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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6/Truth

Truth in the Memory of La Resistance in France
Memory is a subunit of history but could be considered as a discipline as Memory is present in every country, it is studied and researched and refers to the relationship between one nation and its past. Shortly after the beginning of WWII on June 22nd France signed the armistice in the same wagon as Germany did in WWI as a symbol of theatrical revenge. This gave birth to a divided country: the occupied zone and free zone (Vichy). From there started the movement of Resistance lead by General de Gaulle. The memory of the Resistance is often controversial because of the way it is remembered in art, taught in school and referred to in political speeches.

First, the French take great pride in the Resistance by affirming that the majority of French took part in it. However, only 2% of the French population was involved in the Resistance. This idea of heroism was installed by De Gaulle who wanted to give the French some pride after the humiliation of WWII. This is referred to as the “Gaullist myth”.

The communist party in France revendicated their importance in the Resistance by coining the name “les parti des 75000 martyrs” referring to the number of causalities of Resistance. However, within those deaths, only 35 000 at most were communist. This shows the appropriation of history by different political party and how the truth is sometimes manipulated.

Furthermore, we see through the actions of succeeding French presidents that there are different truths. In 1995 Chirac recognized the responsibility in the French in the Shoah and subsequently created the memorial Simons, On the other hand, Sarkozy had a more nationalist interpretation of the memory. This can be seen for example when he changed school history curriculum to make students read the letter of a resistant : Guy Moquet in 2007 This shows the idea of patriotism that was conveyed to French students then.

Historical research relies on collecting information through primary and secondary resources. Memories and personal accounts from people who were there at the time of the event being documented are considered primary evidence. Primary evidence’s direct connection gives it an authority over secondary data, and is often attributed as providing the most direct means of interacting with the past. As discussed above, this can cause issues. Hence, memory in history is an example of how truth can be normative or relative and that even for a past event, interpretation can play a big role in the perception of truth.

The truth of the memory about the French Resistance, which gives another perspective, can also be tried to be found in literature that was created during or after the event. People who had lived throughout the period of the French Resistance wrote several literary works which contributed to constituting a certain discourse on the resistance. The books’ narratives are a mixture of both archival sources and writers’ own takes on the event.

A research carried in the early 2000’s by University of Oxford found that, in literature, resistance was the portrayal of the ordinary societies’ perception of it – meaning that it was not as ground-breaking and pivotal as pointed out by the leaders, and that it was rather the “channel” to which the thought of resistance was translated to that determined the “truth” about the resistance.

Nowadays, when researchers try to come up with a coherent explanation of what was the French Resistance, they use works of such literary authors as Robert Gildea (Marianne in Chains, 2002) or Irene Nemirowsky (Suite française, 2004). Also, a 1969 documentary called Le Chagrin et la Pitié (“The Sorrow and the Pity”) is a widely known portrayal of the resistance’s events that depicts its own truths on the event. In the 1970s, the movie was received with different opinions due to the artwork showing different sies of the story who, also after more than 50 years, cannot find harmony.

Different Perceptions of Truth between History and Sociology
Sociology, an analytic inquiry into the relationships between individuals, employs theories and their constitutive analytical patterns that are used to understand the societal relations between humans. Sociologists use theoretical models, they conceptualise the events and society that took part in them through a multi-level correlated prism. History is a comprehensive interpretation of past proceedings, it places the proceedings in today’s context. History can either explore or use the events that have happened as possible “layouts” for what is to come in certain situations, but it is always done on a local (a specific region, country) level.

History and sociology are interlinked – i.e., for sociology, to be able to produce its theories, it has to use information from the past, so the content is historic. As for history, the events that are historic, are produced and written down by people who are directly affected from the relations they have with other members of the society.

In both social sciences disciplines, the truth of their statements is found not in the events themselves since they just operate as a phenomenon and raw facts, but in the activity of putting one’s rational mind to use, and coming up with original analysis and critique. But conflict between the two disciplines arises when there a difference in what tools of perception are applied to analyse the evidence at hand.

So tension emerges when history, which for a long time was a discipline dominated by Western thinkers, at times, considers some acts, eras or people as more significant than the others due to historians applying their knowledge which is the product of the environment they have been in and taught at. And thus tension is amplified when an explanation is required for how the pure existence of a fact is justified in its contribution to the historic event or the sociological theory. Historians use documents from the time researched but they forget that the people who wrote those documents were part of a larger, maintained discourse, and this restricts the historians’ understanding of the issue, whereas a sociologist searches for correlations within different phenomena in different times thereby coming up with concepts that can be generalised and applied to different societies. Since the legitimacy of (primary) evidence in history is affected by various factors – the reason of its creation or the conservation throughout the years – what will be determined as truth is subject to how the historian will interpret the resources. But to make the connection between the both disciplines smoother, sociology helps to apply theoretical frameworks for thinking about society.

Truth in Philosophy
Philosophy etymologically means “love for wisdom”, where wisdom means “the ability to use your knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments”. Hence, if we accept the theories that “good” and “bad” have truth values, wisdom means discerning between what is and isn’t true. Truth, in philosophy, is a primordial issue, such that it is the measure which allows philosophical debate to escape redundancy. As ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) said, truth is “To say of what is that it is, or of what is not that it is not.”. However, this idea doesn’t investigate whether “what is” and “what is not” are true but is simply a means of expressing that they are, or are not, if their truth value is already known. By looking into the multiple theories of truth throughout history, it becomes apparent that it is still a controversial matter, as there is a tendency for philosophers to adhere to the theory which best supports their arguments. One of the most prominent clashes between truth theories is between mind-independent and mind-dependent truth theories, or Idealism and Transcendental Idealism.

Idealism
Idealism, according to George Berkeley (1685-1753), is the theory which claims that “reality” exists only through perception. More specifically, that there isn’t such a thing as mind-independent truths. This theory implies that truth is subjective, and it is to be perceived.

Coherence theory
One of the neo-classical theories of truth originating from idealism is the coherence theory of truth. It assumes that a given belief is true, only if it is in coherence with a system of beliefs. Coherence theories have usually been a part of idealism philosophy. In 1906, an idealist Joachim stated that "Truth in its essential nature is that systematic coherence which is the character of a significant whole." Neo-classical coherence theory departs from the idealism by the rejection of monism of truth. It sees truth as a feature of beliefs systems, in which all beliefs are related to each other.

Transcendental Idealism
Transcendental Idealism is a term coined by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) in The Critique of Pure Reason, which in opposition to Berkeley’s Idealism, it makes a clear distinction between how we perceive things and how things are in themselves outside our experience. This theory implies that truth is mind-independent and exists without a need for consciousness.

Truth in the Perception of Political Actions
Political sociology is a discipline which studies the perception of the political world around us through different sociological perspectives and several social criteria. The perception of political actions, how and why they are undertaken relies on the sociological perspective adopted to consider these actions. The three sociological perspectives are the functionalist, the conflict, and the symbolic interactionist perspective. Each one has a different conception of how and why society works, and therefore all 3 of them have different explanations about the political events going on.

The functionalist approach considers that the different members and elements of society work together to make sure society as a whole functions properly. The social equilibrium relies on social norms and interdependence. On the opposite hand, the conflict perspective sees society as an entity composed of different groups and interests competing for limited power and resources for themselves rather than for the benefit of society as a whole. Finally, the symbolic interactionist perspective undertakes a micro logical approach and argues that behaviours are influenced by interactions with other people within their close circle and thus that these interactions are symbolic and create a meaning that influences whether or not to take one particular decision or another.

Whether an individual identifies itself to one or another perspective, his conceptualisation and perception of political actions will radically change. If the individual has a functionalist perspective, he will believe political decisions are made in order to improve the proper functioning of society whereas if he has a conflictual approach, he will consider decisions are made by the government’s elite in their only interest. Finally, if he undertakes a symbolic interactionist approach he will assume the current political trends running around the world adopted by the great powers will influence political actions. Thus, as a belief is the way in which a person adheres to a statement and consider it as true, in terms of the social perspective the person adopts, his perception of truth will vary.

Subjective truth and conflicting evidence in psychiatric medication
With most diseases, the diagnosis and success of applied treatments are measured by clinical, physical, and quantitative tests that can accurately reflect a patient’s level of illness and subsequent stages of recovery. However when it comes to depression, there are no physical tests to find depressive disorders in a patient (only blood/urine sampling tests to rule out other potential illnesses/conditions causing the same symptoms).

Due to the variety of potential symptoms caused by depression, the diagnosis of the severity of a patient’s depressive disorders and the effectiveness of different treatments are reliant on a doctor’s interpretation of the patient’s presentation of their subjective truth. When a patient is diagnosed as having depressive disorder, the ensuing treatments vary not just in response to the severity of their condition, but also to their age. Despite the limited number of controlled studies on the long term impacts of using antidepressants in adolescents, there are assumptions that they can cause brain damage, since they are not fully developed, and a perceived increase in suicidal tendencies, which is what is behind the general reluctance to administer antidepressant medication for adolescents.

The issue of defining adolescence: there is conflicting scientific evidence as to when the brain is fully developed. The NHS classification of adolescent is 12-18 whilst according to the World Health Organisation, it is 10-19. Research has shown that the brain is actually fully developed later, BBC reported the age of brain maturity to be 25; a study on the effect of alcohol on the brain put the age of full maturity at 24. In the latter case, the administration of antidepressants on a 23 year old could have the same potential negative impacts as that on teens. The NHS could, by their own terms, be incorrectly treating patients because they have a different scientific paradigm of the brain’s development.

