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Lentis/Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles

=Introduction=

The global climate change crisis has prioritized the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energies in the transportation sector. In recent years, there has been a surge in electric vehicle development from major manufacturers such as Tesla, Inc., General Motors, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd., and Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW). This Lentis casebook chapter will provide historical background on electric vehicles and analyze the environmental and societal impacts associated with the production, usage, and disposal of lithium-ion batteries found in popular electric vehicles.

=History=

Electric Vehicles Through Time
Electric vehicles first came into existence in the late 1800s, as scientists experimented with early batteries and electric motors. In the United States, William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa is credited with developing the first successful electric vehicle in 1890, securing patents on electric current regulators and improved processes to manufacture storage battery plates. The Morrison Electric Vehicle had six seats, 24 batteries, and 4 horsepower, with a top speed of 14 mph and a range of 50 miles. The 1890's to the early 1900s was the golden age for electric vehicles. Steam engines required long startup times, while gasoline cars required gear changes and produced exhaust. The decline of electric vehicles started in 1908 with the invention of the cheaper Ford Model T, as well as improved roadways and the Texas oil boom. Electric vehicles made a comeback in the 1970s due to increased gas prices and environmental concerns. This eventually resulted in the development of modern electric and hybrid vehicles.

Lithium-Ion Battery Development
Early electric vehicles in the late 1800s used rechargeable lead-acid batteries invented by Gaston Planté in 1859. Advancements in battery technology increased lead-acid battery performance and charging rates, but their poor specific energy led to alternative solutions. Lighter batteries such as nickel-cadmium batteries were implemented in the 1960s, but lithium-ion batteries eventually became the modern-day standard due to their superior performance and low weight. John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino made discoveries that led to early commercial lithium-ion batteries and were awarded the Chemistry Nobel prize in 2019. Goodenough experimented with cobalt as a key component that is still used today. Yoshino used petroleum coke in place of lithium metal, greatly increasing stability. Scientists today seek to make lithium-ion batteries safer, longer-lasting, increase energy density. In 2008, the Tesla Roadster was the first electric vehicle to use lithium-ion batteries and the first to have a range over 200 miles.

=Fundamentals of Lithium-Ion Battery=

Components
A lithium-ion battery consists of an anode, cathode, electrolyte, separator, and two current collectors (positive and negative). The anode and cathode store the lithium; the cathode releases lithium ions when the battery is charging while the anode releases them when discharging. The electrolyte is a liquid that serves as a transporter of lithium ions. The separator allows for the ions to flow freely from the anode to the cathode and vice versa. The positive current collector receives electrons from the circuit during discharging while the negative current collector receives the electrons during charging.

In terms of materials, the cathode consists of a layered oxide, usually containing cobalt and nickel because of their high stability. However, cobalt is toxic and the mining of it is fraught with human rights violations. The anode is usually made of lithium which has good charge density but has problems with cycling and short circuiting. The electrolyte has many variations but the best performing solvents are flammable and pose safety risks.

Chemistry
Lithium-ion batteries are the most common battery in EV due to their high power to weight ratio. There are many different derivatives of lithium-ion batteries, each with varying cathode materials to increase efficiency, power output, and lifetime. Currently the most common lithium-ion batteries are Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt-Oxide (NMC), Lithium-Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum-Oxide (NCA), and Lithium-Manganese-Oxide (LMO). The Chevy Bolt uses an NMC battery with a total capacity of 60 kWh. The Tesla Model 3 uses an NCA battery with added Manganese for increased efficiency that stands at 75 kWh capacity. The Nissan Leaf and BMWi3 both use a combination of LMO and NMC to optimize performance and their capacities are 30 kWh and 42 kWh respectively.

The manganese component of a LMO battery has very good thermal stability, which improves the batteries’ safety. It offers high discharge/recharge rates but has a lower capacity and lifetime. NMC batteries are designed for high specific energy or power with high density. These batteries are usually made with the cathode with a 1-1-1 ratio of nickel, manganese, and cobalt, but this ratio can vary between manufacturers. NMC batteries are often combined with LMO and the combination results in a battery with high power (LMO) and long driving range (NMC). NCA batteries have similar properties to NMC batteries, offering high specific energy and power and a long lifespan. However, it is not as safe as other battery types and more costly to manufacture.

=Environmental Impacts=

Production
The Congo produces 60% of the worlds’ cobalt. Although the majority comes from large strip mines, 10 - 25% of the global cobalt production comes from the Congo’s artisanal mines. Because of the lack of regulation and quantity of artisanal mines in the Congo, heavy metal contamination is widespread even in areas outside of mining districts. Cobalt is often found with other toxic heavy metals, such as lead and cadmium, which leach into waterways and the atmosphere when brought up to the surface. There is a lack of research on the long-term health effects of cobalt exposure; however, current studies found the urinary concentrations of cobalt of individuals living near the mines to be 43 times more than the average US citizen, the highest ever reported concentrations. With the global demand for cobalt increasing, heavy metal concentrations are expected to rise and its consequences to become apparent. Eighty percent of the global lithium supply is located in Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile: the ABC’s of lithium. To mine the “white gold”, miners pump brine into sectioned out portions of the salt flats that contain lithium. The water dries over a few months and the concentrated liquid is pumped to processing plants.

The water for the brine comes from aquifers underneath the desert region, which greatly strain the local groundwater supply. It takes roughly 500,000 gallons per tonne of lithium produced, consisting of 65% of the water usage for the Salar de Atacama: Chile’s most important region for lithium mining. As water is pumped out the aquifers more than it can be recharged, conflicts over water use have developed as local farmers struggle to raise animals due to the declining meadows.

Disposal
Due to the complexity and weight of Lithium-Ion batteries in electric vehicles, most battery maintenance is done at dealerships. The centralized management allows for proper collection of spent batteries for disposal. Even though they are considered “spent”, the batteries still maintain 70-80% of their charge. They are often repurposed by their respective car manufacturers for various projects such as backing up data centers and powering street lamps. Recycling batteries is not currently economical because using raw materials for batteries is cheaper than recycled materials (5x cheaper for lithium).

Life Cycle Analysis
Electric vehicles are more harmful to the environment than regular gasoline vehicles during production (a midsized electric vehicle produces 8.8tCO2e while a similar-sized gasoline car produces 5.6tCO2e). However, gasoline produces more greenhouse gas emissions than typical grid power. Although coal burns dirtier than gasoline, it only makes up 27% of the US grid. Over 40% of the grid is powered by nuclear and renewable energy that produces very little to no greenhouse gasses. In 2018, an average electric vehicle produced the same amount of greenhouse gas emissions as a gasoline car getting 80MPG. In the majority of the US, electric vehicles only take 2-3 years to match similar-sized gasoline cars in overall CO2 emissions. Since the average lifespan of cars is roughly 8 years, the vast majority of electric cars are more environmentally friendly than their gasoline counterparts.

=Human Impacts=

Cobalt Mines
Global cobalt sourcing is dominated by the Democratic Republic of Congo and is saturated with violence, corruption, and human rights abuse. Large-scale mines face problems with proper contracting and subcontracting documentation, while artisanal mines exploit child labor, have dangerous working conditions, and are often controlled by corrupt military forces. Even though high global demand for cobalt should be beneficial to the people of the Congo, government corruption led by president Joseph Kabila, in office from 2001-2019, money is taken away from the needy. Around 90% of cobalt mining is artisanal. While salary is lucrative in comparison to the national average, individual miners often dig deeper than 30 meters beneath the surface to find higher grade cobalt, leading to frequent cave-ins and landslides. The few women miners found in industry experience sexual abuse and lesser pay. Unregulated and unsafe mining procedures leave big impacts on human health, including children as young as 4 years old. Exposure to cobalt particles results in "hard metal lung disease", a serious lung disease known as pneumoconiosis. Pneumoconiosis starts with shortness of breath and cough, but with long-time exposure and inadequate personal protective equipment (PPE), lung scarring and asthma can develop, leading to hypoxemia (low blood oxygen levels). Congolese miners are rarely provided with face masks, proper clothing, and gloves, which are the bare necessities. Not only does hazardous materials impact miners, but local water supplies and living areas have found to be contaminated with dust and toxic materials such as uranium.

Claude Kebemba, executive director of Southern Africa Resource Watch seeking alternative means of work for artisanal miners, stated, "People know it’s very harsh conditions, to go underground, you either have to be on drugs or be drunk.”

User Safety
Since lithium-ion batteries have flammable components, safety is a big concern for their many applications. Highly exothermic reactions can take place resulting in dangerous fires putting the lives of drivers, passengers, and firefighters at risk. External short circuits, internal short circuits, cell overcharging, cell over-discharging, physical damage, or exposure to high ambient temperatures can each potentially cause overheating of a cell and initiate thermal runaway events.

Recent fires in EVs has sparked anxiety about the safety of these vehicles. Of the 14 known fires involving Tesla vehicles, the majority occurred after a collision, but there have been a growing number of blazes in which its products appear to spontaneously ignite. Three of the most recent cases were sedans catching fire while parked; investigations concluded they were due to thermal runaway.

=Future Developments=

Technology
Advances in using different materials to increase efficiency, lifetime, and safety, while decreasing cost and environmental impact by phasing out cobalt are currently in progress to further develop lithium-ion batteries for EVs.

Li-air has huge potential to have energy densities comparable to gasoline, which would provide a Tesla Model S to have a range of 20,000 miles per charge. Only half of the battery materials are required to store the same amount of energy in the air medium and therefore can reduce the battery weight by up to 50%. However, there are problems with poor cycle life and low specific power at low temperatures.

