering the various definitions of truth, cartography as a field might be understood to subscribe to a realist conception of truth, acting as a mirror which accurately reflects what exists and the relative physical location of those existent objects. Such a statement might align, at least in intent, with the Babylonian Imago Mundi, a clay tablet projection which aimed to map the "known" world circa 700-500 BC. However, much like the popular Mercator map projection which gradually distorts relative size and distance as latitude increases, the practice of map-making has steadily undergone a distortion of its own, first wed to the establishment of monarchic power then co-opted by the emergence of the state in the 1600s with the Treaty of Westphalia. The new inseparable aim of cartography became the delineation of states' borders and the establishment of new trade routes. Maps, in turn, became the exacting record of the major European powers racing to expand ownership to commercially viable territories. Such a trajectory demonstrates the intrinsic link between the methodologies and processes of cartography and the evolution of direct, coercive forms of power in the discipline.

Cartography as Indirect Coercion
In addition to the power of cartography in the directly coercive colonist-colonized dynamic, the map-making discipline also exerts a subtler form of power in its influence on social constructs and the formation of cultural understanding. Brian Harley, prominent geographer and cartographer of the 20th century, posited that the omissions and indirect power of maps stem from the “silences which arise from deliberate policies of secrecy and censorship” in the discipline. Not only does the cartographer possess the direct power of the map production processes, but also the subsequent indirect power of the map as its used in the broader societal context. Building on this societal context and considering the field of power-relations in which maps are created, cartography has historically indirectly played into inequality of opportunity in that the dominant elite classes have often disproportionately benefitted from the use of such cartographic creations. Therefore, in addition to the power demonstrated in the production process of maps, the telling economic, historic, and socio-political circumstances which led to such production also merits consideration.

The Power of Advertising
Advertising is potentially one of the most influential disciplines established in the 20th and 21st century. The power that it holds within society is immense, it is capable of deciding social and market trends. The true power of advertising is first, truly, seen under the work of Edward Bernays. Bernays was the nephew of Freud, and drew upon Freud's work in order to tap into the mind of the public. His most famous work, was in regard to the Torches of Freedom, a movement created in order to encourage more women to smoke in what was a societally frowned upon activity. The main aspect of his plan was to turn the cigarette into a symbol for feminine empowerment and as a symbol for gender equality. This lead contributed greatly to the steady increase of women smokers, from 5% in 1923 to 18.1% in 1935 to 33.3% by 1965, and by the 90s, the message of "Torches of Freedom", began to be used in cigarette exports to emerging markets. This example clearly shows that marketing can be effective: over the space of a decade it can create large demand for a product out of next to nothing.

One consideration to take is that this example is set in the 1920s; the access to markets and the ability and effectiveness of the spread of information was incredibly limited when compared to the globalised world that we live in today. The estimated radio ownership for a family in America was around 35-40% by 1929, and comparing this to smartphone ownership in America in 2019 at 90% exemplifies how adverts can reach a significantly greater audience, especially if we take into account the differing nature between smartphones and radios; smartphones can be accessed anywhere and can provide more information. Combining this with the capitalist ethos of hyper-consumerism, the shortening attention span of each generation and the increasing media consumption of each generation, it is clear what role advertising is to play in the future.

Bernays indeed did foresee the growing necessity and need for advertising. He devised the concept of "Engineered Consent", where, when democracy was pushed due to the growing masses, the need for manufactured obedience through the creation of ideas (by the ruling minority) and implantation (into the masses) would ensure democracy's survival, or at least capitalism's. It is thus clear that the power that advertising holds over consumers is immense.

However, it is not only consumers that advertising has a hold over: it can lead to the domination of an industry and formation of monopolies through entry barriers. This is highlighted by the importance of distribution costs, where adverts have become a necessity, especially in today's world, and if one cannot generate demand for a product then the business will fail. In already saturated or monopolised industries this means immense costs in order to compete, which is why it can act as such a barrier. As such, both of these points highlight the immense power that advertising holds, both in the controlling and monopolising of an industry, and over the consumer/citizen in regards to both what they want to buy as well as what they should believe in.

The power of digital marketing
A simple definition of power could be the ability to alter behaviours and events. The power of digital marketing implies that this specific discipline can offer more market power to businesses. Market power or monopoly power is when a company can raise its prices above the area where there would be competition.

Introduction to digital marketing
Digital marketing compared to traditional marketing regroups every marketing entity that can be found through the use of electronic devices and more specifically, the internet. With this discipline, firms are now able to offer their services and products on websites, mobile phones, social media, emails, videos and various search engines. In this digital era to be competitive in any sector, nowadays a business tends to have a say on the internet.

The power the digital has given to the marketing
The new strategy to follow and meet the demands of the new digital wave of customers is digital marketing.With digital marketing, firms have the power to vary the audience they're trying to attract as they can develop various strategies. Compared to traditional marketing where a firm has to wait for the end of a publicity campaign to see if their products have worked, with the use of internet firms have a quick overview of the progress of their product with elements such as views, reposts or likes. As these reactions are live companies can adapt directly to be as efficient as possible. Internet is an opportunity for businesses to respond as precisely as possible to consumers needs. Digital marketing has also reassured customers and increased their loyalty to a brand. Customers can find reliable information about products or services on websites at any time of the day. They can in a few minutes compare the prices of the same product to make the best choice which enhances their satisfaction. Programmes are set to make sure customers stay loyal to the brand, such as websites that remember you and can even propose things that you might like based on your previous orders. The relatively low cost of digital marketing has also made it a solid strategy to adopt as small companies are now able to compete with firms that already have an absolute monopoly on the market. This starts a trend where even wealthy companies are obliged to follow as they will not be able to compete with other companies indefinitely with traditional marketing.

The increasing power of digital marketing with globalization
Globalization is a phenomenon where goods and services are becoming available all over the world with the development of Information communication technologies(ICT). This has changed the world of marketing and enlarged its horizons. Daily everyday activities have become digital activities. Everyone using the internet is susceptible to be under the influence of digital marketing. Digital marketing has allowed the brand to play a role in daily lives. Internet is the most potent tool of globalization with, for example, brands such as Uber which is the largest taxi company in the world but doesn't own actual cars. Marketing strategies have followed the globalization movement making the content king and not the customers anymore. One of the most significant power Digital Marketing detain over this globalized era, is the exposure it provokes. The power to be heard and seen worldwide provides to the buisness undeniable benefits.

