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User:TimRJordan/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 4/History

The History of Psychology as a Branch of Medicine
Psychology can be simply defined as the study of experience and behaviour according to Sonja Hunt in The relationship between psychology and medicine, which makes psychology have a common point with medicine: an interest in human functioning. The involvement of psychology in medicine has not been continuous or unanimously encouraged, and the interdependence between body and mind was questioned throughout the centuries in parallel with the interdependence between psychology and medicine. Mind and body were believed to be linked in Ancient times. The saying "Mens sana in corpore sano", which is a quote from Juvenal in Satires, is still used today. This citation demonstrates the importance in people’s mind of, in order to be well, not only be in a good physical shape but also in a good state of mind. However the link between these two disciplines was questioned when the view on Man changed: body and mind became two distinct areas of study in the 17th century, especially due to the work of Descartes (Mediationes de Prima philosophia, Meditation VI).

The view on the link between mind and body has since changed. Psychology is considered essential and has come to be a medical discipline even if it doesn't use prescriptions and medicines like psychiatry does. However, it may still be marginalised due to its sometimes-abstract aspect, less concrete than other branches of medicine. Hunt claims it can undermine the credibility of the discipline. Nevertheless, psychology is increasingly recognised especially with the growing awareness of the importance of mental health.

The History of Material Culture
Analysing objects is not a recent way to understand other communities, as it has always been implied in the ethnographic work. However, its consideration as a discipline may only be dated from the late 1990’s with the creation of the Journal of Material Culture in 1996 firstly edited by members of the UCL department of Anthropology. Here it points out that academics started to share about their conception of material culture and thus it evidences its beginning as a proper discipline.

At first, in anthropological researches, material culture studies’ aim was to prove the ‘modernism’ of western culture through the comparison between their evolved objects and ‘primary’ objects of the non-western ones: European culture is showed as superior. Thus, due to colonialism the supremacy of Western assumptions exists, which also lead to a ‘masculine’ hierarchy of senses placing the visual sense at the top of the scale. This traditional ‘ocular centrism’s mode of analysis has been questioned from the assertion of non-Western cultures thanks to decolonization and the emergence of material culture studies as a peculiar discipline. The development of material culture studies allows to not discriminate any culture, ethne by criticizing a single approach of objects. The social change with those new pluricultural communities, lead to increasingly challenge the foundational way of interacting with objects especially in museums where only the Sight is engaged. Although each culture has its own sensory model, only the Western model was considered relevant, which showed again the desire to distinguish European culture from others. Material culture studies as a discipline want to teach people in a crossed senses’ manner how to apprehend objects coming from different societies, “not only to see objects but to sense objects” as said in Sensible Objects Colonialism, Museums and Material Culture.

Thereby material culture studies will keep changing, challenging its traditional ways of analysis based on colonialism history. The question of changing the only visual approach of artefacts exhibited in museums is complexed, since the physical preservation aspect has to be raised.

Logic as discipline
The word “logic” originates in the Greek word logos. Traditionally, logos is translated to “reason”, but this translation has been contested by scholars and as a result, its entry in A Greek-English Lexicon, Liddell–Scott–Jones (LSJ), has over 60 translations, including ”speech”, ”word”, and ”argument”. A broad definition of logic as ”the appraisal and analysis of arguments” has also been proposed. Whilst humans have always reasoned and engaged with arguments, and therefore used logic, medieval universities distinguished logica utens (the use of logic in thought, speech, and writing) from logica docens (the formal study of Logic as a discipline), with Aristotle considered the founder of the latter in the West.

Significant Work
Aristotle wrote a total of six books on logic, collectively called the Organon. In Topics, his first attempt at a logic textbook, he discusses the invention of arguments based on endoxa, “consensus”, and called it the art of dialectic. Aristotelian Logic continued to be studied in medieval Europe, and most works on Logic remained based on the work of Aristotle until the mid-thirteenth to the mid-fourteenth century when more original work was developed.

The most influential works in Logic after Aristotle include Port-Royal Logic, published in 1662 by Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole and considered the start of Traditional Logic, and John Stuart Mill’s A System of Logic, which was published in 1843 and what prompted the new perspective on logic as a branch of Psychology. Since then, several modern logical systems have been developed, especially in mathematical logic, which after the Second World War split into Model theory, Proof theory, Computability theory, and Set theory.

Logic in Higher Education
Whilst logic classes and courses are common at universities, logic degrees are relatively rare and new. These are usually interdisciplinary and taught in departments of Philosophy or Mathematics, and more recently also Computer Science.

History of Artificial Intelligence within Computer Science
Oxford Languages defines artificial intelligence (AI) as 'the theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks normally requiring human intelligence'

The Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (DSRPAI), held in 1956, saw the emergence of AI as a discipline. It was here where John McCarthy, who first coined the term 'artificial intelligence', met with other academics such as Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon to research and discuss AI.

Before its establishment as a discipline, AI was a popular subject amongst researchers. Perhaps the most notable work being the Logic Theorist, a computer program created by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and Cliff Shaw in 1955, which was later presented at the DSRPAI.

Significant Work
Alan Turing was a British mathematician and computer scientist who famously cracked the enigma code during WW2, reaching feats in the field of AI before its debut. In his 1950 paper, 'Computing Machinery and Intelligence', he details the Turing test which sought to answer the question "Can Machines Think?". Turing describes 'The Imitation Game' in which an examiner questions a computer and a human to identify one from the other. Based on Turing's work, the CAPTCHA is now more widely used to determine whether a user is a computer or a human.

At the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Joseph Weizenbaum developed ELIZA - a natural language processing computer program - released in 1966. Many users thought ELIZA could conceptualise but she was simply "pattern matching". Despite this, ELIZA was one of the first programs with the capability to attempt the Turing test.

In 1997, the reigning chess champion Garry Kasparov was defeated in multiple chess matches by IBM's supercomputer Deep Blue. Of the six games, three were a draw, one a win for Kasparov, and two were won by Deep Blue.

Education and the Future of AI
At higher education, artificial intelligence is primarily taught as part of a computer science degree but is now increasingly being offered as a standalone course. AI has roots in many subject areas including philosophy, mathematics, psychology, and biology. Within psychology, for example, to build artificially intelligent machines requires an understanding of how human brains function. Its versatility as a discipline is reflected in the multiple sub-fields of AI - neural networks, robotics, speech processing, machine learning, etc.

With AI expanding as a discipline, the AI worldwide software market grows year-on-year (approximately 54% from 2019-20). However, there are concerns about AI and what it means for our future. Often these are centred around unemployment, security, inequality, and singularity. These concerns point to a different direction for AI; one which interests the public sector.

History of Forensic Linguistics as a Discipline
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_linguistics#:~:text=Forensic%20linguistics%2C%20legal%20linguistics%2C%20or,a%20branch%20of%20applied%20linguistics. Forensic linguistics] is a subsidiary of applied linguistics which involves implementing linguistic understanding as forensic evidence in lawful procedures. Similar to most sciences, themes of Forensic Linguistics can be traced back to Ancient Greece and author identification (a key pillar of the discipline) has been a topic of debate in public discourse since literature began. There were attempts to establish means of author attribution in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, with methods rooted in mathematics and statistics using quantitative factors such as average word and sentence length but these are incompatible with the definition of forensic linguistics for lacking in both forensic applications and established linguistic technique.

The term forensic linguistics, however, was coined in 1968 by Jan Svartvik when he was commissioned to analyse a body of statements given to the Notting Hill Police Station regarding the case of Timothy John Evans who was accused of murdering his wife and child and was subsequently convicted and hanged in 1953. Evans’ statements troubled many experts who pondered their authenticity and Svartvik’s analysis showed that they couldn’t have been dictated by him. The efficiency of the technique of methodically examining bodies of literature was demonstrated in this case and its use began to gain traction.

The American linguist Roger Shuy is widely regarded to be the founder of modern forensic linguistics and his work, along with others, has shaped many aspects of civil and criminal practice thus solidifying the discipline’s place and use. The International Association of Forensic Linguistics (IAFL) was formed in the late 20th century and is the primary organisation for forensic linguists. The IAFL edits the International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, a peer-reviewed journal that is focused around all aspects of forensic language and audio analysis and they also hold biennial conferences. Additionally, forensic linguistics is taught internationally at Universities, sometimes as a stand-alone degree but often in dual honour degrees or in specific modules.