Li-S batteries are also promising for the future of EVs, due to the low cost of sulfur, Li-S batteries could be much less expensive than current batteries. Sulfur is also environmentally benign compared to cobalt infused batteries. They also have high specific energies, and a high specific power. Drawbacks include low cycle life and stability issues.

Policy
EV Everywhere is the umbrella effort of the U.S. Department of Energy to increase the adoption and use of plug-in electric vehicles. It was introduced in 2012 and its goal is to enable plug-in electric vehicles to be as affordable and convenient as gasoline-powered vehicles by 2022. DOE R&D has reduced the cost of EV batteries by 50% in the last four years and investments topped $225 million to address key issues in EV deployment. In Europe, the creation of a European Union Battery Alliance to support battery manufacturing is part of an effort to transition to clean mobility in the EU. The focus of this is to target innovation in cell chemistries, formats, and manufacturing technologies/processes.

=Conclusion=

Just because something is "green" doesn't mean that it is inherently better. Although electric vehicles are better for the environment in CO2 emissions, the unmeasurable human impacts complicate the ability to compare gasoline and electric vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries should be looked at from a cradle-to-grave perspective, from the mining of the materials used in these batteries to emissions in production and use (emissions from charging from the often fossil-fuel powered grid) and finally the environmental impacts of disposal. A wholistic view of lithium-ion batteries is needed for a complete picture as to how they impact the planet.

=References=


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Power/Power and Pharmaceuticals

High developmental costs, initial costs of production, and barriers to entry into the industry has resulted in a monopoly of power in the pharmaceutical industry. Due to the nature of medical goods, such as comparably inelastic demand, pharmaceutical companies possess high corporate power, especially in the face of loose or corrupt government regulations.

Developmental Stages
The research and development(R&D) stage of pharmaceutical drugs allows for potential misuse of power largely due to the high cost of the process and the monopolisation of the non-clinical and clinical trials of the developing drug. In the UK, the average R&D costs of a new drug is £1.15bn which bars many potential firms from the industry. Smaller firms and individuals are then likely to sell the patent of the drug to larger pharmaceutical firms. Larger firms, however, are more likely to possess the resources that allow them to influence the results of non-clinical and clinical trials. Almost all pre-clinical and non-clinical trials done by pharmaceutical industry scientists either employed by the firm company developing the product or in industry-funded contract research organisations (CROs). The four phases of clinical trials can also feature scientists employed or contracted by the firm, or have taken large grants from the firm developing the tested drug. This provide pharmaceutical firms with overwhelming power to influence the results of the trials, which can result in the production and sales of ineffective drugs, or those with negative affects not known to the national regulatory authority. The high technical knowledge required and resource costs of trials further reduces the transparency of the effectiveness and safety of drugs.

Sales and Pricing
Firms often possess the power engage in "price gouging"(exploitatively high prices) due to their monopoly on the production of the drug through patent laws. This is more evident in nations with stricter patent laws such as the United States, where consumer pay up to six times the amount for drugs in comparison to global prices. Drugs are patented during very early stages of development which results in very low competition as other firms are unable to produce or further develop upon the existing drug. Larger firms are also able to bypass the lower market prices that would have resulted from the sale of generic drugs after the expiry of the patent through "pay-for-delay" agreements with generic companies so that generic drugs are not produced. Such agreements are estimated by the Federal Trade Commission to cost consumers and taxpayers $3.5 billion in higher drug costs per year in the United States.

The marketing and promotion process of new drugs further tip the scales of power towards pharmaceutical firms. Submission for marketing authorisations made to the national regulatory authority, pre-clinical and clinical results are submitted by the manufacturing firm. Medical communications agencies that promote the drugs to healthcare professionals commonly have links with patient organisations, many of which are powerful lobbying groups, which may result in their interest becoming aligned with that of the manufacturing firm. Other methods are also utilised in the promotion of drugs include donations such as those made by the producers of Cipralex to Depression Alliance, that required GPs to complete and feedback leaflet. Such methods decreased the transparency of the impacts of the drugs.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence/Visual Art as Evidence

Scientific Analysis
Scientific analysis of artworks is used to determine the the material practice of the artist. It allows for the dating of works, reveal further insight (and therefore act as evidence) into the materials available to artists, and the demographics of the consumers of the works through the scarcity of the materials. For example, the use of ultramarine (lapis lazuli) and gold used in Church commissioned, medieval works as evidence of wealth of the Church as well as the religious values of the time.

Various methods of scientific analysis include: gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, polarised light microscopy (PLM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and fluorescence (XRF). Such methods allow the pigments and the chemical composition of other components of artworks to be identified.

Subject Matter
Many aspects of the period the artwork was created can be derived from the subject matter of the works.

Cave paintings - the subject matter of prehistoric cave paintings are often studied to reveal insight into human development and society before written history. The analysis of the animals depicted in Neolithic paintings around the world has suggested that astronomical studies may possibly be dated to 40,000 years ago. The Lascaux Shaft Scene has been used as evidence to suggest a comet stick around 15,200 BC.

Medieval - medieval artworks heavily feature religious images which serves as evidence for the importance of religion in the lives of people as well as the wealth of the Church. Insight into the anti-semitic sentiments of the time are also evidenced in the negative, often demon-like imagery used in the portrayal of Jews.

Realism - the emergence of realist art after the French Revolution reveal the increasingly egalitarian values of the period as the work and middle classes and images of everyday activities began to feature in artworks. This is also indicative of the rising middle class, as the subject matter began to shift away from the major political and social events previously depicted in History art to that of the more everyday in order to appeal to middle class consumers.

Stylistic Features
Stylistic features and choices particular to specific art movements can also can as evidence towards the attitudes of human society of the composing period. It may also show the trajectory of human development.

Renaissance - artistic features that emerged during the Renaissance period such as the use of perspective and depth perception that relied upon the principles of mathematics suggest a renewed interest, as well as significant development, in the sciences. Increasingly realistic and detailed depictions of the human form provides evidence of the increasing understanding of human anatomy during this period.

Dada - the absurdist and nihilist features of Dadaist works such as unrecognisable forms or nonsensically assembled "readymades" from everyday objects reflects a rebellion against previous artist movements. It serves as cultural evidence of the social disillusionment with previously held values and institutions in response to the horrors of WWI. The use of everyday objects and high reproducibility of Dadaist works which considerably lowered its commercial value reveals insight into the mass rejection of bourgeois values.


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LMIs in Control/pages/Generalized KYP Lemma Conic Sector

The Concept
The conic sector theorem is a powerful input-output stability analysis tool, providing a fine balance between generality and simplicity of system characterisations that is conducive to practical stability analysis and robust controller synthesis.

The System
Consider a square, contiuous-time linear time-invariant (LTI) system, $$\mathcal{G} : \mathcal{L}_{2e} \rightarrow \mathcal{L}_{2e}$$, with minimal state-space relization (A, B, C, D), where $$\mathcal{E, A} \in \mathcal{R}^{n\times n}, \mathcal{B} \in \mathcal{R}^{n\times m}, \mathcal{C} \in \mathcal{R}^{p\times n},$$ and $$\mathcal{D} \in \mathcal{R}^{p\times m} $$.

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)+Bu(t),\\ y(t)&=Cx(t)+Du(t)\\ \end{align}$$

Also consider $$ \pi_{c}(a,b) \in \mathcal{S}^{m} $$, which is defined as

 * $$ \pi_{c}(a,b) = \begin{bmatrix}

-\tfrac{1}{b}I & \tfrac{1}{2}(1+\tfrac{a}{b})I  \\ (\tfrac{1}{2}(1+\tfrac{a}{b})I)^{T} &  -aI \end{bmatrix}$$,

where $$ a \in \mathcal{R}, b \in \mathcal{R}_{>0} $$ and $$ a < b $$.

The Data
The matrices The matrices $$ A,B,C $$ and $$D$$. The values of a and b

LMI : Generalized KYP (GKYP) Lemma for Conic Sectors
The following generalized KYP Lemmas give conditions for $$\mathcal{G}$$ to be inside the cone $$ [a,b] $$ within finite frequency bandwidths.
 * 1. (Low Frequency Range) The system $$\mathcal{G}$$ is inside the cone $$ [a,b] $$ for all $$ \omega \in {\omega \in \mathcal{R} | |\omega| < \omega_{1}, det(j\omega I - A) \neq 0} $$, where $$\omega_{1} \in \mathcal{R}_{>0}, a \in \mathcal{R}, b \in \mathcal{R}_{>0} $$ and $$ a0}$$, where $$Q \ge 0$$, such that

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}

A &  B  \\ I &  0 \end{bmatrix}^{T}\begin{bmatrix} -Q & P \\ P^{T} & (\omega_{1} - \overline{\omega}_{1})^{2}Q \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} A &  B  \\ I &  0 \end{bmatrix} - \begin{bmatrix} C &  D  \\ 0 &  I \end{bmatrix}^{T} \pi_{c}(a,b) \begin{bmatrix} C &  D  \\ 0 &  I \end{bmatrix} < 0 $$.

