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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 9/Evidence

This is the sandbox page for the issue: Evidence.

Types of sources
There are three types of historical sources: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_source#:~:text=In%20the%20study%20of%20history,of%20information%20about%20the%20topic. primary], secondary and tertiary. A primary source is an original piece of material such contemporary documentation, creative works and artefacts which are authoritative, while secondary sources are often extensions of primary sources such as scholarly articles or biographies and considered persuasive. Tertiary sources, rather than providing contemporary or post-contemporary insight aim to compile and index both primary and secondary sources for the purpose of navigation.

Both sources have advantages and disadvantages. The originality of primary sources lends confidence to the claims they make of contemporary context as they stem directly from the event, while secondary sources are subject to bias because they are purely interpretations of primary sources. However primary sources are often fragmented due to the passing of time and are not exhaustive. This is when the value of a secondary source becomes pronounced as the expertise of the writer lends insight unavailable to an unprofessional eye.

An example of this are the many philosophical treatises written in Ancient Greece such as those written by Plato and Aristotle; the fractured nature of these primary sources leave gaps in their philosophical enquiry and chronology and must be pieced together and analysed by scholars. The precursor of extensive corroboration and research in creating a secondary source can often paint a more complete picture than the primary source alone especially because primary sources are not necessarily concerned with objectivity.

Historical method
Ideally, history would be pieced together by objective examination of sources however its writers are rarely so free from bias. Historiography is the study of historical methodology: it skepticises assertions made by historians by examining how their internal biases and conformities lead to scholarly omission and misinterpretation. The notion of scholarly persona attempts to characterise the contextual affectations foisted upon historians by society and how they influence the perception of events and the creative links made between them. Key historiographical themes include personal biography, socio-political and religious context, institutionalised scholarship and historical methods; a case study examining the German historian Alfred Dove highlights the interference between these by themes by the nuances of persona thus producing a uniquely individual historical method and perspective inconducive with totally objective handling of evidence.

Introduction
Evidence is the foundation upon which academic disciplines are built. Having a firm knowledge base is an integral step in the process of subject matter becoming a discipline - this can be achieved through the use of evidence to either quantify or qualify the knowledge, ideas and data appropriately. Evidence can, however, cause conflict and issues within a discipline if used incorrectly or if the definition of evidence itself is contested between individuals, as has been seen in evidence-based medicine (EBM). EBM has been defined as "the conscientious, explicit, judicious and reasonable use of modern, best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients, integrating 'clinical experience and patient values with the best available research information." This definition raises the question of what evidence fundamentally is, who has the authority to classify something as evidence and how to distinguish between varying qualities of evidence - evidence therefore has the potential to cause a discord within the discipline and between those involved.

The distortion of evidence
Science (encompassing a wide range of disciplines, including medicine) and by default evidence, should, in theory, be neutral, although this can rarely, if ever, be the case. This is because science and evidence are embroiled in context, encompassing a wide array of ethical, social, political, cultural and personal circumstances. The evidence produced is also heavily dependent on who is conducting the research, and what they hope to achieve through it. This can cause an enormous issue in medicine, as evidence and facts can be distorted to fulfill a wide range of agendas, taking political and economic interests as two examples.

The types of evidence primarily employed in medicine are systematic reviews and randomised control trials (RCTs). RCTs are seen as the 'gold standard' for medical research, due to the randomised nature of the research and the fact that it enables outcomes to be directly correlated to interventions, as compounding factors and other influences are removed. Objectively, this type of evidence is the most robust and reliable and should theoretically be completely unbiased as a quantitative method of data display. Bias, however, has the potential to play a large role in research and the results produced, regardless of how ‘neutral’ a researcher tries to be, or how 'randomised' a trial is. This has led to cases of researchers manipulating trials and data to get the desired outcome, exploiting inclusion criteria for patients or being selective with the results that are published, in some cases even falsifying the data itself, although the occurrence is difficult to quantify due to the deceptive nature of the wrong-doing. This in itself makes finding the evidence to support the emerging problems with said evidence difficult. Scientists have been producing fraudulent data for centuries, with prominent figures such as Sigmund Freud and Isaac Newton fabricating data for personal gain. More recent examples of medical data manipulation include the case of Steven Eaton, a UK bio-analyst who falsified data from cancer drug research trials, claiming the drug worked when this was not the case.

Bridging Traditional Medicine with Evidence-Based Medicine
Traditional health systems such as Chinese Medicine or the Indian Ayurveda, rely on a holistic approach to healing the body. Historically, this has not been considered "worthy" in Western medicine, as it has not been viewed as evidence-based, drawing attention to the question of what the definition of evidence actually is. Many alternative medicines are described largely as "scientifically implausible" and not meeting "evidence-based standards," relying instead on anecdotal evidence. However, there are many epistemological approaches to medicine and collaboration between "Western" and "Eastern" methods can be mutually beneficial. EBM empowers prescribers, so these traditional methods should undergo the rigorous critical analysis that is key to EBM and its acceptance.

Conclusion
No matter the hidden agenda behind the distortion of the evidence, it asks an important question – if evidence can be distorted, how do the public know if EBM can be trusted? This goes back to the original question raised. If evidence can be manipulated, how do we actually define evidence? Evidence has long been seen as a collection of facts, but this does not take into account the ideas of bias, context or nuance. As Peter Toon, a retired GP states, this requires a fundamental rewriting of how evidence is characterised. Scientific objectivity is incredibly difficult to achieve, meaning that evidence can rarely be entirely objective and factual. With the rise in technology, it is now incredibly easy to spread false information and fabricated data, presenting something as 'evidence' when it is, in fact, not. Bias in medical research and therefore EBM is a huge concern, meaning a rewriting of how we define, create, use and value evidence is more important than ever.

Introduction
Evidence-based or evidence-informed policy is an idea that has seen an increase in interest over the years and dictates that objective evidence should take precedence over subjective and opinion-based tendencies in public policy decision making. It falls under the wide umbrella of evidence-based practices. Public policies often deal with a complex set of issues and ideas, and policymakers face the difficult task of having to undertake a wide range of steps, such as sorting through research findings and assessing their reliability, to aim for positive outcomes. As such some level of categorisation is required, and the perceived objectivity of quantitative research methods as opposed to individualistic beliefs has allowed the idea of evidence-based policy making to gain traction. Many advocates of the concept contend policymakers in the past have failed to achieve the best outcome simply because they do not appreciate or respond to the right evidence. They argue that evidence-based responses would correct this error. The idea, however, still remains controversial.

Criticisms of Evidence Collection
Some of the major criticisms levied against this approach to policy include the limiting set of methods and ways in which evidence is collected that are deemed acceptable by the approach. Social research and more ‘qualitative’ methods; many of which are essential when thinking about intricate and critical policies concerning human rights, equal opportunity and social justice can therefore end up being considered subordinate in the eyes of proponents, and the final policy could fail to address all aspects of the issue at hand. Evidence-based thinking in policy also fails to acknowledge the “political nature of decision making” and how evidence may be used selectively. As an extension of this, critics like sociologist Martin Hammersely argue the term ‘evidence-based policy’ itself can be leveraged to “mobilise support,” (Hammersely, 2013, p.15) due to the seemingly rational assumption that the use of any ‘evidence’ in decision-making is an inherently reliable practice.

Introduction
Academic disciplines are constantly evolving, negotiating the terms, conditions and standards of investigation, attribution and evidence. Evidence helps us to believe that something is or is not true in those disciplines. According to the "Harvard Law Review" from Professors Thayer's lectures, the etymological meaning of the word evidence is "the state of being clearly seen". It states that in our early law, evidence was used to denote writings or document, as they spoke for themselves. Therefore, the article claims that "Whatever must be shown to the Court is the subject-matter of evidence." (Harvard Law Review, Vol. 1, No. 5, 1887). In Civil Law or Common Law, evidence is the demonstration of the reality of a fact, a state, a circumstance or an obligation for the purpose of asserting a claim, in other words, the object of a request to which a person involved in legal proceedings asks to be granted. This is a fundamental notion, because in the context of a contestation, not being able to prove one's right is equivalent to not having one. The function of a judge is to gather evidence in order to make a decision and to judge a person as fairly as possible at the end of the trial. The system of evidence is established by Article 9 of the Code of Civil Procedure, which states: "It is incumbent on each party to prove in accordance with the law the facts necessary for the success of his claim."

Systems of Evidence
There are two systems of evidence in the French Civil Law: the system of moral evidence, which allows the use of all modes of evidence, and the system of legal evidence, which recognizes mainly written evidence. The moral evidence system is also called the free evidence system. The system of moral evidence is used to prove legal facts, with the exception of birth and death. The legal proof system is used when legal acts such as contracts or wills need to be proven beyond a certain amount set by a decree.

Issues with Evidence
One of the issues relating to evidence in law is that the role of the jury is not to interpret the law itself, but to interpret the evidence in the context of a violation. Although it is one of the most common form of information used as evidence in convictions worldwide, the evidence system is biased by the influence of human psychology and memory. Visual and perceptual factors affect the way we see an event, while perceptual experiences are stored by a memory system that is constantly evolving, which degrades the objective nature of a memory.

