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Van Dwelling/Introduction

Welcome to the Van Dwelling book. This book will cover all the information you will need to successfully live in your van or other vehicle on a part-time or full-time basis.

Let's start out with a few reasons why someone would want to live in their vehicle in the first place.

Why live in your van full time?

 * Save money on rent.

Housing costs take up the largest portion of most people's budgets. If you live in an expensive area, such as San Francisco or New York, housing costs can take up 50% or more of your total income, or even be beyond what an income provides. If you live in a van, you can slash housing costs dramatically. Even in cities like San Francisco or New York, it's possible to find a place to park your vehicle for free. Even if you decide to rent a space, the costs are low, and need not be more than $100.00/month.

 * Save money on property taxes.

No property, no property taxes. Even if you still want to own a traditional home, you could buy an inexpensive home in a small community far from the city center. You could then live and work in the van in the city during the week, then commute to your place in the country on the weekends. Alternatively, you could live in your van full-time, until you save up enough to buy a house.

 * Travel.

What do you want to do when you retire? Many people will say "I'd really like to travel." But why wait until you're too old and decrepit to travel? Vans can be parked almost anywhere. If you get tired of where you're living, all you have to do is put the van into gear, and go. You can follow the seasons, follow the band, follow your whims.

 * Live your dreams.

Many people say "If I only had enough money I'd [write a screenplay, take acting lessons, travel]." Then they spend half their income paying rent, paying utility bills, buying furniture, and all the other accoutrements of fixed living. If you live in a van, most of those expenses can be dramatically reduced or eliminated. The money that would've gone to a house or car payment, could then be spent on making your dream a reality.

 * See your friends.

As people have become more mobile, family and friends are often spread out over the country. Some friends/family you never see except at reunions or weddings. With a van, you can visit your far-flung friends much more often, and you can bet they'll always have big smiles on their faces when your park your van in front of their house.

title: Van Dwelling/Introduction


text: GNU Health/Printable version

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: GNU Health/Printable version


text: Radium SmartChain/Printable version

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text: RPG Maker 2003/Printable version

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text: RattleCAD User Manual/Printable version

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text: Ad Hoc Data Analysis From The Unix Command Line/Printable version


text: Getting Your Feet Wet With Hackintosh/Printable version


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title: Wi-Fi/Printable version


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360 Assembly/360 Instructions/ORG

 * ORG Pseudo instruction - Set value of program counter

The ORG pseudo instruction tells the assembler to set the value of the location counter to the specified address, or to reset the location counter if altered by a prior ORG.

Format
where
 * name is an optional defined symbol
 * or
 * .symbol is an optional conditional assembly label
 * and
 * expr is an optional relocatable address within the current control section

Description
The ORG pseudo instruction alters the location counter of this control section (the current CSECT, DSECT, or START). If name is specified, the address is adjusted to the value of the previously defined symbolname. If expr is specified, it must not be lower than the lowest address defined for this control section. An ORG statement without an expr value resets the location counter to the highest address used in the current control section.

Examples
PRNTLINE DS  CL131     CREATE A PRINT BUFFER ORG PRNTLINE CTLCHR  DS   C         THIS OCCUPIES THE SAME ADDRESS AS *                       THE FIRST BYTE OF PRNTLINE LASTNAME DS  CL15      OCCUPIES THE SAME ADDRESS AS BYTES 2-16 OF PRNTLINE DS  C FRSTNAME DS   CL10 DS  C ACCOUNT  DS   CL8 ORG         , RESET TO NEXT BYTE AFTER PRNTLINE

The comma on the last line is used to be sure the assembler does not presume the first word of the comment is interpreted as an argument to that ORG statement

title: 360 Assembly/360 Instructions/ORG


text:
Natural Disasters

Weather

 * /Flood/
 * /Flash Flood/
 * /Thunderstorm/
 * /Tornado/
 * /Derecho/

Warm Weather

 * /Wildfire/
 * /Very Warm Temperature/

Cold Weather

 * /Blizzard/
 * /Ice Storm/
 * /Very Cold Temperature/

Coastal Weather

 * /Hurricane/
 * /Tsunami/

Geological

 * /Landslide/
 * /Earthquake/
 * /Sinkhole/
 * /Volcanic Eruption/

Uncommon Events

 * /Limnic Eruption/
 * /Algal Bloom/

Mitigation & Response

 * /Mitigation/
 * /Preparation/
 * /Evacuation/

title: Natural Disasters


text:
World of Dinosaurs/Rocks

Kinds of Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
Earth's crust is made of minerals in rocks. We categorize rocks because they form differently: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from hot flexible, chemical mixtures where the elements gather into crystals.

 * We call it lava when we see this hot molten material flexing on the surface of the Earth. Lava produces extrusive igneous rocks.

 * We call it magma when it is underground and has not come out to meet air or water. Magma can produce intrusive igneous rocks.

Examples of igneous rocks
Basalt

 * This is a common extrusive rock, which forms from lava.
 * Lava cools so quickly that it only produces very small crystals, so it is difficult to see individual crystals in basalt.
 * Where lava flowed under air or water, it retains its flow texture - rough, smooth, bubbly, etc.
 * Lava can flow through cracks in existing rock, and can produce upright or flat-out expanses.
 * Idaho's Craters of the Moon is made of basalt.
 * Basalt that is mostly bubbles and floats is called pumice, and is an important economic resource.
 * Most of Earth's sea floor is made of basalt that is continually erupting under water.
 * Here is a 3D model of basalt. The green crystals are peridotite, and the grey rock is the basalt.

Granite

 * Granite is a common intrusive rock, which forms in magma.
 * We can easily see the individual crystals in granite. Large crystals form slowly while the magma is trapped underground.
 * We find granite on continents that are very eroded. Mountains of granite exposed by glacial erosion are easy to see in Yosemite National Park in California.
 * The durability and beauty of granite make it an important economic resource and common building material.
 * Here is a 3D model of granite.

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form when minerals and broken rocks spread into layers.

 * Bones and shells caught in the layers can form fossils.
 * Flow patterns (ripples, scree slopes, river channels, etc.) can leave clear marks in layered sedimentary rock.

Sedimentary rocks are the easiest to name! We just describe what we see!

Examples of sedimentary rocks
Sandstone

Mudstone
 * A rock made out of sand.
 * It will feel like sandpaper
 * Each grain of sand has a history, and the sandstone collects that.
 * Here is a 3D model of sandstone.

Conglomerate
 * A rock made of mud.
 * Mud can be made of clay worn down from rocks in the mountains, or from tiny shrimp poops in a lake.
 * Here is a 3D model of mudstone

 * A rock made from a mix of big chunks of other rocks.
 * Here is a 3D model of conglomerate

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form where heat and/or pressure transforms minerals into new material.

 * Beautiful patterns, swirls, shines, and gems are common in metamorphic rocks.
 * Study of metamorphic minerals helps us read the history of heat and pressure that altered entire continents.
 * Metamorphic rocks usually mess up fossils, and we will generally avoid them during this class!
 * Here is a 3D model of a metamorphic rock with garnet inside it.

How to Observe Sedimentary Rocks
If you pick up a sedimentary rock from the ground, as you drive by a highway road cut, or as you stroll on the Bonneville Shoreline Trail, try these observations.

Large-scale features
Does a cliff of rock show layers, like an ice cream cake or a lasagna? Or is it just a massive wall of stuff?

 * Are the layers each about the same size? Is there a clear pattern (thick, thin, thick, thin)?
 * Are the layers each the same color and consistency? Or are there changes, is the rock patterned or are the changes gradual?

Does the cliff seem to resist weathering, and really stand out? Or does the sedimentary rock crumble and form a slippy slope?

 * If it stands out, look around: can you see other chunks or cliffs of the same stuff standing out on other hillsides nearby?
 * If it is crumbly, look around: can you see other places where the same rocks might be, but maybe they are hidden under grass?

Medium-scale features
Get face-to-face with a rock chunk. How big are the pieces?

 * Can you see individual cobbles or boulders, the size of your fist or bigger?
 * Can you see pebbles?
 * Can you identify any rock pieces? Do you see little pebbles of granite, or of sandstone?
 * Can you see any fossils? Bones? Shells? Patterns that might be traces from feet, or from wiggly invertebrates?

Feel the rock with your fingertips:

 * Can you feel rough grit, like sandpaper? Can you see the sand?
 * Can you feel smooth or scratchy patches where you don't see sand?

Can you see layers?

 * Sometimes there are big layers easy to see from a distance, and you'll see even more sub-layers up close.
 * Are the sediments in each layer the same, considering the qualities above?
 * What colors do you see? Do they appear different in each layer, or all the same?

Can you see bedding planes or sedimentary structures?

 * Some layers of rock are hard to distinguish, but some big cliffs of sedimentary rock show clear breaking points between layers.
 * "Bedding planes" are clear break-lines between layers of sedimentary rock. They can be smooth, or patterned.
 * Look for little ripples on an exposed slab of bedding.
 * Look for cross sections of ripples and other patterns.

Small-scale features
Get reeeeeealllly close to your rock. Use a little pocket magnifying lens if you have one!

If your rock has clasts you can see (sand, pebbles, etc.), what shape are they?

 * very round and spherical?
 * kind of round, or smooth and flat like a skipping stone?
 * pretty rough around the edges?
 * super rough around the edges?

How consistent are the clasts?

 * Are they perfectly sorted - all the grains in a single rock layer look the same size and shape?
 * Are they a wild mix - one rock layer has both large and tiny clasts, or both rough and smooth grains?
 * Are the clasts graded - with larger chunks at the bottom of a rock layer and gradually smaller grains at the top of the same rock layer?

Record your observations as written notes, hand-made drawings, and annotated photographs.

Learn how geologists interpret sedimentary rocks over at our page on Depositional Environments.

title: World of Dinosaurs/Rocks


text:
Natural Disasters/Mitigation

Some natural disasters can be mitigated before they happen at all. While many mitigation strategies require large scale infrastructure, some do not.

