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Mundeze/Grammar/Summary

Phonology
The writing system used is the latin script *, except for Q and X. Here are the letters and their equivalent in the IPA:

In Mundeze, there is a nearly one-to-one correspondence of letter to sound.

 * There is a proposal for a new alphabet alongside the latin script: the alfare.

The stress always falls on the syllable preceding the grammatical ending, so generally on the last syllable of the word root.

More info

Syntax
The allowed word order typologies are SVO and OSV.

Mundeze is a head-final language (the complements precede its head) and it uses prepositions.

Mundeze can be spoken with ellipsis. That means that parts of the sentence may be omitted, if the context is clear.

(titie si bankatake; voy daví ola voya pagile na me = This is a bank robbery; give me all your money!)
 * Example : tie atake; daví ola pagile = That — attack; give all money

More info

Gender and number
– Mundeze doesn’t distinguish between masculine and feminine nouns. Gender is indicated by the prefix ba- (masculine), ma- (feminine) and za- (genderqueer).

 * Example : te = human /  ba te = man /  ma te = woman

– To put a noun in the plural form, you can add a –y at the end of the word (after -e), but it is not mandatory.

 * Example : bi amigey (two friends) = bi amige (two friends)

– Adjectives and adverbs show no agreement.

Parts of speech
In Mundeze, all words have an invariable root, the radical, from which you can form substantive, verb, adjective and adverb.

The nouns end in -e, verbs in -i, adjectives in -a and adverbs in -o.

Example with “pel-” (to speak)
 * pele: speech
 * peli: to speak
 * pela: oral, verbal, speaking
 * pelo: orally, verbally

More info

Pronouns
– The personal pronouns are:
 * me (I, me)
 * tu (you)
 * lo (he, she, him, her, it)
 * noy (we, us)
 * voy (you)
 * ley (they, them)

There is also ane (one -indefinite pronoun). It is of course possible to specify the gender, adding the appropriate prefix:  ma lo = she

– The adjectives and possessive pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival suffix -a to the pronoun: tu a  = your, yours

More info

Articles
There is no article. However, the indefinite nature can be indicated with the adjective ya (some, any), just like definite nature can be indicated using adjectives like tia (that).

More info

tabula-leksey
Mundeze uses a system inspired by the “tabel-vortoj” of Esperanto to easily produce correlatives and other function words.

More info

Conjugation
Verb conjugation is done optionally with adverbs:
 * pretempo or preo: for the past
 * nutempo or nuo: for the present
 * postempo or poso: for the future

There are also 3 adverbs to precise aspect. They are placed just before the verb:
 * jo: for an accomplished action = perfect aspect
 * so: for an ongoing action = progressive aspect
 * vo: for a planned action = prospective aspect

The jussive mood (imperative) is obtained by placing the stress on the last syllable, the one of the verbal ending.

Example with “pel-” (to speak)
 * noy peli = We speak
 * noy pretempo peli = We spoke
 * noy vo peli = We are going to speak
 * preo noy vo peli = We were going to speak
 * noy pelí = Let’s speak

More info

Interrogative
To form a question (direct or indirect), you can either add “ki” (interrogative particle) at the beginning or end of the clause, or use interrogative words (which are also at the beginning or end of the clause). Interrogative words can be preceded by a preposition.

 * Examples:

 ki lo nyami? / lo nyami ki ? = Does he eat? – ha, lo nyami = Yes, he eats. – ne, lo guli = No, he drinks.  kias lo ne nyami? / lo ne nyami kias ? = Why doesn’t he eat? – as lo ne gwiri = Because he is not hungry.  kie tu nyami? / tu nyami kie ? = What do you eat? – me nyami apole = I eat an apple. kon kian tu nyami? / tu nyami kon kian ? = With whom do you eat? – me nyami kon mea basere = I eat with my brother. me tsivoli ki lo nyami / me tsivoli, lo nyami ki  = I wonder if she eats. me tsivoli kie lo nyami / me tsivoli (ti) lo nyami kie  = I wonder what she eats.

Negative and affirmative
To form a negative sentence, we just add “ne” (no, not) before the word we want to negate. To emphasize an affirmative sentence, we just add “ha” (do, yes, indeed) before the word we want to emphasize.

Example
 * me ne kanti = I don’t sing
 * ne me kanti = I am not the one who sings
 * me ha kanti = I do sing
 * ha me kanti = I am really the one who sings

More info

Morphology
In Mundeze, we can easily create new words by combining roots, using juxtaposition. The root is the part of a word that precedes the grammatical ending. For example, in buke (book) the root is buk-, and the -e is the grammatical ending that indicates a noun.

Mundeze is a head-final language, which means that the head precedes its complements. That applies to the words order at the sentence level, but also to word composition (for compound words using more than one lexeme)

 * Examples

From anar.e (group) and of.e (work), we can create:

 * anarofe (anar–of.e) = group work
 * ofanare (of–anar.e) = working group

More info

In Mundeze, root agglutination allows to create many words, but almost all morphemes have a meaning by their own, so it is almost possible to use Mundeze like an isolating language.

For example, the locative morpheme en (in, at…) can be used as follows:
 * Locative preposition:  en dome (at home)
 * Verb:  en i (to be located in/at, to stand in/at)
 * Noun:  en e (place, location)
 * Locative suffix: pan en e (bread’s place = bakery)
 * Locative relative pronoun: premí en ayifi (press where it hurts)
 * Locative morpheme: ki en , ti en  (where, there)

Even grammatical endings have a meaning when isolated:
 * swel a energie (solar energy) = energie a swele (energy of the sun)
 * tu hwink o nyami (you eat “pigly“) = tu nyami, o hwinke (you eat like a pig)
 * cesí buk e  (take a book) / cesí, e tu voli (take what you want)
 * fob a myawe (a frightened cat) = myawe, a fobi (a cat who is afraid)
 * me analiz i  (I’m analysing) = me i analize (I’m doing an analysis)
 * etc.

title: Mundeze/Grammar/Summary


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User talk:Djunito

Welcome!
Welcome, Djunito!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 02:41, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Djunito


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Transportation Geography and Network Science/Last mile problem

Definition
Last mile is defined as a term to refer the movement of passenger or goods from a transportation hub to the final destination in transportation planning and supply chain management. The last mile is also used in the telecommunications industry as the connecting between the main telecommunication network and individual homes. The last mile problem has become an important study filed with the significant growth of business to consumer deliveries due to the development of e-commerce industry. The challenges to solve the last mile problem includes efficiency and infrastructure improvement, transparency ensure, and cost minimize.

History
The last mile problem was firstly raised in the telecommunications industry to refer the difficulty to connect individuals’ home and business with the main telecommunication network. The wire or cable used by the end user is the last mile of the network connection. To ensure connections of all end users, the installation and maintenance of the last mile cable and infrastructure is inevitable which leads to a large amount of work and high cost distributed to end users. The supply chain management also has to face the last mile problem. In the initial transportation phase of freight networks, parcels will be delivered to a central hub, in this stage ships, planes and large trucks can be used for the delivery which is cheap and efficient. After the parcels arrives at the central hub, they will be delivered to each individual consumer by using of smaller trucks since consumers are widely distributed in the city which causes the high cost in the last mile delivery. Similarly, this problem is also existing in transportation networks as the difficulty for passengers to reach their final destination from airports or train station and generally has an inefficiency and high cost in the last mile travel.

The related problems and solutions in last mile
Transporting goods with using of container ships and freight rail networks is generally the cheapest and the most efficient way. However, since the goods have to be delivered to the final destination, the transportation of goods from freight station to the consumers have to use smaller vehicles and deliver them one by one manually, which is less efficient and occupied the 41% of the total cost of the goods transportation even through the last mile deliveries have a relative short distance to transport. There are also some related problems in last mile delivery. One of the typical problems is transporting goods to the area need of humanitarian. The transportation of goods and supplies are emergence, however, the distribution of the goods from a central transportation hub to the affected area are difficult due to damaged road by a natural disaster. In addition, the unattended package is another challenge in last mile delivery. Many shipping companies tend to leave parcels unattended outside the building if the receiver cannot be contacted, which leads to the risk of occurring of steals and parcel damage due to the exposedness under weather. The application of smart lockers is one of the solutions for this issue, which is designed to keep packages until customers collect them. This approach cannot only protect the missing and damage of the attended parcels but also allow companies to deliver them to one location instead of distributing them to each individual home. Some companies also provide optional choice to customers to pick up parcels from the stores.

In transportation networks, many passengers might also have difficulty to access a transportation hub from their starting points, which is referred as the first mile problem. The land-use pattern of the United States has showed the movement of jobs and residents to lower-density suburbs which cannot be completely covered within walking distance by public transportation networks. In most of time, passengers tend to drive to reach those areas instead of taking public transportation, which aggravates the reliance of people on private cars and causes the growth of pollution, traffic congestion and urban sprawl. Shared mobility is a main solution for the last mile problem in transportation networks which has been widely adopted in the world. The shared mobility system allows transit in low-density areas become practical, since passengers can easily access sharing stations near transportation hub to using sharing bikes or cars to travel to their final destinations instead of walking.

