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Planet Earth/4i. Global Atmospheric Circulation

Hadley Cells
George Hadley grew up in the shadow of his older brother, John. Both born to a wealthy English family, and educated in mathematics and the sciences during the late 1600s. George’s older brother John had at a young age discovered a new scientific tool—the reflecting telescope. The reflecting telescope uses mirrors to enhance the image of stars and greatly advanced astronomical tools used to study astronomy, leading to the eventual discovery of the sexton. For his inventions, and astronomical and mathematic work John was elected to the Royal Society in 1717, and became an early active member of the oldest scientific society in England.

George Hadley, the younger brother worked as a lawyer, but continued to dabble in science in his free time and was wealthy enough to do so. He was particularly interested in working on scientific instruments to determine latitude, but was frequently overshadowed by his older brother’s scientific work. In 1735 he finally was elected to the Royal Society himself, and given access to observations made by meteorological logs made by scientists and sailors from around the world. These meteorological records included locations, dates, temperatures, barometric readings, and weather reports. In 1735 this was a huge amount of information as Britain was quickly expanding its international trade, with colonies and ports in the American Colonies, Canada, Belize, and in India. George Hadley noticed that barometric readings around the equatorial regions were significantly lower than barometric readings around 30 degrees latitude north and south of the Equator, which exhibited much higher barometric readings. In 1735, he wrote a quick explanation of why this occurs, due to a global atmospheric circulation pattern that now bears his name. Hadley circulation is a result of the temperature gradient that is caused by the spherical nature of Earth. The region around the Earth’s equator receives the greatest amount of sunlight, resulting in warmer temperatures. This warm zone results in rising air masses that form a zone of low pressure at the surface of the Earth. This equatorial belt is referred to as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Air masses along this zone will rise, some of this rise is powered by the centrifugal force of the Earth’s spin resulting in upward movement, and bulge in the atmosphere around the equator. As air masses rise, the air will expand and cool, resulting in a zone or belt across the Earth of intense rain storms and cloud cover. The Earth’s tropical rainforests fall within the ITCZ, including portions of Central America, Northern tip of South America, West Africa and the Congo Basin, Southern India, South Eastern Asia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. These regions account for dense jungles and rainforests, and watersheds for nearly continuous wet climates year-round. Since the Earth is tilted 23.5 degrees from the plane of its orbit around the sun, the location of the ITCZ shifts from the summer solstice to the winter solstice. This annual shift in the ITCZ greatly expands the region or belt around the Earth’s equator which is within the low-pressure atmospheric zone. Near the summer solstice each year in the Northern Hemisphere the ITCZ shifts northward bringing this rainy zone to these northern regions, while during the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere the ITCZ shifts southward bringing this rainy zone southward. These seasonal rains are called monsoons. Monsoon comes from the Arabic word mawsim, which means season. A monsoon is any seasonal period of abundance of rainfall, but monsoons associated with the seasonal motion of the ITCZ can alternate regions between major dry and wet weather patterns. The most famous monsoon associated with the motion of the ITCZ occurs in India. India sits just north of the equator, which runs through the Indian Ocean, during the late summer months, August-September, the ITCZ shifts northward and brings heavy rains to the Indian subcontinent. During the late winter months, February-March the ITCZ shifts far southward bringing dry weather to the Indian subcontinent. These seasonal monsoonal rains are felt across east Africa, northern Madagascar, Brazil, and northern Australia in February and March, while in August and September these seasonal monsoonal rains are felt in southern Mexico, the Niger Delta of Africa, India, Bangladesh and Southeastern Asia.

The shift of the ITCZ northward in August and September also affects rain and other weather patterns in the United States. These monsoonal weather patterns result in the appearance of hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico in August and September, that bring intense rainfall and storms to southeastern coastal states during this time of year. The ITCZ is only the beginning of a global circulation pattern in the atmosphere. As the air rises and water is lost from the rising air mass, new air rushes in to the low-pressure region. The motion of the Earth’s spin and the Coriolis effect result in this incoming flow of air to blow from the east. These strong prevailing winds are called the trade winds, and are useful for sailing ships crossing oceans. The northeasterly trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere blow from the northeast into the low-pressure ITCZ near the equator, while in the Southern Hemisphere, the southeasterly trade winds blow in from the southeast. These trade winds result in fairly continuous wind from the east toward the west just north or south of the equator, and are useful for sailing ships crossing large sections of the world’s oceans.

The rising warm air mass above the ITCZ hits the top of the troposphere and moves northward and southward at high altitudes. This warm air mass at high elevation is now dry, and undersaturated with low water vapor pressure. This high flow of air moves toward the poles causing the air to cool. As the air mass cools, it sinks, and as the air sinks it compresses and warms due to the adiabatic lapse rate. This results in a high-pressure subtropical zone. This high-pressure subtropical zone occurs at around 30 degrees north and south of the equator. This high-pressure subtropical zone is north of the Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees north) and south of the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees south). Like the ITCZ, this high-pressure subtropical zone varies with the seasons, given the tilt in Earth’s orbit. The high-pressure subtropical zone results in Earth’s great hot deserts. In North Africa in this zone of high pressure is the Sahara Desert and in South Africa the Kalahari, the middle eastern hot Arabian Desert also sits in this high-pressure subtropical zone, as does the Great Victoria Desert in Australia. In the Americas, the Patagonian Desert in South America, and the Chihuahuan Desert of northern Mexico, Sonoran Desert of Arizona, and Mojave Desert of California lay within the high-pressure atmospheric zone. These deserts are all found in the high-pressure zone caused by the global circulation pattern of Earth’s atmosphere. The atmospheric circulation patterns of the low-pressure equatorial rainforest and jungle regions of Earth and the high-pressure subtropical hot desert zones of Earth are collectively called the Hadley Atmospheric Circulation, or Hadley Cells after George Hadley who first described them nearly 300 years ago.

Hadley Atmospheric Circulation and Climate Change
In the hills above the city of Paradise, California, wildfires spread around the hilled woodlands of a once idyllic community. A caravan of cars led by a firetruck tried to pave a path through the burning landscape. Never before had such wildfires enveloped so many homes and buildings in northern California. In 2018 wildfires would extend over 1.5 million acres in California, making it the worst fire season in recorded history for the state, until 2020 when over 3.0 million acres burned. Why were fires becoming so common in the once wet northern pine dominated forests of northern California? California wildfires between 2000 and 2020 have peaked over 1.0 million acres each year, back in the 1960s, wildfires rarely exceeded 0.4 million acres for the state. What was causing the rise in fires? California, and much of the western United States sit in a precarious latitude in response to recent changes to the Earth’s Hadley Atmospheric Circulation pattern. The increasingly higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, allows air masses to retain more of the sun’s heat, resulting in an expansion of the Hadley circulation into new geographic regions. In the enriched carbon dioxide atmosphere, warm air high in the troposphere takes a longer time to cool and sink, and hence can travel further northward. Above the Pacific Ocean this northward expansion of the high-pressure subtropical zone pushes dry winds into Northern California. These dry warm winds from the high-pressure subtropical zone result in wildfires in forests and regions that typically would receive more rainfall. The increased frequency of wildfires in California and other western states is a result of the thermal expansion of the Hadley Circulation. Latitudes as high as 40 degrees north are now falling more frequently within the high-pressure subtropical zones. The atmospheric circulation patterns that determine the distribution of Earth’s deserts, are now exerting an effect further north. This has led to especially dry and warm late summer months in August and September for these regions. California is not the only region to be affected by these changes. In the southeastern United States these changes have resulted in warmer and drier August and September months, while in Europe the more northern motion of the Hadley Circulation has led to increasingly hot summer temperatures north of the Mediterranean Sea, with annual heat-waves in France, Spain, Italy, and Greece. It also has led to increasingly hot December-January temperatures in Australia, in the Southern Hemisphere, leading to massive forest fires during the 2018/19 and 2019/20 fire seasons.

Mid-latitude to High-latitude Atmospheric Circulation (Ferrel Cells)
A century after George Hadley had developed his ideas of atmospheric motion, a young American named William Ferrel was refining the idea in 1856. In particular, Hadley’s ideas of atmospheric motion was based on the idea that air masses conserve their linear motion, while Ferrel proposed a more correct assessment, that the motion of air masses followed angular momentum with respect to Earth’s Axis. In other words, they were affected by the spin of Earth’s motion. This causes air masses north of the high-pressure subtropical zone to blow out of the west toward the east (westerly winds). These higher latitude patterns of air flow are collectively called the Ferrel Cell, after William Ferrel. The combined motion of the Hadley Cells which blows winds out of the east into the low-pressure ITCZ and the motion of the Ferrel Cells which blows winds out of west away from the high-pressure subtropical zone, generates spiraling or a complex circular motion. These westerly winds blow into the coldest air mass near the poles. The air mass that encircles the polar regions sinks, resulting in the top of the troposphere to be lower above the poles. These westerly winds blow strongly against this cap of cold air that rotates around the top of poles. This thermal gradient results in a powerful path of wind called the jet stream. The jet stream provides a nearly continuous high wind in the atmosphere near the boundary with the troposphere and stratosphere, near the tropopause. These altitudes are within the cruising altitudes of most commercial aircraft, and hence is called the jet stream. These westerly winds can affect airplanes, significantly speed up airplanes traveling with this strong wind to the east, and slow down airplanes traveling against the jet stream to the west.

Out of Control Jet Streams and the Polar Vortex
The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide also affects the Ferrel Atmospheric Circulation Patterns near the Earth’s poles and results in changes to the strength of the jet stream. Normally, the jet stream gets its strong wind velocity from the strong thermal gradient between the very cold polar air in the Arctic, and the warmer air encircling the Earth to the south, around 50 degrees latitude. The cold dense air above the poles prevents the airmasses from the south to move northward, however as the Earth retains more of the sun’s energy, the polar air has warmed significantly. A warmer atmosphere over the poles, particularly the North Pole, results in a weaker jet stream. This weaker jet stream allows warm air masses to push up into the arctic, displacing the cold air southward. Sometimes the polar arctic air will drift southward, resulting in cold air masses to drift to latitudes of 50 degrees, leaving warmer air over the arctic. These weather events are called a Polar Vortex. During the winter, a polar vortex can move cold Arctic air southward, especially in the eastern portions of North America and northern Asia as it interacts with the westerly jet stream. These cold spells bring cold weather to the Northeastern portions of the United States, Eastern Canada, and the Great Lakes Region, while warm weather predominates along west coast, such as Alaska, the Yukon and British Columbia.

Rossby Waves
A century after Ferrel, and two centuries after Hadley, a Swedish scientist named Carl-Gustaf Rossby described the complex nature of the motion of the jet stream in relation to the westerly winds. Rossby identified atmospheric waves in the jet stream in 1939 and went on to explain the science of its motion. Today these waves are called Rossby waves. Atmospheric Rossby waves result from the conservation of the potential spinning forces stemming from the motion of the Earth, the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient, which results from differences in temperature with latitude. These waves result in polar cold air cresting like a wave with the tip pointing toward the southwest, and the broad polar front of cold air moving toward the east. Rossby waves in the Earth’s atmosphere cause between 4 to 6 large-scale meanders in the Earth’s jet stream. When these deviations become very pronounced, masses of cold air detach, and become low-strength storms and are responsible for many of the day-to-day weather patterns at mid-latitudes (40 to 50 degrees). The action of Rossby waves helps to explains why the eastern continental coast of the Northern Hemisphere, such as the Northeast United States and Eastern Canada, are much colder than Western Europe at the same latitudes. They also explain the recent weather phenomenon of warming along the northwestern coast of North America, while the northeastern coast of North America is hit with more frequent cold winter storms. In the Southern Hemisphere, the action of Rossby waves helps to explain recent weather variation in Antarctica Ice Sheets, with the recent warming and melting of the West Antarctic ice shelf in the Amundsen Sea, while the Eastern Antarctica ice sheet remains more stable with cooler weather.


