text:
Template:Unichar/doc

This template produces a formatted description of a Unicode character, to be used inline or otherwise with regular text.
 * The character is about intellectual property.
 * The character is about intellectual property.

Usage
The template takes the Unicode hexadecimal code point value and optionally the character name as input, like   →.

This template produces a formatted description of a Unicode character, to be used in-line with regular text. It follows the standard Unicode presentation of a character, using the "U+" prefix for displaying the hex code point, followed by its glyph, then optionally by the character name, using Unicode's inline formatting recommendation. In running text such as the Unicode Standard, Wikipedia, or other rich-text environments, the character name is preferredly displayed in. (The all-caps presentation is mainly designed for plain-text environments.)

The hexadecimal value is required (e.g. A9), other input is optional. The actual glyph is rendered using a font that contains the character. This can be set to something more specific, e.g. to language- or IPA-specific fonts. To show the glyph, the font character can be overridden with an image. A wikilink to an article on the character or set of characters, and another to the article Unicode can be created. It is also possible to add (bracketed like this), the calculated decimal value, HTML character codes, and a custom note.

Some special code points are given extra care, like control and space characters. These are automatically detected by the  sub-template.

Examples

 * → – no name added to link to
 * → – combine with a dotted circle

Parameters
The blank template, with all parameters, is as follows:

Inline version:

 * First unnamed parameter or 1= Required. The hexadecimal value of the code point, e.g. 00A9.
 * Notes: The parameter accepts input like A9, a9 and 00A9 as hexadecimal value. Decimal values are not detected being decimal, and will give unexpected results.
 * Second unnamed parameter or 2= Optional. The Unicode name of the character. This is given in ALL-CAPS, and the template will re-render it in . This name may differ from the title of the corresponding Wikipedia article (see below: nlink=).
 * nlink= Optional wikilink. Name of the Wikipedia page that will be linked to. If used, the Unicode name (second parameter) has a wikilink to the article.
 * Notes: The name of the page is case-sensitive as with all Wikipedia pages. The option "<blank>" to link to the name as given is deprecated.
 * →
 * ulink Optional. Creates a wikilink from the U+ prefix. When used without a name (i.e., undefined, blank with no value), the article Unicode is used as the default value in the output: U+ producing U+. This only needs to change if you have a reason to link elsewhere than Unicode, e.g. to an article on a subset of Unicode characters.
 * html= Optional. Adds the HTML character reference to the text, like &#160; in the bracketed note. If a named character reference exists, like "&nbsp;", that is added too. You do not need to add the values manually, just add html, blank.
 * use= Optional. Sets the font-hinting template to get the glyph, since the character may not be present in a regular browser font. Default is, other options are , and.
 * use2= Optional. When setting lang or script, use2 should be used to set the language (e.g. fr) or the script (e.g. Cyrs). A glyph may still not show as expected due to browser effects. For a detailed description, see each template's documentation.
 * →
 * image= Optional. Allows for a graphic image file to represent the glyph; overrides the font completely. The filename should include the extension (like .svg or .png ), but the prefix File:.
 * cwith= Optional. Useful when the Unicode character is . Using cwith adds a space before the character, allowing the combining effect. So when used with a character like a, the character will be combined with the letter "a". In Unicode, a general glyph used to place a combined character is.
 * without cwith:
 * →
 * cwith without parameter:
 * →
 * cwith with dotted circle:
 * →
 * size= Optional. Can be used to set the size of the glyph. The default value is 125% . For the font, all CSS font-size style inputs are accepted: 7px, 150% , 2em , larger.
 * →
 * When using an image (file) instead of a font, this size can only accept sizes in px like 12px . Default for images is 10px.

Produces:

Presentation effects
Since this template is aimed at presenting a formatted, inline description, some effects are introduced to sustain this target.
 * Showing space characters: All space characters (those with General Category: Zs) are presented with a light-blue background, to show their actual presence and width:.
 * Incidentally, the regular space is replaced with   (NBSP) to prevent wiki-markup deleting it as repeated spaces.
 * Removing formatting characters: Formatting characters (those with General Category: Cf, Zl and Zp) are removed from the output. By definition, formatting characters have no glyph. By removing them they cannot have a formatting effect.
 * Exception: five Arabic Cf/formatting number markings U+0600..U+0603 and U+60DD, are shown. While Cf formatting characters usually have no glyph, these five have. By internally adding "(visible)" to the category, these characters are shown.
 * Removing whitespace: The template removes formatting code and surrounding whitespace from the input. A <Return> in the Name-input (possibly unintended) would frustrate the in-line behaviour expectation.
 * Showing a label like <control-0007>: Unicode states that a code point has no name when it is one of these: a control character, a private use character, a surrogate, a not assigned code point (reserved), or a non-character. These code points instead should be referred to by using a "Code Point Label", such as <private-use> or <private-use-E000>. In this situation, this template replaces the glyph with that label. This way, the correct presentation wins it over Unicode-usage to the letter of the law.
 * "Control" general category=Cc:  or
 * "Surrogate" general category=Cs:  or
 * "Private Use": general category=Co:  or
 * "Not a character" (minus the reserved code points, see below): general category=Cn:,   or

The second parameter (Unicode name) is not presented, since it cannot exist. It is possible to create a link to an article.
 * Note: A <reserved> (unassigned) code point cannot be detected yet, and so is not presented with this label. These code points too are given Cn category.
 * (Background on <>-labels: A Name can never have <>-brackets at all. These rules prevent mixing up a name with an actual control-character. So it will not happen that a bell rings when a page is opened that contains a Name of U+0007).

Possible errors

 * The template produces an when 1 (or first unnamed parameter), the hex value, is missing, empty, or invalid.
 * → – wikilink target "COPYRIGHT SIGN" is not an existing article.

 * A non-hexadecimal input like 00G9 produces an error (because G or g is not hexadecimal).
 * Do not add the U+ prefix, as in U+00A9. It will not be recognised.
 * If the template shows the code point number, like 2038, you're probably using the wrong template, , instead of.
 * The glyph may be overruled and changed into a like <control-0007> . These characters have no Unicode name. An nlink will be directly to the article (entered in a form like Bell signal). A blank value of just undefined cannot work for <label-hhhh> characters (there is no character name at all to make into a link). This produces an error.
 * A decimal-value input like 98 will be read as being hexadecimal value 0098 . There is that the template can detect you intended to enter 9810=6216 . No warning is issued, and the wrong character, U+009816, will be shown ( U+0062 ).

Technical notes
The string "unichar" is used only in English Wikipedia, as a name for this template. It has no meaning outside this context.

The template uses these subtemplates:
 * unichar/main Accepts all the input from . Calls several subtemplates to produce the textstrings, and then strings them together. Also checks for the error non-hex input.
 * unichar/ulink Creates a piped link for the U+ prefix.
 * unichar/gc Determines the Unicode general category, when this category is special (like, for control characters).
 * unichar/glyph For rendering the glyph by font. Accepts image, which overrides the font. Also processes use, use2, size, cwith.
 * unichar/name Produces the formatted name of the character in . Accepts the nlink to create a piped wikilink to an article. When the general category (gc) is special, the name will change into a <label-hhhh>.
 * unichar/notes Shows notes in parentheses (round brackets): HTML (from html named entity like &nbsp; if that exists, using ); and the free-text note.
 * Using the main template as an easy-input feature, there are few calculations done (actually only two hex2dec), and allows for adding default values not too deep in the templates.
 * The value  is used internally to pass through a non-defined input parameter. This value is correct when about the Unicode name, because it cannot have the characters <##>, and so salted is the right word (meaning uninhibitable). For ease of code maintenance, it is used in various places in the code.