Typologies of last-mile deliveries
According to Roel Gevaers, this typology was developed to describe and analyze the characteristics of the last-mile deliveries by classifying sub-flows of the last mile. According to the different deliver types and order fulfillment, the typology is divided into four sub-types: semi-extended supply chains, decoupled supply chains, full extended supply chains and centralized supply chains. The fully extended supply chain referred the traditional delivery method which pick up goods from retail stores and deliver them directly to each customer. The semi-extended use stores for goods picking which is the same as the fully extended supply chain, however, the reception is indirect which requires customers to collect goods from stores or collection points. The centralized extended supply will also directly deliver goods to customers’ homes; however, the whole delivery process will consist two stages. The goods will be distributed to the distribution center in each area first with using of large trucks, and then deliver them to individual customer, which is efficient to reduce cost of the last mile deliver. The application of smart lockers is a typical decoupled supply chain method, goods will first be delivered to lockers settled in each area and allow customers to pick it up by themselves. It is a feasible solution for the last mile problem which decrease the delivery cost for companies and guarantee the convenience of customers to receive goods at meanwhile.

The case study of the usage of smart lockers
The smart lockers have witnessed a quick development during these years driven by the growth of online retailing industry. Based on incomplete industry statistics, there is more than 2000 smart locker stations settled in Shenzhen, a southern city in China. A few market stakeholders are competing for the local market share in the last mile delivery industry, among them, Sposter and eStation are the fore runners. The figure below shows the geographical distribution of locker stations in Shenzhen, the circle and rectangle spots present the locations of installed locker stations of two brands, and the colors in each area from dark to light present the local population from high to low. Tt can be clearly observed that the density of installed locker stations is much higher in central areas with high population density then suburb areas However, as the demand of lockers in central area gradually become saturation. Some brands turn to the communities in suburbs area because the local residents tend to purchase a larger range of items from online retailers due to the undesirable commercial environments in suburb. Moreover, the insufficient of delivery service and the large scale of streets in suburb lead to willingness of delivery men to pay the usage fee for avoiding unnecessary waiting time and delivering more goods. The more vacant space for installing locker stations also increase the commercial potential of smart lockers in usage of suburb areas.

Transit-oriented development
Transit-oriented development (TOD)is another solution for the last mile problem in urban planning phrase which is aiming to improve the symbiotic relationship between compact urban form and public transport by maximizing the amount of business, residential and communal facilities within walking distance of public transport. The figure below shows the basic concept of the TOD community. The transit station (such as light rail or bus stop and a train station) is centrally located and surrounded by high density and mix used residential and commercial areas. 600 meters are considered as an appropriate scale for pedestrians, and the TOD communities are designed to locate within the range from a transit station. A TOD city is referred the urban pattern which consists a number of TOD communities built on the transit line. The key characteristics of a TOD community can be included as walk-able, compact and center of a destination. The center of a destination means a transit center with divers and mixed-use development. Compact and Walk-able refer to the high density of land use near a transit center and a friendly pedestrian environment provided by a TOD community which is helpful to reduce people’s reliance on private cars due to the last mile problem and slow urban sprawl.


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History of video games/Early games/Dr. Nim

History
Dr. Nim was a mechanical consumer computed dedicated to playing a single computer game released in the 1960's.

Technology
Dr. Nim can play against a human opponent, or it can play against itself. Dr. Nim also had a difficulty setting between perfect play which was between un-winnable without cheating, and winnable.

Dr. Nim uses a special board and 18 marbles for operation.


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User talk:HMaloigne/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 17/Truth

Truth in Suicide Prevention
Hey guys, I realised I'd forgotten to make a discussion page after I'd added my contrib "Truth in suicide prevention". Please leave a message underneath if you have any comments regarding my piece. Thanks in advance :) BASc to the future (discuss • contribs) 10:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

 * You should really look up the Durkheim as an example here. the sociological research of suicide by Durkheim and how it links with social institutions may add a unique perspective to your contribution!Kyoshiwarrior (discuss • contribs) 22:53, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Kyoshiwarrior

 * I think the 'Truth in suicide prevention' contribution is really clear and concise, includes theoretical approaches and statistical evidence in a really well integrated way. You could capitalise the title perhaps, and could potentially consider including the statistics regarding women's attempts at suicide surpassing rates of men's attempts - might be interesting! From 11er467va

 * I agree with the above, I think it aptly describes the current issues in data collection of suicide, I did think it may be interesting to look into how the definition of "suicide" could potentially impact the numbers collected, i.e. would euthanasia be considered suicide in some cultures and could this change the perception of suicide occurrences? Not sure if one could define the "Truth" of a subject on how it is define? Brokentelevision2020 (discuss • contribs)

 * That's a very interesting point you bing up. I'll have a look if I can find more on the definition of suicide! Thanks. BASc to the future (discuss • contribs) 09:57, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

 * It would certainly be interesting to investigate why the ratio attempted/succesful suicides is so different between the genders. I recall (from general knowledge) that males tend to choose for more violent suicide methods. I'll have a look if I can incorporate that, but I'm running low on available word count. Thanks for your comment. BASc to the future (discuss • contribs) 09:57, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Thanks for your comments. I have now incorporated BrokenTelevision2020's comment on the definition of suicide in the positivist truth section.I also added a bit on traditional suicide in Japan as a social construct in the constructivist truth part. BASc to the future (discuss • contribs) 14:42, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

I just updated bits of my contribution. I still have to add two more sub points. I would love input as this is the first time I've kinda gone crazy with the assignment. Let me know :) Thanks! Kyoshiwarrior (discuss • contribs) 22:49, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Kyoshiwarrior

Truth in Astronomy: the Approach to Black Holes

 * The astronomy contribution was really informative to someone with no knowledge of the subject! I really like that you've chosen a discipline with an empirical emphasis with regard to truth to illustrate two approaches in discovering it. I noticed one typo where you've added a singular 's' when it should be without ('bends'), and perhaps the need for a comma after 'not even photons of light'? From 11er467va
 * Thank you, I didn't see them indeed. These are going to be corrected now. --Kuramae (discuss • contribs) 22:12, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

 * I really liked this contribution, I found the observational approach of defining something not by "what it is" but perhaps by "what it isn't" very interesting, being that the black hole is only visible by what is around it (i.e. not itself). Brokentelevision2020 (discuss • contribs)
 * Thank you for your opinion, I appreciate it.--Kuramae (discuss • contribs) 22:12, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Truth and the Media
I like how you first explained the three different types of truth theory in media and then gave a specific example of it. It was very clear to understand. I corrected some minor typo mistakes. I saw that there is currently only one reference available in the last section, will other sources be added to it later on?--Kuramae (discuss • contribs) 22:53, 5 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I have added the other citations as well. Kyoshiwarrior (discuss • contribs) 19:17, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Kyoshiwarrior

Truth in Ethnography
I really liked this contribution. I have one interesting thing maybe you could look up and incorporate.A lot of cultural and anthropological studies are often labeled 'ethnocentric'. This is when someone evaluates another culture according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.Maybe including that bit would really round up your contribution. Kyoshiwarrior (discuss • contribs) 17:08, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Kyoshiwarrior

General comments
I've gone over some minor typo's in pieces (missing ".", double spacing, etc.), and fixed the consistency of in-text citations. Also removed double references from the reference list (see one of the other discussion pages why). BASc to the future (discuss • contribs) 12:59, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Truth in law
I added my part on truth in law if you have any advice don't hesitate. I know this is very last minute... Uclqmtr (discuss • contribs) 01:24, 10 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I like how you've shown how the concepts of truth and justice clash in law. I also like how you've linked the theory of truth to a specific form of law as well as recognised there is some subjectivities of truth in testimonies too. Kyoshiwarrior (discuss • contribs) 16:35, 10 November 2020 (UTC)Kyoshiwarrior


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/February 26

Today in 2019 UNESCO published the Paris Call.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 7

Today in 2018 the Software Heritage archive held its official opening ceremony at the UNESCO.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 7


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/December 28

Today in 1969 Anna Torvalds started Linus Torvalds. He started Linux, the best-known free software project. For decades he maintained a leading role as its “benevolent dictator for life”. While not being the nicest collaborator, he coordinates the group of opinionated male kernel hackers putting to use some leadership training that he had gotten in the military.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 23

Today in 1995 the C++-like programming language Java was first released to the public. Java had enabled operating system independent software and became very popular and influential, while the necessary execution environment remained closed source for years (the “Java trap”). Google’s Android is based on Java technology and incited Oracle to buy up Sun and start dismantling it, mainly to leverage Java in a lawsuit in the hope of getting a share of the profits from Android.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 23


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 31

Today in 1994 Peter H. Salus published A Quarter-Century of Unix, a landmark work on the history of Unix.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 31


text: User talk:2409:4064:386:D0DA:C5EF:B13A:31BF:D22


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User talk:Yangziyi970611

The last mile problem
Let's be completely clear. It is out of scope and will be deleted soon unless you explain which book it is supposed to be part of - thanks. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 09:22, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yangziyi970611


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User:DavidL/common.css

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User:HMaloigne/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 15/Truth

Perceiving personal truths in Theatre
Many playwrights and directors use theatre to provide an effective instrument for audiences to understand and interpret their impression of truths. In conveying truths, theatre does not always mirror reality. Many practitioners create an immersive experience through which people can engage with and experience truths directly and personally (with the knowledge that prior experiences influence perception). A constructed reality plays on stage, where both the actors and scenic elements provide a bridge between the audience's existence and the fictitious story.

