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Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Lower Colorado River Valley

=Overview: Lower Colorado River Valley subregion=

Introduction:
The desert is seen by many as a dry, empty place. However, the biodiversity of the Lower Colorado River Valley encompasses much more than just sand and heat. Throughout this voyage, we will explore the unique geological structures that make up the Lower Colorado River Valley. We will see just how humans have utilized the land and water from the region, as well as the rich, cultural stories that have lived throughout the Lower Colorado River Valley for years. From Baja California to the Parker Dam, we will see the marvelous aspects of this region while focusing on the species, their habitats, and their stories. During this journey, themes will be presented including history and culture, geology and climate, biodiversity, and water and land use. Beginning with history and culture in Yuma, AZ, and ending with water and land use at the U.S./Mexico border wall, these themes will develop an awareness and understanding of sense of place within the Sonoran Desert. Just as this land is connected within itself, so are people connected to this land. Here in the Lower Colorado River Valley it is important to work hard to retain respect for this land, not only to sustain the earth but to sustain the communities living within it. Although many efforts are being made to preserve our ecosystem, there continues to be struggles in preservation. Diminishing levels of water in the Colorado River and immediate threats to wildlife and riparian areas such as the border wall are problems that have no current solution. If efforts are not immediately taken to resolve the detrimental issues addressed below, all the beauty and diversity the Sonoran Desert contains may be lost forever.

1. Ocean-to-Ocean Bridge
The Ocean-to-Ocean bridge in Yuma, AZ, begins the journey toward discovering a sense of place in the Sonoran Desert. The Ocean-to-Ocean bridge is one of the most popular and well-known landmarks in Yuma, AZ. Yuma has a significant history and this bridge is one piece of that history.

Before dams were built all along the Colorado River, there was a significant river presence in Yuma. The river was much larger and harder to get across over most of the length of the river. The major exception to this was here in Yuma, AZ. What became known as the Yuma Crossing was the most tame and safest part of the river.

For a while, ferry boats would take people across the river from Arizona into California. However, in 1915 the Ocean-to-Ocean bridge was constructed and was the first bridge constructed over the Colorado River. Today, one can see the newly constructed bridge right next to the original bridge that was constructed in 1915. The bridge is now the focal point of Gateway Park, a park right on the bank of the Colorado where one can walk the trails through native trees and shrubs. While the Ocean-to-Ocean bridge is the gateway to Yuma's history and culture, the Yuma Territorial Prison is the foundation to what would become an important city in the southwest.

2. Yuma Territorial Prison
The next stop in Yuma, AZ, is another historical and culturally important landmark, the Yuma Territorial Prison. Overlooking the Colorado River, sits the ruins of this famous prison. Although it is no longer in use, it is a significant landmark and museum that cements it into Yuma's history and culture.

After the discovery of gold in California, many set out to head west. Since Yuma was located in the Colorado’s narrowest point in 1849, immigrants had to cross Yuma in order to arrive to the California gold fields. However, many were not fortunate enough to find gold in California and set out to find a new beginning. Travelers had already become familiar with Yuma during their journey, cementing it as a new home for many of them. It was seen as an oasis in the desert due to the presence of the mighty Colorado River. Travelers became comforted with the idea of finding water and escaping the dangers of freezing. By 1858, Yuma had experienced an economic boom and this surge in the economy lead to a rise in the population which helped establish Yuma County in 1871.

The Yuma Territorial Prison budget was around $25,000 and the prison was officially authorized by the legislature in 1875, it saw its first 7 inmates on July 1st, 1876. For 33 years the prison ran consecutively until overcrowding forced all prisoners to relocate to Florence, Arizona. Throughout the years, many facilities used this building for different reasons. For example, Yuma High School used it from 1910 to 1914 after their school burned down, earning them the name Yuma “criminals."

From 1939-1960, the location operated as both a museum and prison area after the locals raised funds in an effort to preserve this piece of history. The citizens were in favor of turning the territorial prison into a state park and the city board agreed to accept the funds in order to fulfill the citizens’ wishes. Later, land ownership disputes would end up delaying the park’s opening. Eventually, the city of Yuma sold the building for one dollar.

This prison holds a deep history for Yumans and is another manmade landmark that led to the development of the city as it is today. It has carried and contributed to much of Yuma’s history and culture. As the story of Yuma carries along, we see the  prevalence of the Yuma Territorial Prison throughout it. It is a reminder of where Yuma came from and all that it has become since then.

3. MCAS Yuma
Our next stop in Yuma, AZ, is at the Marine Corps Air Station which was established in 1928. In 1948, the air base was built to train marines for World War II. The base became a flight school that taught multi-engine trainees, AT-6 engine trainees, and B-17 flying fortresses. After the war, the area was taken over by nature. The area remained this way until 1951 where the base was rebuilt and training resumed.

When cadets graduate, they are ready for assignments and combat training. During World War II, landing and flying fields were necessary and eight were built in Yuma as a result. In 1959, the Navy took over the base and Col. L. Davis became the first commanding officer. Today, the population of the base consists of 6,592 military, 5,531 family members, 2,651 civilians, and 5,000 transients.

MCAS Yuma is significant because of the number of people it has brought to Yuma, AZ. Not only has it brought many people to this city, it has diversified the population and created an ideal retirement location for veterans and their families. While this area is important to Yuma's history, it also has an environmental impact that is not always recognized.

The MCAS of Yuma covers about 3,000 acres in Yuma County. This area is home to many species, including the flat-tailed horned lizard which, although it did not get categorized as an endangered species until 2011, has been noted as "threatened" and as a "species of special concern" by the State of Arizona (Hollingsworth & Stepek, 2012). These classifications caused some organizations to mobilize their efforts to conduct surveys and collect data for population and environment analysis. One such survey was conducted by the cooperation and collaboration of the San Diego Natural History Museum, the Arizona Department of Game and Fish, and MCAS Yuma.

These studies focused on the numbers of flat-tailed horned lizards within nine-hectare for ten days, marking and recapturing the subjects. This study's goal was to provide information such as yearly survival, recruitment, and population growth. This survey averaged an estimation of 15 lizards by nine-hectare plot, which is a significant decrease from the Arizona Game and Fish Department's estimate of 76-77 adults per nine-hectare. However, the difference could be due to misreading subadults for adult populations. Studies such as these are important to highlight the species and diversity found within MCAS Yuma's land and will allow any issues or necessary actions regarding this species to be addressed.

4. West Wetlands Park
West Wetlands Park in Yuma, AZ, is the next stop through the journey of discovering a sense of place in the Sonoran Desert. For locals, West Wetlands Park has been an escape and a comfort, a place to enjoy a peaceful walk or to have a family picnic.

What was once a landfill is now a beautifully restored recreation area that has been divided into an "Upper" and "Lower" bench. The Upper Bench consists of roadways, playgrounds, a fishing pond, picnic ramadas, a hummingbird garden, and lighted pathways. On the other end, the focus of the development of the Lower Bench has been on restoring and preserving native trees, grasses, flowers, and shrubs and on building a riparian habitat.

Parks and recreation areas such as West Wetlands provide a home for native plants and animals to live and thrive since the development and growth of the city of Yuma over the years has altered the original state of the region. The designation of the Yuma Crossing National Heritage Area and restoration of important landmarks such as the Ocean-to-Ocean bridge has helped to preserve not only the environment, but also the history and culture of this area.

5. Imperial Sand Dunes
The Imperial Sand Dunes are a naturally occurring phenomena in the Sonoran Desert. These dunes are not only used for recreational sports such as motor cross but have also become a unique filming location for several major films including Star Wars: Return of the Jedi and Jumanji: The Next Level.

The Imperial Dunes are located about twenty miles outside of Yuma and extend for about 40 miles. This unique location typically welcomes one million visitors per year including those looking to take breathtaking photos of the dunes and of themselves in the dunes. Anyone who grew up in Yuma or around Imperial Valley knows about these dunes since many drove past them on their way to El Centro and San Diego.

When thinking about what sense of place in the Sonoran Desert means, its important to remember that  places such as the dunes that we do not think of or see everyday are actually features of the Sonoran Desert that contribute to its overall beauty and magnificence. Another location that contributes to the magnificence of the Sonoran Desert is the Imperial National Wildlife Refuge where native riparian areas and wetlands are restored and protected.

1. Estrella Mountains
The Sierra Estrella mountains are constantly sunny all year long. Due to the favorable weather, the mountains are best known for their outdoor activities. The natural terrain provides visitors with a picturesque background. Clear skies are conducive to stargazing events twice a year at the Estella Mountains Regional Park.

The northwest facing mountain consists of 38 km compact ridges and is 559 m above sea level near the junction of the Gila and Salt Rivers. Its highest peak elevation is 1,375 m (unnamed peaks) and the Montezuma Peak which is 1,323 m.

There have been recordings that multiple pits were filled with sandy sediment, this sediment is known as quartzofeldspathic sandstone. The Sierra Estrella rocks were likely uprooted by the detachment faults between 25 and 15 Ma. Over time, the rocks became deeply slanted in several areas by fluvial streams. Ultimately, the Estrella Mountains are just one of the many geologic formations within the Sonoran Desert. Another notable geologic feature are the Peninsular Ranges which are located from Southern California to the tip of the Baja California Peninsula.

2. Peninsular Ranges
The Peninsular Ranges would perhaps not be as prominent if the Baja California Peninsula did not form over the years through plate tectonics. The Baja California Peninsula was once part of the North American plate; however, the constant shifting of the plates that make up the earth cause landmasses to separate from each other, and this process often results in mountain ranges.