Here are some general mitigation strategies which can be done on a personal level:
 * Build away from active risks.
 * Have a few days worth of emergency supplies.
 * Keeping some non perishable and non refrigerated food, water, and protective equipment suitable for your area on hand is most important.
 * Ideally, supplement this with a first aid kit, flashlight, and an emergency radio.
 * If possible, have a power supply, such as a generator, or off the grid renewable source. If you don't have the means to have these on hand, consider at least keeping spare batteries for essential equipment.
 * If you rely on a specific medication, always get it refilled at a pharmacy few days prior to running out, rather then just in time.
 * Have a schedule to take inventory. Check to make sure your stored food, water, and batteries are still good.

title: Natural Disasters/Mitigation


text: Category:Book:Natural Disasters

title: Category:Book:Natural Disasters


text:
Natural Disasters/Evacuation

In advance
In many cases, there will be ample warning before a natural disaster actually reaches an area. In such cases, it's best to evacuate before the disaster reaches you rather then when the disaster reaches you. As some warnings for disasters that never strike are inevitable, many in disaster prone regions get complacent, and stop taking warnings seriously. It is important that you at least consider what would need to be done to get out while it is still easy. If authorities tell you to leave in advance, you should listen.

Just in time
Sometimes there will be less advance warning, or it will become apparent that staying behind is not a good idea. In these cases evacuation is more difficult, because it's likely that others have also realized a need to evacuate at the same time. Still, even though evacuation can be more difficult, if you need to evacuate, then you need to evacuate. Follow official guidance on what to do if there is any.

During
While a natural disaster is actively taking place, it may be best to shelter in place instead of evacuating if you are currently in a suitable shelter. Conditions outside are likely dangerous, and even short trips can be perilous. However if your shelter is unsuitable or compromised, evacuation may be necessary to ensure your safety. While the goal of an evacuation before a disaster is to remove yourself from an affected area, that may not be possible or safe while a disaster is ongoing. If removing yourself from the affected area is impossible or unsafe, then the next best thing is to seek a suitable shelter.

Remember, the goal of an evacuation is to get to a safe place. If the place you are at is already safe, it's best to hunker down, even if it's not necessarily as comfortable as you would like.

Aftermath
While sheltering in place may get you through the active disaster, the aftermath may contain unsafe conditions that you should remove yourself from. Following a natural disaster, everyday comforts and even necessities are likely to either be stretched thin or are going to be non-existent. While evacuating following a natural disaster, it is important to be on the lookout for damaged infrastructure, and to give right of way to aid workers and first responders if they are present.

If you require urgent assistance or aid following a disaster, particularly medical aid, food, or water, it is important that you make your needs known to the proper authorities, charitable organizations, or other assisting group. However understand that depending on the circumstances, they may have a limited capability to assist, especially in the area affected by the disaster.

title: Natural Disasters/Evacuation


text:
World of Dinosaurs/Earth's Structure

Internal structure
Earth is an imperfect sphere, with a hot weird middle and a crust of rock around the outside.

The crust is a tiny part of our planet – it is just 50-100 km deep, on a planet with a radius of ~6400 km.

The crust is roughly equivalent to an eggshell while the entire earth is the egg.

Earth's rocky crust is constantly changing and adjusting from internal and external forces. We reconstruct past environments and continental configurations using geology.

Rocks on Earth's Continents Reveal Change Over Time
Continents contain a mix of metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks.

If you hike in the Wasatch Mountains, you'll see all three kinds!
 * Sedimentary rocks show signs of environmental change over time:
 * Grain characteristics that show the amount or distance of travel.
 * Packing and sorting conditions that show the depositional environment.
 * Grain ingredients that show the source of the bits.
 * Past presence of rivers, lakes, oceans, etc. are easy to spot in sedimentary rocks.
 * Metamorphic rocks demonstrate wacky changes in physics and chemistry that acted on the rocks over time.
 * Certain minerals only form at high pressure, or high temperature.
 * We can experiment with high pressures and temperatures in the laboratory using a diamond anvil cell (one of the specialties of our own Dr. Lowell Miyagi)
 * A diamond anvil cell places a tiny experimental chamber between the tips of two diamonds.
 * The diamonds are strong enough to squeeze together and create just a tiny pocket of crazy-high pressure and/or temperature.
 * People spend their entire careers studying how, where, how, and when metamorphic rocks form.
 * We won't discuss them much in this class because metamorphic rocks usually ruin fossils. Boooooo!
 * But their chemistry and physics require explanation! And that underpins many of the finer details of plate tectonic idea
 * Igneous rocks on continents are MOSTLY the intrusive kind.
 * Intrusive igneous rocks formed by slow-cooling magma that didn't pour over the Earth's surface.
 * Generally intrusive rocks form within the crust.
 * Great examples are the granite and granodiorite found in the Wasatch and Uinta ranges of Utah, and in many historic SLC buildings, including the Temple.
 * The big rocks of Yosemite National Park (Half Dome, El Capitan, etc.) are made of granodiorite, too
 * But there are plenty of extrusive igneous rocks decorating the continents too!
 * You can easily see cool igneous rocks from lava flows over continental areas:
 * All around Southern Utah.
 * In the Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho.
 * All around Northern Arizona and Eastern California.
 * Along the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest.
 * Along the Palisades in New Jersey.
 * Here is a 3D model of an extrusive igneous rock called lava spatter!

Earthquakes also change continental rocks – even in REAL TIME!
 * f you've felt an earthquake, you've felt the consequence of rocks moving over time
 * It takes a long time for rocks to move, and they usually are stuck where the edges rub together.
 * The tension is occasionally released as an earthquake that lets the rocks slide past each other, but feels very weird for the rest of us.
 * We can easily observe signs of PAST earthquakes in lots of ways – rock layers cut by a highway that show offsets; trenches in sediments; and big shifts in the rocks displayed in our local mountains.
 * If you were in Salt Lake City for the Magna earthquake (a 5.7 magnitude earthquake) then you've felt the movement of the crust!

Rocks on Earth's Seafloor Reveal Change Over Time
Ocean water sits low.
 * Think of the Earth as a solid rock, like the moon, and then just POUR water onto its surface.
 * Continents, made of thick low-density rock slabs, peak above the surface of water.
 * Thinner slabs of denser crust made of extrusive igneous rock usually stays low, wrapped tightly around the Earth's mantle, so the seawater settles above.

Rocks at the bottom of the sea floor are usually made of extrusive igneous basalt.
 * We can actually see new basalt forming at the sea floor and coming out as new rock.
 * We can study the microbial life that flourishes on these fresh minerals.
 * Sediments can build rock layers that layer on top of the basalt slab.
 * We can use the texture, quality, and chemistry of the basalt rocks to measure how long they've been exposed to weathering.
 * We can use the sediment piles or layers of rock to measure changes in environmental conditions during this time.

Some of the basalt that forms under the sea pokes above the ocean's surface.
 * Basalt can pile into enormous undersea volcanoes.
 * The islands of Hawai'i are an example: the islands poke above the ocean's surface.
 * Colonies of coral and other carbonate-mineral-making animals coat the flanks of these islands, and add layers of sedimentary rock.
 * People living there have to cope with volcanic eruptions.
 * Basalt can make under-sea mountain ranges where new rock is born every day.
 * A good example is the Mid Atlantic Ridge.
 * The Mid Atlantic Ridge is a mountain range running N-S half-way between the Americas and Europe/Africa.
 * Iceland is built on a part of the ridge that pokes above the surface of the ocean.
 * People living there have to cope with volcanic eruptions.
 * Magnetic particles form little compass indicators inside of basalt rocks.
 * Basalt rocks have lots of iron-based minerals.
 * These minerals can form little magnets that align to the Earth's magnetic poles as the rock cools and solidifies.
 * If basalt rocks form layer on top of layer on top of layer, in a big stack...
 * we can measure the magnetic particles through the stack in order.
 * Typically, the older rocks are at the bottom of the stack.
 * If basalt rocks form at the Mid Atlantic Ridge and then get pulled away...
 * they make room for new basalt rocks to enter the crack and form more fresh rock.
 * One consequence is that instead of building up in a vertical pile, they form side-by-side stripes.
 * Oldest rock stripes are farthest from the ridge. Newest rock stripes are closest to the ridge.
 * Here's an animation that's shows how this process work
 * Layers of basalt rock can be matched to other layers far away that erupted at the same time, or from the same chemical soup.
 * The little magnets aligned to poles tell us which way was magnetic north.
 * In a stack of basalt flows, or in a series of neighboring basalt stripes, our measurement of North SWITCHES DIRECTION over and over!
 * Lots of physics reasons explain why Earth's magnetic field SHOULD flip periodically, rather than stay exactly the same as today.
 * We can measure the field in detail today, and it's way more complex than we draw in books!
 * We can measure and compare the timing of basalt eruptions by comparing the magnetic north orientation.

Earthquakes are also always happening in the thin under sea basalt crust.
 * Usually they don't impact life on land.
 * They are always happening near the Mid Atlantic Ridge and other places where lava is forcing its way out.
 * We can detect these a lot better with modern equipment.

Many of the basic observations of rocks on our planet were not available one hundred years ago.

Many big surprises about rocks under the sea came to scientists' attention during the second world war, when submarine warfare required us to learn about the structure, bathymetry (underwater elevations of stuff) and physical traits of the rocks down there. We used magnets a lot because we were searching for submarines. The size of undersea mountains, and the stripes of rock with opposed magnetic signals baffled geologists at first.

Plate Tectonics is a Framework
Observations that demonstrate motion and change of Earth's crust can be interpreted in the conceptual framework called Plate Tectonics. We recommend this explainer video with lots of diagrams, here.