 * Named entities for :  →

Issues

 * Unassigned code points, to be labelled <reserved>, cannot be detected.
 * When using use-script, then use2 needs lowercase (e.g. 0485, Cyrs or cyrs)
 * When using for one of the RTL formatting marks, its effect may break out of the template (text following the template goes RTL, too). As it is now, this requires extra code.

TemplateData
{	"params": { "1": {			"aliases": [ "hval" ],			"label": "Hex value", "description": "Hexadecimal unicode codepoint", "example": "031A", "type": "string", "required": true },		"2": {			"aliases": [ "na" ],			"label": "Character name", "description": "If provided, shows Unicode character name", "example": "COMBINING LEFT ANGLE ABOVE", "type": "string", "suggested": true },		"ulink": { "example": "Phonetic symbols in Unicode", "type": "line", "description": "Add link to the Unicode HEX code point" },		"image": {}, "cwith": { "type": "string", "description": "(for combing characters only) add the following character before this combining character:", "example": "◌" },		"size": { "description": "Relative size of rendered character", "example": "200%", "type": "string" },		"use": { "type": "string" },		"use2": { "type": "string" },		"nlink": { "type": "string", "description": "Add link to the Unicode character name" },		"note": { "type": "line" },		"html": { "label": "HTML code", "description": "When present, shows HTML named entity", "example": "html= shows \"©\"", "type": "string" }	},	"description": "Formats a Unicode character description inline.", "format": "inline", "paramOrder": [ "1",		"2",		"ulink", "nlink", "cwith", "size", "image", "use", "use2", "html", "note" ] }

External research links
Useful links for researching Unicode characters:
 * Unicode.org charts in PDF format, showing the U+ hex values.
 * Fileformat.info search, to search by name (whole or partial), by U+ hex value or decimal value, or by the font symbol (copy-paste it). Extra information provided per character. One character only.
 * branah.com's a multi-character Unicode converter.
 * Unicode properties overview, e.g comma U+002C:

title: Template:Unichar/doc


text:
Cantonese/Lesson 2

A: Hello, I am [called] _________. Nice to meet you. B: Hello, I am _________. Nice to meet you too. A: 你好，我叫______. 好高興認識你. B: 你好，我係______. 我都好高興認識你. A: nei5 hou2, ngo5 giu3 ______. hou2 gou1 hing3 ying2 sik1 nei5.

B: nei5 hou2, ngo5 hai2 ______. ngo5 dou1 hou2 gou1 hing3 ying2 sik1 nei5.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cantonese/Lesson 2


text:
Talk:Cantonese/Lesson 8

To avoid confusion, I suggest moving the "Written Form" column all the way to the right Zoey473 (discuss • contribs) 21:49, 27 May 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cantonese/Lesson 8


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. d4/2...b6/3. Nf3/3...Bb7

e6b6 Defense
The e6b6 defense is an chess opening that traditionally begins with the moves:

 * 1) e4 e6
 * 2) d4 b6
 * 3) Nf3 Bb7

It is named the e6b6 defense because, obviously, it starts with the moves 1...e6 and 2...b6. Many professional chess players have implemented the defense into their repertoire as a secret weapon in the french defense.

Description
The e6b6 defense is an hypermodern chess opening focusing on controlling the crucial d5 and e4 squares. The move e7-e6 supports a d7-d5 pawn push, the move b7-b6 prepares Bb7, and the move Bb7 controls the d5 and e4 squares directly. It wasn't used too often by casual chess players until famous Youtuber and International Master created a chess course on the defense. Now, it is one of the more common defenses and has been used by many strong players.

The Owen Defense and English Defence are similar openings where Black often goes for an e6b6 setup.


text:
User:SCOTUS Operandi

The user page for SCOTUS Operandi

title: User:SCOTUS Operandi


text: Template:Unichar/ulink

title: Template:Unichar/ulink


text: Template:Unichar/gc

title: Template:Unichar/gc


text: Template:Unichar/glyph

title: Template:Unichar/glyph


text: Template:Unichar/name

title: Template:Unichar/name


text: Template:Unichar/notes

title: Template:Unichar/notes


text: User talk:114.79.57.58

title: User talk:114.79.57.58


text:
User talk:DanCherek

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, DanCherek!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
 * Please fill in the edit summary and preview your edits before saving.
 * Sign your name on discussion pages by typing ~~~~
 * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the Gadgets tab of my preferences; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit save!

Thanks for your contributions -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 08:12, 28 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the welcome! DanCherek (discuss • contribs) 12:19, 28 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:DanCherek


text:
Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/Helene Cixous

= Helene Cixous =

Helene Cixous is a French feminist theorist. She has published novels, plays, poetry and literary criticism. She is an important figure in post-structural feminist theory and is credited the creation of the notion of écriture feminine, which translates to 'women’s writing'. Her experimental writing style and literary theory has influenced models of education and understandings of women’s writing.

Early Life
Cixous was born to Jewish parents in Oran, Algeria in 1937. During this time Algeria was part of the French colony. Her mother was Austro-German, a refugee from Osnabruck in Nazi Germany. Her father was French-Algerian and died of tuberculosis when was young. Cixous’ upbringing was unique, she grew up a German and French speaking Jew, enduring the control of French colonisation as well as anti-Semitism. The diasporic context of her early life instilled her with a desire to confront the social injustices and power imbalances that had marginalised her in her early years.

Education
Cixous went on to study English Literature and passed her agrégation (teaching accreditation) in 1959. She went on to become a teaching assistant in Paris. She published her thesis “The Exile of James Joyce, or the Art of Displacement” in 1969.

Cixous was heavily involved in the students riots of 1968. These riots were prompted by a number of social issues including the current state of higher education, and students challenged the conservative views on education, advocating for a liberal experience. She became involved in founding the experimental University of Paris VIM where she was appointed to a Chair in English Literature. The University of Paris VIM incorporated alternative education methods as a critique to the traditional French academic environment. Her appointment to Chair allowed her to conduct research into the feminine presence in literary history, where she focussed on examining representations of female bodies, sexuality, and physicality in literature.

Research and Literary Theory
In 1974 Helene Cixous set up the first doctoral program for studies of women’s writing in Europe, Centre de Recherches en Etudes Féminines. In 1975 Cixous published The Laugh of Medusa, her most famous and studied work. In the text, Cixous posited a literary theory which challenged phallocentric ideas of writing reinforced by patriarchal systems, and put forth an argument for female-centric writing practice that could overturn the patriarchal hegemony within literature. She does this by introducing the concept of ecriture feminine. Translated as “women’s writing” ecriture feminine is a concept established by Cixous in the theories of The Laugh of Medusa. Cixous confronts the patriarchal hegemony dominant in literary theory that positions women as “the other" and examines the portrayal of feminine difference in language. She posits, ecriture feminine is a transgressive concept that aims to liberate feminine expression through advocating for a style of writing that subverts a hierarchical binary structure and empowers women to tap into their innate feminine qualities.