In terms of the alleged increase in suicidal tendencies, clinical trials of the commonly prescribed antidepressant, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) show that there is only a borderline statistically significant increase in suicidal tendencies as compared to the use of other antidepressants (e.g. fluoxetine). FDA analysis reveals there are increases in suicidal ideation, but no statistically significant increase in completed suicide. SSRIs, Fluoxetine and other newer antidepressants have a significant helpful effect in patients over 12. A sertraline trial showed adolescents treated with the medication had statistically significantly lower depressive disorders, but only recommended as second line when justified by the severity of the disorder. Doctors have to balance the potential non-fatal risks with the potential benefits of measuring these drugs on a case by case basis; there is no objective set of rules on when to administer SSRIs or sertraline.

The difficulty lies in reviewing the risks and benefits of these drugs properly because diagnosing someone with depressive disorder, and asking the patient to evaluate and reevaluate how depressed they are in response to treatment are both subjective processes. Although more information is emerging about long term impacts of antidepressants as they become more widely used and more studies are conducted on the on the specific chemical effects and mechanisms of antidepressant drugs in the brain, this research still relies on attempting to quantify subjective experiences and individuals truths.

How truth is compromised in democratic elections
Truth can be defined as something that is representative of reality or factual evidence. Although this might be straight forward for objective disciplines such as some of the human sciences, it might require a more thorough analysis when exploring subjective areas of study such as politics. This is because reality and factual evidence can be manipulated to create a perceived truth. The use of misinformation, disinformation and the spread of fake news are just some examples of how truth within political democratic elections can be manipulated to influence voters’ choices and decisions. This consequently brings into question the truthfulness of these electoral results.

Russia’s interference with the 2016 presidential election can be used to represent how the manipulation of truth can be used deceive the public and obtain a desired outcome, in this case, to obtain further votes for the political party being supported. Russia has been accused of various actions which could have influenced the outcome of the presidential election including: Misinformation presented in Russian news and media, hacks and leakages of private information on opponent Hillary Clinton, the introduction of trolls spreading biased information into social media discussions and the use advertising on social platforms as a source for the spread of disinformation among other methods they were alleged of using. Whether or not Russia’s interference had a direct impact on the final result of the Republican win, it has been shown that the different techniques Russia implemented and their manipulation of political truth used to drive voters in a certain political direction did influence voting outcomes.

Cases like the Russian Interference in the US presidential election raise questions on whether truth is compromised in democratic elections and the validity of the electoral results. Arguments could be raised relating to the idea that democratic political elections are not a proper representation of democratic system as they represent what people are manipulated to believe rather than what they individually choose to believe. When analysing the consequences of the manipulation of truth, it could be argued that the electoral results should be invalidated as choices were based on manipulation, misinformation and untruthfulness making the results untrue within themselves.

Truth in Conspiracy theories
Truth has, for a long time, been something humans seek for. This need to find truth is still present nowadays, especially with the ever-increasing development of a wide range of access to knowledge from the media and the internet. In general, knowledge and truths tend to be imposed into a hierarchy and therefore one truth or at least mindset stands out at the top as being the most socially acceptable one: the mainstream knowledge. This hegemonic epistemology emerges from the social construction and institutionalisation of beliefs through our society: only certain views will be acceptable, and others will be pointed out as illegitimate as they stand out from the common sense or general mindset.

In contrast, there are conspiracy theories. These theories could be defined as "alternative knowledge" or “stigmatized knowledge” which challenge common beliefs or institutionalised truths. They question the mainstream knowledge for evidence and truth. We can find in these alternative knowledge other categories such as unaccepted forms of medicines or unexplainable phenomena. Conspiracy theories, themselves, could be defined as an alternate explanation to an event which would be the result of a secret plot of actions lead by a group of powerful people, the conspirators.

The epistemological impact of such theories has been the source of debates. Labelling alternative explanations to certain events as conspiracy theories is considered a pejorative term, thus discrediting the theory by claiming a lack of evidence-based facts. This pejorative view results in accusation of paranoia and other associated pathologies and to the marginalisation of these theories for being connected to unreliable sources by the mainstream media. Once a theory has been labelled as a conspiracy theory it will automatically be considered by the public as false and unjustified. The existence of these theories could go as far as being considered dangerous for our society. In consequence, conspiracy theories and lies seem intrinsically linked: one alternate explanation to an event is automatically designed as a conspiracy theory and therefore discredited by the mainstream media and general public as false or not taken seriously.

Believing or not in conspiracy theories, we can recognise a form of divergence of truths and therefore what is considered or not as a valid claim or fact which can vary from society to society and a recognition of the existence of an hegemonic epistemology.

Study Case of the Truth in Conspiracy theories: How do Flat Earthers think?
The fact that the earth is a sphere was proven centuries ago by Greek mathematicians, and from then, many scientists have shown to the public extensive pieces of evidence that the world is a globe. However, in the past couple of years, data show that the “flat Earth theory” is growing significantly in the U.S. For instance, according to YouGov, only two-thirds of young Americans are absolutely convinced that the Earth is a globe. How do the Flat Earthers come to this so-called truth, questioning what could be called the scientific truth? Flat Earthers use the zetetic method. This method is saying, what I see is the truth. For example, if the Earth was a globe we would not see these skyscrapers from far away, but we do see them. But how come, scientific evidence, plus visual evidence, can be mistrusted by people who would rather use the zetetic method to get their information. Indeed, people would tend to adhere to an idea that goes against the mainstream but it is also easier to adhere to an idea that you can see and that is simplified. For example, the horizon is flat, and if we go to a mountain, the horizon is still flat. It is hard to make them believe that what they see is a mirage. Some of their evidence comes from pseudo-physics properties but some others come from conspiracy theories. For example, these people think that all the pictures of the Earth are not true, they are faked by NASA. But in fact, the reluctance to accept scientific evidence implies much more than just science. To understand how people can believe, more broadly in conspiracy theories, it is important to approach it interdisciplinarily by understanding the role of other factors such as politics or social media. For instance, the discretion of expert evidence is linked to the rise of populism in the world (e.g. Trump’s election), and by the fact that people are fed up with those in power (e.g. politicians and experts). This can obviously be linked with the COVID-19 pandemic, notably in the US where “believing in Science” has become a political strand. Furthermore, one of the key factors in mistrusting evidence is social media. Indeed, Youtube, Twitter, Facebook have played a huge part in giving importance to the Flat Earth theory or other conspiracies theories. Their algorithms link all believers together. Thus, seeing people that think like you will make you feel that your theory is completely valid and that thinking with the zetetic method is absolutely reliable and true, which links individuals together to create a community.

To conclude, it is absolutely key do look after this issue, since it goes way beyond the only boundaries of science. The rejection of scientific truth is and will have a much bigger impact on our society if we keep ignoring it and think of it as a joke. Since believing in the flat Earth theory does not seem to be a big issue, not believing in global warming or the link between smoking and lung cancer is. Indeed, not taking them seriously will make them more and more reluctant to listen to the same people that don’t listen to what they say.

Interpretations of History: Where Does the Truth Lie?
The opposite of falsity, truth is the property of being factual and in correspondence with reality. Therefore, it is imperative that everything we do today, from science, to history, to simply speaking with people, to be truthful: it creates trust and avoids learning or believing false information. Truth plays a great role in the discipline of history: the study of the past. History lives through the recordings of witnesses, written records, oral stories, and objects. It leans on archeological discoveries, and on the close analysis of recordings.

One of the missions in a historian’s work is to remain as close to reality as possible, to inform the world correctly about past events. This can be a very difficult task when biases and opinions can warp what truly happened during a certain event: political leaders enforcing their viewpoint, mass manipulation, or false countenance of events in favor of a certain party. For example, the mass propaganda exercised by dictatorships such as Germany under Hitler or the Soviet Union during the 1930s corrupted public opinion and spread falsehood across entire countries. In addition, certain facts may be exaggerated or glorified by the writer, for example Herodotus, considered as the “father of history”, was criticized for his hyperbolic writing on the Greco-Persian Wars. Furthermore, certain events that countries or leaders may be ashamed of may be softened, or told in another manner, to belittle the gravity or embarrassment of those events. For example, the events that happened in 1989 in Tiananmen Square are known throughout the world. However, in China, the famous Tank Man picture is banned from the internet, among other images or news.

Indeed, there is a heavy reliance on a person’s word or accounting of events. That is why different interpretations must be studied of a single event, where different opinions can be compared and contrasted to obtain the most realistic, true history.

Truth in Geography
Geography has been well-established as a discipline since the 19th century when it began to be taught in universities. It is now even taught as part of the curriculum in primary and secondary schools around the world. The importance of studying geography at all levels is widely recognised. However there continues to be disagreement surrounding the precise content that should be taught, as well as the method of teaching in geography.

Regarding the content to be taught, Hirsch presents the idea of “core” knowledge – the knowledge that is required in order for us to achieve “cultural literacy”, in which people from different cultural groups are able to come together to discuss common issues. This can be seen as the importance and aim of studying geography, but gives rise to the problem of what knowledge is considered "core" knowledge, and where this information comes from. In terms of teaching, it is important to look at the epistemology of geography and consider how different epistemological approaches can impact learning. Racine and Bailly emphasised that “the need for an epistemological base is central to geography,” because different approaches to knowledge and truth can lead to different ways of thinking and learning. In the study of a discipline there is a responsibility to truth, and this can be compromised if there is a lack of clarity over the meaning of "truth", or over the scientific method with which it is produced.