Power of identity
Fashion is by its own nature, intrinsically tied to the identity of the individual. Clothes detains a certain power: one that is of resistance, defiance, strength. It helps in the assertion of one’s identity, membership to a cause, or beliefs. Some argues that a person's choice of clothing is an important factor in how the world perceives him or her. The power that one affirms at first sight is often linked to one's self-esteem and daring choices of clothing would help in the build up of this self-esteem. One historical evidence of the power fashion displays, can be found within the traditional Indian clothing: the Khadi. Indeed, according to Emma McCledon, this clothing proclaimed a significant political statement promoting the Indian autonomy from the British influence. Thus, revealing itself as a symbol of power and conviction.

Fashion as a soft power
Fashion is a tool of great influence for a nation too. It's soft power constitutes a motif of interest for foreigners. Indeed, according to the British Council, “22% of young people in countries that are strategically important to the UK cited fashion as being something that made the UK attractive to them”. This data underscores the real importance of Fashion in broader terms than just identity but as being crucial for political interest. . Today, fashion plays an important role in portraying ideas and values politically speaking. We could think about Michelle Obamas dress exacerbating diversity during her husbands presidency in 2008 or even Hillary Clinton and Angela Merkel in their famous suits to support feminism. The fashion one choses to follow and adhere to, helps them formulate a statement. Feminism is a great example of how fashion manifests itself as a  political tool. Suffragettes used it as a symbolic emblem to manifest their ideas and conviction to empower women. Their choice of adhering to a rather masculine fashion ( for their generation ) revealed their willingness to challenge the society’s traditional scheme.

Introduction
Philanthropy is the efforts of private individuals to improve the quality of life of other individuals or groups. Philanthropy is distinguished from governmental support and business ventures by the motives and actors within the system. Governmental support is differentiated from philanthropy by its actors - the former being acts by a public body for public good, while business endeavours differs from philanthropy in its motives (monetary gain in contrast with general social improvement). Philanthropy has emerged as an academic discipline with the University of Kent offering a masters in Philanthropic Studies.

Power in Philanthropy
Classical references to philanthropy show an inherent association with power in the act, with Plutarch associating philanthropy with civilisation, and obscurity with a lack of philanthropy and Plato in ‘Laws’ comparing Titanic philanthropy with human dominance over domesticated animals. Philanthropy has been noted as one expression of soft power in international politics, which is an implicit form of power that works with attraction and subversive methods in contrast to the explicit expression of hard power. The one sided relationship between grantors and grantees contains an inherent power dynamic, which has effects beyond this closed relationship. The nuances of this dynamic have been explained as ‘power with’ and ‘power over’ grantees. The former refers to the original goals of philanthropy and the empowerment of grantees, while the latter refers to manipulative influence. They are not mutually exclusive.

Political Actors
When actors in a philanthropic relationship wield a lot of global influence, the power dynamic between the two can have large scale effects outside of the relationship. This is the case in controversies surrounding donor systems for political bodies. The financial support possible by monied actors gives added weight to their voices that is not possible to those without the same access to funds. This poses a threat to the democratic system when voices do not have the same weight, fundamentally undermining democracy’s key tenets.

Voluntourism
Voluntourism (also called international volunteering) is a portmanteau of volunteering and tourism, and is leisure travel with the intent to volunteer. Its supporters see it as positive endeavour for all parties: the volunteers have an enjoyable experience and those they are supporting get help and resources. It has also been called a humanising response to an impersonal trend in globalisation. Critics of international volunteering see it as propagation of neocolonialism and a perpetuation of the ‘white saviour’ complex.


text:
User:Esathu

Hello my name is Tan but Esathu is my writer’s name

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Esathu


text:
User:Esathu/sandbox

Hi this is my sandbox

title: User:Esathu/sandbox


text:
User talk:Esathu

Let’s talk here!

Iche lange
Welcome to Wikibooks! Do you have any evidence to back up the existence of "Iche lange"? As far as I know, Wikibooks is not the place for fake languages. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 17:31, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Esathu


text:
Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/February 29

Today in 2012 the first orders for Raspberry Pi were accepted.


text:
User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 16/ Evidence

Evidence in Law
In the second paragraph from Evaluation of the Use of Evidence, you used the word "obviously" in "Obviously a majority are qualitative evidence", same with "However", "However, witness testimonials are assumed to be". I feel like the wording makes it feel subjective, whereas the paragraphs should be objective. JupiterJoyner (discuss • contribs)

Responding to the point above: Thank you for pointing out that some words could be improved further so that the wording would better reflect the objective nature of content. But so far I have not come up with better alternatives. Please feel free to edit it if you want. Lily0212 (discuss • contribs) 18:34, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

Lily0212, I'll think about some way to rephrase it, but I think I was being too harsh on that aspect since, as a whole, your contribution is objective; I think just the structure makes it seem like an essay more than an actual Wikipedia contribution, but I'm working on that myself too, so I wouldn't worry about it. Anyhow, I like the points you made in your contribution! Well done! :) JupiterJoyner (discuss • contribs)

The evidence of doping in competitive sports and it’s impact on the human body
To the author who wrote this section, I just wanted to let you know that your references are formatted a bit weirdly. Try using the little book with a bookmark symbol (it's in the edit bar), and then type your full Vancouver reference in. It will automatically put your references at the bottom of the sandbox and create a hyperlink to them, as well as automatically number them. Feel free to message me if you need any help with this! Purpledinosaur17 (discuss • contribs) 20:14, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Evidence in Economics: GDP vs GDH
To the author who wrote this part, I find your topic very interesting! It is so impressive to me that you introduced the less conventional Economics concept, GDH, and the example about it being used as the indicator of Economics performance in Bhutan. The comparison of GDP and GDH inspired me about their different natures as quantitative evidence when they take different factors into measurement.

But I want to point out the definition you gave to GDP. Defining GDP by “the standard for measuring a nation’s productivity” is a bit disputed. Because GDP only considers the work done by all people within the national’s border domestically, it ignores the work done by the country’s citizens overseas which is also regarded as part of nation’s productivity even though being not “domestic”. “A nation’s productivity” is more likely to be reflected from GNP or GNI instead, which is also another evidence widely employed by Economists and governments in the world (GNP/GNI=GDP+net property income from abroad).