Cixous argues that the structuralist language cannot fully express the feminine. Women are typically represented as the negative part of the gender binary, but Cixous believes that women do not fit the binary, as there is no one typical woman. Ecriture féminine is thus writing that situates itself outside of patriarchal logic and discourse, “writing that overflows the binary oppositions of patriarchal logic." Cixous argues for alternative methods and modes women to write themselves into literature through experimental approaches like stream of consciousness. Cixous argued that disruptions in the text, such as gaps, silences, puns and new images contribute the 'ecriture feminine', making women's writing uniquely feminine.

Anglo-American Feminism vs French Feminism
Cixous' literary work and theory epitomises the different approaches between Anglo-American feminism and French feminism, with Cixous' practice falling under the latter.

The differences in Anglo-American feminism compared to French and European feminism stem from their origins. The feminist movement in the US was prompted by the 1960’s civil rights movement, and therefore Anglo-American feminism was generally more concerned with the liberal and socialist ideologies. In contrast, French feminism developed from philosophical tradition, and is more theory oriented. French feminism focuses on advocating the importance of biological separatism and how feminists can form coalitions advocating for change for minority groups.

Cixous critical theory epitomises the difference between French feminism and Anglo-American feminism. This is evident in the strong philosophical roots of her theories, heavily influenced by post-structuralism and psychoanalysis, and her engagement with the ideas of theorists Jacques Derrida and Sigmund Freud.

Derrida first used the term ecriture to denote writing as différance. Cixous takes Derrida’s concept of logocentricism and subverts it to phallogocentricism: rather than a privilging of the logos in the cronstruction of meaning, Cixous refers to a privileging of the masculine perspective in the construction of meaning. Cixous also confronts Freudian notions of women’s sexuality as dangerous and unknown. This ideology means that because women are supposedly non-comprehensible, they are therefore unrepresentable. Cixous wants women to express and write themselves more accurately.

Notable Works

 * The Laugh of the Medusa (1976) - In her most famous critical essay, Cixous posits the concept of écriture feminine. Cixous utilises Medusa to illustrate her point of the masculine barriers which prevent women from 'having a voice'. Medusa who was killed at the hands of men is metaphoric for men silencing women over the decades. Eventually, Medusa "laughs at the barriers of the masculine discourse because she has discovered her own feminine writing." From January 2014-January 2021, Cixous' critical essay download has increased by an average of 60 percent.

 * The Newly Born Woman (1975) - In this seminal essay, Cixous asserts the belief of a gender hierarchy where the male component always conquers; "This maleness is described in terms of activity, while femaleness in terms of passivity." Cixous further expands the notion of écriture feminine and how women's sexuality has moulded their imagination, creativity and writing. The University of Minnesota Press has states that this text "...is a landmark text of the modern feminist movement."


text: User:Frenghirl

title: User:Frenghirl


text:
User:Coupsmogi

Wilde about Wilde

title: User:Coupsmogi


text: User talk:1.136.111.202

title: User talk:1.136.111.202


text:
Wikibooks:Collections/EdsPaulsen workshop service & repair manual

Automotive mechanical

 * Automotive Systems
 * Automotive Systems/Braking System
 * Automotive Systems/Cooling System
 * Automotive Systems/Differential
 * Automotive Systems/Electrical System
 * Automotive Systems/Engine Electrical
 * Automotive Systems/Exhaust System
 * Automotive Systems/Fuel System
 * Automotive Systems/Intake System
 * Automotive Systems/Transmission System
 * Automotive Systems/Universal CV
 * Automotive Systems/Valve Train

 * EdsPaulsen workshop engine & repair manual


text: Category:Book:Character Encodings

title: Category:Book:Character Encodings


text: User:Victuallers

title: User:Victuallers


text:
User talk:103.81.114.10

Come Edit A Page But No Vandalism Allowed

title: User talk:103.81.114.10


text:
User talk:173.216.247.15

No Vandalism Allowed

title: User talk:173.216.247.15


text:
Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/Hilda L. Smith,

Hilda L. Smith - Hilda Smith
Hilda L. Smith is a Professor of History at the University of Cincinnati. She is the author of Reason’s Disciples: Seventeenth-Century English Feminists (1982) and two edited volumes, Women Writers and the Early Modern British Political Tradition (1998) and Women’s Social and Political Thought: An Anthology (2000). More recently, she has raised the argument of Alice Clarks’s in the journal Early Modern Women on women’s labour.

General Information:

Name:
Hilda L. Smith

Born:
7th September 1941- Present

Nationality:
American (USA)

Occupation:
Author, Editor, Honoree, Historian, Teacher/Professor

Education:
Smith completed her undergraduate work at MSU in education. She completed her masters in history at the University of Missouri and later went on to receive her doctorate from University of Chicago for PhD in the 1970.

Period of active works:
1975-2019

Genre(s):
History, Sources, Bibliographies, Criticism, Interpretation, Academic thesis

Scholar's statements on her work:
“Hilda Smith's book still stands as the first serious history of early English feminism in our time, the first attempt to consider the collective political consciousness of women of the early mod? ern period, and their relation to the male institutions in which they found themselves confined. It is a significant achievement.” Ruth Perry, Review: Writing the History of English Feminism.

Career and Works:
Historian and Author and then After graduate studies, went to further move onto teaching at the University of Cincinnati as a Professor of History. She now is a professor emerita, and has been retired for approximately two years. She continuously travels to England on a regular basis for research.

Works:
28 works in 128 publications in English

Countries and Regions of Publication:
United States (US), United Kingdom, Switzerland, Kiribati

Co-authors:
Susan, Cardinale; Susan Wiseman; Mihoko, Suzuki; A.Berenice, Carroll; S.Melinda, Zook; Institute Folger; Cambridge University Press; Melinda Zook; Donald, Wing; Donald Goddard, Wing.

Influences:
British women in the 17th and 18th centuries

All Men and Both Sexes: Gender Politics, and the False Universal in England, 1640-1832:
This text prevails in the way it utilises language and universal terms. The book analyses the use of terms such as “people”, “humans” and “man” in early modern England. The use of these terms suggest that women do have a role in this work, when really they are unmentioned throughout. Hilda suggests in the text that in order to focus on the Rights of Man and the exclusion of women, we need to expedite the past to the English Revolution. To explore the values of citing educational treatises, advice literature to young people, guild records, popular periodicals, and parliamentary debates. Ultimately the text explores the gender difference between men and women in the literature of history. Pages: 235. Edition: illustrated. Publisher: Pen State Press, 2010. ISBN: 027104604X, 9780271046044

Generations of Women Historians: Within and Beyond the Academy:
Is a collection of essay pieces which idealises the early generation of women historians and their consistent battle to grasp the professional realities in their lives. It dives into the insight of their social and intellectual aspects that inspired the study of history. The text conveys the message of female practitioners over time, disclosing the values women faced in order to exist as a historian compared to their male counterparts. 320 pages. Publication date: 1st August 2018. Publisher: Springer International Publishing AG. Publication origin: Cham, Switzerland. Edition: 1st. ISBN10: 3319775677. ISBN13: 97833197756781

Women and the Literature of the Seventeenth Century: an Annotated Bibliography based on Wing’s “Short Title Catalogue”:
This book is a bibliography of seventeenth century works for and by women. It examines 1,600 written pieces between 1641 and 1700. The text is split into several parts where it explores the works of women in history neglected by their era. Pages: 332. Series: no.10. Publisher: Greenwood Press, New York, 1990. ISBN: 031322059X.