The epistemology of geography can be termed as "logical positivism". . The term arose from the Vienna Circle, a group of social scientists and philosophers who believed that they could make use of the scientific method that already existed in the traditional sciences, and apply it to social issues and behaviour. Positivism suggests that social research should be centred around facts and truths which can be observed, and that the collection of data should be done through common methods of observations and theories to be tested. Absolutism can be defined in reference to positivism, as the idea that there is knowledge and truth that is “external and universal”. However there is often criticism from the humanist and structuralist perspective, that this kind of objective truth does not include the consideration of the lived human experience and therefore cannot offer the level of human understanding that is needed in geography. In response to these criticisms, Morrill emphasises the importance of improving education in both physical and human geography, as well as in other disciplines, for example, improving on mathematical literacy to better understand the limitations of statistical models. This can put into perspective the "truth" that is obtained from purely statistical models used in logical positivism. In contrast, relativism or social constructivism, uses the idea that knowledge and truth are "constructed" and "relative", and therefore not absolute, and subject to change in relation to society.

"Social realism" has been presented as an alternative to both ; as a sociological approach which recognises the objective, external character of knowledge, but at the same time does not take this externality for granted. It recognises the social and historical factors involved and reconciles the "objectivity of knowledge with its sociality." Isnard agreed that geographical space is a social product, and wished to provide a geographical viewpoint which is both scientific and social, describing the meaning of "social" as the "survival of our species through management of its space."

Truth within Artworks
One of the functions of art is supposed to be a cognitive function, suggesting that art is a means to communicate truth. One of the aspects of cognitive value in artworks is the ability of art to provide knowledge by acquaintance. It gives an opportunity to get an insight into the internal experiences of an individual. Truth is concluded in the expressive forms of the work, and their emotional impact is increased by our knowledge of what is expressed. Art, usually specific to a particular culture, can speak of common truths within the culture. It is successful on many levels, using different mediums and operating on senses, emotions or imagination.

Criticism
Epistemic arguments states against the cognitive function of art. It includes banality argument, that suggests that there may be truths within the artwork, however, those are common truths known by everybody. What is more, their knowledge is a condition for understanding a given piece. Discovery of truths is not a function of art. Truth should be based on evidence or argument. The no-evidence argument heavily draws on empiricism, suggesting that pieces of art usually lack a justification, and therefore do not transmit truth. Furthermore, according to the argument, a message passed by artwork is based on the individual case that is specific and should not be generalised. According to aesthetics argument an acquisition of truth is not a common denominator for works of art and knowledge is not a criterion when it comes to the critique of art. Therefore, the truth should not be expected from art. Plato has pointed out that artists have no special expertise that would support them in making generalisations about the human condition, introducing no-expertise argument.


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History of video games/Cloud

Early Technology
During the 1970's games were streamed from Mainframes to terminals at a number of institutions.

Dawn of cloud gaming
G-Cluster demonstrated a cloud game streaming setup at E3 2000 which streamed PC titles to specialized rental G-Cluster mobile devices over Wi-Fi There were plans to launch the service in the Helsinki airport in August 2001, and in American airports by 2002.

Onlive would manage a public launch of a game streaming service in 2010.

Cloud gaming matures
Cloud enhanced gaming became widespread in the 2010's and 2020 for a number of reasons. Cloud Saving can be used to automatically back up save data from a console. Cloud gaming can be used to get games to play on hardware that they are prevented from running games locally due to developer disputes.

Early attempts

 * Vidéoway - Montreal, Canada and Dayton, Ohio only.
 * Taito WOWOW - Canceled Japanese satellite streaming service and device.

Modern Cloud Gaming Platforms

 * AirConsole
 * Xbox Game Pass cloud gaming
 * Google Stadia
 * PlayStation Now
 * Gaikai
 * OnLive
 * Luna
 * GeForce Now
 * Shinra Technologies

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: History of video games/Cloud


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User talk:Mbroadfoot

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title: User talk:Mbroadfoot


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History of video games/Platforms/Leisure Vision

History
The Leisure Vision is a licensed Canadian version of the Arcadia 2001 that was launched in 1982 and discontinued in 1984. While the system is considered a landmark release in Canadian consoles, little more is known about it.

Technology
The Leisure Vision uses a Signetics 2650A clocked at 3.58 megahertz, with a Signetics 2637 co processor.

The Leisure Vision has 1 kilobyte of RAM.

Game library
The Leisure Vision is said to have a somewhat larger library than the standard Arcadia 2001 compatible systems.


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History of video games/Platforms/Ouya

Development
The "O" in the name Ouya was chosen to represent the openness of the device.

After asking for $950,000, in the span of about a month 63,000 backers raised 8.5 million dollars on the Ouya Kickstarter, with around 57,000 backers expecting to receive an Ouya console. Ouya consoles from the first production run have the names of backers who donated over $10,000 engraved on the side of the console.

Launch
""If we don't nail this, nothing else really matters.""

In December 2012, Ouya developer consoles started to be received by backers. At the time, the Ouya was the face of microconsoles.

The Ouya launch was notably not plagued by shortages. However, the launch was not without controversy. Notably, many backers did not actually receive their units by the time retail units were being shipped to storefronts due to a shipping error, incensing both backers and the company alike. Additionally, around launch there was some concern that the Ouya would be used to pirate games.

E3 2013 Incident
A notable incident occurred outside of E3 2013, when E3 and Ouya were in dispute over Ouya's booth location across the street from the event.

Market Performance
By July 2013 sales figures for games on Ouya were very poor, with several prominent games earning just a few hundred or thousand dollars.

In 2014 Ouya attempted to pivot to being a software platform.

In February of 2015 Ouya announced a deal with Alibaba to enter the Chinese market.

Legacy
Razer acquired the Ouya software in 2015 for their Forge TV console. There were some issues brought up by the merger regarding developer pay, though this was resolved within a day.

Online services for the Ouya were shut down on June 25th, 2019. Before the shutdown an effort was made by preservationists to conserve as much digital material as possible.

Technology
The Ouya is powered by a NVIDIA Tegra 3 quad core processor. By the time of launch, in part due to rapid improvements in mobile processors, this had become a component of middling performance.

The Ouya has one gigabyte of RAM and either 8 gigabytes of flash storage in the $99 model, and 16 gigabytes of flash storage in the $129 model.

Every Ouya console is also a development kit, and is designed to be easy to open up.

Notable games
"The interest in OUYA has inspired a lot of devs to reach out to us with existing content and new ideas and we are trying to get back to each and every one of them."

Towerfall
Originally an Ouya exclusive, Towerfall sold 7,000 copies on the Ouya, making it one of the system's most popular games.

Read more about TowerFall on Wikipedia.

Amazing Frog?
Amazing Frog? was a launch game for the Ouya and a former Ouya exclusive that was an early humor oriented physics sandbox game. Development of the game for the limited Ouya hardware was a challenge for the developers.

Soul Fjord
An Ouya exclusive rhythm game.

External Resources

 * Wayback Machine - Archived version of the official Ouya website (2013)
 * Video Game Console Library - Ouya page.

title: History of video games/Platforms/Ouya


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History of video games/Platforms/GameStick

Development
A result of a Kickstarter campaign with a goal of $100,000, A small issue with a promotional video resulted in the campaign being briefly taken down. The GameStick launch was planned for 2013 at a cost of $79. After the crowdfunding campaign, the system gained backing from other sources, such as GameStop.

The GameStick developer kit was demoed at GDC 2013.

Launch
The GameStick launch occurred on November 13th, 2013, the same day the PlayStation 4 was launched.

Legacy
In 2016 it was announced that the GameStick online store would be discontinued in 2017.

A PlayJam Portable Media Console was planned. PlayJam also worked on the PlayJam OTT.

Compute
The GameStick uses a Amlogic 8726-MX SOC with a dual core ARM Cortex A9 processor clocked at 1.5 gigahertz, and a dual core Mali 400 GPU clocked at 400 megahertz.

The GameStick has one gigabyte of RAM.

Hardware
The console is contained in a dongle that connects to a TV, and is stowed in the controller when not in use. The controller contains a small easter egg in the form of a picture of eyes in the console storage slot.

The controller has a battery charged by USB, and the computer requires a separate USB connection for power.

Included radios are dual band Wi-Fi b/g/n and Bluetooth 4.0.

The system was also compatible with the 3rd party Green Throttle Gaming analog controller.

Software
The GameStick runs Android 4.1.2. The Game Stick used it's own online shop instead of Google Play. The system also attempted to act as a media system via a XBMC port made in collaboration with Pivos Technology Group.

Notable games
Many GameStick games are ports of existing smartphone games.

External Resources

 * Video Game Console Library - GameStick page.


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History of video games/Platforms/M.O.J.O.

Reveal
M.O.J.O. was a microconsole developed by Mad Catz. The console was officially revealed in June of 2013,  and was shown at E3 2013.

Despite M.O.J.O. being stylized as an acronym, it was not a true acronym as it was not short for anything. Publications of the time often simply referred to the console as the Mojo.