The Evolution of Beauty and Visual Culture within the Arts
Many of us spend hours curating and maintaining our social media presence every day; Instagram is a conduit to modern visual culture expression. Our perception of ourselves, society and the world are all mediated by consumption and aesthetic pleasures. Western society has a long history with the visual and it is interwoven into many aspects of our worldly perspective. This history permeates our every day through magazines, YouTube, Instagram and television’s influence on our self-esteem, how we feel about our bodies and our identity. The cultural anthropologist Seremetakis believes the Western fetishisation of sight and aestheticism is seductive and hides the other senses on our cultural periphery. The documentation of social expectations drives our digital economy, what one must purchase and achieve in order to be ‘normal’.

Literature and Art have changed and manipulated our perspective on beauty over time, not only in terms of ourselves but also of objects and architecture. These disciplines act as gateways to new perspectives of popular visual culture such as new genres of Literature or new art movements such as the Bauhaus movement. In his poem An Ode to a Grecian Urn, John Keats states that 'beauty is truth, truth beauty', suggesting that a more realistic representation of life and human experiences should be the principal subject of art.

However, this realism within the creative disciplines was interrupted by the Aesthetes of the Pre-Raphaelite era (such as Gabriel Rossetti and William Morris). This movement upturned the expectation of art’s subject to simply be “art for art’s sake”, and the primary function of its existence to exemplify beauty and adhere to the pleasure of our senses. Danto theorised that once beauty is made the epicentre of an art piece; the work becomes redundant in terms of meaning, the disclosure of knowledge and its function within Capitalism. The chronological history of the creative disciplines is filled with discussion and dispute of the function of the discipline itself. Beauty has been moulded and shaped by Literature through a wide number of literary texts. For this particular essay,  Virginia Woolf’s ‘Orlando’. discloses the privilege of beauty and how beauty can be attained and maintained through wealth and power. Woolf’s main subject is the beauty of the human body through the eyes of a gender-fluid protagonist and his possessions.

In an age and milieu where the importance of the visual, whether beautiful or not, galvanises disciplines such as Art and Literature but also causes division between smaller subcategories such as Aesthetes and the Didactic influences, the concept of beauty can be seen as both limiting and liberating. The history and progression of Visual Culture gives the academics of this discipline the tools to analyse the current visual pandemic of Instagram. When one considers that 500 million people globally post an Instagram story per day, the epicentral platform for visual culture during the current epoch, there is no doubt the academic and statistical analysis of the visual is fertile.

The History of Inuit Studies
The study of the Inuit people, previously known as 'Eskimology', can be traced back to 1745, to the missionary works of Hans Egede in Greenland, as well as Ivan Veniaminov (1840) in Alaska. At this time, studies were exclusively dominated by non-native intellectuals, emphasising 'facts’ instead of theoretical discourse about how these details may best be represented.' The history of the discipline shows how direction of change can be 'influenced by the dilemma of being loyal to the colonised society ... studied while remaining a part of the ... colonising society.'

Between the 1850s and 1920s, the study shifted from dispersed, independent research to a more coherent scholarly community with increased exchange of knowledge. It mostly comprised of early scientific knowledge based on explorations by natural scientists and colonial administrators. In 1894, Greenland was first colonised by Denmark in its easter region. Thus, an imperial project directed research initiatives in Greenland (in the 19th and early 20th centuries.) Consequently, throughout history, the discipline has been a tool for colonialism as well as, more contemporarily, for decolonisation.

From the 1920s to the 1950s 'Eskimology' focused on the origins of Inuit culture and people, drawing prehistory and archaeology to its core. In 1920, 'Eskimology' was institutionalised by the University of Copenhagen when a teaching position was given to William Thalbitzer, an ethnographer and philologist, introducing ethnographic and philological approaches to 'Eskimology.'

In the 1950s -1980s, ‘Eskimology’ transformed into ‘Inuit studies.’ The name ‘Eskimo’ was rejected by natives as it means ‘eaters of raw meat’ (though this is a matter of contention) in the language of Atlantic Inuits, and was imposed upon the people by colonisers. The change in the discipline’s very nomenclature 'reflects a shift in the status of the Inuit – being (tentatively) reversed from objects to subjects.’ The establishment of a 'Department of Eskimology' in 1967 at the University of Copenhagen furthered the discipline's engagement with contemporary political developments in Greenland, such as indigenous rights. Inuit people are now 'acknowledged as co-producers of knowledge and project initiators' within the discipline. The department also introduced discourse around cultural identity and ethnicity, taking a more anthropological approach. These developments were driven by forces of social pressure, including endogenously, from students and lecturers, as indigenous rights and decolonisation became increasingly integrated into mainstream conscience.

However, the significant delay in the discipline’s institutionalisation and introduction of ethnographic, anthropological approaches may be symbolic of intentional silencing of Inuit culture and the colonial process of ‘cultural conversion’.

Rise of DIgital Anthropology
The development of online and digital phenomena such as social media, online politics, big data, search engines, artificial intelligence, etc. opened a completely new chapter in the scientific work of human scientists. Diversity and dynamism of the internet environments led to a quick differentiation of cybercultures which became a subject of scientific inquiry. As a result, The Digital Revolution gave birth to a number of of new sub-disciplines among which we can distinguish digital anthropology which aims to understand how digital environments influence the way people communicate, relate, and interact with each other.

According to Philipp Budka and Manfred Kremser, the beginnings of the digital anthropology can be tracked down to the 1994 Arturo Escobar’s article ‘Welcome to Cyberia’ published in Current Anthropology journal. In the article, Escobar formulated several fundamental questions regarding cybercultures and created basic guidelines for ethnographical research in the cyberspaces

Areas of Study
Despite the relatively short existence of the discipline, it is now possible to distinguish several main areas of anthropological investigation in the digital spaces. Daniel Miller in his article for the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology characterised the following trends in the digital studies :

 * 1) Study of technologies themselves via specific populations such as hackers, creators etc. which focuses on the exploration of closed online communities.
 * 2) * An example of such work is Gabierlla Coleman’s investigation of hacker cultures (2014) or Tom Boellstroff’s ethnographies of the online computer game- Second Life- community (2008)
 * 3) Study of ubiquitous digital platforms such as social media upon ordinary populations which focuses on producing traditional holistic ethnographies of people whose life was substantially influenced by digital technologies.
 * 4) * An example of such work is Madianou and Miller’s research on the transnational communication between mothers and children (2012) or Nicolescu’s ethnographies of Southern Italians in which he explored the impact of social media platforms on the public sphere and interests of people in Southeast Italy (2016)
 * 5)   Study of digital technologies for anthropological methodology. Digital revolution  implied changes within the discipline regarding the methods of gaining and gathering knowledge.
 * 6) * Access to new technology e.g. use of visual and audio recordings, downloads, etc. introduced new ways of conducting anthropological investigations such as online ethnographies which aren’t subject to space and time contraints.

Early developments
The word ‘entrepreneurship’ has always been linked with the word ‘entrepreneur’ which comes from the thirteenth-century French verb ‘entreprendre’, meaning “to undertake”. It was not until the 18th and 19th century, however, that the concept of entrepreneurship was used in academia - more specifically by the economists: Richard Cantillon, Jean-Baptiste Say and John Stuart Mill. For its origins in classical economics, entrepreneurship was considered part of the field, being connected tightly with many economic concepts such as productivity, risk-taking and management.

Entrepreneurship as a field of study
"In 1934, Schumpeter first identified entrepreneurs as distinct from business owners and managers”. Thanks to his account, entrepreneurship started to be considered as necessary for economic growth and development. By the end of 20th century, the amount of theory behind entrepreneurship and the number of studies in the field distinguished entrepreneurship as a discipline on its own. Consequently, today one can find entrepreneurship departments in many social sciences and business schools around the world.