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Planet Earth/4j. Storm Tracking

Hurricanes and Typhoons
On August 23, 2005, meteorologists noticed a tropical depression of low pressure in the Atlantic Ocean intensifying into a tropical storm as it headed toward the east coast of Florida. The storm quickly strengthened into a hurricane a few hours before making landfall north of Miami, Florida. It crossed over the tip of Florida, and emerged over the Gulf of Mexico on August 26 and continued to strengthen into a truly massive storm—a Category 5 hurricane. The gigantic storm formed an eye, a zone of low pressure in its center, as strong winds blew inward to its center. From space, the vortex of the storm was the only clear point in an expansive coverage of dark clouds. These heavy clouds and intense rain were formed by the quickly rising moist warm air from the waters of the Gulf of Mexico generating low pressure beneath this rising air. The storm slammed into southeastern Louisiana and Mississippi. The hurricane was named Katrina, by the World Meteorological Organization, which names Atlantic hurricanes from a rotating list. Katrina caused considerable destruction and casualties when it made landfall. An estimated 1,245–1,836 Americans died in the hurricane and subsequent floods, making Katrina one of the deadliest of hurricanes in the United States.

How can scientists track the motion and predict the landfall of storms, such as Katrina? Hurricanes are a special type of cyclone storm that is regionally confided to the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, as well as the northwestern Pacific Ocean waters. The word Hurricane comes from the Mayan God, Hunraqan, and first used in antiquity by Kʼicheʼ people of Guatemala. The term is used exclusively in the Americas. While in Asia and India the term Typhoon is used. The word Typhoon comes from Mandarin, Arabic, Persian and Hindi pronunciations for the term for large wind storms. The Ancient Greek term Τυφῶν (Tuphôn) is related to the Serpent-like god Typhon who challenged Zeus for supremacy of the universe, and breathed smoke, mist and wind storms. The technical or scientific term cyclone refers to any extensive storm characterized by wind blowing spirally around a calm center of a vortex. Both hurricanes and typhoons are simply colloquial terms for large cyclones. Cyclones produce wind speeds greater than 74 miles per hour (119 km/h), and form exclusively over oceans. When they make landfall, they cause considerable damage, but often break up over the higher topography on continents, so are a particular hazardous to coastlines. Tropical cyclones are grouped into 5 categories depending on their wind speed. Category 1 cyclones have wind speeds between 74-95 mph, Category 2 have wind speeds between 96-110 mph, Category 3 have wind speeds between 111-129 mph, with Category 4 wind speeds between 130-156 and Category 5 winds speeds greater than 157 mph. All these high wind speeds can cause considerable damage to structures. The categories also correspond to increasing storm surges, in rising ocean waters and potential for major coastline flooding. The formation of cyclones in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans are a result of the complex interaction between the ITCZ (the InterTropical Convergence Zone) a low-pressure zone near the equator and the high-pressure subtropical zone. Easterly winds blow from the high-pressure zone into the ITCZ. During the late summer months of August, September, and October, the ITCZ in the Northern Hemisphere moves northward due to the increasing thermal gradient from the later summer heat from the sun. These low-pressure zones result from the rising warm air above the oceans, causing air from the more northern high-pressure subtropical zones to blow into these depressions of low pressure. Pockets of low pressure form due to the Earth’s spin toward the east, causing waves of high pressure to crest, and near the back side of the cresting high pressure systems a depression of low-pressure forms (these waves are Rossby Waves, caused by the spin of the Earth and pressure gradients). These pockets of low-pressure result from rising air masses above seasonally warm ocean waters, and because they trail a high-pressure system, a huge amount of air can rush in to fill these low-pressure areas, resulting in high wind speeds. All cyclones on Earth move from the east toward the west, they never cross the equator and are only located at the maximum seasonal latitude of the ICTZ, often south of the high-pressure subtropical zone, and rarely extend north of 40 degrees latitude or south of 40 degrees latitude.

Storms that form north of the equator spin counterclockwise, while storms south of the equator spin clockwise. As air rushes into the center of the storm it is deflected slightly to the right in the northern hemisphere overshooting the low-pressure center of the storm and will spiral back to the left causing the center to spin counterclockwise. In the southern hemisphere the opposite happens. However, the overall path of the storms will follow a curved clockwise direction in the North Hemisphere, and curved counterclockwise direction in the South Hemisphere due to the Coriolis Effect. This will make cyclones appear to spiral in the opposite motion of their overall movement.

Cyclone Paths across Earth’s Surface
A history of Earth’s cyclone paths demonstrates a very narrow time of year and overall direction that they travel by. The Northern Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico are major regions for hurricane activity in August, September and October. During these months the ITCZ has moved low pressure warm air northward, causing storms to move from the eastern offshore regions of the Atlantic Ocean, across the Caribbean Islands and Florida, into the Gulf of Mexico or to head northward along the Southeastern Coast of North America. Large cyclones like those formed in the Gulf of Mexico rarely form in the Mediterranean Sea. This is because the Mediterranean Sea lays between 30 to 46 degrees north latitude within the high-pressure subtropical zone, and the low-pressure zone necessary for large storms to form never extends this far north. The Gulf of Mexico and surrounding Atlantic Ocean is farther south, with latitudes extending from 21 degrees north to 30 degrees and much closer to the formation of large cyclones associated with low-pressure ITCZ, especially in the late summer months.

Southeastern Asian countries are also within the easterly motion of cyclones on the western side of the Pacific Ocean. Here typhoons blow out of the east against the coastlines of southeastern China, and northward toward Korea and Japan. Some cyclones can form in the Indian Ocean and strike against the eastern coastline of India and Bangladesh causing major flooding with rising storm surges.

In the South Atlantic cyclones are rare, despite the Brazilian coast being situated at ideal latitudes for their formation. The only recent hurricane to make landfall in Brazil was Catarina in 2005. The reason for the rarity of hurricanes in the South Atlantic is because of the colder ocean waters of the open Atlantic Ocean as well as stronger wind shear off the coast of Brazil. Most of these cyclones appear in the Southern Hemisphere summer months of January, February and March. Southern Hemisphere cyclones are much more common and dangerous in the Indian Ocean, and can strike the East African coastline. In 2019 cyclone Idai hit Mozambique flooded the city of Beira on the East Africa coast. In the Pacific Ocean, the Southern Hemisphere can host cyclones that impact northern Australia and New Guinea. In March 2019, cyclone Trevor struck the Northern Territory of Australia.

Cyclones in a Warming Earth
One of the major scientific questions about cyclones is whether they will increase in frequency as the Earth’s atmosphere warms with increasing carbon dioxide. To answer this question, scientists construct computer models of the Earth’s atmosphere and play out differences in the absorption of heat in the modeled atmosphere. From these models, there is surprisingly little confidence on whether the frequency of cyclones increases with a warming planet. However, there is strong consensus that the ITCZ will increase poleward, resulting in an increasingly broader range of future storm tracks, with increasing likelihood that latitudes north and south of 30 degrees could be hit by future storms. The other strong consensus is that because of the increased atmospheric heat, precipitation (the amount of rainfall) produced by cyclones will increase. The amount of rainfall increasing with warming temperatures in the atmosphere will heavily impact coastal areas with increasing floods, and will likely make coastal regions more prone to future flooding. Further increases in sea level will also contribute to rising amounts of coastline flooding during storm surges. Here is a link to a chart of all Atlantic Storms from 1855, until 2015, showing a slight upward trend.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Planet Earth/4j. Storm Tracking


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Planet Earth/4k. The Science of Weather Forecasting

Improving Weather Forecasting
Advances in the science of weather forecasting and the prediction of extreme weather patterns has led to numerous benefits from the agricultural industry determining when best to plant or harvest crops; to city emergency responders determining if a city needs to be evacuated before a major hurricane makes landfall. In recent years, advances in forecasting have improved from quicker observations and faster computer models, with better integration of incoming data, such as real-time temperatures and barometric readings, as well as satellite data. Since the 1940s, the number of people killed in storms has decreased, despite a rapidly growing population. Much of this drop has been due to better predications of extreme weather patterns, and better communication of impending storms. Three-day predictions of the path of cyclones have become more precise, allowing time for evacuations and other preparations that save lives and property. Improvements in forecasts are due to improved government weather data collection infrastructure provided by the United States Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which includes the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the National Weather Service (NWS). The intergovernmental European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) provides weather forecasting for the European Continent. Other regions are covered by local governmental weather services which provide weather data to the public. Open access to weather and environmental data is of vital importance for communicating weather changes and help to improve human health and to make sound economic decisions.

A modern 5-day forecast is as today as accurate as a 1-day forecast was in 1980, and 9 to 10-day weather forecasts are better than they have ever been. Predictions have improved for a wide range of hazardous weather conditions, including cyclones, blizzards, floods, rain, hail, and tornadoes. Much of this has been due to increased investment in weather stations and forecasting computer models.

What makes weather forecasting better today? And can we make it even better in the future? Advances in cutting edge computer models coupled with the ability to utilizing observations from a large network of surface and satellite data quickly have led to improvements in weather forecasts. Understanding the dynamic nature of the Earth’s atmosphere has also allowed more accurate predictions to be made. However, uncertainties still exist for longer term forecasts of weather predictions. Using seasonally adjusted data and observations from previous years, coupled with incoming real time data that is synced within fast computing models of weather can be extremely powerful in predicting weather further into the future. However, even today details of weather cannot be accurately predicted beyond about 14 days. One of the major advances in extended weather forecasting beyond this limit is the discovery of the importance of global oscillations in atmosphere and ocean temperatures.

Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
Oscillations in ocean and atmospheric temperatures result from the motion of the Earth’s water and air in response to its spin. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an important oscillation in water temperatures observed in the Pacific Ocean, and can have major implications in the convection of air. ENSO occurs mostly within the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) near the equator. The ITCZ is collectively a low-pressure zone that spans the equatorial regions of the Earth, however, within the ITCZ there is also variations in air pressure. With changes in ocean water temperatures below, atmospheric air can move across the ITCZ from areas of sinking air mass (relative high-pressure) to areas of rising air mass (relative low-pressure) within the overall low-pressure warm equatorial belt. This causes some areas within the ITCZ to receive more rainfall, than other areas. The ENSO is confined to the Pacific Ocean, but the more recently discovered Madden-Julian Oscillation can circulate more broadly across continents and affect the timing and strength of monsoons, influence cyclones, and result in jet stream changes that can lead to a cold polar vortex, as well as extreme heat, and flooding in North America. The improved timing of these oscillations from observations of ocean temperatures far at sea in the Pacific Ocean, is a vital tool for long term predictions of weather patterns beyond our current limits of 14 days. Such predictions could be extremely beneficial for the agricultural industry if farmers know six months or three months in advance whether it will be a wet or dry summer, as to determine the best crops to plant.