The Peninsular Ranges are a geographical feature stretching from Southern California to the tip of Baja California. The overall climate of the area surrounding the Peninsular Ranges is moderate year round, with cooler conditions higher up in the mountains. The rocks of these ranges are mostly Mesozoic granitic rocks.

There are other interesting geologic features within the Sonoran Desert that make it so unique. One such feature is the Pinacate Peaks, located south of the United States-Mexico border.

3. Pinacate Peaks
The Pinacate Peaks, located south of the United States-Mexico border, form part of a large volcanic field that is of great value to the Sonoran Desert's geology and climate. The Pinacate region contains at least ten volcanic craters, with the last volcanic activity occurring about 11,000 years ago. The region contains volcano types such as Pyroclastic cones, maars, and tuff rings. These surreal earth formations are an example of the versatility of landscapes found in the Sonoran Desert.

The climate can be described as arid with most rain pouring from convective storms, regardless of the season. The relatively large volumes of precipitation concentrated in small areas creates flash flooding, a crucial factor in geomorphic processes. This area has a range of temperatures from zero degrees Celsius (during rare winter freezes) and over fifty degrees Celsius. In earlier years, people avoided the area because its warm climate and ground would reduce vegetation.

The formation of these features in the land have been a subject of study for many years. There are a significant number of people who want to explore and identify all the geologic formations that have created this landscape.

4. Gran Desierto de Altar
The Gran Desierto de Altar is located in Sonora, Mexico. It covers approximately 5,700 square kilometers and is one of the major sub-ecoregions of the Sonoran Desert. Although most of it is in Sonora, Mexico, the gran Desierto de Altar extends across the broder into Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument and Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge.

Being North America’s largest field of active sand dunes, the Gran Desierto de Altar is home to various types of dunes, the tallest standing 200 meters tall. Here, linear, crescent-shaped (barchans), and star shaped dunes can be found. These can be categorized as simple, compound or complex, depending on seasonal changes in the direction and strength of the wind. Crescent-shaped complex dunes and star-shaped dunes are a rare type of sand dune that only exist in certain locations around the world. These dunes can reach as high as 200 meters high and can occur both singly and in long ridges up to 48 kilometers in length.

The sand needed to form and maintain these dunes come from the fluvial and deltaic sediments of the Colorado River delta, the beaches of the Sea of Cortez, the River Sonoyta, and the smaller river and stream fans formed in those parts of the reserve where there are volcanic and granitic mountains.

The geological history of the Gran Desierto is intimately linked to the opening of the Sea of Cortez and the capture of the ancestral Colorado River. Prior to the opening of the Sea of Cortez, vast amounts of sediment accumulated in this region brought by rivers of which little trace remains today. The creation of the Sea of Cortez shortened the rivers and increased their average gradient, causing them to cut into the pre-existing landscape leaving behind river terraces, remnants of the former higher level floodplains.

5. Puerto Peñasco
Located near the Pinacate Biosphere Reserve, sits the famously known, Puerto Penasco, also commonly known as Rocky Point. As is its name, Rocky Point is surrounded by extensive mountain ranges and shares many of its geological characteristics with that of the Pinacate Biosphere Reserve. Such characteristics include the remnants of ancient volcanoes that can be found on the beaches of Puerto Penasco and inactive volcano peaks that can be seen throughout the entire state. These mountains, along with the two nearby islands, create a barrier for the region that prevent extreme weather events from happening, however, do not make it impossible. Due to phenomena, El Nino, Puerto Penasco still experiences tropical storms and hurricanes that reach the northern Sea of Cortez. Such disasters are rare but cause significant damages when they occur.

Rocky Point is known for its warm weather temperatures. During the summer, Puerto Penasco experiences hot and humid climates while in the winter it exhibits itself to be cold and dry. Temperatures range from 109°F in the summer to 51.8°F in the winter. This generally good weather brings many tourists during late May to late June. The hot season starts from June 14 to October 4 averaging at about 89 degrees Fahrenheit. The cooler season starts on November 27 and ends March 8 averaging below 73 degrees Fahrenheit.

Its temperatures are highly influenced by the nearby Sea of Cortez. The Sea of Cortez experiences very warm water temperatures, ranging from 75°F in the summer to 61°F in the winter. This direct influence also contributes to the rainfall of Puerto Penasco. Puerto Penasco is located on the northwest fringe of the North American Monsoon 6 circulation pattern, which in turn, causes Puerto Penasco to experience substantial seasonality in precipitation, specifically in July and August. These summer monsoon rains come from the Sea of Cortez, often in masses of water-laden air called “Gulf Surges.” However, annual precipitation is minimal due to its location in the rain shadow of the mountains of northern Mexico’s Baja California peninsula.

1. Telegraph Pass Trail
Telegraph Pass has become a wide attraction for anyone in Yuma, Arizona. Its 5.3 mile trail provides unique scenery from which it has gained its popularity. Along the way, people are able to enjoy the various wildlife that the desert of Yuma has to offer, from its native cacti to its reptilian friends, the biodiversity within the Telegraph Pass Trail is a representation of Yuma County.

The plants and animals that are located here are similar to those that are located within Yuma County. Throughout the trail, the scenery provides a variety of floras, from cacti, to shrubs, to trees. These varieties of plants include shrubs such as brittle brush, ocotillo, creosote bush, trees such as the Ironwood and Palo Verde tree, and cacti such as the saguaro and beavertail cactus. The trail is also home to wildlife that is native to Yuma. For example, you may encounter the western diamondback rattlesnake, chuckwallas, desert horned lizards, roadrunners, coyotes, the black-throated sparrow bird, and so forth.

The trail's warm weather conditions allow for such wildlife to flourish along the path. It provides the appropriate circumstances for these species to inhabit the area and satisfy their needs. The Telegraph Pass Trail has become the place for species to live and for the community to learn about the astonishing wildlife that exists within this area.

2. Kofa Wildlife Refuge
Heading out of Yuma up Highway 95, there is a large wildlife refuge, the Kofa National Wildlife Refuge. The refuge was established in 1939 and encompasses over 665,400 acres of the Yuma Desert region of the Sonoran Desert. The refuge is currently home to a diverse range of wildlife and plants.

Some of the notable plant species within the Kofa Wildlife Refuge include the saguaro cactus, prickly pear, cholla, hedgehog, pincushion, and barrel cacti. Within the refuge in Palm Canyon, California palms are dispersed throughout and continue to thrive even though they used to live under much wetter and cooler conditions.

There are quite a few animal species that make this part of the Sonoran Desert their home. These include badgers, foxes, ground squirrels, pocket mice, and kangaroo rats. However, their are many mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and birds who call the Kofa Wildlife Refuge their home. Mammals such as the ringtail and mountain lion, bighorn sheep and mule deer, and bats each have found places in the desert to call home. Amphibians and reptiles including the Gila monster, the western diamondback rattlesnake, chuckwalla, desert horned lizard, desert iguana, and the red spotted toad have also found sanctuary in this wildlife refuge. Birds including white-winged doves, cactus wrens, northern flickers, canyon towhees, phainopeplas, Gambel's quails, turkey vultures, and golden eagles thrive in their desert oasis, some through the protection of the largest saguaro cacti.

Although many believe that the Sonoran Desert is desolate and void of life, plenty of wildlife and flora and fauna are dependent on it for their survival; in turn, they populate it with beauty and life. A little over one hundred miles to the west, the Imperial Sand Dunes cut through the desert and bring a uniqueness and landscape that cannot be matched anywhere else in the United States.

3. Imperial National Wildlife Refuge
The Imperial National Wildlife Refuge is located 30 miles from the Colorado River where it divides in two. This refuge offers resources to help restore native riparian habitats as well as wetlands in order to help migratory birds and other species. These riparian zones are important because they recharge groundwater, store floodwater, and aid in water quality. Ultimately, these zones provide a biodiversity hotspot for plants and wildlife.

During the spring and fall the greatest variety of birds can be observed at the refugee. Some year-around birds that are observed include the ladder-backed/Gila woodpeckers, Verdin, Crissal Thrasher, and Abert’s Towhee. The size of this location is 49.3 square miles, 31,558 acres. In total, over 275 different species have been noted at the refuge.

Other species that are part of the conservation status and use the habitat within this location include the sandhill crane and willow flycatchers. During the winter, Canada geese, tundra swan, and bald eagle. Some conservation concerns are the loss of cottonwood, willow, and marshlands resulting in the loss of habitats. In order to combat this, projects are being implemented to restore the riparian areas. While it is important to protect riparian areas such as the Imperial National Wildlife Refuge, it is equally important to protect our water, including the Salton Sea and rivers such as the Colorado.

4. Anza-Borrego Desert Park
A few miles west of the Salton Sea, the Anza-Borrego Desert Park provides a home to many flora, fauna, and wildlife. The Anza-Borrego Desert Park is known for its beautiful wildflowers that bloom every year during the spring and early summer. The blooming starts in late February in the lowest part of the region and moves towards higher land in May. Flowers tend to grow everywhere except sandy regions, rocky hillsides, high mountains, and badlands. The plants are grouped into four primary groups: agave and yuccas, bushes, cacti, and wildflowers. Due to the lack of rainfall in this region, especially within the past year, the length of time the flowers are in bloom has been significantly shorter. Additionally, increasing temperatures are affecting these plants negatively.