Reason’s Discipline: Seventeenth-Century English Feminists:
Pages: 237. Publisher: University of Illinois Press, 1982. ISBN: 0252009126, 9780252009129.

Women Writers and the Early Modern British Political Tradition:
This text is a collection of essays and political writings from authors such as, Christine de Pizan to Mary Wollstonecraft. It analyses the political ideas of female writers and their historical background. This edition brings to light the limitations put on women's writing of a political nature in early modern Europe. The text examines what is typically ignored by historians on political thought, by the neglection of feminist intervention. Pages: 392. Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN: 0521585090, 9780521585095.

==== Women’s Political & Social Thought: an Anthology: ==== This collection of texts marks the first selection of readings of women's social and political theory from past and present. This book helps to fill a gap in the materials that are available for teaching the history of political thought and helps to facilitate the education of women as creators of historical and political theory. Pages: 449. Edition: Annotated. Publisher: Indiana University Press, 2000. ISBN: 02543337585, 9780253337580. Women’s Political Writings, 16010-1725: this book examines a collection of women’s poltical writings from the Seventeenth century. The text idealises the foundation essential in female political plan. Pages: 1584. Publisher: Routledge, January 2007. ISBN: 9781851967926.

References:
http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n81100317/

https://viaf.org/viaf/29661518/

https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q87186131

https://books.google.com.au/books/about/All_Men_and_Both_Sexes.html?id=rUc8SgxkO9QC&source=kp_author_description&redir_esc=y

https://www.bookdepository.com/Generations-Women-Historians-Hilda-L-Smith/9783319775678

https://blogs.missouristate.edu/bearbulletin/2014/02/13/trailblazer-womens-history/

https://www.ksmu.org/post/womens-historian-and-msu-alumnus-speaks-campus#stream/0

https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Women_Writers_and_the_Early_Modern_Briti.html?id=PGGOBWDBQfQC&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y

https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Women_s_Political_Social_Thought.html?id=WGcuJcTciRMC&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y

https://www.routledge.com/Womens-Political-Writings-1610-1725/Smith/p/book/9781851967926


text:
Fireboy and Watergirl in the Forest Temple/Level 1

Level 1 is the introductory level and its purpose is to teach the player(s) basic controls. You can control Fireboy using the arrow keys and Watergirl using the WASD keys. Fireboy can move through lava but not through water while Watergirl can move through water but not through lava. Both characters are unable to move through green mud. This game is intended for 2 players, however it can also be played solo.

It's easy to get to the yellow lever by making sure Fireboy doesn’t enter water and Watergirl doesn’t enter lava. Afterwards, switch the lever and the yellow platform will descend. Then, one of the characters has to stand on the pink button so that the pink platform will also descend while the other character has to jump on top of the pink button.

When the first character moves from the button, the platform will ascend so the second player has to stand on the second pink button in order to let the first one move up.

Then you get to a movable object. Just move the object until it touches the wall on the left. Afterwards, use the object as a stepping stone to jump up. Finally, Watergirl must enter the door with the blue symbol while Fireboy must enter the door with the red symbol to complete the level.

Congratulations! You finished the first level! You are now a pro gamer! Or both of you if there are two of you! Also, successfully completing level 1 will unlock level 2.


title: File:FBWGL1.png


text: Category:Book:Fireboy and Watergirl in the Forest Temple


text:
Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2021/April

Template:TOC
Might wanna consider protecting the template. --Minorax (discuss • contribs) 12:42, 10 April 2021 (UTC)

 * ✅. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 19:28, 10 April 2021 (UTC)

Invitation to m:Talk:Universal Code of Conduct/2021 consultations/Discussion
I am interested in hearing the input of Wikibooks administrators and other users about the application of the Universal Code of Conduct, especially from the perspective of interactions on Wikibooks at the linked page. Xeno (WMF) (talk) 23:20, 17 April 2021 (UTC)

Poem of Sidi Boushaki
this should definitely be deleted as out of scope (or any number of reasons). Its been created by a couple of socks of an LTA called User:Boushaki10; the User:Lofton05 account has been locked, and I have requested that the User:15safia to be also locked at Meta. It links on youtube to some teachings in Arabic, so obviously out of scope. I thought I'd better explain before deletion. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 16:27, 20 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks, there are multiple other accounts (sleepers in the main) and one new one that is socking to block evade. So I have blocked them all and nuked the book. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 17:29, 20 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Oh, thanks for pointing it out; I had no clue they were actually socking. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 18:17, 20 April 2021 (UTC)


text:
Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/ John Foxe 2

= John Foxe (1516 - 1587) =

Biography
John Foxe was born in 1516 in Boston, Lincolnshire, England. His father died when Foxe was a child, and his mother remarried a wealthy landowner by the name of Richard Melton. Foxe studied at Oxford University. He achieved a master’s degree in July 1543, and became a lecturer in logic at the university from 1539 to 1540. In 1545, Foxe was required to take priests orders, but he refused as he did not support traditional Catholic orthodoxy and its requirements of celibacy. In 1538, in Oxford, William Cowbridge was convicted of heresy, due to him being involved in publishing the Bible in English. Foxe was witness to his burning at the stake. Foxe disagreed with the attitudes of the Church during the reign of Henry VIII. He had Protestant beliefs, and as a result he left Oxford and spent time with the Bishop of Worcester, Hugh Latimer. Latimer was ordained as a priest and first preached Roman Catholicism, but later converted to Protestantism. Latimer found work for Foxe as a tutor in the household of Sir Thomas Lucy, in Warwickshire. Here, Foxe married Agnes Randall in 1547 and the couple eventually had six children. Foxe moved to London and worked for the Duchess of Richmond, Mary Fitzroy. He was employed as a tutor to the children of her brother, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. Howard was a Catholic who had been executed in January 1547. At their London residence, Mountjoy House, Foxe met John Bale, an English controversialist and the Bishop of Ossory, whom he would later work with on manuscripts and martyrology. Foxe was ordained deacon by the Bishop of London, Nicholas Ridley, on 24 June 1550. He strongly opposed the death penalty for adultery and those that preached Protestantism, and published De Censura in 1551, under his own name. He argued that adultery should not be a capital crime, and proposed new approaches to canon law and religious discipline and expression.

Works
When Mary I ascended to the throne in July 1553, Foxe left the Richmond household. Having published Protestant writings, Foxe feared being convicted of heresy and fled England. He arrived in Strasbourg, France in 1554. In Strasbourg, Foxe published his first history of the persecution of 	Christians, focusing particularly on the persecution of Proto-Protestant Christians in England. The second edition of this work was published in Basel, Switzerland in August 1559. This second version concentrates more on the reign of Mary Tudor and her attempt to reverse the English Reformation and persecute Protestants for their religious beliefs. These first two editions would later become a foreshadow to his major work, Acts and Monuments. Following the death of Mary Tudor, Foxe moved back to England. On 20 March 1563, John Day published Foxe’s Acts and Monuments, also known as Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Acts and Monuments attracted significant attention (Mozley, 1940). Over 1800 pages, Acts and Monuments describes English church history from the year 1000 to the accession of Queen Elizabeth, focusing on oppression by the Catholic Church and the execution of admirable Protestant martyrs (Freeman). Acts and Monuments was issued four times, in 1563, 1570, 1576 and 1583. Foxe provides a detailed history of the English Reformation, focusing on the oppression of the Catholic Church, the execution of heroic Protestant martyrs, and the collapse of Mary Tudor’s reign. In his work, Foxe condemns the false Roman Catholic Church in preference of what he sees to be as the true church; the Protestant church. He attempts to do this by proving that the English church stemmed from the original apostolic church (Morphew, 2017).