Work in theatre arts utilises perceiver truths, which lends playwrights and practitioners the freedom to express personal truths. For example, Robert Lepage is a Canadian theatre practitioner who places a focus on sharing truth in his work. He often explores themes such as memory, identity and self-discovery, which reflect his experiences having grown up in a culturally mixed environment through multimedia and characterisation. Lepage's practices in devising theatre places focus on internal truths, such that he constructed the concept of the Alter Ego, a character who projects aspects of the actors private-self on stage to act as an instrument in conveying the truth. Yet, the concept of the alter ego also acknowledges the subjectivity of truth - that it forms out of perception. According to Lepage, this character has a simplicity to them, so that many audiences may personally identify with their psychological journey throughout the play, as well as gain insight into Lepage's exploration of his truths. LePage's notion of the alter ego is a powerful example of how theatre may provide a medium through which personal truths can be explored, conveyed and experienced by the audience and practitioners alike.

Truth in the portrayal of schizophrenia in media
Schizophrenia is a long-term mental illness in which a person will experience a disturbance in their pattern of thinking, beliefs and emotions. Sufferers may experience visual or auditory hallucinations; however, symptoms can extend beyond this. People with schizophrenia may appear to have lost touch with reality, which often causes them distress.

Schizophrenia is often misrepresented in the media despite it affecting a large proportion of the population worldwide. In spite of this, the media continues to reinforce false stereotypes facing those with schizophrenia. From 1990 to 2010, 80% of main characters in 40 films who were schizophrenic were violent and nearly 1/3 were homicidal. These figures show the extensiveness of the depictions of those suffering with schizophrenia as violent and a threat and hence the criminalization of schizophrenics in society. In reality, this is rare, and violence is usually directed inwards as it was estimated only 10-15% exhibit violent behaviour. Additionally, in ¼ of the movies and films chosen, the person suffering with schizophrenia committed suicide as well as there being an emphasis on medication. Some notable examples of schizophrenia in film and tv shows are Nightbreed (1990) and Better Call Saul (2015).

In reality, many cope with schizophrenia and mange to live normal lives through the use of therapy and/or antipsychotics, however, coping with this mental illness is rarely portrayed in film or TV. Comparing real life statistic with those in films and tv shows some obvious disparities. It is estimated that roughly 30 murder cases in the UK are committed by those suffering with schizophrenia every year. Comparing this with the full figure of roughly 600 murders in the UK per year, this does not support the exaggeration of homicidal tendencies of those with schizophrenia.

Poetic Truth
When talking about truth, we usually think about factual, proven truths. But what about the truth of a feeling or an impression? Talking about truth in social studies and humanities is already complicated as it cannot rely on hard quantitative facts and is often biaised by opinion or drawn to a certain conclusion, but it is does not face the problem of integrating feelings to the description of a certain truth.

Can we say that something one feels on a given moment in certain circumstances is a truth? It is to the person who represents its impressions, and it might be to someone relating to it. The writer who does its best to translate his emotional experience into words is illustrating something that he lived in reality and his reaction to it, which are things that happened in reality, so he's writing about truth. In an interview, Anne Sexton said "When I'm working for a poem, I hunt for the truth... it might be a poetic truth, and not just a factual one", explaining that a "poetic truth", inspired by an event in one's life, does not need to take in account everything related to the subject to successfully depict "truthfully" what the writer has felt as he went through it. Sometimes, some works of art can even add or remove some facts to get closer to the true emotional experience :"Many of my poems are true, line by line, altering a few facts to get the story at its heart"

Truth in novels
The act of writing fiction requires creating the world of the novel. This world may or may not be based on the ‘real world’, and the ‘objective’ facts therein. However, it is understood that the world of the novel is indeed real and true, at least within the bounds of the covers.

In the case of science fiction or children’s literature, for example, readers may often have to suspend their disbelief. The truths found in the Harry Potter series were created by JK Rowling for and within the world of the novels themselves. When reading Harry Potter, the vast majority of readers would agree that although flying on broomsticks is of course not true, within the bounds of the novel it feels true, and is actually objectively true for the characters and the world of the novel. Novelists are, of course, human beings. Naturally, they draw from their own experiences, and arguably it would be quite impossible to entirely separate the act of imagination from the ‘real world’ of objective truths, since it is this real world from which novelists draw upon to create the truths found in their work. As writer and creative teacher Julia Cameron puts it in her bestselling work The Artist’s Way: “In order to create, we draw from our inner well.”

Take, for example, George Orwell, who in his prose takes a reality of the real world, often a political reality, and explores this truth through the aesthetic form of prose writing. As he says himself, “I write because there is some lie that I want to expose, some fact to which I want to draw attention”. Thus when reading George Orwell’s novels, it may sometimes be difficult for readers to make the distinction between the facts and truths presented in his prose, and the facts and truths of the real world, since his literary world is a symbol, a representation, of the real world.

In this way, the literary world could be said to be like a map for the real world, a map of words, symbols and images.

As Virginia Woolf puts it: “remote and extravagant as some of Shakespeare’s images seem… at the moment of reading they seem the cap and culmination of the thought: it’s final expression.” She goes on to express how the enjoyment of the reader “depends upon the exactitude and truth of the image, on its being the counterpart of the reality within.” The image, a construct, a non-fact, is thus a reflection of some real truth, be it a historical fact or a subjective truth we’ve experienced.

Truth in Mathematical and Philosophical Logic
Mathematical logic plays an active role in the understanding computer science and metamathematics. The logic here helps determine what is true in terms of propositions that make a logical equation, or statement. Propositions are the components of the equation, and may be either true or false. The concepts of truth is limited to what can and cannot be determined in following a set of rules. The terms of logic that are used to understand whether something is true or false are called the 'Truth values'; conjunction, disjunction, negation, and conditional.

Examples of the different types of logical understandings and statements are:

Implication : If James is at the tennis courts, then James is playing tennis.

Converse: If James is playing tennis, then James is at the tennis courts.

Inverse: If James is not at the tennis courts, then James is not playing tennis.

Contrapositive: If James is not playing tennis, then James is not at the tennis courts.

These statements can also be written in propositional logic with each propositional letter being representative of a statement.

Implication $$A \Rightarrow B $$

Converse $$B \Rightarrow A $$

Inverse $$\urcorner A \Rightarrow \urcorner B $$

Contrapositive$$\urcorner B \Rightarrow \urcorner A $$

Although these rules must carry in mathematics, it is important to note is that the formation of knowledge does not need true propositions, to make truthful conclusions. .

Syllogisms also determine valdity of logical statements, but not necessarily whether something can be considered "true". This complicates the mathematical understanding of truth but only by separating what can be mathematically proven as valid and what can be proven as true. A syllogism demonstrates this by showing that a logical conclusion may not always be a true one, however it may very well be valid. .

For example:

all cats have whiskers

James is not a cat

therefore James does not have whiskers.

In this formation of knowledge, something is either true or it is false. The binary is set and can be proven by logical theory and whether they follow the predetermined axioms.

In computer science, the binary is extended further into coding and the theories of logic govern whether something is possible to be coded. If one code follows logically after another and can be processed by this theory, then it is true. Similarities exist within philosophical logical fallacies like Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc; which highlights ideas of causality, much like the examples of logic above, it presents an idea of implication. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc loosely means that because B came after A then A caused B.

For example:

The Boston Red Sox win (B) every time I rub my good luck charm (A), therefore rubbing my good luck charm (A) makes the Boston Red Sox win (B).

These fallacies form the basis for some epistemological arguments within philosophy and extend into other disciplines like computer sciences and mathematics, as we have just seen. This logic can be explained mathematically and in some cases result in the formation of a true statement, not just a valid one. Now the analysis of this fallacy by Robert Pinto questions the accuracy of this fallacy in the production of truth, when causation is implied and not analysed. The natural sciences would question this production of truth and ask whether the correlation means causation.