In addition, the data collection process is not error-free. The foundation of French Civil Law is the book called "Le Code Civil". It regroups the laws relating to civil law. Napoleon Bonaparte gathered a commission in 1804 to write a civil code under his chairmanship. It was composed of four members, all eminent jurists. Today, judges therefore rely on a 200-year-old book to determine whether a person is guilty or not. If the evidence is falsified, the justice system cannot be trusted. This legislative system is one of the three powers constituting the state in a democratic system.

Introduction
Evolutionary psychology is a relatively recent area of academic study in the social and natural sciences, with its most current form having emerged in the 1980s. In tandem with cognitive psychology, it focuses on human behaviour being from learned experiences. Given its relative youth as an area of academic interest and the subject’s interrelatedness with biological study, the qualification of substantive evidence in evolutionary psychology draws on the rigorously standardized methods and conventions of evolutionary biology. Considering such a connection, an assessment of what constitutes “evidence” in evolutionary biology more generally is first required.

Evidence in Evolutionary Biology
As in many disciplines, evolutionary biology draws on many sources of primary and secondary evidence. To begin, one such primary source held in near-sanctity in evolutionary biology is the fossil record. As early as 1799, geologist William Smith identified that in undisturbed layers of rock, fossils appeared to be in a sequential order, with the most recent fossils occurring nearer the top of these layers. Such a logical conclusion also lent itself to the construction of an approximate chronology of the fossils which was later corroborated by William Lonsdale in the 1830s. Not only does evolutionary biology make use of the fossil record, but also comparative anatomy as an additional source of evidence. Despite the many varying contexts and environments in which organisms may have emerged, homologous structures between organisms can be analyzed to establish a record of evolutionary history.

Evolutionary biology looks at the relationships between different organisms through taxonomic methods, for example the creation of phylogenetic trees. The use of evidence in the construction of these trees can be applied to the discipline as a whole. When constructing a tree, biologists make use of the Occam’s razor, or the law of parsimony. This is a logical principle that the solution which makes the fewest assumptions should be chosen. Therefore, when constructing a tree, biologists make sure that they choose the tree format where least evolutionary changes have occurred (for example, that fish never evolved legs, rather than fish evolved legs and then lost them). Such an assessment of evolutionary relationships incorporates the qualitative evidence observed by researchers in evolutionary biology, but a significant amount of quantitative evidence presents itself in the discipline as well. For example, the same phylogenetic tree construction can be done without assessment of divergent physical traits (phenotypes), but instead a change in genomic frequencies to base these categorizations (genotypes).

Despite the apparent increase in accuracy by the more qualitative data provided by genome sequencing, there is a lack of clarity even here. Although mistakes based on convergent evolution are less common when genotypical evidence is used, lateral gene transfer means that similarities in genes don't necessarily mean a shared common ancestor.

Evidence in Evolutionary Psychology
In contrast to the evidence of evolutionary biology, evolutionary psychology employs many more theoretical tenets to guide research in the field and draws on the methodology of psychology to support its claims. An example of this can be taken from the the waist/hip ratio detection module which assesses human mating preferences as a function of male human preference of female human waist/hip ratios. In this specific instance, hypothesis testing would be supported by "male subjects [being] presented with drawings of women with varying waist hip ratios and ask to give their preference rankings". The methodology of evolutionary psychology places it at the intersection of both qualitative and quantitative sources of evidence. A criticism of the field in its form of data collection, or the sources from which it draws its evidence, is that overwhelmingly standard psychological experimental methods are used to test hypotheses in evolutionary psychology. Considering this, the question arises about the extent to which evolution is being tested in otherwise purely psychological hypotheses.

Evidence in Linguistics
Linguistics is a discipline which looks at the scientific analysis and comparison of both extinct and extant human language, and the nature of language as a phenomenon. Some branches of linguistics make use of multidisciplinarity, taking influence from areas including philosophy, physics, psychology and anthropology.

Gathering of Evidence
The evidence gathered in linguistics is usually qualitative, as language is by its nature hard to quantify. An exception to this may be a field researcher using a qualitative checklist, or the quantitative linguistics branch of the subject which has given rise to conclusions about linguistic frequency distributions. Additionally, there is a preference for primary evidence, via direct observation of the spoken language or of written language if it is extinct.

In linguistics there are two main sources of evidence: spoken (and signed) evidence, and written evidence (other evidence does exist however, for example brain scans in the field of neurolinguistics). Modern linguistics primarily focuses on gathering evidence from spoken sources, because spoken language appears more innate to humans as some languages haven’t developed writing systems. This is a more recent development in the history of linguistics - the early 20th Century saw a shift towards a preference for spoken evidence. Despite this, there is still validity in written sources - especially in analysis of extinct languages and in the study of writing systems. Arguably the most famous piece of evidence in linguistics is the Rosetta stone, a granodiorite stela originating from Ancient Egypt, with three translations (Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic and Ancient Greek) of the same decree engraved on its surface. The translation between the Greek script and the hieroglyphics were pivotal in modern man's understanding and deciphering of the Ancient Egyptian writing system, mainly because of the work of Jean-François Champollion.

Analysis of Evidence
Evidence in linguistics is described in a way similar to other sciences: modern linguists aim to describe the nature of a language objectively and without bias. Opposing this method is the less common prescriptive linguistics, which is usually reserved for methods of language standardisation, for example the attempt at standardisation of the Inuktitut language by Christian missionaries in the 19th and 20th Century. It should be clear through this example that this view of linguistics has fallen out of favour due to criticisms that it promotes social elitism and colonial ideas. Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure divided linguistics into two: 'Langue', or systemic aspects of language (grammar), and 'Parole', which is actual speech. The renowned philosopher and anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss concluded from his research that all words were binary oppositions: hot or cold, raw or cooked, and words were man's constructs or symbols of evidence.

The gathered evidence can be analysed in different ways depending on the branch of linguistics: 'historical linguistics' is the study of how language can change over time, 'phonetics' studies the properties of speech and the formation of sounds by humans, and 'sociolinguistics' studies language in the context of culture and society.

Uses of Evidence
There is a range of uses for linguistic evidence analysis. One of the most practical applications is in the treatment of language-based neurological disorders such as aphasia, aided by evidence gathered in the field of neurolinguistics. The discipline of applied linguistics encompasses forensic linguistics, teaching of modern foreign languages, and foreign policy. Although less practical, linguistics is very important from an anthropological perspective as it allows for the documentation of languages which are becoming extinct.

Introduction
Artistic criticism is a discipline that allows the evaluation of artworks based on their description and appreciation. This assessment is carried out by an art critic within the framework of aesthetics or the theory of beauty. The gathering of evidence within this discipline is fundamentally tainted with subjectivity as it requires an interpretative process of the primary source: the raw material of the art being criticized from which a critical judgement has to be effectuated.

Evidence in Art Criticism
Each statement made about the artwork must be supported by evidences: elements within the visual material that leads to the argument. Firstly, a rigourous and objective description must be realized based on the art without any marks of subjectivity or value judgements. This constitues the primary evidence: it is objective and must be the basis of the art critic’s analysis. Even though this task requires a pure and objective description some argues that this process still employs an analytical perception forged by the individual’s experience and socio-cultural background which will necessarily transform the artwork. There are four scales of analysis in order to deliver a informed academic critique. The description, the analysis, the interpretation and the judgement. All of these steps must be supported by evidence found inside or outside the studied artwork.

The Evaluation of Evidence within the Discipline of Art Criticism
The validity of an art critic’s evidence is altered by the subjectivity of the art critic that conducts the analysis. Yet, the study of methods, theories, law and technical information frame their perspective and helps construct the arguments. A formal analysis of the artistic use of perspective and space, for example, considering technical studies, illustrates the validity of an art critic’s critical thinking.

Introduction
Mythology and Antiquity are studies which are often explored in tandem, despite clear distinctions in approaches. Mythology tends to be regarded as ahistorical, breaking away from traditional historiography. Use of mythology as historical chronologies is questionable for two primary reasons - a lack of evidence, and narrative contradiction. There is little evidence to support the claims made in many stories that hold mythological status, such as the Founding of Rome: the first form of evidence in recognition of the story arguably comes from the 4th Century BC. On the side of narrative contradiction, the chronology of Rome's founding diverges in the founder themselves, where some claim Aeneas to be the founder of Rome, whilst others suggest Romulus. The differing narratives and the lack of sources create contradictions and confusion when trying to use the source for narrative purposes and thus detract from the sources' value. Whilst it is normal for there to be different opinions and views upon events in antiquity due to the differing circumstances that contemporary writers experienced, for there to be such a lack of consensus over the key narrative points makes the narrative value of this myth low. This concept of the mythology being an ahistorical recording has led modern historians to claim that the two studies stand as "antithetical modes of explanation".