Launch
The Mad Catz M.O.J.O had a limited launch on December 10th, 2013, at a cost of $249.99. A Eurogamer review praised the performance of the M.O.J.O compared to other microconsoles, but noted that better experiences could be had for less money on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. At launch, Google policies limited device access to the Play Store due to the lack of a touchscreen, though these restrictions were later relaxed.

On March 6th, 2014 it was announced that the M.O.J.O. would be the first Ouya Everywhere partner along with a price reduction to $199.99, with an update adding those features released on June 30th, 2014.

On June 4th, 2014 support for OnLive game streaming would be brought to the console. This support would last for less then a year, as OnLive itself would cease operating on April 30th, 2015.

The price of the M.O.J.O. would again drop on January 22nd, 2015 to $150.

Legacy
Mad Catz experienced financial difficulties in 2016 and laid off 37% of its employees. Despite these cut backs, the Mad Catz company ceased operations on March 30th, 2017 when it declared chapter 7 bankruptcy. MadCatz was later revived by January 4th, 2018 becoming a company based in Kowloon, Hong Kong.

The Mojo game store was shut down in 2019, but some online functionality remained due to it's use of Google Play services.

Mad Catz would later reuse the M.O.J.O. brand for their computer mice.

Compute
The Mojo uses a NVIDIA Tegra 4 T40S quad core ARM Cortex A15 architecture processor clocked at 1.8 gigahertz. The GeForce processor included on the Tegra 4 used on the M.O.J.O. includes 72 GPU cores. The Mojo has 2 gigabytes of LPDDR3 RAM and 16 gigabytes of internal storage.

The console could output 5.1 channel audio, and gained the ability to output up to 4K video in a 2014 software update.

Hardware
The M.O.J.O. included radios for Bluetooth 4.0 and Wi-Fi a/b/g/n on both 2.4 gigahertz and 5 gigahertz bands. The system also sported a 100 megabit ethernet port for hardwired connections.

Software
The Mojo ran Android 4.2.2 at launch. Notably, Mad Catz did not consider rooting the operating system to be a violation of warranty. Voiding warranties over software run was a common industry practice at the time, despite legal and ethical issues associated with the practice.

C.T.R.L.R.
The M.O.J.O. game controllers were marketed as C.T.R.L.R. The M.O.J.O. controller supported the use of a "Travel Clip" attachment to use a smartphone as a portable display for the console. However the software support for this feature at launch was reportedly poor.

Game library
The M.O.J.O ran games from the Google Play store for the duration of the system life, leveraging the library of Andorid games on the Play store rather than pursuing its own exclusives. During part of the systems time on the market, games through Ouya everywhere and OnLive would be available for the system.

External Resources

 * Video Game Console Library - Mad Catz M.O.J.O. page.


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History of video games/Platforms/Razer Forge TV

History
The Razer ForgeTV was released in early 2015 for $99.99 for the console alone, or $149.99 for a bundle including a controller.

The ForgeTV game store was discontinued on June 25th of 2019. However consoles could continue to use features dependent on Google Play.

Technology
A Snapdragon 805 processor with a quad core Krait 450 CPU clocked at 2.5 gigahertz and Adreno 420 GPU powers the Razer ForgeTV.

The Razer ForgeTV has two gigabytes of RAM and 16 gigabytes of storage.

The ForgeTV has 2x2 802.11 Wi-Fi AC, Bluetooth 4.1 + HS, Gigabit Ethernet, a USB 3.0 port, and an HDMI 1.4 port.

Up to four controllers can be used at once.

At launch the Razer ForgeTV was based on a version Android TV running Android 5.0. Later the ForgeTV would be updated to run Android 5.1.

Notable games

 * Oddworld Munch's Oddysee
 * Bomb Squad
 * Towerfall Ascension
 * Toto Temple Deluxe


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History of video games/Platforms/Vii

History

The Vii mimics the appearance and name to the Nintendo Wii. The Vii also attempts to mimic the motion controls of the Wii, but is otherwise unrelated.

The Vii was launched in China in 2007 for a price of 1,280 yuan, though by 2009 the price had lowered to 443 yuan. The system was marketed as an exercise machine to circumvent the ban on gaming consoles in effect at the time.

By 2007 the Vii had sold over 300,000 units.

In the west the console is mainly known for its name, though some found the gameplay better than expected. In China, the console holds a different legacy, as a curious device which lead some gamers to seek out authentic Wii consoles.

Technology
The Vii uses an unspecified SunPlus 16-bit SPG2xx series processor with a custom instruction set.

Game cartridges use NOR flash chips. The system itself has 8.5 megabytes of storage for save data.

Most of the chips on the motherboard are epoxied instead of packaged.

The controller connects over a 2.4 gigahertz wireless connection.

A flame decal for the controller was shipped with some systems.

Game Library
Many Vii games are also found on the VG Pocket Caplet, Zone 60, Wireless 60, and Wireless Air 60.

Built In

 * Happy Tennis
 * Catch Fish
 * Bowling
 * Alacrity Golf
 * Table Tennis
 * Smart Dart
 * Fry Egg
 * Bird Knight
 * Fever Move
 * Come On
 * Fantasy Baseball
 * Free Craps

Cartridge Games

 * MaJong13
 * MaJong16
 * Bubble Blaster
 * Jewel Master 2
 * Pinball Fish
 * Squirrel Bobble
 * Lightning Plan
 * Plumber
 * Mr Onion
 * Fire Fighter
 * Dream Bubble
 * Bump Jump
 * Brave Kaka
 * Hero Legend
 * Rapid Stream
 * Super Move Fun
 * Magic Jelly
 * Bump Bomb
 * Tiger Rescue

External Resources

 * Engadget - News article featuring photos of Chinese language promotion for the Vii.

title: History of video games/Platforms/Vii


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Leapster Explorer

History
The Leapster Explorer was revealed in June 2010 and launched on July 15, 2010 at a price of $70.

The LeapsterGS was released in 2012 at a cost of $70 with a slimmer design, microphone, improved processor, motion sensor, 2 gigabytes of RAM, and a video camera.

Technology
The Leapster Explorer GS uses an ARM9 architecture processor clocked at 550 megahertz. The system has 128 megabytes of RAM and 2 gigabytes of flash storage.

The Leapster Explorer has a touch screen.

The Leapster Explorer is powered by four AA batteries and can also operate from an AC adapter.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Game Master

History
The Hartung Game Master was a handheld game console that was released in 1990. The system saw release in a number of western European countries, as well as Hong Kong.

Technology
The Hartung Game Master uses an NEC upd7810 CPU.

The Game Master has a monochrome LCD with a resolution of 64 by 64 pixels.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Konami Picno

Original Picno
The first Konami Picno educational console was released in Japan in 1992 for ¥29,800 yen.

Picno 2
The Picno 2 was launched in 1993 for ¥15,800 yen as a much cheaper followup console.

Legacy
The Picno was discontinued around 1994.

Technology
The Konami Picno uses a HD6435328F, a HN62334BP, a HM538121JP, a M514256B, and a custom chip.

The Picno uses a touchpad built into the system for most of it's input.

Notable games
A small number of educational titles and simple games were released for the Konami Picno.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Classic Mac

History
The Classic Mac operating systems are considered to be releases from System 1 in 1984 to System 9 in 1999.

Despite Apple's troubles during the run of the Classic Mac OS, the Classic Mac OS did see some games released for it.

Caper in the Castro
A 1989 point and click hypercard game for MacOS which was among the first video games to feature a significant plot focused on LGBTQ subject matter.

Pathways into Darkness
A first person action adventure game by Bungie.

Read more about Pathways into Darkness on Wikipedia.

Emora Kart
An early clone of the then recently released Super Famicom and Super Nintendo Entertainment System game Mario Kart.

Marathon
The first game in the Marathon trilogy of sci-fi first person shooters by Bungie.

Read more about Marathon on Wikipedia.

Marathon 2: Durandal
The second game in the Marathon trilogy of sci-fi first person shooters by Bungie.

Read more about Marathon 2: Durandal on Wikipedia.

Marathon Infinity
The final game in the Marathon trilogy by Bungie.

Read more about Marathon Infinity on Wikipedia.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Windows 9x

History
Like previous versions of Windows, Windows 95 and 98 were based on MS-DOS. However unlike previous versions, starting with Windows 95 DOS became integrated with MS-DOS, rather then a separate product running on top of it. Windows 95 also introduced DirectX, an API that allowed game developers to avoid direct access to hardware. Windows 98 offered improvements related to networking.

Notable games

 * Wolfenstein 3D
 * Doom
 * Quake
 * Duke Nukem 3D
 * Myst
 * Lionel Trains Presents Trans-Con!
 * RollerCoaster Tycoon

Audio
- An example of MIDI music, a common choice for game music on Windows PCs at the time.

CPUs

 * 32-bit Pentium - (1993-2000)
 * 32-bit AMD K5 - (1996)
 * 32-bit Pentium II - (1997-2003)
 * 32-bit AMD K6 - (1997)
 * 32-bit Athlon Classic - (1999)


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History of video games/Platforms/LJN Video Art

Development
On October 30th, 1986 LJN filed a patent with the US Patent office concerning technology used in the device.

Launch
The LJN Video Art was launched in 1987. The system cost around $100. A rap jingle was used to promote the device.

Legacy
The LJN Video Art was discontinued in either 1988 or 1989. The discontinuation was spurred in part due to difficulties faced by LJN during that time.