Weather Communication
Corresponding with recent improvements in weather forecasting, the communication of weather data has greatly enlarged, enabling a larger set of users of this data. Today a quick internet search, or glance at a weather application on a Smart Phone in your pocket can reveal an incredible amount of weather information. From satellite data of cloud cover, to predications of weather in the next several days, to the chance of rain on your commute home. Details are mapped geographically, giving a wealth of information. The communication of weather is important, because billions of people live in regions affected by extreme weather conditions. Many people live along coastlines affected by cyclones, in flood prone regions near rivers or streams, on prairies affected by tornadoes, or near mountain passes affected by winter blizzards. The value of weather information easily communicated to the public provides for better decision making at the individual level, of whether to evacuate or not when a storm approaches. Much of the communication of this data comes from various partnerships between governmental organizations like the Department of Commerce, with private local and cable news services, which utilize publicly available weather data to inform a larger audience.


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Planet Earth/4l. Earth’s Climate and How it Has Changed

Weather versus Climate
Simply put, the difference between weather and climate is time. Weather is what conditions exist in the Earth’s atmosphere over a short period, while climate is how the atmospheric conditions change over long periods of time. In science, climate is the average patterns of weather over long multi-year studies. Since the Earth’s weather patterns oscillate daily, seasonally, and over decades, climate is important because it allows you to see the overall trends that can impact future decisions.

NASA and the discovery of global warming
In 1967, a young researcher named James Hansen arrived in New York City. A bright student of mathematics and physics, Hansen had accelerated through his studies at the University of Iowa, and spent a year at the University of Tokyo, where he continued his interest and study of the carbon dioxide rich atmosphere of Venus. It must have been an exciting time in history to be interested in astronomy, as NASA tested out its new Saturn V rockets to send humans to the moon. Hansen was employed by a new division of the Goddard Space Flight Center, the branch of NASA dedicated to getting the United States into space. Named after the American Rocket Scientist Robert Goddard, the Goddard Space Flight Center was located near Washington D.C., and a new organization was created as a partnership with Columbia University in New York City to facilitate the academic study of the new scientific data arising out of the exploration of space by NASA. The Goddard Institute for Space Studies, sits on the corner of 112th and Broadway in Manhattan in the same building as Tom’s Restaurant that appeared in the popular 1990s television show Seinfeld, and spawned the hit song by Suzanne Vega. In essence, not the typical location for a government sponsored program to study space science. Nevertheless, the ideal collaboration with university students from the University of Columbia and visiting scientists from Washington D.C. led to an innovative center to study the enormous amounts of information that was being collected from outer space, with the launch of more specialized and sophisticated satellites and missions into space. James Hansen was at home at the small institute, and continued to study the atmosphere of Venus from his office above the bustling city streets below. In 1981, he rose up to become the director of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, as his attention turned to the study of the Earth and its atmosphere.

James Hansen, and his team of atmospheric physicists published one of the most prophetic scientific papers in the journal Science in 1981: Climate impact of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. In the paper, the authors examined the historical records of temperatures recorded since the 1880s and found that the Earth’s overall global temperature had increased through the century with a warming of 0.4°C from 1880 to 1980. The team made several important predictions regarding the climatic effect of rising carbon dioxide. They predicted that from 1980 to 2080, global temperatures would rise approximately 2.5°C, with a warming of 0.6°C by the year 2000, and reach a 1.0°C increase by the year 2030. The study was visionary because it offered a prediction that could be tested. In 2000, twenty years after the paper was written, the record of global temperatures showed a 0.4°C warming from the baseline (from 1951–1980), and by 2020 was higher than the warming predicted in the 1981 paper, between 0.8 to 0.9°C, well on the way to reaching 1°C global warming before the year 2030, even faster than predicted in the 1981 paper.

The paper was met with some skepticism from scientists and was largely under the radar for most news media at the time. Today the paper’s well-known predictions are highly regarded by the entire scientific community, on par to Albert Einstein’s astronomic predictions a century ago. Things changed for James Hansen in 1988, when he was asked to speak in front of a meeting of the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources. These select Senators set federal policy regarding the extraction of fossil fuels from lands owned by the U.S. government, as well as set policies regarding energy regulations for citizens, such as establishing energy standards for the efficiency of automobiles. Hansen’s speech that he gave to the politicians was widely reported on by the newspapers of the time, and his graph of increasing global temperatures landed on the front page of the New York Times. The risk of climate change and the danger it posed to Earth led the United Nations to create that same year the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988, an international group of experts to review Earth’s changing climate and issue comprehensive reports on the observed changes to the Earth’s global temperatures, as well as report on various governmental responses to address climate change.

In the forty years since James Hansen’s team from the Goddard Institute for Space Studies reported on rising global temperatures, significant investment has been made to track global warming, both from weather stations as well as increasingly sophisticated monitoring of sea and land surface temperatures from satellites. Currently 18 of the last 19 years have been the warmest global temperatures on record, with a dramatic rise in global temperatures in those forty years since 1981. Warming climates have resulted in abrupt changes to sea level with coastal flooding, loss of sea ice, disappearance of glaciers, droughts, and the rising risk of forest fires. Fatalities from climate induced deaths (fires, cyclones, heat-waves), as well as rising carbon dioxide and other air pollutants has risen dramatically since 1981. Public opinion demonstrates a growing fear of the real danger of climate change from 25% of Americans seriously worried in 1998 to 41% in 2016. There is also a major age gap, with older Americans over the age of 55 being the least concerned about risks of climate change, while those between 18 and 34 are the most concerned. .

The United Nations formed in 1945, in the aftermath of World War II, as an intergovernmental organization with a mandate to maintain international peace and security, foster friendly relationships between nations, and aid international cooperation between nations on Earth. Since its formation, the United Nations has struggled with its mission due to the fractured authoritarian nature of individual countries and their respective leadership. While the United Nations has failed to end wars on the planet, it has done well in keeping peace between nations in times of conflict and civil war. With the added goal in 1988, with the formation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the United Nations had taken on a new role to attempt to solve the carbon dioxide crisis, by working with governments to pass laws and regulations to curb or end emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In 1992 the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was established, and in 1997 the Kyoto Protocol was signed as an international agreement to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. However, the Kyoto Protocol was never signed by the United States of America, and while most nations agreed to reductions, the lack of support from the United States led to a growing lack of global support, and then Canada withdrew from the agreement in 2012. Meanwhile, Japan, New Zealand and Russia did not propose new commitments in the second round of the agreement which spanned until 2020. The 2016 Paris Agreement was aimed to strengthen the global response to climate change by keeping global temperature rise below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. While grand in its goals, the Paris Agreement was considered ineffectual, and likely to fail given the rapid rise in global temperatures already underway. The major industrialized nations, which emit the most carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, failed to implement policies to meet pledged carbon dioxide emission targets and the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere showed an increased growth rate in 2015, 2016, and 2018 to around 3.0 ppm per year as recorded at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. In 2017, with the election of Donald Trump as the 45th President of the United States, the US notified the UN of its intention to withdraw from the agreement. The failure to meet any of these pledges since 1988 has resulted in an average 17% rise in carbon dioxide in the air you breath since 1988 (351 ppm to 410 ppm). In 2015 a reporter interviewed a much older and wiser James Hansen, now retired from NASA, but still strongly vocal on the need to curb carbon dioxide emissions. “It’s all embarrassing really, after a while you realize as a scientist that politicians don’t act rationally.” Indeed, his comments hold very true, as policy makers have demonstrated an inability to make significant reductions in the total emissions of carbon dioxide into Earth’s atmosphere. Politicians could significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions by carrying out three simple actions, first eliminate the sale of government-controlled fossil resources within their country, second impose fees to companies that emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and three outlaw hydrocarbon energy generation for electricity, replacing electrical generation with nuclear, hydroelectric dams, solar, and wind farms. However, politicians derive much economic incentive, such as campaign contributions, with the sale and distribution of hydrocarbon fuels, and have kept a status quo in the continued use of these atmospheric pollutants in order to remain in power.

How hot will Earth get?
The study of climate change is complex due to the nature of averaging large sets of weather data over numerous years of data collection. Owing to the growing number of weather stations over time, the record of daily high and low temperatures has grown exponentially as humans have recorded a great amount of the temperature fluctuation of the Earth’s surface. In 2010, Berkeley Earth was conceived by physics professor Richard Muller and his entrepreneurial daughter Elizabeth Muller who were both skeptical of the rise in global temperatures reported by the panels of climate scientists organized by the United Nations. As an independent non-profit organization, the Berkeley Earth group independently re-analyzed weather records for potential biases in data selection, data adjustment, poor station quality, and the urban heat island effect, caused by an increasing urban land surface. The results of the independent study confirmed the same conclusions experts at the United Nation panels had found. Many other scientific organizations have reanalyzed the available data, and all show a significant warming of the Earth’s atmosphere over the last century and half. Science is about re-testing, and the constant scientific re-evaluation of available data has continued to confirm the rise of global temperatures on Earth, but how hot will Earth’s atmosphere become with increasing amounts of carbon dioxide?

Climate sensitivity to increasing carbon dioxide is a major focus of ongoing research. Using historical data and climate models, climatologists have estimated a broad range of increasing global temperatures between 1.5°C to 4.5°C with a doubling of pre-industrial carbon dioxide to 560 ppm (in 2020 it is 410 ppm in Hawaii). Most studies suggest an increase of 3.1°C global increase by the year 2060. This would translate in winter temperatures in Salt Lake City for the coldest month of December having average highs of 44 degrees and lows of 36 degrees Fahrenheit, above freezing temperatures required for snow accumulations. The number of days above 100°F in the summer would increase dramatically for the city. One of the challenges in estimating or predicting climate is understanding the time that it takes for changes in carbon dioxide to result in increasing global temperatures. For example, scientists define three ways to measure climate sensitivity. Equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) models suggest that there is a long time period between increases in carbon dioxide concentration and rising global temperatures, due to heat being absorbed by the Earth’s oceans. It takes into fact that heat absorption of the oceans will reach an equilibrium, and may result in a faster rate of temperature rise once this occurs. Transient climate response (TCR) models limit the growth of carbon dioxide to 1% each year (based on historical rise) and assumes the oceans will continue to serve as a sink for rising heat in the atmosphere and remain out of equilibrium with the atmosphere. The Earth system sensitivity (ESS) models attempt to include negative and positive feedbacks, such as the reduction of Earth’s albedo from melting sea ice and snow (causing more sunlight to be absorbed by the ocean and land surface), increases of wild fires (releasing more carbon dioxide), and changes in Earth’s vegetation, and the release of methane gasses from the Arctic. Changes in Earth’s cloud cover also plays a factor in these estimates, since clouds may increase with rising temperatures (causing temperatures to cool), although direct evidence of this is currently lacking from satellite data. Each model results in slight differences in the estimated rise in global temperatures, but most fall within a rise of 1.5 to 4.5°C, thus the Paris Agreement of 2016, with a goal of limiting the rise below 2°C is ambitious. Projecting rising global temperatures forty years into the future may seem overly prescient, but there is a good chance that you, and your family will be living in this new warmer climate of the near future. These next forty years will ultimately determine the course for the next forty years that follow that. If allowed to increase, global temperatures will rise by 6°C by 2100, drastically limiting the number of days below freezing for higher elevations, with average warm temperatures in Salt Lake City in July above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. While it is difficult to imagine this abrupt change to the planet’s climate, one major concern for the future habitability of the planet is how these changes will affect the availability of water. In the next section you will learn about Earth’s water, from its oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and ice, to the water that you drink every day.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1941 05