Myths as Qualitative Evidence
However, myths introduce different forms of qualitative evidence which can be used for different historical purposes. Whilst historians don't take myths literally as a genuine narrative of events, myths provide alternative ways to understand societies at the time. They help exemplify the sentiments of contemporary societies, for example, the concept that Romulus was responsible for Remus' murder in a form of fratricide echoes the idea that Rome was destined to tear itself apart. Myths help explain society's broader sentiments: desires, fears or simply areas that lacked understanding within a society. It can be argued that mythology helps explain a different aspect of history, and that mythology is the driver of history and societies. Thus, whilst mythology holds little evidential value for narrative events, it can hold significant evidential value when it comes to understanding ancient societies.

Introduction and origins
Evidence in the world of discipline is a crucial necessity one has to provide to prove that a matter is knowledgable. In Philosophy, the quantitative evidence is based upon experiments, interpretation, state of minds and is also relative to the context. In ancient philosophy, we can distinguish to different schools of thought regarding evidence. According to the Romans, evidence was when one's reality and thought coincided. This train of thought would lead to truth, "adequatio". In this context, evidence would be the merge of fact; one thought to discover an "adequatio". The Greeks and later on, Heiddeger gave another feature to evidence which would lead them to a different truth, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aletheia#:~:text=Aletheia%20(Ancient%20Greek%3A%20%E1%BC%80%CE%BB%CE%AE%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1),truth%20or%20disclosure%20in%20philosophy.&text=Aletheia%20is%20variously%20translated%20as,also%20means%20factuality%20or%20reality. "aletheia"]. Here the evidence is the process of opening up appearances to find the truth. Already in the early days, evidence brings together varying trains of thought that all tend to demonstrate truth.

Evidence in Empiricism
Empiricism is a philosophical approach that uses experience as evidence to find the truth. Evidence will take the form of one's experience, and it can also pass through our senses, a "sensory evidence". This is what John Locke explains in his book "An Essay concerning human understanding" written in 1689. He notes that a human doesn't have any innate knowledge. The evidence that he will collect to attain a form of truth will be through his experience, which is the different interpretations he makes of his senses.

Evidence in Idealism
In idealism evidence to find the truth, one must pass by a state of "epoché" as Rene Descartes stated in his "Discourse on the Method" in 1937. Meaning that, to seek the truth, the individual must be involved in a process of doubting and questionning. This school of though diverges from Skepticism, that also emphasize the importance of doubting, as Idealism gives evidential value and credits to the individual’s intuition. As the first principles of demonstration can't be demonstrated, the only evidence will be one's intuition.

Different degrees of evidence and truths
Immanuel Kant, in his "Critique of pure Reason" in 1781 in rational approach opposite to idealism, finds that there are different types of evidence that give birth to separate categories of truth. He distinguishes one truth as an opinion which is when the subject evidence is insufficient subjectively and objectively. Then there is faith which is when the subject's evidence is inadequate objectively but sufficient subjectively. Lastly, what he calls knowledge is when one's evidence is objectively and subjectively sufficient.

Rest Assured: It's In The Evidence. Evidence in The Sciences.
To give reassurance that our judgements are correct we rely on evidence. Daily life contends that evidence should be backed up by expert scientific rigour and specialised research. In the UK, the National Health System (NHS) relies on NICE, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, for evidence based practice, NICE applies this to the treatment guidance for many different illness, disease, syndromes and therapies. Evidence is also behind government policy, education policy, and transport policy. It is apparent that evidence-based decision-making has a large impact on our daily life.

There are multiple different ways in which evidence is collected to form the basis of decision-making. These methods become interdisciplinary and with Combinatronics, which Alan Wilson applied in his 2010 book, Knowledge Power, to mean the combination of different systems working together, we can develop new solutions to problems. Applying historical knowledge from a variety of disciplines allows us to view phenomena from different perspectives, and to back up claims with evidence.

Natural Sciences
Natural Science, which looks to describe and explain the natural world, is based upon empirical evidence, or experimenting and observing natural phenomena, which is gathered via the scientific method. The scientific method has existed since the 17th Century and has become the standard for the natural sciences. Beginning with the creation of a hypothesis, an experiment is carried out to test the hypothesis in which evidence is measured under careful observation to reach a conclusion (or, analysis) in relation to the hypothesis. Modern scientific discoveries also undergo a process of peer review to make sure the results of the experiment are repeatable when followed by an external group. This methodology is so specific in an attempt to remove human bias from the results as much as possible.

Social Sciences
The social sciences, which include anthropology, human sciences, economics, human geography, law, philosophy, political science, international relations, psychology, social policy and sociology collate vast knowledge through the specialism of each discipline to give expert evidence based research.

When we look to ourselves for reassurance, 20th Century anthropologist Franz Boas believed that we refer back to our own "cultural environment" as the basis of the scale to measure others against. We cannot say one culture is superior to the other, both Boas and his renowned student Ruth Benedict both concluded that "Cultures" should be a plural noun, and all cultures should be equal to one another. Anthropologists undertake ethnography, or ethnographic studies, by immersing themselves within a community and taking detailed interviews, observations, and interpretations of what they see and are told. This gives clear evidenceof different peoples and societies and how they live, providing lessons for other cultures to learn from, as necessary. Clifford Geertz, called this "webs of significance." . As an article in The New Yorker magazine said, anthropologists are in the "struggle to prove that, despite differences of colour, gender, ability or custom, humanity is one undivided thing."

When we think we know best
Despite all of this evidence, humans do not necessarily follow the 'right' path, particularly when it is not in their interests. Under COVID, Scotland is the only country in the world that has curated data in relation to the number of cases, deaths and a breakdown of these figures. This was published in The Lancet, but went unreported in the mass media. No other country has produced this, so when the public asks the questions of the politicians, they do not have the data or evidence to justify their policies. In more recent years there has been a tendency for politicians to dismiss scientists when there is a disagreement between the parties over priorities or solutions. As US President Donald Trump said, 'People are really surprised I understand this stuff" and of his chief scientist Anthony Fauci "People are tired of hearing Fauci and all these idiots."

Introduction to Architectural Design
Architectural design is the conceptualisation and creation of buildings in response to a prompt or demand. Architecture has a long history with the first buildings being created with a balance between needs and resources, then evolving into a craft taking into account key concepts including form, space and order. The process of architectural design can be defined as finding a solution to a problem : a new space that responds to and solves issues found with or unanswered by the old. Thus the measure of architecture is how well ‘the problem’ is answered. This ‘problem’ or ‘problems’ can be both quantifiable or qualitative (for example, unsteady foundations causing deterioration in walls, or a perfectly usable space remaining unused because it does not fulfill any particular need).

Evidence-based design works to avoid these problems before they happen. Based on the methodology of evidence-based medicine, it uses predetermined processes to create designs.

External Responses
Architecture is not an isolated subject, it is intrinsically linked to its surroundings, whether culturally, socio-politically, environmentally, etc.

In some architectural problems, the solution’s success may depend on its environmental cost. The life-cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) is a practice to quantify the cradle-to-cradle (or cradle-to-grave) environmental, social and economic cost of a building. The LCSA developed with a need to broaden and deepen the scope of assessment from the earlier life-cycle assessment (LCA) which focused solely on environmental cost. There are four stages to LCSA standardised under the ISO : This is to establish why the study is being undertaken, what will it be applied to, and who it is for. It establishes the ‘functional unit’ which is a ‘quantitative measure of the functions that the goods (or service) provide’. This quantifies the direct cost of all inputs and outputs of resources in relation to the functional unit. It also can include the indirect costs, called the ‘consequential LCA’. The LCI includes data collection. This is the realisation of data from the LCI and seeing how the cost has manifested and to what extent. Within this stage, the LCI and LCIA are synthesised and through the framework established in the first stage, used as a stepping stone for decisions and conclusions.
 * Goal and Scope Definition:
 * Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI):
 * Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA):
 * Interpretation:

Internal Response
According to Frank Lloyd Wright, a key concept in architecture is user response to a design, how people feel and interact with a space: “All fine architectural values are human values, else not valuable.” Biological user response can be measured quantitatively through the monitoring of physical response (like brain activity, skin conductance and heart rate ), often in a virtual experience. This has been used to measure response to colour, light , and spacial proportions. Qualitative research methods are also used in architectural feedback for descriptive analysis, such as surveys, case studies, and performance tests.

Meta-analysis
Meta analysis is the process of synthesizing results from multiple research studies that ask the same question. It has been used in architecture to draw more holistic conclusions intra- and interdiscipline.


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Evidence

This is the sandbox page for the issue: Evidence.

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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Mathematics

Though the start of its acknowledgement as a discipline is up for debate, use of mathematics can be traced back as early as 70,000BC, when geometric patterns were scratched into ochre rocks in the Blombos Cave, South Africa. However, mathematics began as a discipline much later. In the 1850s, ancient Babylonian clay tablets were discovered, some of which appeared to be inscribed with graded mathematics homework. Furthermore, the modern-day system of 60 seconds in a minute and 360 degrees in a circle was also developed by the Babylonians. This apparent student-teacher relationship, along with the long-lasting influences of Babylonian mathematical studies would suggest that the Babylonian civilization had established mathematics as a discipline in the Middle East around 2000 BC, long before the same occurred in Europe.