Therefore, I think it would be better if we define GDP as the market value of all final goods and services produced by all people within the nation’s border during a specific time (usually one year). Hope this makes sense. Lily0212 (discuss • contribs) 18:34, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

The evidence of doping in competitive sports and it’s impact on the human body
To the author who wrote this section, I find your discussion about how doping is used and its impacts in sports to be very intriguing. I think you can expand further, however, when talking about the different kinds of evidence involved. Besides surveys among athletes about the use of dope, I think you can also mention how evidence is obtained such as urine or blood tests, and how compiling the data can bring forth underlying trends for future anti-doping campaigns. I also then would suggest exploring how evidence can be tampered with by countries or athletes themselves to avoid testing positive such as urine replacement. I think this will bring forth interesting discussions about the validity of evidence within a discipline as well as uncover how evidence is analysed. I hope this makes sense! --Caprithai (discuss • contribs) 02:20, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

Evidence of the Effect of Magic Mushrooms on Mental Disorders
The author of this contribution has described a very interesting concept and I am intrigued to learn more about it. However, I am missing the references for the following part of the text: "This study triggered research at countless other reputable institutions such as John Hopkins University and the University of Toronto.". It would be great if the author could add this reference, because I am unsure if I found the correct articles when I did some research.

Hi! It was quite a pivotal study in the drug-science community, so it's a pretty well-known fact -- I don't remember where I found this fact (I think I read it in a magazine) and figured I didn't need to reference it, as it's not really a statistic/definition, but rather a well known piece of information. Should I delete it?

Evidence in Clinical Psychology: Evidence-Based Practice
I found your section really well written, and liked your comparisons between qualitative and quantitative evidence, as well as how you stressed that collaboration between researchers and clinical psychologists is needed, as the issues are very complex. I think at certain points it might be helpful to include more references. For example, the readers may want to read more work about evidence-based medicine by Gray, Haynes, and Richardson (1996), or about the American Psychological Association's recommendations. I also realised that all your references are at the end of your paragraphs, although I don't know if that was a deliberate choice. I googled it to make sure, and found out that we should cite after each sentence if we are referencing anything.

https://studenthelp.secure.griffith.edu.au/app/answers/detail/a_id/2860/~/can-i-put-one-reference-at-the-end-of-the-paragraph-if-all-my-references-are#:~:text=You%20must%20cite%20every%20time,last%20instance%20of%20the%20paragraph.

Response: Thank you for the feedback! I'm the author who wrote this section and I found different information about references. This article from Wikipedia says we only need to cite at the end of a group of sentences if those sentences are from the same source. Perhaps we can confirm during our seminar.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_overkill#:~:text=If%20one%20source%20alone%20supports,sentence%2C%20as%20this%20is%20overkill.

Oh no problem then, sorry. With different referencing styles and preferences, it's always good to check and make sure.

=Cooperative Evidence in the discipline of Physics=

I really liked your contribution on the place of evidence in physics, how you mentioned the shifts in the perception of evidence, as well as how you gave an example of the ways in which empirical and mathematical evidence could work to complement one another. However, I found your endnote suggesting that evidence itself isn't always enough to claim the truth most interesting. When examining the history of science, one observes many changes, paradigm shifts, developments, controversies, and debates on scientific evidence and truth. In philosophy and philosophy of science, empiricism suggests that experience and observation is enough to draw patterns and reach conclusions, while rationalism suggests that experience on its own is not enough to gain knowledge. Does the fact that something has been true for 4.6 billion years mean that it will be true for the next 4.6 billion years to come?

I've found some really interesting sources on such subjects if anyone's interested:

On The Quantum Physics Controversy as it relates to "scientific, philosophical, and even political aspects"

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025317927440

On "Science controversies past and present" as it relates to environmental crisis

https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/PT.3.1295

On philosophy and science

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structure-scientific-theories/

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#:~:text=Rationalists%20claim%20that%20there%20are,all%20our%20concepts%20and%20knowledge.

Evidence in Underwater Archaeology
I really enjoyed reading this -- it was a very niche topic to focus on, and I think that your conveyance of the connection between the physical discovery and the meaning/symbol behind it really resonates with the fundamentals of evidence-based exploration and research, which I believe is very important. ~Beans2002

That is great to hear! I'm really glad that you enjoyed it and that you thought I managed to connect the physical evidence to the meaning behind it. Thank you.


text:
User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 12/Evidence

Hi ! I just wanted to quickly discuss something with the person who worked on EBP in psychology. I worked on Evidence Based Medicine and EBP in general and found that it actually takes into account the critical expertise of the medical team. So depending on the way we analyze EBP, the issues you talked about (for ex. the individuality of the case) could in fact be solved in a way that is similar to the point you raised on your conclusion.

Hi, I worked on EBP in psychology and just found what you wrote. EBP is mostly based on a generalized solution from a lot of clinical trials from what I read. That's why I believe we should mix the two forms of therapy to give the individualization. What do you mean by "depending on the way we analyze EBP"?

Basc0024 (discuss • contribs) 21:05, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi again ! I mean that depending if we see EPB as a mix of clinical results and expertise and not only as a collect of clinical results, we won't have the problem you exposed but I think our researches diverged and and give really 2 interpretations of EPB so I don't think there is a "right" one ! Basc0024 (discuss • contribs)

Hi again Hplover101, I just wanted to tell you that I think you need to edit your references in a Vancouver style. Hope it helped !

Basc0024 (discuss • contribs)

Hello, to the person who wrote about Evidence in Sociology - I really liked your text and found the topic you chose very interesting! I read up on it a little and found an article that talked a bit more about the interviews used for qualitative evidence, so I added a few sentences about it to your text, I hope that's okay! Undercoveraustrian (discuss • contribs) 12:11, 10 November 2020 (UTC)Undercoveraustrian

Hi! To whoever did Evidence-Based Medicine, I think that’s an excellent choice of topic, since it’s so varied and medicine is also a rapidly changing field. It is also very strongly evidence based to ensure a good patient outcome. I thought it might be worthwhile to add a portion about how that evidence is collected and verified to make sure that the practice really will yield positive results, so I added a small section at the end. I hope that's ok, please let me know if you have any comments or stuff to add! Dyinghouseplant (discuss • contribs) 01:56, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi ! Thank you for your contribution, that's actually really important yes I agree ! Basc0024 (discuss • contribs)

addition for history of art
Hi, to the person that worked on evidence in History of art, I love what you wrote and as I was also interested in the subject I thought I could also take a look into this subject. I found a really interesting chapter from a book on the evidence of omission in history of art. indeed, the author is stating that sometimes we look to much on what we can extract from a work of art and we could also focus on the interpretation that people make out of it and how we usually follow someone's interpretation that might not even be true. The chapter is truly interesting so I am putting in here if you want to read it and I will add something about it on your page. [https://books.openedition.org/uop/1083 Romba, K. 2005. 15 – The Evidence of Omission in Art History’s Texts. In Keshen, J., & Perrier, S. (Eds.), Building New Bridges - Bâtir de nouveaux ponts : Sources, Methods and Interdisciplinarity - Sources, méthodes et interdisciplinarité. Les Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa | University of Ottawa Press. Tiré de http://books.openedition.org/uop/1083]

--Uclqesm

Thank you, I'll definitely look into it! Undercoveraustrian (discuss • contribs) 12:11, 10 November 2020 (UTC)Undercoveraustrian

Economics
Hi, I hope it's okay for me to add a little piece about behavioral economics to the econ part. I've wanted to write my own chapter about it, but since there is one already I've just added my part:)

-- Hey that's great, it was super interesting!