The formation of truth in these disciplines is dependent on logic which then determines what is possible and what is impossible. These relationships between mathematical logic and epistemology's logical fallacies demonstrate a mirror or realist approach to truth, as they understand these fallacies to be following the constraints of reality and the observed/ empirical world. However, in response to the logic that contributes to the formation of knowledge in these disciplines, other aspects of philosophy question the reality that has formed these axioms of understanding. Such as the phenomenological philosophies, questioning our ability to actually observe reality outside of the structure of the world we have created Therefore the question for logic is: how do you know you are constructing truth on the basis of these axioms if the observation of reality might be subjective? Does the truth of reality exist outside our own perceptions and therefore do these logical understandings only demonstrate the truths we have created for ourselves?

Truth in Political Science and Brexit
Post-truth is now commonly used by academics in political science denoting instances in which emotions take precedence over what people believe instead of objective truths. Some political scientists believe that post-truth politics played an crucial part in the UK's decision to leave the European Union.

The two main factors which led to post-truth politics playing a greater role in public discourse during the EU referendum include the increasing use of technology (the democratization of truth) and an erosion of public trust in institutions that uphold knowledge. For example, technology, especially in the form of social media had allowed people to get their news from 'non-traditional' sources; the opportunity for anyone to share information online often undermined the accuracy of these claims. 126,000 twitter stories from tweets by 3 million people were analysed and it was found that false stories spread far more quickly than their true counterparts. The extent to which readers can accurately verify claims on social media is thought to be worryingly low. A study from the London School of Economics concluded that individuals evaluated the truthfulness of various news stories using questionable metrics such as the number of shares or the number of similar articles.

Political commentators point to the fact that the leave campaign told numerous lies which were promulgated in social media network sites as evidence of post-truth politics. Some scholars have also drawn parallels between those leading the Brexit campaign and that of Donald Trump who argue that populist rhetoric has ushered in a period in which lies are easily disseminated.

Truth in Film Studies
Much like in other artistic fields, truth in film studies is hard to confine in a precise frame. If one looks at art in general, it is a subjective medium, hence conveying the facts (“the truth”) is strictly intertwined with its creator, as well as receiver. People as individuals react to and absord information in various ways, resulting in multiple interpretations of the same phenomenon. However, if one looks at cinematography through a narrower lense, namely - focuses on   documentary cinematography (whose main idea is to present unbiased facts, at least to a certain extent), it is easier to talk about truth as  a universal concept.

One of the most prominent examples of attempts at capturing the truth in film is cinéma-vérité, also known as observational cinema. It is a style in filmmaking developed in 1960s in France, which is knwon for its non-intrusive character. Filmmakers resort to light and basic equipment, so as not to disturb the naturality and “realness” of the recorded picture. Creators refuse to follow a script or any precise directions, as it would intefrere with the truth of what is being captured. In this case, camera is not an artistic tool allowing the creator to externalize their vision, butrather a mere recorder of events - a catlyst that enables receivers to access the truth.

On the other hand, film has always tried to hide its own construction. What may seem like an unbiased narrative is still, in reality, a directer’s view on the portrayed matter; a selection of the most aesthetically pleasing shots, often times enriched by a voice over or score - in general, somebody’s own, personal take on the phenomenon. Hence, even in cinema-veriete, so focused on expressing the truth as it is, it is impossible to omit some subjective, external factors that influence and shape the film’s reception.


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Music, as we know it
Generally, music is considered to be the structured combination of selected tones that result in a composition that possesses unity and coherence. However, music in itself is an elaborate discipline - the term “music” is ambiguous as there are many genres of music, ranging from classical music, rock, pop music, etcetera. You could further categorise music into those purely, semi, or not at all instrumental, whereby instrumental music has no explicit semantics involved. With such complexities in mind, it is not inapt to say that the various forms of music, in itself, have their methods of truth and knowledge.

Expression of truth in music
The composer has free will in constructing their song or piece, which implies they can project their intentions in their work, seeking to propagate their truths. This freedom also means that the conveyed truth in music can be of any kind, be it a personal truth or truths about society. Yet, music is an art that does not often represent but express instead. Music is more concerned with expressing truth rather than mirroring it, which is understandable as it is a non-positivist discipline.

There are several theories of expression of truth in music, all of which take on a generally subjective and phenomenological stance.

Arousal theory
Arousal theory states that music is only expressive of an emotion if it incites the emotion within the listener. Music can be considered expressive through its' properties, for example, dynamics. Some Arousalists also distinguish emotions from feelings - emotions are cognitive; feelings are more like "phenomenological objectless sensations based on physiological changes in us". This distinction would mean music arouses feelings rather than emotions, almost as if it were a fitting response to the truth. If excitement is a suitable response to joy, when the music arouses a sense of excitement within the listener, we could consider the music to express joy. Anyhow, the core of the theory remains the same, but some philosophers disagree. The theory assumes that all listeners will always feel a certain way so long they perceive the same piece of music, but it would be ignorant to dismiss that different listeners would have different responses due to their varying knowledge of music and their personal experiences. Realistically, the authored truth in music is as subjective as the listener's perception of it.

Additionally, one could argue the arousal theory for music is a constructionist view of music. After all, constructivism can be defined as how truth is not a mirror of reality but something created, either communally or within the individual. Applying this to arousal theory, one can argue it is a constructionist approach to music - the "truth" is constructed as a result of what is perceived by the listener.

Cognitivist theory
Another theory would be the cognitivist theory. It opposes the arousal theory in the sense that music expresses emotions, via its' characteristics, that is reminiscent of human expression of emotions, rather than having the capacity to arouse an emotion. Peter Kivy, a philosopher of music, claims that the emotions felt by the listener are not a consequence of the aesthetic properties of music, but connections to events in a listener's life. Kivy also argues that the aesthetic properties of music relate to human emotions - gloomy, broody sounding music can remind us of something melancholic. However, sometimes music can resemble phenomena instead of human emotion. For instance, Vivaldi's infamous Four Seasons is widely agreed to be reminiscent of, well, the four seasons.

Music, as the unique truth
For both theories, it is evident that the composer's truth could differ from what the listener perceives. Composers generally intend truth in a phenomenological and subjective way, constructing their music as such; listeners extract truth in the same way, as a response/result of the music. Truth in music is unique. There is an awareness that the emanated truth could differ from what is understood, and perhaps this is the sincere intention of many composers.

It is worth noting that the arguments posed relate more strongly to instrumental music, whereby music accompanied by lyrics could have a different epistemology. Music can have a constructivist approach too in the sense that trends and issues arising in society can have a strong influence on what kind of music is written, content-wise and genre-wise. In a study investigating the top-40 songs in the U.S from 1960 to 2010, it was found that the majority of pop music was written about romantic/sexual relationships.

Introduction to Communication
Communication is essentially the giving or exchange of information through appropriate media. Communication studies is a field of social sciences that deals with processes and pattern in communication and social interactions. The preconceptions associated with the relationship between social sciences and truth would suggest that truth in a discipline like communication is constructed, relative and subjective.

Truth in Communication
Constructivism takes into consideration people’s individual interpretations of the social realm which then influences their communicative behavior. If one accepts that communication is constructed, one could explain why some can communicate their need more skillfully and thus effectively than others. To illustrate the described phenomea, take the example of two employees requesting a day off from their boss. Person A says "I would like to take this Friday off. I am aware it is our busiest day, but have been working hard and I think Max could take over as he doesn't do much anyway, plus I really do deserve a break" Guess what, the boss doesn't grant him the desired break. Person B now walks into the office and goes "I would like to take this Friday off, but I am aware it is our busiest day so I have already talked to Max and he said he would be happy to jump in for me. In case Friday doesn't work, I can take Wednesday off, whichever is less inconvenient" The boss granted him Friday off. Both Person A and Person B spoke the truth that they had constructed based on their individual experiences and understanding of the social conditions, however they led to different outcomes. We could argue that Person B constructed a more compelling truth, which does not mean that Person A was lying. Person B simply asked himself the question "How do I deliver my request so that it will be seen as the truth and my boss gives me the day off?" This model shows that truth was therefore constructed to cater one's experience (in this scenario that of the boss) of "the social realm".

The Relationship between Truth and Power in Communication
There is an inherent assumption in all societies that people tell the truth when they communicate. As we communicate with another person, we tend to focus on the overall content, instead of fact-checking every piece of information they tell us. We assume, that they are telling the truth or at least what they believe to be the truth, and aim to communicate a piece of information accurately. The assumption of truth-telling also puts the person communicating a piece of information in a position of power. As Professor Mark Haugaard argues, "agents use truth to create local social capital for themselves". Believing that the information we are confronted with to be true or something we should accept to be truth regardless of whether we actually believe in it. This characteristic of truth-telling in communication however can be easily abused when someone intentionally portrays a lie as a truth, such as in the case of fake news and click-baits.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the above examples have shown how truth can be constructed through the use of communication to achieve one's goals. This characteristic can then be used to assert dominance over one's communication partner. In the field and descipline of communication one can thus establish that truth does not necessarily need to mirror reality, and in certain situation it is more benefitial to construct, or adjust the truth in order to communicate successfully.