Here are the basic ideas in Plate Tectonics:
 * We represent the crust as a set of crunchy units that shift around on the Earth's surface.
 * Each plate has a slab of rock that makes most of its material.
 * Some plates contain thick slabs of low-density intrusive igneous rock (granite, diorite, etc.).
 * Some plates contain thin slabs of high-density intrusive igneous rock (usually basalt).
 * Some plates contain both kinds of rocks slabs.
 * Water sits in low spots.
 * Oceans nestle between continents.
 * Basalt rocks, located deep under the sea, form thin crusts of dense rock.
 * CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of the lava causes the basalt rocks to be dense.
 * The presence of water above them is NOT the reason the lava forms dense rock.
 * Thick slabs of low-density intrusive igneous rocks poke above the ocean's surface and are easy to see as continents.
 * High-density extrusive igneous rocks can also build up enough to poke above the ocean's surface: consider Iceland and Hawai'i.
 * Sediments settle and form sedimentary rocks on these plates.
 * Sediments can build rock on land, which adds to the thickness of continental slabs.
 * Sediments can build rock on the coasts, which makes the slope transition between continent and sea floor a lot more gradual.
 * Sediments can build rock on the seafloor, too.
 * Metamorphic rocks form wherever the plates get nasty.
 * Collision, scraping, or squishing of the Earth's crustal plates changes the physics and chemistry acting on rocks.
 * This can cause different minerals to fall apart or to form.
 * If the same elements are there but they now have a new mineral configuration, a different kind of rock will form.
 * Igneous rocks form continually where...
 * plates are stretching away from each other, leaving a little crack for lava to push through.
 * This is always happening under the sea, in places like the Mid Atlantic Ridge.
 * Or where plates are smashing together, making a thin slab of sea floor basalt slide under another plate.
 * This is happening in the Pacific Northwest of North America, and along the Andean Mountains of South America.
 * Or where a pimple seems to let lava leak through.
 * This is happening all the time in Hawai'i, as lava is trying to make its way up through the pile.
 * The northwest islands of the archipelago are no longer active, because the crust slab slid away from the pimple.
 * The fancy name for this concept is Hot Spot.
 * Volcanoes form where the plates are crashing together.
 * Earthquakes from where the plates are crashing together, AND where the plates are trying to slide past each other.
 * Nasty earthquakes from plate collision happen in...
 * Tibet (continent plate crashing into continent plate)
 * Indonesia (ocean plate crashing into ocean plate)
 * the West Coast of South America (ocean plate crashing into continent plate)
 * the California Coast of North America
 * Here a plate that is MOSTLY ocean, the Pacific Plate, is dragging a sliver of continent on its edge.
 * Los Angeles is located on the Pacific Plate.
 * Los Angeles is moving NORTH with the Pacific Plate.
 * The North American Plate is carrying most of the North American continent, plus half the crust underneath the North Atlantic ocean.
 * San Francisco is moving SOUTH with the North American Plate.
 * If you measure the plate motion from the middle of each plate, say, a GPS unit in Hawai'i vs one in Nevada, the plates are moving apart about a 5 mm per year. That's about as fast as fingernails grow.
 * If you measure the plate motion right near the San Andreas Fault, you get zero motion. It's stuck. Until it's not stuck, and then we need Dwayne Johnson to save us.

ACTIVE MARGINS are continent edges that sit at plate boundaries that are crashing into or alongside each other, causing volcanoes and earthquakes.

PASSIVE MARGINS are continent edges that sit in the middle of a plate. Volcanoes and earthquakes are rare along passive margins.

We Can Reconstruct Past Geographic Conditions
We can combine observations from geology, chemistry, paleontology, and physics with the concept framework of plate tectonics to estimate past configurations of Earth's continents, oceans, and water-driven climate systems.

Certain magnetic minerals can tell us the position of Earth's magnetic poles AT THE TIME that mineral formed.
 * We compare magnetic minerals to relate stripes of seafloor basalt
 * We can measure the order and spacing of each stripe.
 * We can use the periodic flip-flop pattern of Earth's magnetic poles to organize basalt stripes into a relative timeline of eruptions.
 * We compare magnetic minerals to relate layers of lava rock that piled up on continents of Earth's surface.
 * We can measure the thickness and order of each lava rock layer. Older rocks should be at the bottom, newer rocks on top.
 * We can use the periodic flip-flop pattern of Earth's magnetic poles to organize lava rock layers into a relative timeline of eruptions.
 * If part of a continent has ROTATED while its plate moved through time, the magnets can show this, too.

It's taken decades to learn how to observe magnetic minerals correctly, and to interpret what they say about a rock's relative age, original orientation, and relationship to its neighboring rocks. Scientists like Utah's Dr. Pete Lippert still spend their entire careers unraveling the history of ancient rocks, so we can better understand how our planet works as a dynamic system.

Fossil are vital to reconstruct paleogeography in two main ways.
 * Paleontologists compare fossils from around the world.
 * Some fossils of plants or land animals are found on far-away continents today, but may have lived in a time when these continents were not so far apart.
 * Fossils can show what habitats were present:
 * Echinoderms (sea urchins, sea stars, crinoids, etc.) generally only live in OCEAN water of normal salinity.
 * Sea snails can tolerate a wild variety of salinities.

title: World of Dinosaurs/Earth's Structure


text: Shelf:Blockchain

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text: Natural Disasters/Printable version

title: Natural Disasters/Printable version


text:
Natural Disasters/Preparation

 * Have a bug out bag with all the supplies you need in one place. It should be easy to carry.
 * Have a stock of water and non perishable food at home.

title: Natural Disasters/Preparation


text:
Natural Disasters/Very Warm Temperature

Introduction
In instances where temperatures rise to very high levels, it is critical that you find some way to keep cool. Heatstroke can kill.

Mitigation

 * Stay in an air conditioned location.
 * Drink water to counter fluids lost by sweat.
 * Do not leave people or pets locked in cars.
 * Wear loose light clothing that keeps the sun off your body.
 * Heat Waves can make wildfires more likely.

title: Natural Disasters/Very Warm Temperature


text:
Natural Disasters/Volcanic Eruption

Volcanic eruptions are incredibly dangerous phenomenon. While popular culture portrays lava as the primary concern, there are actually a number of dangers associated with volcanic activity.
 * Pyroclastic Flows
 * Ash
 * Volcanic debris
 * Toxic gas

title: Natural Disasters/Volcanic Eruption


text:
Natural Disasters/Limnic Eruption

Introduction
A limnic eruption is a dangerous but rare event in which certain lakes suddenly release accumulated gases, which leads to asphyxiation in the surrounding area.

Remediation
It is possible to remediate the threat of a limnic eruption before one occurs through the use of degassing machinery on a lake of concern.

title: Natural Disasters/Limnic Eruption


text: Template:Not a book and a user page

title: Template:Not a book and a user page


text: Category:Wikibooks reviewers

title: Category:Wikibooks reviewers


text:
User talk:136.53.53.187

Why was I banned from editing for adding The Masque of Red Death?
 * You were blocked by an automatic filter which thought your edit was likely to be vandalism. I see you tried to paste the text of a fiction story into Wikibooks. This content isn't accepted here - Wikibooks is for textbooks, not stories and not "original texts". QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 16:32, 1 October 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:136.53.53.187


text: Human brain/Ear

title: Human brain/Ear


text: Human brain/Nose

title: Human brain/Nose


text: Human brain/Epidermis

title: Human brain/Epidermis


text: Human brain/Oral cavity

title: Human brain/Oral cavity


text: Shelf:Virtual machines

title: Shelf:Virtual machines


text: Shelf:Virtual machines/ancestry

title: Shelf:Virtual machines/ancestry


text: Category:Shelf:Virtual machines

title: Category:Shelf:Virtual machines


text: Category:Shelf:Virtual machines/all books


text: Subject:Virtual machines

title: Subject:Virtual machines


text: Category:Subject:Virtual machines

title: Category:Subject:Virtual machines


text: Category:Subject:Virtual machines/all books


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User talk:Qucchia

Hi Qucchia

Thank you for contributing to the Electronic Properties of Materials WikiBook. That said, please take a look at the book's discussion page (Talk:Electronic Properties of Materials) before making additional edits to this WikiBook. I failed to outline this concept until now, but this WikiBook is essentially an expanded digitization of a written note set. This doesn't mean much, but some of your edits on the Electronic Properties of Materials/Quantum Mechanics for Engineers/The Fundamental Postulates removed placeholders for later content. I understand that placeholders are usually commented out or included on the discussion page, etc... this is just what evolved given the specific circumstances of this book.

I hope you will read through the discussion page outlining the editing process, and please let me know if you have any questions. I do appreciate your other contributions including the grammatical edits and the continuity between numbering the postulates!

Thank you for your contributions. Brienna.Hall77 (discuss • contribs) 21:11, 1 October 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Qucchia


text: Configuring Sound on Linux/Printable version


text:
Micronations/List of already existing micronations/Cordoba Empire

Cordoba Empire

Cordoba EMPIRE Flag.png

Flag	Royal Family seal .jpg

Coat of arms

Motto “Magna EST Veritas et Praevalet, Nose defendat nostra.”

Anthem For Glory by Two Steps from Hell

Utah, USA

Largest city	Mitchell Grove

Official language(s)	English

Official religion(s)	Christian

Demonym	Cordobian

Government	Absolute Monarchy

Emperor	HIM Emperor Arturo Cordova I

Established	21 September 2018

Area claimed	N/A

Population	6

Currency	Cordoba Dollar

Time zone	Mountain

National drink	Tea

National animal	Cats/Wolves

Contents

Government and symbolism

The Cordoba Empire's form of government is an absolute monarchy with a few advisers to the Emperor, hence why the monarchy uses both an emblem and a royal coat of arms

History The Cordoba Empire was established due to an corrupt government. On the 21st of September 2018 The Empire is Highly esteemed member of the League of Christian Micronations.


text:
Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2021/August

Cookbook talk:Table of Contents
Please semi-protect Cookbook talk:Table of Contents (the talk page) for some time, there’ve been a dozen of unconstructive reverts from an anon in the past three days. (They’re almost always from different IPs, but I’m sure it’s the same person.) —Tacsipacsi (discuss • contribs) 09:58, 4 August 2021 (UTC)
 * I've consistently seen a lot of activity there when viewing recent changes on Wikibooks. --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 02:27, 5 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the protection, but I think indefinite is unnecessarily long – if this page survived with a manageable amount of vandalism for twelve years, it’ll probably continue to survive without protection after this vandal goes away. A few weeks, at the very most half a year of protection should be enough. Anonymous users can note errors and write suggestions on the talk page of the semi-protected content page; if the talk page is also protected, we won’t get their feedback. —Tacsipacsi (discuss • contribs) 16:17, 5 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Targets typically remain targets but I will remove the protection in a few weeks. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 14:56, 12 August 2021 (UTC)


text:
User:Chemathimatics

Learn maths and chem for free

title: User:Chemathimatics


text:
Natural Disasters/Algal Bloom

An Algal Bloom can present a variety of dangers. The two primary dangers are ingestion and contact of contaminated waters.

title: Natural Disasters/Algal Bloom


text:
Guide to Electrical Equipment for Travelers/Plug adapters

These do not convert electricity. They simply allow an appliance (dual-voltage if necessary), a transformer, or a converter from one country to be plugged into the wall outlet of another country. Adapters sometimes do not make an earth connection, and so may be unsafe. For UK and Hong Kong natives and visitors, you can visit page Common electrical adapters in Hong Kong and the United Kingdom for adapters available for you.


text:
Guide to Electrical Equipment for Travelers/Adapter leads

These can be made up from appropriate plugs and extension sockets (or power strips if more than one socket is required) and cable. This method has the advantage of allowing use of the exact right parts (adapters often attempt to generalise which can lead to loose fitment and easy disloging). Another possibility is to make an adaptor lead with an IEC male plug (with pins as on the cables used to connect power from older PC PSUs to monitors) and an appropriate power strip. This can then be connected to a local power cord which should be easily obtainable in most countries. If not there is still the option of unscrewing the IEC male plug and screwing on a locally purchased plug.


text:
Guide to Electrical Equipment for Travelers/Transformers

Transformers are used with "electronic" products. Electronic products have a chip or transistorized circuits. Examples are radios, CD or cassette players, shavers, camcorder battery rechargers, computers, computer printers, fax machines, televisions, and answering machines. Transformers can also be used with electric appliances and may be operated continuously for many days.