The Anza-Borrego Desert Park is also home to many species of animals. One of these popular species includes the peninsular bighorn sheep. Listed as an endangered animal in 1998, this species mainly resides in low elevation areas that are dry and rocky. In order to prevent the animals from being disturbed, the park closes areas--such as Coyote Creek--to vehicles from June to October. Closing designated areas to vehicle traffic allows the sheep to navigate the land to find watering areas. Since these sheep are an endangered species, it is also important to consistently verify the population levels; therefore, the sheep are counted and monitored frequently to ensure the population is not decreasing.

Another distinctive animal to the Anza-Borrego Desert Park is the deer mule. Unlike the bighorn sheep, deer mules are mostly located in higher elevations. These mammals tend not to stray far from a water source and they generally hunt at dawn or dusk. Mountain lions, bobcats, and coyotes are the natural predator of the deer mule; in fact, one sound that is heard very often in this region is the yelping of coyotes. Other animals that can be found in this park include the desert kit fox, black-tailed jackrabbit, desert cottontail, antelope squirrel, and the kangaroo rat.

Unfortunately for this beautiful park and its wildlife, the Salton Sea may have a negative impact on it. This park is very close to the Salton Sea, almost as close as the nearby cities of Brawley and El Centro. As the Salton Sea dries up, the lake beds, or "playa," become more and more exposed and the salty playa becomes wind-borne. This wind-borne dust has created dangerous air quality for the people who live in this area and the wildlife that find solace in parks such as the Anza-Borrego.

5. El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve
El Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve is home to a wide variety of diverse mosaic habitats and animals. It is a combination of volcanic landscapes, which are locate within El Pinacate, and sand dunes, which are located in the Gran Desierto de Altar.

Many species are endemic to the Sonoran Desert. They feature sophisticated physiological and behavioral adaptations to the extreme environmental conditions. For example, this can be seen through the Pronghorn’s ability to feed on thorny cactus species or the extremely long seed dormancy of most plants. It currently holds 560 species of vascular plants, including an endemic plant restricted to the volcanic shield. This would include, for example, the sculptural elephant tree.

The reserve is home to more than 540 species of vascular plants, 44 mammals, over 200 birds, more than 40 reptiles, as well as several amphibians and even two endemic species of freshwater fish. The biosphere reserve is home to animals such as the Sonoran pronghorn, the bighorn sheep, the mule deer, the gray fox, the Gila monster, and the desert tortoise. The reserve also exhibits large caves in which the migratory lesser long nosed bat resides in. The name of the reserve itself comes from the name of the desert stink beetles showing just how important its biodiversity is to the area.

Such richness in biodiversity comes from the unusual freshwater regime located within the reserve. The minimal precipitation it receives favors the permanent water availability in what are called “tinajas.” Some of the tinajas contain water year round which serves as a crucial resource for wildlife year round.

6. Organ Pipe Cactus Reserve
One of the first images that comes to mind when a desert is mentioned is tall, green cacti. The Organ Pipe Cactus International Biosphere Reserve is of great importance to the biodiversity of the Lower Colorado River Valley region and the Sonoran Desert as a whole. This reserve contains various species of wildflowers, trees, shrubs, and other essential animals. These elements culminate in a space that hosts magnificent forms of life and diversity.

Some of the species that make up the biodiversity include the Palmer Indian mallow, Rayless golden head, and desert agave, among other wildflowers. Various trees and shrubs are also evident in this reserve including creosote, brittle-bush, jojoba, palo verde, and cacti towering high above.

The Quitobaquito Springs and pond is a significant body of water within the Organ Pipe Cactus Reserve and it holds cultural significance and historical relevance. The challenges presented to the pupfish and its habitat have led to the current protection and tracking of this species and its environment. After monitoring these species, there was a noticeable decrease in its population of about four times its population numbers between 1975 and 1981. In 1993, some growth was observed, and new monitoring and managing procedures continue to take place to preserve this species. One of the current threats to the Quitobaquito Springs is the U.S./Mexico border wall. Construction was heavily increased between 2016 and 2019 and this construction has had an immediate impact on bird populations here. In fact, the disappearance of 47 different bird species, including some endangered species has been documented by ecologists. Manmade structures such as the border wall almost always have negative impacts on wildlife, water, and the land in general.

1. "El Rio" Local Gathering Spot
Our next stop on this journey takes us across the U.S./Mexico border and into San Luis Rio Colorado Sonora. "El Rio" is the standard way for locals to refer to the area directly under the Mexican Federal Highway 2, which connects transit from San Luis Rio Colorado and Mexicali.

Since the early 1900s, the Colorado River has been completely or nearly completely drained for irrigation. The once formidable Colorado River is usually dry or forms a small stream in this area: An excerpt from Water is for Fighting Over, and Other Myths About Water in the West states: "...it is not just San Luis, it is San Luis Rio Colorado. It is the only city that has the name Rio Colorado, Campa, technical director of the city's water utility, told me as we strolled the river's sandy bottom on a warm spring morning. It took imagination to grasp at what Campa was getting at. Nineteenth century steamboats once passed this spot. The Colorado was once a river here. No more. The only thing capable of navigating the Rio Colorado's bed that day was a four-wheeler with fat tires" (2019).

This description accurately depicts what the Colorado River looks like the majority of the time. What was once a free-flowing, mighty river, is now barely a stream. It is a completely different space due to the increased number of people on the weekends, whether the zone is dry or some water is released. Whoever visits the area is likely to partake in activities such as racing and drinking, among others. Many people think of these activities as a way of taking the name given to their city and making it their own, they are creating memories that will link them to this place permanently.

Locals have many different ways of interpreting what "El Rio" means to them. Some hold on to the history that it represents, such as the formation of the city. While others prefer to redefine what "El Rio" means to them by creating new traditions and memories with this piece of land.

2. Salton Sea
As part of the Colorado River Delta, the Salton Sea stands as the largest lake in California. It is located in the southern riverside and the northern imperial counties in southern California. Throughout history, the Salton Sea has regularly filled and dried out due to its elevation level. However, the most recent version of the Salton Sea was formed when the Colorado River floodwater breached an irrigation canal being constructed in Imperial Valley in 1905 this water flowed freely into the Salton Basin for 18 months. The sea has since been maintained by agricultural runoff from the Imperial and Coachella valleys. Today, the Salton Sea functions both as a sump for agricultural runoff and as an important wildlife area.

The nutrient-rich runoff includes a high volume of salt and helps support a vibrant aquatic community, home to fish and wildlife. In the past, the Salton Sea also was a popular spot for recreational boating and fishing. At one time, the Colorado River Delta’s wetlands and riparian habitat spanned nearly 2 million acres and stretched from the northern tip of the Gulf of California to Southern California’s Salton Sea, providing rich habitat for more than 200 plant species, countless fish, hundreds of species of migratory birds and waterfowl, and wildlife such as deer, quail, raccoons, bobcats, and even jaguars.

Due to the significant loss of wetlands in California and other areas, the Salton Sea ecosystem has become one of the most important wetlands for many species of migratory birds and supports some of the highest levels of avian biodiversity in the southwestern United States. The Salton Sea’s National Wildlife Refuge has over 380 species of birds, among the highest totals of all national refuges. The Salton Sea provides an important habitat for several endangered species including the desert pupfish, Yuma clapper rail, and the brown pelican.

Despite the Salton Sea's importance for many species, including endangered species, the Salton Sea has recently faced many complications. Due to its formation as a landlocked body of water and its continued contamination of agricultural runoff, the Salton Sea has become toxic to not only the wildlife, but also human beings. With the sea already saltier then the Pacific Ocean, salt continues to build up. Reduced water supply, minimal rainfall, and evaporation have also significantly lowered the water levels in the already quite shallow Salton Sea. Not only have such situations placed a risk to the wildlife habitat, but have also affected nearby communities. Exposed lake beds, known as the “playa,” have led to serious issues with the local air quality. The sandy substance holds a century’s worth of agricultural runoff.

Unfortunately, the environmental problems of the Salton Sea have expanded further than just the local region. It is no longer affecting only the community around it since wind-born dust has spread the poor air quality to many parts of Southern California, into Arizona, and even to nearby parks such as the Anza-Borrego Desert Park. With the Salton Sea receding, the “playa” only gets larger, releasing more contaminated particles into the air. This situation is causing air pollution and poor quality of life for the the wildlife and people it used to support.

3. Parker Dam
Our next stop in our tour of the Sonoran Desert is an important one that pertains to water use. The Parker Dam is about 155 miles downstream of the Hoover Dam and is important because it brings water and power to the residents of the Lower Colorado River Valley. The main purpose of this dam is to store water and eventually pump it to the Central Arizona Project Aqueducts. The Central Arizona Project delivers 488 billion gallons of water from the Colorado River out to communities, agriculture, and wildlife use.

Funded by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, the Parker Dam helps deliver water to the Los Angeles and San Diego area. Without this water source, these places would not thrive and grow in population. Parker Dam is the deepest dam in the world it is no surprise that it is able to pump large amounts of water that supports one of the most populated places on earth.

Housing four hydroelectric generating unit, the Parker Power plants can produce about 30,000 kilowatts per unit and these units are non-polluting. Around 50% of the power output is used for the pumping of water through the aqueducts. The other 50% is promoted by the Western Area Power Administration.

The Parker Dam is often recognized as one of the greatest uses of water in Arizona especially because it provides water to so many people and utilizes hydropower to generate electricity. However, this is just one perspective on the Parker Dam. A more pessimistic but realistic perspective recognizes that the dam disrupts the natural flow of the Colorado River and is used to transport water to states that are miles away from the Colorado River. While hydropower is a great renewable source of energy, water is not so renewable. The more we use our water, the more we will experience long periods of drought, and the more the climate will change, and not for the better.