Further developments
Entrepreneurship research diverged from studying the effects of entrepreneurship in business, to the study of entrepreneurial processes in various contexts. While one still cannot disregard its strong tie to business fields, it has to be argued that the study of entrepreneurship differs greatly from generic and small business management and no longer focuses only on the supply side or individual traits that drive business formation. Some of the salient implications that extend beyond understanding business and the functioning of complex organisations are the ones on inequality, social mobility, transition economies, social networks, family and life work.

History of Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy
Ethics is a discipline that deals with questions of morality, what is good and what is bad, trying to create a set of moral values, it "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". From Ancient Greek the work ēthos means "habitual character and disposition; moral character; habit, custom;". The origin of ethics as a system of moral norms cannot be described in the same sense as the origin of, for example, science or philosophy. There was no particular point on a timeline when morality arose, morality was inherent in the society, in one form or another, at all stages of its development. People living together were bound by different moral norms shaped by accepted beliefs, tendencies, and presuppositions.

In the western tradition, philosophical reflection on morality is considered to have started with the sophists in the fifth century B.C.E. The Sophists were teachers who taught a wide range of different subjects from philosophy and rhetoric to mathematics. They were focusing on arete –"virtue" or "excellence" Socrates challenged the subjectivism of Sophist ethics. He held the belief that ethical principles were universal and they were able to be identified, examined, and improved within the individual. Our knowledge of Socrates is derived mainly from Plato’s dialogues, such as The Republic and Gorgias. Plato’s student, Aristotle builds his view of ethics upon his teacher’s beliefs but with significant differences. Unlike Plato, he viewed the goodness as a part of a flourishing life (or eudaimonia ) as the highest good, not the good itself. And eudaimonia can only be achieved through virtuous life.

With the development of the discipline, philosophers started to distinguish between deontological ethics (from Greek: δέον, 'obligation, duty' + λόγος, 'study') and consequentialism, the first of the two hold that morality of an action is determined by the action itself, while the second one focuses on the consequences or results of an action. In this sense, deontology is often associated with Immanuel Kant, who believed that ethical actions follow universal laws, while utilitarianists, such as Jeremy Bentham or John Stuart Mill, believed in maximization of utility of an action.

Ethics is now a part of most degrees in Philosophy, however it is rarely presented as a separate degree.

The History of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a theory of the human mind and a method of psychotherapy developed by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. It is based on the idea that there are conscious and subconscious parts of the mind, and that they interact with each other. Psychoanalytical therapy consists of one-on-one sessions with a psychoanalyst, during which the patient speaks freely of their past and present experiences, uncovering repressed subconscious thoughts which are discussed with the therapist. Freud started theorizing psychoanalysis in the 1880s and 90s after working with Josef Breuer on the treatment of hysteria under hypnosis. Their collaboration ended however, and for almost a decade Freud was the only person working on psychoanalysis. He published The Interpretation of Dreams, considered to be his most important work, in 1899. In 1902, Freud was granted a Neuropathology professorship at the University of Vienna and he maintained it until his exile in 1938. In 1902, Freud also started the “Wednesday Psychological Society” in which he met with 5 to 15 members to discuss psychoanalysis every week until about 1908, when the International Psychoanalytical Association was officially founded (even though there had already been an international psychoanalytical congress called “First Congress for Freudian Psychology” in 1907). Psychoanalysis was becoming a more widespread discipline and was slowly gaining acceptance in the academic realm, attracting more and more scholars and theorists: its concepts were even being used in other disciplines, such as history of art.

Criticisms of Psychoanalysis
But along with this growing posterity came many criticisms, such as the ones formulated by Karl Popper, an epistemologist who considered psychoanalysis to be a “pseudo-science” because its theories could not be proven or disproven. In fact, psychoanalytical methods were, despite Freud’s claims, not entirely scientific: psychoanalysts would often start with a theory and try to find an example in a clinical case, rather than starting with an observation and coming to conclusions empirically. And as psychology shifted to a more scientific approach in the second half of the 20th century, psychanalysis started losing its prestige.

Psychoanalysis in Higher Education
Today, some universities still offer courses and degrees relating to psychoanalysis, such as the University of Essex, the University of Oxford , University College London , University College Dublin , and the International University for Graduate Studies in Dominica. Among these, only the latter offers a doctorate in “Psychoanalysis”, the others all having different names, such as “BA Psychosocial and Psychoanalytical Studies” at Essex or “MSc in Developmental Psychology and Clinical Practice” at UCL. The University of Oxford offers a course in “Psychodynamic Counselling”, but it is a Postgraduate Certificate and not a Master’s degree. Some of these courses are approved by the IPA and allow students to become psychoanalysts, but nowadays psychoanalysis is mostly studied in relation to other disciplines. The Psychoanalysis Unit at UCL states: "Our mission is to break the mould of traditional approaches to psychoanalysis, taking inspiration from the discipline's ideas to meet the challenges of the modern world. Our interdisciplinary research applies psychoanalysis to contemporary issues, including mental and physical health, financial instability, gender, technology and the arts."

The role of Psychoanalysis in Psychiatry
Despite its controversies, psychoanalysis continues to influence the field of psychiatry, the NHS stating it as a possible cure for depression, and it remains an important part of our collective psyche: Time magazine mentioned Freud as one of the 100 most influential people of the past century.

Defining Parkour
Defining parkour is a complex task. Parkour is an acrobatic discipline because it is a stunning sport consisting of jumping, running, rolling, climbing, and balancing in an urban environment. As David Belle, one of its founders puts it, parkour is a “type of freedom”. The purpose of the sport is to move from one point to another point as quickly as possible whilst expressing and developing one’s freedom. It is also an art form as well in that it’s values and philosophy construct that of teamwork, solidarity, fraternity, trust, rigorous physical training and a mindset that pushes back the body’s boundaries.

The beginning
The predecessor of parkour was brought about by Georges Hébert, a member of the French marines, who wrote a book on it. In this book named La Méthode Naturelle, he describes the physical fitness of native indigenous tribes he met whilst in Africa. Hebert established a “natural method” that consists of activities such as running, climbing and jumping, for people to become physically fit. An obstacle course for the French military was created based on Hébert’s writings. During the Vietnam War, a French military called Raymond Belle trained on this obstacle course for hours and his stamina and physical aptitude were said to have surged because of it. This empowered him to achieve exploits in the army and firefighting services. Furthermore, it was his son, David Belle, who was originally a gymnast, that is considered to be the pioneer of the parkour discipline.

The 1980s
Parkour in English is derived from the French word ‘Parcours’ meaning pathway. In a documented interview, David Belle told about when he asked his father, Raymond Belle, to characterise what the word meant when he created the sport. Belle Senior replied ‘Parcours is like in life, you have obstacles and you train to overcome them, you search for the best technique, you try all the techniques, you keep doing your best, you repeat it and then you get better.’ From this point on, David Belle and fellow members created a group named ‘Yamakasi’ which means “strong spirit” in Lingala and the discipline was officially practiced as ‘parkour’.

Parkour today
Today, there are parkour associations and groups internationally. Its attraction has significantly risen with many people around the world, particularly amongst the younger generations, learning about the discipline. The International Parkour Federation (or World Freerunning and Parkour Federation), established in 2014, also encourages the teaching of parkour in war zones or underpriviledged areas, to bring communities together through physical activity and the taching of some of parkour's values. It is also the WFPF that licenses parkour teachers.

The original philosophical construct and mindset of its practice with hard training, stamina, and brotherhood, however, tends now to be more anecdotal as the vast majority of those that practice it consider parkour as a sport or hobby and not an art form. In other words, parkour today is more of an acrobatic sport than a discipline, which it what it was considered to be in the 1980s and 1990s with the Yamakasi group training and mindset.