P.03 - Contents Banner
The Australasian Radio World

Incorporating the

All-Wave All-World DX News

Vol. 5 - MAY, 1941 - No. 12

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS:

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

"All-World Two". . . . 5

Code Oscillator for A.C. .. . . 9

Build a "Servi-Meter". . . . 15

Crown "C.R.P." Six. . . . 30

"Porto-Gram" Amplifier. . . . 39

TECHNICAL —

Simple Volume Expansion. . . . 10

Correct Field Excitation. . . . 36

SHORT-WAVE SECTION —

Notes by L. J. Keast. . . . 42

Loggings of the Month. . . . 44

New Stations. . . . 44

New Schedules for London. . . . 47

SERVICEMEN'S SECTION —

Build a "Servi-Meter". . . . 15

Systematic Servicing. . . . 19

New Oscillograph by Paton. . . . 19

Vibrator High-tension Units. . . . 24

Valve Chart Available. . . . 28

Dealer Proposition. . . . 34

Correct Field Excitation. . . . 36

Alignment of Permotune Units. . . . 37

Trade Parade. . . . 49

SPEEDY QUERY SERVICE —

Answers to Readers' Problems. . . . 50

P.03 - Publication Notes
The "Australasian Radio World" is published monthly by A. G. Hull. Editorial offices, 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephone MA2455.

Subscription rates: 1/- per copy, 10/6 per year (12 issues) post free to Australia and New Zealand.

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.52)

P.03 - Our Front Cover
OUR FRONT COVER

Over 7,000 people visited Radio Hall at David Jones' George Street Store during the "Romance of Radio" Exhibition held last month. Prominent among the leading radio manufacturers exhibiting was Standard Telephones and Cables Pty. Ltd., with the particularly attractive stand shown on this month's front cover. The display featured a working display of actual radio component construction. Many visitors stopped to watch the deft fingers of the girl operating the coil winding machine. Other portions of the S.T.C. display, not included in our picture, featured o bridal effect, with the suggestion of an S.T.C. radio receiver as a wedding present.

P.04 - Editorial Notes
PERSONAL

This issue should really be a special birthday issue, as it is just five years since that sunny day in May of 1936 when the first issue of the "Australasian Radio World" appeared. Instead of putting our quota of paper to the glorification of the success which has been achieved, we offer something a lot more practical. It takes the shape of a special section for servicemen. We feel, however, that the occasion does call for a little praise for those who have guided the destiny of the paper. Tribute must be paid to the policy which has been so steadfastly maintained. Suggestions for obtaining wider circulation by the introduction of extraneous articles of a "popular" nature have been repeatedly declined. Success is the practical proof that the radio trade and those interested in technical radio are pleased to maintain a magazine devoted exclusively to their interests. Owing to this somewhat restricted editorial policy, it has taken time to attain our present circulation, but we are now quite confident that we have a complete coverage of radio enthusiasts, set-builders, factory technicians, country dealers and in fact all those interested in the technical side of radio throughout the whole of Australasia. We also find that our Short-wave Section has a strong following among keen listeners who want authentic information. The number of copies being posted to various consulates and to foreign countries is indicative of the good work done by the original short-wave editor, Alan Graham, who is now abroad with the A.I.F., and our present short-wave editor, L. J. Keast. It is interesting to note that in strong contrast to the advanced technical features in this issue, we also offer on article on a two-valve headphone set which is based on the design of a similar receiver which was featured in our original issue of May, 1936. A. G. HULL

P.42 - Short-wave Section - Notes by L. J. Keast
Shortwave Review conducted by L. J. Keast

NOTES FROM MY DIARY

Recruits Respond With this issue comes my thirteenth attempt to keep up interest in short waves for those who have already explored this fascinating avenue and an endeavour to get others to use that portion of their set that permits them, as Sir Ernest Fisk said when opening "The Romance of Radio Exhibition," "to open up that magic door which brings the world before you." The growing number of reporters, the new members of the All-Wave All-World DX Club and the record number of new subscribers suggest that the policy has been approved. The lecturettes I gave at the Royal Empire Agricultural Show and at "The Romance of Radio" Exhibition at David Jones attracted such crowds at all sessions that I am firmly convinced of the ever-increasing interest in overseas listening. Fully aware of the excellence of the modern receiver, these distant countries now feel they can claim the world as their audience, and the consequent international flavour of the programmes makes listening all the more enjoyable. This combination and the fact "long distance" per radio costs no more is undoubtedly one of the reasons for the converts. I was pleased at the two occasions referred to, to meet so many of our reporters. Quite a number I know only by name, but the general knowledge they had of overseas reception fully confirmed the impression I had gained from their exhaustive reports.

Schedules Go Overboard The American broadcasting stations, ever mindful of the interest in topical events, throw convention to the winds and schedules and programmes are sacrificed at a moment's notice when a sudden change in world affairs takes place. An instance of this was the German invasion of Yugoslavia. WRCA, 9670kc, 31.02m, continued long after 4 p.m., their customary hour for closing. Unfortunately, we were unable to benefit from the subject matter, as KGEI, opening at 4 p.m. as usual on exactly the same frequency, figuring their source of information was just as reliable, did their best. Result: Bedlam and, strangely enough, the New York transmitter, if anything was a trifle the louder. WNBI, 1,890kc, 25.23m., who usually close at 4 p.m. stayed on another hour or so, and the Columbia Broadcasting System outlet in Philadelphia, WCAB, 49.50m, was heard till 7 p.m.

And Still They Come All India Radio are being heard at terrific strength on 7290ke, 41.15m, from about 10.30 p.m. They may open earlier, but at 10.45 announce in English, "This is Delhi calling. We are also on VUD-4, 25.36m, and VUD-2, 85.84m." They appear to leave the air on 41.15m. at 1.30 after announcement in Hindustani. All attempts to land them on 85.84m failed.

A Familiar Voice When checking up mid-day reception on April 25, I happened to be tuned to London just as George Ivan Smith spoke in Radio Newsreel. He referred to several towns he had visited and gave a splendid picture of Lisbon with its now more than ever cosmopolitan population. He mentioned the beauties of the English countryside and paid a great tribute to the courage of the Britishers whose one and only thought was, "There's a job to be done."

Antics on 13 I think we can shortly expect some antics from the 13 and 16-metre bands. This is just about the time when one night they will behave splendidly, while on the next their poor showing would almost suggest trouble with the set on that band. Reaching the height of their idiosyncrasy about the middle of May, they will most likely refuse to be friendly until August, when from then on, they will show an eagerness to come into the field or, rather, the air again. Have noticed on several occasions during the last week, the 19-metre band has been poor between 9 and 10.30 p.m. In fact, on two nights in succession it was impossible to hear anything. At 1 p.m. signals were back to normal.

Welcome Welcome to Mr. John S. Beatty, of Kavieng, T.N.G., as a member of the All-Wave All-World DX Club. Mr. Beatty sends a list of loggings which shows the variation in signal strengths in his location compared with Sydney.

Listeners are reminded of the changes in Daventry schedules and frequencies, a good many of which will probably have been noticed before this issue arrives. Under "This Months Loggings" I have shown most of the changes.

Brief Mention Listeners are reminded that some of the United States of America adopt Daylight Saving as from April 27, so schedules shown under Loggings may be out a trifle. The new A.B.C. transmitter, VLR-8, 25.51 m, appears to be generally approved by reporters, affording a much better signal, particularly in Queensland. However, there are times when 1 wish they were a little farther away from GSD. Although the remarks heard may not be those of the oldest inhabitant, 1 am sure we all welcome back to the air, OFE and OFD, Helsinki, Finland. They are both being heard daily in the early mornings and mid-afternoons. Running over the 25-metre band on March 31 heard Radio Saigon open up at 10 a.m. All talk was in French. VLQ-3, 15,310kc, 19.59m, is being used in place of VLQ-7 for Transmission X. to North America. If you doubt this statement, sit up till 3.55 a.m., when they are due to commence. MTCY, Hsinking, 9540kc, 31.43m, opens at 7 a.m. with news in English. WGEO, Schenectady, 9530kc, 31.48m, is now being heard well, and the session being continued till 3 p.m. meets with general approbation. Looks as though XMHA, Shanghai, have forsaken 25.24m for their old love, 25.31m. Signal is splendid, and news at 9 p.m. by Carol Olcott can be followed with ease, but when VLQ-2 later on appears things are NOT so good. That station heard after 2GB closes down is JOAK-2 in Tokyo, one of the broadcast transmitters of Japan on exactly the same wavelength as 2GB, viz.. 345m. The peculiar language round about 8 a.m. on 31.51 m is the Paris station, "Y," using Arabic. RW-15. Khabarovsk, on 31.36m, appears to have left the air of an evening, with the result our old friend, KZRM, Manila, "The Nation's Station" can again be enjoyed. Dr. Gaden tells me my favourite musical programme from London, "Hi-Gang," is to finish on May 18. Perhaps that signals the oft talked-of visit to Australia of Bebe Daniels and Ben Lyons. Roy Hallett tells me the Columbia Broadcasting System are building on Long Island, New York State, two new transmitters of 50 k.w. power, due to go on the air about September.

With the Reporters
WITH THE REPORTERS

Those helping this month are:—

Wm. Bantow, Edithvale, Vic.

A. Beattie, New Lambton, N.S.W.

John S. Beatty, Kavieng, T.N.G.

P. Byard, Launceston, Tas.

A. T. Cushen, Invercargill, N.Z.

A. Deppeler, Edmonton, Q.

L. Edel, Rose Bay, Sydney.

Dr. K. B. Gaden, Wollumbilla, Q.

N. Gandy, Wellington, N.Z.

Roy Hallett, Enfield, Sydney.

H. I. Johns, Nelson, N.Z.

B. W. Keats, Launceston, Tas.

K. B. Mitchelhill, Muswellbrook, N.S.W.

G. Muller, Newtown, Sydney.

S. I. Nelson, Cairns, Q.

W. H. Pepin, Maylands, W.A.

Hugh Perkins, Malando, Nth. Q.

M. Rogers, Hunter's Hill, Sydney.

E. E. Seward, Marrickville, Sydney.

R. Taylor, Mosman, Sydney.

T. Whiting, Five Dock.

Gentlemen, I thank you. South Australian reports wanted, please. Send in reports as fast as you hear anything unusual; also items for "Help Wanted."

The Fall of Greece
THE FALL OF GREECE Naturally anxious to hear the latest news from Greece, I tuned to SVM on 30.196 metres at 5.35 a.m. on Thursday, April 24. When the station did not open as is customary at 5.40, I was uneasy as to its fate. However, at 5.48 I noticed a carrier- Wave and, sure enough, Athens was there. But it was not our usual announcer and the news was not the cheerful reference to victorious advances we had become accustomed to. No, it was the statement that the Proclamation of King George I. would be read. It was, and the emotion of the reader could be distinctly noticed. After it was read, I thought for a while and then tried to picture this poor man in front of a microphone not knowing who would be his audience, but probably hoping the world would hear his sad story. Regrettable as the news was, I felt pleased I knew at least one person was listening. On Monday, April 2.8, SV M, Athens, was not on the air. Will this splendid transmitter be used by the Germans as they have done in other conquered territories? I feel glad now that I was one of the audience at the final curtain.