Economics 2
Hello to the person who wrote about evidence in econ! While reading, I found that the part on "issues with economic theories" could use some examples : I was thinking of Irving Fisher, a great economist of the 20th century who predicted a stock market boom, right before the Crash of 1929. He said: “Stock prices have reached what looks like a permanently high plateau (…) I expect to see the stock market a good deal higher within a few months." And a few days later, the stock market crashed... I'll just give you my reference right here: "Richardson G. Stock Market Crash of 1929 | Federal Reserve History [Internet]. Federalreservehistory.org. 2020 [cited 3 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/stock_market_crash_of_1929"

16:48, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Uclqrdi

I just thought of another example: the economist Ravi Batra claimed that in the 1990s a great depression would have occurred. However, it never happened! He even wrote a book about it: « Batra R. The great depression of 1990. New York: Dell; 1988. » What’s even more surprising is that the 1990s was in fact a period of relative stability and strong economic growth, with the US stock market growing at an 18 percent annualized rate. "American economic policy in the 1990s. Choice Reviews Online. 2002;40(02):40-1023-40-1023."

Uclqrdi (discuss • contribs) 16:59, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Uclqrdi

Suggestion for evidence in climate change
I found your contribution very interesting however, I felt that there is a slight lack of context regarding the need to prove climate change in its modern context. The origins paragraph provided me with new insight but I felt that the jump between the historical aspect and the need to prove the existence of climate change was a bit too drastic. Perhaps you could include a few sentences about the controversy of climate change in contemporary debates and why it needs to be proven. For example you could add a few sentences along the lines of: "Climate change is an important world issue in our modern context. An increased production of greenhouse gases has lead to rising temperatures across the globe, melting sea ices and changes in weather. According to NASA atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased by 47% since the beginning of the industrial revolution, . Despite these facts, the debate on climate change, and the role of humans in accelerating it, is a heated one. As surpising as it sounds..." This is only a suggestion, do whatever you like with it!

Hi! I totally agree with you, but I was going to talk about it in the part "climate change in politics" but it definitely makes more sense to add it and talk about it before. Thank you for your insight it is really appreciated! Uclqrdi (discuss • contribs) 19:54, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Uclqrdi


text:
User talk:SteRos7/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar 1/Evidence

Evidence in Sociology
This section really interests me because it deals with the issues that sociology faces in the strength of its evidence. I think it's worth talking more about how different disciplines demand different standards of evidence, because what constitutes evidence and what evidence is possible to obtain differs from discipline to discipline; and how this doesn't affect sociology's validity as a discipline. It's something I think I'll be adding to my section on history too. 22:02, 26 October 2020 (UTC)Pacific23

Evidence in Theology
In your sentence discussing how extrabiblical evidence can be used to complement scriptural evidence, do you think it might be helpful to add that historical and archaological evidence can also contradict or undermine claims and narratives within religous scriptures? Or perhaps to change the example of claims that these can help to justify, simply because I am not sure there are instances where archaological or historical evidence have been used to justify the claim that 'God speaks only truth', simply because it is not within their disciplinary boundaries to examine those claims. What do you think? I hope my idea makes sense... Xrcaatnp (discuss • contribs) 14:15, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

Re: Evidence in Economics
With regard to economics, it is extremely hard to conduct experiments that can model the workings of the economy. Furthermore, humans are not rational, which explains why many economic theories don't hold (e.g. Veblen goods) and hence economists have to create new "rules" to explain these deviations. A lot of economic theories also has a "ceteris paribus" assumption - i.e. assuming everything else stays constant. However, in reality, it is rare that only one factor changes while everything else stays constant. This impacts the utility of economics. Economics is useful for trying to explain why a particular decision was made (e.g. game theory), but might not be useful in forecasting future decisions. Evidence in economics also fall victim to the flaws of experiments in social science.


text:
User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC001/2020-21/Thursday2-3/Evidence

Evidence in Disciplines: Psychology and Neuroscience in Emotion
I have added a small paragraph on the distinction between qualitative and quantitative evidence in psychology as I find it very interesting that both approaches are commonly used in the same discipline, despite these approaches being almost opposites to each other. I thought that this distinction would provide a good basis for the paragraphs you have written below, which posed a very good point regarding the issues with the quantification of qualitative data and highlighted how this can be an issue in both Neuroscience and Psychology. MM.Mar 08 (discuss • contribs) 11:46, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Yes, this is a really useful extra bit of information to show how psychology can use both qualitative and quantitative research methods, and to consider which method is best depending on the nature of the subject matter. I have changed this to a sub-sub-section instead of a sub-section as I feel that the structure is clearer this way, as it is a topic under psychology. Alpacamaka (discuss • contribs) 15:50, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

Evidence for well-being
I added a sub-section on Gender and Wellbeing to elaborate more on your point about how gender can influence wellbeing, I also linked gender to previous points you made - health and education. I felt it was a such a large area of inequality, influencing wellbeing in multiple ways so it was useful to explore it in more detail, and to demonstrate how evidence used to justify gender gaps may not accurately represent the real situation. Alpacamaka (discuss • contribs) 18:58, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

I organised the different elements influencing wellbeing into bullet points because I felt the structure was clearer this way and easier to read. Alpacamaka (discuss • contribs) 16:39, 01 November 2020 (UTC)