In Greece, the Pythagoreans named mathematics “mathema”, meaning “subject of instruction”, in the 6th century BC. The naming of the subject solidified its position as a formal discipline, which has been studied and further developed by countless subsequent civilisations.

In his three-volume work the Principia, published in 1687, Isaac Newton used calculus to solve many problems, including planetary motion, and the oblateness of the Earth. This is an example of how the discipline of mathematics has changed over the centuries. As it continues to develop, mathematics can be used to solve increasingly complex problems, and with the development of other disciplines such as physics and technology, it is now used in a variety of fields, such as quantum mechanics; a relatively new field which began being studied in the 19th century.

In fact, it is this adaptation to modern interests and needs which dictates how the discipline of mathematics advances. While in Babylonia mathematics was needed to describe something as fundamentally important but relatively simple as time, in the 21st century, it is used to optimize the aerospace and automotive industries, and other such applications that are relevant to today’s society.


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User talk:Undercoverfrench

Hi Undercoverfrench, I read your contribution and I don't really understand exactly what 'discipline' you are writing about. If you could help me understand I would be willing to do a little bit more research about exactly what discipline results from the association of Data Science and Human Rights. Did you mean the study of Data Science with consideration of Human Rights so as not to breach any of them? Or something else? Thanks for letting me know!AurelieJane (discuss • contribs) 12:04, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

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User talk:2604:6000:150F:489F:58DF:CFC1:6B6:1E51

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User talk:HMaloigne/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 15/History

Should we integrate the references page into one rather than having two separate sections? Frenchfries124 (discuss • contribs) 12:43, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Are we meant to keep them separate because they're separate topics? maybe easier for readers/ contributors. Sunnday (discuss • contribs) 09:24, 21 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Most Wikipedia pages don't have a separate references section. What does everyone else think?80.192.145.85 (discuss) 11:06, 21 October 2020 (UTC)
 * I think the past work posted on moodle had separate references for each section in one of the sandboxes, so maybe its an individual choice, but since the sections all vary a lot I think it would make more sense to keep them separate Freeshsalmon (discuss • contribs)


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User talk:116.206.221.111

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You cannot edit for 3 days due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 13:10, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

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Transwiki:Klaus-Dieter Flick

Klaus-Dieter Flick (* 1937 in Germany) is a German lawyer and wealthy former financial broker as well as militaria collector and dealer from Kitzeberg, a villa suburb of Heikendorf on the Kiel Fjord. Flick became internationally known in 2015 through the affair surrounding the Wehrmacht tank set up in a hall of honor in his underground Fallout shelter. Newspaper reports about the affair went around the world and were among other things published in the ‘‘New York Times‘‘, ‘‘Washington Post‘‘ , in ‘‘Le Monde‘‘  and ‘‘The Guardian‘‘ (London).

Search for Nazi art

The 'panzer affair' was sparked by the search for two larger-than-life NS bronze statues, the “Striding Horses”, which until 1945 flanked the entrance stairs on the garden front of Adolf Hitler's Reich Chancellery in Berlin. The horses were created by the National Socialist sculptor Josef Thorak for the New Reich Chancellery in 1939. After the end of the war and the demolition of the Reich Chancellery in 1947-48, the sculptures were stored for decades on the Soviet base in Eberswalde near Berlin. After that they were considered lost. It was not until 2015 that 'Hitler's horses' caught the attention of investigators from the Rhineland-Palatinate State Criminal Police Office (LKA) because they were apparently offered for sale. According to estimates, they would have brought in up to 8 million euros on the black market, the material value of the bronze horses, which weighed tons, was estimated at a six-figure amount. . The LKA, supported by the Dutch art detective Arthur Brandt, soon found what it was looking for. The sculptures were confiscated from an entrepreneur from Bad Dürkheim. Before that, according to statements by K.D. Flick, the sculptures spent two years in his garden, where they were also widely visible to the public. .

In addition to the horse sculptures and Wehrmacht weapons, the search was apparently also about other Nazi art, e.g. a Nazi statue with the title ‘‘Die Wehrmacht‘‘ (sword bearer) by Arno Breker. It originally stood at the central main portal in the courtyard of the Reich Chancellery. Such a statue is still in the garden of the Flick Villa today. According to Flick's lawyer Peter Gramsch, however this is a copy. .

The Panzer Affair

After the horse sculptures were confiscated by the police in Bad Dürkheim, the public prosecutor continued to search for stolen goods and the receiver who might have been involved in the sale of Nazi art. She came across K.D. Flick, who, however, denied participation in the sale. During the search of his property, the police found an underground nuclear shelter, which was built during the Cold War and equipped with Nazi insignia, in addition to a two-meter-wide and five-meter-long, 43-tonne Panther tank, beside en entire arsenal: an 8.8-centimeter anti-aircraft gun, a Ttorpedo, a mortar, Machine guns and assault rifles, semi-automatic and fully automatic pistols and about 1,000 rounds of ammunition.

The Kiel public prosecutor's office has been investigating the case of the now (2020) 83-year-old owner of the tank since 2017. According to media reports, it charged him with violation of the War Weapons Control Act and firearms law. . The 'Panther' was removed in May 2015 in a complex, two-day recovery campaign with the help of a army tank-wrecker, confiscated and brought to the Putlos military training area to examine it whether the alleged demilitarization had actually taken place. The accused stated that he had properly registered all weapons. According to a certificate from the district of Plön, dated October 31, 2005, the tank also allegedly lost its "war weapon status". The senior public prosecutor Birgit Heß, who was responsible at the time, stated however, that the public prosecutor did not know of a permit that would entitle the man to possession of the confiscated objects. ..

In this context, the public prosecutor's office also investigated allegations according to which the tank owner worked closely with agencies or members of the Bundeswehr during the restoration of the 'Panther'. In 2015, the Ministry of Defense confirmed that German army experts had renovated the tank from Mr. Flick with the help of the ‚Wehrtechnischen Dienststelle‘ (Defense technical department, WID 41) in Trier, the tank museum in Munster, and the Wehrtechnischen Studiensammlung (Defense engineering study collection, WTS) of the German army in Koblenz. The owner from [Heikendorf duly paid € 28,317 for these support services. Irrespective of this, an employee of the Marine Arsenal, Kiel, is said to have been seconded for three years in the 1970s - decades before the affair surrounding the restoration of the 'Panther' tank in 2015 - to deal with a rusty tank engine (probably for a 'Tiger' tank), salvaged from the dunes in Flanders, to be restore on behalf of K.D. Flick in the naval arsenal in Kiel. In the course of the investigation it turned out that it was an open secret for citizens as well as the authorities of Heikendorf that Flick had been in possession of divers tanks and other weapon systems of the Wehrmacht for decades. In a NDR-TV documentary from 1985, the 'Panther' that has now been removed, is to be seen driving on its own chains into the bunker.

In the previous decades, K.D. Flick apparently possessed even more tanks. Among other things, he personally drove a Wehrmacht tank with which he helped to clear the streets of Kitzeberg (wealthy township of Heikendorf) for emergency operations during the 1978/79 snow disaster in Kitzeberg. He probably also provided neighbourhood help when he pulled tree stumps out of the earth with his tank. He was therefore respected in his neighbourhood. On the other hand, according to statements by a local resident, apparently neo-Nazis with a swastika tattoo on their necks picked up a load of torpedoes, without this appearing to neither the authorities nor local residents to be questionable. In the 1970s, according to contemporary witnesses, tanks were periodically driven out of Flick's underground bunker to prevent the engines from rusting; the roar of the engines is said to have been heard from afar. At the entrance gate of the property the sign "German Protectorates" (German: Schutzgebiete) as well as the German Imperial flag waving on the flagpole were to be seen at least until 2015. The property is also secured by surveillance cameras and a concrete wall with barbed wire fencing on the see-side. Because of its large size, the latter has been a popular projection surface for political slogans by activists. In the 1970s it was written here in letters tall as a man, so that it could be read even by passenger ferries and cruise ships passing by: "This concentration camp belongs entirely to me (in Vernacular)", today it says: "Climate Justice".

In view of the significant involvement of the Flick empire under the leadership of Friedrich Flick in the expansion of the Nazi armaments industry during World War II, from which the Düsseldorf Flick Group emerged as the largest family-owned group of companies in Germany until 1985, with products ranging from tanks to bathtubs, the liking for Wehrmacht tanks by KD Flick, who incidentally is not supposed to be related to the Friedrich Flick family, may seem understandable.

The trial in the 2015 Panzer affair at the Kiel Regional Court was delayed further and further because the criminal chamber is overloaded and there are still questions to be clarified. It should now begin in autumn 2020.