Unlike most platforms, the LJN Video Art is perhaps better know for events following discontinuation. In 1990 patents concerning the Video Art were transferred from LJN to an individual. From 1993 to 1995 a court battle ensued over LJN Video Art patents and the popular SNES software Mario Paint, though this usage was ultimately ruled as non-infringing.

Much later, the system gained notoriety online for it's poor design.

Technology
There does not appear to be any reliable information on technology used by the LJN Video Art.

The system supported drawing with 16 colors.

New York Magazine suggested saving art drawn on the LJN Video Art by recording to videotape.

Notable games
About 8 cartridges were released for the LJN Video Art, with Marvel, Disney, and Loony Toons licensed releases.
 * A Trip To The Zoo
 * Disney Coloring Book
 * Disney Story Book
 * Looney Tunes
 * Marvel Super-Heroes
 * My Dream Day
 * My Favorite Doll
 * On the Move
 * Video Art Activity Cartridge


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History of video games/Platforms/Zemmix

History
The Daewoo Zemmix was a line of console versions of the MSX computer platform released in South Korea from 1985 to 1991.

Launch
The MSX Daewoo Zemmix CPC-50 was released in Korea on December 10th of 1985.

The MSX Daewoo Zemmix V CPC-51 was released in Korea in December of 1987.

The MSX2 Daewoo Zemmix Super V CPC-61 was released in Korea in 1990.

The MSX2+ Daewoo Zemmix Turbo CPG-120 was released in Korea in October of 1991.

Legacy
A fanmade and unofficial Zemmix Neo was launched in 2013.

Technology
An add on was made to allow Famicom games to be played on the Zemmix.

Notable games
Zemmix game compatibility depends on the particular MSX standard used by a given Zemmix console.

External Resources

 * Game Medium - Zemmix page.
 * Video Game Geek - Zemmix CPC 50 page.
 * Hardcore Gaming 101 - History of Korean Gaming.

title: History of video games/Platforms/Zemmix


text:
History of video games/Platforms/V.Flash

History
The VTech V.Flash was revealed at the London Toy Fair in January of 2006 and launched later in 2006.

The VTech V.Flash was likely discontinued in 2007.

Technology
The V.Flash uses an LSI Logic ZEVIO 1020 SoC, which contains an ARM9 processor core and a 2D/3D graphics core from Koto.

The V.Flash uses optical disks (Which are close enough to CD-R and CD-RW that these can be used in the system) enclosed in a protective plastic case.

The V.Flash Controller can swap the location of its direction pad and face buttons.

The system runs MicroMore OS by Access Co. Ltd. and also runs Mascot Capsule Java 3D software.

Games Library

 * Multisports
 * Shrek the Third: The Search for Arthur
 * Wacky Race on Jumpin' Bean Island
 * SpongeBob SquarePants: Idea Sponge
 * The Amazing Spider-Man: Countdown to Doom
 * The Incredibles: Mission Incredible
 * Scooby-Doo!: Ancient Adventure
 * Disney Princess: The Crystal Ball Adventure
 * Cars: In the Fast Lane
 * Bratz Fashion Pixiez: The Secret Necklace


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History of video games/Platforms/Texas Instruments TI-99/4A

History
The Texas Instruments TI-99/4 was released in 1979 at a cost of $1,150.

The improved Texas Instruments TI-99/4A was released in June 1981 at a cost of $525.

Despite costing less than $100 by fall of 1982, and by being promoted by then popular comedian Bill Cosby, the TI-99/4A was severely challenged in the market by fierce competition in the low end segment, and by the video game crash of 1983.

Production of the Texas Instruments TI-99/4A ended in 1984 with about 2.5 million systems sold.

Compute
The Texas Instruments TI-99/4A is powered by the 16-bit TMS9900 processor clocked at three megahertz.

A TMS 9918 or TMS 9929 handles video processing.

The TI-99/4A has 16 kilobytes of RAM and 16 kilobytes of video RAM.

Hardware
The TI-99/4A has 26 kilobytes of ROM.


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History of video games/Platforms/MSX

Launch
The MSX computer standard was announced in 1983 to promote compatibility between computers. The MSX standard was regionally popular in Japan and also in Brazil.

Legacy
Over five million MSX computers were sold.

A Sony HB-G900 MSX2 computer and HBI-G900 videotizer was used on the MIR space station.

MSX1 spec
MSX1 computers use 8-bit Z80A processors clocked at 3.58 megahertz. Permitted video coprocessors include the TMS 9918/A, TMS 9928/A, or TMS 9929/A.

title: History of video games/Platforms/MSX


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Amstrad CPC

History
The Amstrad CPC 464 was launched on April 12, 1984.

CPC is short for Colour Personal Computer.

Over two million CPC computers were sold, with high popularity in continental western Europe.

Technology
The CPC 464 is powered by an 8-bit Zilog Z80 processor clocked at four megahertz.

The system has 64 kilobytes of RAM, with 42 kilobytes being available to the user.


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History of video games/Platforms/ZX Spectrum

Launch
The ZX Spectrum was launched in 1982.

A number of Spectrum focused periodicals were in print.

Legacy
In 1992 the ZX Spectrum was discontinued with five million systems sold.

Sir Clive Sinclair passed away in London on Thursday, September 16th, 2021.

Compute
The ZX Spectrum is powered by an 8-bit Z80A processor clocked at 3.5 megahertz.

Depending on the model the ZX Spectrum has either 16 kilobytes of RAM or 48 kilobytes of RAM.

Hardware
The ZX Spectrum has 16 kilobytes of RAM.

The unintentional "Colour Clash" effect of the ZX Spectrum created a unique aesthetic for games on the system.

Don't Buy This
An early game compilation of poor quality games.

Read more about Don't Buy This on Wikipedia.

Naming
Being primarily used in the UK, the name is pronounced as "Zed" X Spectrum. The system was sometimes known by the nickname "Speccy".


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History of video games/Platforms/BBC Micro

History
The BBC Micro was launched in December 1981.

The BBC Micro is sometimes nicknamed the Beeb.

The BBC Micro was discontinued in 1994.

BBC Micro developer Acorn Computers would later develop the ARM architecture, which would later be used by a number of gaming systems.

Technology
The BBC Micro is powered by an 8-bit MOS 6502 processor.

The BBC Micro has 32 kilobytes of RAM.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Amiga

Launch
The Commodore Amiga 1000 was launched in 1985 for $1,295. At the launch of the Amiga, artist Andy Warhol promoted the capabilities of the system for use in art.

The cost reduced low end Amiga 500 followed in 1987.

Use by creatives
Many game developer studios such as Psygnosis and Sensible Software got their start developing games for the Amiga. To keep publishers updated before the proliferation of the internet, Amiga Developer Krister Karlsson recounted sending VHS tapes and floppy disks to his publisher in the mail.

Other developers used the audio and graphical capabilities of the Amiga to develop games for other platforms. Junichi Masuda used an Amiga when creating the music for Pokémon Gold and Silver.

Technology
Specs are for the Amiga 1000. Following models had different specs.

Compute
The Amiga 1000 is powered by the 16 bit Motorola 68000 clocked at 7.14 megahertz.

The Amiga 1000 has 256 kilobytes of RAM by default.

Software
Amiga computers ran the Amiga Workbench operating system, with Amiga Workbench 1.0 released in October 1985 with powerful multitasking and graphical capabilities.

title: History of video games/Platforms/Amiga


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Commodore 64

History
The Commodore 64 was introduced in 1982 for $595, a price considered low given it's specs and enabled by Commodore's in house manufacturing. The manufacturing price of each commodore 64 was about $135 giving Commodore about a $460 margin before shipping, advertising, and other costs are considered.

In time, the price of the Commodore 64 would drop to $200 and the manufacturing costs of the Commodore 64 would drop to $25.

The Commodore 64 was discontinued in 1994, with 17 million Commodore 64 computers sold.

Compute
The Commodore 64 is powered by the 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 CPU, clocked at 1.023 megahertz in NTSC regions or 0.985 megahertz in PAL regions.

The Commodore 64 has 64 kilobytes of RAM.

Hardware
The Commodore 64 can generate three channels of audio via a SID 6581 chip.

Media
The only type of media that the Commodore 64 accepts without needing external peripherals are ROM cartridges. Cartridges were mostly used for video games and programming languages, but later also saw (and continue to see) usage for hardware enhancement.

The system was compatible with the Commodore Datasette tape drive, on which many users relied to load software, both retail, pirate or simply custom-written.

Much of the software was also distributed on 5¼-inches floppy disks to be read by Commodore 1541 or compatible drives, connected to the system through its "Commodore" bus. Similarly to previous Commodore disk drives, the 1541s worked like computers on their own, running Commodore DOS to load and save data, as well as interacting with the C64.

1987

 * Bad Street Brawler / Street Hassle - A beat up up released on multiple platforms. An early example of a game which allowed players to pet dogs.

Audio output
- This is an example of the Audio capabilities of the SID 6581 chip.

- This is an example of Automatic Mouth speech synthesis output from a Commodore 64.


text:
History of video games/Platforms/IBM Personal Computer

Development
The IBM 5100 of 1975 was the first minicomputer made by IBM. APL models of the 5100 could essentially emulate a IBM System 360 mainframe.

The accelerate development the IBM PC was developed in the span of 12 months by extensively using components made by other companies.

Launch
A press release by IBM in late August 1981 touts the capabilities of the IBM 5150, including a brief mention that the system can be used to easily play video games.