P.44 - Short-wave Section - Loggings of the Month
ALL TI MES ARE AUSTRALIAN EASTERN STANDARD known, schedules are shown, but tsteners must remember overseas stations reserve the right la make alterations w:thout notice. With the rapid improvement in dayl.ght recept:on, which has not yet reached its peak, more and more stations wi.I se heard for a longer period. AFRICA Abyssinra: 12AA, Addis Ababa. 9650kc, 31.09 m Schedule unknown, but heard around 5 a.m. Algeria: TPZ, Algiers 12,120kc, 24.76 m Schedule: 4 a.m. to 9 a.m.; 5.30 p.m. to 6.15 p.m. Good both mornings and evenings (Beattie). TPZ-2, Algiers 896,,kc, 33.48 m Schedule: a.m. to 9 a.m., 5.30 p.m. to 6.15 p.m. Fa .: 7 a.m. I Nelson, Beattie). Belg:an Congo: OP M, Leopoiavi Ile 29.59m. Schedule: 4.55 a.m. to 5.45 a.m. Pcor signal, fades badly (Beatty, N.G.). Egypt: SUX, Cairo 7865kc, 3815 m Schedule: 4.30 a.m. to 6.30 a.m. R5 at 6.30 a.m. (Nelson, Beattie, Byard). French Equatorial Africa: FZI, Brazzaville 1 l ,965kc, 25.06m Schedule: 6-7 a.m., 4-4.30 p.m. Weak in mornings (Nelson/. Clear and loud in afternoons (Rogers, Beattie). Gabon: FHK. Librev:lie. 9320kc, 32.18m Schedule: 7 to 9.15 a.m. R5 when closing (Taylor). French Morocco: CNR -2, Rabat I 1,940kc, 25.13 m Not reported. French West Africa: Senegal: FGA, Dakar 9405kc, 31.90m Not heard lately (Nelson). (Mr. Nelson was, I think, the first to log this station in Australia. -Ed.) God Coast: Rritish West Africa: ZOY, Accra 4915kc, 61.04 m Mi., Taylor, Mosman, writes. "After many attempts, I at last heard ZOY on Saturday, April 5. In English session at 4 a.m, they announced as ZOY, Accra, Gold Coast. Signal was 45." South Africa: Kenya: VO7LO, Nairobi 6083kc, 49.31 m Schedule. 2.15 a.m. to 5.15 a.m. News at 2.30 and 4. Generally an excellent signal. ZRH, Pretoria 6007kc, 49.94 m )-(eard around 3.30 a.m. ZNB, Mafeking 5900kc, 50.95m Heard at 3.30 a m. R5 (Taylor). Rhodesia: THE POST OFFICE STATION, Salisbury 7317kc, 41 m Schedule: 2 arn. to 6 a.m. Relays Daventry at 4 a.m. Closes with 'God Save the King." R5 at 5 a.m. (Toy!or, Nelson). nortuquese East Africa: Mnpambique: CR7BE. Lourencn Mnrques 97)0kc, 30.9m Schedule 5 to 7 a.m. except Mondays News 5.55. 48 at 6 dm. (Nelson). CR7AA, Lourenco Marques 6035kc, 49.75 m Weak, but aud be just at opening at 5 a.m. Portuguese West Africa: Angola: CRtiAA, I obita 7614kc, 39.39m Fair signal on Sundays at 5.30 a.m. _ Natal: ZRO, Durban 9750kc, 30.75 m Closes at 7 a.m. after B.B.C. News. Spanish Morocco: Radio Falange, Tangiers 7090kc, 42.31 m Schedule: 6 to 8 a.m. All Spanish. R6 at 7 n.m. (Taylor). Madagascar: RADIO TANANARIVE, Tananarive 6063kc, 49.48 m Heard at 12.15 a.m. Female announcer; fair signal (Whiting). AMERICA Central: Costa Rica: TIPG, San Jose 9620kc, 31.19m Loudest of the Central Americans. Stronger when closing at 2.35 p.m., March 24, than I have ever heard him at 10 p.m. (Gaden). Very good after VLQ closes (Ne(son). T1EP, San Jose 6695kc, 44.82 m Ooens weakly at 10 p.m. (Nelson). T1LS, San Jose .. 6165kc, 48.66m Schedule: Opens at 10 p.m. Strong nightly (Gandy, Nelson). TIGPH, San Jose 5910kc, 50.72m Reported being heard again, so here is schedule- 10 to 1 p.m., 3 to 4 a.m., 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. Slooan is "Rodio Al ma Tice." Opens with n m crc'. one time, was Ted Lewis' "Good-night Medley." Address is: Apartado 800, but you are warned they are slow at verifying -Ed. Salvador: YSPA, San Salvador. 10,400kc 28.55 m Schedule: 1.10 p.m. to midnight; 4-6 a.m.; 30 a.m. to 2.30 p.m. Signal is now weak (Byard). TG WA, Guatemala Sity 15.170kc, 19.77 m Monday mornings from 5.30 a.m. to 8.15 R6 to R7 when closing (Deppeler). TG5JG, Guatemala City 1,440kc. 26.22m Has been reported heard in late afternoon. TO WA, Guatemala City 9685kc, 30.98 m Heard on favourable days till 2.30 p.m. Weak i Nelson). TGQA, Quezaltenango 6400kc, 46.88 m Excellent Sunday afternoons at 4.30 p.m. TG-2, Guatemala City r,200kr. 48.39m Closed at 6.04 p.m., March 23 (Gaden). British Honduras: ZIK-2, Belize 10,600kc, 28.30m Schedule: Wednesday, Friday and Sunday, 4 to 4.30 a.m., 1.30 to 1.50 a.m. Heard for first time Good Friday at 4.15 a.m. Siena? R4 (Taylor). Pana ma: HP5A, Panama City 1,700kc, 25.61 m Schedule: 10 p.m. to midnight. Good at 10 p.m. (Nelson). HP5J, Panama City . 9607kc, 31.22m Schedule: 10 p.m. till midnight. Good at 10 p.m. (Nelson). Heard distinctly when closing at 3 p.m. (Gaden). KHE, Kahuku 17,980kc, 16.69m Heard one Sunday morning (Seeward). This is a point-to-point com munication and no verification will be sent -Ed.) North: WNBI, Boundbrook. 17,780kc, 16.87 m Schedule: Midnight to 10.45 a.m. News 1 a.m. R7 at 10 a.m. (Cushen). WRU W, Boston. . 15,350kc, 19.54m Schedule: 5 to 8.35 a.m. News at 6.30 and 7.30 a.m. Poor signal (Beattie). Will probably improve. -Ed. KGEI, 'Frisco. 15,330kc, 19.56m Schedule: 10.15 a.m. to 3 p.m. News, 0.45 C. m. Heard from 1.30 p.m. with fair signals Beattie). WGEA, Schenectady . 15,330kc, 19.56m Schedule: 2.15 a.m. to 9 a.m. News, 4.45 and 7.55 a.m. WCBX, New York 15,270kc, 19.63 m Weak at 7.30 a.m. WL WO, Cincinnati . 15,250kc, 19.67 m Schedule: 1 p.m. to 7.45 a.m. News 1 n.m. and 4.45 a.m. WPIT, Boston 15,210kc, 19.72m Heard up till 10.15 a.m. (Gaden). Schedule wanted. -Ed. W NRI, Boundbrook )1,890kc, 25.23 m R8 when closing at 4 p.m. (Cushen). Heard on Aoril 6 till 5 p. m. Very good signal (Beattie). WBOS, Boston 1,870kc, 25.26m Schedule: 7 a.m. to 2 p.m. News, 9 a.m. Weak at 9.30 a.m. (Nelson). WCBX, New York. 1,830kc, 25.36m Schedule: 7 a.m. to 9 a.m. News, 7 a.m. and 8.45 a.m.