Literature

 * Sandra Dassler: Nazi-Kunst aus der Reichskanzlei – Rechtsstreit um Hitlers Bronzepferde. In: Der Tagesspiegel. 14. Dezember 2015 (tagesspiegel.de).
 * Roman Deininger, Friederike Zoe Grasshoff: Panzer im Keller – Schützenfest. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. 3. Juli 2015 (sueddeutsche.de).
 * Eckard Gehm: Nach Razzia in Heikendorf bei Kiel – Panzer in Villa: Bundeswehr half bei Instandsetzung. In: Kieler Nachrichten. 22. Juli 2015 (shz.de).
 * Sven Felix Kellerhoff: Zweiter Weltkrieg – Braune Kunst – Polizei findet Hitlers verschwundene Bronze-Pferde. In: Die Welt. 20. Mai 2015 (welt.de).
 * Justin Wm. Moyer, Lindsey Bever: Mystery of Hitler’s missing horse statues solved. The Washington Post, 21. Mai 2015 (washingtonpost.com).
 * RND/dpa (2020): Heikendorf: Prozess gegen Panzer-Sammler nicht vor Herbst. In: Kieler Nachrichten. 6. August 2020 (kn-online.de).
 * Alison Smale, Jesse Coburn: Sleuth Work Leads to Discovery of Art Beloved by Hitler. In: The New York Times. 25. Juni 2015 (nytimes.com).
 * Paul Wagner, Günter Schellhase: Polizei ermittelt gegen Kunstsammler – Hitlers Bronzepferde standen in Heikendorf. In: Kieler Nachrichten 24. Mai 2015 (kn-online.de).

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Transwiki talk:Klaus-Dieter Flick

Frankly speaking, I did not intend to publish this article under "WIKIbooks" but under https://en.wikipedia.org Unfortunately, I am not experienced enough to move it to that page. Perhaps some more experienced admin could help me? --Dirk-Franz (discuss • contribs) 13:13, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi Welcome to Wikibooks! Yes, unfortunately, your page does not fit What is Wikibooks?. Encyclopedic articles are suppose to be at our sister project, en.wikipedia.org. In response to your comment, I've restored your page so that you're able to save your page and publish "Klaus-Dieter Flick" at en.wikipedia.org through this link. Thank you and good luck. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 13:26, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * I've moved the page you've created into your user space to avoid deletion. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 13:36, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks a lot, Atcovi! My problem is, I do not know how to move the page to en.wikipedia. It is not listed in the options. Therefore, I tried "Transwiki", but apparently that was not the right slot again. Could you help me, to move the article to the right place? Dirk-Franz (discuss • contribs) 18:08, 5 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Transwiki talk:Klaus-Dieter Flick


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/ History of Linguistics

Linguistics in the Ancient World
One of the first records of descriptive linguistics, the systematic study of the grammar of a language, is the treatise on Sanskrit grammar written by the Indian scholar Panini in 600 BC. Back then, the study of language had the purpose of properly preserving religious texts, especially the Vedic hymns. Language was also studied in ancient Greece, though usually in the context of rhetoric and philosophy, e.g. Plato explored the nature of language in his work Cratylus. The preservation of Greek was the reason for which the Alexandrians further investigated the Greek grammar around 100 BC. There, Dionysus Thrax wrote his The Art of Grammar, which explains parts of Greek grammar. The Romans continued using descriptive linguistics to preserve their language following the Greek tradition. When it came to analysing texts, the Greeks and Romans confined themselves to literary texts and not everyday speech. In the 17th century, there was a change in this attitude: Descriptive linguists from Port-Royal wanted to explore the idea of universal grammar, a theory suggesting that there are universal grammatical relations that apply to all human languages, and they argued that grammar should follow the rules of spoken language.

The Rediscovery of Sanskrit
A paradigm shift in the study of language occurred in 1786, when Sir William Jones started comparing Sanskrit with many European languages : It was found that there are many similarities among European, Indian and Persian languages. A new theory of a proto-language, Proto-Indo-European, from which many current languages stem, was formed. Thus, linguistics went from only analysing particular languages to comparing different languages. This went hand in hand with developing universal linguistic techniques for analysing many languages instead of having language-specific systems of descriptive linguistics.

Structural Linguistics
In the 1920s, the field of structural linguistics emerged, with Ferdinand de Saussure as its founder, which focused on the underlying structures within languages instead of only considering individual linguistic elements. As a result, the structures of languages were much better understood and it became apparent that all languages have very similar underlying structures. From this, Noam Chomsky’s claim that the human brain is built in a way that only allows certain grammatical structures arose, which is one of the most controversial topics in modern linguistics. This claim is the basis for the theory of generative and transformational grammar, which echoes the claim of the linguists from Port-Royal that there are universal grammatical rules from which all languages are derived.

Recent Developments
Linguistics has been strongly influenced by developments in other disciplines and vice versa. Linguistics had a significant impact on the development of effective programming languages, e.g. Noam Chomsky’s work on the rules of natural languages was applied to programming languages. Thus, not only human languages are being analyzed now but the knowledge of the structure of human languages is being applied to artificial languages. The advances in computer technology have allowed for the field of computational linguistics to form. It is concerned with giving computers the ability to process human language and interact with it. Natural language processing is one method used in this subfield of linguistics. Moreover, developments in neuroscience are allowing linguists to see how language is connected with neurological processes in a field called neurolinguistics. Hence, linguistic methods are expanding beyond analysing languages and into the study of how language is generated in the brain using neuroscientific methods.


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User:June1965parias/sandbox

Origins
The birth of street art or urban art is very difficult to place in a defined temporal space. This discipline includes very diverse and interdisciplinary forms of artistic expression such as: graffiti, streets installations, prints and mural paintings. One could argue that the very first artistic expression in an urban context can be found in Vienna at the beginning of the 19th century. The author of these inscriptions was Joseph Kyselak, who used the city’ walls as an artistic medium: he wrote his name throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This culture of using urban infrastructures as canvas also manifests itself in other ways throughout the 19th century, when the writer Jack London sees types of inscriptions, drawings and other types on trains in 1890. It will be confirmed later that these comes from "hobos" that marked their surnames sometimes embellished with ornaments and / or poetry. During World War II, visual urban culture continued to spread through a graffiti called 'Kilroy Was Here'. It was an inscription and a doodle that were drawn and carved on walls by soldier assigned in different areas. This practice became increasingly popular in New York especially among gangs in the 20s and 30s. Trains, cars, walls: everything becomes subject to artistic expression.

A Turning Point: The 1970s and 1980s.
It wasn't until 1970-80 that street art took a completely different turn due to the socio-political context and the reactions it aroused. It was then that street art and its revolutionary character became exponentially rooted in culture. Only then, street art and its revolutionary character became exponentially rooted in the culture. The desire to challenge power and authority, which constitutes one of the very principle of street art, then coordinates perfectly with the states of mind of the 70s and 80s.

Introduction
Artistic criticism is a discipline that allows the evaluation of artworks based on their description and appreciation. This assessment is carried out by an art critic within the framework of aesthetics or the theory of beauty. The gathering of evidence within this discipline is fundamentally tainted with subjectivity as it requires an interpretative process of the primary source: the raw material of the art being criticized from which a critical judgement has to be effectuated.

Evidence in art criticism
Each statement made about the artwork must be supported by evidences: elements within the visual material that leads to the argument. Firstly, a rigourous and objective description must be realized based on the art without any marks of subjectivity or value judgements. This constitues the primary evidence: it is objective and must be the basis of the art critic’s analysis. Even though this task requires a pure and objective description some argues that this process still employs an analytical perception forged by the individual’s experience and socio-cultural background which will necessarily transform the artwork.. There are four scales of analysis in order to deliver a conform academic critic. The description, the analysis, the interpretation and the judgement. All of these steps must be supported by evidence found inside or outside the studied artwork. .

The evaluation of Evidence
The validity of an art critic’s evidences is altered by the subjectivity of the art critic that conducts the analysis of his studies. Yet, the study of methods, theories, law and technical informations frame their perspective and helps construct the arguments. A formal analysis of the artistic use of perpective and space based, for exemple, based upon technical studies ensure the validity of an art critic’s critical thinking. .

Examining Truth in Anthropologist’s Methodology
Social anthropology is an academic discipline in which the examination of one’s society’s characteristics is performed. The concept of truth within this discipline lies in the methods employed for conducting research and producing knowledge: conducting fieldwork, ethnography, data gatherings and analysis. Some would argue that analyzing and recounting one’s social and cultural context would systematically be partial and biased. The produced knowledge is shaped by the perception of the anthropologist, his experience, his own socio-cultural background and his interest. Upon these terms, the collected objective truths of an anthropologist is automatically tainted with his own social conditions. Some would argue that to get closer to an objective form of truth, the anthropologist must “practice”. He must perform ethnographic work, which includes fieldwork, participant observation and gathering insights, as a research method to fully grasp and micro the reality of one’s subjective experience. This immersion in one’s culture would put an emphasize on the other’s culture and allow the study conductor to enter the studied culture in a realistic way. Although, once again some would claim that the worker’s positionnality automatically creates strong gaps between his perception of reality and the reality, the objective, neutral representation of a society and its culture. One school of thought promote the idea that objectivity within the field of anthropology is a crucial element for the production of a form of truth. However, one can postulate that the simple fact of verbally recounting, using words and phrases leads to the loss of objectivity. Yet the dilemma of truth and objectivity within anthropology, is one that is inevitable for a lot of anthropologists as this discipline studies social relations. Thus, by its own nature it involves a knowledge that is constructed upon intersubjectivity.