Legacy & Death
David Loades (2005) describes Foxe’s work as being crucial to English protestant identities, creating influential ideologies into the twentieth century. The Council of Bishops ordered for a copy of Acts and Monuments to be available in every church and cathedral in England, and had become a required reading for English Protestants. (Morphew, 2017). Acts and Monuments was the earliest writing on ecclesiastical discipline by an English Protestant (Davies & Facey, 2011). Fernandes (2020) attributes the formation of a Protestant national identity to the work of Foxe, claiming that the Protestant victims of burning at the stake during the reign of Mary Tudor became heroes due to Foxe’s writing. Burrow (2008) considers Foxe’s work to be “the greatest single influence on English Protestant thinking of the late Tudor and early Stuart period” (296). As Fernandes states, Foxe’s writing created an image of Catholics being the enemy to the English Protestants, emphasising that the Catholics were the enemies and the Protestants burnt at the stake during Mary I’s reign were heroic. Haigh (1986) suggests that Foxe’s history is a key work in modern understandings of the English Reformation and Protestant victory. Cornwall & Gibson (2010) suggest that Foxe created a link between Catholics and religious persecution in eighteenth-century English society. Overall, scholars agree that Foxe’s work was one of the most influential writings of the Tudor period. Today, original copies of Acts and Monuments are extremely rare, but one is held by the British Museum in London. John Foxe died at his London home on Grub Street, on 18 April 1587. He was buried at St. Giles Cripplegate, London.


text:
Minecraft resource gathering/Netherite

Crafting
Netherite is something that can not be found by mining, but gotten by crafting. 4 ancient debris and 4 gold in a crafting table creates a netherite ingot and like other ores, an ingot in every slot creates a block.

Bastions
Netherite can sometimes be found in bastion chests.

Use
You use 1 netherite ingot on a smithing table with a diamond tool, weapon, or armor to get a netherite version, keeping enchantments and durability percetage. Netherite items have higher protection, attack, durability, and enchantibility than diamond.

title: Minecraft resource gathering/Netherite


text:
Minecraft resource gathering/Emerald

Introduction
An emerald is a rare mineral in Minecraft added to the game in snapshot 12w21a of version 1.3.1 of the game. Emeralds should not be confused with the diamonds, that were added in the indev version of the game and at that time were referred to in the code as emeralds.

Trading
A very common speedrunning technique to getting emeralds is using a fletcher for stick trades. The fletcher will request 32 sticks and will offer 1 emerald. To get a fletcher you will need to put 4 blocks of wood in a crafting table just as you would to craft a crafting table and two flint above the wood and place the fletching table beside a villager that doesn't have a job/profession. There is a chance that it won't give you this stick trade, but all you have to do is break the fletching table and re-place it. Another method to trade for easy emeralds is to use glass panes for emeralds on a librarian to get emeralds.

Mining
When mining an emerald ore using an iron pick or a better one, one emerald will drop, assuming that the pickaxe is not enchanted with fortune. If it is, it may or may not drop an extra emerald per every level of fortune. The maximum level of a fortune enchantment is Fortune III, thus the maximum amount of emeralds that can be dropped by an ore is 4. If you mine an emerald ore using a silk touch pickaxe, you will get the ore block instead of an emerald.

Crafting
A block of emerald (which is crafted by putting 9 emeralds in a crafting table can be uncrafted to 9 emeralds. In single player, you won’t find emerald blocks lying around, but in multiplayer you can receive them from other players.

Smelt
You can receive emeralds by smelting an emerald ore in a furnace, however this probably isn’t the smartest option, since that will require using fuel. If you have emerald ores in you inventory that you wish to convert to emeralds, you can just place them on the ground and mine them with a pickaxe. If for whatever reason, you don’t have a pickaxe, you can smelt them using any fuel.

Structures
Emeralds can be found naturally generating in chests in the following structures:
 * Buried treasure
 * Desert temple
 * End city
 * Igloo
 * Jungle temple
 * Shipwreck
 * Underwater ruins
 * Village (inside the chests of some of the houses)

Mob drops
If a fox that is holding an emerald dies, it will always drop the emerald. You can convince the fox to drop the emerald without killing it by throwing food items on the ground near it.

Vindicators and evokers may or may not drop an emerald upon death. If killed via a weapon enchanted, the maximum amount of emeralds increases by one per every level of the enchantment. If using a sword enchanted by enchantment III, the maximum number of emeralds dropped is 4.

Currency
The main use of emeralds in Minecraft is as a currency. They can be used to buy items from villagers and wandering traders.

Beacon
Another use of emeralds is to select powers from a beacon. The player should choose a power from the ones available and then put an emerald in the slot. Emerald blocks can also be used to make the pyramid below the beacon.

Java Edition 1.3.1
Emeralds and emerald ore were first added to the game in snapshot 12w21a of version 1.3.1 of the Java Edition of the game. Players can trade the emeralds for different items with the villagers. The same snapshot added desert temples, which have a hidden chest room containing emeralds, along with other resources. During development, rubies were meant to be used for trading, though they were replaced with emeralds before snapshot release. The unused ruby texture however can be found in the game file of this version.

Blocks of emerald were added in snapshot 12w22a, the same snapsnot that also added jungle temples. Jungle temples contain emerald in their loot chests.

Java Edition 1.4.2
Snapshot 12w32a added zombie villagers that can spawn naturally. It’s possible to cure a zombie villager, and it will become a regular villager. That means emeralds can obtain/use emeralds in trades even if he turned off structure generation in the world settings.

Java Edition 1.9
Snapshot 15w31a added end cities that contain end ships. Emeralds can be found in the end ships.

Snapshot 15w43a added igloos, that have basements with loot. Emeralds can be found in the chests in those basements.

Snapshot 15w44a increased the number of emeralds that can be found in a dessert temple.

Java Edition 1.11
Vindictators and Evokers were added in snapshot 16w39a. If killed by a player, they will drop emeralds.

Java Edition 1.13
Snapshot 18w09a added Ocean Ruins. Ocean ruins contain loot chests which may include emeralds.

Snapshot 18w10a added buried treasure. Emeralds may generate in the chests of buried treasure.

Java Edition 1.14
Snapshot 18w43a changed the textures of emeralds. In the same snapshot, pillagers were added to the game and at the time they were able to drop emeralds.

In snapshot 18w46a, pillagers stopped dropping emeralds.

Starting from snapshot 18w48a, emeralds can be found in chests in village tanneries, fisher cottages and plains village houses.

Snapshot 18w49a added emeralds to chests in other village house as well: shepherd houses, mason houses, butcher shops, and savanna and snowy village houses.

Snapshot 18w50a added emeralds to village fletcher houses, temples, desert and taiga village houses as well.

In snapshot 19w07a foxes were added to the game. They can sometimes spawn with an emerald in their mouths.