 * If $$\omega_{1} \rightarrow \infty, P>0. $$ and Q = 0, then the traditional Conic Sector Lemma is recovered. The parameter $$\overline{\omega}_{1}$$ is incuded in the above LMI to effectively transform $$|\omega| \le (\omega_{1} - \overline{\omega}_{1})$$ into the strict inequality $$|\omega| < \omega_{1}$$

 * 2. (Intermediate Frequency Range) The system $$\mathcal{G}$$ is inside the cone $$ [a,b] $$ for all $$ \omega \in {\omega \in \mathcal{R} | \omega_{1} \le |\omega| < \omega_{2}, det(j\omega I - A) \neq 0} $$, where $$\omega_{1},\omega_{2} \in \mathcal{R}_{>0}, a \in \mathcal{R}, b \in \mathcal{R}_{>0} $$ and $$ a0}$$ and $$\hat{\omega}_{2} = (\omega_{1} + \tfrac{(\omega_{2} - \hat{\omega}_{2})}{2}),$$ where $$ P^{H} = P, Q^{H} = Q $$ and $$Q \ge 0$$, such that

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}

A &  B  \\ I &  0 \end{bmatrix}^{T}\begin{bmatrix} -Q & P + \mathcal{j\hat{\omega}_{2}}Q\\ P - \mathcal{j\hat{\omega}_{2}}Q & \omega_{1}(\omega_{2} - \hat{\omega} - 2)Q \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} A &  B  \\ I &  0 \end{bmatrix} - \begin{bmatrix} C &  D  \\ 0 &  I \end{bmatrix}^{T} \pi_{c}(a,b) \begin{bmatrix} C &  D  \\ 0 &  I \end{bmatrix} < 0 $$.

 * The parameter $$\overline{\omega}_{2}$$ is incuded in the above LMI to effectively transform $$ \omega_{1} \le |\omega| \le (\omega_{2} - \overline{\omega}_{2})$$ into the strict inequality $$\omega_{1} \le |\omega| < \omega_{2}$$.

 * 3. (High Frequency Range) The system $$\mathcal{G}$$ is inside the cone $$ [a,b] $$ for all $$ \omega \in {\omega \in \mathcal{R} | \omega_{2} < |\omega|, det(j\omega I - A) \neq 0} $$, where $$\omega_{2} \in \mathcal{R}_{>0}, a \in \mathcal{R}, b \in \mathcal{R}_{>0} $$ and $$ a<b $$, if there exist $$ P,Q \in \mathcal{S}^{n} $$, where $$Q \ge 0$$, such that

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}

A &  B  \\ I &  0 \end{bmatrix}^{T}\begin{bmatrix} -Q & P \\ P^{T} & \omega_{2}^{2}Q \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} A &  B  \\ I &  0 \end{bmatrix} - \begin{bmatrix} C &  D  \\ 0 &  I \end{bmatrix}^{T} \pi_{c}(a,b) \begin{bmatrix} C &  D  \\ 0 &  I \end{bmatrix} < 0 $$.

If (A, B, C, D) is a minimal realization, then the matrix inequalities in all of the above LMI, then it can be nostrict.

Conclusion:
If there exist a positive definite $$q$$ matrix satisfying above LMIs for the given frequency bandwidths then the system $$\mathcal{G}$$ is inside the cone [a,b].

Implementation
Code for implementation of this LMI using MATLAB. https://github.com/VJanand25/LMI

Related LMIs
KYP Lemma State Space Stability Exterior Conic Sector Lemma Modified Exterior Conic Sector Lemma


text: User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Truth/Truth in the New Testament


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence/Evidence in Memory

Human memory is an aspect of the human brain that is often relied upon in any field. The memory, or data that humans hold in their brain is considered to serve as appropriate evidence in any discipline and in any given situation, from simple memory tests to legal testaments. However, what many people fail to consider is how easily memory can be manipulated, which can potentially cast significant doubts on how society as a whole operates. If it is proven that human memory is an unreliable source of information, then it makes it possible that traditionally trusted documents, such as legal testaments and statements, even if sworn under oath, could be unintentionally fabricated and hence deemed irrelevant and inaccurate.

A study that can provide grounds for this is one conducted by Professor Elizabeth Loftus at University of California, Irvine, where she proved the susceptibility of memories. This was done by recruiting a group of participants and collecting information about events from their pasts. Using this information, she presented to the participants four stories, one of them being completely made up. Remarkably, when being asked about the fabricated incident, at least a quarter of the participants claimed that they remembered it, even though it never happened. As such, human memory is vulnerable to manipulation, regardless of its nature.

This may change the nature of using memory as evidence in any discipline, since it may be susceptible to the situation, and regardless of its intention, memory can serve as  a valuable yet potentially manipulative tool.


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar)/Group1/Evidence/Evidence in Music

Definition of Evidence
"Evidence is anything that you see, experience, read, or are told that causes you to believe that something is true or has really happened."

In this definition, a sense of both subjectivity and objectivity is to be understood. These aspects will be relevant to out analysis.

Notation
In this discipline, what highlights the existence of music are very specific universal criteria. Indeed, we recognize music, even without sound, through the writing of concepts such as: notes, timbres, rhythms, dynamic nuances. From a general point of view, these notions distinguish sound that is music from sound that is simply noise. Compositons regroup these ideas into the writing of music. Thus, compositions are written evidence of the existence of music

We will see that these concepts are being challenged.

The Hearing
Music is primarly associated with sound. Before being written down as it is today, music was an oral practice. This discipline is largely associated with performance. Indeed, the greek ethymology of music means "the art of the Muses". The Muses embodied the arts, with music and poetry. Even today, music can be recognized by the sound of multiple instruments and voices. The traditional melodies that have survived through the centuries without necessarily having been written at the beginning are proof of this.

Thus, what prooves a sound to be related to music or not is rather subjective. It deals with the Hearing and the brain and, if most people will agree on what is music and what is not, to appreciate a sound like music.

Intellectual property laws
Over the last centurys, what legally proved that a music is one and makes its status inviolable were the laws of intellectual property. They make music immutable in the eyes of the Law and Justice and distinguise them from one another.

Deconstruction of the idea of music via Music Genres
Music where melody prevails is only a very small part of the discipline.

Some genres questioned what proved the music. Indeed, jazz mainly uses different scales, for example pentatonic scales. The notes used sound different, sometimes even almost false to the ear used to melodies. However, despite these major differences with what is commonly understood by music, jazz is one of the greatest musical genres.

Similarly, contemporary music plays a lot on what is proven to be music. Thredony to the victims of Hiroshima in Penderecki, is entirely made of thundering and high-pitched sounds. It uses notes from the dodecaphonic musical scale. In the same way, what reinforces the idea of "music" is totally different from the classical idea that it is possible to avoid.

Neuroscience Perspective
Neuroscience studies music from a scientific point of view. Evidence of music is completely different here, since it is the response of parts of the brain in relation to listening, practicing or writing music.


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User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 4/Evidence

 * Evidence in Religion and Spiritualism

The ideas discussed certainly draw into awareness how much findings are mirrors of the measuring tool. Einstein spoke about the role of the observer in his theories of special relativity (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_(special_relativity). Physicist's understanding of the term 'observer' are taken to be frame of reference, insomuch that the experimenter provides a mathematical context and are intrinsically related to the experimenter as witness.

What we can understand from this is that our tools may not be equipped to evaluate spirituality under modern approaches. From this we must acknowledge that just because we are unable to provide empirical evidence does not been that the existence of the soul is not real.

Andrews zoe (discuss • contribs)


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Lentis/BedZED

Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) is a sustainable housing development in Hackbridge, London Borough of Sutton. It was designed to be the first large-scale “carbon neutral” community, creating zero carbon dioxide emissions.[7]

Introduction
BedZED was designed by Bill Dunster, in collaboration with Bioregional, to create the first large-scale, zero fossil-fuel eco-village. The London Borough of Sutton sold an undeveloped plot of land to the developers below market value, on the basis that the project would create greater community benefits than a conventional housing development, including reducing climate-changing emissions. The goal of this development was to limit individual resource consumption, while maintaining a comfortable and appealing lifestyle. Its vision was inspired by ideas like sustainable development and spaceman economy. This case study investigates the origin, implementation, and impact of the BedZED project.

Background
The inspiration behind BedZED originates from the concept ‘sustainable development’.[9] The term first appeared in an official African document signed in 1969 at the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) by 33 African countries. The U.S. adopts that term in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969, defining it as: “economic development that may have benefits for current and future generations without harming the planet's resources or biological organisms.” This is redefined in the United Nation's Brundtland Report for communities to meet: “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”[11]

Causes
The following influential events of the 20th century partially explain the rising interest in sustainable living that led to BedZED:

Air Pollution Control Act (1955)
This is the first piece of legislation to pass Congress that formally addresses air pollution. This act was passed in response to a series smog-related deaths. While it had no form of enforcement from the federal government, it demonstrated a change in priority: the government’s formal declaration to combat air contamination. [10]

Rachel Carlson's Silent Spring (1962)
This book was the catalyst for the modern day green movement, specifically addressing the overuse of pesticides. It called for people to be stewards of the earth, shifting public mindset from a cowboy economy to Buckminster Fuller's spaceman economy. [10]

Earth Day (1970)
The first national Earth Day was held to address the seriousness of environmental problems facing the country. This was a significant step towards normalizing sustainability and environmental protection. [10]

Kyoto Protocol
This is an international treaty that extends the UN’s 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate with the purpose of reducing carbon emissions. This international conference brought the issue of environmental impact and sustainability to the global scene. [10]

Contributors
BedZED was primarily designed in 1997 by British architect Bill Dunster, founder of Zedfactory. Housing association Peabody Trust was recruited as the developer of the site. The project was a collaboration between Dunster, sustainability charity Bioregional, engineering consultants Arup and Ellis & Moore, and cost consultant Gardiner & Theobald.[3][6]

Technology
The introduction of experimental technologies, allowed BedZED to meet its sustainability goals while maintaining a comfortable standard of living. The lack of heritage of many of the major technologies increased risks associated with the development.