The IBM 5150 was released in September of 1981 at a base cost of around $1,565, a home use setup costing around $3005, and a business system costing around $4,500. Because the only thing IBM actually made for the IBM PC was the BIOS, clones of the system existed within a year, though were quickly stopped by legal action. Compaq made a clone with a legally engineered compatible BIOS, paving the way for other clones to create the modern PC platform.

Technology
There are many iterations of the IBM Personal Computer. This section covers the IBM 5150 model.

An 16-bit x86 architecture Intel 8088 CPU clocked at 4.77 megahertz powers the IBM 5150. The IBM 5150 came with 16 kilobytes of RAM standard, and could be configured with up to 256 kilobytes of RAM. The IBM 5150 shipped with 40 kilobytes of ROM.

The only custom part was the BIOS chip. As mentioned earlier, once that was reverse engineered using clean room techniques, many legal clone machines were brought to the market. These clones were often cheaper or sported features the official IBM PC models lacked.

Ad-Lib sound output
- An example music file similar to what would run on real Ad-Lib hardware. Note that the IBM PC did not originally ship with this hardware.


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History of video games/Platforms/Pyūta Jr

History
Tomiyama Toy Seisakusho was founded in 1924, and was known for it's model air planes. From the 1940s onwards the company began to expand into more general toys and games. In 1963 the company changed it's name to Tomy.

The Pyūta Jr was launched in Japan in April 1983 at a cost of 24,800 yen as a console version of the Tomy Pyūta (Tommy Tutor).

Though it was not successful on the market, the system now has a positive reputation due to its aesthetically pleasing design. The console is also notable as Tomys main attempt to enter the home console gaming market.

Technology
The Pyuta Jr uses a 16 bit Texas Instruments TMS 9995NL CPU clocked at 2.7 megahertz with 16 kilobytes of RAM and 16 kilobytes of video RAM.

Though the system uses a DE-9 socket for controllers, the system is electrically incompatible with controllers from other systems.

Games
44 games were released for the Pyūta Jr.

External Resources

 * Video Game Console Library - Tommy Pyuuta Jr. page.
 * Old Computers Museum - Tommy Tutor page.


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History of video games/Platforms/Vidéoway

Introduction
The Vidéoway was an experimental interactive video service that found a strong niche in 1990's Quebec. Due to it's unusual background coming from a telecom company rather then a computer or gaming company, the Vidéoway service was an early console that exclusively played downloaded games on a subscription model. Furthermore, true to its Quebec heritage, Vidéoway is one of the few significant gaming consoles to have French as a primary language, with English as a secondary language, rather than being English or Japanese first like most other consoles.

Development
The Vidéoway system cost Vidéotron $40 million to develop. Notably, Montreal had yet to develop it's now massive game industry when the Vidéoway was developed, making this console a pioneer of sorts for the industry in that area.

Launch
"Even the Japanese Are Jealous"

Vidéotron launched the Videoway in 1989. While the service offered a number of features such as interactive camera angles, video games were one of it's most popular features. By 1992 Vidéoway had a competitive leaderboard for certain games, with ranks assigned to players and with high ranking players invited to some TV shows to compete for prizes.

By 1993 the Vidéoway was profitable, costing a fee equivalent to $6.50 USD a month to use the service with 160,000 households subscribing to the service. In November 1993 it was announced a plan to expand the Vidéoway service from Montreal to Dayton, Ohio. To build a market in Dayton, the service would initially be free. However by 1994 Dayton was not listed as an area where Vidéoway was sold, making the fate of the Dayton expansion unclear.

By 1994 the service had 220,000 subscribers in the Montreal Market alone, with 330,000 customers globally, having expanded to the UK. In 1994 the video games offered on the system were considered it's main selling point, rather then the other interactive television features supported by the platform.

By 1995 the number of Vidéoway subscribers in Quebec remained steady at 222,000 with a monthly price of $8.95 Canadian dollars.

Legacy
The Vidéoway service was discontinued in 2000, and shut down in 2006, with the original games having been lost to time. In the 2015 Temporel, Inc was unofficially remade based on using a VHS recording of a play-through.

Despite being poorly documented, this service is notable for being one of the best performing Canadian platforms in console gaming, as well as an early adoption of the game streaming model later seen decades later in the cloud gaming market of the 2010's on.

Technology
The Vidéoway has an 8-bit Motorola MC68A09EP clocked at 1.5 megahertz as a local processor. The Vidéoway has 8 Kibibytes of static RAM and 256 Kibibytes of dynamic video RAM. The system also has a 16 Kibibyte mask ROM.

System RAM temporarily stored downloaded games for the Vidéoway.

In 1994 a partnership was made with the massive American technology corporation IBM (International Business Machines) to improve the Vidéoway.

Notable games
Around forty games were available on the Vidéoway. Notably, many games on the Vidéoway are said to have appealed to casual gamers, an underserved market at the time.
 * Temporel Inc. - An adventure game exclusive to the Vidéoway during the life of the system.
 * Jeopardy
 * Blackjack
 * Chess
 * Q-Bert
 * Mordicus
 * Burger Time / Hamburger
 * Styx
 * Mr. Chin
 * Le fou du Roi
 * Crocomaths

Branding
Throughout the long life of the system, Vidéotron updated its brand identity twice. Most game platforms see their parent organization update their branding only once, if they do so at all, in their time on the market, making this somewhat unusual.


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User talk:Nerdnumber3

In your contribution you contrast deontological approaches to moral truths with relativist approaches. Perhaps it might be useful to note that not all non-deontological approaches are relativistic? Xrcaatnp (discuss • contribs) 11:54, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nerdnumber3


text:
User talk:ElfSnail123

Welcome
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--Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 12:57, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:ElfSnail123


text:
User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Evidence/Evidence in Chemistry

Overview
In chemistry, evidence is usually gathered through repeated experimentation and the scientific method. This results in both quantitative and qualitative evidence, depending on the sort of experiments that are carried out. Quantitative evidence is usually used to determine the amount of a chemical, or lack of, in a specimen. On the other hand, qualitative evidence such as colour, texture and odour can be used to describe and identify substances.

Quantitative Evidence
There are many ways of gathering quantitative evidence in chemistry, such as acid-base titrations, whereby the concentration of an acid or base can be determined by neutralizing it with a known concentration of an acid or base. Due to chemistry being a natural science, it is often thought that quantitative evidence is the best source of knowledge in this discipline, but this has sometimes not been true. All chemical experiments are subject to different types of errors, including systematic and random error. While systematic errors are constant and reproducible, meaning that every data point taken will be affected in the same way, random error usually stems from human error, meaning that every data point will also be affected in a different way, resulting in anomalies in the quantitative evidence found. Percentage error can be an indicator of how reliable quantitative evidence is, and it is important to look at quantitative data with caution.

Qualitative Evidence
Qualitative evidence in chemistry can be defined as non-numerical information observed in a reaction or species. Though not always as precise as quantitative evidence, qualitative evidence is easier to produce and thus can be a convenient way of identifying what is happening in a reaction. For example, different metal ions can be identified simply by observing the colour of their flames. A lithium ion would produce a red flame, whereas a barium ion would produce a green flame. Wet chemistry is a form of analytical chemistry that relies on qualitative evidence such as observation, rather than quantitative evidence, to analyze materials.

Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Evidence
It is often more helpful to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative evidence in chemistry rather than to rely on one of the two. In the example of acid-base titrations, even though the evidence gathered is quantitative, the whole experiment is reliant on observing a colour change and using this observation to stop the reaction at the right moment. Thus, the quantitative data extracted from titrations couldn’t be reached without the use of qualitative evidence too.


text:
User talk:181.176.105.116

Welcome!
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If you edit without using a named account, your (181.176.105.116) is used to identify you instead.

By the way, please make sure to sign and date your talk page comments with four tildes (~~~~).

Happy editing! —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 16:03, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:181.176.105.116


text:
User talk:Zatiranyk

Welcome!
Welcome, Zatiranyk!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 17:13, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

x86 bit shift operations
Hello Zatiranyk: You have added in X86 Assembly/Arithmetic a section on bit shift operations. Unfortunately (or fortunately) these are already covered in the chapter shift and rotate. Feel free to improve the documentation there and undo your changes to the arithmetic page. Thank you. Kai Burghardt (discuss • contribs) 12:24, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello Kai Burghardt. Indeed, I just followed the "quick link"… Thank you, I deleted my duplicated part ! --Zatiranyk (discuss • contribs) 21:10, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zatiranyk


text:
User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Truth/Truth in the Natural Sciences

Introduction to truth in the natural sciences
Examples of some disciplines that fall under the natural sciences are: biology, chemistry and physics. A natural science is a science that looks at natural phenomenons such as plants, planets, chemical reactions etc. Those in the natural science field aim to be objective in their conceptions about phenomenon, combining the use of quantitative and qualitative data, utilising data analysis to confirm hypotheses and produce conclusions. This page will show how although scientists aim to be as objective as possible, eliminating biases to get the most accurate conclusion there are still certain phenomena that can hinder the reliability of knowledge (and therefore truth) in the natural sciences and the implications that this entails. This page will also look at the history of truth in the natural sciences, focusing on paradigm shifts in certain disciplines, how these came about and their implications.