I have added a small title "Introduction : Measurements of Wellbeing" as I felt like this structural element helped organise the topic a little more. MM.Mar 08 (discuss • contribs) 14:21, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Eye-witness Testimony as evidence in court
I have added an addition to this incredibly insightful contribution, to clearly highlight how the issues surrounding eye-witness testimonies have led to a general conflict between whether quantitative evidence should be prioritised over qualitative evidence, in court. I wanted to explain how both types of evidence have their applicability, and neither should be discarded completely, also due to social factors. I also wanted to explicitly state that solving this problem of reliability, requires an interdisciplinary approach - this had already been described in the original contribution but rather implicitly, and thus I hope my addition was able to reinforce this point.Bienchen4338 (discuss • contribs) 13:09, 06 November 2020 (UTC)

I have added a small title of "conclusion" for the last paragraph of this contribution. I really enjoyed reading these few paragraphs as they showcase the real world applications of the dispute of using qualitative versus quantitative evidence, and how these issues and conflicts can seriously impact important procedures such as court trials. MM.Mar 08 (discuss • contribs) 14:09, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Evidence for Love: The quantitative approach applied by Biology, Chemistry and Mathematics
I have added another section regarding the quantitative approach of love within the area of mathematics. When I saw your contribution this week it made me remember the Gottman equation which I learned about in high school. However, I was hesitant because it could be interpreted as subjective and not based on real experiments or evidence. Please let me know if you feel like I have taken the correct approach. Cannedtomatoes (discuss • contribs) 03:41, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you for this contribution - I think it fits really well and adds another perspective on how humans have tried to quantise love. While your addition focuses more on love and attachment within an established relationship, and the original contribution leans towards describing how love arises and is detected in the first place, I think it is really interesting to see that quantitative methods (in this instance mathematical formulae) are used to study all stages of a relationship. You definitely took the right approach and support the main point that a range of disciplines are involved in deciphering the mystery, that is love.(Bienchen4338 (discuss • contribs) 22:55, 8 November 2020 (UTC))

Evidence for Happiness: Biological and Cultural Determinism
I have added a sub-section to relate what you have said to interdisciplinary clashes within evidence - how happiness would be researched by biology and more social constructivist disciplines, and the difficulties that may be encountered as a result of the different ways in which evidence is seen in each discipline. Alpacamaka (discuss • contribs) 13:19, 10 November 2020 (UTC)


text: User:TheTemptationToExist/sandbox

title: User:TheTemptationToExist/sandbox


text:
User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Evidence/Evidence in Philosophy

I was wondering if references 4 and 5 were for the same source (they seem similar, but are cited differently)? If so, as a small point, maybe you could group them? Andreilla.m.l (discuss • contribs) 00:20, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

Hello! Your article is very well written but I don't know anything about philosophy so I had a hard time understanding the term "epistemology". Maybe you could link it to a Wikipedia page on the subject or define it to be as clear as possible. --Legrandherbage (discuss • contribs) 12:07, 29 October 2020 (UTC)


text:
IB Physics/Print version

IB Physics

Current, editable version of this book is available in Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks at URL: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB_Physics

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

=Measurements and Uncertainties=

Vectors and Scalars
=Mechanics=

=Thermal Physics=

=Waves =

=Electricity and Magnetism=

=Circular Motion and Gravitation=

=Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics=

=Energy Production=

=Wave Phenomena=

=Fields=

=Electromagnetic Induction=

=Quantum and Nuclear Physics=

=Relativity=

=Engineering Physics=

=Imaging=

=Astrophysics=

=GNU Free Documentation License=

title: IB Physics/Print version


text:
User:GCooper316/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 10/Evidence

Introduction
The emergence of the social sciences at the beginning of the 19th century was followed by many criticisms, especially on the fact that they were given the name of science. Indeed, according to some, the disciplines of the social sciences do not respect the criteria of the scientific method established by Karl Popper which must be unbiased, falsifiable and repeatable. Thus, the fact that this field is considered unscientific implies that the information collected was not accurate. However, the question stands whether the same methods could be used in the natural and social sciences, knowing that the fields of the research differ -it is easier to do experiments on a living cell than on human behaviour-, which resulted in a broader definition of science. . Methods implemented in these numerous disciplines to collect evidence will be explored.

Nature of economics
Economics is a social science and academic discipline that studies the production and consumption of goods and services between different parties. The subject is primarily concerned with the problem of scarcity, in that there are unlimited wants but limited resources, and how to allocate resources under this condition. Economic theories and models are central to the study of economics, allowing economists to break down complex real-life situations into simplified versions to conduct analysis and make predictions.

How evidence is collected and quantified for economics
At a fundamental level, economists break down different issues using economic models. These models are based on certain assumptions, and constructed from various forms of evidence which combine with hypotheses. This results in the formation of empirical models and or theories which are then applied to other situations. The successful application of these theories can then, in turn, allow analysis to be conducted and further economic evidence to be drawn. From the evidence, conclusions can then be made. The remainder of this section is as follows: firstly we analyse how economic evidence is collected to construct models, then we examine how models are applied to create new forms of economic evidence.

For an example of how economic theory is formed, one can look to the book “Growing Public: Social Spending and Economic Growth since the Eighteenth Century” which analyzes data regarding the growth of states for countries that enjoyed massive economic growth following the industrial revolution. The book takes into account several factors behind growth while acknowledging the fact that countries will have inherent differences in their developments. Through this analysis, the book ultimately proposes the theory that instead of social spending acting as an inhibitor to economic growth, as is often portrayed in the media and by politicians, it instead is instrumental in achieving economic growth. From this example, we can see how economic theories are constructed from economic evidence.

For an example of how economic theory is then applied to further generate economic evidence, one can then look to the concept of full employment. Full employment refers to when there is an efficient use of all resources in labour. Economist John Keynes asserted a theory that full employment was something to be achieved through government intervention, justifying different policies as a means to ensure labour is allocated efficiently. His theory on full employment was widely applied, with an example being Australia's policies in the 25 years after World War II. A white paper on full employment based upon Keynes’ theories was drafted and adopted in the Australian government. This adoption of Keynesian theories in policymaking is credited for a ‘golden age’ for the Australian economy at the time. The economy experienced high growth rates, with unemployment at a low as well. This example was then used to generate further empirical evidence for economists, with a model of the Australian economy being constructed afterwards revealing the in-depth effects of and factors behind the government intervention for Australia. Notably, it was discovered shifts in indirect tax were more effective than that of direct taxes, Kriesler P, Nevile J. Keynesianism in Australia. History of Economics Review. 2018;69(1):44-61. which holds implications for the controversial issue of tax policy today. Overall, from Australia's example, one can see how economic models are used to generate further economic evidence and models.