Different transformers are available for appliances of different power ratings. Most products have the power printed somewhere on them, although some products list only amps. A rough conversion for the USA and other 110 V countries is 1 amp equals 100 watts, and for European and other 230 V countries 1 amp equals 200 watts. The power of the appliance must fall within the range of the converter or transformer being used (allow a margin of at least 10 watts).

Computers are electronic devices and therefore they must be used with a real transformer. It appears that there may be other conversion methods around which may damage electronic equipment. Some PC power supplies have a voltage switch, on the back of the case, for 110 V or 220 V — this should never be set incorrectly, and should always be checked if a PC has come from an unknown source or may have been tampered with. Laptop battery chargers, and AC adapters generally have a universal input which can take a wide range of voltages without manual switching. In general, if an appliance has an input that can accept the local voltage, it is generally better to connect it directly (using a plug adapter or adapter lead if needed) than to use transformers or other forms of voltage conversion.


text:
Guide to Electrical Equipment for Travelers/Earthing & Grounding

Anyone who travels much is sooner or later likely to find themselves in a situation where no earth is available or the earth that is available won't join with any of their plugs or adaptors. Also, just because sockets have earth contacts doesn't necessarily mean they are actually connected to a properly designed and safe earthing system.

For this reason wherever possible double insulated equipment is the smart choice for the traveller. Where single insulated equipment is all that is available and the sockets have no earths or dubious earths it is best to at least ensure that the earths of all appliances likely to be touched at the same time are connected together (for example by plugging them into the same powerstrip with earth contacts). This way if one of the cases becomes live they all do and therefore there is minimal voltage between them and therefore touching them at the same time won't give a shock (remember current has to flow between two points on a persons body to give a shock). The worst thing to do in this situation is join the earths in groups which are isolated from each other (for example two powerstrips with earth contacts in two unearthed sockets) as this will spread a fault without providing an equipotential zone throughout the equipment.

It is also a good idea to carry a portable Residual-Current Device (RCD or GFCI) which may save a person from electrocution by disconnecting the power very rapidly at a very low leakage current.


text:
Guide to Electrical Equipment for Travelers/Other considerations

Radio and television receivers use different bands of frequencies in different parts of the world. For example, a North American NTSC receiver will not operate in countries using the PAL television standard or on the different channel assignments for Japanese NTSC television. AM (medium-wave) broadcast stations are on 10 kHz frequency spacing in North America and 9 kHZ in other parts of the world; some digital tuners may have a switch to allow for different spacing of the assigned frequencies.

Operation of receivers may require a licence or permit or tax to be paid, even if the receiver is technically capable of operating with local standards. Some governments restrict traveller's use of GPS satellite receivers.

Personal radio transmitter devices, such as amateur radio equipment, FRS, GMRS, MURS, or Citizen's band transmitters may not be permitted in different countries. Frequency assignments dedicated to these services vary by country and an FRS transmitter may interfere with local public safety or business communications.

Power frequency is 50 Hz in much of the world and 60 Hz in North America and certain other regions. Some motor-operated devices may work at different speeds even if a transformer is used to change the voltage. For example, very old tape players and record players may not work properly as the pitch of reproduced sound will be off. As a rule of thumb, if the equipment also operates on internal batteries, it will not be sensitive to power system frequency.


text: Guide to Electrical Equipment for Travelers/Printable version


text:
User:Ffffrr

I am here

title: User:Ffffrr


text:
Natural Disasters/Thunderstorm

Thunderstorms are a common weather event in many parts of the world. While dangerous, with proper preparation and precautions, they can be easily handled.

Long Term

 * Ensure your buildings have properly installed lightning rods, and ideally a complete lightning protection system.
 * Be ready for strong winds associated with thunderstorms.

Just before a storm

 * Unplug electronics prior to storm, especially if they are ungrounded.
 * Bring any animals inside, and ensure they are calmed.
 * If outside, seek shelter immediately inside a building or metal roofed car.

What to do
Stay inside if possible.

Stay away from windows and avoid touching plumbing and electrical or gas appliances for the duration of the storm.

Trees
Do not take shelter under a tree. While the tree will likely be a tall enough object to channel lightning, the resulting strike will likely harm anyone near the tree.

title: Natural Disasters/Thunderstorm


text:
Proto-Turkic/Abilities, future tense and present continuous

Welcome to the final lesson of the Proto-Turkic! Thank you for being with us so far and choosing the Wikibooks Proto-Turkic course.

Ability by *bil-
In Chuvash and most Turkic languages, the meaning of competence is provided by the verb to know. However, while it is not a stand-alone structure in Chuvash, it is a stand-alone structure in other Turkic languages. We will consider the case that it is not a structure by itself, because system in Chuvash is a strictly correct sentence in terms of its structure.
 * *kẹlme (“coming”) → *kẹlme bilür (“s/he knows to come; s/he can come”)

 * *yu(b)ma (“washing”) → *yu(b)ma bilür (“s/he knows to wash; s/he can wash”)
 * *sebme (“loving”) → *sebme bilür (“s/he knows to loving; s/he can love”)
 * *yạŕma (“writing”) → *yạŕma bilmeŕ (“s/he doesn't know to writing; s/he can't write”)

Ability by *bōl-
It is also a proficiency structure found in some Turkic languages, including Chuvash.
 * *kẹlme (“coming”) → *kẹlme bōlur (“s/he becomes to come; s/he can come”)

 * *yu(b)ma (“washing”) → *yu(b)ma bōlur (“s/he becomes to wash; s/he can wash”)
 * *sebme (“loving”) → *sebme bōlur (“s/he becomes to loving; s/he can love”)
 * *yạŕma (“writing”) → *yạŕma bōlmaŕ (“s/he doesn't become to writing; s/he can't write”)

Ability by *ạl- (Shaz)
Today it is used in Central Asia.
 * *kẹlme (“coming”) → *kẹl(m)e ạlar (“s/he takes to come; s/he can come”)
 * *yu(b)ma (“washing”) → *yu(b)(m)a ạlar (“s/he takes to wash; s/he can wash”)
 * *sebme (“loving”) → *seb(m)e ạlar (“s/he takes to loving; s/he can love”)
 * *yạŕma (“writing”) → *yạŕ(m)a ạlmaŕ (“s/he doesn't take to writing; s/he can't write”)

Ability by *u(y)- (Shaz?)
Used in Old Turkic, Old Uyghur, Yakut, Chuvash (not certain), Azerbaijani, and Turkish (in a form of a suffix in two last languages). In many of Turkic languages this verb becomes dead, or merged as an inflectional suffix. It takes the auxiliary converbs *-(y)A or *-(y)U, and negative tense suffixes in the verb *u(y)- (umaŕ, umadï, ...).
 * *kẹlme (“coming”) → *kẹle u(y)(u)r, *kẹlü u(y)(u)r (“s/he can come”)
 * *yu(b)ma (“washing”) → *yu(b)(y)a u(y)maŕ, *yu(b)(y)u u(y)maŕ (“s/he cannot wash”)
 * *sebme (“loving”) → *sebe u(y)maŕ, *sebü u(y)maŕ (“s/he cannot love”)

Future Tense
There is no future tense in the Proto-Turkic language. There is no future tense in most of today's Turkic languages, as well. The future tense is often provided with the present tense suffix.

Present-Future tense (*-Ur, *-r)
Just specify the time.

 * *kẹlür (“s/he comes”) → *yạrïn kẹlür (“s/he comes tomorrow”)

 * *barur (“s/he goes”) → *bu āń(k) barur (“s/he goes this month”)

Future tense by *-čX
With this suffix we mentioned earlier, the future tense is provided in today's Turkic languages. Considering the usage logic of the suffix, the future tense can be provided in the Proto-Turkic language with this suffix. But it may not be used in this way at that time.
 * *kẹlme(k) (“coming”) → *kẹlme(k)či (“cominger”) → *Ol kẹlme(k)či (“s/he is cominger; s/he is going to come.”)

 * *barma(k) (“going”) → *barma(k)čï (“goinger”)→ *Biŕ barma(k)čï (“We are goingers; we are going to go.”)
 * *sebme(k) (“loving”) → *sebme(k)či (“lovinger”) → *Bẹ sebme(k)či (“I am lovinger; I will love.”)

 * *olturma(k) (“sitting”) → *olturma(k)čï (“sittinger”)→ *Sẹ olturma(k)čï (“You are sittinger; you will sit.”)

Future tense by *-sXk (Shaz, Old Turkic)
This suffix only exists in Old Turkic and creates necessitive future tense. Can take personal suffixes like -dI past tense.

 * *ölme(k) (“to die”) → *ölsüküm (“I will inevitably die”)

Present continuous by locative
Present continuous, can be provided with locative. This is similar to logic of *-čX suffix in Proto-Turkic. Such a sentence structure can be established in most of modern Turkic languages.
 * *kẹlme(k) (“coming”) → *kẹlme(k)de (“on coming”) → *Ol kẹlme(k)de (“s/he is on coming; s/he is coming.”)