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Biology

Biology and the History of Biology
Biology is considered a natural science, focusing on the physical world aiming to predict and understand natural phenomena through carrying out experiments with specific methodologies for this discipline and collecting qualitative and quantitative data. Biology itself is defined as "a branch of knowledge that deals with living organisms and vital processes" looking at the "structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living organisms". Within Biology, there are three major branches; Microbiology (looking at cellular organisms), Zoology (focusing on animals, anatomy and physiology), and Botany (focusing on plants). . Biology and in particular the field of medicine within Biology can be dated back to ancient Egyptian times(1800BC) and ancient China (2500BC) in which the earliest medical texts are known from, major advancements within Biology could be seen with the discovery of the microscope by Robert Hooke in 1665 which caused a paradigm shift as it was once believed that "living organisms were composed of endlessly divisible fluid or indivisible subunits" (this belief stemmed from ancient Greece), this discovery enabled scientists to discover that living organisms were, in fact, composed of "the smallest possible units of life" called cells (also known as cell theory). The discovery of the helical structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953 is believed to have triggered the "Biological Revolution" in which biological fields such as medicine saw major advancements. Fields such as epidemiology in Biology could be seen as vitally important today during the coronavirus pandemic where scientists try to predict and observe patterns of diseases in order to reduce causalities. The ongoing discovery of knowledge about genetics has had a major impact on many industries, especially agriculture. Genetically modified organisms (GMO's) are used widely nowadays and increase crop yields while also posing potential risks as long-term effects are still unknown. The field of genetics is likely to only grow in importance as new gene editing technologies like CRISPR may help in the fight against cancer and other genetic diseases. These gene editing technologies already pose very important ethical questions about how these technologies can be used ethically and how to prevent unethical use, especially when it comes to human embryos. It is high time for governments to make worldwide legislative decisions on gene editing practices since gene editing has alredy been used on human embryos, e.g. a Chinese researcher has modified the genome of two babies in an attempt to make them immune against HIV in 2018.

The Scientific Method within Biology
One of the key characteristics of Biology as a discipline is the method involved when carrying out experiments. When looking at scientific experiments in Biology a certain method is followed, this (rough) method is commonly taught within Biology to students: 1. Form a hypothesis. 2. Develop an experiment by establishing an independent, dependent, and controlled variable. 3. Collect quantitative and qualitative data. 4. Repeat experiment multiple times. 5. Analyse data and establish any anomalies. 6. Compare the results of the experiment to your hypothesis to decide the extent to which the hypothesis is true and determine whether to accept it or not.

Biology as a discipline
Although Biology has been prevalent throughout human history, modern biology did not become a discipline (in which you could obtain a degree, certificate, professor, etc.) until recently in around the 19th century. For instance, one of the first biological departments in England was founded at University College London in 1828, when the Department of Physiology was founded, and in 1905 when the Department of Pharmacology was founded. Additionally, the first Nobel prize in Biological sciences was awarded to Emil Adolf von Behring in 1901 for Physiology or Medicine.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Interesting social sciences/My theory of interrelation between social conflict and social control

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXS3ZXrhqA0&ab_channel=%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2

Let the loser cry.

English subtitles exist in this video. Theory of the relationship between conflict and control.

The debatable questions in conflict theory
Several unresolved problem exist in such science as conflict theory:
 * What is  an essence of interrelation between the social conflict and social control?
 * Do conflicts have a benefit?
 * What is the reasons and the purpose of conflict?
 * What is criterion for the classification of conflicts?
 * Is it necessary to settle all conflicts on the basis of the voluntary agreement between conflicting sides?

 * What is the basis for agreement between the conflicting sides during the settlement of conflict?

The definitions
A social conflict is the form of social interaction under which the participants of this conflict attempt to conquer the victory above their opponents with the help of different means with the aim of the physical destruction of opponent, with the aim transformation of opponent into the object of control, with the aim  the conquering of the somebody else’s sphere of influence and somebody else’s resources. A social control is the form of social interaction under which the controller forces the object of control to the fulfillment of norms of behavior with help of the threat of the application of positive or negative sanctions, with help of the introduction of stereotypes. Thus, there are two statuses (controller and objects of control) in relations of social control. A sanction is reward or punishment, thus positive or negative sanctions exist. A norm is the rule of behavior. A stereotype is the model for the imitation, which takes root in the consciousness of the people through the media and mass culture. The temporary consistency of the mechanism for control with help of the threat of the application of sanctions consists of three stages:
 * the broadcasting of norms,

Below I will try to give the answers on debatable questions in conflict theory, this debatable questions were assigned above.
 * supervision for the fulfillment of norms,
 * the application of negative sanctions against the disturbers of norms and the application of positive sanctions for the obedient executors of norms.

'''Essence of the interrelation between the concepts of social conflict and social control. '''

There is no description of the logical principle of the interrelation between the conceptions of “social conflict” and “social control” in the sociological literature. These conceptions are examined in the detachment from each other. The theoretical novelty of my approach consists to the detection of the essence of this interrelation. Exactly the understanding of the essence of this interrelation makes it possible to solve all enumerated above problems of conflict theory.

The essence of interrelation between social conflict and social control consists of the following:
 * From one side, the winner in the conflict becomes by controller before the following flash of conflict. The person who has lost in the conflict becomes by object of control. The person who has lost in the conflict is forced to perish or to give to the winner a sphere of influence

 * From other side, the controller is forced to support the optimum level of the strictness of the sanctions of social control, because too severe or too soft social control causes the new flash of conflict because the object of control begins to doubt in the ability of controller to fulfill its functions.

The object of control goes to the conflict with the controller because of a feeling of desperation  in the case of too severe social control  and the object of control decides to risk by own life, by achievements in the career or by wages for the sake of the liberation from too severe control. The object of control receives the hope on the victory over the controller in the case of too soft control, because object of control begins to consider that controller is too weak and incapable to use punishments. For example, the pupils arrange the disruption of lesson in the case of the too tyrannical or too tolerant style of the establishing order on the lesson from the side of teacher.

Benefit of conflicts
With the point of view for the representatives of such direction in macrosociology as structural functionalism, each custom and each organization have own function in the society, conflicts do not have a benefit and a function in the society; therefore conflicts must be eradicated. Empirical sociological research were developed intensively in first half 20 century (research of conflicts in the small groups and the production organizations, research of the conflicts in the form of strikes, protest demonstrations, riots and military conflicts). The purpose of these research were the explanation of the reasons of conflicts and the search of the effective procedures of their settling. The conflicts were considered  in this case as the negative processes, which restrain the development of society. Talcott Parsons saw the main task of sociology in the establishment of the non ‐ conflicting relations between different elements of society with aim of the establishment of equilibrium, mutual understanding and collaboration. In his opinion, law’s institutes, religion and customs carry out the function of settlement of conflicts. The society becomes all less conflicting in process of development of society. This concept of Talcott Parsons was underwent to the substantiated criticism for “frailty”. With an opposite point of view, which belongs to the representatives of conflict theory, conflicts are inevitable in the society, but conflicts must be settled, conflicts have a benefit and harm in the society. Lewis A. Coser indicated to the negative and positive functions of conflict.

The following negative functions of conflict exist:

 * the worsening of the social climate,

 * the reduction of productivity of labor,

 * the dismissal of the part of the workers with aim of resolution of conflict,

 * the inadequate perception by the opposite sides of each other and the decreasing of collaboration between them,

 * the material and emotional expenditures for resolution of conflict.

The following positive functions of conflict exist:

 * the conflict is the reason for change and development of social system, the conflict is the source of innovations,

 * conflict makes it possible to build hierarchy inside the social groups,

 * conflict makes it possible to create organization,

 * conflict makes it possible to rally the association of adherents,

 * conflict makes possible for man to appear his activity, thus, conflict stimulates the development of personality, conflict brings up self ‐ esteem, firmness, courage and leader’s qualities,

 * outcome of conflict removes latent tension and outcome of conflict gives the exit for energy.

I am agreeable with the point of view of conflict theory completely. Benefit and function of conflict consist in that the development of society takes place with help of conflict   and the natural selection of aspirants to controllers take place with help of conflict; therefore the complete eradication of conflict is utopia, conflict is the necessary element of social structure.