4. Lake Havasu
According to Lake Havasu’s 2020 water conservation plan, the land uses within the city are residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, resort, and underdeveloped. Residential land is scattered throughout the city while commercial and industrial are condensed parallel to main traffic routes. Residential and resorts are located throughout the shoreline and island. Four detailed plans have been set in place to address future growth patterns of this region.

The city’s main water source comes from the Colorado River. Lake Havasu City has 4th priority Colorado River water entitlement that totals 28,581.7 acre-feet/year. Around 3,500 ac-ft are withheld for future Native American water use. Lake Havasu continues to secure thousands of acre-feet within other subcontracts.

In order to lower the city's allocation request, the city plans to practice the reuse of wastewater for landscape and land irrigation. All water passes a 48-inch pipeline to go to the city's water treatment plant. The water is eventually treated with ferric chloride where it then goes through sand filter processes containing a bacteria and ultraviolet radiant system to disinfect the water.

While many images of Lake Havasu portray summer vacations full of jet skis and family boats, the reality of Lake Havasu is not as bright. Lake Havasu faces many of the same difficulties as Parker Dam because it is also connected to the Colorado River. Water levels continue to decrease as more and more water is used for agriculture in Arizona and California and for ornamental grass in suburbs. Even with the wastewater treatment plans, it may be too little too late unless heavy restrictions are placed on what the Colorado River water can or cannot be used for.

5. Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station
The Palo Verde plant treats millions of gallons of wastewater. The plant plans to extend this treatment to the Buckeye groundwater to reduce the amount of waste. Buckeye's water is high in mineral and salt content, making it difficult for the general public to use. In using these sources that other facilities do not use, wastewater would be reduced by twenty percent.

Palo Verde is located about one hour's drive west of Phoenix. It is the largest nuclear generating station in the country. According to the plant manager, Rick Lange, the plant uses about 40,000 gallons of water every minute in the winter. On the other hand, the plant uses about 60,000 gallons of water every minute in the summer. The waste water the plant plans to utilize will aid habitat restoration.

In the future, the station will treat even dirtier water and has found the funds for these plans. Currently, the station is working to get approval from the state and farmers near the area. Additionally, new cooling technology has been developed to work on different water options.

6. U.S./Mexico Border Wall
Circling back around to where we started this journey in Yuma, AZ, we arrive at the border wall between the United States and Mexico. The border wall establishes the international boundary between the U.S. and Mexico and has been present in most of the area for many years. However, in the past four years, border wall construction has increased tremendously, affecting much of the land in which it is found. Additionally, much of the water around the area has contributed to the construction of the border wall. The Arizona portion of the wall alone required approximately 50 million gallons of water to complete. This water is used for dust control purposes as well as in making concrete bases to hold the towering steel slats. The border wall has brought many concerns in regard to the degradation of the surrounding land. Environmental impacts such as erosion, soil compaction, ecosystem fragmentation, and flooding have been under crucial observation.

The U.S./Mexico border wall has demonstrated itself to have a negative impact on the environment. The area in which the border wall is located is considered one of the most ecologically diverse wildlife migration corridors in all of North America. More than 450 rare species live in these areas, many of which cannot be found anywhere else in the world. However, through its establishment and construction, the border wall has destroyed much of the land's wildlife habitats. At least 700 neotropical birds, mammals, and insects migrate through the borderlands each year. This however, has been limited due to the continued construction of the U.S./Mexico border wall. Ultimately, the wall has inhibited the movement of wildlife, reducing their ability to navigate towards food and water.

The border wall not only inhibits animals from navigating to areas within their habitat, but also causes species to abandon their habitats, specifically in the Quitobaquito Springs within the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in southern Arizona. The enhanced construction of the border wall within the past four years has come within 120 feet of the Quitobaquito Springs and has resulted in the disappearance of about 47 species of birds, including some endangered species such as the willow flycatcher. The U.S./Mexico border wall has many implications politically and culturally, but just as important, if not more so, are the implications it has on the environment in all aspects.


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Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Arizona Uplands

=Subregion Outline=

Introduction:
The Arizona Uplands is one of the many subregions that is part of the Sonora Desert. Due to urbanization, this area has been the victim of habitat loss, becoming a conservational issue. It is mainly well known as “Thorn scrub.” This is because of its diversity between having many well-grown trees, which give its tropical vibe, and the components it has to be considered a desert. This is an overview of some of the most exciting places in this subregions, which will discuss their history(culture), geology(climate), biodiversity, and water and land use. This region is the one that sees the most water out throughout the year but at the same time experiences longer winters with lower degrees. This subdivision finds itself close to some rocky locations where many other plants’ life forms and animals are present. Some of them are unique because of the ability of the region to keep cooler temperatures for longer durations. The primary plants which can be found around this area are legume trees, shrubs, succulents, cacti, palo verde, mesquite, and even saguaro. This area is surrounded by mountains and valleys which elevations differ depending on the place. As for animal sightings, the most common are coyotes, pygmy owl, jackrabbit, burrowing owl, and many other types of snakes or lizards.

1. Bosque Nacional Del Tonto
This National Forest is considered to be the largest one in Arizona. It is known because it covers more than 2.9 million acres of land. Tonto National Forest was first officially established in 1905, and the main reason behind this was to help protect watersheds around its reservoirs. Fun fact of the forest 350,000-acre-feet of water as an average is produced each year. Some of the wilderness areas included within the Tonto Wilderness are Four Peaks, Hell’s Gate, Mazatzal, Salome, Salt River Canyon, Sierra Ancha, and Superstition. Along with the Coconino, Tonto National Forest is considered Fossil Creek Wild and Scenic River home. Something that can also be considered interesting is that this national forest is also the home to at least 400 species (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes) which also includes the 21 species which are considered to be endangered species.

Originally Tonto National Forest was the home to many Indian groups and was colonized by the Hohokam. Several years after the Hohokam, everyone, including them, decided to leave because of the many droughts, floods, and warfare. Regarding the name, it is based on its core which lies in Tonto Basin. The Tonto Apache presumably settled in Tonto Basin. The term “Tonto” was commonly applied to Indians who lived between the White Mountains and Colorado River. A language that the Hohokam spoke was ancient Tepiman and Zuni In-dian. They build canals to transport their goods. Now the settlements are abandoned as previously mentioned, but some of the descendants, Pima and Tohono O’odham, can be found living in the South.

In reality, the existence of this National Forest is thanks to the creation of the Roosevelt Dam. The dam was initially constructed to help control the Salt River and ensure that the Agricultural cities have enough water supply. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, “In addition to protecting archeological sites, the forest also works with the tribes to ensure that traditional Native American economic and religious activities can continue to be practiced on what are now public lands.” (sect. The Forest Inception and Early Development)

1. Needle's Eye Wilderness
Needle’s Eye Wilderness located in Arizona covers 8,760 acres is managed by the BLM (Bureau of Land Management) and was initially established in 1990. This area has many wonderful features but one of the most important one is the Mescal Mountains. The mountains elevate/rise above the desert with a southwest slope of 2500ft. Another natural feature from this area is the Gila River which in a way is connected to the reason behind the name of the wilderness area. As the “Outdoorsy” stated, “The exposed striped limestone mountain faces create a striking backdrop, while the river winds through steep 1000-foot-deep walled canyons. The canyon is so narrow it gives the region its interesting name, “Needle's Eye” (para. 2).

It is said to contain Precambrian to Paleozoic sedimentary rocks but some of them are host rocks. A small sample of iron-stained limestone was one of the first samples to be found while the second one was on a hematite-stained structure. Another discovery was that a certain region from this area suggest that metal mineralization might be associated with a Tertiary intrusion. This correlates to the numbers of scarcity bases or the number of previous metal occurrences.

This particular wilderness area is a little bit more difficult to have access to because of its surroundings. The area happens to be surrounded by private lands as well as the Apache Nation San Carlos Indian Reservation so in order to have access to this area you would need to obtain permission from landowners to cross their territory.

2. La Angostura
La Angostura is a channel of the River Bavispe located in the heart of Sonora which is also affluent of the River Yaqui. La Angostura was where the first dam on Sonora history was built, its purpose was to direct water for agricultural irrigation and for individual consumption. As one of the first large interventions of humanity with the natural course of the environment it brought many ecological implications.

One of them arose on its construction as La Angostura is a canyon with a distinctive feature as its walls are composed mostly of rhyolite which is a silica rich volcanic rock that freezes relatively fast, that geological condition was making it hard for the workers to structure the main edifice of the dam which led to the construction of tunnels to divert the flow of water and allow for better conditions to continue the construction of the dam. After its construction, a second issue arose, as 45% of the dam’s volume was lost as a result of climate change, the increasing temperatures of an already dry region with low incidence of rain that was being continuously pushed to its limits by humanity.

La Angostura is not only distinguished as a prowess of engineering, but it also is acknowledged by the richness of its soil, and geological composition that points that its formation took place on the Cenozoic Era when a continental margin volcanic eruption took place and granitic magma settled in the surface, over time it became Rhyolite. This mineral even if it is not being directly jeopardized by the presence of water it should be noted that dams often tend to form higher concentrations of sediment and decrease the nutrients found on its walls leading to erosion, which might make it more sensible to seismic activity.