In snapshot 19w08a, the texture of emeralds was changed again.

Java Edition 1.17
The ruby texture which was not used anywhere in the code was removed from the game.

Pocket Edition Alpha v0.9.0
Emeralds were added in build 1 of the version, and blocks of emerald were added in build 5.

Pocket Edition Alpha v0.13.0
Desert temples were added in build 1 of this version. They can be found in the biome “desert hills”. Their chests contain emeralds, as well as other items.

Pocket Edition Alpha v0.15.0
Jungle temples were added in build 1 of this version. They contain emeralds in their loot chests.

title: Minecraft resource gathering/Emerald


text:
Minecraft resource gathering/Stone

Location
Stone is a very easy resource to find. Mine down a few blocks and you will find stone.

Acquisition
If you break it, you will get cobblestone, a very useful building material. To get the recreate the look of stone that you find in nature, put cobblestone in a furnace and you get a stone block. You can also break stone with a silk touch pickaxe, and get stone.

title: Minecraft resource gathering/Stone


text:
Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/Mary Rich, countess of Warwick (1624–1678)

= Mary Rich, countess of Warwick (1624–1678) = Mary Rich, Countess of Warwick (8 November 1625 – 12 April 1678) was an Irish-born writer and member of the peerage of the United Kingdom. Her personal writings capture the period of the Stuart Restoration, and she was ‘in familiar intercourse with the most active characters of the time, pro and con’.

Biography
Mary was born Margaret Boyle, the seventh daughter and thirteenth child of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork and Lord Treasurer of Ireland, and his second wife, Catherine Fenton. She was born in 1625 at the College House in Youghal, County Cork. Her mother died in Dublin in 1630. Sometime later, Boyle sent Mary to live with the Claytons in Mallow, Munster until Mary was eleven. Lord Boyle then moved the family to Stalbridge in Dorset, England.

Boyle arranged a marriage between Mary and James Hamilton, son of Viscount Claneboye. They met in 1638 when Mary was thirteen and James twenty. By Mary’s account, Hamilton professed a great passion for her, but Mary maintained an inexplicable repulsion for him. She withstood the pressure to marry and finally her father called off the betrothal. When Mary’s brother Francis married Elizabeth Killigrew, Mary and Elizabeth became great friends. Elizabeth introduced Mary to seeing and reading plays and romances, and to other members of the court, such as Charles Rich, younger son to the Earl of Warwick.

After visiting Mary through a bout of measles, Rich proposed marriage to Mary, and she agreed. Her father protested and sent Mary to Hampton Court, where Rich continued to visit her (almost daily) for ten weeks; Mary wrote he was her only visitor. Finally Lord Boyle agreed to the marriage and began to prepare a public wedding in London. Mary and Charles, however, eloped to Shepperton near Hampton Court and wed privately at St Nicholas Church on 21 July 1641. Mary moved to Leez Priory in Essex, the home of the Earls of Warwick. She and Charles had two children: Elizabeth, born in 1641, who died before her second birthday, and Charles, born in 1643.

Also in 1643, Mary’s father Lord Boyle died. After losing her father and daughter, and after her son’s serious illness, Mary began to discover her religious faith. During this time, Leez Priory became a refuge and hiding place for Puritan ministers; the Warwicks also hid armaments from Royalist soldiers during the siege of Colchester. In the 1640s, in fact, Leez Priory was the “topographical and moral centre” of opposition to King Charles I, though Mary later thought the king innocent and enjoyed a friendly relationship with Charles II and his court following the Restoration. In 1648, Mary became ill with smallpox; she was ill again near to death sometime in the next few years. Her recoveries strengthened her faith. In 1657, her husband’s nephew Robert died; her father-in-law and brother-in-law soon followed in 1658 and 1659, leaving Charles and Mary to care for their three nieces Anne, Mary and Essex, as well as take on the responsibilities of Earl and Countess of Warwick.

On 2 September 1662, Mary’s son Charles married Anne Cavendish. The younger Charles fell ill with smallpox on 8 May 1664; he died eight days later. Though Mary and her husband tried to conceive more children, they were unable. In 1673, after twenty years of suffering with gout, the elder Charles died. He named Mary heir to his estate; she ensured the marriages of her nieces and settled her husband’s debts and sales. Thereafter, she devoted herself to charity and religion, until her death, on 12 April 1678.

Autobiography of Mary Countess of Warwick
Also titled Some Specialities in the life of M. Warwick. Mary Rich wrote her own autobiography during her later years, roughly 1671 to 1674. Thomas Crofton Croker, who edited the work in 1848 when it was published by the Percy Society, noted only a selection of her work had been published, as her manuscripts had been separated, some kept and some sold, after her death. The is a candid account of Mary’s early life, which she notes in her diary she felt was quite sinful. It outlines her relationships with her family, friends, and the Rich family; it also describes her religious journey, from uncaring to devout.

The Diary of Mary Rich (Abridged)
Mary Rich maintained a near-daily dairy from 25 July 1666 to 12 April 1972, and likely beyond. Its main theme is her religious devotion, meditations, and sermons she heard. She also chronicled her daily activities and concerns, her husband’s gout and temper, the deaths and sicknesses that surrounded her, and her correspondences and dinners with notable figures. She writes of visiting the king and queen, the lord chamberlain , the lord chancellor , the duke and duchess of York and more, and mentions events such as the Second Anglo-Dutch War , the Great Fire of London , and frequent deaths resulting from plague, smallpox and other afflictions. The 1847 published version of her diary by the Religious Tract Society is an abridged version that indicates at least some of the missing sections; it also mentions that a second diary was written in the years 1672 - 1678, but it has since been lost.

Rules for A Holy Life, Occasional Meditations Upon Sundry Subjects and Pious Reflections on Several Scriptures
As part of the funeral sermon Dr. Anthony Walker wrote for Mary, he shared additional material he had collected from her writings. This includes a letter from Mary Rich to George, 1st Earl of Berkeley. The letter opens with an assertion that the Earl asked Mary to write him ‘rules for holy living’; the letter is comprised of advice, meditations and reflections on scripture. Other writings Dr. Walker published included a book of thirteen ‘meditations,’ comprising religious prayers and reflections sparked by domestic things such as witnessing silkworms spin, drawing curtains, and asking help from friends; and a book of twelve reflections with prayers linked to specific verses from the Bible. Some of the reflections are upon parts of scripture that perhaps nobody in print had reflected on before, such as John 4: 28, “The woman then left her water-pot.”

Reputation and Legacy
After Mary’s death, the man she credits with her religious conversion, Dr. Anthony Walker, published a lengthy memoir dedicated to her, with selections from her writings. He wrote of Mary as a pious noblewoman during a time of hedonism in the royal court. Later compilers of her writings among the Percy Society and the Religious Tract Society call Mary’s catalogue of manuscripts historically significant; “although perhaps as a whole, not worth publication, [they] well merit preservation in the British Museum, for reference to by historical students”.