Economic models based on empirical evidence as not entirely objective
As mentioned previously, economic models and theories require the breaking down of real-life situations into simplified elements, meaning that assumptions have to be made. An example is an assumption that people will always act rationally, using rational calculations to make choices. Another common assumption is that all choices have a cost: the result of the scarcity condition. This means that under economics, whenever people make a choice, they must give up some of their resources. For example, if someone gives up a job to study for a degree, they are giving up the potential income earned otherwise.

While these assumptions are key to creating theories, some assumptions may lead to the omission of important factors which damage the quality of economic analysis conducted on the premise of the theory in question. Take the example of the 2008 financial crisis, prior to which different iterations of the Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium model were used prominently in macroeconomics. However, leading up to the 2008 crisis, many models operated on the assumption that financial frictions did not exist, or that banks and financial organisations did not play important economic roles. This, in turn, contributed to the financial crisis as a devastating economic situation that was ultimately unexpected for many economists. From this example, it is clear that before relying too much on a model, economists must take into account its limitations, as well as the information that a simplified model has left out even if the model is based upon empirical evidence.

Introduction to Sociology
Sociology — being a branch of social sciences that deals with human societies, their institutions, and their interactions — is often considered to be in the grey area between Humanities and Sciences. This is reflected in the ways it acquires knowledge and evidence for its theories. Since the disciplinary divide corresponds to qualitative versus quantitative evidence, sociologists often face difficulties trying to fit the standards of the science community while carrying out complex research tasks with qualitative analyses. Social science has from its beginnings experienced confrontations between qualitative and quantitative paradigm, and which one is favoured has mostly depended on the funding agency of the research at hand. In recent years, sociology has faced increasing pressure to produce 'scientific-based' and 'evidence-based research' as quantitative evidence is preferred by government agencies. However, I believe neither qualitative nor quantitative evidence can be fully comprehensive when discussing such complex issues as sociologists do.

Advantages of Quantitative Evidence in Sociological Research
Sociologists carrying out quantitative research use specific methods of data collection and hypothesis testing, for instance: surveys, secondary data analysis, and statistical analysis. This way, the evidence found can be tested, checked, and perhaps even repeated. For example, voting behaviour is an area of high interest in political sociology. Quantitative evidence on voter participation, the correlation between income, age and political affiliation, and so on allows sociologists to present findings in a straightforward, less-open-to-error manner as well as to establish patterns and perhaps make predictions.

Advantages of Qualitative Evidence in Sociological Research
Qualitative data on the other hand allows for more insights, unconstructed interviews, it is more respondent-led, therefore avoiding the imposition problem and is useful for more sensitive topics. Sticking with the example of voter behaviour, insight into opinion of leaders' debates, their experience with voter registration, as well as their political socialisation by their families can give a more precise and well-rounded understanding of the voter's preferences.

Introduction to psychology
Psychology is a relatively new discipline. It is interested in the study of mental processes and behaviour. Psychology had to face many debates. First of all, the one questioning it as a science because as we mentioned in the introduction, it does not apply the traditional scientific method, but also through its lack of rigour and its inability to predict or reproduce events. It has divided many psychologies who took different approaches, behaviourists like Skinner, who participated in the acceptance of psychology as a science, and humanists like Maslow who thinks that psychology cannot be a science because the behaviours of each one cannot be standardized. However, in modern psychology, a scientific approach has opted. Psychologists have accentuated their research towards a more quantitative procedure. Thus, the first Experimental Psychology Laboratory opened in 1879. But, over time, this approach was considered too reductive to explain human behaviour and it is with the contribution of the qualitative method that research has progressed.

Advantages of Quantitative Evidence in Psychology Research
To obtain quantitative evidence, researchers start from a hypothesis or theory and then test it on many individuals through laboratory experiments or observations. The data is then aggregated and analyzed using statistics. This will make it possible to study the relationships and sort the information obtained to be able to generate a conclusion that can be applied to a larger number of individuals and therefore support or not the theory put into practice. This research method is often praised because it is objective and involves a mathematical analysis generating strong evidence.

Advantages of Qualitative Evidence in Psychology Research
Qualitative research in psychology is more interested in the explanation of behaviours in a certain context. To achieve this, researchers will go directly to seek their information in the field. Data collection is done through interviews, focus groups, case studies, etc. Qualitative research takes into account the variation in human behaviour and thus makes it possible to collect new information on the links, causes, and operations of a certain phenomenon. By not wanting to standardize a type of conduct and allowing the diversity of humankind to appear in their data, qualitative research enables us to have a better understanding of reality.

Combining Qualitative and Quantitative analysis
Therefore, critiques quantitative research faced is that it only allows the testing of preexisting hypotheses and simplifies human behaviour by drawing generalized conclusions, who are sometimes partial. These "flaws" can be avoided if we combine quantitative approach with a qualitative viewpoint. One way of doing it is called the mixed-methods research. This method aims to use qualitative research to find new postulate and quantitative research to experiment with them. Another method that has been used is called triangulation: we study a subject or a context using a quantitative and qualitative approach, and at the end, contrast the observation in both to see the similarity and convergence to see if we can come into a coherent conclusion. These methods can help to gain stronger evidence.

Between Two Sciences: Evidence in Neuropsychology
Neuropsychology is a sub-discipline of psychology, it creates a bond between the social and the natural sciences by studying the relation between the way our brain works and the way we behave.

The methodology of Neuropsychological Evaluation
Neuropsychological assessment is a vital procedure that antecedes neurorehabilitation. It includes both qualitative and quantitative analysis when examining patients’ cognitive deficit; a combination of these methods can contribute to further analytical development of medical remedy.

Qualitative Evidence in Neuropsychology
The qualitative evaluation includes analysis of remarkable neuropsychological syndromes, which are matched up with the intricate regions of the brain and its deficit. By observing symptoms with its feasible origins, data from the qualitative evaluation can organize the overall structure of the analysis and data elucidation. An example of qualitative evaluation is the neuropsychological assessment conducted by A.R. Luria. This assessment included controlling tests, client interviews, language and speech, memory, and stimulating. A 3-point range (from 0 to 3) was used to assess the performance on each test in order to organize the pattern and data which can be used for further explanation.

Quantitative Evidence in Neuropsychology
The quantitative assessment further classifies and ranges the syndromes depending on the degree of the aliment and dynamics of its change. This type of evaluation is called psychometric analysis. It basically illustrates the repetitious patterns of cognitive deficits, thus determining the range and category of brain disorder based on outlined elements from qualitative research; it funnels down the understanding of specific neurological lesions. Referring back to A.R. Luria assessment, the symptoms observed from the qualitative research were then specifically analysed and data were ranged depending on the degree of intensity and clusters of syndromes.

Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
To sum up, a qualitative method evaluates the overall structure of the deficit while a quantitative approach determines its extension and prevalence. Factors picked from a qualitative evaluation are then related to the specific spot in the brain and their functioning. For example, in a quantitative approach, psychometric tests identify data of a particular cognitive dysfunction. If this is done without classifying the status of each factor, it impedes the identification of the overall structure of the deficit, which is the goal of qualitative analysis. Therefore, neuropsychological evaluation should necessarily consider both neuropsychological syndromal methods(Qualitative Evidence) and psychometric analysis(Quantitative Evidence). The same method is done with the neuropsychological assessment of A.R. Luria. Results show that the combinations of syndromes were in the same track as the evaluation process used both qualitative approach (factor analysis) and quantitative approach (its magnitude). The combination of these two approaches leads to further progress in terms of treatment and rehabilitation.

Introduction to cultural anthropology
Cultural anthropology is a stream of anthropology that deals with the comparative analysis of culture using methods such as ethnography, linguistics, and folklore. Within the discipline, an anthropologist uses a wide variety of research methods to collect evidence such as participant observation, ethnography, interviews, and even historiography.

Qualitative Methods in Anthropology
Participant observation, in particular, is one of the more prevalent qualitative methods in collecting evidence as it allows researchers to participate and observe in the activities of the people studied under a natural setting over a long period of time. Some advantages in collecting evidence through this method is that they provide a means for researchers to understand the nonverbal communication of feelings, the interactions within the participants studied, and how it is conveyed. However, the qualitative research method also has its fair share of drawbacks such as its interpretive nature. This lack of objectivity may consequently cause ethical and methodological implications to arise. As participant observation needs the anthropologist to stay within the community for a few months, the data collected may not be as accurate as the presence of the anthropologist themselves could have already caused a shift in the behaviour of the people studied. Moreover, the method’s lack of objectivity could be further demonstrated through the different backgrounds and existing preconceptions of the anthropologist himself which would produce different comparative analyses of the culture and people studied. While an anthropologist may be able to confront the issue of subjectivity through a reflection of their positionality, little to no other methods have been used to resolve this issue.

As a result, we see that this lack of objectivity within-participant observation and other qualitative methods may also expose the reasons for the lack of quantitative research present in cultural anthropology, its aversion to positivism and how it has fostered the flames of contentious discourse within the discipline as a whole.

Implications within the discipline
Scholars within the discipline have argued that the lack of quantitative methods to produce evidence was due to the inherently untestable nature of cultural anthropology itself and that concepts of empiricism and positivism could not be applied effectively due to the uncontrollable nature of its socio-political implications. Consequently, this means that the causal relationship between these concepts is essentially non-operational and cannot be quantified. Anthropologists such as Durkheim and Radcliffe-Brown who argued for a more positivist approach in the discipline were frequently picked on - even in death. For instance, Rivera remarks while other streams of anthropology such as physical anthropology employ an extensive amount of quantitative models and methods “for the purpose of reaching an evolutionary understanding of our species”, cultural anthropologists reject the notion of evolutionism on the grounds of ethical ethnocentrism. This argument has been one of the central topics of debates on whether or not the discipline of anthropology should be viewed as a science whose long-simmering tensions has boiled over through events such as the controversy and subsequent revision in the American Anthropological Association’s Long Range Plan after it omitted the word 'science' in its statement and how “tensions surfaced” in the association's annual meetings

Interdisciplinary Evidence in the COVID-19 Pandemic
On the 31st of December 2019, a cluster of pneumonia cases emerged in Wuhan City, Hubei Province of China. Soon after, it was deduced that a novel coronavirus, named COVID-19, was the cause of this phenomena. COVID-19 exceeded expectations in terms of how quickly it spread, and on the 11th of March 2020, the World Health Organisation declared COVID-19 as a pandemic. Since then, the world has been battling the brutal pandemic through the efforts of several disciplines. As a result of this interdisciplinary approach, various forms of evidence play a significant role in the pandemic.

How disciplines present evidence and their significance in the pandemic
With lots of information from the work of many disciplines contributing to the aid of the pandemic, here are a few major examples:

Clinical and laboratory medicine
Since the beginning, clinical and laboratory medicine practitioners have been at the forefront of the pandemic. As part of COVID-19 testing, clinicians directly collect specimen from a suspected patient and laboratorians process the specimen to determine if the patient is tested positive or not. There are two types of COVID-19 tests: PCR testing and antibody testing. Both tests produce qualitative results, whereby PCR testing utilises Real-time RT-PCR for the qualitative detection of genetic material from the virus within the specimen, and antibody tests can detect the presence of antibodies to the virus in the patient’s blood. Despite the ease and large volume in which evidence can be obtained at, issues such as false-positive or false-negative results in the RT-PCR tests can arise from contamination at various points of the process. Mishaps like these could affect pandemic procedures: causing errors in contract tracing programmes, fearmongering, or generating public overconfidence.

Epidemiology
Epidemiologists work to consistently present evidence to the public, as a form of communication on the progress of the pandemic. Epidemiologic evidence, such as the number of confirmed cases, number of recovered patients, death rate, etc. is readily accessible and available in various forms as well - be it on a regional, national, or international scale. Much of the aforementioned epidemiologic evidence is quantitative and acquired from clinics and labs. Further quantitative epidemiology work has also been done - mathematical epidemiological models have been implemented to predict the outcome of non-pharmaceutical interventions, influencing policy-making. Yet, models are usually based on assumptions, and sometimes fail to represent social implications properly. This produces flawed quantitative evidence, however, awareness of such weaknesses can lead improvements in the models.

Psychosociology
A large number of psychosociology research and efforts have been made towards the COVID-19 pandemic, with articles largely focused on mental health and how different aspects of the pandemic have affected it. According to an umbrella review of the literature regarding the effects of quarantine and isolation due to the pandemic on mental health, evidence for such research was obtained through various ways - cohort studies, cross-sectional studies, qualitative studies, mixed-method studies, etc. The diverse evidence in this discipline is crucial for understanding human behaviour towards the pandemic, and the short & long-term social effects of the pandemic. Even so, methods for retrieving evidence in this field is not entirely perfect, like in other disciplines. For example, in the same umbrella review mentioned earlier, the majority of the studies were carried out in countries with higher income, causing evidence to be under-representative of lower-income countries. Limitations arising from a lack of accessibility or pandemic-related restrictions can cause such flaws in the evidence.