Introduction to Logic
Logic is a discipline in the formal sciences such as mathematics and computer science. It’s a science that is concerned about the way to establish a reasoning, in other words, the steps to follow in order to reach a conclusion, and it’s aim is to evaluate arguments. In order to do this, it takes into account the relationship between the premises (list of statements that support the conclusion) and the conclusion of an argument. This link is called interference. This interference will be tested with a deductive reasoning. If the conclusion can be obtained deductively from the premises (follows logically) then the argument will be considered valid, otherwise it will be invalid. By following this process, we minimize inconsistencies and come to more rational conclusions.

A normative science
The German philosopher and logician Gottlob Frege wrote in one of his books that logic allows us to answer the following question: “How must I think in order to reach the goal, truth?”. Thus, the search for the truth is one of the goals of this discipline. It achieves truth by advocating the correct way of reasoning. This is precisely its role as a normative science, unlike most sciences, which as we have seen in the lectures, often use a positivist or empirical approach. By definition, a normative discipline is concerned with "what ought to be" by establishing norms that need to be respected, in the case of logic the preferred way of reasoning.

Logical reasoning and truth
The rigor of deductive interference enables us to have formal proofs that an argument is valid because we can verify them by taking up the reasoning. Moreover, if we assume that the premises are true and the argument is valid, then the conclusion will also be true. Thus, we come to conclusions that are both true and verifiable. These qualities make logic a good tool for finding the truth. This reasoning is used in other scientific disciplines such as computer science and mathematics. Mathematics and logic occupy a very important place in science because, like a universal language, they unite the sciences. This shows use that other disciplines rely on the knowledge from the discipline of logic, thus have confidence in their truth.

Criticism
This way of testing the truth has not remained without judgment, it is contested by some philosophers. One of the main criticisms that logical reasoning receives, put forward by Quine, is that it is analytical and not empirical, with experience, it is based on information we already know and we only seeks links between all of them to put them in the context of the argument we want to test. These pieces of information with which we start our reasoning are presupposed to be true, so are the relations that we establish between them, so what about the truths we get from it? In his Principles of Mathematics, Russel says that the truths coming from logical constants only are a priori truths. Aristotle came to the same conclusion while he is at the origin of formal logic. But he goes further by saying that absolute truth cannot exist. So an approximate truth is not a bad thing because there are still truths. Another problem with this technique is that it does not always give us the truth. James Harvey Robinson illustrates this with his quote: “Most of our so-called reasoning consists in finding arguments for going on believing as we already do.” This means that logic does not always come to the truth because it is based on our norms and knowledge and any theories which do not meet these norms are automatically considered false when they may be true. The theory of a round earth is a good example of truth that have been considered untrue because of the logic of the time.

Conclusion
Thus, logic allows us to obtain rational and verifiable conclusions that we can consider to be true, in particular, because it starts from prepositions that we already approve of, and the process of logical thinking allows us to preserve this truth from inconsistencies: the way in which the elements of the argument succeed one another is conceivable so that we, as humans having values and beliefs, can accept them. It comes down to what we saw in the lectures: truth is subjective, it is us who decides whether something is true or not. However, the use of logic should not be excluded as it can allow us to evaluate truths. It can be used to strengthen and test new scientific theories developed by experimental science. Furthermore, its use is very important for the functioning of other disciplines, as it is the “cement that holds the scientific structure together”. It remains a powerful tool but is not the most obvious one to use if we want to find “new” truths.

Introduction to Happiness
Throughout history, philosophers have characterized “happiness” into two streams, which are equivalent to a different sense of the term:

1. A life that thrives for the person who leads it

2. A mindset In the first term, it's inclined to the philosophical approach. “Happiness” in this sense is fundamentally focused on what is beneficial to an individual, namely what is good for her, which will serve her interests, and what is desirable for her sake. Being “good for” someone is not the same as simply being good. Perhaps it is always good for you to be honest yet it may not always be good for you, as when it entails self-sacrifice. Thus, in this sense of the term, it can be said that happiness refers to a life of well-being or flourishing: a life that goes well for you. On the other hand, the second term gets along with a psychological approach. Enquiry about happiness in this sense is fundamentally the study of certain mindsets like positive feeling and satisfaction, just like the enquiry about pleasure or depression utilized in psychological approach.

Constructivism in Happiness
The first term can be seen as a constructivist sense. Constructivism takes learning into account as an active process and understanding attained by a series of personal experiences and values. Aristotle’s approach to happiness can be a typical example of constructivism. Aristotle's propositions can be summarised into six general points:

1. Happiness is the ultimate goal, which is self-evidence as well as the purpose of human existence.

2. Happiness is a series of practising virtues; it is not mere pleasure, nor virtue.

3. It is impossible to attain happiness during our lifetime, which means that it is the end of our lives.

4. The practice of logical thinking determines human happiness due to the nature of their rationality.

5. Happiness depends on an individual’s acquisition of moral behaviour. These involve making a mean between an excess and a deficiency.

6. Happiness involves intellectual reflection, which is the realization of our rational capacities.

From a constructivist perspective, in order to achieve happiness, one has to actively pursue it based on the virtues and a situation. When faced with a challenging circumstance, one should make a tremendous effort on it although it requires some sacrifice. It is making a choice for the greater good despite the consequences.

Positivism in Happiness
On the other hand, the positivist approach to happiness is consistent with the second term. Positivism refers to the knowledge that can be experienced with the senses or proved by logic. It was Bentham who first thought of happiness as a form of positivism. Unlike Aristotle and other philosophers who emphasized its distinctiveness, Bentham asserted that it consists of pleasure and the absence of pain. He made a major contribution to the 'science of happiness'. Using a scientific approach, Bentham tried to measure happiness in two ways. First, he suggested that using the human pulse rate might allow happiness to be quantified, considering it a mix of pleasurable sensations. Another approach is measuring happiness by the amount of money. For example, two different items with the identical price might produce the same amount of pleasure to the consumer. Bentham was more inclined to the latter measure.

Integrated Psychology with Economics through a Positivist Approach
By relating money closely to the personal state of mind, positivists like Bentham laid down the groundwork for binding psychological research to capitalism that would mold the business practices of the twentieth century. In other words, positivism in happiness enabled economic problems to be redefined and treated as psychological conditions, which allowed the belief that inner states of satisfaction and dissatisfaction can be objectively quantified, which can be beneficial to management research and marketing plans.

Conclusion
Happiness is the ultimate goal since it is self-evident. If someone asks why happiness matters, there are no further external reasons. It just simply does matter. For this reason, many philosophers and psychologists consistently seek the meaning of happiness and the truth of happiness based on two approaches: Constructivism and Positivism.

Introduction
Gender refers to the cultural and social differences between the two sexes in society. Within this framework, while the majority of people fit into their assigned gender at birth, which is referred to being cisgender, others do not. The use of gender in situations outside pure grammar was first popularised by feminists, who wanted to separate the social differences from biological ones.

Positivism in Gender
Conventionally, studies of gender have largely employed a positivist approach. Positivism puts forth that knowledge is generated through a scientific method, hence mirroring and representing reality. Statistics which capitalise on the differences between men and women are used, with examples such as the gender pay gap, life expectancy and more.

Positivist studies towards gender often utilise the scientific method to analyse the ways in which men and women are different, and the factors driving them. For an example of this in practice, one study measured the gender differences between males and females regarding depressed moods during adolescence. Structural equation modelling and analysis of regression were used as quantitative methods to interpret numeric data. The study ultimately concluded that girls appeared to be more vulnerable to depressed moods during adolescence, as a result of increased obstacles during development such as discontentment with body weight. From this one can see how positivist knowledge regarding gender is generated through quantitative methods.

Constructivism in Gender
In contrast to positivism which states how our truth is a reflection of reality, constructivism argues that we in fact create reality itself. Within this framework, individuals’ experiences are not a mirror of reality but simply an organised and created version of it. This approach to truth bares two key differences from positivism: that reality is fixed, and it is possible to separate personal values from facts.

These differences are clearly reflected in gender studies: constructivism sees gender as something that cannot be determined but only represented. This is largely because while positivist approaches to studying gender often assume gender as strictly binary, hence capitalising on their differences, constructivism is different. Rather, constructivists examine gender as something that is a created representation. Hence, constructivist approaches to gender often handle questions such as what even makes up a difference between the two genders. For an example of a constructivist approach to gender, one can look to the book “Undoing Gender” by professor Judith Butler. The book analyses how gender often manifests unconsciously not as a result of one’s identity but rather societal norms. This is done through analysis of how those who are transgender and or intersex are treated in the law, as well as focusing on specific cases. Additionally, further analysis is conducted in regards to how these norms can be inhibiting to one’s wellbeing.

Overall, from the above one can see the differences between the constructivist and positivist approaches to truth in the study of gender.