Her surviving manuscripts have been preserved accordingly in the British Museum and indexed in the Perdita database as a five-volume set of diaries, her Occasional Meditations, her autobiography titled Some Specialities in the life of M. Warwick, and a series titled Collections out of my Lady Warwick’s papers, compiled by another of her religious mentors, Thomas Woodroffe.


text:
User talk:103.151.1.20

Please don't remove content from pages without giving an adequate explanation. Thanks. --Ixfd64 (discuss • contribs) 01:20, 1 June 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:103.151.1.20


text:
Accountancy/Balance sheet

The Balance sheet is one of the important financial statement that helps in understanding the financial health of a company at the end of the financial year. There are 2 major components, Liabilities & Assets where Assets = Liabilities + Equity. Various financial metrics derived from Balance sheet may help you to understand the financial performance, stability, profitability, futuristic plans, ability to withstand uncertain times, cash position, and lots more about a company. It is one of the important statements considered for financial analysis & taking critical financial decisions.

title: Accountancy/Balance sheet


text:
Talk:Accountancy/Balance sheet

Hi Team, have submitted my small reference to what balance sheet is all about but feel that a reference to external link will be great to help users understand how it looks like & the purpose. But I am unable to provide external link in the edits let me know how to go about it?

title: Talk:Accountancy/Balance sheet


text: User talk:2.100.111.47

title: User talk:2.100.111.47


text:
User:Vstrozzi

Sistemi Sensoriali/Animali marini

title: User:Vstrozzi


text:
User:Vstrozzi/sandbox

Introduzione
Quasi tutti gli organismi sono capaci di rilevare la luce, ovvero di rispondere alla radiazione elettromagnetica in una gamma compresa fra 300 a 800 nm. Lo studio dei sistemi visivi è affascinante dal punto di vista evolutivo perché animali molto distanti tra loro sull'albero evolutivo sembrano aver sviluppato abilità sorprendentemente simili, a volte particolarmente complesse, che permettono loro di percepire la luce. Particolarmente degno di nota è il sistema visivo delle cubomeduse (Classe Cubozoa, Phylum Cnidaria) (Figura 1), il quale è sicuramente il sistema visivo più complesso di tutto il phylum delle cnidari. Sorprendentemente infatti, gli occhi di queste meduse sono molto simili ai nostri. Questa eccezionale capacità visiva dei membri della classe Cubozoa (la classe più piccola del phylum Cnidaria) è stata rilevata quando si è notato che essi dimostrano comportamenti natatori inaspettatamente complessi: possono muoversi molto velocemente in una direzione specifica ed evitare zone buie e ostacoli.

Per capire come queste meduse vedano si possono usare una serie di procedure sperimentali. Per esempio, si possono controllare le condizioni di illuminazione nelle camere sperimentali, dove gli animali sono conservati. Qui si possono osservare i cambiamenti nella frequenza degli impulsi, le contrazioni e l'asimmetria strutturale della campana della medusa che si tradurrebbero, in natura, in comportamenti natatori di evitamento o di avvicinamento ad altri organismi. Negli ultimi decenni il sistema nervoso delle cubomeduse, compreso il loro sistema visivo, è stato studiato dal punto di vista anatomico, cellulare, molecolare e genetico, ma la comprensione degli occhi di queste creature è ancora incompleta.

Anatomia
La Cubozoa (in inglese "Box jellifish"), o anche chiamata cubomedusa, deve il suo nome alla forma cubica della sua campana, che presenta un diametro di circa 10 mm negli animali adulti. Su ogni lato della campana sono situati quattro ropali, strutture sensoriali che ospitano in totale 24 occhi di vario tipo. Tale posizionamento degli organi visivi permette alle Cubozoa di avere una visione quasi a 360 gradi dell'ambiente circostante. Oltretutto, i loro occhi non guardano verso l'esterno, bensì verso l'interno della medusa stessa (cioè l'uno all'altro), ma grazie alla trasparenza della campana possono comunque vedere in tutte le direzioni. Le meduse non hanno la capacità di controllare muscolarmente la posizione degli occhi, quindi i ropali mantengono lo stesso orientamento indipendentemente dalla posizione della campana. Tutto questo è possiblem grazie all'aiuto di una struttura cristallina, presente nella parte inferiore, chiamata statociste. Essa funge da contrappeso assieme al peduncolo che la collega alla campana. I sei occhi nei rhopalia sono di quattro tipi diversi (Figura 2): occhi superiori e inferiori con lenti complesse di tipo umano (ULE e LLE) presenti sulla linea mediana verticale, e occhi più semplici sensibili alla luce solo su un lato, chiamati occhi a fossa e a fessura (PE e SE).

Anche se gli cnidari sono organismi con una simmetria radiale, il loro sistema nervoso all'interno dei ropali è bilateralmente simmetrico, ad eccezione del posizionamento del sistema di lenti degli occhi. Il peduncolo, con all'interno un nervo ropalico, serve come collegamento tra un ropalio e un nervo al margine della campana, che a sua volta è collegato alla rete nervosa. Insieme, queste strutture formano il sistema nervoso della cubomedusa.

Sia le cellule neuronali che quelle non neuronali dei ropali sono state già state studiate e descritte. Le cellule neuronali si raggruppano in due gruppi bilateralmente simmetrici, collegati tra loro. In tutto, ci sono più di 1000 cellule neuronali nel ropalio, tra cui: Le cellule non neuronali includono: cellule fotorecettrici ciliate (responsabili dell'iniziale rilevamento della luce), cellule a palloncino (di funzione non identificata) e foglio cellulare posteriore (la più grande popolazione di cellule indifferenziate che sono, possibilmente, associate al sistema nervoso).
 * neuroni associati alla retin, collegati agli occhi
 * neuroni laterali
 * neuroni giganti

Sistema visivo
Il sistema visivo degli occhi delle cubomeduse è sorprendentemente simile al nostro per la presenza della camera con corpo vitreo che separa il cristallino e la retina. Il loro sistema ottico è noto inoltre per avere una scarsa risoluzione spaziale perché la retina è molto vicina al cristallino, separata solo da un sottile spazio vitreo (circa 8 μm nell'occhio inferiore, assente negli occhi superiori). La lunghezza focale del cristallino, inoltre, ricade ben oltre la retina (tra 400-600 μm). Negli esseri umani, al contrario, la dimensione della retina è di circa 23 mm2. Utilizzando una procedura speciale, chiamata elettroretinografia, durante la quale un elettrodo posto nell'occhio registra l'attività delle cellule in risposta a vari stimoli visivi, sono state determinate anche le proprietà temporali degli occhi a lente superiore e inferiore. Entrambi i tipi di occhi hanno una bassa risoluzione temporale, ma i loro modelli di risposta differiscono, suggerendo che sono utilizzati per diversi compiti visivi. Per esempio, le frequenze massime che possono essere risolte dagli elettroretinogrammi (ovvero quelle frequenze dalle quali una luce emessa ad intermittenza appare costante), negli occhi della lente superiore e inferiore, sono state riportate come 10 e 8 Hz, rispettivamente. Oltre a questo, i due tipi d'occhi hanno diversi campi visivi che coprono aree diverse dell'ambiente circostante. Nel complesso, sembra plausibile che gli occhi della cubomedusa siano finemente sintonizzati per eseguire compiti specifici che, a loro volta, permettono il filtraggio degli stimoli visivi presenti già nei ropali.