3. Tucson Mountains
The Tucson Mountains is an area that has experienced many volcanic episodes that led to its eventual formation, these sediments and fragments of millions of years are not only found on the base of the mountains but also on its superficial level as the many roads surrounding this area are practically destined to find at least one. These geological formations detail the origins of the region and the many encounters it had with volcanic and crustal activity, and maybe even what is to come.

This range of mountains was defined by major eruptions that took place on the Triassic-Jurrasic time (190-200 million years ago), the Laramide period (62-74 million years ago), and the late Tertiary period (Around 20 million years ago). This last incident produced large volumes of rhyolite tuff that formed the Cat Mountain Tuff of the Tucson Mountains. Parallel to the before-mentioned event, the rapid eruption from the volcano made it collapse in itself creating a caldera underneath the mountain range with a distinctive geological feature since as opposed to similar formations this one has unequal subsidence which categorizes it as a trap door caldera. In addition, it gave place to a megabreccia (sedimentary deposits in which very large rock fragments are visible) that is now called the Tucson Mountain Chaos. Something that has to be noted is that this is not the only region in which Rhyolite has been found on the Sonoran Desert as this type of volcanic rock is present in many areas such as "La Angostura" in Sonora. It is important to remark how similar geological and volcanic events that transcurred on a short window of time had drastically different effects on each of those regions as it shows how complex the work of nature is.

This region offers many geologists the opportunity to study the endemic characteristics of regions with trap door calderas beneath the surface. This is an important task as knowing how the mineral distribution impacts the growth of other plants could allow scientists to find alternative ways to revitalize natural areas that were devastated by human impact. People most of the time only see calderas as an imminent threat to safety, however, it is important to see beyond the stigma. Threats often offer unique opportunities to explore aspects of the environment that were only seen as detrimental however it allows us to see ourselves as a part of nature and to reflect on the importance of these geological formations.

1. Harquahala Mountain
The Harquahala Mountain is the home of many animals and plants. Interesting before we start the name Harquahala originated from the Yavapi which in their language this means “running water”. Basically, this area is a place which has remained undisturbed by advancement from our own doing such as deforestation or convenience stores put in place for hikers or hunting. Protection has been guaranteed to this area because of the Wilderness Act which has protected the land from becoming an imprint of the human touch.

Some common animals that can be found roaming these mountains are bighorn sheep, mountain lions, and mule deer populations. It is also the home to the desert tortoise which is considered to be an endangered species from the region. It also provides a home to reptiles such as the Gila Monster and venomous snake namely the Albino snake. Hikers might be able to see songbirds flying around as well as raptors which are known for being "birds of prey." Fun fact there is even an act named the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act which basically allows for these animals to roam around freely without being harmed in anyway. There was an idea that was considered back then which was to create a horse trail, but it was concluded that constructing this trail would not be suited. The only type of “harm” permitted insides this area is hunting and fishing but even they have regulations which the state obliges them to follow.

In regard to plants well its environment allows for plants such as chaparral, dessert grasslands, and rare cactus populations to grow. Many flowers grow in this region, specifically, the Desert Poppy, Mojave Aster, and Clover.

According to Harquahala Mountains Wilderness “…remove non-native invasive or noxious plants or animal species” (p. 20). People who protect this wilderness area do take their job seriously because even the smallest bit that seems out of place will be remove in order to have the integrity of the place remain. As you can tell by now this area is consider a good habitat since it protects both plant and animal species and it is thanks to the agency of Bureau and Land Management (BLM).

2. Sahuarita
This lake was not originally here; it was created. The lake was created around 2000 and was opened for visitors around 2001. It is a 10-acre Lake with a beautiful, radiant blue color because of a highly concentrated dye. The dye happens to be non-toxic, so it does not cause harm to either the people who come into contact with the water or the animals who drink it. This dye is added around two to three times every year in order for the water to keep its color, but its primary purpose is to help control the growth of weed and algae. There are activities people enjoy doing such as: running and walking, boating, and fishing. The main activity is fishing because of the variety of fish the lake offers, such as catfish, bass, bluegill, and sunfish. This activity requires licensing from Tucson Urban Fishing.

Sahuarita has a list of approving plants and the best season to start planting them. There are very few winter plants since most of them grow better in the summer or spring. Some of these plants are Mulga, Mescal Pelon, and Acanthus Mollis. Many types of trees grow in this area as well. The Palo Blanco is one of them as well as the Pencilleaf Acacia.

Since the lake is in the middle of the town, people can bring in their pets, but they must be wearing a leash. Some animals that can be found other than fishes in the area are doves and squabs. They can be seen roaming around in the sky from time-to-time other types of birds can be seen, but the native or most common is the squab and doves.

3. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument
The Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument like many regions of the Sonoran Desert it has low humidity, low rainfall, and a high ratio of evaporation to precipitation, however, what has distinguished this region from many other areas are the dynamic environmental factors that have allowed for vivid biodiversity to take place, and to be recognized by the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) as a biosphere reserve since 1976, and to declare 95% of its area as wilderness.

What makes this area suitable for such a blooming ecosystem full of diverse species is its proximity to the Gulf of California, the Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico, in addition to this the high mountain barriers allow for a positive apportionment and biannual seasonality of rainfall. The first instance in which this occurs is in Winter/Early Spring through the frontal pacific storms, and then in later summer through the violent convectional storms. As a result, many species have an opportunity to adapt to the conditions of this region of the Desert. Some animals that have abundant populations in these regions are Mountain Lions, Desert Bighorn, Sonoran Pronghorn, Javelinas, and Packrats. Another species with a predominant presence in the Lesser Long-nosed Bats which is indispensable as it is the primary pollinator of the Saguaros and Organ Pipe Cactus which are the distinguishable feature of this area. Along with that, the Lesser Long-nosed Bats are an indicator species that depict how healthy the region is and if an action for its conservation should be taken. This area is also abundant in many plant species such as Night-Blooming Cereus, Desert Caper, Cottonwood Trees, and Pomegranates. Something interesting is that the last two were introduced by humans for agricultural purposes and inadvertently caused a positive effect on the environment, those plants are considered a part of history as they were introduced by the Tohono O'odham on the Quitobaquito settlement, and are considered heritage plants.

This region presents both animals and humans with the opportunity to comprehend one another. Their roles, their strengths, and how can they interact with one another to create a more balanced perception of nature. One way in which this has taken place is by the growing interest of academics and naturalists in the study of the Lesser Long-nosed bats. They analyze their distribution, their polinization patterns, their diet, and many other things to determine the general state of the regional environment.

4. Gila Box Riparian National Conservatory
This 23,000-acre conservation area is the representative image of an oasis in the middle of the desert as this area has four perennial watergates, the Gila River, the San Francisco River, Bonita Creek, and Eagle Creek. This area is often considered a hidden gem of exploration and many recreative activities, however, what people often ignore is the role it plays in the preservation of wildlife.

As seen in many of the images, the Gila Box Riparian National Conservatory has a neverending variety of plant species such as Patchy Mesquite trees, Cottonwoods, and American Sycamores aside from many others, this conservatory is often considered a sandy beach that has around two hundred species of birds migrating to the area throughout the year, some examples are pygmy-owls and eagles often classified as raptors, another animal that often represents this zone is the Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep whose population has been growing since the inception of the conservatory in 1990.

This Riparian conservatory was made with three objectives regarding the protection and enhancement of wildlife species: The first one is to monitor populations and habitats especially the routes of migration, quality of water, and fisheries as this is home of the endangered species the Gila Chub. Secondly, to enhance wildlife that had been slowed down by the introduction of human activities, and finally, to re-establish native fish and wildlife.

1. Morenci
Morenci is home to mainly the family of the mine workers. In order to provide electricity for their houses they use a Power Plant. The water for the city of Morenci comes from two wells which are both 110ft deep. Water is pumped through an air induction system remove as much hydrogen sulfide as possible. Afterwards it is passed through many filters to help remove iron. Lastly, chlorine is added to help disinfect the rest of it. This was how they did it back when the main source was the wells but now also have other sources such as rivers lakes, stream, ponds, etc. They mainly use water from Eagle Creek which is only a few miles away.

Now, the sewer also works differently. It works on a stabilization pond system. It is pumped from the West station and then goes to the stabilization pond system located Northwest. Stabilization ponds are basically "shallow man-made basins comprising a single or several series of anaerobic, facultative or maturation ponds." The whole sewage situation became a problem situation was working but then got complicated as the population grew so the usual plan was not working so they now associated with the Morenci Wastewater Treatment Plant. This basically allows them to recycle the water as Freeport said, “The wastewater treatment plant effluent is discharged to the copper mine’s tailings holding reservoir, which collects and holds the copper mine’s process and runoff water. This water is then processed and reused in the copper mine” (para. 11). Basically the connection between the water treatment and the mines have their own reservoir  which uses water that has already been process to afterwards put in multiple uses for it at the mines.

This region has also partner up with a recycling system. Since there is little waste trash in only picked up once a week. The recycle anything made up of: aluminum, copper, brass, or even batteries. The closest wilderness area to Morenci would be the Gila Box Riparian National Conservation.

2. Laguna Patos
“The Pluvial Lake Palomas – Samalayuca Dunes System” stated, “The Laguna de Patos, forming one of the smallest playas located in the far southeast extent of the system” (pg 16). Due to the location, if there were a winter storm, it would be moving north from the Gulf of Mexico in order to push warm air away and create a cold front. As for the moon phases, there was a full moon on March 28, and will not be another one until April 26. Interestingly, this was initially called “Laguna Patos” because it is like a resting place for ducks.