The purpose and the reason of social conflict

The purpose of conflict is the conquest of resources, status of controller or sphere of influence. The reason of conflict is the human needs for wealth, prestige and power in spite of interests of other people. The consequence of these conflicts is the inevitable and natural inequality between the people in the society. The status of controller, the conquered sphere of influence, the wealth, the prestige and the power are prizes for winner in the conflict. The inequality between the controller and the object of control serves as an example of the inequality between the people. Some elites attempt to create themselves unfair advantages in the conflict in the form of caste’s or class’s privileges sometimes, some elites attempt to forbid for the representatives of bottoms to make legal career. Such elites attempt to abolish the free elections, the market competition, the marriages between the representatives of bottoms and tops, such elites attempt to abolish the right of the representative of bottoms to address into the law court or to challenge on the duel of the representative of elite. This attempts lead unavoidably to the loss of competitive ability at the representatives of elite and this attempts lead to the social revolution, when “upstarts” from the bottoms are forced to destroy physically of “degenerates” from the old elite and “upstarts” from the bottoms are forced to occupy place at the top of social pyramid instead representatives of old elite.

The criterions for the classification of the kinds of social conflict and social control.

Such essential criterion is the kind of means for struggle under conducting of conflict.

The following means of struggle for the different kinds of the conflict exist:
 * The gestures of aggression, flirtation, lie, etc.

My criterion for the classification of kinds of social control is the kind of sanctions or stereotypes. Psychological science did not open to the end the device of the mechanism of psychological control (mechanism of hypnosis, “fateful” love, influence of demagogue on the crowd). Moral, armed, administrative, economic and religious kinds of control are built on the mechanism of the threat of sanctions.
 * Verbal abuse or praise, the spreading of gossips.
 * The weapon.
 * Organization of election campaign, meetings and demonstrations, political advertisement, denunciation into the higher instances, the bureaucratic intrigues, the strike.
 * The religious curses in the address of opponents, sacred inquisition.
 * The cheap and high ‐ quality goods.
 * The high ‐ quality work of art.
 * The rhetorical methods, the sophistical tricks and the scientific proof.

Five kinds of the sanctions are applied in five corresponding kinds of control:
 * The moral sanctions (praise or insult).
 * The armed sanctions (corporal punishments).

Aesthetical and ideological kinds of control are built on the mechanism of the introduction of stereotypes.
 * The administrative sanctions (increase or demotion to the service, the dismissal or providing of work).
 * The religious sanctions (threat of eternal torments in hell or eternal bliss in to paradise, the promise of advantages or penalties in the process of reincarnation (in the process regeneration of souls).
 * The economic sanctions (premium and fine).

Classification of the kinds of social conflict and social control
In my opinion, eight kinds of social conflict exist and eight analogous kinds of the social control exist:

The essence of this classification will be opened in more detail below. Examples of the kinds of conflict and social control will be named below. The kinds of social conflict and social control were invented not simultaneously, but the kinds of social conflict and social control were invented in turn in the process of the history of human society. The broadcasting of norms and the threat of sanctions is realized not with help of the words in the process of psychological control and psychological conflict frequently, but it is realized in form of the language of gestures. Humanity inherited these primitive kinds of psychological conflict and psychological control from the animal ancestors.

It is possible to give the following examples of each kind of the conflict:
1). Examples of the psychological conflict: 2). Example of the moral conflict:
 * the mutual intimidation in the language of gestures,
 * the clarification in the process of the flirtation of that fact, who is leader in the love relations,
 * the competition of demagogues for the influence on the crowd.

3). Examples of the armed conflict:
 * the quarrel between people in the process of fight for status of leader in the small group.
 * the hunting on wild animals,
 * the war between the states,
 * civil war,
 * the war between the criminal groups and the war of criminal groups against the police,
 * the armed seizure of power,
 * political murder,

 * extremist terror,

 * duel,
 * sport’s competitions, as kind of a show, the first examples of sports competitions: Olympic Games in Ancient Greece and Gladiatorial fights in Ancient Rome.

4). Examples of the administrative conflict:
 * political elections,

 * the conflict of bureaucratic cliques, fight behind scene, clique is group or the gang of adherents, this group strive to dismiss from the work of the members of other cliques with help of different methods and this group strive to move of members of own clique upward on the administrative official stairs.

 * the fight of factions in a parlament or in party,

Three forms of the political elections exist:
 * the strike of workers.
 * the elections at the popular assembly under direct democracy,
 * the elections at the privileged assembly (Senate) under aristocracy,

The system of election in the popular assemble was brought to perfection in Ancient Athens, the system of election in the privileged senate was brought to perfection in Ancient Greek Sparta and in Ancient Rome, and the system of multi-party public elections was brought to perfection in England and the USA as a result of activity of the parties of chartists and feminists. Chartists have achieved of right to vote for workers, and feminists have achieved of right to vote for the women. 5). An example of religious conflict is religious competition between the church and sectarian organizations for the sphere of influence on the believers within the framework of the observance of the freedom of religion, invented in the USA.
 * the multi-party public election of the President and the deputies under representative democracy, the deputies vote in the parliament instead of their voters and in the interests of their voters.

6). An example of economic conflict is the market competition, under conditions of which such producer survives, who can produce and sell goods on the smallest price and with the best quality. Market competition was invented by Phoenicians and ancient Greeks in Athens. There were invented sea trade and seagoing ships, handicraft production of goods for sale and particular ownership of the means of production in Phoenicia and Athens, but Phoenicians and ancient Greeks used slaves as the work force instead of the hired workers employed for money. Gold coins  were invented in Lydia. The market competition was abolished and subsistence economy is restored in the Middle Ages in Western Europe, because the center of the development of European civilization had  moved from the Mediterranean to European continent, and trade along the overland roads was hindered because of the feudal fragmentation. The market competition was restored in Western Europe under capitalism on the new basis. Oceanic trade and ocean ‐ going ships (carracks and caravels), wage labour  and machine production were invented in addition to the old signs of market. Ocean trade and ocean ships (carracks and caravels} were invented in Portugal and Spain.

7). An example of aesthetic conflict is the competition between the creators of art, this competition was invented in ancient Athens.

8). An example of ideological conflict is dispute or discussion between the scientists, between the politicians or between the media. Logic is science about the laws of correct thinking. Rhetoric is science about the eloquence. Logic and rhetoric were invented in Ancient Greece.

It is possible to give the following examples for each kind of control:
1). Examples of the psychological controllers:
 * the hypnotist,

2). An example of moral control is the control of leader in the small group with help of such sanctions as praises or insults under the conditions of the moral support of this leader from the side of the majority of the members of this group. 3). An examples of the armed control:
 * the demagogue, who knows how to influence on crowd.
 * the "fatal" person who able to inspire unrequited love to own person from the representative of an opposite sex.

 * the control of herdsman, horseman and the coachman in the farmer economy in relation to domestic animals,

 * the control of leader in the criminal groups,

 * the control of head of mafia in Russian prison, the control medical orderlies in psychiatric hospital,  the control guards  in any total institution (army barracks, slaveholding economy, concentration camp)  ‐ with help of such sanctions as corporal punishments.
 * the authorities turn out the system of criminal law into the system of state’s terror and intimidation of citizens under such form of government as tyranny.

4). An examples of the administrative control: 5). An example of religious control is the control “of the prophet” in the charismatic sect and control of the priest above the believers with help of such sanctions as the threats of eternal torments in hell or the promise of eternal bliss in to paradise in Christianity and Islam, promise of advantages in the process of reincarnation in Buddhism. Religious control was invented in such world religions as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism. The mechanism of religious control (in Christianity) was invented in the period of the sunset of Roman empire.
 * the control inside the vassal ‐ fief system,
 * the control inside any bureaucratic organization (tax service, army, church, police, system of education, system of state public health, government sector in the economy, socialist planned economy, system of executive power) with help of such sanctions as promotion or demotion on servise, the dismissal or providing of work. Administrative control was invented together with the invention of bureaucracy in Ancient Egypt and in States of Mesopotamia.

6). An examples of the economic control:

 * the control in private enterprise,
 * the control of international banks,

Economic control is fulfilled with help of such sanctions as money’s premium and fine. This kind of control is most effective today. Economic control was invented under capitalism in England and Netherlands. International banks attempt to control economically to the policy of whole countries. The system of the government’s control of the domestic market uses such economic sanctions as privileges on the credits, the taxes and the customs duties. 7). An example of aesthetic control is a control with help of the introduction of aesthetic stereotypes (attractive images). 8). An example of ideological control is control with help of the introduction of ideological stereotypes by the way of multiple repetition of norms of behavior. Political and commercial advertisement serves as an example of aesthetical and ideological control. The invention of mass media (newspapers, cinema, radio, television, video) allowed to build the system of ideological and aesthetical control in Western Europe and USA under capitalism. State’s ideological machine was built under the Communist and Fascist tyranny with help of deception and disinformation of citizens in the interests of authorities. To protect of citizens from this danger, freedom of press exists under western democracy. Freedom of press is the system of competition between the private mass medias. Television company, which gives the false, uninteresting or obsolete information, forced to go broke in conditions of this competition.
 * the government’s control of market.