Heat and Power
BedZED was designed to greatly reduce its residents' carbon-dioxide emissions by consuming no fossil fuel for heat and power.

 * The development initially used a woodchip-burning combined heat and power (CHP) plant, generating both heat and electricity for the site. However, the plant had to shut down every night due to noise concerns, and resultant tar build-up and condensation caused the plant to be frequently taken out of service. In 2005, the CHP plant was replaced with conventional natural gas boilers and power grid electricity purchased on a green tariff.[6] In 2017, a membrane bioreactor[8] was installed to fully power the district heating system.
 * 777 square meters of solar panels supplied 11% of the district’s daily electrical power usage.
 * BedZED’s housing blocks are designed with a passive housing approach. All walls and windows have high levels of insulation, airtightness, and thermal mass, helping to maintain comfortable temperatures year-round. The buildings are solar-oriented, arranged in east-west rows. The south, sun-facing sides contain sunspaces behind large insulated windows, using the greenhouse effect to warm the air within. This serves as the key solar gain feature of the buildings, allowing for maximum use of the sun’s warmth for space heating. Stepped terraces on the blocks’ north-facing sides descend at an angle to prevent shading of the next row at times when the sun is low in the sky.BedZED roofs 2007.jpg
 * The buildings use roof-mounted wind cowls for ventilation with minimal heat loss. Vanes on the cowls angle them to the wind, allowing fresh air to be brought into homes. The outgoing air warms the incoming air through a built-in heat exchanger.[6]

Sustainable Water
BedZED is in a region facing significant water stress, so it was designed to minimize unnecessary water consumption.

 * Homes have water-efficient shower heads, taps, toilets, and washing machines.
 * ‘Green roofs’ seeded with drought-resistant sedum plants soak up rainwater to protect overloaded sewer systems.
 * The initial attempt to collect rainwater runoff from the roofs and recycle it proved unsuccessful due to excessive contamination from local fauna.
 * A wastewater treatment plant was designed to filter and recycle waste using organisms varying from bacteria to macro-vegetation. The use of this treatment plant was discontinued after failure to meet water quality standards.[5][6]

Environmental Impact
BedZED was created under the overarching environmental framework of one planet living. This sustainability framework developed by Bioregional pursues a standard of living which allows for sustainable consumption of one planet’s worth of resources by the year 2050. This consumption is based on population growth expectations, limiting each person to 1.2 global hectares of productive land, reserving 20% of the planets productive land for wildlife and wilderness.[1]

BedZED in Comparison to Sutton:
Sutton is a conventional development of a similar size and mix to BedZED.

 * 53% reduction in travel carbon footprint.
 * 36% reduction in gas consumption.
 * 32% reduction in CO2 from home heating and electricity.
 * 27% reduction in electricity consumption.
 * 23% reduction in total carbon footprint.[6]

Cleaner Living

 * During construction of BedZED, locally sourced and recycled or reclaimed building materials were prioritized. Roughly 52% by weight of construction materials were sourced within 56 km of the site. Roughly 15% by weight of materials were recycled or reclaimed.[6]
 * 60% of waste by weight is recycled or composted.
 * 86% of BedZED residents buy organic food and 39% grow some of their own food.

One Planet Comparison

 * Sutton currently consumes 5.24 global hectares per person which, if used as a standard for an entire planet’s population, would equate to 2.9 planet’s worth of resources by 2050.
 * The average BedZED member consumes approximately 4.67 global hectares worth of resources. If used as a population standard this would equate to 2.6 planet’s worth of resources by 2050.
 * If the CHP plant was fully operational it is estimated the average BedZED member would consume 3 global hectares worth of resources. Used as a population standard, this would equate to 1.7 planet’s worth of resources by 2050.
 * To reach the one planet sustainability goal for 2050 would require a 66% reduction in resource consumption from the Sutton baseline and a 90% reduction in carbon footprint.[1]

Social Impact
BedZED encourages its residents to adopt sustainable lifestyles, lowering their utility costs and creating a tight, like-minded community. It was designed to be an appealing place to live to promote sustainable living.

Transportation
BedZED was designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from travel by encouraging environmentally-friendly modes of transportation among its residents.

 * The district has 81 car parking spaces, or 0.6 spaces per home, which discourages car ownership.
 * A car club service allows members to rent fuel-efficient, low-emissions hybrid cars parked in the district.
 * Bicycle stands and storage are common throughout the district.
 * The area has ready access to public transport, with three bus routes, a train station, and a tram stop all in the immediate vicinity.[6]

Community
A large part of making an appealing living space is building a strong sense of community among its residents. Design choices of the district serve to encourage neighborliness among those living in the eco-village.

 * The village has many indoor and outdoor community spaces. Residents Lukas and Elaine say: “It’s a bit like living in a village with a great mix of people.”

 * All streets between the housing blocks are traffic-free, encouraging mingling and recreation.
 * The district has a relatively high housing density. This is viewed positively by locals. BedZED residents Tom and Janette say: “Somehow the high density and closeness of residents has been reversed from a negative to a positive.”

 * 84% of residents felt that the community facilities were better here than in previous neighborhood. Resident Jacqui says: “My energy bills are about a fifth of what they were in my previous home.” Residents knew an average 20 neighbors by name. Resident Helen says: “We appreciate ... the community aspect, with lots of people talking to their neighbors”[6]

Conclusion
BedZED is the first attempt at sustainable living in a major housing development. It demonstrates that a large shift towards sustainable living does not require sacrifice or discomfort. Ecologically conservative living is possible but some of the technology and innovations have proved difficult to adopt. BedZED was incapable of limiting resource consumption to a sustainable level to reach the one planet goal, however this project made progress toward reaching this goal. Compared to similarly sized communities, it consumes less resources and operates more sustainably. BedZED provides a concrete example of how society must operate to conform to a spaceman economy.

Further Works
BedZED is a pioneer for large-scale ‘carbon neutral’ communities. It defined the framework for similar communities, and inspired a variety of other sustainable developments.[4] Projects of this nature would not be possible without continual advancements in sustainable technology. For other examples of sustainable communities, see also: Ecovillages

title: Lentis/BedZED


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar)/Group 2/History/History of Education In Uganda/

Historical Background
School education was first introduced in Uganda by British missionaries in 1877, however it was mainly targeted for the children of chiefs and to prepare functionaries for the British colonial government. In other words, the education system was not very inclusive from the beginning. They followed a 7-4-2-3 system (“7 years of primary education, 4 years at Secondary 'O' level, 2 years at Secondary 'A' level and a minimum of 3 years at university level”) with a national examination at the end of each stage. This system was very hierarchical and selective and left many Ugandans illiterate, in fact the literacy rates in 1999 were only 67% according to the Ministry of Education and Sports, and primary education only reached 50% of the age group.

During the post-independence period of the 1960s (post-WW2), Uganda’s education system was actually considered one of the best in East and Central Africa. However, the conflicts that took place between late 1960s till mid 1980s had a negative impact on Uganda’s political, social, economical life - including its education sector. This situation made universalisation of education necessary for achieving economic growth and unity. However, education wasn’t the primary concern in the reconstruction agenda of the post-1986 period, whilst Yoweri Kaguta Musevini was president. Even a decade later, Musevini was still reluctant to commit to a primary education strategy, and prioritised defence and road building expenditures.

Universal Primary Education In Uganda
In 1996, due to the multi-candidate political competition, Mesevini promised to abolish primary education fees. This was met by high public enthusiasm, hence Universal Primary Education became increasingly more emphasised during the 1996 political campaign. Finally in 1997, UPE was established in Uganda. Furthermore, post-election, education became one of the main areas that the public would evaluate government performance.

According to Stasavage, unlike in other African countries, Museveni continued to increase expenditures on education after the election.

Today
Today, Museveni has been in power since 1986,  which is over 30 years. Moreover, UPE policy has been running for 23 years. One would naturally expect a remarkable change in Uganda’s primary education system. However, Uganda still faces high illiteracy and drop-out rates, which suggests significant issues about the implementation and running of this policy.


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User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar)/Group 2/Power/Power of political theories in IR

Although I agree that theories in international relations can be useful in understanding state behaviour and predicting future events, it is also worth looking into constructivism in IR and why it suggests predicting the future of international politics is pointless. Constructivism emerged as a school in international relations only thirty years ago after the existing theories like neorealism and neoliberal institutionalism failed to predict the end of Cold War (Baylis, Smith, Owens, 2017, 145). As an "approach" rather than a "theory" of IR, constructivism puts an emphasis on change. It stresses that the main concern of IR scholars should be the current context of states and the world of international politics, because they can change and behave differently throughout space and time. On the other hand, Bardhok Bashota argues that the tasks of IR theories are to interpret, explain and forecast IR developments (Bashota, 2011, 33). Moreover, Edwin Fogelman also states that IR theories “may aid in prediction” of future IR developments (McClelland, 304). However, constructivism neither strives to predict what will happen in the future, nor does it seek to decompose structures into their individual units and their interactions. It takes into account the complex mix of history, norms, beliefs and ideas when examining state behaviour (Slaughter, 2011). So, although theories in IR are a powerful tool in understanding state behaviour and predicting future developments, as constructivism has proven during the post-Cold War era, they may sometimes be misleading.