Because it is considered part of the Sonoran Desert its soil, this laguna is layered with clay, colors, and caliche. Since it is close to the laguna, the soil is moist around the edges but dry where the moisture does not reach. Because of the laguna being located in Sonora, the planting or growing season was calculated based on their information. Based on that information, it was concluded that the best time for planting seeds is around the end of April for spring.

An alternative name for this region is “Laguna Los Patos,” which is not much different from its original name if you analyze it. This lake is considered to be a class H which stands for hydrographic. Also, it is considered standing water, and one of the reasons this is believed is the poor soil surrounding the area. An interesting region that is close to this laguna is the Cananea.

3. Swansea Wilderness
The Swansea Wilderness is a protected wilderness area located on the eastern end of the Buckskin Mountains in La Paz county divided by a gorge formed by six miles of the Bill Williams River. The name "Swansea" was taken from a town with the same name located on the south end of an area that was formerly used for mining and smelting of copper.

Some of the topographical features of this land are the eroded volcanic dikes with precipitous cliffs that can be found on the North of this area that connect with the Buckskin Mountains this portion even though it is less distinctive aside from its impressive height that ranges from 670-1900 feet, it plays a major role as the rounded section forms a complex drainage system that leads to the river. The river near those areas forms a riparian community that allows for species such as hedgehogs, and badgers to have a primary source of water. Like in many of the parts of the Sonoran Desert, the Swansea Wilderness was subjected to a mining operation near the region connecting with the Bill Williams River that mostly searched for copper, gold, and silver till the late 1980s. By the 1990's the U.S Bureau of Land Management declared it a wilderness area, and also assessed a study to determine the richness of the land which showed that there was a high potential for manganese, copper, lead, and zinc making it one of the largest areas within Arizona with such potential to not be exploited, this denotes the increasing conscience of the government and the population on the effects it would have on the water and land becoming a statement of what can be achieved when the environment is prioritized.

The existence of an area like the Swansea Wilderness shows the conflicting approaches of humanity regarding the environment. It presents both an opportunity for the people living near the area to explore and to examine what is truly valuable of nature which is not the gold, the copper, or any of the rich ores that reside beneath the surface of the area but the magnificence of the tumultuous mountains and the water that runs by its side. Being able to watch nature and its cycle of transformation is in itself a trophy. However, this region also presents a major threat as the richness of its soil and its resources could awaken humanity's never-ending greed. The state of Swansea Wilderness will represent in the future a statement of our values as a culture it will either show our desire to protect nature or the blinding want for power.

4. Cuatemoc Dam
The Cuauhtemoc Dam was built in the last 1940s and has had a lasting impact on the story of Tubutama as it has sustained many of the agricultural areas since it was built. This dam has a storage capacity of 51 million cubic meters of water and throughout the past decades it was filled to around 40% of its maximum capacity, however, this has been subject to change as the area experiences increasing temperatures and scarcity of rainfall. Some of the features that make this region noticeable to the eye of many ecologists are the imminent risk of losing this area to climate change in the following five years, and the pressure it would place on species such as prickly pears, cardonales, chameleons, and Tecolote's to leave the rich soil of this areas to change their distribution and survive. One piece of evidence that points to this event is that as of 2020 the Cuauhtemoc dam was filled to only 29.2% of its capacity in contrast to the approximately 40% around 75 years ago. Something even more alarming is that as of 2021 it is only filled to 5% of its capacity which accurately depicts the drought that is experienced by the state of Sonora this current year.

Furthermore, it would not only impact the species residing near the area but also the primary economic activity of Tubutama. In contrast to the many negative repercussions that have brought the drought, it has also allowed creating conscience on the use of water and the importance it has not only to irrigate but also to unite the many elements of nature that converge in that area.

It must still be noted that even if some conscience has been generated in the current generation residing near the dam it is still a symbol of the anthropogenic era. It represents the devastating rhythm at which humanity lives and how it is imposed over the environment. It makes you wonder how different the world would look if people had actually embraced what it means to be a part of nature instead of an absolute figure that decides on behalf of every other living entity on the planet.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Plains of Sonora

=Subregion Outline=

Introduction:
The Sonoran Plains are an area that is continuously defying expectations. People often believe that this area is almost contrapuntal to the Arizona Uplands as the superficial level of beauty achieved by that region is harshly compared to this one, however, the same amount of biodiversity, history, opportunities, and threats are a common element of this vast region. At first glance, the Sonoran Plains are nothing more than the quintessential representation of what most people believe is a desert, as there seems to be nothing more than dunes of sand. This is where the perception of humanity plays upon their ignorance as they are in front of one of the liveliest areas in the whole Sonoran Desert, an area with even more rainfall than the Arizona Uplands the vegetation is denser while the solid is deeper and finer. That rich soil allows for abundant legume trees, especially mesquite and few columnar cacti in comparison to most regions of the Desert. The Sonoran Plains are a mystery only available to those who are willing to wander beyond the simple aesthetic and devote themselves to learning about the true spirit of the Sonoran Desert, and the following areas have as an objective to introduce the reader to a never-ending journey that will not only take place on this section of the wiki book but throughout their whole lives.

1. El Novillo
El Novillo may seem like a beautiful deep blue lake, but its past historical events would say otherwise. In order to create the dam, three villages had to be evacuated: Tepupa, Suaqui, and Batuc. All of these villages are from the Sonoran, specifically Hermosillo, which makes Yaqui their native language. However, they also speak other native languages such as Cucapah, Guarijio, Kikapu, Opata, Papago, Pima, Seri, and Mayo. Due to the large and private properties of some ten thousand inhabitants of the affected towns, the work received a sizeable economic contribution to cover compensation.

A more formal name for this lake is “Plutarco Elias Calles Reservoir,” and it also happens to be near the Yaqui River. This human-made lake is located close to San Pedro de la Cueva City. It can hold up to 2,925 million cubic meters of water and generate 135,000 kilowatts of electricity. The whole dam construction began in May of 1958, but the project was formally presented in 1955. It was not until 1962 when the construction was finalized, and in 1964, operations to the generation units of the dam began.

The reason behind this was because they all disappeared because of the flood. The initial purpose of the dam was due to a project which would create hydropower. Luckily, many other functions/benefits came from the creation of the dam. Some of these benefits include national and international tourism, control of avenues, and commercial or sport fishing. In order to keep history alive, the façade for the church (San Francisco Javier de Batuc) was disassembled and rebuilt at a park name Plaza de Tres Pueblos in Hermosillo.

2. Empalme
The history of Empalme in Sonora is one that represents the rise and fall of one of the most prominent indigenous tribes of Mexico, Los Yaquis. This area of the Yaqui Valley was adopted in the 1950s by a fraction of the Yaqui tribe that desired to use modern agricultural techniques that required the use of pesticides and tractors that opposed the traditional simple irrigation by the more conservative of the tribe. This conflict would be the beginning of a new era for the city of Empalme. As time progressed not only the Yaqui but many other groups moved to the area as they had observed the potential of this estuarine ecosystem and the number of migratory species that resided in there such as humpback whales, the endangered tiny vaquita, manta ray, and leatherback sea turtle as some examples. With more people, modernization also reached its pinnacle as larger industries from not only Mexico but the United States came to exploit the resources of the area, and put Empalme on the map while also erasing the basic values of preservation of the Yaqui tribe.

At this point in time, the rapid socio-economic growth is leading to major negative ecological changes since urbanization, agricultural and fishing intensification, and expanded livestock operations are leading to a catastrophic representation of the anthropogenic era as humanity creeps upon every inch of nature and is endangering many beautiful water species such as the tiny vaquita and the totoaba.

1. Mirador Presa Abelardo l. Rodriguez
The Presa Abelardo L. Rodriguez was built in 1927. During the construction of the dam many factors were taken into consideration such as transportation for products coming both in and out the region. This was one of the main reasons why there is road on top of the dam and why it cost a little bit more than expected because they had to make sure the soil and everything else was stable enough to hold concrete and not collapse.

Presa Abelardo L. Rodriguez range in temperature can change drastically. The yearly average temperature recorded has been 63.9 degrees Fahrenheit. The warmest being in the month of August was an average of 73.8 degrees Fahrenheit, while the coldest temperature in average and during the month of January was 56.1 Fahrenheit. The overall record for the hottest temperature recorded was during the month of September by being 108.7 degrees Fahrenheit, and the coldest temperature being recorded on the month of December by 21.2 degrees Fahrenheit.

January was the month in which recorded the most precipitation with 45.7 mm. On the other hand, the month with 0mm being the least amount of precipitation was June. Overall, the yearly average amount of precipitation is around 233.7mm. Oddly enough the month with the most amount of rain is January with 6.7 days of rain while the overall average is 39.7 days of rain.

There are trying to do some projects to help understand more of the geological aspect of the dam such as: geotechnical, geological, geophysical, hydrological-hydraulic, and scouring study. The dam is located west from this perspective. This dam is majorly connected to the Tijuana River since it is built over it.


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Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Central Gulf Coast

=Subregion Outline=

Introduction:
The Baja area of the Sonoran Desert supports a wide range of wildlife that contradicts the the common understanding of the word "Desert". This sliver of land, while surrounded by large bodies of water, still suffers from some of the hardships of a desert such as water insecurity, and high temperatures. Part of the charm of this area, in addition to its beautiful landscape, is its large influence by culture and its long interesting history that has more influence in the world than most presume when referring to a desert.