 * *barma(k) (“going”) → *barma(k)da (“on going”)→ *Biŕ barma(k)da (“We are on going; we are going.”)
 * *sebme(k) (“loving”) → *sebme(k)de (“on loving”) → *Bẹ sebme(k)de (“I am on loving; I am loving.”)

 * *olturma(k) (“sitting”) → *olturma(k)da (“on sitting”)→ *Sẹ olturma(k)da (“You are on sitting; you are sitting.”)

Helper verbs (Shaz)
It is provided with verbs that called helper in some Shaz languages.

 * *kẹlip (“while coming”, (Shaz)) → *kẹlip yorï/yüri (literally “walk while coming” but means ”s/he is coming.”)

 * *bara (“to go with -A suffix”) → *bara tur (”s/he is going.”) (helper verb is *tur- to stand.)

Farewell
We are very happy to have you with us on this long journey. But unfortunately now it's time to say goodbye.

Now you know everything about the Proto-Turkic language. Of course, you will encounter configurations created by different linguists, but it is an undeniable fact that they will not differ much from the configurations of other linguists, that is, they will all look alike. Note though that every Proto language is a configuration. While writing this in the back of your mind, imagine that this language was spoken in the steppes of East Asia, under the rule of the Huns.

Goodbye everyone! Take care of yourself!


text: User talk:67.82.148.246

title: User talk:67.82.148.246


text: Proto-Turkic/Printable version

title: Proto-Turkic/Printable version


text: Kannada/Printable version

title: Kannada/Printable version


text:
User:Gadisa Aliyi Bekere

Sirna qubee fii sirna tuqaalee:- ————————————————————————- -Afaan oromoo keessatti Namoonni baayyeen seera qubee qofa Eeggatu! Garuu... sirni tuqaas diqama.

title: User:Gadisa Aliyi Bekere


text:
User:AygALT

Interest in Southern US, Japanese, Korean, Mexican, Sichuan cuisine.

title: User:AygALT


text:
Cookbook talk:Sichuan Cuisine

I went ahead and created this talk page to start the conversation around improvement. A few issues that I can see with this page: there is a complete lack of sources, article seems to imply that most/all Sichuan dishes include chili peppers and Sichuan peppercorns (it's my understand that while many of the most famous dishes do, it would be unusual to see multiple dishes with the mala flavor combo on one table), there are only three linked recipes, and there seems to be some confusion around duobanjiang (fermented chilis and broad beans) and douchi (fermented whole black soybeans). AygALT (discuss • contribs) 02:11, 4 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sichuan Cuisine


text:
Using an Abacus/Print version

= Basic concepts =

= Close-up of the eastern abacus =

= Addition and subtraction =

= Modern multiplication =

= Modern division =

title: Using an Abacus/Print version


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User:Tjädertupp

Well, I'm mostly on Wikimedia cookbook creating recipes that other people request. I really like to see the wikimedia cookbook grow bigger with more recipes from around the world. I create recipes in both English and Swedish.

title: User:Tjädertupp


text:
Cookbook:Sabich (Vegetable and Pita Sandwich)

| Sandwiches | Cuisine of Israel

Sabich is a popular Israeli sandwich based on what Iraqi Jews ate on Sabbath morning, featuring fried eggplant, boiled potato, and hard-boiled egg. Instead of serving the ingredients on a tray, as was traditional, sabich stuffs everything in a pita.

Israeli salad

 * 2 tomatoes, cored and chopped
 * ½ ea. cucumber, chopped
 * 1 onion, chopped
 * 1 tbsp minced parsley
 * 2 tbsp lemon juice
 * 2 tbsp oil
 * Salt

Sandwich

 * 1 eggplant, sliced into 1 cm rounds
 * 4 hard-boiled eggs, peeled and sliced
 * Vegetable oil, for frying
 * 4 pita breads
 * ¾ cup hummus
 * ½ cup tahini
 * Amba sauce

Israeli salad

 * 1) Put the tomatoes, cucumber, onion, and parsley in a bowl.
 * 2) Take another small bowl and mix the lemon juice, oil, and salt.
 * 3) Pour the dressing over the vegetables and toss well, leave it to stand for a couple of minutes.

Sandwich

 * 1) Meanwhile, heat the oil in a large skillet over medium-high temperature. When the oil has become hot enough, fry the eggplant slices until they turn golden brown. Place the golden eggplant slices on a paper towel to remove the excess oil.
 * 2) Spread the hummus evenly in each pita bread
 * 3) Stuff the pitas with the slices of fried eggplants and the boiled eggs.
 * 4) Spoon over some of the Israeli salad, drizzle the tahini and amba over the pitas, and serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Amba is pickled mango that is very popular in the Middle east. It may be difficult to find amba in some stores, but you can use hot sauce instead.


text:
User talk:41.59.81.36

hhjjhjjhhjhjhjhjjhh jhhjhjhj

title: User talk:41.59.81.36


text:
Template:Previous-next

../ - ../

title: Template:Previous-next


text: Template:Only language

title: Template:Only language


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Let’s code.

You have to put the arrow in the box. The arrows are ↑, →, ←, and ↑. You have to get the dot to the flag. My code is:

__________ [] [] [] [] [] [] []         [] [] [] [] [] [] []

[]   |           [] [] [] [] []    |           []

[]   |                                          [] [] [] [] 🏁

[]   |

[]   |

[]   | •

__________________________________________________________________

Pages of the book are listed here. Press the words below the code.

title: Let’s code.


text: Category:Book:Let’s code.

title: Category:Book:Let’s code.


text:
Cookbook:Yeasted Rolls I

Ingredients

 * 3¼ cups bread flour
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 7–8 oz milk
 * ¼ cup water
 * 2 tsp active dry yeast
 * 2 tbsp white sugar
 * ¼ cup unsalted butter
 * 1 egg

Procedure

 * 1) Knead all the ingredients together, and let rise for 1 ½ hours. Alternatively, use the dough setting on a bread machine.
 * 2) Preheat oven to 350°F (177°C).
 * 3) Divide dough into 12 rolls.
 * 4) Brush melted butter over the top.
 * 5) Bake for 20 minutes.

title: Cookbook:Yeasted Rolls I


text:
History of video games/Platforms/InWin 309 Gaming Edition

Introduction
The InWin 309 Gaming Edition is somewhat unusual among gaming platforms with exclusive titles, as it is primarily a computer case that happens to have a built in gaming system.

History
The case was announced as available on August 19th, 2021.

Display
The front display is made of an 8 by 18 grid of RGB LEDs.

Controller
The controller relies on Infrared communication with the case and is powered by dual AAA batteries. Two infrared LEDs are mounted on the each side of the top of the controller, and are intended for use within 1.8 m of the receiver on the case with direct line of sight.

The controller has start, select, D-PAD, and A,B,C,D face buttons. The face buttons typically paired to perform the same task in games as pair AD and pair BC. Arranged in a square and starting from the top right clockwise, the order of the face buttons is C,A,B,D.

Other Hardware
An internal microphone was used for reactive lighting effects.

It is unclear if the case has it's own integrated computer for running game software, or if it relies on the host computer to execute game software.

Case
The case is primarily made of steel, specifically SECC (Steel, Electrogalvanized, Cold-Rolled, Commercial quality). Other materials used for the casing included ABS plastic and Tempered Glass.

Blox
A falling block game, similar to Tetris.

309 Racing
Racing game.

Magi Jump
Platformer staring a male chicken mascot named "Chick MAGI" who must reach a castle at the end of each level while avoiding or defeating an antagonistic unnamed "crazy red chicken".


text:
Talk:Sensory Systems/Visual System

The page on the visual system is getting pretty large. Maybe we should split it into 2 sections: 1) Visual Anatomy 2) Visual Information Processing Thomas.haslwanter (discuss • contribs) 09:36, 5 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sensory Systems/Visual System


text:
User:Wow guys!

Wow guys! True info.

title: User:Wow guys!


text: Thai Civilization/Printable version

title: Thai Civilization/Printable version


text: Chinese Stories/Printable version

title: Chinese Stories/Printable version


text: Indian Mythology/Printable version

title: Indian Mythology/Printable version


text: Introduction to Anishinabe Culture and History/Printable version


text: Purported Ancient Worlds/Printable version


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Proto-Turkic/Converbs and sentence formation

Welcome to the twelve lesson of the Proto-Turkic!

Sentence formation
Unlike English which has subject–verb–object (SVO), the basic Proto-Turkic word order is SOV, that it is subject–object–verb. The precise order look like this:

There is no prepositions in Proto-Turkic, postpositions, of which succeeds its objects, serve that role instead. This is a list of some postpositions found in Proto-Turkic:
 * *üčün "for, because of"
 * *togru "toward"

Converbs
Converbs are conjunctions that connect verbs to sentences. In Turkic languages, verbs can be connected to sentences when they turn into verbal.

In English this is mostly done by conjunctions and prepositions. This is how we translate it. But have you noticed that verbs are not connected the way we translate them into sentences. For example, when we say while going, we are actually saying goingly (just like rallingly). The linking of verbs is through being either nouns, adjectives or adverbs. These are connected to a sentence on their own without the need for a conjunction like while, and they even have a meaning on their own. Considering that we count words such as winningly, seethingly, meaningly as words alone, there are verb-based endless adverbs in a Turkic language.

All right, so why is there such a title?

*verb-verbal adjective (as a noun)-possessive-ablative
"Since I came late yesterday, everyone was already asleep." Note that there is no because in Proto-Turkic. So how do we connect this sentence and translate it into Proto-Turkic?

We use adjective verbs and possessives.

"Tǖn kēč kẹldükümten, bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti."

Let's examine the first part of the sentence.

From my coming late yesterday - Tǖn kēč kẹldükümten

Next up is the second part you know.

Everybody was asleep - bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti "Since (from) I (my) came (coming) late yesterday, everyone was (already) asleep (sleeping)."

"Tǖn kēč kẹl dükümten, bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti."

*verb-verbal adjective (as a noun)-possessive-locative
''When I came late yesterday, everyone was already asleep. - "Tǖn kēč kẹldükümte, bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti."''

Let's examine the first part of the sentence.

At my coming late yesterday - Tǖn kēč kẹldükümte

Next up is the second part you know.

Everybody was asleep - bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti "When (at) I (my) came (coming) late yesterday, everyone was (already) asleep (sleeping)."