WRUL, Boston .. 1,790kc, 25.45 m Schedule: 1 a.m. to 3 a.m. (News 2.-t5 a.m./; 5 a.m, to o.35 a.m. (News 6.30 and 7.30). Appeared to be weak for week or so, bu) now O.K. Think stays on till 9.30 on Sundays. -Ed. WRU W, Costeil I,73Ukc, Schedule: 9 a.m.-1.50 p.m. NCw j a.m. Fair at 10 a.m. with News (Beattie). WL WO, Cincinnati I dlukc, 2).62 m Schedule: 8 a.m. to 10.45 a.m. News, 8.30 and 9.25 o.m. Good right through. KGEI, 'Frisco 96 -rOkc, 31.02m Schedule: 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. (News 4 p.m. and 5.55 p.m.); 10 p.m. to 3.10 a.m. (News (0.30 p.m., 12.30 a.m., 1.30 a.m., 3 a.m.). Lice a local late afternoon (Johnsi. Good at 2 a.m. (Cushen). WRCA, boundbrook 9670kc, 31.02m Schedule: 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. Very good from 3-4 p.m. On April 6 stayed on air after 4 p.m. KGEI, on opening at 4 p.m., interfered, bu: got the worst of it, although both were spoilt (Beattie). Wt-rIX, New York 9650kc, 31.09m Schedule: 7 to 9 a.m. News at 7 and 8.45. WL WO, Cincinnati .. 9590kc, 31.28 m Schedule: 1 a.m. to 4 p.m. Signal improving; now R8 at 4 p.m. (Cushen, Beattie). Screnectady 9550kc, 31.41 m Schedule: 9.15 a.m. to 12.15 p.m. WGEO, Schenectady .,. 9530kc, 31.48m Schedule: 6 a.m. to 3 p.m. News, 7.55 and 9.25. Exiended time is excellent, and they are asking for reports. -Ed. WC dX, NEW York . 617Okc, 48.62m Heard late afternoons. WCAB, Philadelphia .. 6060kc, 49.5 m Heard at 4 p.m. WRU W, Boston .. 6040kc, 49.65 m Schedule: 9 a.m. to 1.50 p.m. News 10 a.m. On Sundays and Mondays opens at 8 a.m. Mexico: XtQQ, Mexico City. 9680kc, 30.99m Schedule: 1 p.m. to 2 a.m. Good signal. Fair signal at midnight (Nelson). XE W W, Mexico City. . 9503kc, 31.57 m Closed 3 p.m. Saturday, 4 p.m. Sunday. Very fine (Gaden, Nelson). Heard between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. at great strength,. -Ed. XEXA, Mexico City 6180kc, 48.54, Opens about 1 p.m. and probable cause o' noise on Saigon. South: Argentine: LRX. Buenos Aires 9660kc, 31.06m (Quite good at 9.15 p.m. (Edell. Very faint at 10 p.m. (Nelson;. Heard closing 230 p.m. (Gaden). Bolivia: CP-5, La Paz .. . 6200kc, 48.39m Heard at 10 p.m. (Gaden). Ecuador: HCJB, Quito . . . 12,460kc, 24.08m Schedule: 9.55 p.m. to 1 p.m. Only weak now from 10 p.m. ( Nelson, Gandy). Chile: CB-1180, Santiago 1,980kc, 25.04m Bugle notes when closing at 3 p.m. Excellent till 3 p.m. on Sundays (Cushen). Weak from 9.30 p.m. (Nelson). Colombia: HJCT, Bogota . 9630kc, 3115m Closes weakly at 2.30 p.m. (Gaden (Announces as Radlo Difusora Nacional de Colombia en Bogota. Often spells out HJCT in perfect English. -Ed.). Uruguay: CXA-8, Montevideo. 9640kc, 31.12 m Closes week days 2.30 p.m. (3 p.m. Sundoses) with hymn on organ while announcer speaks (Gaden). THE EAST Burma: XYZ, Rangoon .. ). 6007kc, 49.94m Schedule: 9.45 p.m. to 1 a.m., except Sundays. News at 12.30 a.m. Heard well from opening. XZZ, 349ukc, 86.00m In parallel with XY Z. China: XOZ, Chengtu 15,510kc, 19.34m Can be heard some nights tram st XGOX, Cnunyking lo,20Ukc, i9. i4m Schedu.e: (J-11.5 a.m.; 2.30-o.5 p.m. Engtisn news at 5.20 p.m. Nov,' I urkey has gone, afternoon session good (Gaden). FFZ, 5nangnui 12,090kc, 24.83 m Schedule: 71 p.m.-I a.m. News I p.m. .'or or iv p.m. XGRS, Shanghat 12,015kc, 24.97 m Schedule: I p.m. to 1 a.m. Ine Voice or Europe." News 10.30 p.m. and 12.15 a.m. and 12.15 a.m. Still announces as 1.88 2.‘5 m (Gaden). XMnA, Snanghai 1 I,853kc, 25.3 1m schedule: 6 p.m. to midnight News, 9 p.m. and 1.15 p.m. Children's session, 6 p.m. to 6.15 p.m. Strong 9 p.m. (Bantow). Note "The Cali of the Orient" has reverted to trie old frequency. Too bad when VLQ-2 is on. Daylight saving has brought times an hou. earher.--Ed. XGOK, canton 1,605kc, 25.75 m Strong each night. News at 10.30 p.m. XOZS, 10,040kc, 29.88m toeurd at 9.10 p.m. Good signals. Chinese music (H. I. Johns). XGOA, Chungking . 9720kc, 30.85 m Good tram 10 p.m. XGOY, Chungking .. 9635kc, 31.14m Schedule: Midnight to 12.55 a.m. News at midnight. XGOY, Chungking .. 9500kc, 31.58m 5 a.m. to 7.20 a.m. in Chinese. XPSA, Kweiyang 8484kc, 35.36m Schedule: 8.30 p.m. to 2.10 a.m. excellent signals at 9 p.m. (Cushen, Johns, Pepin). XGOY, Chungking. 9,500kc, 31.58 m Often heard at 6.30 a.m. (Gaden). XPSA, Kwetyang 6980kc, 42.98 m Excellent signals at 9 p.m. (Cushen). Portuguese China: • CRY-9, Macao. 6080kc, 49.34m Schedule: (0.30 p.m. to 1 a.m. Mondays only. Quality is invariably poor. Thai: HSP5, Bangkok 1,715kO, 25.61 m Schedule: 10.50 p.m. to 1 a.m. except Mondays. News, 1.45 p.m. Dutch East Indies: PMA, Bandoeng 19,380kc, 15.48m Schedule: 10.15 to 1.15 p.m. News, 10.45. YDB, Soerabava I5,315kc, 19.59m Schedule: 1.30 to 5 .p. m.; Sundays, from 10.30. Better than YOC in afternoon (Deppeler). YDC, Bandoeng 15,150kc, 19.80m Schedule: 8.30 to 10.30 a.m., 1.30 to 5 p.m., 7.30 p.m. to 1.30 a.m. PLJ, Bandoeng . 14,630kc, 20.51 m Schedule: 7.30 p.m. to 3 a.m. PLP, Bandoeng 1,000kc, 27.27 m Schedule: Same as YDC. PMN, Bandoeng 10,260kc, 29.24m Schedule: Same as YDC. YDB, Bandoeng 9550kc, 31.41 m Schedule: 7.30 p.m. to 1.30 a.m. YDA, Tandjongpriok . 7250kc, 41.38 m YDX, Medan 7220kc, 41.55 m Excellent from 9 p.m. PMY, Bandoeng 5145kc, 58.3 m Schedule: 7.30 p.m. to 1.30 a.m. YDF, Soerabaya 4960kc, 60.48 m Good towards midnight (Pepin). YDE-2, Solo 4810kc, 62.37 m Good lote at night (Pepin). YDA, Tandjongpriok. . 3040kc, 98.68 m Schedule: 7.30 p.m. to 1.30 a.m. Good (Pepin). French Indo-China: Radio Saigon, Saigon. 1,780kc, 25.47 m Schedule: 8.40 p.m. to 2 a.m. News, 8.45 p.m., 1.45 p.m. "The Voice of France in the Far East." Radio Saigon, Saigon. 61E0kc, 48.54m Schedute: 8.40 p.m. to 2 a.m. Very loud signal. Hong Kong: 9525kc, 31 49m Schedule: 8 p.m. to I a.m. Relays B.B.C. 'yews at I I p.m. Indio: VUD-3, Gel h 15,290kc, 19.62 m Schedu,e: Noon to 3 p.m. (News at 1.20 p.m.); 4.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m. (News at b p.m.). u, noon (Taylor). VUD-4, Deini 1,830kc, 25.36m Schedule: 9.30 p.m. to 3.20 a.m. I V.DU p.m., 1.50 a.m., 3.15 a.m. VUD-2, Dethi 9590kc, 31.28m Schcclu.e: 9.30 to 2 a.m. News, 10.30 p.m., 1.50 a.m. VUD-2, Deihl 7290kc, 41.15 m Opens 9.30 p.m. Sa me progra mme as VUD-4, 25.36. News 10.30. See article under "New Stations." VLIC, calcuita 611 Okc, 49.1 m R7 at 2.30 a.m. (Taylor). VUE, Delhi 6085kc, 49.30m Opens at 1.30 p.m. R6 at 1.30 p.m. (Taylor). VUU-c, Ueihi 4960kc, 60.48 m KO or 10.30 p.m. (Taylor). VU M-2, Madras 4919kc, 60.98m R5 at 9.30 p.m. (Taylor). YUd, rtomoay 4880kc, 61.48 m or 10.30 p.m. (Taylor). uo.cu.ta. 4840kc, 61 98m R5 at 10.35 p.m. (Taylor). VUB-2, Bombay. 3480kc, 8620m R7 at midnight (Taylor). VUD, 3450kc, 86.95 m R/ at midnight (Taylor/. VUM-2, Madras . 3430kc, 87.46m R7 at midnight (Taylor). VUB, tombay . 3360kc, 80.28m Opens at midnight News at 12.10 a.m. (Cushen). ca.cuti a 3300kc, 90.90m Opens at 1.30 a.m. (Cushen). Japan: (Tokyo considered source of supply unless otherwise mentioned) Where schedules are shown they are taken from May issue of "Radio Tokyo," received April 16. The Broadcasting Corporation of Japan reserves the right to alter schedules without* notice. JLU-4 17,795kc, 16.86m For Latin America: 9 a.m. to 10.30 a.m. (Japanese, Spanish and Portuguese). For Eastern Districts of North America: 1 a.m. to 1 p.m. JZK 15,160kc, 19.79m For South- Western Asia: 1 a.m. to 2.55 a.m. iNews, 1.45 a.m.). For Near East: 3 a.m. to 4.30 a.m. 1News, 4 a.m.). For Pacific Coast of North America: 1.30 p.m. to 4 p.m. (News. 2.55 p.m.). For Hawaii: 4.30 to 6.30 p.m. (News, 4.35 P•m•)• News session at 2.55 p.m. very good (Gaden). Has been heard fairly regularly on Sundays from I p.m. to 12.30 a.m. 1Beatty, N.G.). JLG-4, 15,105kc, 19.86m For Europe: 5 a.m. to 8.30 a.m. (News, 8 a.m.). For Latin America: 9 o.m. to 10.30 a.m. For Eastern Districts of North America: 1 a.m. to 1 p.m. (News, 1.05 a.m.). JVZ, „.. 1,815kc, 25.39m For Japanese soldiers at the front: 7 p.m. to 9 p.m. For China and South Seas: 9 p.m. to 12.30 a.m. (News, 1.25 p.m.). JZJ 1,800kc, 25.42m For South-western Asia: 1 a.m. to 2.55 a.m. (News, 1.45 a.m.). For Near East: 3 a.m. to 4.30 a.m. (News, 4 a.m.). For Europe: 5 a.m. to 8.30 a.m. (News, 8 a.m.l. For Pacific Coast of North America: 1.30 p.m. to 4 p.m. (News, 2.55 p.m.). For South America: 7 p.m. to 8 p.m. (Japanese, Spanish and Portuguese). For Australia and New Zealand: 8.30 p.m. to 9.25 p.m. (News, 8.35 p.m.). For South Seas: 9.30 o.m. to 12.30 a.m. JV W-3 1,720kc, 25.6m For the South Seas: 1.05 p.m. to 12.30 a.m. •

