text:
Traditional Abacus and Bead Arithmetic/Multiplication

How many multiplication methods are there?
Let's take an example: $$345\times 6789=2342205$$. We do this multiplication by adding the 12 partial products that result from the expansion:

$$345\times 6789 = (300 + 40 + 5) \times (6000 + 700 + 80 + 9)= 300\times 6000 + 300\times 700 + \cdots + 5\times 9$$

That is, all the products listed in this table:

But these products can be added in any of the $12!$ (12 factorial) $= 1\times 2\times 3\times \cdots \times 12=479\, 001\, 600$  ways of ordering them, so we could say that there are, at least, almost 500 million ways to calculate the product of the two given numbers.

But it is clear that, of this immense number of ways of sequentially adding partial products, only a few can be efficiently and safely generated and followed by the human brain. But these few are still a lot ... especially if we think that we can also choose whether or not to enter multiplicand and multiplier in the abacus and where to start adding the partial products with respect to said operands. In what follows we will focus on this last aspect.

Inverse operations
Addition and subtraction are inverse operations in the sense that each undoes the effect of the other by reverting the result to the first operand; for example: $$422 + 313 = 735$$ and now subtracting $$735-313 = 422$$. On the abacus:

and, as we can see, we not only obtain the starting value but also obtain it in the original position. In turn, multiplication and division are also inverse operations; i.e: if $$a / b = q, r$$ where $$q$$ is the quotient of dividing $$a$$ by $$b$$ and $$r$$ is the remainder, we can reverse the operation in the form: $$a = q\times b + r$$ for example: $$4727 / 72 = 65,47$$ where 65 is the quotient and 47 the remainder and we can reverse the operation in the form $$4727 = 65\times 72 + 47$$. On the abacus, using modern division and multiplication methods:

We have reversed the operation and returned the abacus to its original state. Note the relative position of operands and results using the modern method:

Now let's try the same with the traditional method of division (TD) and the traditional division arrangement (TDA).

now the relative position of operands and results using the traditional method is different:

If we want to reverse the operation by multiplication, we could first proceed by memorizing the digit of the multiplicand to use and clearing it, then we would proceed to add the partial products:

and we have also reversed the operation and returned the abacus to its original state. In this way we proceed exactly the same as with modern multiplication, previously freeing up and reusing the space occupied by the digit in use of the multiplicand. However, memorizing and keeping something in memory while working with the abacus opens a door for errors and it is desirable to minimize this possibility by trying to keep the digit in memory for as little time as possible. This is achieved by altering the order in which we add the partial products:

As we can see, we have delayed clearing the digit in use until the last possible moment. This is the basis of the traditional method of multiplication.

Traditional multiplication method
The traditional method of multiplication was first introduced using counting rods and the best way to introduce it to the modern abacist is to consider that a multi-digit multiplier consists of a head (the first digit from the left) and a body (the rest of the digits); for example: 4567✕23, considering 4567 as the multiplier, its head is 4 and the body 567. So, for each digit of the multiplicand (from right to left):
 * proceed as in modern multiplication with the product of the digit of the multiplicand by the body of the multiplier
 * then clear the digit of the current multiplicand and add its product by the head of the multiplier to the column just cleared and the one adjacent to its right

note: Result is 10F041 if you use the 5th lower bead,105041 otherwise.

But things are not always as simple as in the previous example; if both the multiplicand and the multiplier contain high digits (7, 8, 9) we may have overflow problems and need to deal with them (see chapter: Dealing with overflow), as in the case 999✕999=998001:

The most convenient, as in the case of division, is to have additional upper beads, that is, a 5+2 type abacus or a 5+3 if we are lucky enough. For the 4+1 and 5+1 abaci, it may be best to use the following fallback to the method outlined in the previous section, clearing the current digit of the multiplicand at the beginning (or when necessary) to have space to hold the partial results; for instance:

If you practice the previous example together with the two traditional exercises: 898✕989, using 898 both as multiplier and multiplicand, you will be prepared for any traditional multiplication problem.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:AG's UNITY

Agro World AG's UNITY Growing plants and enjoy (Farmer's is our real national Father)
 * 1) Natures priority
 * 2) (used about food or farming methods) produced by or using natural materials, without artificial chemicals
 * 3) Organic=Biological
 * 4) Farming=Plantation

Don't waste food.
 * We respect farmers and foods.

title: User:AG's UNITY


text:
User talk:AG's UNITY

ORGANIC FARMING Organic farming is defined as production of crop, animal, and other products without the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides, transgenic species, or antibiotics and growth-enhancing steroids, or other chemicals.

ORGANIC FARMING AND IT'S BENIFITS Compared with conventional agriculture, organic farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces soil erosion, decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water, and recycles animal wastes back into the farm. These benefits are counterbalanced by higher food costs for consumers and generally lower yields.