Impilcations for gender studies
Gender studies refers to an academic descipline which is concerned with conducting analysis on gender representation and identity. The approaches to truth in gender that were mentioned previously hold large implications for gender studies, as it reflects upon how the direction of academic research conducted in the field can possibly either fuel or alleviate gender roles. If most research towards genders capitalize on the differences between men and women, it may fuel the notion that they are widely different, resulting in different treatment. This is not to say differences should not be acknowledged and researched, but rather also accompanied with research breaking down what shapes our constructionist views of gender in the first place.

Constructivist gender roles in the Legal System
On the topic of law, the landscape of gender studies is also greatly influenced by existing social policies and their changes. Interestingly, policies themselves are also a product of constructivism, but the implementation of gender-related policies can further perpetuate and reflect existing gender norms. Maternity leave policies illustrate this well - whereby such policies are produced via societal assumptions about gender. The notion that women, due to their biological ability to bear children, should be caregivers and that men, due to their physical strength owing to anatomical differences, should be breadwinners of the family, are constructivist truths that are the cause and goal of certain maternity leave policies. The United States is the only OECD country that does not offer paid maternity leave on a national basis, reasons for this potentially being the aforementioned stereotypes. Constructivist policies like these are the center of many gender studies, where the effects of such policies on representations of gender are investigated, progressing as society’s truth of gender changes.

Truth in International Relations
The discipline of International relations is the study of the interactions of multiple states and global organizations on an international stage in the context of political, economic, and cultural relationships. Its study is interdisciplinary in its scope as it draws upon other disciplines such as history, economics, politics, and even psychology. In the multitude of theories present in IR, one could generally group them into two epistemological approaches; positivist and post-positivist.

Approaches to Truth in International Relations
In positivist theories, such as the variants of liberalism and realism, the pursuit of truth provides a distinction between the knowing subject and the object known by the subject enabling a clear dichotomy between facts and values, and theory and practice. Using methods reminiscent of those utilized in the natural sciences, the approaches draw upon objective evidence from the material world such as power in order to produce their knowledge. According to Waltz, these observations “led to the emphasis on the ‘facts’ of a world of states’ and lead to a lesser emphasis on political and normative implications. Consequently, these empirical-lead pursuits may lead to a lack of consideration for normative-based questions such as what should be considered as a desirable form of practice in IR or the nature of change within the discipline.

Post-positivist theories however argue that there cannot be a scientific approach as the social world is inherently subjective; deriving a scientific method in dealing with International Affairs is essentially impossible. Theories such as Constructivism, Post-Modernism, or Feminism all question the foundations that the orthodox theories of Liberalism and Realism are constructed from. They understand that the pursuit of an ‘objective’ truth is impossible and suggested a greater emphasis on normative approaches. Rather than perceiving ideas as a separate mirror of the world, post-positivist scholars argue that we as individuals are actually part of it. The emergence of post-positivist theories, according to Fluck, “introduced a new way of looking at truth and knowledge as political matters, constitutive of international realities”.

Conclusion
As demonstrated above, the two viewpoints differ in terms of how their truths are created and what is used to create this knowledge; there is no doubt that these epistemological approaches have come into conflict with each other. One particular debate, arguably the most serious out of all, was the ‘Fourth Great Debate’ that emerged in the late 1980s and has continued to spur discourse to the present day. Recently, the concept of ‘post-truth’, whose ideas are reminiscent of post-positivist epistemologies, have emerged in the political sphere. With the “blatant dishonesty and cynicism” affiliated with the exit of Great Britain from the EU in 2016, it seems evident that truth doesn’t play a significant role in politics further delineating how the role and influence of objective truth, a central tenet in the study of positivism in international relations, have shifted in favour of emotions and personal beliefs giving way to what Lockie argues as complacency for governments and politicians to blatantly deploy “ propaganda, vilification and intimidation”.

Introduction To Visual Art
Visual art is an object or experience consciously created through an expression of skill or imagination. The term art encompasses diverse media such as painting, sculpture, printmaking, drawing, decorative arts, photography, and installation.

Approaches To Truth In Visual Arts
Art has the power to evoke emotions, new thoughts, conflicts which we experience in real life, bring up questions of morality. . Every person perceives art from their own perspective, with their own background, their own emotions and their social standards. 'In the pursuit of his art the artist becomes completely impersonalized. As an individual, he has his own disposition, desires, sentiments, etc. At a particular moment, he is moved by an impulse; in the next, in his attempt to create, he frees himself from that; then he does not have any desire or attachment with regard to the subject, and the keenness of his individual perception takes on a new, impersonal character'. . From the appearance of art there has always been debates whether art objects handle the truth of their artist or do they have their own eternal truth. This is where two opposite opinions of Plato and Aristotle appeared.

Plato's vision on Art
Plato thought that art was nothing else than an imitation of life which created more lies and is very far removed from the true representation. . He was sure that the "real truth" lies not in physical representation but in its eternal and invisible form. The truth in Plato's vision is something unreachable, that even an artist wouldn't fully know the real truth behind his piece of art. .

Aristotle's vision on Art
Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that there is a difference between subjects' eternal truth which they contain in themselves and their universal truth. Although artistic depictions may be based on an “outward appearance”, they have to create a bridge between "outward appearence" and “inward” experience of the physical world to therefore connect artist and the perceivers of art. He points out that an artist has to his own point of view on the "truth" and it is his responsibility to project it in his art. He believed that in terms of art it is more important to imitate objects more artistically than scientifically in order to create an aesthetic image 'with detailed fidelity to the "outer world."'.


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To the author of the "Truth in the Memory of La Resistance in France",

Hi, I have read your part and I think it is quite interesting. However, whilst reading it, I came up with an idea of maybe adding a paragraph about how truth about the resistance in France is portrayed in literature and film? If you agree, could I maybe try to add something about it? Hellllothere (discuss • contribs) 19:00, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Dear Hellllothere, Thank you for your comment. That's a great idea! I recommend checking out "le chagrin et la pitié" that aims to tackle the question of truth in La Resistance and was quite controversial when it came out.

Thank you for your contribution, I think its brilliant!

To everyone, I'm going to try and condense my title (I'm aware it is way too long); if anyone has any suggestions I would appreciate them thanks! Blacklipstick (discuss • contribs) 00:51, 2 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi, I do not know whether this is of any help, but a shorter (although only a bit) version could be - The Impact of Subjective Truth and Conflicting Evidence on Treatment in Psychology. Hellllothere (discuss • contribs) 09:37, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

To the author of "Truth in the Perception of Political Actions"

I thought your analysis of political sociology was extremely interesting and the distinction between the different perspective was so interesting to explore. I thought maybe you could add examples to illustrate how these political perspectives form beliefs which lead to individual truths. Ex- you could look at a political issue that has been debated or is currently debated by analysing the different political sociological standpoints people take which lead to certain beliefs and truths. As an example you could explore immigration laws as it would be quite interesting to explore the different standpoints from a real life example as I believe it would really help to clarify and support your argument. This is just a suggestion, you can use any other examples, I hope this is helpful! :)))

To the author of Truth in Philosophy
I found your topic extremely interesting! I have elaborated on how the idealist theory have developed into more contemporary coherence theory, and what is it stand on truth. I think that addition of contemporary theories of truth in philosophy could aid your paragraph, as the they have developed and change their understanding of truth within this discipline! If you want to we can add another paragraph about correspondence theory or other neo-classical theory of truth? Let me know, and I hope this is helpful :). --Dearenemy (discuss • contribs) 13:23, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi again, I have moved paragraph on coherence theory here for you to approve it. Is it okay for me to insert it into your topic? --Dearenemy (discuss • contribs) 13:32, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I approve it 100%, good addition! Icloneseashells (discuss • contribs) 14:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi!

I was very interested by your subject and conducted my own research on truth in philosophy. It could be interested to do a subsection in the duty of truth. Here is what I found:

There is a debate in philosophy as to the right to access truth. Indeed, a dilemma stands between our own interest and the duty of truth. Indeed, the Philosopher Benjamin Constant defended the position that truth is not a duty and that everyone is entitled to a lie as long as it is not absolutized, else it loses its efficiency. This paradox stands as if lying is universalized then I cannot tell a lie as the other person knows it is a lie rendering it useless. On the other hand, Kant supports the duty of truth as he stresses the fact that the human is a societal being and society is a contract. (Kant I, Constant B, Barni J. Le droit de mentir. [Paris]: Mille et une nuits; 2003) Hence a lie is a betrayal to this contract and by implication a crime against humanity. The example of the Dreyfus Affair shows that a society is entitled to truth and that there is an actual duty to find the truth.