Bibliography

Baylis, J. (2017). The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. 7th ed. Oxford University Press. Bashota, B. (2011). The role of theory of international relations in explicating global political events. Iliria International Review, pp.33-45. McClelland, C. (1960). The Function of Theory In International Relations. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 4(3), pp.303-336. Slaughter, A. (2011). International Relations, Principal Theories. In: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford University Press. Zbaykam (discuss • contribs) 01:42, 9 December 2019 (UTC)


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar)/ Group 2/Evidence/Evidence Based Policymaking

What is evidence based policymaking?
Evidence based policy making is “a discourse or set of methods which informs the policy process, rather than aiming to directly affect the eventual goals of the policy”. It offers a more systematic and rational policy making process by advocating that “policy decisions should be better informed by available evidence and should include rational analysis”. It has been seen that this approach has yielded better outcomes. For example, in Tanzania, a reduction of 40% in infant mortality rates was achieved between 2000 and 2003 due to a set of “health service reforms” that were implemented according to the results from household disease surveys. On the contrary, the HIV/AIDS crisis has worsened in some countries, because their governments disregarded the evidence of the causes for the disease.

Issues surrounding evidence based policymaking
There are, however, some problems that face evidence based policies. Firstly, the reliability of the evidence, and how it is used/interpreted by policy makers can vary. Policy makers can use evidence that is only useful for their cause and disregard information that would support the counter-argument. Secondly, the credibility and validity of evidence may be unclear. The lines that distinguish evidence from irrelevant information can be easily blurred which could be misleading. Lastly, the hierarchy of evidence could raise some complications. Usually, hard evidence (statistical, quantitative data) is favoured more by policy makers than soft evidence (qualitative analysis), however this preference can actually create “a risk and a limitation that EBP will in fact be used to ignore evidence that comes low in the hierarchy”.


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User talk:Mathmensch/Archives/2019/September

Community Insights Survey
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Reminder: Community Insights Survey
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Hi ,

A couple of weeks ago, we invited you to take the Community Insights Survey. It is the Wikimedia Foundation’s annual survey of our global communities. We want to learn how well we support your work on wiki. We are 10% towards our goal for participation. If you have not already taken the survey, you can help us reach our goal! Your voice matters to us.

Please take 15 to 25 minutes to give your feedback through this survey. It is available in various languages.

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Sincerely, RMaung (WMF) 19:12, 20 September 2019 (UTC)


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Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power and Pregnancy

Introduction
As the source of human species renewal, pregnancy can be considered the ultimate source of power. However, while it is the female body that is the physical source of this power, a cross-disciplinary examination shows that often it is controlled by, and serves the interests of, individuals, groups, or ideas other than the woman herself.

Power is generally seen as either ‘power over’ or ‘power to’, with diversity within these categories. This chapter approaches the issue from 4 disciplinary perspectives, each with different conceptualisations of power both now and in their past.

Medical History
Physicians exist in a place of hypothetical power over life, as illustrated by the Hippocratic oath, whereby the cultural necessity to believe that physicians are benevolent is underpinned by the potential for harm. This tenuous contract between those who have knowledge and those reliant on it is inescapably reliant on a power imbalance. Pregnant women do not fit into this paradigm: as harbinger of life, they become active subjects, causing a backlash to realign the power dynamics. Doctors take up the role of ‘special bodies of public power’ and ‘institutions of coercion’ in ways bodies like the police cannot. Normally emphasis on the human relationship between the physician and patient curtails this, but when societal status quo is threatened, doctor-patient interpersonal relationships become oppressive, feeding into the discipline as a whole. For example James Marion Sims, the ‘father of modern gynecology’, routinely experimented on pregnant black slaves without anaesthesia or any modern conception of consent. Female slaves’ lack of agency over their high pregnancy rate echoed their lack of cultural or political power as commodities creating more commodities. Sims was a ‘special body’ wielding power over his patients, as the dehumanisation of slaves made the Hippocratic Oath irrelevant. When Sims later operated - with anaesthesia - on white women his work was denounced as invasive, ‘reckless and lethal’, illustrating how the power of pregnancy is contextual. Sims’ techniques allowed the cure of vesico-vaginal fistula. A vaginal speculum and a rectal examination position are named after him.

Biological and Social Evolution
Biological

An understanding of power as physical ability can be applied to the physical and social evolution of human beings. From a medical perspective, the nine month gestation period puts women in a position of physical dependency. The obstetrical dilemma suggests childbirth is more difficult for humans than other species, due mainly to the size of the foetus’ head. Humans are an altricial species: the infant is born neurologically underdeveloped compared to similar species because the mother’s body would not be able to birth a child with a more developed brain. Human childbirth significantly diminishes the mother’s physical power. Furthermore, altricial species are born immobile and helpless, and must be cared for extensively by the mother. The Energetics of Gestation and Growth (EGG) hypothesis contests the obstetrical dilemma by suggesting that women give birth when their body reaches the maximum metabolic rate for survival. While the reasons given are different, both theories claim that childbirth pushes the mother's physical power to absolute capacity.

Social

Studies have shown that historically women’s social status was dependent on how much they could provide for the community. Previously, in hunter-gatherer societies women’s gathering provided three times more calories than men’s hunting, but the Neolithic Revolution lead to settlement and farming, to which male physical strength was more suited. Women were less able to contribute to the production economy, and turned to domestic work.

Settlement, a social phenomenon, may have influenced biological evolution by enabling a carbohydrate-rich diet that altered foetal anatomy to make them shorter and fatter, thus further complicating pregnancy and cementing the male-female division of labour that remains prominent to this day.

Sociology
Arnold Van Gennep described a rites of passage as an individual's journey from a group to another, characterised by the stages of separation, liminality and aggregation. For nine months, the expectant mother inhabits the vulnerable stage of liminality- belonging neither to her old life as a lone individual nor to her new life as a mother.

Sociologists Warren and Brewis researched the distress felt by pregnant women at the lack of jurisdiction over their changing body in the context of the Western obsession with body modification. Calming personal gestures such as touching the pregnant belly can be an expression of a deeper anxiety about personal bodily autonomy, and serve to domesticate a foreign body. The normalisation of others touching the belly, usually a breach of acceptable social behaviour, shows that the baby is already separate from the mother, belonging more to society.

Even before childbirth, the mother is expected to put the interests of the foetus above her own, a principle that extends into motherhood more broadly.

While there has long been a pressure for women to remain attractive throughout their lives, the obsession with getting back into shape postpartum is intense. The Romanisation of pregnancy sells an image far divorced from the heavy physical realities. The sexualisation of pregnancy, such as in photoshoots by Demi Moore are equally glorifying. However, the performative aspect can be both distressing and empowering, considering that in the past women have been completely isolated and deprived of their sexual power.

Political Geography
Historically, pregnancy has been a demographic resource that has been controlled in order to increase a nation’s geographical, material and ideological power. Foucault described such population control techniques as ‘biopower’.

Different economic systems have favoured various types of geopolitical power, while remaining heavily dependent on population The Mercantilist focus on promoting domestic industry lead to major efforts to increase the working population to increase production and gain material power . Writers like Jean Francois Melon proposed population-control measures that were implemented throughout Europe. As well as maximising domestic production, nations used their colonies to provide essential goods, and ensured stability within these by encouraging the growth of the settler population; for instance, shipping young brides across the Atlantic for male settlers. While the immediate gain was material power, settler colonialism ultimately brought geographic power, and permanently changed the ethnic and cultural landscape.

European Communist states sought material power, as success legitimised Communism to the Capitalist world. Most did not regulate fertility, with the exception of Romania and Bulgaria, which issued bans on abortion. However, Romania did not seek autonomy from the West, but from the Soviet Union, after its rejection of internationalism in 1964. The new generation was an experiment in the “political reconstruction of the family”.

Within Western capitalism, it is the relational power between intergovernmental organisations that is increasingly sought-after. The post-industrial shift from the manufacturing sector to the service sector has meant that population growth no longer equals economic growth, marking a sharp decline in economically-driven population control.

Conclusion
Hannah Arendt describes power as something that “springs up” between people and “vanishes when they disperse”. While the above disciplines have wildly different understandings of power, they are all inherently relational. At a fundamental level they concern the relationship between the pregnant mother and the rest of the world, be it be through her gynaecologist, her anatomy, her culture, her society, her identity, or her state.


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LMIs in Control/Matrix and LMI Properties and Tools/KYP Lemmas/Discrete Time

 * Discrete time Bounded Real Lemma
 * Discrete Time KYP Lemma for QSR Dissipative System
 * Discrete Time KYP Lemma with Feedthrough


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LMIs in Control/Matrix and LMI Properties and Tools/Discrete Time

 * Discrete Time H2 Norm
 * Discrete Time Minimum Gain Lemma
 * Modified Discrete Time Minimum Gain Lemma
 * Discrete-Time Algebraic Riccati Equation
 * Discrete-Time Negative Imaginary Lemma
 * Discrete-Time System Zeros with Feedthrough


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Talk:Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Power Over Disney Princesses

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ASstV9xDZTK3dlupJCkb09WLoGNmVBERi3TsDJCEiDs/edit?usp=sharing https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ASstV9xDZTK3dlupJCkb09WLoGNmVBERi3TsDJCEiDs/edit?usp=sharing


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LMIs in Control/pages/Lin Sys Time Delay Stability LMI

LMI Condition For Exponential Stability of Linear Systems With Interval Time-Varying Delays

For systems experiencing time-varying delays where the delays are bounded, the feasibility LMI in this section can be used to determine if the system is $$ \alpha $$-exponentially stable.