Similarity and difference between the biological conflict and social conflict
Three kinds of the conflict exist:

 * Fight for own life, fight for own existence and  fight for an opportunity to have own posterity.

 * The conflict for the status of the controller.

 * The conflict for a sphere of influence between several controllers.

Charles Darwin has noticed correctly that a fight of the first kind - fight for own life and for life of own posterity (maternal instinct) exists against representatives of other species almost only in the biosphere. Males of one specie fight with each other for the right to copulate and to have own posterity from a female. The psychological conflict and psychological control exist already at the highest animals, in particular in pack of wolves or in herd of ungulates. Other kinds of the conflict and control listed in my classification are characteristic only for people, animals couldn't invent them.

Fight for own life (fight for existence according to Charles Darwin) happens in human society only in such kind of the conflict as the armed conflict. A fight for the status of the controller or for a sphere of influence exist in other kinds of the conflict, but fight for own life don't exist in other kinds of the conflict. Loser is killed only in the armed kind of the conflict sometimes. The loser can choose between the prospect of own death and the status of the prisoner of war even in the war today. Thus a fight for the status of the winner exist, but fight for own life don't exist in modern war partially. European empires fought among themselves for a sphere of influence - for partition of colonies between European empires in World War I.

The psychological conflict and the administrative conflict go for the status of the controller - for the status of the hypnotist, for the status of "fatal" person in love, for status of the chief (the winner in behind-the-scenes fight), for status of the president (the winner on elections). The economic conflict in a form of the market competition, the religious conflict between churches and sects, an esthetic competition between actors and film studios, an ideological disputes between scientists and an ideological disputes between correspondents of newspapers - these kinds of the conflict go for a sphere of influence on consumers, believers, fans of music.

The conflict for the status of the controller and the conflict for a sphere of influence is widespread in society, though as a last resort, fight for own life is applied in society. There was a transition from prevalence of fight for life to prevalence of the conflict for the status of the controller and the conflict for sphere of influence in the course of human history. It turns out that the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin is only a special case of the my general theory about interrelation between the conflict and control.

Whether it is necessary to settle the conflicts?
In my opinion, the settlement of conflict is the impracticable task until participants of conflict will be agreeable to keep some conditions of truce. These conditions can consist from agreement about the repartition of resources, boundaries of the spheres of influence or about the observance of a treaty, according to which the  winner  in conflict becomes by controller, and loser people in conflict becomes  by object of control. This is the basis for the treaty between the conflicting sides. This treaty is the result of the test of forces in the conflict usually, but this treaty is not the result of frequently useless conversations with the psychotherapist. This treaty is superfluous in the case of physical destruction of one of two opposite sides of conflict. A court, a police and a prison are engaged by settling of the conflicts in society. The court monitors for observance of rules of fight in society and the сourt has powers to apply sanctions against violators of these rules. Religious organizations and psychological service has no such powers. Religious organizations and psychological service are not able to settle some conflicts often. Religious organizations and psychological service are capable to console of losers only, religious organizations and psychological service are capable to prevent cases of alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide among losers. Religious organizations are capable to prevent mass riots and mutinies with participation of losers. It isn’t possible to settle all forms of conflict in the court, for example, it isn’t possible to settle psychological, moral, armed conflicts and conflicts of bureaucratic cliques in the court. People avoid to appeal in court most frequently on such insignificant questions as household quarrels. The criminal cases about “fateful” love are excited in the case of murder or suicide of victim only. Criminals avoid appeal to court frequently, since  appeal into the court contradicts the principles of thievish “honor”. Сontroversial problems are resolved at criminals not in the court, but on the meeting with the participation of criminal authorities instead of the judges, in “honest” duel or with help of the destruction of the enemy as a result of war between the gangsters. Сontroversial questions of nobility’s honor were resolved at nobles not in court, but with help of the duel. The settling of all kinds of armed conflict is most difficult task. Victory is reached here frequently only after physical destruction of enemy or after taking into the captivity of the most part of the hostile army, when further continuation of war is impossible for defeated army. Fight without the rules goes in the war most frequently, when everything is permitted. The countries sign treaties about the prohibition of the application of the most barbarous forms of weapon in the war sometimes, about execution of prisoners of war and about terror against the innocent civilians, but these treaties are violated often. For example, Germany used poison gas in World War 1 in spite of the articles of prewar treaties. Terrorists are capable to execute hostages or children, terrorists are capable to blow up of peaceful citizens in spite of all laws. Observance of the prohibitions under warfare is built frequently only on the fear before retaliatory application of the forbidden type of weapon, but observance of the  prohibitions under warfare is'not built  on the fear before the judicial sanctions frequently. This rule exists in war ‐ the winner is always right. The representatives of one clique create the intolerable working conditions for the representatives of another clique during the conflict between the bureaucratic cliques, this conflict appears in any “office” unavoidably. The representatives of one clique force of representatives of another cliques to leave at own will, in this case the representatives of one clique try not to give to the representatives of another clique of occasion for the  appeal into the court. Not all forms of conflict must be settled, because it is profitable for society to support such forms of conflict as market competition, political elections, creative competition between workers of show business, scientific dispute, sport competitions. For this purpose state fights with those participants in the conflict, who managed to win of all their rivals and to attain monopoly position on the market. State supports  of opposition in the political sphere  and the state monitors for observance  of political freedoms. For example, the President of the USA Theodore Roosevelt was obtained nickname "trust buster". As the answer owners of this trusts created the transnational corporations, when central office is located in the USA, and assembly plants are located in the countries of Third World. As a result it is very difficult to bring to court of a similar company and to divide into the parts of a similar company by the decision of the court of one country. Furthermore, a similar company obtains the possibility to exploit cheap labor of the countries of Third World. The system of the separation of powers is built on conflict between the branches of power.

Two kinds of conflicts
All conflicts are divided into two kinds:
 * The conflicts, which are conducted without the rules and without an arbitrator. This conflicts are conducted before the complete physical destruction of the losing side of conflict sometimes.

Only first kind of conflict is applied in living nature. Hunting is finished by death of animals from the hands of man very often, but it is very seldom, when hunting is finished by the placement of animals into the zoo. The rules are introduced even in the sphere of hunting and fishing today, this rules forbid hunting on the rare animals, included into the IUCN Red List, this rules forbid hunting and fishing in the specific periods of time ‐ period of the spawning of fish, nesting of birds and so on. The most barbarous kinds of weapon of mass destruction were forbidden or limited in 20th century, and the rules of treatment with the prisoners of war were accepted. Knightly duels were passed according to the rules "The Code Of Honor", seconds followed for observance of this rules. Usurpers and conspirators destroyed of overthrown rulers after palace coup or after plot with the purpose of seizure of power usually, because  too great a danger exists for the conspirators in the case of return of overthrown rulers to the power. For example, such tsars as False Dmitry I, Peter 3 of Russia, Ivan VI of Russia, Paul I of Russia, Nicholas II of Russia were killed in the course palace coup or after palace coup. As the exception from the general rule, such former rulers as Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail Gorbachev was sent  to the pension. The fight of bureaucratic cliques goes without rules, because this fight goes secretly, winners don't destroy of defeated rivals, but winners dismiss of defeated rivals. The small group is arbiter in the moral quarrel, the small group awards a victory. The rules of game and arbitrator exist in the political elections, the market competition, the religious conflict, creative competition and scientific dispute. The progress of society conducts to reduction of scope for application of fight without the rules. The development of society conducts to the expansion of scope for application of those kinds of the conflict, where an arbiter and rules of game exist. As the conclusion it should be noted that I managed to give answers on all controversial questions in conflict theory.
 * The conflicts, which are conducted according to the rules, where the arbitrator exists, arbitrator watches for the observance of the rules of game and the  arbitrator awards the victory. Such conflicts never end in the destruction of the losing party to the conflict.