Power of identity
Fashion is by its own nature, intrinsically tied to the identity of the individual. Clothes detains a certain power: one that is of resistance, defiance, strength. It helps in the assertion of one’s identity, membership to a cause, or beliefs. Some argues that a person's choice of clothing is an important factor in how the world perceives him or her. The power that one affirms at first sight is often linked to one's self-esteem and daring choices of clothing would help in the build up of this self-esteem. One historical evidence of the power fashion displays, can be found within the traditional Indian clothing: the Khadi. Indeed, according to Emma McCledon, this clothing proclaimed a significant political statement promoting the Indian autonomy from the British influence. Thus, revealing itself as a symbol of power and conviction.

Fashion as a soft power
Fashion is a tool of great influence for a nation too. Its soft power constitutes a motif of interest for foriegners. Indeed, according to the British Council, “22% of young people in countries that are strategically important to the UK cited fashion as being something that made the UK attractive to them”. This data underscores the real importance of Fashion in broader terms than just identitary but as being crucial fro political interest. The fashion one choses to follow and adhere to, helps them formulate a statement. Feminism is a great exemple of how fashion manifests itself as a  political tool. Suffragetts used it as a symbolic emblem to manifest their ideas and convinction to empower women. Their choice of adhering to a rather masculine fashion ( for their generation ) revealed their willingness to chellegne the society’s traditional scheme.

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User:Majb324/sandbox

The history of Material Culture
Analysing objects is not a recent way to understand other communities, as it has always been implied in the ethnographic work. However, its consideration as a discipline may only be dated from the late 1990’s with the creation of the Journal of Material Culture in 1996 firstly edited by members of the UCL department of Anthropology. Here it points out that academicians started to share about their conception of material culture and thus it evidences its beginning as a proper discipline.

At first, in anthropological researches, material culture studies’ aim was to prove the ‘modernism’ of western culture through the comparison between their evolved objects and ‘primary’ objects of the non-western ones: European culture is showed as superior. Thus, due to colonialism the supremacy of Western assumptions exists, which also lead to a ‘masculine’ hierarchy of senses placing the visual sense at the top of the scale. This traditional ‘ocular centrism’s mode of analysis has been questioned from the assertion of non-Western cultures thanks to decolonization and the emergence of material culture studies as a peculiar discipline. The development of material culture studies allows to not discriminate any culture, ethne by criticizing a single approach of objects. The social change with those new pluricultural communities, lead to increasingly challenge the foundational way of interacting with objects especially in museums where only the Sight is engaged. Although each culture has its own sensory model, only the Western model was considered relevant, which showed again the desire to distinguish European culture from others. Material culture studies as a discipline want to teach people in a crossed senses’ manner how to apprehend objects coming from different societies, “not only to see objects but to sense objects” as said in Sensible Objects Colonialism, Museums and Material Culture.

Thereby material culture studies will keep changing, challenging its traditional ways of analysis based on colonialism history. The question of changing the only visual approach of artefacts exhibited in museums is complexed, since the physical preservation aspect has to be raised.

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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Economics

=History of Economics=

Founding of economics as a discipline
Works on economics can be traced back to early human civilization, as far as to the ancient Greek and Middle East periods. The Greek poet Hesiod worked on the concept of scarcity in his poems as early as in mid 8th century BC, and is referred by some in the discipline as “the first economist”. However, the founding of economics as a discipline itself is widely recognized as marked by the publication of Adam Smith’s An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations in 1776. The book introduced the idea of labour, capital and land as the cornerstones of contemporary economic studies, and was said to move the studies of economics out from the discipline of philosophy and as an independent discipline.

Key moments of change in economics
The theory brought forward by Adam Smith in the mid-late 17th century that marked the beginning of economics as a discipline is known as classical economics or classical political economy. This school of thought, promoting a laissez-faire form of market, was further developed by a group of British economists such as Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill from the late 17th century to the mid 18th century.

A key moment of change occurs in the year 1867, when the German economist Karl Marx published the first volume of Das Capital, a critique on how the role of capital in classical economics is exploiting labour. The work shifts the approach of the economic discipline to a more critical direction, and also brought the concept of morality into the centre of the discipline. and the school of thought that follows is known as Marxian economics.

At the same time in the late 19th century, different schools of thoughts under the tenet of neoclassical economics started to develop in Europe and America. The term was coined by American economist Thorstein Veblen in 1900. It based its thoughts on the laissez-faire principles of classical economics, but shifts the focus to analysing goods, income, and output. It is also when the famous supply and demand model, consumer choice model and firms and production models were introduced and refined. Along with Keynesian economics, it dominated the discipline in the second half of the 20th century, and shaped the micro-macro distinction in economics studies that are still followed today.

Schools of thoughts in economics flourished throughout the 20th century under the core assumptions of neoclassical and Keynesian economics, bringing forward key ideas such as game theory, positive/normative analysis, globalization etc.. In 2008, the global financial crisis further diversified the different school of thoughts in the discipline of economics, after mainstream economists failed to predict the crisis. It shifts the focus of the discipline to the study of global financial market and its volatility in the digital era, and how fintech can change global economic dynamics.

Intersection of economics and demography
In 1798, Reverend Thomas Malthus first developed the field of demographic or population economics, which applies economic principles such as microeconomic or macroeconomic theories to the discipline of demography - known as the statistical study of populations. Demographic economics entails the study of how socioeconomic factors affect the cause and consequences of demographic change. These factors may include: fertility, urbanisation, mortality, age, gender, ethnicity, marriage, divorce and population growth.


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User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox

The work on "History of Disciplines: Emergence of Economics and the Reemergence of Political Economy" is very interesting to read and it is well written. I would just like to point out that references for the information in the introduction are missing.OwlUwl (discuss • contribs) 17:40, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Under the headline "History of Disciplines: Pharmacology and one of its Subdisciplines" there was a part of the first paragraph that I found very engaging. The part was: "Although he presented his work to the Paris Academy in 1809, the actual emergence of pharmacology as a separate scientific discipline was not until 1847, when its first university position was established with the appointment of Rudolf Buchheim as professor of pharmacology at the University of Dorpat in Estonia.", I would love the author to motivate what caused the discipline not to be considered a discipline although scientific work in it was presented to an academic institution. OwlUwl (discuss • contribs) 17:40, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

The contribution on "History of Disciplines: The Emergence and Derision of Herbalism" is also very interesting. I am only wondering about the source of the definiton of a discipline as mentioned in the following quote: "The word discipline is defined as "a branch of knowledge, typically one studied in higher education". OwlUwl (discuss • contribs) 18:00, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

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User talk:TimRJordan/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 3/History

Suggestion for "History of Law as a discipline"
I have a suggestion for the following section: "Around the 18th century, when a wave of criticism was born against the legal education as law-based schools were created, some new ideas emerged.[56] Some, like Sir William Blackstone, tried to make things evolve but no significant change was noticed before the 19th century.[57]". I believe you could elaborate more on those new ideas that emerged. Also, you may want to clarify how exactly Sir William Blackstone tried to "make things evolve". --Eagle1020 (discuss • contribs) 14:42, 21 October 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for History of Law
When reading your intro and the sentence "It is a highly interdisciplinary discipline as it sets the rules of our societies and therefore has always existed." I though that those two ideas were not necessarily connected and two different things. I think you should maybe make it two separate sentences. One explaining how it is interdisciplinary (very quickly it's just your intro) and another explaining how law is at the center of our society since basically for ever.