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)+Dx(t-h(t)), & t \in \R^+, \\ x(t)&=\phi(t), & t \in [-h_2,0], \end{align}$$

where $$ x(t) \in \R^n $$ is the state, $$ A,D \in \R^{n \times n} $$ are the matrices of delay dynamics, and $$ \phi(t) \in \R^n $$ is the initial function with norm $$ \| \phi \| = sup_{-\bar{h} \leq t \leq 0} \{ \| \phi (t) \|, \| \dot{\phi}(t) \| \} $$ and it is continuously differentiable function on $$ [-h_2, 0] $$. The tyime-varying delay function $$ h(t) $$ satisfies:

0 \leq h_1 \leq h(t) \leq h_2, t \in \R^+, $$

The Data
The matrices $$ (A,D) $$ are known, as well as the bounds $$ (h_1,h_2) $$ of the time-varying delay.

The Optimization Problem
For a given $$ \alpha > 0 $$, the zero solution of the system described above is $$ \alpha $$-exponentially stable if there exists a positive number $$ N > 0 $$ such that every solution $$ x(t,\phi) $$ satisfies the following condition:

$$ \|x(t,\phi)\| \leq Ne^{-\alpha t} \| \phi \|, \forall t \in \R^+ $$

The LMI: $$ \alpha $$-Stability Condition
The following feasibility LMI can be used to check if the system is $$ \alpha $$-exponentially stable or not for a given $$ \alpha > 0 $$:

\begin{align} & \text{Find} \; P,Q,R,U,S_i, \text{ where } i = 1,2,...,5 :\\ & \quad \quad \begin{bmatrix} M_{11} & M_{12} & M_{13} & M_{14} & M_{15} \\ *     & M_{22} &    0   & M_{24} & S_2    \\ *     &   *    & M_{33} & M_{34} & S_3    \\ *     &   *    &    *   & M_{44} & S_4 - S_5D \\ *     &   *    &    *   &   *    & M_{55} \end{bmatrix}<0 \\ & \text{where:} \\ & \quad \quad M_{11} = A^\top P + PA + 2\alpha P - (e^{-2\alpha h_1} + e^{-2\alpha h_2})R + 0.5S_1(I-A) + 0.5(I-A^\top)S^\top_1 + 2Q, \\ & \quad \quad M_{12} = e^{-2\alpha h_1}R - S_2A, \quad M_{13} = e^{-2\alpha h_2}R - S_3A, \\ & \quad \quad M_{14} = PD - S_1D -S_4A, \quad M_{15} = S_1 - S_5A, \\ & \quad \quad M_{22} = -e^{-2\alpha h_1}(Q+R), \quad M_{24} = S_2D + e^{-2 \alpha h_2}U, \\ & \quad \quad M_{33} = -e^{-2\alpha h_1}(Q+R+U), \quad M_{34} = -S_3D + e^{-2 \alpha h_2}U, \\ & \quad \quad M_{44} = 0.5(S_4D + D^\top S_4^\top) - e^{-2\alpha h_2}U, \\ & \quad \quad M_{55} = S_5 + S_5^\top + (h_1^2 + h_2^2)R + (h_2 - h_1)^2U, \end{align}$$

The above LMI can be combined with the bisection method to find $$ \alpha $$.

Conclusion:
For systems with time-varying delays with intervals, the LMI in this section can be used to check if the system is exponentially stable with a certain $$ \alpha $$. The bisection algorithm can be additionally used to compute $$ \alpha $$.

Implementation
To solve the feasibility LMI, YALMIP toolbox is required for setting up the feasibility problem, and SeDuMi is required to solve the problem. The following link showcases an example of the feasibility problem:

https://github.com/smhassaan/LMI-Examples/blob/master/Intervaled_Delay_Sys_Stability_example.m


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IGNOU Question Paper Solutions/MCA/Semester 1/MCS-012 Computer Organization and Assembly language Programming/june 2011

simply the boolean expression


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LMIs in Control/pages/FDI Filter Design

FDI Filter Design For Systems With Sensor Faults: an LMI

Systems with faulty sensors are a very common type of systems. In many cases, redundancy is added in the form of additional sensors, but in certain cases it could be a costly solution. For general linear system models, the LMI in this section can be utilized to design state estimators which can detect and isolate faulty sensor readings in order to mitigate their effects.

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)+B_1w(t) + B_2u(t)\\ y(t)&=Cx(t) + v(t) \end{align}$$

where $$ x(t) \in \R^n $$ is the state, $$ u(t) \in \R^m $$ is the control input, $$ w(t) \in \R^r $$ is the process noise, $$ y(t) \in \R^p $$ is the output and $$ v(t) \in \R^q $$ is the measurement noise.

The Data
The state space matrices $$ (A, B_1, B_2, C) $$ are required to be known.

The Optimization LMI
The following LMI is used to design the Fault Detection and Isolation (FDI) filter:

\begin{align} &\text{min}_{\Phi, \Theta, \gamma} \; \gamma, \\ &\text{subj. to: } \Phi > 0, \\ & \quad \quad \begin{bmatrix} A^\top\Phi + \Phi A + C^\top \Theta^\top + \Theta C & \Phi B_1 & \Theta & I \\ *                                       & -\gamma I & 0 & 0 \\ * & * & -\gamma I & 0 \\ * & * & * & -\gamma I \end{bmatrix} <0\\ \end{align}$$

Then the filter is $$ K = \Phi^{-1} \Theta $$.

Conclusion:
The LMI designed in this section is used to design filters that can work on systems that are prone to sensors getting damaged or faulty.

Implementation
To solve the feasibility LMI, YALMIP toolbox is required for setting up the feasibility problem, and SeDuMi is required to solve the problem. The following link showcases an example of the feasibility problem:

https://github.com/smhassaan/LMI-Examples/blob/master/FDI_Filter_example.m

Related LMIs
H-infinity Optimal Filter

H-infinity Optimal Observer

title: LMIs in Control/pages/FDI Filter Design


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LMIs in Control/pages/LMI for Minimizing Condition Number of Positive Definite Matrix

The System:
A related problem is minimizing the condition number of a positive-defnite matrix $$M$$ that depends affinely on the variable $$x$$, subject to the LMI constraint $$F(x)$$ > 0. This problem can be reformulated as the GEVP.

The Optimization Problem:
The GEVP can be formulated as follows:

minimize $$ \gamma $$

subject to $$ F(x)$$ > 0;

$$\mu$$>0;

$$\mu I $$< $$M(x)$$ < $$\gamma \mu I $$.

We can reformulate this GEVP as an EVP as follows. Suppose,

$$M(x)$$= $$M_0$$ +$$\sum_{n=1}^{m}$$$$x_i M_i $$, $$F(x)$$= $$F_0$$+ $$\sum_{n=1}^{m}$$$$x_i F_i $$

The LMI:
Defining the new variables $$\nu$$=$$1/\mu$$, $$ \tilde{x}$$=$$x/\mu$$ we can express the previous formulation as the EVP with variables $$ \tilde{x},\nu$$ and $$\gamma$$:

miminize$$ \gamma $$

subject to $$\nu F_0$$+ $$\sum_{n=1}^{m}$$$$x_i F_i $$ >0; $$I$$ < $$\nu M_0$$+ $$\sum_{n=1}^{m}$$$$x_i M_i $$ < $$ \gamma I $$

Conclusion:
The LMI is feasible.


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LMIs in Control/pages/Algebraic Riccati Equation

Algebraic Riccati Equations are particularly significant in Optimal Control, filtering and estimation problems. The need to solve such equations is common in the analysis and linear quadratic Gaussian control along with general Control problems. In one form or the other, Riccati Equations play significant roles in optimal control of multivariable and large-scale systems, scattering theory, estimation, and detection processes. In addition, closed forms solution of Riccti Equations are intractable for two reasons namely; one, they are nonlinear and two, are in matrix forms.

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)+Bu(t)\\ \end{align}$$

The Data
Following matrices are needed as Inputs:.

 * $$ A,B,N$$.

The Optimization Problem
In control systems theory, many analysis and design problems are closely related to Riccati algebraic equations or inequalities. Find

The LMI: Algebraic Riccati Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} P>0, \\Q>0, \\ R>0.\\ \text{ The Algebraic Riccati inequality is given by}\;\\ A^T P+PA - (PB+N^T)R^-1(B^TP+N)+Q & \geq 0\\ \\ \text{ can be written using the Schur complement lemma as}\;\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^TP+PA+Q && PB+N^T\\ \star && R\\ \end{bmatrix}& \geq 0 \end{align}$

Conclusion:
If the solution exists, LMIs give a unique, stabilizing, symmetric matrix P.

Implementation:
Matlab code for this LMI in the Github repository:

 * 1) REDIRECT []- CODE


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User:Tomsimone01/sandbox

Truth in environmental science and philosophy:

Environmental Science

What are its truths (if it has any)?

Truth in environmental science is under a lot of controversy [1]. Environmental science aims to study human relationships with the natural environment, and as a result, also aims to tackle the current environmental crisis. However, the shared truth as regarded by environmental scientists is that climate change is unpredictable but it is happening and is heavily influenced by humans. That said, another truth shared by environmental scientists are that humans do have an impact on the climate, and over the last few hundred years, have been overall having a negative impact [2] Other than that general idea, the findings about specific problems can vary largely or minimally but all focus on the truth that humans are negatively influencing the environment and that there must be action taken for humans to either or both adapt and mitigate.