Issues arising from an overabundance of evidence and information
With the COVID-19 pandemic happening at a time where social media is at its peak, evidence can be easily and rapidly broadcasted to the world. Websites dedicated to COVID-19 are updated daily, and health ministries employ social media channels to announce new numbers and data. Yet, as much as it seems to be a blessing, this immense connectivity can be a curse, leading to an information overload. It is not uncommon for people to feel overwhelmed due to the excessive amount of data online, adding to their unrest and anxiety towards the pandemic. Furthermore, information online can be easily manipulated, enabling the falsification of evidence, thus adding fuel to the fire. Overexaggerated headlines and statements regarding the number of cases and deaths have caused an “infodemic”. With data coming from multiple disciplines every day, the public needs to be critical with evidence they are presented with, prioritising quality over quantity.

Introduction To Engineering
Engineering can be defined as the study of using scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other things, including bridges, roads, vehicles, and buildings Evidence is commonly used in engineering to justify knowledge claims, gather feedback and motivate decision. It is a discipline where qualitative and quantitive data are combined perfectly to collect reliable data and to make a decision concerning production, creation and effectiveness of materials, to prevent incidents and disasters.

Advantages of Qualitative Data in Engeenering
Before considering the development of modification of a product, surveys, reviews should be held and predictions should be made. The most common types of reviews for engineering is design reviews, requirements review and performance review. Different questions concerning modification track, system development, cost, schedule and technical progress are asked during such reviews and surveys to collect social opinion, statistics and other data analytic measures. Such qualitative data is necessary for understanding needs and wants of customers and population in general; what is their percentage usage of technology, what type of technology/ engineer-made product is used most commonly, how efficient products are in real-life an etc.

Advantages Of Quantitative Data In Engeneering
Measurement, tests and mathematical models are an essential type of evidence for engineering. These tests help to identify outcomes of machinery failures, the effectiveness of technical models through changing of the variables, discrete set of indicators or any unpredictable causes. Quantitive approach to research if good for deductive approaches in which the inputs, the purest argument and the course of the narrowly defined re-search questions are justified by a theory or hypothesis. . The hypothesizes which arose from testing measurements and new research questions are then indicate how the final data will be collected (qualitatively by holding surveys, commercials or public opinions or quantitatively by further researches and scientific experiments)

Advantages Of Computational Gathering Of Evidence
These days autonomous computational networks are used commonly to receive and transmit information from other technical artefacts, sensors and apparatuses. Software applications replaced human data-gatherers because now they can filter and similarly process the acquired data. There are two different scenarios to have a concrete representation of this. In the first scenario, some data is gathered, filtered and processed by a chain of artefacts where at the end of the chain, evidentiary evidence is made by a human engineer who picks up the results and makes some judgment. In this case, engineer compares the data to some other set of evidence, analyze the variables, change them for a "perfect fit" and make an official conclusion such as sending an approval to the head office. In the second scenario, there is no presence of a human engineer at all, there is only a computer responsible for actions. The system compares the data to some other sample of facts, extracts some outlying data points, re-analyzes the data, and sends a statement to the head office that the evidence is x.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/APF-MP1000

Launch
The APF-MP1000 was released in 1978 to replace the older APF TV Fun line of consoles. Uniquely for the time, the APF-MP1000 could be expanded into the Imagination Machine home computer via use of an add on module called the MPA-10. The full Imagination Machine cost $599 and was released by 1979. This price was considered low compared to competitors. The Imagination Machine was developed by Ed Smith, one of the first African American engineers in the video game industry.

Legacy
Between 20,000, and 50,000 APF-MP1000 consoles were sold.

APF saw its revenue drop 97% between 1981 and the video game crash of 1983. Figures like this show the huge impact of the video game crash on company bottom lines. An Imagination Machine II was said to be planned but was never released.

Technology
The APF-MP1000 uses an 8-bit Motorola 6800 CPU clocked at 3.579 megahertz. This processor is not to be confused with the Motorola 68000, a more advanced processor commonly used on consoles several years following the launch of the MP1000.

The system has just 1 kilobyte of RAM. The Imagination Machine computer upgrade gave the system 9 kilobytes of total RAM.

Notable games
12 games were released for the APF-MP1000.

The system has the game Rocket Patrol built-in to the system.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Bandai Super Vision 8000

History
Not to be confused with the later, but unrelated, Watara Supervision handheld game console.

The Bandai Super Vision 8000 was released in 1979 for 60,000 yen as the first cartridge based system released in the Japanese market.

Bandai acquired rights to sell the Intellivision in the Japanese market and discontinued the Bandai Super Vision 8000 less than a year after launch to focus on the Intellivision.

Technology
The Bandai Super Vision 8000 uses a NEC D780C (Z80 compatible) 8-bit CPU clocked at 3.58MHz. The system uses a General Instrument AY-3-8910 coprocessor.

Game library

 * Beam Galaxian
 * Gun Professional
 * Missile Vader
 * Space Fire
 * PacPacBird
 * Submarine
 * Othello


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Cassette Vision

History
The Cassette Vision saw a Japanese only launch on June 30th, 1981. The Cassette Vision was sold for 13,500 yen, and games were sold for 4,000 yen. The Cassette Vision sold over 400,000 consoles and was the most popular console in Japan for a time. The system was held back in part by internal factors, as Epoch only had a single NEC TK-80 computer to be used for game development, limiting the Cassette Vision's library.

The Cassette Vision was discontinued in 1984. and would be followed by the improved Super Cassette Vision.

Technology
An NEC D777C CPU was included on Cassette Vision game cartridges. This hardware was considered dated at the time.

Cartridges for the system had a storage capacity of 2 kilobytes.

Game library
Cassette Vision game cartridges cost around 4,000 yen each.

 * Astro Command
 * Galaxian - Despite the name this game is actually based on Moon Cresta, and not the more popular game also known as Galaxian. This was a launch title.
 * Kikori no Yosaku
 * Baseball - A launch title.
 * New Baseball
 * Battle Vader
 * Big Sports 12
 * PakPak Monster
 * Monster Mansion
 * Monster Block
 * Elevator Panic

External Resources

 * | Video Game Console Library - Cassette Vision page with history, technical information, and photos.
 * | Old Computers Museum - NEC TK-80 page.