Malaya: ZHP-1, Singapore 9700kc, 30.92m Schedule: 7.40 p.m. to 12.40 a.m.; News, 9 p.m. and 1 p.m. ZHP-3, Singapore 7250kc, 41.38m Schedule: 7.40 a.m. to 12.40 a.m. French and Malay. ZHP-2, Singapore. . 6175kc, 48.62 m On parallel with ZHP-1. R7 at 8 p.m. (Taylor). ZHJ, Penang. 6090kc, 49.26m Fair signal at night; relays B.B.C. at 1. R6 at 9 p.m. (Taylor). Philippines: (Manila, unless otherwise stated) KIRH 9640kc, 31.12 m Schedule: 7.30 a.m. to 9.30 a.m. (News 8.15 a.m.); 6 p.m. to 2 a.m. (News 10.30 p.m.). KZR M 9570kc, 31.35 m Schedule: 6.45 p.m. to 1.30 a.m. News, 8.35, 10.45 and 1.45 p.m., also 12.45 a.m. Much better now RW-15 off the air (Beattie). Can be heard opening at 7.45 a.m. KZIB 9500kc, 31.58m Very poor quality of late. KZRF 6140kc, 48.86m Fairly strong 10.30 p.m. (Bantow). KIRC, Cebu. 6100kc, 49.18m Very strong at 1 p.m. KZIB 6060kc, 49.50m Noise spoils this otherwise loud signal. Vatican City: HVJ 15,120kc, 19.84m Tuesdays: 1.30 to 1.55 p.m. (English). Heard on Friday afternoons (Beattie). Generally weak (Nelson). HVJ 6190kc, 48.47 m (English session is: 5.15 to 5.30. -Ed.) Now in the clear, and English session is R8 (Cushen). Portugal: CS W-6, Lisbon .. 1,040kc, 27.17 m Schedule: 3 a.m. to 6.45 a.m. Very good at 5 a.m. Best at 6 a.m. CS W-7, Lisbon 9740kc, 30.8 m Schedule: 6.50 to 9 a.m. Talks: On Wednesday, Friday and Sunday from 6.50 a.m. to 7.30 a.m. CS2 WD, Portugal 6200kc, 48.38 m Schedule: 6 to 9 a.m. O.K. till after 7 a.m. (Gaden). Rumania: Radio Bucharest. 9245kc, 32.45 m Fair at 5 a.m. Fades (Beatty, N.G.). Russia: ("This is Radio Centre . Moscow, calling") RW-96 19.47 m Schedule: 8 p.m. to midnight. R7 at 1 p.m. (Byard). RW-96 .. 15,180kc, 19.76m Schedule: 2.50 p.m. to 5.30 p.m.; 7.07 p.m. to 7.50 p.m. News, 7.7 p.m.); midnight to 3 a.m. RWG 14,720kc, 20.38m Strong when on (Gandy). RNE 12,000kc, 25.00m Schedule: 3.30 p.m. to 1 p.m. Talk: 10.30 p.m. RAL/RVG 1,645kc, 25.77 m RVG is heard strongly at 1 p.m. (Gandy, N.Z.). RW-15, Khabarovsk 9565k.c. 31.36m Has been missing of a night lately (Beattie). RW-96 9520kc, 31.51 m Schedule: 10 p.m. to 8 a.m. News, 4.30 and 6 a.m. RW-15, Khabarovsk 6115kc, 49.06m Good from 6 p.m. and good in morning around 7 a.m. RW-96 6061kc, 49.5m Midnight to 8 a.m. News, 6 a.m. RV-59 6030kc, 49.75m Great signal in morning. RW-96, Moscow . 6000kc, 50.00m Very good at 7 0.m. (Gaden). RV-15, Khabarovsk . 4273kc, 70.2m R7 at 8.30 p.m. (Taylor). Spain: EAQ, Madrid 9860kc, 30.43 m Good in mornings. Rodio Espagne, San Sebastian, 7210kc. 41.6m Fair at 6.30 a.m. EAJ-9, Malaga 7170kc, 41.75m Very good at 6.30 a.m, Tune carefully. Moscow is only a fraction away. Radio Malaga, Malaga . 7120kc, 42.1 m Heard at fair strength at 6.30 a.m. Switzerland: HBH, Geneva .. 18,480kc, 16.23 m Schedule: 1.45 p.m. Fridays to 1.10 a.m. Saturdays. Mostly English, little French. News 12.5 a.m., 1.45 p.m. Mondays to 1,10 a.m. Tuesdays, Italian. German and French. Good and clear (Nelson). HBJ, Geneva 14,535kc, 20.65m First Sunday in the month. 3.45 p.m. to 5.10 p.m. HBO, Geneva 1,420kc, 26.31 m Same remarks as HBJ. Fair signal. Radio Suisse, Schwarzenburg, 6165kc, 48.56m Schedule: 4 to 7.30 a.m. Always splendid signal.

SCANDINAVIA Finland: OFE. Lahti. 1,780kc, 25.47m Schedule: 3.30 a.m. to 5 a.m. (News, 4.15 a.m.); 3.30 p.m. to 5 p.m. Used in chain with OFD. At 4.30 p.m. signal was R9, the best signal this month (Cushen). Good at 5 p.m. (Hallett). OFD, Lahti 9500kc, 31.58m Schedule: Same as OFE. Fair at 4.30 p.m., but suffers from interference from GSB. Now using 15 kilowatts. Is excellent in English session from 4.15 to 4.30 a.m. (Cushen). Lady reads News at 4.15 a.m. Signal good (Beattie, Hallett). Norway: LKQ, Oslo 1,735kc, 25.57m Schedule: 3 p.m. to 5 p.m., 1 a.m. to 7 a.m. Heard recently with R7 signal at 2.30 a.m. ) Edel I.Good at 5 p.m. (Cushen). Sweden: SBT, Stockholm . 15,150kc, 19.8m Schedule: 6 p.m. Sundays to 7 a.m. Mondays. Daily: 4 a.m. to 7.19 a.m.; 1 a.m. to noon. SDP, Stockholm .. 1,710kc, 25.63m Schedule: 4 a.m. to 7.30 a.m.; 1 a.m. to noon; 4.45 p.m. to 6 p.m. (Sundays. 6 p.m. to 7 a.m. Mondays). Often R8 at 8 p.m. on Sundays (Cushen, Johns). MISCELLANEOUS Azores: CT2AJ, Ponta Delgada 4002kc, 75.00m Schedule is believed to be: Thursdays and Sundays, 1 p.m. to 1 a.m. Heard call-sign at 1 p.m. (Taylor). (See reference under "New Stations." —Ed.) Owing to the pressure on our space, a number of loggings have been held over until next issue.

P.44 - Short-wave Section - New Stations
NE W ST A TI O NS Azores: CT7AJ Ponta nelnada, 4002kc, 75.00m: This is the station I referred to last month. Mr. Taylor, of Mosmon, is positive he heard this station. Here is what he says, "I don't bla me you for finding it a bit hard to believe the reception of CT2AJ, but, nevertheless, it is true. Here is how it ca me about. I was listening around 75 metres one night at 10.45 when I heard a station on approxi mately 75 metres. I listened till 1 o'clock and then I heard "Ponto Delgada, Sao Miguel Azores." I then looked un some American magazines I have and found CT2AJ on 74.95 metres, to be locatin Azores. Also the time coincided with the schedule. It has also been heard now et 8 a.m. At both times it is R5." Going through my papers, I find this station is shown and frequency and wavelength. Azores, or Western Isis, Portuguese group in mid-Atlantic, 1500 S. W. of Ireland, and 1700 miles E. of Nova Scotia; area 922 sq. miles; population, 254,000; capital, Aupra, on Terceira I. Ponta Delgada, on Sao Miguel, is the largest town in the Isles, with a population of 16,179. India: VUD-2, Delhi (7290kc, 41.15 m): This is not actually o NE W station, but has only been noticed durino the last month as operative. Opens at 9.30 p.m. with some program me as VUD-4, 25.36m. Closes at 1.30. Heard announcing at 10.45, they were on 85.84m and 25.36m. Latter frequency is well known to us, but so far have not heard them on theformer. The 41.15 signal is probably as loud as any on the air. Another of the Secret Stations has shown up. Location is unknown, but the language used is, as far as I can make out, "Sender Europaeischer Rundfunk" ("European Redo Station"). Stationopens at 7 a.m, sharp in German, and for about ten minutes gives a talk in German. After a brief pause, someti mes talks in French. Announce they are on the air at 9 p.m., 1 p.m., midnight and 2 a.m. It is of course the 9 p.m. session I heard (7 a.m. Sydney), on 9.66 mc, 31.96m. Careful tuning is required, although strength is good, as 2R0-9, on 31.02, is on one side, and WCBX, 31.09, on the other.

P.47 - Short-wave Section - New Schedules for London
NE W SCHEDULES FOR LONDON TRANSMITTERS As is usual at this time of the year, London makes many changes in frequencies and schedules. They are shown hereunder. ET., Eastern Transmission; PT., Pacific Transmission; .Am.T., American Transmission; Af.T., African Transmission; Eur., European Transmission; Home, Home Service. News: PT., 4.15 p.m., 6 p.m.: ET., 9.00 p.m., 1 p.m., 2 a.m.; Af.T., 4.00 a.m., 6.45 a.m.; Am.T., 8.45 a.m, 10.00 a.m., 10.45 a.m.. 2.30 p.m.; Eur.T., 6.00 p.m., 1.30 p.m., .8 a.m.; Home, 3.00 a.m., 6 a.m. Talks: PT., 4 p.m., 4.30 p.m.; ET., 9.15 P.m., 2.15 a.m. Newsreel: PT., 5 p.m., 1.30 p.m. GSV 17,810kc, 16.84m PT.. 5.30 to 6.15 a.m.; ET., 8.55 p.m. to 2.30 a.m. GSP. 15,310kc, 19.60m PT., 5.30 a.m. to 6.15 p.m.; Af.T., 2.55 a.m. to 4.15 a.m. PT., 2.57 to 6.15 p.m.; ET., 8.55 to 1.30 P.m.; Af.T.. 2.55 a.m. to 5 a.m. GSF 15,140kc, 19.82 m ET., 8.55 p.m. to 2.30 a.m.; Af.T., 2.55 a.m. to 5.15 a.m., 5.45 a.m. to 8a. m.; PT., 5,30 to 6.15 p.m.; 2.55 a.m. to 8 a.m. GSE 1,860kc, 25.29m Eur., 8.55 p.m. to 2.30 a.m. GSN 1,820kc, 25.38 m Eur., 8.55 p.m. to 2.30 a.m. GSD 1,750kc, 25.53 m PT., 2.57 p.m. to 6.15 p.m.; ET., 1 p.m. to 2.30 a.m.; Af.T., 2.55 a.m. to 8 a.m.; Am.T., 8.20 a.m. to 2.35 p.m. GRX 9690kc, 30.96m Eur., 2.55 a.m. to 9 a.m., 6 p.m. to 8 p.m. News, 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. GRY 9600kc, 31.25 m PT., 2.57 p.m. to 5 p.m.; Af.T., 2.55 a.m. to 8 a.m.; Am.T.. 8.20 a.m. to 2.35 p.m. GSC 9580kc, 31.32m PT.. 4.15 to 6.15 p.m.; Am.T., 8.25 to 2.35 p.m. GSB 9510kc, 31.55m PT., 2.57 p.m. to 6.15 p.m. GRU 9450kc, 31.75 m ET., 1.45 p.m.to 2.30 a.m. News, 2 a.m. GS W 7230kc, 41.49m Good at 4 a.m. with News in English for Burma and India (Beatty, N.G.). Fair at 6 p.m. (Beattie). GRT 7132kc, 42.06m Not sure of schedule that follows, but heard News at 8.45 a.m. 15/4/41. -Ed.) R8 at 5 p.m. (Cushen). Very good at 3 a.m. (Beattie). GRR 6080kc, 49.34m Home, 2 a.m. to 9 a.m. News, 3 a.m., 6 a.m. and 8.45 a.m. GSA . 6050kc, 49.59m Eur., 3.30 p.m. to 8 p.m., 2.55 a.m. to 9 News, 6 p.m. and 8 a.m.


text:
Planet Earth/5a. H2O: A Miraculous Gas, Liquid, and Solid

Water on Earth
Water (H2O) is the most abundant substance on Earth’s surface and one of the most abundant molecules in the universe. Liquid water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface leading to the striking blue color of Earth when viewed from space. As the only dark blue planet in the solar system, Earth is unique in its idyllic location from the sun to facilitate all three phases of H2O, as liquid water in the oceans, water vapor in the clouds, and ice in Earth’s glaciers and snow. One of the most amazing features of planet Earth is that throughout its long history all three phases of H2O were present. On the ice-covered moon of Jupiter, Europa, water remains locked beneath a frozen sea of ice in the extreme permeant cold temperatures well below -150 degrees Celsius, while Mars with an average temperature of -60 degrees Celsius, water exists only as frozen ice, principally at its northern pole. Evidence for the early presence of liquid water on Mars has been discovered through the Curiosity Mars rover, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and other missions to the planet, indicating that Mars may have been warmer in its early history several billion years ago. Venus, a planet slightly closer to the sun than Earth, has an average temperature of 462 degrees Celsius, much hotter than the boiling point of water, and all the water on Venus is found as gas in the form of water vapor in the thick hot atmosphere above its surface. Even Earth’s own moon lacks significant liquid and gas phases of water, despite a daily range from -173 degrees Celsius at night to 127 degrees Celsius during the day, the extreme daily dehydration and rehydration of the trace water in the rocks and dust on the moon have led to nearly permanent frozen ice to accumulate near the cold poles and in icy shadows from the sun’s daily heat. Earth’s dynamic liquid water of the oceans, water vapor in atmosphere, and snow and ice are truly unique and special in the solar system. This is due to the fine balance of planetary temperatures ranging across the melting and boiling points of water, but not being too extremely cold or hot within that range.