Tiburón Island
Isla Tiburon is the largest island in Mexico which has been made a natural reserve. To get to the island, two permits are required for day hiking and overnight stays on the island. the island is mostly uninhabited, and home to bighorn sheep and coyotes.

This island has a very interesting story in its history about Tom Grindle and the members of his exploratory group in 1905, visiting the island where there are ruins of an old monastery from the Seri Indians. The original reporting's of the island to the Douglas dispatch found the island to be of volcanic origin, and not too much of a sight to see. The natives on the island were reported to be friendly and non combative, but with a little disapproval of the explorers. after failing to return almost a month after their expected arrival, Tom's brother lead the search for the missing people or to recover their bodies. Upon multiple trips to the island and even finding a camp believed to belong to the men, they never found them, or any signs of their bodies. There is some skepticism that they might have dies of thirst and their bodies disposed of by the natives, but there was no information found about them. This is believed so because of the natives fondness for raw foods, which lead others to believe they were cabalistic.

Parroquia Misión de Loreto
When Europeans first arrived in Baja California, the Spanish set to work on sending Jesuit missions to establish in the New World. One of the first missions to be established permanently in Baja California would be the Misión De Nuestra Señora de Loreto Concho in what was back then a Native American settlement named Concho. This mission took place in 1697 by Jesuit Father Jean Marie de Salvatierra.

Even though The mission in Loreto was the first permanent establishment of a Spanish church, it was not the first attempt. There were several past attempts made for many years that were met with failure due to many reasons. One of the bigger reasons would be from Native American aggression not letting them settle down. Another big problem was finding a livable place that had plentiful resources.

The permanent settlement of this church marked the change of an era. With a base from where to start from, many other Jesuit missionaries set forth to establish other churches and convert the Natives of Baja California. This came to the detriment of the Natives who through history, we can see how they were forcefully relocated on many occasions and most of them died from the newly introduced diseases.

Isla San José
Isla San Jose is an island located in the gulf of California near the east coast of Baja California Peninsula, only 37 miles away from the city of La Paz. With a surface area of 182. 962 km2, it is considered the sixth largest island in Baja California.

The eastern side of the island is composed of scarps that were the result of tectonic subsidence of the sea floor towards el Farallon Basin. the island was significantly affected by the faulting of the northeast southwest of the basin.

The San Jose channel was formed due to the late Miocene activity of the Giganta Fault. San Jose received marine sediment throughout the early Pliocene. Hundreds of years later these sediments were uplifted during the late Pliocene. The block faulting and lifting of these rocks and soil particles gave not only gave rise to the san Jose channel but also to the San Francisco island.

Santa Rosalía
The small town of Santa Rosalia is one of many old company towns that were once bustling with people due to mining operations by an old company called El Bolea. Today, the city has lost much of its population and shifted from a mining town to a more commercial city. The city was created in 1885 and was chosen as the seat of the Mulege municipality due to how influential it was in it’s time.

The city of Santa Rosalia started out as a mining town for a French mining company called El Bolea. The company created the town as a base of operations where they could expand from and workers would live in. This creation of jobs as well as the wealth created from copper, gold, and other minerals meant that the town started to slowly grow. The town eventually grew to be a wealthy city and in 1972, when the municipality of Mulege was formally established, Santa Rosalia became the head of the municipal.

The town was created for mining and has a long record of it until the year 1954, when the company El Bolea was shut down. After the company left the city, there had been many attempts at keeping the mining and refining aspect of the town alive, yet the people had no success. Even to this day, there have been some attempts at starting up mining again but the glory of past days remains alive as many of the smelters and mines have become parts of museums.

Cabo Pulmo National Park
Cabo Pulmo National Park is a national marine park located on the east coast of the peninsula of Baja California, approximately 60 miles north of Los Cabos. A few decades ago, the overfishing of many marine organisms threatened Cabo Pulmo and affected its ecosystem. Thousands of species were put into danger due to irresponsible tourism. It was not until 1995 that the park was declared a natural protected area by Mexican laws.

Shortly afterward, the number of marine species in the area significantly increased, and nowadays, the park is home to the most complex and biodiverse regions of the Gulf of California. One of the most common species in this area is the caranx sexfasciatus, also known as the bigeye jack trevallies, a species of fish that can easily be found offshore. Cabo Pulmo's reef attracts a large number of migratory species such as whale sharks, marine turtles, giant mantas, and humpback whales. Sharks are also common in this area; the most common is the bull shark which can normally be seen during the summertime.

The recovery of the Cabo Pulmo reef is considered a success story, not only because of the legal protection interventions but also due to the community's collaboration. To support the protection of the park's ecosystem, many people stopped their fishing activities and instead promoted tourist activities that include scuba diving and whale and shark watching.

Isla del Espiritu Santo
Espiritu Santo Island is a protected area located in the Golf of California, 29 Km from La Paz. There is no permanent human population, roads or bridges in the area, the only way to access the island by boat, currently, it can only be visited with a capacity of 40%.

The island is home to a diverse wildlife with 32 species of reptiles, 98 species of birds and 16 species of plants. However, most of the life in this island is found in the water, more specifically in the Baja Sea of Cortez. Some of the marine species that live in these waters include, hawksbill sea turtles, jumping manta rays, corrals, parrotfish, pelagic fish, and different species of whales.

Out of the 19 breeding grounds in the on the pacific coast of Mexico, Espiritu Santo has one of the biggest Sea Lion colonies in California with over 500 individuals. The sea lion colony is known as the island’s “crown jewel” and has the highest birth rates in the Gulf of Mexico. The island has been a Natural Protected Area for almost 12 years by now and has several monitoring programs such as the The National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and the Grupo Tortugero de las Californias (CTC).

Loreto
Loreto is home to different species of marine animals and land creatures. Humpback, blue and grey whales are among the biggest animals that can be found in the area. The best season to watch these creatures is between the winter and spring months. Other species of marine animal that are also found in the Loreto national park include dolphins, sea lions, whale sharks and over 900 different types of tropical fish.

Not only does Loreto have a great variety of migratory cetaceans and jumping mobulas, but it also has a huge world beneath the surface occupied by the smallest inhabitants. There are hundreds of sea slugs, crustaceans, flat worms, and nudibranchs of different types of colors. The botanic garden is the perfect home for soft corals, like gorgonians and sea fans. If you dive deeper you may even find a forest of black corals.

While most of the wildlife in Loreto is in the ocean there is a great variety of mammals living in the mountains and deserts of the place. Some of the land creatures if the area includes different species of coyotes, foxes, bobcats, racoons, and white-tailed deer. Species like the desert bighorn sheep and jackrabbits suffered from overhunting and became endangered.

Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California)
The sea of Cortez sustains many species of life across the water and its 37 islands Many of which are rare or endangered. overfishing and pollution pose a major threat to this body of water and its animals that inhabit it.

The Gulf has an estimated population capacity set at around 13,000 boats, but it has been overcrowded holding nearly over 17,000 boats which has resulted in an inefficient catch rate, and decrease in aquatic population.

A Proposal has been made to ensure that fishing is being done more efficiently, by reducing the amount of individual boats which also in turn helps to decrease pollution of the water by the various boats.

La Paz
La Paz is the capital of Baja California, but is facing a severe water issue. Although residing close to open waters, La Paz is running out of water due to drought and growing populations. Because of this they decided to build an aqueducts from El Carrizal to La Paz. The project was expected to cost 10M Dollars to benefit around 67,000 people.

This Aqueduct is its only source of water since there are no natural springs or surface water in the La Paz watershed.

The water is divided by its uses with 2% being for industrial use, 35% for agriculture, and 63% for urban and domestic use. To maintain the health of this watershed and aquafer, they propose to utilize reforesting, building soil conservation works, and education the local public about the necessity to conserve water and use efficiently.


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Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Vizcaino

=Subregion Outline=

Introduction:
The vizcaino region of the sonoran desert encompass the middle region of the baha peninsula.

Misión San Ignacio Kadakaamán
Misión de San Ignacio de Kada-Kaaman is a catholic church in the city of San Ignacio Mexico found in an oasis in the middle of the desert. The Oasis was called Kadakaaman by the Cochimi, which meant “Arroyo del Carrizal” or “Stream of the Reeds” (Tendencia). The Oasis was initially discovered by missionare Francisco Maria Piccolo in 1716, who decided that from the resource rich area and the indegenous people that needed to convert, he would establish the city of San Ignacio (ISDC). Later in 1728, missionare Juan Luyando arrived at San Ignacio to found the church which was finished until 1786.

Before the sedentary towns were built, Baja California was full of indigenous people such as the Cochimi. The Cochimi survived in the harsh conditions of the desert by constantly being on the movie looking for places with resources. Their focus was on hunting and gathering rather than any type of agriculture, so the people lived in small sustainable groups. When the missionaries came, a lot changed with their change of life. Due to the extremely rich land of the Oasis, San Ignacio quickly became an important place for agriculture that could produce enough to feed the entire region (Destinos Mexico).

While there were some benefits from the arrival of the missionaries, it also meant that the Cochimi’s way of life would be completely altered. The missionaries focused on trying to convert the indegenous people, sometimes resulting in violence (Munoz Rendon). The Cochimi were also forced to relocate in certain towns to help with managing the fields. Soon, the diseases that the Europeans brought with them started to take a toll in the Cochimi people, and with the slow decline of their population, they went extinct by the 19th century.

Catavina Pinturas Rupestres
The pinturas rupestres de Catavina are several thousand year old cave paintings found in the desert Valle de los Cirios. The town of Cavatina is very small, but is a huge tourist attraction though to its famous ancient cave paintings.