Types of Organic Farming Pure Organic Farming. As the name of this farming process suggests, it uses natural ways for #cultivation. ... $Crop diversity. ...  There are basically two types of organic farming: pure organic farming and integrated organic farming. With pure organic farming, the method includes the use of manures and biopesticides with complete avoidance of inorganic chemicals and pesticides. Key Features of Organic Farming Sustainability Since it does not include the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers, organic agriculture is very sustainable in many aspects. ... Research has shown that organic farms use 45 percent less energy, release 40 percent less carbon emissions, and foster 30 percent more biodiversity compared to conventional farming. *Sir Albert Howard The British botanist Sir Albert Howard is often referred to as the father of modern organic agriculture, because he was the first to apply modern scientific knowledge and methods to traditional agriculture.
 * 1) Integrated Organic Farming. ...
 * 2) Crop Rotation. ...
 * 3) Green Manure. ...
 * 4) Compost. ...
 * 1) Soil Management. ...
 * 2) Controlling pests Biologically.
 * 1) Natural Livestock and Poultry Production. ...
 * 2) Natural Crop Production. ...
 * 3) Organic Weed and Pest Control. ...
 * 4) Soil Management. ...
 * 5) Buffer Zones and Record-Keeping. ...
 * 6) Maintaining Ecological Balance. ...
 * 7) Maintaining Fairness.

title: User talk:AG's UNITY


text:
User:Fscuprem/sandbox

“Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the 1500s, when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to make a type specimen book.

title: User:Fscuprem/sandbox


text:
User talk:Fscuprem/sandbox

This is just a testing

title: User talk:Fscuprem/sandbox


text: User:Author Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri

title: User:Author Rituparna Ray Chaudhuri


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Research

To date all research has been very largely limited to NLA's Trove, and further to Trove, Newspapers & Gazettes

In the National Library of Australia's Trove website, 217 articles (Newspapers & Gazettes) as at 6 April 2021 have been tagged as "4BB - Robert John Beatson" (search publictag:4BB - Robert John Beatson)

The main searches used to identify articles for tagging are as follows:
 * With word "VK4BB" (about 50 hits)
 * With word "Beatson", category "Family Notices" (not yet fully researched)
 * With phrase "Robert John Beatson" and without "Publictag:4BB" (less than 10 hits)
 * With phrase "R. J. Beatson", State "Queensland" (about 100 hits)
 * With phrase "Bob Beatson", State "Queensland", from 1920 (about 80 hits)
 * With words "Beatson" and "Wireless", State "Queensland", from 1920 (about 200 hits)

Key articles relating to Watkins and wireless, also Watkins' family history, have been identified for text correcting and inclusion in Transcriptions and Notes - Robert John Beatson. Articles transcribed for Notes are tagged: "!Wikibooks Beatson" (10+ articles). Articles reviewed and considered either duplicates of other articles or not of sufficient importance for inclusion are tagged: "!Wikibooks Beatson Not" (10+ articles).


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Biographies/Raymond Cottam Allsop/Research

To date all research has been very largely limited to NLA's Trove, and further to Trove, Newspapers & Gazettes

In the National Library of Australia's Trove website, 217 articles (Newspapers & Gazettes) as at 7 August 2021 have been tagged as "XCA-2YG-2AYG-2NA-2BL - Raymond Cottam Allsop" (searching publictag:XCA will be sufficient to locate all tagged articles)

The main searches used to identify articles for tagging are as follows:
 * With word "VK2YG" (zero hits relevant to Ray)
 * With word "Allsop", category "Family Notices" (not yet fully researched)
 * With phrase "Raymond Cottam Allsop" and without "Publictag:XCA" (not yet fully researched)
 * With phrase "R. C. Allsop", States "New South Wales" & "Victoria (not yet fully researched)
 * With phrase "Ray Allsop", State "Queensland", from 1900 (not yet fully researched)
 * With words "Allsop" and "Wireless", from 1900 (not yet fully researched)

Key articles relating to Allsop and wireless, also Allsop's family history, have been identified for text correcting and inclusion in Transcriptions and Notes - Raymond Cottam Allsop. Articles transcribed for Notes are tagged: "!Wikibooks XCA-2YG" (10+ articles). Articles reviewed and considered either duplicates of other articles or not of sufficient importance for inclusion are tagged: "!Wikibooks XCA-2YG Not" (10+ articles).


text:
History of video games/Platforms/Designer's World

History
Designers World was a dedicated plug and play console made by Hasbro, notable for being one of the few consoles marketed to female gamers specifically in the 2000's, particularly in 2006. The console was noted for its ability to play a role in financial education. Despite this it remains obscure.