Bascrzm (discuss • contribs) 20:14, 9 Novembre 2020 (UTC)

Coherence theory
One of the neo-classical theories of truth originating from idealism is the coherence theory of truth. It assumes that a given belief is true, only if it is in coherence with a system of beliefs. Coherence theories have usually been a part of idealism philosophy. In 1906, an idealist philosophically Joachim stated that "Truth in its essential nature is that systematic coherence which is the character of a significant whole." Neo-claasical coherence theory departs form the idealism by rejection of monism of truth. It sees truth as a feature of beliefs systems, in which all beliefs are related to each other. --Dearenemy (discuss • contribs) 13:32, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

Response to Interpretation of History: where does the truth lie?
Dear writer of this section, Your contribution caught my attention as I found it very interesting and well illustrated with good examples. However, I would like add something in regard to your ending which suggests that taking into account as many perspectives as you can will enable us to get the true history. Would it ever be possible to get a completely true history? Facts keep on flowing in day by day therefore 'true' history and our knowledge/understanding of it would need to be updated constantly. Moreover, I have found an interesting commentary of Tolstoy's view on history in an essay by Isaiah Berlin in 1953 'The hedgehog and the fox' (you can easily find a pdf of it on the internet). It mentions and presents history as an impenetrable fog and knot that can never be untangled due to the infinity of opinions, views, experiences that have happened. History cannot just be based on hard facts like dates and events but taking into account a wide range of different experiences generates more questions in regard to the truth in history. How many experiences taken into account is enough to get a true history? When is it enough to get to a concrete truth of a historical event? Who decides when and how? Isn't the more we will take into account the less clear history will be to understand? I believe that adding this view could make your contribution more complete and developed. You can check out the pages from 443-444 and 456-459 of Berlin's essay to get a general view of Tolstoy's opinion on history. Hope all this makes sense and that you find it relevant! Romarinlavende (discuss • contribs) 14:13, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

That sounds really interesting. I will try to write something about it and then you can look over it and see what you can add! Thanks

Also to the writer of this section, I noticed that you don't currently have any citations for this section, is this something that you are still working on? I would be happy to help if you need. Onchesilbeach (discuss • contribs) 00:33, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Yes I am working on it now thank you!

Truth in Conspiracy theories
Hey Truth in Conspiracy theories, should we add up our two contributions since mine seems to be an example of yours? I wrote about the Flat Earth theory. I Just put them together, what do you think?
 * Hey! Great idea it would be a great way to illustrate my contribution ! 128.86.177.101 (discuss) 10:29, 10 November 2020 (UTC)


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@Truth in Politics
Hi! I think your topic is so relevant right now! I really like how you compared it to Einstein's theory and how that could be proved. I think it's really interesting to compare politics and physics, which might not be seen together much. Basc.blue (discuss • contribs) 21:56, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

@Djungelskog1 Hi! I really like your subject! I also did some research on truth and politics for my essay, and found some of your sources as well, but I didn't know about the quote of Hannah Arendt, which I found very interesting :) Undercoverfrench (discuss • contribs) 16:55, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

 * @Undercoverfrench Thank you so much! Since you've actually written an essay about this topic, I was wondering if you have any sources or any other aspects of truth in politics that should be discussed which you could recommend that could help improve this section. Please let me know if you do. Djungelskog1 (discuss • contribs) 13:34, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

@Truth in Philosophy
Hi! I really enjoyed reading your section, as we both seemed to explore the concept of scepticism within both Philosophy and Religious Studies. Through the theories you discussed within your section you made it clear that philosophers have had some difficulty in defining what is known as truth. This was similar to my conclusion that within religious studies, more specifically, religious experience, truth seems to be relative. This led me to consider whether the idea of relativity is mutually exclusive to the idea of truth, as surely truth should be universal. I also liked how you acknowledged the co-dependent nature of 'truth' and 'fact' within the Correspondence Theory.Ivoryallen (discuss • contribs) 18:49, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! Thanks a lot for your insight. You're so right about truth being universal by definition. I suppose that we just have to accept that truth is almost impossible to determine for sure, which is when it becomes somewhat relative and subjective (which is definitely the case in your discipline of religious studies).AurelieJane (discuss • contribs) 20:04, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

@Truth in History: Napoléon Bonaparte, the inspired leader or obsessed villain...
I noticed that our texts have a similar topic, hence I will merge them together, in order for all the information about history to be under the same heading.--Lucky Lilac Lion (discuss • contribs) 18:21, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much for this great initiative. I just went over the overall contribution and I feel our ideas blend in really well together. --Mathildem16 (discuss • contribs) 12:28, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

@Truth in The Chicago Conspiracy Trial
Rooting your analysis on truth within a case study was bold I thought but very well done and gave me the opportunity to see how truth operates in a discipline through real-life events.

Your paragraph on law particularly echoed to me. You explored how truth in law can be manipulated to one’s advantage, which, in your case study, led to a biased trial. In that sense, truth is at the heart of law, as its aim, to some extent, is to determine who holds the truth between the accused, the defendant and the witnesses. This is even harder as the truth for one may not necessarily be the truth for the other, which brings me to draw a link with my personal contribution-truth in history.

As in history, I feel truth in law also has a dialectal nature, which implies that one may arguably only reach compelling truths by going through the process of partiality, contradiction and incompleteness.

What I also wanted to point out is the misconception to mix up the two notions of “truth” and “a truth valid only for oneself”. They seem quite similar but the second one is a matter of personal opinion and is specific to each individual or to a group of individuals. It therefore is admitted without proper examination whereas a truth has to be demonstrable. Thus, it is not enough for an opinion to be shared for it to be true.

This mindset is particularly important, especially when it comes to studying truth in law, since personal opinion, the public, the media...play a preponderant and even decisive role in criminal cases. Although in some legal cases, the evidence speaks for itself and the public opinion hence speaks out the truth-the innocence of an individual for example-out of confidence without having ever been truly questioned, opinions are not always true. Truth in law is thus an extremely delicate matter, as it relies on individuals’ perceptions, beliefs, and emotions, subject to outside pressure and influence.

--Mathildem16 (discuss • contribs) 16:28, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

@Truth in Architecture
@UClqevy. The truth of architecture sounds like a very interesting but hard topic to discuss. You could maybe think about a new text structure, which might may it smoother to read and understand the context of the article. A suggestion from my side would be two split it into two parts, one editorial point of view and one scientific point of view. Otherwise, a great contribution.BonSchlonzo (discuss • contribs) 15:00, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * @Bonschlonzo. Thank you for your suggestion. This is a great suggestion from your side, I will definitely edit the text structure.

@truth in economics
@BonSchlonzo I come back to you regarding your very interesting section showing clear correlations between truth and economical activities. I believe that there is an important relation between the homo-economicus model from the neo-classical theory and truth in economics. How this theory has made economic models relevant in the real world? How it describes the role of the consumer? thank you

cool question, just had a look into this uploaded a section on that below. Have a look!!! BonSchlonzo (discuss • contribs) 15:00, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Nice edit, very well articulated!

@Truth in History
I took History as one of my A-Levels, and I definitely agree with you in that historical truths are highly subjective and that absolute truths are extremely limited. In my syllabus, source analysis and evaluation of historians’ interpretations counted for a third of my final grade, which all the more proves that determining truth is pivotal to the discipline. You mention that modern historians sometimes disregard “untrustworthy” sources, which I find baffling. In my opinion, “inaccurate” information is still valuable as it would reflect the views of a particular social demographic, which would only further an historian’s understanding of an event/period.

WoodzyMoodzy (discuss • contribs) 14:19, 10 November 2020 (UTC)


text:
History of video games/First generation of video game consoles

The First of Generations
Home game consoles as they are known today have to start somewhere and this is it. Though there are a number of definitions of which generation a console belongs to from here on out, most at least agree that the home consoles here belong to the first generation. After this definitions quickly get out of sync with each other Keep in mind that people classify game console generations as more of an art than a science, and there is no formal industry or academic organization which classifies consoles by their generation. While console generations are arbitrary, they still help with understanding consoles historically, so this book uses them.

Going forward in this book this book will generally share its console classification system with the system used by Wikipedia. This is because the system used by Wikipedia is widely used casually by the general public and news outlets. However it's important to note that this system is by no means the only one, and it definitely isn't the correct one in many academic contexts.

Trends
As stated previously, console generations are fairly arbitrary. However they aren't entirely baseless either. Besides time of release, generations are typically classified using factors such as the technologies used, social factors, economic conditions, and other influences. When a generation is mentioned in this book, prevailing industry movements will be brought up under Trends. Though these are not always universally true for a generation, they help give a big picture impression of what the industry valued at the time, and how things were changing.

The Bare Minimum
As an emerging technology, designers struggled to simply make an interactive device that plugs into a television, let alone design complex games for them. Systems this generation are often capable of drawing just a few lines or dots on a television screen, and little more. Systems often made more with less by asking players to attach overlays to their television sets, and other tricks to make the most out of limited hardware capabilities.

Features many would consider fundamental today, such as automatically keeping scores, are not a given and are frequently left for the player to keep track of. Other features such as color graphics, single player modes, and the ability for a console to generate even a simple beep for audio were sometimes included, but were by no means universal. Keep in mind that this console generation started less than two decades after the first consumer color television broadcast. In fact, in 1972, when the Magnavox Odyssey kicked off the first generation of home video game consoles, Color Television adoption had only just reached over 50% in the United States of America, and many important nations had yet to launch color TV broadcasts.