Phenomena in the production of truth
Although most scientists aim to be as objective as possible in their views and conclusions when producing truths there are certain phenomena which may occur subconsciously that can skewer how scientists view their data, utilise their data or observe phenomenons. Subsequently, producing false truths within disciplines which may have a knock-on effect.

 * 1) Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias occurs when scientists tend to focus more on evidence/data that supports their hypothesis and preconceptions, the difficulty with this phenomenon is that once there is data to support one's hypothesis it is even harder to move away from your preconceptions . The implications of this phenomenon is that once this data is published which may be inaccurate, this data is then considered a 'truth' within a field- causing a knock on effect when more truths are produced based on this false truth. A real world example of confirmation bias is the N-ray. 8 years after X-rays were discovered in 1903 it was thought that N-rays had also been discovered, another type of radiation. This radiation meant that cold-fusion was possible which would mean unlimited clean energy- a french scientist called Prosper-René Blondlot claimed that he made the breakthrough discovery of N rays, soon after many researchers from all over the world claimed that they too had seen N- rays but the difficulty with N-rays was that it could only be seen by the human eye making it unquantifiable. However, an American scientist called Robert Wood was skeptical of Blondlot’s claims, he visited Blondlot’s lab himself and removed the crystal that supposedly produced the N- rays, after which Blondlot failed to mention its absence. This is an example of confirmation bias as the N- rays failed to vanish when the source was removed proving that Blondlot along with other French scientists were so passionate on the idea of N- rays that they saw something that wasn’t there, causing them to put out false information into the scientific community . If this truth hadn't been corrected as untrue it would be possible that other scientists could base their experiments on this truth, creating more false conclusions.
 * 2) P-hacking: P- hacking refers to the phenomenon when scientists may subconsciously "manipulate" data, either by inserting data or extracting data so that it suits their hypothesis . The implications of P-hacking is that it may lead to the production of low quality research papers and false truths within the scientific community.
 * 3) Publication Bias: Publication bias is the phenomenon of when more significant scientific findings are published than ones that may be viewed as less significant. The implications of this being that this "bias towards statistically significant results for fields that rely on frequentist statistics: it is possible that the literature in these fields largely consists of false conclusions" . Another implication of this being, since scientists do not get funding from repeating past experiments, it could be seen as potentially 'easy' for false truths within a field to go 'unchecked'.

Paradigm shifts in truths
A paradigm shift is "a situation in which the usual and accepted way of doing or thinking about something changes completely". Paradigm shifts can be useful when looking at the history of truths within the natural sciences and how these changes in conception can lead to more accurate discoveries. An example of a paradigm shift can be seen in biology with 'cell- theory' when it was once believed that entire organisms were formed from a single unit of cellular tissue (not multiple) or that there is spontaneous generation of cells (not that cells come from the division of other cells). All of these discoveries where made possible with the invention of the microscope in 1665 by Robert Hooke, the implications of this being that more breakthroughs within modern biology were made possible with this truth (cell theory).


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Lentis/Competition for Water in California

Introduction
California’s climate yields harsh and destructive droughts, intensifying in the summer months and leading to extreme water shortages with accompanying crop and property damage. History informs public policy, grassroots efforts, and innovative social solutions as Californians grapple with resource management. This chapter highlights the current environment and details the ideas leading to a better future.

Water Usage
California's water usage is divided into three categories; Environmental, Agricultural, and Urban. Overall, environmental purposes such as habitat and wetland retention or water in rivers accounts for the largest part of usage. Despite the state's large population, urban use has the smallest impact, though it is the predominant need in the dry, southern parts of the state.

Large discrepancies exist between areas of the population however. Affluent populations use the most, like Rancho Santa Fe (584.4 gal/day/person) and Beverly Hills (~300 gal/day/person), while residents of Los Angeles use 92.8 gal/day/person and San Franciscans use a scant 45.7 gal/day/person.

Despite these numbers, water usage seems to be heading in the right direction as gross and per capita water use fell under increasing population. Percent change has been better for urban use than agriculture, but is a smaller sector of usage so the resulting effect is slightly mitigated. In the past 20 years, gross water use fell by 22% as a result from pricing incentives and low-flow technology installations.

Water Shortage
California's climate is responsible for water shortages today. The most recent drought period lasted 8 years from 2011 to 2019, leading to exceptional drought conditions across more than 50% of the state in June 2014. The lack of naturally occurring water brings challenges to water-dependent groups. Dried up pools and ponds increase inefficiency of firefighters, who must go farther to find auxiliary water to battle large blazes. A lack of proper irrigation combined with intense heat also leads to crop production decreases in products such as grapes, tomatoes, and nuts.

California Water Rights
When California was first founded, the state used Riparian water rights, which gave anyone owning land bordering a water source the right to freely use that water. These rights stayed with the property. During the gold rush, miners started claiming appropriative rights to water, where the first to claim a body of water had free use of it. Now, California has to balance these two conflicting rights. Its constitution requires that all water be both "beneficial" and "reasonable". Beneficial uses are well-defined by the law, but reasonableness is not. According to the State Supreme Court, reasonableness is "determined by the circumstances".

Critics of the water rights system argue that farmers have no incentive to cut back water use during droughts, while farmers say that dividing the water up another way would be like "taking everyone's paycheck, putting it into a pool, and saying: "We're going to divide that up evenly.".

California Water Wars
In the late 1800s, California's Owens Valley was heavily irrigated for farmland. The water came from the nearby Owens River as well as runoff from the Sierra Nevada. But at the start of the 20th century, the city of Los Angeles wanted to expand. To do that, it needed more water, which could be easily redirected if an aquifer from Owens Valley was built.

To get the water rights needed to achieve this, Frederick Eaton, Los Angeles's City Engineer, started privately buying land in Owens Valley with the intent to sell it to the city for a profit. Meanwhile, William Mulholland, the superintendent of the Water Company, convinced the city that they needed the water by downplaying the amount of water already available to the city.

After Mulholland claimed that the proposed aqueduct would only use unused water from Owens Valley, the city eventually approved the plan, though only after intense pushback and even violence from the residents of Owens Valley. Some ranchers even dynamited part of the aqueduct to return water to the Owens River. After a second aqueduct was made, water was pumped from Owens Valley at such a rate that springs and rivers began to dry up, and by 1928, Los Angeles owned 90 percent of the water in Owens Valley. Years later, and after many lawsuits, the aqueduct was opened back up to release water back into the Owens Valley River, but the region still has a net water loss due to groundwater pumping. Because of this, Owens Valley is turning into a desert.

Public Policy
The public policy regarding the water usage in California comes from two levels, federal and state. In the federal level, the Trump Administration has been attempting to follow through on the campaign promise of giving central valley farmers more water and to accomplish this goal, the administration has been attempting to accelerate water supply decisions. Unfortunately, the decisions made appear to be too dangerous according to various critics. A former federal biologist who wished to remain anonymous even critiqued that making shortcuts in the scientific process for these decisions poses some risk and danger. This concern is not unshared either, as other federal scientists have raised this same concern and have shown so through internal emails obtained via Freedom of Information of Act. According to this, the agency itself is lacking in manpower to perform these tests and proper scientific analysis so that water can be diverted safely and responsibly.

In response to these federal decisions, the state of California has decided to fight back, with the attorney general saying that they won’t allow Trump to destroy and deplete California’s resources. Trump has stated that since California is not in a drought, his policies are fine, but the state has repeatedly been warning the administration of a possible drought that may occur. Trump has also ordered the Interior Department to reconsider the scientific evidence so that the water in California could be redistributed and in October of 2019, the department has decided to change its opinions on the protection of the wildlife, and more specifically of the long time protected fish.

On the state side of public policy, when it was not busy fighting the federal changes, the California state government had passed the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act in 2014 which would seek to redistribute water amongst urban and agricultural usage. The famers in California however are against this redistribution of water due to protection by riparian water rights and because there is a chance some could receive little to no water under this act. Despite these changes, there is no radical act or proposal by the state government as they do not wish to upset the food supply chain. .

Responsible Water Use Advocacy
During the most recent drought, the governor of California asked citizens to reduce their water consumption by 25% as part of some severe water restrictions in the state. The residents of California reduced their water consumption by 31% instead, going above and beyond what was required. However, there is still a severe water shortage in California. Some blame this on the environmental conservation policies set forth by the state, which account for more than 50% of the water flows in the state. . Environmental protection laws and Endangered Species Act that exist to support species such as the Delta Fish have also led to 1.4 trillion gallons of water being flushed back into the San Francisco Bay. The amount of water flushed would be more than enough to sustain over 6 million people for 6 years. . There is potential for greater rainwater use in California. California has plenty of rain, approximately 3.6 inches in LA alone, which generates about 3.8 billion gallons of water runoff per inch, which in total equals more than 12 billion gallons of water that could potentially be captured and when used could power most of the city. Rainwater capturing technology has been used by countries such as Australia, whose per capita water user is only second to the United States, so with some changes, it could be used in California as well .

Lawn Innovations in California
In an effort to reduce the need for lawncare irrigation, some residents are turning to unorthodox tactics. The painting technique was used previously on golf courses to maintain an attractive image without overuse. The solution is temporary, but has become attractive to private residences as an alternative to more expensive artificial turf. The dye is made from a natural pigment, will not harm the grass's future growth, and is non-toxic to pets, children, and the environment.

Another change residents are making to their lawns involves replacing grass with drought-resistant vegetation like cacti and succulents. This comes as part of an initiative rolled out by Gov. Jerry Brown in 2015 to encourage low water need vegetation and ban median grass watering.