text:
Traditional Abacus and Bead Arithmetic/Bibliography

Ancient Chinese books

Ancient Japanese books

Books

Journal articles and book chapters

Web articles


text:
Fractals/Mathematics/Function

=Function= Properities of the function
 * number of variables ( Functions of one variable, Functions of two variables, Multivariate function )
 * type of the variable so type of input and output ( Real function, Vector-valued function, compex functions )

Notation
Types of the notation
 * functional: $$f(x)=x^2$$.
 * arrow: $$x\mapsto x^2$$

In expanded arrow notation:
 * first line defines the rule of a function inline, without requiring a name to be given to the function
 * in second line the domain and codomain is explicitly stated

 * $$\begin{align}

\operatorname{sqr}\colon \Z &\to \Z\\ x &\mapsto x^2.\end{align}$$

input
Input type:
 * number
 * position on the plane (then function is a map, iterated  function )
 * angle doubling map
 * rotating map
 * Complex quadratic map
 * rational map
 * position in the gradient ( color transfer function)
 * whole plane (then the function is the geometric plane transformation )

Specifying a function

 * By listing function values. For example, if $$A = \{ 1, 2, 3 \}$$, then one can define a function $$f\colon A \to \mathbb{R}$$ by $$f(1) = 2, f(2) = 3, f(3) = 4.$$
 * by formula
 * By recurrence relation. Functions whose domain are the nonnegative integers, known as sequences, are often defined by recurrence relations. The factorial function on the nonnegative integers ($$n\mapsto n!$$) is a basic example
 * Using differential calculus. Many functions can be defined as the antiderivative of another function. This is the case of the natural logarithm, which is the antiderivative of $1/x$ that is 0 for $x = 1$. Another common example is the error function. More generally, many functions, including most special functions, can be defined as solutions of differential equations. The simplest example is probably the exponential function, which can be defined as the unique function that is equal to its derivative and takes the value 1 for $x = 0$.

transformations

 * iteration
 * composition
 * inversion

=Types=
 * polynomial
 * rational

Rational function
Rational map f is the ratio of 2 polynomials

$$ f(z)=\frac{p(z)}{q(z)}$$

where:
 * p, q are co-prime polynomials = p and q are polynomial functions with no common zeros (if they did have a common factor, we could just cancel them) = the rational function is in reduced form
 * f is not a constant function
 * p is a numerator
 * q is the denominator and q isn't zero
 * f is a differentiable mapping from the the two-dimensional sphere (Riemann sphere)  into itself.$$f: S^2\to S^2 $$

zeros and poles

 * the zeros of rational function f(z) = the zeros of numerator p(z)
 * the poles of of rational function f(z) = the zeros of denominator q(z) = Vertical Asymptotes = the values where the denominator is equal to zero = the points where the rational function is not defined
 * the multiplicity of a zero (or pole) of rational function f is the multiplicity of the root of numerator ( or denominator ) of rational function f
 * complex poles or zeros come in complex conjugate pairs

difference between polynomial and rational function

 * infinity is always is superattracting fixed point for polynomials, for rational functions it is not true.
 * the term rational function sometimes includes polynomials ( as a degenerative or non-proper case ) and sometimes it only includes only the proper rational functions ( without polynomials

=See also=
 * derivative of the function
 * analysis of iterated map
 * Period
 * NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions

=References=

title: Fractals/Mathematics/Function


text: Category:Book:Slovak

title: Category:Book:Slovak


text: Category:Book:Primitive Technology

title: Category:Book:Primitive Technology


text: Category:Book:Meroitic

title: Category:Book:Meroitic


text:
User talk:Asian gal

Blackpink
Blackpink lovesick girls

title: User talk:Asian gal


text: User:DanielWhernchend

title: User:DanielWhernchend


text: Template:Apc-wikt

title: Template:Apc-wikt


text:
User talk:173.72.185.162

And I say Heyyyyayyyyy ayyyy ayy hey ayyyayyyayyyyayyy and i say hey whats going on

title: User talk:173.72.185.162


text:
User talk:Shruticloud

QuickBooks Hosting Pricing, QuickBooks Hosting Cost
QB Cloud Server offers the cheapest QuickBooks hosting solution. Our pricing for Hosted Quickbooks Pricing starts from $19 per user per month, it is straightforward pricing that means no hidden cost at all most of the other companies charges we also offer free Full Featured QuickBooks, Free Setup, Adobe Reader, Antivirus. Mac Compatible, Windows Compatible, Android, iPhone support, 99.995% Uptime, Daily Data Backup, Dual Monitor Support, Multi-user Access, Copy & paste File Transfer, 5 GB Data Storage per user, 24×7 Free technical support, Excel and Microsoft word hosting with our packages without any extra charges. Call: +1 818-850-7736 Services offered by QB Cloud Server

Our motive is to satisfy the client’s needs at the lowest price with the best possible quality. We believe that our clients will get what they pay for. We offer 15 days free trials of Cloud Cloud Hosted QuickBooks without accessing your card details to make sure that our clients will see what they will pay. Suppose you like the trial period, then continue with the paid hosting plans. Otherwise, feel free to contact us and share your valuable feedback with us to improve it. 24/7 customer support via online chat, an email, or a call

Features Real-time cooperation: Cloud Hosted QuickBooks allows you and your team to work on the same platform for a rapid and well-organized accounting process. This saves time and effort for sharing data over different mediums.