However, these empirical truths shared by scientists and a large majority of the world aren't necessarily considered truth by others.

How does it come to realise/evaluate truth?

Truth in environmental science involves studying the impact changes have on different ecosystems [3]. Although there are multiple types of environmental science, most of them follow the same idea of studying relationships and correlations between physical characteristics of the environment / physical changes in the environment (either human or naturally caused) and it's impact on different species or organisms [4]. This is usually done by looking at trends of different environmental changes, such as atmospheric greenhouse gases [5].

Is truth important to the discipline?

Truth is important to this discipline in terms of actually creating productive change and acting upon the data. As a result, it can eb said that the truth from this discipline is needed to become universally truth.

The shared truths by scientists in this field focuses on the human impact in the environment. However, due to people - especially those in power- preferring their "personal truths" of climate change not being real, being natural, or not being our responsibility, the findings and potential solutions created by this scientists are rendered useless. For example, with all the climate change denial by people in power (such as Donald Trump [6]), there is still a lack of action to combat and the negative impacts and mitigate the causes of climate change, as seen by the Trump administration suing California as they attempt to tackle climate change [7].

Therefore, it can be said that shared truths in this field is imperative in order to make the discipline's findings useful in the real world.

Philosophy

What are its truths (if it has any)?

Truths in philosophy can be defined as claims which are largely accepted by the philosophical community. Of course, the nature of these truths depends largely on the sub-branch of philosophy being considered (e.g. epistemology, aesthetics, ethics, political philosophy etc.,). For example, most members of the philosophical community, and society as a whole, would consider the claim 'killing innocent people is wrong' as objectively and intrinsically true; no matter whether this claim is evaluated through a western, eastern, deontological, or religious philosophical perspective, the conclusion will most likely be the same. However, certain ethical theories could argue the contrary. For example, hedonistic utilitarianism, which argues that the correct moral action is that which brings the greatest amount of pleasure to the greatest number of people Driver, Julia (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/), could justify the killing of an innocent person in order to benefit a larger group. This type of theory is known as a 'consequentialist theory' as it focuses on the outcomes of an action rather than the intrinsic moral nature of the action. Furthermore, descriptive philosophical theories such as moral relativism argue that "moral claims are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint (for instance, that of a culture or a historical period) and that no standpoint is uniquely privileged over all others" Westacott, Emrys (https://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-re/). This means that there are no definite ethical truths and that we should accept this. Thus, to summarize, whether or not there are 'truths' in philosophy largely comes down to which perspective you are taking within the subject area of philosophy.

How does it come to realise/evaluate truth?

Reaching philosophical truths is done through evaluating philosophical claims through the perspective of different philosophical theories. For example, within the sub-branch of political philosophy, most would consider the statement 'governing bodies should always preserve the freedom of their people' as true. No matter whether this claim is evaluated through a utilitarian, libertarian, Kantian, or even arguably a marxist perspective, the outcome generally supports the claim. However, the conclusions these theories offer cannot always be binary (e.g. 'true' or 'false'). While all of the political philosophy theories/perspectives listed may support the preservation of the freedom of a society, they may do so to different extents. One may argue that this effects how true the claim really is, as different philosophers and their theories may have different views on the definition of 'freedom'. At this point, one must accept that semantic litigation is also crucial when evaluating truths in philosophy, on top of the consideration of different philosophical theories.

Is truth important to the discipline?

The answer to this question largely depends on whether or not one views 'Philosophy' as a mere intellectual activity or a subject area with instrumental value. For example, one may argue that the goal of political philosophers is to develop claims and theories which are regarded as 'true' by the philosophical community; in this respect, truth is absolutely crucial to philosophy as the ultimate goal of political philosophy is to discover more about ourselves and the world around us to improve the way we govern countries and communities. On the contrary, one may argue that the outcomes of philosophical activity are far less important than the philosophical activity itself; they may recognize that no claim in philosophy can ever be completely regarded as 'true', unlike other subject areas such as mathematics (we all agree that 1+1=2). In this respect, the 'trueness' of claims in philosophy are not as important as the mental exercise one gains from participating in philosophical activity.

Approaches to Knowledge – Super concepts (Ongoing)

A concept which arises in one discipline and becomes useful in others eventually.

7 super concepts:

System

•	A system is a set of interacting parts which form a complex whole. •	Every system is: delineated by spatial boundaries, surrounded by its environment, described by its structure and purpose, expressed in its functioning. •	Old fashioned definition defined by physical boundaries – now they no longer need to be physical. •	The whole is greater than the sum of its parts •

Fiction

Complexity

Structuralism

Entropy

Deconstruction

Evolution

32489

Chem – bond building and bond breaking Bio – assimilation of nutrients Physics – changing of physical state

Approaches to knowledge lecture – Theories of knowedge

Positive – Objective and realist

Interprative – phenomenological

Constructivist – Social constructionism

Different typologies of truth

Science/engineering etc: Objective, positive, empirical

Social sciences: subjective, normative, relative etc.

Science – Truths are provisional (Only true until proven otherwise) – Or are they? Can we consider truths in science as objective.

Arts/ humanities- ‘

WEEK 2

title: User:Tomsimone01/sandbox


text:
Lentis/Phreaking

The Technology of Phreaking
In the 1960s and 1970s, phone companies relied on a signaling protocol known as in-band signaling. This scheme sent data (i.e. the caller’s voice) and control signals over the same line. Accordingly, should an individual understand and possess to capability to recreate these control signals, they would be able to manipulate the phone system from any user endpoint. This principle is the core foundation of phreaking: the use of tone generators to trick automated phone machines into performing executive operations.

The first manifestation of this principle was in the 2600 hertz tone, which was the control tone of single frequency systems. On any single frequency system, producing a 2600 hertz tone in differing patterns allows one to give various commands to the phone system, including disconnecting a call, inputting numbers, and reconnecting.

A more popular and more complicated system was the multifrequency signaling system, which communicated information by sending pairs of pulses at different frequencies. Although the 2600 hertz tone was still an important signal in this protocol, phreaking a multifrequency system is inherently more challenging. Many of these tones were published in Bell System Technical Journal’s “Signaling Systems for Control of Telephone Switching”.

A tool developed to aid in multifrequency phreaking was the blue box. These devices, the first of which was constructed by Washington State College student Ralph Barclay, produce the multifrequency tones necessary to phreak in a reliable reproducible way.

Budding Interest
Joybubbles, born Josef Engressia, was one of the earliest phreakers. Born blind, Joybubbles had a perfect pitch, allowing him to replicate the precise tones made by the telephone. His curiosity helped him discover ways to maneuver and exploit the phone system. Joybubbles claims his phreaking interest is purely intellectual, saying “I’m not trying to beat the system when I accidentally get an overseas phone call free...I’m just trying to learn”. Early phreakers shared this interest. Often making calls across the world, these pioneers were more concerned with what could be discovered next than trying to exploit the system.

John Draper was one of these pioneers. He earned the nickname Cap’n Crunch for discovering a whistle, found in Cap'n Crunch cereal boxes, that happened to produce the coveted 2600 hz tone used to make free calls. In a manner similar to Joybubbles, he states “I’m not out to screw Ma Bell. I know better. If I do anything it’s for the pure knowledge of the System. You can learn to do fantastic things”. He was one of the most prominent and notorious members of the early phreaking community.

Public Adoption
In October of 1971, Esquire Magazine published the article “Secrets of the Little Blue Box,” an article discussing preaking and featuring John Draper. Introducing phreaking to the masses, this article explained in detail the technology behind phreaking, the way a blue box worked, and how these devices could be used to exploit the phone companies. It also included interviews from many well known phreakers, including both Joybubbles and John Draper (known in the article only by his codename). It even coined the term "phreak". The article exposed the masses to phreaking for the first time, piquing the interest of both a new generation of phreakers and the agencies tasked with regulating them.

Among those captivated by the article included a young Steve Wozniak. Intrigued like many phreakers before him, Wozniak phoned Steve Jobs and excitedly explained what he had read. Together, they found a reference manual that listed telephone frequencies, very similar to the notorious "Signaling Systems for Control of Telephone Switching". After failing to build a blue box from analog tone generators, due to their lack of precision, Wozniak built his own digital blue box, saying “I have never designed a circuit I was more proud of”. The duo would go on to meet John Draper during their days at Berkeley to review blue box designs, and eventually manufactured and sold their blue boxes to their peers. Their activities would be investigated by the FBI, but the boxes were never tied back to them.

Bell
The spread in popularity of phreaking was problematic for Bell System. It cut into their profits, exposed their system to those with nefarious intent, and was incredibly poor publicity. In 1977, AT&T issued an internal memo for their public relations staff, stating that “toll fraud imposes a big financial burden on the telephone industry and honest customers ”. To combat this phenomenon, AT&T sought to increase their capability to detect phone tampering. From 1972-1976, 823 blue boxes were seized and 411 toll fraud convictions occurred. In 1973, Bell contrived a method to detect potential blue box use. When toll free calls were made without showing up on telephone company records, a device could be connected to the line showing if a blue box was being used. This method led the arrest of prominent phreaker Sanford Herschel Kosman.

Regulatory Agency Response
The FBI, as the regulatory agency primarily responsible for the enforcement of federal law, took a keen interest in the activities of phreakers. Especially prompted on by the Esquire article, they sought to discourage use of phreaking techniques and especially the manufacturing and selling of phreaking tools. Additionally, they gave special attention to those most prominent in the phreaking community.