Le cubomeduse vedono a colori?
Una domanda abbastanza curiosa è se le cubomeduse abbiano una visione a colori come gli organismi vertebrati più avanzati, fra cui gli uomini. Ci sono due tipi di fotorecettori nel regno animale: ciliari, solitamente presenti nei vertebrati, e rabdomerici, presenti negli invertebrati. È interessante notare che le cubomeduse possiedono fotorecettori ciliari simili a quelli dei vertebrati. Anche se entrambi i tipi si basano sulla stessa conversione chimica della molecola retinica all'esposizione alla luce (cioè lo sbiancamento), differiscono fra loro nel meccanismo, nella struttura, nell'origine e nei percorsi molecolari. Il tipo di recettori nelle retine, di entrambi gli occhi a lente superiore e inferiore, sono normalmente sensibili alla luce blu-verde, con un picco di assorbanza tra 465 e 508 nm, a seconda della specie. I dati disponibili fino ad oggi suggeriscono quindi che le cubomeduse possano essere sensibili alla luce verde, anche se gli esperimenti, dove le Cubozoe venivano guidate da questo colore per evitare gli ostacoli, hanno prodotto risultati inconcludenti. La visione a colori sarebbe un adattamento utile per questi animali, in quanto vivono in acque poco profonde e con un sacco di luce tremolante dovuta alle increspature della superficie. Questa capacità potrebbe aiutare le cubomeduse a discernere il disturbo di luminanza (cioè la luminosità e l'intensità) dagli stimoli visivi rilevanti, in quanto la visione a colori è meno sensibile alle fluttuazioni di luminanza.

L'elaborazione visiva e il controllo natatorio
Fino ad oggi, solo gli occhi della lente inferiore sono risultati importanti per il controllo del comportamento natatorio e per il ruolo nei tassi di contrazione della campana, che modulano la velocità dell'animale in movimento. In particolare, le capacità ottiche degli occhi varia tra le specie di cubomeduse, introducendo ulteriore variabilità. Inoltre il ruolo degli occhi a fossa e fessura, nell'attività di "pacemaker" (il movimento pulsante della campana) e nel controllo della direzione natatoria, rimane poco chiara e potrà essere chiarita solo in futuri esperimenti dove specifici tipi di occhi vengono selettivamente resi non funzionali.

Non è nemmeno del tutto chiaro come l'integrazione degli stimoli visivi avvenga nel sistema nervoso della cubomedusa. La risposta allo stimolo visivo è stata rilevata sia nel peduncolo (un'estensione dell'anello nervoso) sia nel sistema nervoso del ropalio stesso. Il legame fra specifiche cellule neuronali con certi tipi di occhi presenti nel ropalio, significa che alcune, ma non tutte le elaborazioni e integrazioni delle informazioni, avvengono all'interno di queste strutture. La velocità natatoria, che dipende dalla velocità e dalla forza delle contrazioni del corpo e dei tentacoli della medusa, è forse controllata dall'attività "pacemaker" di una popolazione di cellule neuronali distinte, che è responsabile dell'elaborazione e dell'integrazione di informazioni visive di ordine superiore. I neuroni laterali e i neuroni giganti potrebbero svolgere questa funzione. Il controllo natatorio, quindi, potrebbe a sua volta essere controllato attraverso una segnalazione indipendente e una contrazione asimmetrica dei diversi lati della campana.

Prospetiva evoluzionistica
Geneticamente, il sistema visivo della medusa scatola sembra anche essere più strettamente correlato a quello dei vertebrati piuttosto che degli invertebrati, poiché essi condividono diversi componenti critici dei percorsi molecolari alla base del rilevamento della luce (per esempio, le fosfodiesterasi necessarie per la fototrasduzione e per la produzione del pigmento protettivo nella retina). L'organizzazione bilaterale del sistema nervoso del ropalio (con l'eccezione dei neuroni associati alla retina) nelle cubomeduse, altrimenti simmetriche radialmente, potrebbe essere la prova che gli cnidari si sono evoluti da un antenato bilateralmente simmetrico, ma l'uso dei fotorecettori ciliari e dei melanociti, sia da parte delle cubomeduse che dei vertebrati, potrebbe significare una discendenza comune o un'evoluzione parallela indipendente. Ulteriori indagini sullo straordinario sistema visivo della cubomedusa potrebbero essere quindi utili per risolvere l'enigma sull'origine evolutiva del loro sistema visivo così avanzato.

Referenze

 * 1) Bielecki J, Høeg JT, Garm A: Fixational eye movements in the earliest stage of metazoan evolution. 2013. PLoS One. 8(6):e66442.
 * 2) Ekström P, Garm A, Pålsson J, Vihtelic TS, Nilsson DE: Immunohistochemical evidence for multiple photosystems in box jellyfish. 2008. Cell and Tissue Research. 333(1):115-24.
 * 3) Kozmik Z, Ruzickova J, Jonasova K, Matsumoto Y, Vopalensky P, Kozmikova I, Strnad H, Kawamura S, Piatigorsky J, Paces V, Vlcek C: Assembly of the cnidarian camera-type eye from vertebrate-like components. 2008. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 105(26):8989-93.
 * 4) Kozmik Z: The role of Pax genes in eye evolution. 2008. Brain Research Bulletin. 75(2-4):335-9.
 * 5) Nordström K, Wallén R, Seymour J, Nilsson D: A simple visual system without neurons in jellyfish larvae. 2003. Proceedings of Biological Sciences. 270(1531):2349-54.
 * 6) O'Connor M, Garm A, Marshall JN, Hart NS, Ekström P, Skogh C, Nilsson DE: Visual pigment in the lens eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella bronzie. 2010. Proceedings Biological Sciences. 277(1689):1843-8.
 * 7) O'Connor M, Garm A, Nilsson DE: Structure and optics of the eyes of the box jellyfish Chiropsella bronzie. 2009. Journal of Comparative Physiology. 195(6):557-69.
 * 8) O'Connor M, Nilsson DE, Garm A: Temporal properties of the lens eyes of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora. 2010. Journal of Comparative Physiology. 196(3):213-20.
 * 9) Petie R, Garm A, Nilsson DE: Visual control of steering in the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora. 2011. Journal of Experimental Biology. 214(Pt 17):2809-15.
 * 10) Piatigorsky J, Kozmik Z: Cubozoan jellyfish: an Evo/Devo model for eyes and other sensory systems. 2004. International Journal of Developmental Biology. 48(8-9):719-29.
 * 11) Skogh C, Garm A, Nilsson DE, Ekström P: Bilaterally symmetrical rhopalial nervous system of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora. 2006. Journal of Morphology. 267(12):1391-405.

title: User:Vstrozzi/sandbox


text:
User:MarcGarver/Collections/Human Physiology

Human Physiology

 * Human Physiology
 * Human Physiology/Physiology Introduction
 * Human Physiology/Homeostasis
 * Human Physiology/Cell physiology
 * Human Physiology/Integumentary System
 * Human Physiology/The Nervous System
 * Human Physiology/Senses
 * Human Physiology/The Muscular System
 * Human Physiology/Blood physiology
 * Human Physiology/The cardiovascular system
 * Human Physiology/The Immune System
 * Human Physiology/The Urinary System
 * Human Physiology/The respiratory system
 * Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system
 * Human Physiology/Nutrition
 * Human Physiology/The endocrine system
 * Human Physiology/The male reproductive system
 * Human Physiology/The female reproductive system
 * Human Physiology/Pregnancy and birth
 * Human Physiology/Genetics and inheritance
 * Human Physiology/Development: birth through death
 * Human Physiology/Further Reading
 * Human Physiology/Human physiology authors