Dedicated systems
Most first generation consoles were only able to play the games built into them, with the Magnavox Odyssey being the primary semi-exception by using jumper cards used to manipulate console internals for desired results. Other consoles such as those in the PC-50x family, were simply adapters for cartridges which effectively contained the entire console. Proper cartridges used as game software media would not appear until the second generation with the Fairchild Channel F.

Late in this generation, the industry also saw the first TV-Game console combination unit, in the 1977 ITT Schaub-Lorenz Programmable Television. This trend of integrating consoles and displays would continue in following generations as a niche market.

Battery power
Most home game consoles this generation were powered by batteries, despite needing a television to play games. This reduced the upfront cost and complexity of the system because an AC adapter was not needed and consistent DC power would be supplied by the batteries. Some consoles did have an optional power adapter available for purchase.

It is important to note that during the 1970's power supply technology was undergoing rapid advancements, and efficient switching power supplies were only starting to see adoption in consumer products by the end of the decade.

Home Consoles
There were a staggering number of console in the first generation with over 900 models of them sold across the globe. What's even more staggering is that most of them were based on standardized "pong on a chip" designs, playing almost the exact same games as a result. Furthermore, the gaming industry is notoriously bad at preserving its history, and many of these consoles are known by little more than their names. Therefore this part of the book lists only the most notable among these multitude of consoles, for which substantial references still exist.

External Resources

 * Google Arts and Culture - Early Home Gaming online exhibit.


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History of video games/Second generation of video game consoles

Flooded Market
A huge number of consoles and video games flooded the market. Many of these consoles and games were low quality, and made it difficult for consoles offering innovative features or quality games to compete. This was one factor which lead to the video game crash of 1983.

Digital programmable computers
This generation, many game consoles contained basic 8-bit computers. Rarely 4-bit and 16-bit computers would be used, like in the Game & Watch platform (4-bit) or the Intellivision (16-bit), though this had minimal impact on console graphics which were primarily constrained by other factors. Cartridge based systems became normal during this generation, and the introduction of digital programmable computers allowed game consoles to run software, which permitted more varied games than what the console designers originally intended.

Representative Graphics
This generation saw increased graphical capabilities of home game consoles, leading to less reliance on simple squares and rectangles in conjunction with overlays, and evolving to simple pixel artwork and rarely vector art. The pivotal choice between industry support for raster or vector graphics technology would hugely affect the industry going forward, with many genres of games favoring one or the other. The ultimate success of the use of raster graphics this generation would lead to their dominant use until the fifth generation of consoles. While these graphics would quickly be considered quite outdated by the mid to late 1980's, this step was a huge leap in quality and allowed more arcade style games to be played on home consoles.

This generation saw the first handheld consoles with basic screens. The displays were typically not visible in the dark and were monochrome only, but they still offered an improvement over the previous approach of using a few basic single color lights as output.


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History of video games/Third generation of video game consoles

Improved hardware
By this point home console graphics became more capable, and were able to more easily represent characters and believable locations with colorful 2D graphics. Music began to take a bigger role in home game consoles.While consoles were still limited in their audio capabilities, many classic game soundtracks have their origins in this generation.

By this point, most home consoles contained most of their computer hardware in the console itself rather than in the cartridges, allowing for cheaper cartridges to be made. This freed up resources to either make cheaper cartridges, or to place enhancements in cartridges such as specialty chips that enhanced features such as audio. This generation also saw increased adoption of save game functionality, which was typically achieved with battery backed RAM located on the cartridge. Still, many games required gamers to save their progress by writing down a password which indicated their progress, and then re entering it when loading the game, which was a tedious endeavor.

VHS consoles
A few companies attempted to leverage the audio visual capabilities of Video Home System (VHS) analog cassettes to improve the gaming experience, though no VHS consoles saw huge levels of success. By the fourth generation, companies pursing the same strategy would elect for the digital focused CD-ROM drives instead, though it would take till the fifth generation to see successful game consoles capable of full motion video.


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History of video games/Fourth generation of video game consoles

Improved hardware
During this generation pixel art in games becomes more much more advanced, often adopting the pointillism art style to the medium to great effect. Sprite based 2D graphics were essentially a solved problem by this generation, which lead to companies to look for ways to differentiate their graphics.

Game consoles also began using pre-rendered 3D Graphics and graphical techniques to give the impression of real 3D graphics running on hardware. Games using simple real time 3D polygons became popular, though they often required enhancement chips to draw just a few hundred polygons a second.

This generation audio improved drastically, with much more advanced audio systems.

CD capable consoles
This generation some companies attempted to release high end consoles with built in CD support, while others tried to launch CD add ons. Both strategies saw lukewarm adoption at best. CD-ROM technology was appealing because they could be used to add recorded video to games, recorded soundtracks, and other features. Furthermore, a high capacity CD-ROM was much cheaper to make ($2 for disk and packaging in 1993) compared to cartridges which held far less and cost far more. As a result CD based games saved significant amounts of money for developers. The high lead times and cost of cartridges also lead to financial issues for companies who overproduced games they were unable to sell, further enhancing the appeal of CD-ROMs as a format to some developers.

Yet CD-ROMs in consoles were not a fully ready technology this generation. Game Developers often used the extra space for enhanced graphics or audio, but often did not use the extra space to further gameplay in a way that could not be done on a cartridge. CD-ROM drives were still quite expensive, despite rapidly declining prices. They were also quite slow compared to cartridges, with long loading times compared to the near instant access allowed by a cartridge.


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History of video games/Fifth generation of video game consoles

3D Gaming
Polygonal 3D gaming was supported by all major home consoles this generation. However real time 3D graphics on consumer level hardware was still a new concept, and there were many different wildly different approaches to how a 3D system should work in a console. This lead to some consoles being much better at 3D graphics performance and ease of use by developers, and some with performance much less than their at the time impressive specifications would indicate.

Many game series failed to make effective 3D versions of their traditionally 2D games. Crafting a believable 3D environment on the hardware available was difficult. Furthermore, developers not only had to design good controls for a 3D game, they had to explain them to players used to playing 2D games exclusively. All these issues were exasperated by a lack of developers familiar with 3D gaming, even within major development companies. Even developers that were able to competently make 3D games struggled somewhat, with large improvements in 3D game control schemes occurring within the generation as developers figured out ways to improve the player experience.

Display technology
Display technology improves rapidly during this time with the final major refinements in CRT displays, and the emergence of new technologies. In 1996 Sonys Trinitron (Aperture grille CRT) patents expire, allowing other manufacturers to produce similar quality television sets and improving the gaming experience. In 1998 Phillips introduces the first consumer plasma TV for $15,000. Such TVs would become common in the mid 2000's with improving technology and price drops.

This generation more portable consoles adopted color screens, though monochrome screens were still common.


text: History of video games/Sixth generation of video game consoles


text: History of video games/Seventh generation of video game consoles


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History of video games/Eighth generation of video game consoles

HD Rendering
This generation saw more games rendered at 720p or higher resolutions, compared to the previous generation, which often upscaled from sub HD resolutions.

To increase performance, many developers resorted to duplicating assets multiple times, which helps during seek operations on rotational media at the cost of ballooning game sizes.

Major handheld consoles generally attempted to match the graphical capabilities of home consoles from the sixth or seventh generations.

Improved online
This generation saw the home consoles ease restrictions on cross platform play, allowing people on different consoles to compete when playing the same games with multiple versions across console and PC.

Many Eighth generation home consoles and handhelds supported social media features in the console operating system. Furthermore many consoles began easily allowing screenshots and recordings of gameplay to be shared from the console itself. Later on in the generation, a button was often included on controllers to facilitate this.

With increased online support, this generation saw a corresponding decrease in local multiplayer support.

Opening Up
This generation saw major platforms become much more accessible for small and indie developers. For example, it was during this generation around 2013 that Nintendo eliminated the requirement for developers to own a dedicated office space to possess a developer kit.

A number of minor, "Open" consoles were released this generation. Some consoles were fully open source or open hardware, having well documented hardware, software, or CAD files under a free or open license. Others used the term to simply mean the console was an open platform, meaning anyone could publish for it. Some would use the term open simply to refer to specific subsystems that were open, like case designs, or the fact that a piece of open source software was used for a core system. The most egregious examples simply labeled their platform as open, without giving any clear explanation as to how it was open. As a result this term became somewhat of marketing puffery, similar to the bit wars of the 1990's on a smaller scale, where the term was sometimes meaningful and sometimes not.


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History of video games/Ninth generation of video game consoles

In ninth generation of videogame consoles, introducing the new consoles "PlayStation 5" and "Xbox Series X".

Audio Video improvements
This generation saw the debut of hardware raytracing support on major home consoles. Major home consoles also offered 3D audio support.