Conclusion
Solutionism will not solve California's water problems, rather better management and the reformation of laws and policies will help both the people in California and the surrounding ecosystem. Next steps would include performing an in-depth scientific analysis on the ecosystem of the state of California and analyzing the needs and priorities of both wildlife and people to fairly determine water distribution so that any needed redistribution can improve the quality of life for all living things. California needs laws and support to be made by proper scientific analysis and without shortcuts.

Suggested Further Research
Further research on this topic could include how facilities use water, such as Nestlé Waters, or how rainwater is collected/used.


text:
User talk:Cm4uw

Welcome, Cm4uw!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 18:55, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cm4uw


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Playdate

Background
Playdate developer Panic originally made applications for macOS and iOS and later began publishing games.

Development
The first meetings that would eventually relate to the Playdate date back to 2012. Development on the Playdate started by 2015. Design of the system was originally inspired by the Nintendo Game and Watch. A Playdate prototype featured a crude white 3D printed plastic case made on a Printrbot fused filament fabrication 3D Printer.

Developers Panic and Teenage Engineering met at Moogfest, leading to a system codename of Asheville.

The Playdate was announced on May 16th, 2019.

By August 12th, 2020 there were 250 early units shipped, primarily to developers.

A temporary shut down of a factory in Malaysia caused the first manufacturing run of 20,000 Playdate consoles to be delayed to 2021, with a launch price of $149.

On November 25th, 2020 instructions for a DIY papercraft mock Playdate were released.

On June 4th of 2021 an announcement was made, where the price of the console would be increased to $179 and the number of season one games would be doubled to 24, along with a storage increase to 4 gigabytes from 2.

On June 8th, 2021 the Playdate Stereo dock was unveiled to the public as the first official Playdate accessory.

In July of 2021 early units were sent to journalists.

On August 4th of 2021, a change to the season one schedule was announced.

In late 2021 the CPU used by early development Playdate consoles could no longer be purchased with a lead time of two years due to the chip shortage. Thus on November 11th, 2021 the console was delayed to 2022 so the console could be reworked with a different CPU.

By early April 2022 more complete units were sent to journalists.

Launch
On April 18, 2022 preordered consoles began shipping to customers.

Technology
The technology choices used by the Playdate are unconventional, and trades common features for unique functionality.

Compute
The Playdate uses an ARM based STMicroelectronics 32-bit STM32 F746 processor clocked at 180 megahertz.

The Playdate has 16 megabytes of RAM, among the lowest capacities of notable handhelds for the time.

Initially the Playdate was set to use 2 gigabytes of flash based storage. This capacity was updated to 4 gigabytes before launch.

Hardware
The Playdate has a 2.7" 400 by 240 pixel resolution monochrome Sharp memory LCD for sunlight readability. This display technology precludes color graphics, but allows for a display with a very low power consumption and superior display of monochrome graphics. This display can not be read in the dark as there is no built in backlight or frontlight. The button on the top of the console features a yellow notification LED.

The Playdate has a USB type C port. The USB port of the console can be used both to allow external inputs, and to stream the contents of the screen to an external computer.

Other ports include a headphone jack, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity.

A crank was chosen as an alternative to the common touchscreen controls. The crank is purely for use as a controller, and does not generate power for the console. The console also features an accelerometer for in game control.

The Playdate featured a model number of PDX-01. Every Playdate console is also a dev kit. The internal PCB color of the Playdate is black.

The system is powered by a Cyber-Power lithium polymer battery, rated at 650mAh and outputting 3.7 volts.

Accessories for the system can be mounted to the back magnetically, and supports charging through this mounting system. A purple flip cover accessory was designed for the system during development.

Playdate hardware was manufactured in Malaysia. This created some contention, as Playdate consoles were not made available for sale to consumers in Malaysia.

Software
The Playdate game launcher UI supports animated game logos at a resolution of 350 pixels by 150 pixels.

Playdate Pulp was designed as a web browser based graphical development environment for the system.

b360
A game made by Panic to aid in system testing during development.

Crankin's Time Travel Adventure
A humorous game made by a team which included Keita Takahashi as a designer.

Playmaker
Creative game made by Dustin Mierau.

RNG Party
2D top down platformer with accelerometer based controls.

DOOM
Unofficial port

Klondike Solitaire
Solitaire card game made using the Rust programming language.

Other Games

 * Zipper
 * Sasquatchers
 * Snak
 * Executive Golf DX

External Resources

 * Playdate website
 * Panic website


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User:KikiraraTheGamerThatsNotHuman

I, @KikiraraTheGamerThatsNotHuman is ruling the webpages.

title: User:KikiraraTheGamerThatsNotHuman


text:
Mundeze/Grammar

 * 1) Summary
 * 2) Phonology
 * 3) Alphabet
 * 4) Pronunciation
 * 5) Intonation
 * 6) Phonotactics
 * 7) Syntax
 * 8) Word order
 * 9) Grammatical cases
 * 10) Elliptical construction
 * 11) Parts of speech
 * 12) Nouns
 * 13) Articles
 * 14) Adjectives
 * 15) Adverbs
 * 16) tabula-leksey
 * 17) Pronouns
 * 18) Verbs
 * 19) Function words
 * 20) Sentence forms
 * 21) Interrogative
 * 22) Negative and affirmative
 * 23) Exclamative
 * 24) Exclamatory rhetorical question
 * 25) Morphology
 * 26) Morphological typology
 * 27) Compound
 * 28) Affixes
 * 29) Typography
 * 30) Letter case
 * 31) Punctuation
 * 32) Other typographical signs

title: Mundeze/Grammar


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Truth/Truth in history

Truth in history
The perceived actuality of truth used in the academic discipline of history has changed over time, depending upon the social and intellectual climate. Conflicts have also arisen amongst historians regarding the nature of historical knowledge.

History of truth in history
During the Age of Enlightenment, when the natural sciences and empiricism were revered, the consensus amongst historians was that absolute, objective truth could be obtained in history, so long as all the facts were studied. Consequently, in an attempt to achieve this complete objectivity, a positivist approach was used, whereby history was understood purely by collating primary sources, which historians then critically evaluated to determine any biases (not too dissimilar to the scientific method), rather than through interpreting historical events and developing judgements. Such a method of determining historical truth through the means of systematic analysis was propagated by prominent figures such as Voltaire, and the historians belonging to the twentieth century Annales school, first developed in France. Due to this emphasis on the perceived scientific nature of history and its universality, it was believed that it could be conclusive and beyond the possibility of doubt.

However, this paradigm of historical thought shifted following the onset of the First World War in 1914. It is now widely believed by many historians, including Phillips, that history can never achieve the same standard of complete objectivity as the natural sciences, given that its evidence is all rooted in the past and cannot be reproduced through the means of testing. Whilst empirical data may be collected, the manner in which it is categorised is dependent upon the historian. Whilst there are certain fixed entities, such as dates and the existence of key actors in the past - a posteriori knowledge - objectivity in history is limited to this, and cannot extend to more conceptual events (such as the creation of a discipline for example), which require historians to collate a range of sources before they are able to put forward an interpretation. Indeed, it is this interpretative work that attempts to understand past events and 'create meaning' that is now regarded a crucial constituent of history as a discipline. Thus, truth in history is principally subjective. This is emphasised by the idea that historians must choose which facts are to be presented (as it is seemingly unfeasible to study all of them), and the contention that a historian's final judgement is influenced by their personal understanding and definition of certain complex notions.

Stemming from this apparent subjectivity, truth in history is now further thought to be perspectivist, as contended by Raymond Aron. That is to say, truth is not universal, but rather contingent upon two main factors: the historian's milieu at the time of writing, and their personal views (and biases). Indeed, even an individual's truths may later evolve over the passage of time. Moreover, within perspectivism, another conceptual approach in history is historical understanding - or verstehen - developed by thinkers such as Dilthey, and Weber. Verstehen, an anti-positivist approach, links truth with the socially constructed meanings held by members of a particular culture at a particular time. As truths can hence vary amongst historians, William Dray suggests that a plurality of views may be used - something he terms 'inter-perspectivism'.

Rethinking truth in history
It has been contended by Phillips and Dray that this 'inter-perspectivism' contributes to a form of historical objectivity - distinct to that prevalent in the natural sciences. Whilst interpretations may differ, a Weltanschauung may still arise if there is one hegemonic school of thought. This corresponds with Allan Megill's notion of 'disciplinary objectivity' which he defines as, 'the claim by practitioners of a particular discipline (sub-discipline, research field, etc) to have authoritative jurisdiction over its area of competence.' as cited by Marek Tamm, which relates to pragmatic theories of truth.

A method of achieving such disciplinarily-specific truth in history is highlighted in Maurice Merleau-Ponty's phenomenological theory, which takes an intersubjective approach. Merleau-Ponty does not regard Aron's understanding of the discipline (as perspectivist and subjective) as entirely conflicting with objectivity. Instead, he notes that, by recognising different historians' biases and scrutinising them in accordance with the context in which they each write, a comprehensive genuine conclusion may be reached regarding a historical matter.

How truth is determined: source criticism
In order to analyse each source and determine its extent of truth, the historical method is followed. Historians study a source's provenance and content to discern its likelihood of providing a bias, and use them to evaluate the source's overall reliability, credibility, and validity.