The Catavina cave paintings are believed to originate from the ancient tribe of the Cochimi over 3,000 years ago (Diaz, 2019). The road to the paintings from Catavina is pretty straightforward, just follow a marked path up a small hill where a cave can be found on top. The cave measures about 3 meters long with a giant rock on top covering the cave. Several paintings can be found of shapes like squares, triangles, and striped rectangles drawn in colors of black, ochre, whites, yellows, and oranges (Destinos Mexico).

As mentioned before, the cave paintings are believed to be made by a now extinct indigenous tribe known as the Cochimi. The Cochimi were known to be hunter gatherers who knew little of agriculture due to having to survive in the harsh conditions of the desert. When missionaries from Europe came to convert the tribe, they had little success but caused many casualties due to disease. The Cochimi tribe ceased to exist in the 19th century (Simkin, 2020).

Tres Virgenes
Tres Vírgenes is a  apart of a volcanic ridge that extends from Baja California towards the Guaymas Basin, and consists of three volcanos, El Viejo, El Azufre, and La Vírgen. The last eruption of these volcanos was radiocarbon dated to be during the Pleistocene period, which was about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, leaving the surrounding area covered in pumice stone.

Despite the obvious dangers of living near volcano's, the ash left behind from eruptions deposits potassium and phosphorus into the soil making for a very fertile soil to grow plants.

Bahía de los Ángeles
Bahia de Los Angeles is a coastal bay located alongside the Sea of Cortez. The Bay is dotted with mountains and has a total of 16 islands, all of which vary in size from less than 0.01 miles to more than 3.1 miles. The island was formed 10 million years ago by volcanic upheavals that caused the sea level to rise and the peak of mountains to become isolated. Some of the most well-known islands are the Angel de la Guardia and Ventana.

The metamorphic basement of the Bay is composed of mafic schists and Paleozoic metapelites. Its granite basement is made of pyroclastic rocks and in part of the volcanoclastic rocks, mainly of the Sierra Las Animas. The oldest volcanic rocks found in the sierra las Animas are andesitic spills from the Early Miocene with deposits of sandstones and conglomerates.

The Bay’s modern looks was achieved approximately 10 000 years ago. However, some of the thousands of miles of coves and coastal cliffs have not been altered or change and remain the same as they were hundreds of years ago.

C. Biodiversity
 El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve  The Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve is located at the center of the Baja Peninsula, among the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The reserve became a national biosphere by 1988 and was declared a world heritage site in 1993. It has one of the greatest wildlife refuges in Mexico and Latin America, with a landmass covering at least 2.5 million hectares.

Most of the animals and plants in this region are considered endemic species and have been forced to adapt to the extreme condition of the desert. Some of the terrestrial animals found in reserve include coyotes, hares, rodents, pumas, and mule dears. The reserve is also home to many endangered species such as the Desert Bighorn Sheep and the pronghorn antelope, which, unfortunately, have suffered from overhunting. Around the area, you can also find the last inhabitants of Antilocapra Americana Peninsularis, which is an endemic species of antelopes.

The Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve is the birthplace of the California Gray Whale. During winter, hundreds of gray whales migrate down from the Bering Sea to the lagoons of San Ignacio and Magdalena bay to mate and nurse the newborn whale calves. Other aquatic animals found in these waters are sea turtles, marine seals, and sea lions.

Isla Natividad
Isla Natividad is an island located approximately 4 miles to the west of Punta Eugenia in Baja California Sur. Despite being a region considerably drier than the rest of the nearby islands, it is full of life and has diverse wildlife. Natividad is home to 81 species of plants, which include the Agave sebastiana, Cochemiea pondii, and Eschscholzia ramosa. The Agave Sebastiana is and endemic plant in this area, it is  ultra-rare on the trade and has a diminutive size along with rosettes that can grow for decades before flowering.

In the island you can also find a large population of the Aspidoscelis tigris multiscutat, which a is a species of lizard that can easily be recognized by its blotched coloration and elongated body. Another common species in the island is the Peromyscus maniculatus dorsalis, also known as the north American deer mouse. The deer mouse is the most abundant mammal in the region and often confused with the Mus musculus, a type of exotic house mouse. Unfortunately, the deer mouse is likely to become an endangered species in future and has recently been added to list of “Threatened under the Mexican laws”.

Natividad island is home to one of the densest kelp forests in Baja California. Even though the ecosystem of kelp is in good shape, the red abalone is constantly being extracted and commercially exploited. To solve the problem the Before-After-Control-Impact came up with a project that will find ways to help recover the red abalone inside the reserve and possibly create a spillover effect near the fishing grounds. If the project is successful, it can become a fisheries management strategy not only for the kelp forest in Natividad island but also for the rest of Mexico.

Laguna Chapala
Laguna Chapala, is a now dried up body of water in the seemingly middle of nowhere. There is not much interest in it, nor travel or works written about it, but one interesting issue with this lake is that it is a prime example of receding waters over many years as the Earth climbs through its heating phase.

Through explorations and monitoring of this lake, scientists believe that the lake used to extend a much larger surface area than it currently is up to a maximum surface area when rainfall produces a rising water level during winter months.

Another interesting finding about this obscure lake is that there have been some indications that there were human settlements around this lake. Currently the city of Chapala is just a small truck stop in the middle of a highway.

Coco's Corner
Every year, thousands of adventure seekers from around the globe travel past Coco’s Corner making it one of the most frequented roadside stops on the entire peninsula. tourists describe it as a haphazard assemblage of broken trucks and appliances, but despite the initial impressions tourists find a feeling of connection with nature being in the middle of nowhere and connection to humanity

This interesting spot is being encroached upon by highway interstate construction, and soon may disappear if such construction brings the pollution of noise and cities to this quiet desert town.

Places like Cocos corner eventually disappear when enough traffic makes its way into the area. While many people want to visit and experience the silence of nature, ultimately the more people visit the less the area is an oasis and becomes polluted with noise. Once the highway reaches Cocos corner, they will no longer be the oasis away from society, and become another trash ridden side of the road abandoned area.


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Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Magdalena

=Subregion Outline=

Introduction:
The Magdelena region of the sonoran desert encompases the lower area of the baja peninsula.

Museo Ruta de Plata
History/Culture: The Museum “Ruta de Plata” is located in the southern part of Baja California, in a small town called El Triunfo. While this town no longer holds the glory it used to, it once was the biggest town in Baja California thanks to its riches in silver. These were the same riches that attracted so many people from the Old World to come and stay in the New World, forever changing its history. This museum has made it's goal to record and preserve the history of this place and the role it once played in Baja California.

The focus of the museum is from the 1500’s and the 1900’s, from when the first settlers of the new world came, to when the town boomed with unimaginable riches, to now that it is a shell of its former self. It recounts the history and stories of people during those eras and the many important figures such as Hernan Cortez, the Jesuit missionaries, Manuel de Ocio, and many others who changed Baja California.

While the museum was first established on November 17, 2018, the founders of the museum Christy Walton, Richard Kiy, John Reynolds, and Juan Jose Cabuto are dedicated to capturing the history of these times and guiding others through this history. Through countless archives found in cities such as La Paz and many other oral stories told by countless descendants of people who created the town as well as many key figures, they plan on preserving the history of the once great town of El Triunfo.

Mining
The most popular mining prospects in Baja California are, gold, tungsten, and copper. There have been over 160 mining sites discovered, with four prospected mining sited reported. One of these mines lies near San Antonio, Baja sur. This mine is projected to be an open pit mine with expectations to mine 11,000 to 15,000 tons per day. Part of the mine proposals is that it will create its own water and reduce its need to use water from near by aquafers.

While there has been large controversy towards opening new mines, companies who plan on opening these mines are looking into eco friendly alternatives to some issues of mining and also promising to create healthy public communities for its workers, going as far as to building sports teams. Mines take an incredible amount of resources to function and while Baja California may be a literal gold mine, government has made many efforts to preserve the natural state of the area.

The mining activity in this area that has been going on for over 250 years has severely contaminated the soils in the area, leaving behind toxic levels of arsenic and other trace metals which have migrate into the local waters. Locals have been warned to not drink the water. Since the area is naturally rich in minerals and metals, in order for scientists to determine if the high arsenic levels in the water were naturally caused or due to mining activity, they surveyed two different areas within the same watershed. The northern and southern parts. The conclusion of their research did recognize that the higher levels of pollutants in the water was much higher than the constant and based upon the locations of these old mines, it can be inferred that the pollutant has occurred due to the increased mining in the area.

Ciudad Constitución
In 1971, due to a new law passed by the president, the first of three municipalities was created in Baja California Sur, the Comondu municipality. The city of Ciudad Constitución was chosen to be the municipal seat of the Baja California Sur Comondú municipality. While the city may be small, it plays a large role in the agricultural economy of Baja California.

The founding date of the city was marked to be in May 10, 1953, when 3 pioneer families established their homes in the now city of Ciudad Constitucion. While for many years, the Baja California Desert had proven to be a difficult place to harvest crops, Ciudad Constitución was able to thrive due to the Valle de Santo Domingo. Due to this valley, hundreds of people came to Ciudad Constitucion to settle their own land and little by little the city grew and became the agricultural power it is today.

As stated before, Ciudad Constitucion is a relatively small town, yet it is very important for the agriculture of Baja California Sur. The city is responsible for the cultivation of wheat, cotton, citruses, and a large variety of fruits and vegetables. This is what helped a small city in the desert grow to the large commercial hub it is today in Comondu.