Joybubble’s unique knowledge and abilities made him the subject of many magazine and newspaper articles. This spotlight, however, also exposed him to federal attention. In 1969, the FBI finished an investigation involving “espionage; interception of communication” by Joseph Engressia. In the report, Engressia and a partner admitted to being able to intercept toll calls on Autovon, a highly classified telephone system used by the White House. Joybubbles was not arrested until June of 1971 for “possession of electronic equipment to bypass lawful charges for long distance telephone service.-- Obtained phone service by fraud”. He was fined $10.

More than a year after Joybubble’s arrest, Draper was arrested for “fraud by wire”. He was arrested again in 1976 for toll fraud. In 1978, he was jailed for possession of a red box and other items used to steal communication services. .

Demise
Many factors contributed to the eventual decline of phreaking. The technological fall began in 1976, when Bell System began to convert from in line signaling to Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS). This new system allowed long distance calls to be completed faster and more reliably. However, critically, CCIS “handles key pieces of information about an attempted call on circuits separate from those used for talking”. Therefore, any phone system using CCIS is impervious to traditional phreaking.

These issues were further compounded in 1984 by the Bell System breakup. Under US Antitrust law, Bell System was broken up into 8 constituent companies. This breakup accelerated the change in Bell protocols and infrastructure that had been occurring.

Continued Importance
Though no longer practiced, parallels can be drawn between phreaking and more modern practices such as hacking. The most obvious line of descendence is through phreaking’s role in facilitating early hacking techniques, most famously.

This connection can clearly be seen in the infamous Phrack, which covered phreaking and hacking, sometimes in the same edition. It would lead to be a major cultural force for hackers, publishing seminal articles such as Hacker’s Manifesto and Smashing the Stack for Fun and Profit.

More than just being technologically related, though, the two phenomena have a similar social structure as well. As seen in Hacker’s Manifesto, many early hackers were defined by a strong sense of curiosity towards these new technological systems, similar to the curious group of phreakers previously noted. This pattern is also seen by Dorothy Denning in her own article in Phrak, where she describes hackers as “playing with systems and making them do what they were never intended to do.”. These kinds of hackers now tend to be categorized as white or grey hat hackers.

Of course, not all are satisfied to hack only as an intellectual exercise. Many black hat hackers exist, and execute attacks such as the, hacking systems to exploit them for money or other personal power. These participants align closely with those who used phreaking for personal gain.

As with phreaking, these exploits don’t occur in isolation -- they occur on servers, networks, and infrastructures owned and operated by individuals in corporations, who align closely with the telephone networks of the phreaking era.

These companies continue to be protected by government agencies, who continue to persecute those who exploit systems against their wishes. One such case is that of Anthony Swartz, who in 2010 downloaded nearly 80% of the documents on JSTOR using an unauthorized access point on the MIT network. Swartz subsequently faced heavy charges from the United States Attorney’s Office under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. In 2013, he would commit suicide. His family released a statement describing Swartz’s death as “the product of a criminal justice system rife with intimidation and prosecutorial overreach” -- a sentiment which has only grown in recent years.

In these ways the social dynamics of modern hacking align closely with those of phreaking, and as the groups are motivated largely by powerful feelings such as curiosity and self-preservation, it seems likely that whatever culture arises from hacking in the coming decades may also follow a similar set of dynamics and groups as well.

title: Lentis/Phreaking


text:
Lentis/Small Island Countries and Sea Level Rise

Introduction
Global warming and climate change have significant consequences, one of which is rising sea levels. This rise in sea level is attributed mainly to melting glaciers and ice sheets, as well as the thermal expansion of the water as its temperature increases. Each year from 2006 to 2015, global mean sea level rose by 3.6 millimeters, more than twice the average rate of the previous century. With current trends, over the next eighty years, global mean sea level is conservatively projected to rise a third of a meter above what it was at the start of the century, but could even rise 2-3 meters. This is particularly dangerous for small island states, such as the Maldives which has an average ground elevation of only 1.5 meters above sea level. President Mohamed Nasheed of the Republic of Maldives expressed the gravity of this crisis as he spoke to the UN Chronicle in 2009: “...with a sea-level rise of over 1.5 metres, hundreds of millions of people would be dead. They would simply be wiped out.”

Vulnerability of Small Island States
Small island states are among the most vulnerable areas to accelerated sea-level rise for many reasons. Because of the small land area of these islands, they already have significantly limited resources to address existing environmental problems of rampant population growth and overdevelopment, which makes it even more difficult to address land submergence, coastal erosion, increased storm flooding, and high water tables caused by rising sea levels. The high coastline-to-land-area ratio, additionally, forces agricultural lands, infrastructure, and residences to be located along the coasts. Thus rising sea levels are especially damaging to the economies and societies of these small island states. Furthermore, freshwater supply of these islands are also limited to mainly groundwater sources and rainfall, and groundwater sources are vulnerable to salinization as the sea water rises.

Recent Measures
The Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) is an intergovernmental organization of small island states that aims to mitigate climate change, conserve the ocean, and achieve sustainable development. . 39 of 44 AOSIS states are UN members, giving them a platform to voice their concerns about the rising sea levels on a broader scale. The Small Island States Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) pathway was adopted at the UN Conference on small island developing states (SIDS). The SAMOA pathway outlines the steps necessary for SIDS to achieve sustainable development by 2030, while also highlighting the roadblocks that climate change and sea level rise pose. The SAMOA pathway successfully achieved international support, obtaining over 300 partnerships.

On 23 September 2019, at the UN Climate Action Summit in New York, countries discussed means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to meet the aims of the 2016 Paris Agreement. The central aim of the Paris agreement is to "strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius." Initially, UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres estimated that around 60 countries would enhance their emission commitments and increase their support for the populations most vulnerable to climate change, especially SIDS.

Three days before the summit, an estimated four million participants across 150 countries engaged in a global climate strike in an attempt to pressure countries into meeting their emission goals. The strikes first began in the Pacific Islands, where protesters urged wealthier nations to increase their efforts in combating the rising sea level; student protesters in Kiribati were heard chanting: "We are not sinking, we are fighting." Greta Thunberg, a 16 year old climate activist, sailed across the Atlantic to speak at the summit in New York. She criticized countries that are not on track to meet their emission goals: “You have stolen my dreams and my childhood with your empty words." Her speech gained widespread media attention and helped inspire a second wave of protests four days later.

Although many countries increased their 2016 commitments by the end of the summit, further emission reductions are still needed to reach the goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees C. Small Island Developing States collectively pledged to achieve 100% renewable energy by 2030, and a zero-carbon economy by 2050. In contrast, some of the world’s top greenhouse gas emitters declined to make comparable changes. China refused to increase their Paris agreement commitments. India pledged to enhance their renewable energy capacity by 2022, but did not pledge to reduce coal use. The US, who opted out of the Paris Agreement in June 2017, declined to speak at the event.

Political Challenges to Small Island States
Sea level rise disproportionately threatens small island states compared to larger nations who contribute more to the changing climate. Major climate change contributors, like the United States, outpace SIS’s like Grenada thousands of times over in tons of greenhouse gases emitted each year. This disparity between those contributing to sea level rise and those suffering from its consequences has challenged SIS’s in enacting policy that can reduce the future effects of rising seas.

SIS’s tend to have lower populations and generate much lower GDP than their counterparts in climate change discussion.List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal) The total population of all small island states is about 65 million, and their GDPs tend to rank in the bottom 20% of UN-recognized countries.The poverty of SIS’s means fewer bargaining chips to use in international policy talks. With lower bargaining power, small island states struggle to effectively push policy that may restrict the industrial power of larger countries. The result has been an emphasis on adaptive policy when it comes to sea level rise, rather than proactive. Large countries like the United States, who already provide financial support to impoverished SIS’s, have pledged aid in the event of disaster brought about by sea level rise. Small island states are working to tip the scale towards proactive measures on a global scale, due to the fact that this would involve large scale changes to industrial processes that are large contributors to the GDPs of large countries.

Small island states generally rely on tourism as a large contributor, if not the largest contributor to their economies. This has created a reluctance to go on, as Dessima Williams, the UN representative for Grenada describes it, “a crusade around the world,” for fear that attention brought to the threat sea level rise poses to SIS’s will lead to decreased revenue from tourism by scaring away customers. Many small island states, including Grenada, are also former colonies, and maintain good relationships with former imperial rulers. SIS governments fear that drawing attention to issues of sea level rise and climate change may threaten these international relationships.

In order to enact proactive policy that will be enforced at an international level, SIS’s are using technology to build a case for the risks of sea level rise, and banding together in organizations like AOSIS, which allow them to effectively pool their international policy bargaining chips. Fiji and the Solomon Islands are working with Catapult Satellite applications using funds from the British International Partnership Programme to develop more quantitative measures of sea level rise effects on coastlines. While this technology has the potential to sway policy if severe enough consequences can be drawn from the data, satellite imaging and topographical computer modeling are expensive high-level technologies out of reach for many SIS’s without international funding.

Inevitability
In a 2019 journal from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, it was established that climate change occurs on timescales “ from decades to millennia.” This journal suggests that sea level rise as a result of climate change is already certain, but that changes now to emissions may slow the rate at which the consequences of climate change arise.

Future extensions of this chapter may consider expanding upon the studies of sea level rise and the severity of its consequences, such as the 2016 study by MIT.