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User talk:TimRJordan/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 4/History

The section on 'The Evolution of Beauty within the Arts' is really nicely written (!) but I'm not sure whether rhetorical questions are appropriate in a Wikipedia article (unless they are quotations)? According to an explanatory supplement to Wikipedia's Manual of Style guideline: "As with exclamation marks, question marks (?) should also generally only be used if they occur in direct quotations; do not pose rhetorical questions for the reader." Vkwzw (discuss • contribs) 19:35, 16 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi, thank you for this advice, I have changed it now. I am so used to writing English Literature essays that focus on a developing point based on opinions and "what the reader thinks" that this was a very new academic endeavour. purplerain24 (discuss • contribs) 07:29, 9th of November 2020 (UTC)

QUESTION about referencing: Hi everyone! Should we use the same reference system for all our inputs? Which one are you using? Whygrowup (discuss • contribs) 14:56, 19 October 2020 (UTC) I think we all have to use the Vancouver referencing style! Mouxy73 (discuss • contribs) 11:15, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

I agree with the user above. I have the same concern about 'the history of psychology as a branch of medicine'. It's nicely written but sometimes the information comes across as opinionated rather than factual. Jigamaree (discuss • contribs) 14:57, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Could a definition at the beginning of the section on artificial intelligence be useful for the reader? Very nicely written but just wondered if that would be a helpful transition in the introduction. purplerain24 (discuss • contribs) 11:18, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

I've been reading the History of Digital Anthropology, and I find the topic quite interesting, however it feels like it is cut short: it speaks more of what digital anthropology studies than the history of the discipline. How has it become a discipline? Is it accepted as a seperate discipline today? Do universities teach it as a seperate degree?

In 'History of Material Culture,' I noticed that you cited Wikipedia itself. However, according to the page below, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Academic_use#:~:text=Wikipedia%20is%20ideal%20in%20these,source%20yourself%20before%20citing%20it, it is not recommended to do this, unfortunately. Instead, you could have a look at the sources the Wikipedia page has cited and use them. --Banksy2020 (discuss • contribs) 17:30, 6 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your contribution I changed it! Majb324 (discuss • contribs) 15:50, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

'The History of Psychology as a Branch of Medicine' is very informative, however I found that some improvement of the structure could help to clarify the main argument. Below I have suggested a restructuring of the first paragraph to consider. This is merely a suggestion and does by no means have to be the final structure.

'Psychology can be simply defined as the study of experience and behaviour according to Sonja Hunt in The relationship between psychology and medicine, which makes a common point with medicine: an interest in human functioning. The involvement of psychology in medicine has not been continuous or unanimously encouraged, and the interdependence between body and mind was questioned throughout the centuries with in parallel the interdependence between psychology and medicine. Mind and body were believed to be linked in Ancient times. The saying "Mens sana in corpore sano", which is a quote from Juvenal in Satires, is still used today. This citation demonstrates the importance in people’s mind of, in order to be well, not only be in a good physical shape but also in a good state of mind. However, the link between these two disciplines was questioned when the view on Man changed: body and mind became two distinct areas of study in the 17th century, especially due to the work of Descartes (Mediationes de Prima philosophia, Meditation VI). This is a different trajectory from psychiatry which can be considered as the medical form of psychology because it uses prescriptions and medicines, psychology itself has come to be a medical discipline. ' --Banksy2020 (discuss • contribs) 18:13, 6 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your suggestion, the restructuring is a good idea so I'll modify the first paragraph! Mouxy73 (discuss • contribs) 13:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

In regards to the Logic essay, I would like to make the following suggestions: - I think that logic is an excellent option for a degree subject but your essay falls short on the analysis of why this would be the case. You describe the history of the discipline clearly placing it within a canon of knowledge however, the future of logic as a discipline is not usefully projected.purplerain24 (discuss • contribs) 11:18, 9th of November 2020 (UTC)


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User:Jewlsd

The Jester's Ego
The Clown's Painted Smile/Mundanities Absurdism

Jewls' Structure

 * See also Pretentious Structure for some helpful tips and ideas.

I Find Myself Funny
The main page is generally the first page a new reader sees. It should give a quick overview of the scope, intended audience and layout of the book. Splash pages should be avoided. Often the layout is simply the full table of contents. Collections, printable versions and PDF files should be easily accessible from this page.

Links to the book from the card catalog office and external websites should point to a book's main page. The subject index on the card catalog office requires the shelves template to be placed on the main page of the book. The book's main page and category should be placed in any categories that the book belongs to. Indicate a book's completion status with status to provide readers with an idea of how far along the book is when browsing the shelf pages. If you still require help with categorizing a book, please request assistance in the reading room.

Interlingual links should be placed on the book's main page. Books across language projects may be dissimilar even when about the same subject. Be wary about placing interlingual links on any other pages.

Table of contents
In general, the table of contents should reside on the main page, giving readers an overview of the available material. In cases where this is impractical, a special page can be created for it. Common names for such pages are Contents, Table of contents or similar.

Introduction
An introduction page is the first page where learning begins. A book's introduction page commonly delves into purpose and goals of the book; what the book aims to teach, who the audience is, what the book's scope is, what topics the book covers, history of the subject, reasons to learn the subject, any conventions used in the book, or any other information that might make sense in an introductory chapter. Common names for such pages are Introduction or About. The latter is more commonly used when information about the book is split from the introduction of the subject matter.

The local manual of style—when it is not part of the Introduction page -- is often named literally "Local style manual", "Manual of style", "How to contribute", "How you can help", "About", etc. — appended to the book name, of course. Whatever it is called in the book you are editing, it would be nice if a link to it is on the same page as the table of contents. Having a local manual of style is further discussed in WB:LMOS.

title: User:Jewlsd


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User:Jewlsd/sandbox

The names

title: User:Jewlsd/sandbox


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User:PepperOud/sandbox

Power in Nursing as Gender Inequality
Nursing is an important part in the health care system, including tasks related to taking care of people with potential health problems. The power issue in nursing consists in gender inequality in this field. In the UK medical system, only 11% of nurses are male, while the rest 89% are female. Moreover, male students in nursing schools are reported to experience more negative feelings like isolation, and they are also with a higher drop out rate compared with female students.

The stereotype of nursing as a feminine profession roots deeply in history when Ms. Nightingale opened her nursing training school in 1860, which served as a model for other nursing education programs across Western countries. Though Nightingale’s efforts in professional nursing training elevated the status of female nurses and provided more career options for unmarried women, the organisation of nursing school was mobilised as a female-oriented system, excluding male students from the career. Most training schools at that time were built by mimicking the environment in religious sisterhood, requiring female students to preserve virtues and to be subordinate to physicians who were mostly males. Thus, nurses were classified as a second class accessory and the ubiquitous stereotypes of female characteristics were extended into the medical world. The mobilised bias of the nurse icon act as indirect coercion, preventing males to enter the nursing world by defining it as a feminine profession. Such stereotypes are also reinforced in popular culture when male nurses are portrayed as homosexual, putting pressure on males who want to pursue a nursing career.

Due to the exclusiveness toward males in early nursing schools and the continuation of education traditions, the language use in nursing is biased against men. For example, in many nursing textbooks, the use of both pronouns and nouns are found in feminine forms, thus assuming all students are female. The use of the phrase “male nurse” also segregates the two genders and marginalise male students in nursing by categorising men as the minority. In addition, it is found out that in nursing training, the ways of communication with patients are usually taught based on the female mode of emotional expression, making male students struggle to find their own ways to establish connections with patients. On the other side, though male nurses took active roles in history like during wartimes, their contributions were rarely recorded in nursing textbooks. Moreover, the percentage of male teachers in nursing schools is only 5%, which is lower than the percentage of males students enrolled. Both the use of gender-biased language and the lack of male role models in nursing education act as power, giving stress to male students and discourage them from continuing to study.