"Tǖn kēč kẹldükümte, bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti."

*verb-verbal adjective (as a noun)-possessive for
Since ''I came late yesterday, everyone was already asleep. - "Tǖn kēč kẹldüküm üčün, bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti."''

Let's examine the first part of the sentence.

For my coming late yesterday - Tǖn kēč kẹldüküm üčün

Next up is the second part you know.

Everybody was asleep - bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti "Since (for) I (my) came (coming) late yesterday, everyone was (already) asleep (sleeping)."

"Tǖn kēč kẹldüküm üčün, bārča kiĺi ūdïma(k)da erti."

*verb-verbal adjective (as a noun)-possessive-equative
I saw as I came. - "Kẹldükümče, körtüm."

Let's examine the first part of the sentence.

As I came (this much) - Kẹldükümče

Next up is the second part you know.

I saw - körtüm

Notes:
Next lesson: Abilities, future tense and present continuous
 * 1) In many modern Turkic languages there is *-gAn instead of *-dUk. But *-dUk used in Yenisei inscriptions, Köktürk inscriptions and both Volga and Danube Bulgarian inscriptions . So using *-dUk is more realistic to Proto-Turkic language.
 * 2) Today, some Turkic languages use as follows: pronoun verb-verbal adjective-ablative/locative/ for/equative


text: User talk:112.204.166.53

title: User talk:112.204.166.53


text: User talk:Telligent8192

title: User talk:Telligent8192


text: Template:Fny-format

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Oberon/ETH Oberon/Tutorial/Compiler

Compiler, Builder and Analyzer User Guide [ Text | Contents | Index | Master index ]

Tutorial objective
Learn to use the Oberon Compiler and its front-end called Builder.

Estimated time: 30 minutes.

Introduction
The input to the compiler are texts. Such texts are conveniently created in text viewers using the system editor. The following naming convention (widely used) is recommended for files storing source programs:
 * name.Mod where name usually corresponds to the module's name (MODULE name;).

For an introduction to the Oberon programming language refer to the Literature on Oberon. But the only way to learn a new programming language is by reading and writing programs in it.

A first example
The very first program is the same for all programming languages! In Oberon, the program to write hello, world is MODULE Hello; IMPORT Out; PROCEDURE World*; BEGIN Out.String("hello, world"); Out.Ln END World; END Hello. To learn how to use the compiler go through the following steps:

 * 1) mark the text above and execute Compiler.Compile * ,
 * 2) observe the message in the Oberon log: compiling Hello 33 The number following the module name is the size of the object file now stored in the current directory.
 * 3) execute Hello.World and watch the output hello, world in the log.

Using the compiler
The Compiler is an important component of the Oberon system. Except for parts of the inner core, Oberon System 3 is implemented in the original Oberon language. The compiler supplied is an Oberon-2 compiler. Any Oberon-2 compiler is compatible in principle with System 3 and System 3 programs can be written and compiled with Oberon-2. The compiler can generate two types of object files: classical native object files containing target machine code or by default slim binaries. Slim binaries are a new form of object files that contain no object code at all, but a portable description of module's content that makes these files completely independent of the eventual target machine (platform independent). Object code generation is carried out on-the-fly by the module loader (depending on the underlying hardware) and takes no longer than loading traditional object files.

The module Compiler exports only two commands which are documented in a couple of variations in the Compiler.Tool and are described below.

Compiling source text(s) - Compiler.Compile
Compiler.Compile @[\options] compiles the source text starting at the most recent text selection.

Compiler.Compile *[\options] compiles the source text of the marked viewer.

These two first variants of the command allow compiling a module directly from the text editor: there is no need to store the text first.

Compiler.Compile {[\dst=pathName] [\options] {fileName[\options]}}~ | ^ compiles the text of the files named in the parameter list. pathName directs the compiler to store new object files in the specified sub-directory.

The options are:

 * s - Enable generation of new symbol file
 * e - Enable generation of extended symbol file
 * u - Suppress compilation if the object file is up-to-date
 * w - Enable generation of warning messages

When compiling a sequence of modules, the order of the file names must comply with the module import hierarchy: from the bottom to the top; that is, clients of a module must be compiled after the module itself. You can avoid this by using the Builder facilities instead. Note that each file name may be followed by options.

The following options are valid only when the compiler must generate native object files. These files are not portable across platform boundaries. Therefore, these options should be used only when writing an extension that uses the low-level module SYSTEM or the built-in SIZE function. Example: Win.Audio.Mod

 * N - Enable generation of native object file
 * a - Suppress code generation for ASSERT function
 * p - Suppress initialization of local pointers to NIL
 * x - Disable Index Checks
 * n - Disable NIL Checks
 * t - Disable Type Checks
 * v - Enable Overflow Checks
 * c - Disable Range Checks
 * r - Suppress generation of ref-info
 * d - Generate MacsBug debugger information (MacOberon)
 * f - find text position corresponding to the selected program counter value
 * g - Suppress garbage collection after this compilation

If garbage collection is suppressed, compilation runs faster but might not be completed if too much memory or too many files are used (will trap).

Directing the object files - Compiler.SetDestPath
Compiler.SetDestPath pathName directs the compiler to store new object files in the specified sub-directory.

Directing the loading of slim binaries
The following commands influence the loading of slim binaries:

OMI.AssertsOn / OMI.AssertsOff enables/disables code generation for ASSERTS function.

OMI.ChecksOn / OMI.ChecksOff enables/disables index checks.

OMI.RefsOn / OMI.RefsOff enables/disables generation of detailed reference information.

These commands can be conveniently placed in the Configuration. Text file.

Unloading a module prior to execution
If you make changes to a module and re-compile it after it had been used (i.e. loaded), you must unload it with the System.Free command or with the mouse:

when the mouse focus is positioned on a command name M.P and the middle mouse key is pressed, □ ■ ▁ a left mouse key interclick unloads the module M containing the command and loads a new copy of it, before the command is executed.

Programmer hint and warning: This is very useful while developing and debugging Oberon procedures. It is a handy short cut for executing a System.Free command, but module M is unloaded only when it has no client. Therefore, remember that System.Free and also Builder.Free offer additional possibilities.

Do not be surprised if your corrections have had no impact: the old module version is still in control! Too often will you forget to force the system to use the updated version.

The next example should help to concretize what has been said before: MODULE Client; IMPORT Hello; PROCEDURE MyAction*; BEGIN Hello.World END MyAction; END Client.
 * 1) select the beginning of the module text
 * 2) execute Compiler.Compile @
 * 3) execute Client.MyAction
 * 4) execute System.Free Hello ~
 * 5) observe and explain the log message: Hello unloading failed

Compiling a modified example
MODULE Hello; IMPORT Out; PROCEDURE World*; BEGIN Out.String("hello, world"); Out.Ln  END World; END HELLO.

 * 1) modify the text "hello, world" (e.g. "Hello Oberon")
 * 2) execute Compiler.Compile * (i.e. re-compile the program)
 * 3) execute Hello.World and see how the same "hello, world" appears in the Oberon log.
 * 4) force the system to unload the module and to execute the new version of the command Hello.World with a middle + left mouse keys interclick.

Locating and correcting a syntax error
MODULE Hello; IMPORT Out; PROCEDURE World*; BEGIN Out.String("hello, world"); Out.Ln  END World; END HELLO.

 * 1) delete a semicolon in the program
 * 2) move the caret to another position in the text
 * 3) execute Compiler.Compile *   The Oberon log then displays:
 * 4) select the line with the error message, and click on the [Locate] button in the menu bar of the Oberon log. This sets the caret at the position of the missing semicolon. The error can easily be corrected.

Debugging compiler detected syntax errors
Compiler detected errors are reported in the Oberon log by messages of the form: pos err

meaning: Error occurred at position in the source text.

The following procedure places the caret at an error position in the source text:
 * 1) make sure that the source text appears in a viewer
 * 2) mark the viewer
 * 3) select an error message line in the Oberon log
 * 4) click on the [Locate] button in the menu bar or
 * 5) execute the command TextDocs.Locate or
 * 6) execute the command Edit.Locate.

In some releases, Oberon compiler error numbers, with a short explanation for each, were listed in OberonErrors.Text. In PlugIn Oberon, running on a variety of MS Windows systems, the file is named OP2.Errors. In Oberon 2.3.7, a similar list is in the Errors section of Oberon.Text.

You need to recompile a module until no error is reported. Warnings may however be issued, but they are not considered as errors and thus an object file is created.

The trap viewer
If a command execution fails, the run-time error leads to an abnormal program termination and an error report is displayed in a text viewer 'System.Trap'. The error which caused the trap is identified with a trap code, the contents of certain system registers is displayed and the stack of procedure activations is displayed starting with the procedure on top of the invocation stack. All scalar variables and strings together with their values are also listed.

MODULE Trap; VAR arr: ARRAY 3 OF INTEGER; PROCEDURE count(n: INTEGER); BEGIN arr[n] := n; count(n+1) END count; PROCEDURE ForceIt*; BEGIN count(0) END ForceIt; END Trap.

 * 1) select the beginning of the module text
 * 2) execute Compiler.Compile @
 * 3) execute Trap.ForceIt and study the content of the viewer.

Originally, trap codes were explained at the end of OberonErrors.Text. Subsequently, when the trap viewer was created or enhanced, the explanation in OberonErrors.Text became redundant and was removed.

In order to find the failing statement simply display the source program and mark its viewer. Then select the line in the trap viewer containing the procedure name of interest and recompile the program using the "\d" or "\f" option.

Using the builder
The Builder provides a convenient front-end to the Oberon compiler described above. It makes sure that module texts are presented to the compiler in a correct order, whatever the order of the file names in the parameter list. It is however not a true make tool: all the modules to compile must be specified. Note that the parameter list must contain file names: these may differ from the module names, but that is a matter of convention. The Builder module commands are documented in the Builder.Tool.

Compiling source text - Builder.Compile
Builder.Compile [\options] * compiles the source text of the marked viewer. All error markers inserted in the text are removed.

Builder.Compile [\options] ({fileName}~ | ^ | *) compiles the text of the files named in the parameter list, automatically determining a correct compilation order of the modules. All the modules to compile must be specified, i.e. it is not a true make tool. The options are those of the Compiler.Compile command.