Suggestion on the structure of the Computer Science article
Hi! I have suggestion for the structure of the Computer Science article. If you add a headline for the first part such as "The Birth of Computer Science", I think it would make your article more clear. --Saucesoja (discuss • contribs) 18:35, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Oh that's a great idea, thank you! --PerpetualMisfit (discuss • contribs) 14:37, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for the History of Animal Magnetism
Hey! I have some suggestions for the content. Could you briefly explain what are the basic practices (methodologies) in animal magnetism? I'm kind of confused by how it was thought to work as a medicine. Also, could you translate the French titles in paragraph 3 into English? Thanks! --PepperOud (discuss • contribs) 22:14, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Hi, I'm not the author of this article so am not really able to explain it more than this article does but I've translated (approximately) the titles in paragraph 3, hope that helps! Chopsticks21 (discuss • contribs) 19:20, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! Some examples of practices, which resembled hypnosis, were putting people in stages of "trance" through a lot of physical contact, or the use of ropes or metal wires connecting every participant, sat in a large wooden container or basin. As the "animator" would touch with a metal wand the sick body parts, people would reportedly break into hysterical laughter, or have convulsions... --Fantomasque (discuss • contribs) 16:11, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for additions to the history of Computer Science
Hi! It might be useful to look into Alan Turing's paper 'On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem' that he published in 1936, before his time at Bletchley Park. It develops his theoretical 'computing machines' and is recognised as an important reference point for the beginnings of Computer Science within Mathematics. -- Ridumdepiro (discuss • contribs) 09:07, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Thanks! I wanted to focus on the history of ethics in the computer science discipline so I didn't elaborate much on computer science itself, but I think the development of computer science within other disciplines is really interesting so I'll probably research about it and add it on later. -- PerpetualMisfit (discuss • contribs) 14:37, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Ah that makes sense, I found the section on Ethics really interesting! Ridumdepiro (discuss • contribs) 18:49, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Glad to hear that! I've added a part on Turing's paper 'On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem', if you're interested. Let me know what you think! PerpetualMisfit (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

It looks great! Ridumdepiro (discuss • contribs) 14:24, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion on the syntax of the Museology article
Hey! After reading your article I thought that the second paragraph could be clearer if you began by talking of the word "museum" and then chronologically present your different examples. For instance: ''The term "museum", "museion" in greek "the seat of the Muses", emerged during the Classical Period. However, the human being has a longer history of collecting objects in the purpose of inquiry and acquisition.'' And then maybe you could reformulate your sentence about the Great Museum of Alexandria to be clearer like However, its function was to provide support to scholars to engage in their studies as a philosophical institute. Hope you like these suggestions!

Thank you! I've made changes to the syntax. --PepperOud (discuss • contribs) 16:33, 21 October 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion on the Neurosciences article
Hey, your article seemed pretty clear to me and very well written, but I was thinking maybe you could add that the term "neurosciences" only appeared in 1960, which really emphasizes your point about how slow the study of this discipline was. This chapter from Neurosciences et société: Enjeux des savoirs et pratiques sur le cerveau (by Abi-Rached, JM and N Rose. (2014) Edited by Moutaud B. and Chamak B.51-77, Paris: Armand Collin) talks about it. I only found it in French, available from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jabirached/files/abirached_rose_chap2_-_moutaud_chamak.pdf.

 * Hello, thank you for this helpful contribution! I have added it to my sandbox and I also read the chapter, which contained some very interesting elements. Saucesoja (discuss • contribs) 09:51, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

Collaboration on Neuroscience article
Hey! Just to let you know I've been working on an addition to the History of Neuroscience article, mostly to highlight the interdisciplinarity in Neuroscience both from a historical aspect by providing more detail on how the Society for Neuroscience was created and how it aimed for interdisciplinarity, as well as through some more detail about new emerging disciplines. --TheStarryLamppost (discuss • contribs) 11:40, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Standardising titles and citations
Hi all, would it be better to standardise the titles and citations to match the Wikipedia format? For subtitles it would be "Ethics in the computer science discipline" instead of "Ethics in the Computer Science Discipline" etc. Or if you would like to do it the second way that would work too as long as we standardize! We can discuss this below.

Also, for citations, a useful trick I learnt was to edit from the Wikipedia sandbox instead of the Wikibooks one as it enables you to create citations from the editor. Your Wikipedia sandbox can be found at this link: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:(your_username)/sandbox&action=edit&redlink=1&preload=Template%3AUser+sandbox%2Fpreload

From there I would then copy and paste the text and references to the Wikibooks page. Hope it helps! --PerpetualMisfit (discuss • contribs) 15:06, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for History of feminism
While reading you work, I thought it was very good and complete but I was wondering why not add a section for today? or maybe the last 5 years? Feminism as a discipline boomed in the last few years and more and more universities and school are teaching it every year. Maybe showing how the number of undergraduate or graduate programs about gender studies/feminism has grown in the world could be interesting.

That's a good idea, thanks! Chopsticks21 (discuss • contribs) 10:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

Suggestions for History of Economics
I added a few citations on definitions and individuals that I wasn't certain of or thought would be helpful. I wondered if maybe explaining why Marx, Malthus and Keynes had opposing views to Smith might be useful - going into their individual economic ideas. It was a really interesting read!!

Sugarfreejazz1 (discuss • contribs) 15:18, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for 'The History of Computer Art as a sub-discipline'
Hi - this is an area I am interested in and I really enjoyed reading your piece. I would suggest you use a more formal/encyclopaedic tone for your writing - in particular, removing the rhetorical questions. Also, if possible you could add a source to support your statement that there is an academic debate surrounding the emergence of computer art as a sub-discipline. HotelBudapest (discuss • contribs) 13:49, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Thank you for your advice! I've edited my tone accordingly. Regarding my statement that there is an academic debate surrounding the emergence of Computer Art as a sub-discipline, I believe that there are academic debates surrounding the emergence of any discipline. It is easy to find examples of works within a discipline in History but determining the exact point in time when a discipline was formed is a complex question that could have different answers depending on which markers of a discipline are taken into account. For example, Beowulf is an example of English Literature but it doesn't indicate the beginning of English Literature as a discipline because Beowulf doesn't show the methodology of the discipline (how to write English Literature). Also, at the time when Beowulf was written, there was no teaching of English Literature and there was no teacher-student relationship. Some people may argue that a discipline forms when there are teachers to teach it. But even if there are professors to teach the discipline at universities, if students can't take a degree in it, is it still considered a discipline? I hope my explanation makes sense. Eagle1020 (discuss • contribs) 14:44, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi - thanks for replying to me so quickly! In regards to when a discipline actually forms, I suppose there is no definitive answer but I think its best to just mention a few key steps (eg, when professors for that certain discipline are brought into universities) that were taken towards the formation of the discipline to give the reader a bit of background.HotelBudapest (discuss • contribs) 16:56, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for the "History of History as a Discipline" article
Hello, I was thinking you could open up to the discipline of history today, to have all the chronology. You could say that history is today an institutionalised discipline, that is taught in schools and universities, and the profession of historians. This paper from Cambridge University press gives interesting insight: https://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/21594/excerpt/9781107021594_excerpt.pdf Saucesoja (discuss • contribs) 14:59, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for the History of Feminism and Feminist Literature as sub-disciplines
Firstly, I found your article very clear and precise, you go through all the steps of the birth of feminism and the importance it is taking today. I just thought it would be interesting to finish with a paragraph on the uneven rise of feminism between developed countries and countries, usually in development or rules by religion. On one hand, we have countries like the USA, which just elected a female vice president or Germany, Taiwan, New Zealand, Iceland, Bangladesh, Estonia, Croatia, and more which are countries ruled by women. And on the other hand, we have countries who seem stuck in history, such as Saudi Arabia where women just got the right to drive (2018) but cannot go out without the authorization of their spouse, nor have a legal existence without a male tutor (husband or father usually) for example.


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User talk:SteRos7/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar 2/History

Talk
General

Does anyone have ideas on how to order the page as a whole, perhaps going from more related to hard sciences to humanities or vice versa? Or at least grouping sections talking about similar subject areas together? --Oliveoilandgarlic (discuss • contribs) 19:46, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Some time ago I corrected our overall structure. Do you think we should make one "Nores/References" section instead of a few separate ones? It seems like that was used in the past years. Answering your question, we could start from "hard sciences" and end up with "the history of history".
 * --Grammaloretoo (discuss • contribs) 11:37, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

 * An idea for the order of the topics

 * History of Physics: The Conflict between Science and Religion
 * History of Artificial Intelligence as a discipline
 * Influences of Philosophy and Scientific Theory on Psychology through the 19th and 20th centuries
 * History of Disciplines : Emergence of Criminology
 * History of Disciplines: The Conflict Between Law and Psychology
 * The History of Sociology
 * History of Disciplines: Evolution of Gender and Women’s Studies
 * History of International Relations
 * Formation of history as a discipline

 * What do you think about this order?

 * --Grammaloretoo (discuss • contribs) 11:36, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I think that order is good, does anyone else want to weigh in before we make the change?

 * As for the references all being in one section, although that would be neater for the overall look of the page, however, it might make marking it more difficult. Maybe we should ask Stefano before doing that. --Oliveoilandgarlic (discuss • contribs) 13:40, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Rivised order to account for new articles?