Water, the Molecule
With the chemical formula of H2O, each molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. At 1 atmosphere of pressure (sea level), water cooled to 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) will freeze into ice, and when heated to 100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit) water boils into steam or water vapor. The “triple point” is a point on a phase diagram illustrating the state of a substance at various temperatures and pressures where all three states (gas, liquid, solid) can coexist. The triple point of water occurs at 0.0075 °C (32.0135 °F) and 611.657 pascals or 0.006 atmospheric pressure. This point is similar to the cold temperatures that freeze water at normal atmospheric pressures at sea level, but a triple point can occur naturally in the very low atmospheric pressures 36 kilometers above Earth’s surface, resulting in ice, water and water vapor to coexist in the stratosphere, high above Earth. Water, ice, and water vapor has a broad absorption band that includes long-wave lengths of electromagnetic radiation beyond the visible spectrum, including infra-red light and microwave lengths of radiation. In the visual spectrum molecules of water and ice weakly absorb wave lengths down to 750 nanometers in length, which block some visible red light-waves, resulting in water and ice having a bluish color. Water’s broad band of absorption of infra-red electromagnetic radiation results in a high heat capacity of water. In fact, the specific heat capacity of water is one of the highest among common molecules. Water also exhibits high heat of vaporization, which resists water from boiling before reaching the boiling temperature. Frozen water has a high specific enthalpy of fusion or latent heat, which means that it takes a lot of energy to melt ice and raise the temperature of water compared to other types of molecules. As a consequence of these three unusual thermal properties, water and its distribution on Earth has a profound effect on Earth’s climate, because it can store enormous amounts of heat and can resist warming as frozen ice. The specific heat capacity of ice at −10 °C is 2.03 J/(g·K) and the heat capacity of steam at 100 °C is 2.08 J/(g·K). These unusual properties (high heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, and high specific enthalpy of fusion) are a result of the strong hydrogen bonds formed between individual molecules.

Hydrogen bonding in Water
In liquid water, hydrogen atoms within water molecules are attracted to oxygen atoms of neighboring molecules because of a slight polarization of the water molecule. The oxygen atom contains 8 protons (+8 charge) and will attract orbiting electrons slightly more than hydrogen atoms with 1 proton (+1 charge). This means that the oxygen atom within a water molecule carries a partial negative charge, due to the negative charged electrons attracted to the oxygen nucleus, while hydrogen atoms will carry a slight partially positive charge. This polarization results in molecules of water oriented so that hydrogen atoms are attracted to neighboring molecules. This attraction is weak, and easily broken. The lifespan of an individual hydrogen bond in water is very very short, with new hydrogen bonds consistently being formed and broken in a glass of water. This is very different then the strong covalent bonds that hold the single atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen together. Those covalent bonds require considerable energy to break, and are strongly bonded. Despite its weakness, hydrogen bonding is important because it leads to the unique chemical properties found in water. Liquid water has high cohesion. Cohesion is the attraction molecules have with each other. Hydrogen bonding makes the molecules of liquid water attract each other, making them stick together, and giving water the appearance of a “skin” when forming water droplets. When liquid water molecules stick together they form spherical drops due to the weak hydrogen bonding holding these molecules together, this is called cohesion. This cohesion results in strong surface tension, which is the property of the surface of a liquid that resists an external force. For example, if you are careful, you can float a paper clip on the surface of liquid water, due to this high surface tension. The high surface tension of water allows insects like water skippers of the family Gerridae to walk on this surface without sinking into the liquid water. Water molecules also exhibit slight adhesion with other molecules, particularly those with oxygen (like silica glass SiO2) and hydrogen atoms (like hydrocarbons found in plastics (C2H4)x polymers). This adhesion causes a meniscus to form near the edges of a glass. A meniscus is a concave depression, caused by water molecules clinging to the surface of a solid, such as a test tube, plastic flask or wine glass. This is caused by the adhesive of the weak hydrogen bonds between the water molecules and the neighboring atoms of oxygen or hydrogen they come in contact with. This adhesion can result in capillary action, allowing water to be pulled up narrow skinny tubes, which are found in nature in roots and stems of vascular plants that require water, and even in blood vessels in living animals.

Water, the Universal Solvent
The unique polarization of water molecules, with slight positive and negative charges on each side, facilitates liquid water molecules to break ionic bonds of solids placed within liquid water. This allows water to dissolve solids, such as salt by breaking the weak ionic bonds between the atoms in the solid. A liquid capable of dissolving solid substances formed by weak ionic bonds is referred to as a solvent. Water is highly regarded as one of the most important solvents on Earth, and can dissolve more solid substances than any other liquid. Composed of cations of Na+ and anions of Cl− attracted to each other by their opposite electric charge, table salt when placed in liquid water breaks apart and dissolves. The Na+ will be attracted to the oxygen-side of water molecules that carry a slight negative charge, while Cl− will be attracted to the hydrogen-side of water molecules, breaking the ionic bond between Na+ and Cl−, that forms solid salt crystals. These ions will exist within the salty liquid, having been dissolved within the liquid water. If more salt is added to the liquid water, the liquid will become supersaturated. A supersaturated liquid is a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than can be dissolved by the solvent, and will start to precipitate from the water. The amount of solid that can be dissolved in a liquid is dependent on temperature. This is often used in making candy, where sugar is added to boiling water, as the water cools the amount of sugar that can be dissolved decreases, and sugar crystals will form. One of the most interesting chemical properties occurs when molecules contain hydrogen H+ or hydroxide OH− ions are added to water.

pH: Acids and Bases
Working in the 1890s Johan Kjeldahl, a Danish chemist at the Carlsberg Brewery was given the task of finding out how much protein was in grain to be used to make malt for beer production. The less protein in the grain used at the brewery, the more beer could be made, since protein is not needed in the process of alcohol fermentation. Kjeldahl was successful and developed a method to measure the amount of nitrogen in the grain, which is found in protein, but not in sugars. Thus, the amount of nitrogen found in the grain, the more protein the grain had. One day, in July of 1900 Johan Kjeldahl died suddenly at the age of 50. His vacancy at the brewery attracted the attention of a young Danish chemist named Søren Peter Lauritz Sørensen. Sørensen grew up wanting to become a doctor, but became interested in inorganic chemistry and geology. During college he worked the summers on geological surveys of Denmark, but his real passion was chemistry. He had hope to become a teacher, but the position at Carlsberg Brewery paid much more, and he secured the job at the brewery. He took up a new task in understanding how proteins and other complex organic molecules can be broken down. Proteins can be broken down by heating them up to hot temperatures, and brewers boiled the grains to make malt, but it was also known that acids could break down proteins as well. Working at the brewery Sørensen undertook a careful study of how acids work.

Acids are formed when molecules of a substance containing ionic bonds that include hydrogen is added to water, for example HCl (hydrochloric acid). The hydrogen H+ cations will separate from the Cl− anions resulting in dissolution, like in salt (NaCl). However, the hydrogen H+ cations are highly reactive once dissolved and will react with complex organic proteins breaking them apart. What makes a liquid an acid is how many hydrogen H+ cations are dissolved within the liquid. One way to neutralize these excess hydrogen H+ cations is to introduce a substance containing OH− anions, like Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide). These OH− anions will react with the H+ cations and form H2O. Liquids that contain an excess of OH− anions are called basic, while liquids that contain an excess of H+ cations are called acidic. Pure water (H2O) will contain no excess H+ cations, nor excess OH− anions, and will be neutral.

In his laboratory at the brewery, Sørensen needed to develop a method to classify various liquids into a scale of how acidic or basic they were in his experiments. In 1909 he developed a logarithmic scale now widely used in chemistry, geology, and biology. Later modified in 1924 into the pH scale.

Sørensen knew that there would always be a tiny amount of H+ cations, even in liquids with abundant OH− anions. The amount of H+ cations would be exponentially smaller and smaller the more OH− anions are added. In neutral water Sørensen found that active H+ cations was only 0.000000003540133 per mole, having to write out such small numbers with so many zeros was not particularly useful, so instead Sørensen developed a simple method using an inverse logarithmic scale, which means the larger the value of H+ cations in a liquid, the smaller the number on the scale would be.

A liquid with 0.5 H+ cations per mole would have a very low pH of 0.3, while a liquid with a tiny amount, say 0.0000000001 H+ cations per mole would have a high pH of 10. Liquids with pH below 7 are acidic, while liquids with pH above 7 are basic. Bleaches and other household cleaners on this scale have around 13.5 pH, while vinegar is around 3 pH. Extremely low and high pH can easily break down proteins, with an excess of either H+ cations or OH− anions. These liquids on the high and low end of the scale are highly corrosive and dangerous, including liquid drain cleaner (very high pH) and battery acid (very low pH). Understanding pH is really important in understanding Earth’s water, because water is a powerful solvent, and will break ionic bonds resulting in mixtures of water with varying amounts of H+ cations or OH− anions. This will be particularly important in understanding the chemistry of rain, groundwater, rivers, lakes and oceans on Earth.


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User talk:Chubby kerl

Lets talk

Who are u
Im young girl who wants to see herself successful one day .i actually wish one day was tomorrow. As young as i am i wanna see my self being popular ,being know left n right, i wish i was old ,beacuse if i was i was gonna live the life that i wanna live as young as i am My inspiration is lethabo lejoy mathatho , n my mom is my role model. I would be happy to get a busury one day. Im proud of myself because i know what i want in life n one word that would describe me is Conqueror. Chubby kerl (discuss • contribs) 22:19, 5 June 2020 (UTC)

Guys please lets talk ,ask me questions Chubby kerl (discuss • contribs) 22:20, 5 June 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chubby kerl


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Cookbook talk:Sour Mix

Since when was this how to make sour mix
I thought it was a 1:1:1:1 mix, or maybe with slightly less lime juice than lemon juice. 69.244.230.1 (discuss) 00:14, 6 June 2020 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sour Mix


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User talk:105.112.183.253

Welcome, 105.112.183.253!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 00:16, 6 June 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:105.112.183.253


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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1941 06

P.03 - Contents Banner
The Australasian Radio World

Incorporating the

All-Wave All-World DX News

Vol. 4. - MARCH, 1940 - No. 10.

P.03 - Contents
Nil (to save space)

P.03 - Publication Notes
The "Australasian Radio World" is published monthly by A. G. Hull. Editorial offices, 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephone MA2455.

Subscription rates: 1/- per copy, 10/6 per year (12 issues) post free to Australia and New Zealand.

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.44)

P.03 - Editorial Notes
Editorial Notes

Nil