Efficient handling of compiler detected errors
Builder.MarkErrors [^] when the selection contains an error message written by the compiler in the Oberon log, this command inserts an error marker in the marked text for that message and for all of the following messages. An error marker is a special (builder) gadget displaying the number of the error code discovered at that location in the program text. The following error message pos 111 err 4 would cause  to be placed at the position 111.

Builder.NextError advances the caret to the next error marker. When the end of text is reached, searching wraps around to the beginning.

Builder.ClearErrors removes all error markers in the marked text. Automatically performed by a Builder.Compile * command.

Unloading modules - Builder.Free
Builder.Free {fileName}~ | ^ unloads every module named in the parameter list in a correct order. Since file names must appear in the parameter list, this command can only free modules for which the source text is available. To unload other modules use System.Free.

Inserting module icons - Builder.InsertHierarchy
Builder.InsertHierarchy {fileName}~ | ^ inserts an icon for each module named in the parameter list at the caret. The icons are inserted in a correct order of compilation. Each icon is captioned with a file name and its Cmd attribute value is "Desktops.OpenDoc '#Caption '". An example of such icons is found in the Compiler.Panel.

Using the analyzer
The Analyzer provides a convenient complement to the Oberon compiler for locating additional potential errors in a syntactically correct program text. Compiler errors are reported first. No object code is generated. The analyzer locates:

 * non-exported items (variables / constants / types / fields) that are declared but never used, used before being initialized(*), never initialized and initialized but never used.
 * non-exported [type-bound] procedures that are never called.
 * imported modules that are never used.

(*) For variables declared in a different scope, no warning is produced (see option \u, however).

The Analyzer module command is documented in the Analyzer.Tool.

Analyzing source text - Analyzer.Analyze
Analyzer.Analyze @[\options] analyzes the source text starting at the most recent text selection.

Analyzer.Analyze *[\options] analyzes the source text of the marked viewer.

These two first variants of the command allow analyzing a module directly from the text editor: there is no need to store the text first.

Analyzer.Analyze {fileName[\options]}~ | ^ analyzes the source text of the files named in the parameter list.

Analyzer.Analyze warns for possible errors in the Oberon log by message of the form: pos warning Refer to Debugging compiler detected syntax error.

Analyzer.Analyze also reports the number of statements (assignment, if, while, procedure call, etc.) in the module. This is convenient for determining the complexity of a program, instead of the number of lines.

Error markers can be inserted in the source text as explained in Efficient handling of compiler detected errors.

Additional information can be obtained by specifying one or several options:

 * i (intermediate) - locates
 * - items that are already declared in an outer scope.
 * - the use of or the assignment to intermediate items, e.g. local variables/parameters declared in an outer scope.
 * s (evaluation sequence) - locates calls of procedures with more than one parameter, where function calls occur in the parameter list. The evaluation sequence of parameters may affect the side effects of these functions.
 * t (type-bound) - locates
 * - the redefinition of type bound procedures.
 * - the new definition of type bound procedures in an extended type.
 * u (used) - locates variables declared in a different scope which are used before set.
 * v (VAR parameter) - locates variables that are used as VAR parameters and are therefore not ensured to be initialized.
 * x (exported) - locates exported items that are declared but not used by the module itself, used before being initialized, never initialized or initialized but never used.

Index
[ A | B | C | E | N | O | S | T | U ]

A

Analyzer.Analyze Analyzer.Tool

B

Builder.ClearErrors Builder.Compile Builder.Free Builder.InsertHierarchy Builder.MarkErrors Builder.NextError Builder.Tool

C

Compiler.Compile Compiler.Panel Compiler.SetDestPath Compiler.Tool

E

error marker

N

native object files

O

OberonErrors.Text

S

slim binaries

T

trap viewer

U

unload module

Revised, afi 10 Dec 1996 Installed on 30 05 1997

title: Oberon/ETH Oberon/Tutorial/Compiler


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Introduction to Object oriented programming in Python

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World of Dinosaurs/Absolute Dating

Geologists can compare layers of rock to decide which are older or younger, and which fossils represent animals that lived long ago or more recently. This process is called relative dating.

But relative dating does not give us a NUMBER. If we want to ask, "Yes, but WHEN did this rock layer form?", we need a different tool. When we try to measure the number of years that have passed since a rock formed (or since a piece of pottery was crafted, or since a tree died), we are trying to do absolute dating (the fancy word is time-measure: chronometry).

There are several techniques that can be used to assign a numeric age to a specimen. For our purposes we'll discuss two that are broadly applicable to fossil specimens; radiometric dating and luminescence dating.

The age ranges assigned by these methods are not the last word on how old a rock actually is! That's because different methods, or different laboratories, can give us conflicting dates. Thousands of scientists have spent the past decades improving the chemistry and technology for absolute dating.

Radiometric Dating
What are isotopes?

 * First, let's distinguish them from a similar-sounding word, ions.
 * Chemical bonds between atoms can shift the positions of their electrons, and an atom (or group of atoms) can gain or lose electrons in a break-up.
 * If we dissolve calcite mineral, the water will gain positively-charged calcium ions (Ca+2), and negatively-charged carbonate ions (CO3-2).
 * Nothing has changed in the nucleus of these atoms!
 * However many neutrons and protons they started with, it's the same now.
 * The outer electrons direct how the atom will interact with other ions.
 * The protons and neutrons in the nucleus direct how the atom will behave generally: its mass, strength, and how many electrons would help it be stable.

 * An isotope is a version of an atom that has a different number of items in its nucleus.
 * Many elements have stable isotopes.
 * Oxygen's atomic number is 8.
 * Your typical oxygen atom will have a nucleus with 8 protons and 8 neutrons. This isotope of oxygen has 16 items in the nucleus. We call it O16.
 * Some rare oxygen atoms have an extra neutron! This isotope of oxygen has 17 items in the nucleus. We call it O17.
 * Very rare oxygen atoms have two extra neutrons. This isotope of oxygen has 18 items in the nucleus. We call it O18.
 * These atoms will always behave like oxygen. The heavier isotope might make stronger bonds. An oxygen can join an ion and have a negative charge. But it will always be oxygen. All isotopes of oxygen are stable.

 * Some isotopes have stable AND radioactive isotopes.
 * Carbon's atomic number is 6.
 * Most carbon atoms have 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the nucleus. This isotope of carbon has 12 items in the nucleus. C12.
 * Some stable carbon atoms have an extra neutron. This isotope of carbon has 13 items in the nucleus. C13.
 * Some carbon atoms have two extra neutrons. This isotope of carbon has 14 items in the nucleus. C14.
 * Carbon 14 is radioactive. It is not stable.
 * Carbon 14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Eventually, one of the neutrons can eject a tiny beta particle and swap to act like a proton. If the atom now has 7 protons and 7 neutrons, it just turned into ... a Nitrogen atom!

If you have a pile of C14 atoms and you check back in 6,000 years, about half of them will have turned into N14.

The half-life of carbon 14 is about 5,700 years. Here is a handy video explanation from Scientific American.

The time it takes for half of any amount of radioactive material to decay to a daughter element is referred to as a half life. Based on this time and the ratio of parent to daughter element in any given sample allows us to assign how much time has passed for that sample.

Carbon Dating
Carbon dating is the most well known of radiometric dating methods.

What : items with carbon in them. Sea shells, bones, wood, pottery, etc.

Good to measure : thousands of years

Half-life : 5730 years

This technique measures the ratio of radioactive isotope Carbon-14 to its stable isotope peer Carbon-12. The half-life of this process is 5730 years. We can get very precise and accurate dates on items that are a few thousand years old, and pretty good estimates for items that are up to 50-60 thousand years old. But! Eventually all the C14 in a given item will transform. That item is now "C14 dead". If you can't measure any C14, you can't estimate a date.

''ALSO weird! Some systems get goofy carbon concentrations, such as hot springs and tufa deposits. If you don't know how your C12, C13, and C14 SHOULD be mixing, you can't interpret measurements to tell time. There's a funny line in the movie Prometheus where the geologist gives a C14 date for a dead alien (spoiler) and Dr. Ritterbush is in the theater like, "Girl. You don't know the FIRST thing about C14 ratios on this planet. STOP."''

Argon-Argon Dating
What : minerals that form in igneous rocks and include some Argon in their structure

Good to measure : hundreds of millions of years

Half-life : 1.25 billion years

Geoscientists have made this method much more precise and accurate over the past 20 years by working together at labs around the world to get all the machines measuring it equally.

Uranium-Lead Dating
What : minerals that form in igneous rocks and include some Uranium in their structure

Good to measure : hundreds of millions of years

Half-life : 710 million years

Instead of one parent-daughter pair (as in C and N), Uranium-238 to Lead-206 has LOTS of steps. The half-life of this method is 710 million years which makes it a useful middle ground between the above methods. The longer series of decay reactions adds to the precision of this method, because there are more parts to measure.

Here are recent observations using this technique on rocks made from volcanic ash.

The volcanic ash forms layers of rock:

After geologists (a hard-working team of graduate students, probably!) find the target minerals in their rock samples, they can check the minerals in a scanning electron microscope.

Geoscientists can zap the grains with very tiny lasers. This lets us count atoms in super-tiny areas of the mineral grains. This map shows mineral grains that have been sliced into microscope slides and lit up with a cathode ray, to show the layers. That's right, instead of the entire mineral forming instantaneously as a single crystal, these minerals can grow layers like rock candy. This means that each layer of crystal has its OWN formation date. By now, the lasers we use are so tiny, and our machines that tally atoms are so strong, we can get multiple dates from a single grain! This is good, because it gives us more data and allows us to estimate our precision and accuracy better. But it's also SO ANNOYING because OY geology is challenging!!

Luminescence Dating
What: minerals exposed to the sun as part of a sediment

Luminescence dating is a relatively new dating method which is often used as a second check on ages retrieved by other means. As grains within a sample sit after deposition, they slowly lose radiation that was accumulated while they were exposed to direct sunlight. By bringing these grains into a controlled environment (thermally or optically) this radiation can be released in such a way that we can measure how long the object has been buried.

Because of the nature of these methods it is less consistently retrievable in a sample than something like radiometric materials. Additionally the rate of decay in the sample is not as well constrained making it less accurate as a stand-alone method. For this reason it is often used to increase confidence in the numbers retrieved from another method.