 * 1	History of Physics: The Conflict between Science and Religion
 * 2	History of Artificial Intelligence as a discipline
 * 3	Influences of Philosophy and Scientific Theory on Psychology through the 19th and 20th centuries
 * 4	History of Disciplines : Emergence of Criminology
 * 5	History of Disciplines: The Conflict Between Law and Psychology
 * 6	History of Disciplines: Evolution of Gender and Women’s Studies
 * 7	The History of Sociology
 * 8	History of International Relations
 * 9	History of peace and conflicts study - Counterterrorism
 * 10	Formation of History as a Discipline

 * I am going to impliment it, but if anyone objects comment or just change it. --Oliveoilandgarlic (discuss • contribs) 13:24, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

Hi I'm a bit late as I didn't have access till this week but I'm writing my section on the History of Mathematics so would that slot in somewhere near the beginning? Don't know if it's considered more or less of a hard science that physicsApricotptr (discuss • contribs) 17:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Done I would say mathematics is the purest science, so I have put it at the top :) --Oliveoilandgarlic (discuss • contribs) 17:52, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

That's great, I've briefly mentioned physics as a discipline in my section too so should flow nicely to the section on physicsApricotptr (discuss • contribs) 17:41, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Talk: History of Artificial Intelligence as a discipline

@bascer1000, in your writing, you imply that the human mind is a system of symbols because a system of symbols has the capacity for the type of intelligence that a human mind has. I don't think that is logically consistent? Unless you assume that the only way to achieve these types of intelligence is through a symbol system. but anyway here's an article you might find interesting and/or useful discussing the limitations and potential of symbol languages in AI https://www.science20.com/eye_brainstorm/blog/what_are_symbols_ai-76536 --Oliveoilandgarlic (discuss • contribs) 18:59, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Thanks for bringing this up - I think in a bid to be concise I lost some clarity in the point i was trying to make. I have added in some more explanation. Also, the reference to the PSSH was less about arguing for/against whether a computer could have intelligence in the same way as a human mind but just as an example of how a more philosophical way of thinking plays a key role in the discipline. I will have a look at the article now.

Bascer1000 (discuss • contribs) 16:04, 10 November 2020 (UTC)Bascer1000

 * Glad you found my comment useful, to do the sign off its the 5th button from the left on the gui bar --Oliveoilandgarlic (discuss • contribs) 13:01, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Your text is really interesting. I would also like to add that artificial intelligence was born through legends and myths and that scientists have been trying to get close to it for a long time. In people’s imagination, creatures capable of thinking made from objects have existed since Ancient Greece. Talos can be cited in Greek mythology or Golem in Jewish culture. More recently, Frankenstein, the creature of Mary Shelley’s novel, may also make one think of it. These stories and legends lead to the idea that one day people will be able to build a creature with the intelligence of a human. This image emerged in people’s minds. Alan Turing created a test called the ‘Turing test’. It is constituted of a blind discussion between someone and a machine or another person and the goal was that the person did not differentiate the machine from the other human being. For him, the machines would pass successfully the test by the year 2000. So one can see that artificial intelligence has always fascinated people and that technical progress allows these people to realize the things they had in their imagination. --Write&Leave (discuss • contribs) 22:33, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

Talk: Formation of history as a discipline

I corrected some minor grammar mistakes and added punctuation. I see that you are missing the "references" section. Your work gives good background information on the topic of history as an issue of disciplinarity. Therefore, we could use the beginning of your work as an "introduction" to the whole section of "History". Moreover, I do not think that it is essential to link history to physics in your last paragraph. The ending should sum up your point rather than introduce a new idea. Finally, did you consider separating your work into a few subtitles/sections? The use of subsections improves communication. What do you think about this order?

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) History as a Discipline in Ancient Greece
 * 3) History as a Discipline in the 19th Century
 * 4) Conclusion

There are no references in your writing at all so where did you get your information? Concerned that your work may get written up for plagiarism because you haven't mentioned any external sourcesApricotptr (discuss • contribs) 16:50, 30 October 2020 (UTC)

--Grammaloretoo (discuss • contribs) 12:10, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Talk: History of Disciplines: The Conflict Between Law and Psychology

Some really interesting points made here however was quite difficult to read as there was no paragraphing or sectioning. Went ahead and split up the text where I think the point moved on a bit and made some minor grammar revisions to make the text read and flow better. I also think you could add in some subheadings within section to show the progression of the points you're making. These could be something like:

conflict between law and psychology,

case study intersection , psychology's influence on law,

conclusions Apricotptr (discuss • contribs) 17:20, 30 October 2020 (UTC)

I'm going to go ahead and make these changesApricotptr (discuss • contribs) 15:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

History of counterterrorism I corrected some grammar mistakes. The overall is good but I think you could develop certain points such as the definition of counterterrorism and its role in you last paragraph. The discipline you chose is very interesting but you don't show enough why it's a discipline. Also for you references, I know there is a site that does the layout properly: https://www.citethisforme.com/harvard/source-type. --Qenalcu (discuss • contribs) 10:47, 29 October 2020 (UTC)


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Film Studies

Defining film studies
Needless to say, film has evolved consequently. From its birth with the Lumière Brothers in 1895, where for the first time, people gathered in a room to watch a visual story on a big screen, to 2020 where a few clicks can allow you to view some of the greatest productions from the comfort of your couch. Indeed, film has become a big part of the contemporary man’s life. Evidently, its rise has led to the development of a discipline. Today, film studies are considered  to be the theoretical approach to film: analysing it thoroughly, through its script, staging, camera movements, décor, acting; which leads to the understanding of the narrative, artistic, cultural, economic and political aspects of a production.

Its development as a discipline
There are multiple time frames in which one can say film began to be considered as an academic discipline.

 * The first school to create a course dedicated to film studies, called "Photoplay Composition " is the School of the Arts at Columbia University in 1915.

 * We can argue that the creation of an insitute dedicated solely to a discipline legitimizes it more. This was the case, for the first time in 1919, at the Moscow Film School. Very little information is available on the topic. However, we do know that Lenin authorized its founding, that all students were required to learn Russian and that, in order to direct a film, one must have attended the institute. It is clear that, as film is a powerful and effective tool in conveying ideas, this school was a way to generate propaganda for the USSR through films. This theory can be further confirmed as one of the other first institutes was the “Deutsche Filmakademie Babelsberg” in 1938, under the Third Reich. So film was widely taught under totalitarian regimes, which highlights how influential art can be, especially to the minds of oppressed populations.

 * However, some people might argue that film studies began when the world considered it academically, which is in the 1950s/60s. "But it wasn’t until the 1950s that the idea of a new scholarly discipline, with its own body of knowledge and academic presence, began to take wider hold." Indeed, film drifted away from Hollywood in 1950 towards the “cinema d’auteur”, in which the director is in control of everything. This emphasized ‘style’, in other words a viewer could determine who had directed a film based off of recurring themes, aesthetic, movement, tone. This shift made people realise that the creation of a film was as intricate as the creation of any other art. This further popularized film as a discipline rather than solely as a form of entertainment.


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User talk:Beans2002

Thank you for letting me know of this grammar mistake. I shall change it now thanks to your keen eye. Caprithai (discuss • contribs) 19:04, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Beans2002


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User talk:47.7.196.11

SCREEN
will let you set how it will be used. Text, Graphics, both, and the Size of the surface you are working with. Screen 0 is Text Only. Screen 12 is 640 X 480 X 16 Colors & Text.

(( not sure what went wrong here ))

title: User talk:47.7.196.11


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User talk:Uclqmtr

don't vandalize sandbox

title: User talk:Uclqmtr


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User:Velma1234567/sandbox

Early Origins
Criminology studies the phenomena of deviance, its actors, as well as its impact on society. Criminology, in the past, was described as the procedures to take care of criminal conduct. We can retrace this type of criminology to primitive societies as they already contained people that were deviant to the norms and rules in vigour. In Europe, during the late 1700s, there was a shift in the approach to criminology. A general concern emerged regarding the unfair treatments and poor living conditions of criminals in prison and courts. A common will to humanize the jurisdiction emerged.

The emergence of Criminology as a discipline
Seeing new tensions emerge at the beginning of 1800, to solve the problem, people decided they should try to understand the systems of deviance. Torture and punishment weren’t the unique solutions in criminology. Cesar Lombroso’s research during the early 1900’s suggesting that criminology should be worthy of study. He argued that there was a psychological aspect behind a criminal and deviance. Felonies are committed out of a free will. It was the origins of this free will that had to be investigated to improve a better jurisdiction.

Criminology: an independent discipline
Slowly, criminology started to develop itself as a subject in disciplines across different countries. For example, in Britain, criminology was studied for medical purposes, whereas in France, Durkheim used it to tackle sociological studies. Criminology relating to various subjects, made scholars realize they should consider it as an independent discipline. Institutions all over the world started considering criminology as a discipline. In the United-States, the first textbook “Criminology” was published by Maurice Parmelee in 1920. In Britain, the “Association for the Scientific Treatment of Delinquency” was inaugurated by the Kings College of London in 1942 and later on in 1941 Cambridge opened the Department of Criminal Science.

Today: Criminology as a discipline
Today the discipline of criminology has evolved. In Britain, we can nowadays count up to 80 criminology degrees. They focus on developing different ways to approach criminals and crimes. The study of deviance is now affected by the biological, sociological, political, environmental and psychological context it is set in. Examining new ways of preventing crimes and further understanding of the criminal world and the different subjects linked to it are also part of the discipline.

title: User:Velma1234567/sandbox