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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/February 11

Today in 2017 Google released version 1.0.0 of TensorFlow.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 31

Today in 2007 the first version of Magento was released.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 28

Today in 2000 the first release of Audacity took place.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 28


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Global Health

Defining global health
Global health lies at the convergence of many fields such as medicine, epidemiology, economics, demography, and international relations. As cited by Beaglehole et al., it is defined by Macfarlane et al. as the ‘worldwide improvement of health, reduction of disparities, and protection against global threats that disregard national borders'.

Origins
Formal international health cooperation, whilst not yet termed 'global health', first began in the mid-nineteenth century, in the form of the fourteen International Sanitary Conferences, which took place between 1851 and 1938, with the objective of regulating the length of quarantine periods for diseases across different countries.

However, whilst in practice what might now be regarded a constituent of global health was prevalent beforehand, conceptually, global health only emerged when the term first began to be used in scientific literature in the late 1940s, during the immediate aftermath of the Second World War (which had drastically affected the health of citizens around the world). This was a period characterised by the onset of a changing socio-political landscape, whereby scientific developments flourished, and states adopted a more internationalist and multilateral outlook. This, furthered by increasing globalisation and the easier proliferation of knowledge worldwide, led to nations being more invested in developing solutions to scientific issues collaboratively.

Development as a discipline
The consolidation of global health as a discipline occurred following the inception of the World Health Organisation in 1948 - the first international governing body to institutionalise and specialise on the growing movement (whilst the OIHP and the health organisation of the League of Nations, formed in 1914, also dealt with improving the control of diseases, they were not formed in response to the emergence of global health as a discipline). The year 1995 also denotes a pivotal moment in the history of global health, as it signifies the start of the dramatic increase in searches on PubMed using the term. Subsequently, other organisational frameworks have also arisen to further formalise the area, and provide a network for contributors to engage with each other and advance the field, including academic journals such as The Lancet Global Health, founded in 2013, and now many universities, such as University College London, the University of Oxford, and Harvard University offer professional certifications on the field.

Whilst often still conflated with the two, global health distinguishes itself from both public and international health given its specialised object of research, which focuses on health related issues that can only be solved by the implementation of strategies on a global scale (as implied by its name). Public health, on the other hand, solely works at a national level, whilst international health focuses on binational partnerships to aid low and middle-income countries. Indeed, it has even been contested by Jose Miguel DeAngulo and Luz Stella Losada that global health is gradually replacing international health all together and thus signalling a paradigm shift in health governance and management. Moreover, global health is further distinct in that one of its primary objectives is to achieve health equity for all citizens around the world.

Global health research
A crucial component of global health's methodology is that, in order to be considered part of the discipline, studies must be either one of two types of global health research (GHR). Type 1 GHR includes studies collating data from a broad range of locations and ethnic populations, whilst Type 2 GHR involves studies with a global framework and consideration, but with data limited to only one small region.

Contributors to the field, notably Craig Stephen, have now also suggested the identification of four key competencies required by global health researchers. These entail: collaborative skills, systems-based thinking (as opposed to a linear approach), the ability to lead and manage a project, and 'ethical and personal perspectives'. Stephen further highlights six common themes prevalent in the GHR practices of the fourteen teams he studied - to include: excellence in research, an emphasis on long-term research goals, a priority on implementing strategies, the formation of partnerships between different agencies around the world, an 'ethical foundation', and the presence of skilled researchers - which he presents as being integral to the discipline as a whole.

Future of the discipline
Despite its relative brevity as a discipline, conflicts have already arisen in global health regarding the extent to which it reflects neocolonialist attitudes. The current paradigm of global health, argued by Rafael Pérez-Escamilla, is inherently racist given its assumption that low-income countries are unable to implement solutions without the assistance of Western powers. On a similar vein, Büyüm et al. contest that historical ideas, such as slavery and racism, perpetuate modern-day inequalities and silences within the discipline (evidenced by the 10/90 gap and the fact that most global health networks are based in the Northern Hemisphere), and that without addressing these factors and other underlying social determinants of health, health equity cannot truly be achieved. These sentiments have led to players in the discipline calling for a paradigmatic shift from the so-called 'charity model of global health' to one based upon principles of justice.

Furthermore, whilst historically to date global health has always incorporated aspects of foreign policy and international affairs, in terms of aid distribution and multinational agreements, a new (sub-)discipline of global health diplomacy is currently evolving, which has the potential to break free and distinguish itself as a separate entity in its own right. Thus, the future of global health as a discipline remains open to significant change.


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Wood/Comic Books

Products
The comic books is as dynamic as some of its superhero characters. Comic books offer a visual portal into a world of humor, action, and adventure that can stimulate a reader's imagination.

What do we need to make this thing?
During the preparation of a comic book, a variety of art materials may be used to create the original hand-drawn page masters and color guides.

These materials include various sizes, weights, and finishes of paper, as well as several different drawing mediums including pencils, inks, markers, and paints. After the master pages have been scanned and colored on a computer, the computer uses the color guides as a reference to generate four pieces of plastic film that are used in the printing process.

The actual comic book itself is printed on a variety of papers using four colored inks : cyan (a shade of blue), magenta, yellow, and black. These four inks are printed in an interlocking pattern of tiny dots, which our eyes perceive as various colors. The printed comic pages are then bound together with staples or glue to form a comic book.

What is the step by step process?
Step by step (Preferable in bullet point list) the situations, locations, characters, and other details of the story. This helps define the overall plot from beginning to end.
 * Step 1: Although most people think of a comic book as a series of pictures, it is the written plot that gives the story its direction. The writer and artist discuss the proposed story and exchange ideas. At this stage, they may use a number of formal or informal techniques for developing ideas. They may make notes on small index cards arranged on a table or they may outline the flow of the story on a display board. During the course of their discussion, they decide on

 * Step 2: Because most comics have a fixed number of pages, the writer and artist must then decide how to break up the story to fit each page. They discuss which scenes and dialogue are critical to keep the story flowing and how the characters and action should be depicted to have the greatest impact. Sometimes they follow general industry practices, which define such things as the optimal number of action scenes per page or the amount of dialogue per word balloon, but other times they rely on their own personal style. Once the story has been refined, the writer creates a script. This includes general descriptions of the scenes and characters in the order they appear, the accompanying dialogue or descriptive text, and general instructions to the artist. The result is very much like a script written for a movie or play.

 * Step 3: The artist reads the script and makes a rough sketch of each page, called a storyboard. The thumbnail helps the artist decide how each scene should be depicted, and how the different scenes should be arranged on the page. Some artists sketch each scene on a small piece of adhesive backed note paper and then move them around on a larger piece of paper to achieve the desired effect.

 * Step 4: An editor may review the pencil drawings and make changes. Sometimes the editor may ask the artist to redraw a portion of a scene to correct an error or clarify an item. In other cases, the editor may have to shorten the dialogue or narrative to fit in the space left by the artist.

 * Step 5: The final step in the drawing process is adding the lettering for the dialogue, sound effects, and narratives that appear in the script. This can be done using hand lettering, adhesive labels, or computer-generated digital type. The letterer selects a typeface that not only conveys the actual words or sounds, but also conveys the action or emphasis of the scene with its size, style,and placement.

 * Step 6: The finished pages, including the front and back covers, are sent to the colorists who add the colors and prepare the four-color separation films required for printing. The original artwork is first photocopied and then scanned into a computer. The photocopy is hand-colored using colored markers, pencils, and paints to become a guide when coloring the pages on the computer. The scanned copy becomes an electronic file that forms a digital outline of the page to be colored.

 * Step 7: When all the pages have been colored, a proof copy of the entire comic book is printed from the computer for final review and approval. The computer then prints a piece of plastic film for each of the four component colors on each page. Each piece of film has hundreds of thousands of tiny dots to represent the location and concentration of that color component across the page.

 * Step 8: The individual pages are arranged so they will appear in the proper order when the comic book is assembled. Usually, two or more pages are printed on each side of a single sheet of paper. When the sheets of paper are stacked on top of each other and folded in the middle, the pages appear in the proper order. On some printing presses, as many as eight pages can be printed on each side of a large sheet, then cut and folded as required.


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User:Hozainop

Hozis my nickname. Hozainop (discuss • contribs) 04:17, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

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