What to Look For!
In this class, we will NOT memorize the exact dates assigned to geologic time intervals.

Instead of memorizing exact numbers, we want to:

 * remember the basic estimates:
 * The Triassic Period began about 250 million years ago.
 * The Jurassic Period began about 200 million years ago.
 * The Cretaceous Period began about 150 million years ago.
 * The Cenozoic Era began about 65 million years ago.

 * Understand WHY the absolute dates change as science progresses.

If we estimate the age of a rock layer or geologic time interval, that exact number keeps changing as we get better at absolute dating techniques.

 * In the 1990s, we estimated that the Jurassic Period began 208 million years ago.
 * Twenty years later, we estimated that the Jurassic Period began 202 million years ago.
 * In 2008, labs around the world coordinated to estimate that the Jurassic Period began 201 million years ago.

That sounds silly, but remember: we're trying to measure when a piece of ash fell to the ocean floor 201,000,000 years ago.

If we see a date assigned to a rock (or fossil, or human item), what should we look for?

Pay attention to Precision and Accuracy.

 * At archery lessons, Dr. Ritterbush always hit the same spot on the target. All her arrows hit within five inches of each other! Dr. Ritterbush is a very PRECISE archer!
 * Sadly, Dr. Ritterbush couldn't get the arrows to hit the bullseye. They would all be clustered tightly together at, like, the third ring and over to the left. Dr. Ritterbush is not yet a very ACCURATE archer!

Geoscientists publish absolute dates with estimates of the ERROR on that date.

 * The error on the date combines both precision and accuracy.
 * Chemists can tell you how good their machine is at getting a consistent answer. Maybe they run the same sample ten times, and the answer changes each time. We can measure the precision of the instrument. Low precision = the date is an estimate!
 * A geo-chemist can also run a bunch of samples from one rock layer. Each sample might give a slightly different isotope measurement. Technically, all of these answers are "right", but if they don't converge on one answer, it decreases the precision of our estimate.
 * Different methods can give us consistent, but disagreeing, values.
 * Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Argon-Argon dating gave values consistently below Uranium-Lead dating.
 * Each method was increasingly precise, but they could not both be totally accurate!
 * We now estimate that the Jurassic Period began 201.38 +/- 0.31 million years ago.
 * That means our BEST GUESS is 201,380,000 years ago.
 * But it could have been 310,000 years earlier, or later!

Radiometric dating methods are constantly improving, thanks to efforts of scientists on every continent. Ten years from now, the exact dates we guess for geologic time, and the precision and accuracy of those estimates, will be different from today.

We are also always comparing absolute and relative dating. The methods often give different answers, so we have to try again to improve all of our methods.

Can you sense a theme here?

We need to be aware of the observations and interpretations that scientists make, rather than memorizing a list of facts.

title: World of Dinosaurs/Absolute Dating


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World of Dinosaurs/Relative Dating

Geologists can easily compare sedimentary rock layers in one canyon, across a state, or across a continent and decide which layers are older, and which are younger.

It's taken hundreds of years to make enough observations to interpret the relative age of rocks on every continent, and there is still so much work to do!

Geologists make many interpretations by following a few principals for how sedimentary rocks form. Paleontologists refine relative age estimates for rocks by tracking fossils in the rock layers.

Fundamental principles
Unlike Absolute Dating, where we can simply measure something and assign a number, for relative dating we rely on a series of principles and assumptions that help us place events and samples into sequence.

Uniformitarianism
Uniformitarianism is the principle that the physics, chemistry, and basic rules that play out on earth today had the same behavior in the past. Some geologists say, "The present is the key to the past." If we research ancient limestone rocks, we need to visit modern depositional environments that form calcite and aragonite minerals. If we research ancient sandstone rocks, we need to visit modern rivers and beaches.

Uniformitarianism is not a law. Certain animals, plants, and chemical settings that existed long ago appear to be quite different than what we have today, and can cause odd rocks to appear. But in general, we think the physics and chemistry details remain the same.

Superposition
Generally, old sedimentary rocks are on the bottom and young sedimentary rocks are on the top.

If you have a huge stack of mail, or notebooks, or books near your desk, you've probably read the one on top more recently.

This happens in normal sediment deposition and layered rock formation.

 * Consider a stack of rocks that has:
 * sandstone at the bottom,
 * a set of layered volcanic ash beds in the middle,
 * and some coal on top.

 * We could interpret that this depositional environment changed over time:
 * from a sandy area,
 * to an area pestered by frequent volcanic eruptions,
 * to an area filled with dense forest and plants.

Superposition is not a law, it's just logic. Some sedimentary features build differently. Consider a coral reef, which piles calcite made by animals on top of each other in a big growing pile. This will be more like a pile of laundry in your room: that shirt you wore last month is probably at the bottom. A sock from yesterday might be on the floor. In this case, the superposition refers not just to the HEIGHT of the material, but its position away from a core of deposition.

NOTE: Igneous rocks that flow across a landscape, or layers of ash that gently fall down over a landscape, can form nice layers that DO follow superposition. But not all igneous rocks behave like this!

Original Horizontality & Lateral Continuity
Sediments usually spread far and flat before becoming rock.

 * Consider the mud at the bottom of the Great Salt Lake, or the ancient Lake Bonneville.
 * One layer of this mud might be only a few mm thick,
 * but it would spread a long distance,
 * with very little elevation change.

 * Consider the sand that spreads out during floods of the Mississippi river, or sand from a river during the Jurassic Period.
 * One layer of sand from a huge flood might only be a few cm thick,
 * but it would spread over a huge distance,
 * with very little elevation change.

The area that we call a "flood plain" around a river is the area that has a better chance of collecting sediment that can become rock, because this is an area of deposition. The river itself is a tiny area, by comparison, and it is frequently eroding material.

We can make two practical interpretations using these two rules.

What do we mean by a "layer" of sedimentary rock?
 * First, if we see sedimentary rock units that are tipped at a big angle, we can stand back and say, "I bet when these ORIGINALLY formed sediment layers, that each layer was basically flat."
 * Second, we can see, or we can guess, where a layer of rock should be visible far away, even if it's covered by some plants in between.

 * It depends on what we're studying!
 * In the Fredrick Albert Sutton Building on campus, you can see displays of fossil fish and fossil leaves. The displays are framed in slabs of rock that show little mud layers. Each thin mud layer had lateral continuity, and had original horizontality.
 * We could also be mapping the shores of Lake Bonneville by tracing outcrops of ancient limestone clusters on a map. This might be a layer of rock one meter thick, that extends for dozens of miles in each direction.

Scientists who look for oil and natural resources need the most sophisticated techniques to consider layers of sedimentary rock. Here's a good page explaining sedimentary rock layers that are not exactly flat, but still spread very far.

Again, igneous rocks that flow across a landscape, or layers of ash that gently fall down over a landscape, can form nice layers that DO follow original horizontality and lateral continuity. But igneous rocks are sneaky and have their own rules!

Faunal Succession
This rule is like superposition, but for life.

If you're looking at a rock cliff of sedimentary layers:

 * Fossils in the bottom layers should represent animals that died a long time ago.
 * Fossils in the top layers should represent animals that lived less long ago!

If an animal lived all around the world, and then it went extinct, we can use its fossils to decide which rocks are RELATIVELY older or younger.

If we use fossils to reconstruct a sequence of animals (A, then B, then C), we can use any of these to compare rocks (maybe you find only animals A and C, but you know their relative age now).

Cross-Cutting Relationships
Ancient sedimentary rocks are usually pretty messed up by the time we can see them!

Events, features, or even other rocks can break up, disrupt, or cut across the sedimentary layers. In order for the cutting features to be present, the disrupted layer(s) needed to already be there first! This can help establish sequence, or identify areas of missing time, in some records.

Inclusion
If I find a chunk of rock A inside a layer of sedimentary rock B, then rock A must be older. Rock A must have already existed before Rock B could include a chunk of it!

The principal of inclusion has helped geoscientists advance absolute dating dramatically in the past decade.

 * The best methods for absolute dating on rocks that are millions of years old requires mineral grains that form in igneous processes.
 * Those minerals are very durable, though, so a sandstone from a beach setting might have a bunch of those grains.
 * Zircon is a super-durable mineral that we can measure atoms in really well.

 * By the principal of inclusion, zircon grains found in a sandstone are OLDER than the day that sand actually stopped moving and started its journey to becoming rock.
 * If we zap one zircon and get an age of 200 million years, we know the sandstone layer cannot be OLDER than 200 million years. But how much younger is it? Dunno!
 * If we zap twenty zircon grains and get a range of ages, we can make a better guess of the sedimentary layer's formation time.

Combining observations
NOTE!!

 * Extrusive igneous rocks can don't have to follow the rules for sedimentary rocks, but sometimes they CAN.
 * Intrusive igneous and metamorphic rocks don't have to follow any rules of sedimentary rocks.

If geologists discover fossils of a new dinosaur, they will need to decide how old the fossils are.

Consider all the observations that are necessary to even make a good guess!

Consider three people exploring some rocks near a river.
 * On the left bank, who is standing on the oldest rocks? Can we use superposition?
 * We can apply original horizontality to interpret that these rocks were originally more flat, and have only become tipped at this angle due to Earth motions.
 * Lateral continuity tells us that the rocks on the right side of the river should connect to the rocks on the left side. BUT! If there is a fault causing offset in these rocks, we might not see it right here because the river might cover it up.

Index Fossils
Some fossils are very easy to correlate between layers of rock far away. Criteria include:

 * The animal (or plant, or spore, etc.) lived in very distant places at the same time.
 * The animal fossilizes well.
 * The shape of the fossilized animal makes it easy to distinguish from animals that lived at different times.
 * Specific varieties of the animal are widespread but go extinct pretty fast, then evolve new, differently-shaped varieties that also spread out and go extinct pretty fast.

Some of the best index fossils are ammonites, extinct squid-like animals that had a coiled shell divvied into air chambers.

Ammonites rapidly evolved distinctly-shaped shells that made abundant, distinct fossils.

Ammonites died really easily, and then added diversity really easily, and lived all around the world.

The drag is that ammonites only lived in the ocean, so they aren't helpful for relative dating of rocks from land habitats.

Here is a 3D model of a fossilized ammonite shell.

title: World of Dinosaurs/Relative Dating