Business continuity and disaster recovery (BC & DR), an additional feature: BC & DR is another feature of Cloud Hosted QuickBooks. Even in the case of a disaster, it ensures that cloud services are available without interruption.

Multi-user Access: Our Cloud Hosted QuickBooks supports multiple user access along with the compatibility of cross-device operation, whether it can be a desktop, Smartphone, laptop, or anything else.

Data Backups: We protect along with automated backup and recovery solutions to your confidential data and files.

Secure and Safe: We have a multi-tier infrastructure and security methods at various levels that ensure your QuickBooks Pro data is protected against hacks, malware, and accidents.

Superfast Speed of access: QuickBooks Pro power up the accounting tasks with high-performance quality.

Affordable pricing: We offer affordable pricing for QuickBooks Hosting services. Monthly pricing starts from $ /user/month. Access Anytime and Anywhere: When you are not in the office, QuickBooks Pro hosting helps you work with your accounting team by providing access to QuickBooks Pro from anywhere at any time, regardless of the time zone.

Soothe Integration: QuickBooks Pro hosting offers easy Integration with business applications like CRM, MS Office, Tax Apps, ERP, etc., so that you can have all the aspects and functionality and data sharing with the applications.

title: User talk:Shruticloud


text:
User:Sihlle Rage

I have intelligence and knowledge in Computer science, Engineering, Mechanics and Medicine.

title: User:Sihlle Rage


text:
User talk:Pandark

Hello. Bonjour.
👋 --Pandark (talk) 11:53, 9 August 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pandark


text:
User:Margret Dikgale

Margret Dikgale

title: User:Margret Dikgale


text:
User talk:Sunnyjagadessh

PD Insurance provides simple, low-cost pet insurance policies to savvy New Zealanders. Discover pawsome Pet Insurance NZ pet plan savings now!

title: User talk:Sunnyjagadessh


text:
Levantine Arabic/Questions

Interrogative pronouns

In Lebanese the variants (lē, “why”),  ('addē, “how much”) and  ('imta, “when”) are also common, which are shared with Egyptian Arabic.

Yes-no questions
In order to turn a statement into a simple yes-no questions, the intonation is rising at the end of the sentence.

title: Levantine Arabic/Questions


text:
MediaWiki:Discussiontools-emptystate-link-userpage

Wikibooks:User pages


text:
Traditional Abacus and Bead Arithmetic/Contributors

 * User Jccsvq (discuss•contribs) has contributed the initial manuscript of this book by adapting some of his public domain (Creative Commons 0 1.0 Universal) writings from his personal website jccAbacus.


text:
User talk:Harrygood1901

Wide world Trips is a travel Blog for tourists. If you are a crazy world traveler and want to know more in detail about different world destinations then you’re at the right place. We provide information on the world's famous destinations and cities. We also provide information on Foods, Shopping, Entertainment, Adventure Activities, safety tips about different countries and cities.

title: User talk:Harrygood1901


text:
User:Dr Marko Svicevic

Dr Marko Svicevic is a post-doctoral research fellow at the South African Research Chair in International Law, University of Johannesburg. Dr Svicevic holds the degrees Bachelor of Arts in Law, majoring in criminology (BA(Law)), Bachelor of Laws (LLB), and Doctor of Laws (LLD), obtained at the University of Pretoria.

title: User:Dr Marko Svicevic


text:
Levantine Arabic/Negation

Negation of verbs
Verbs are negated with the particle (ma) preceding the verb and the optional suffix  (-š).

Imperative
In order to negate the imperative, the subjunctive form is used.

Pseudo verbs
Pseudo verbs like (bidd-, “want”) and  (ʕind-, “to have”) are negated with the partile  (ma) as well, but usally without the suffix  (-š).

Negation of nouns, adjectives etc.
Nouns, adjectives, adverbs and partiples are negated with the preceding particle (miš, in the South sometimes pronounced “muš”) or  (mu, only in Syria).

As modal verbs like (lāzem, “must”) and  (mumken, “may”) are technically adverbs, they are negated the same way as well.

While particles preceding verbs like (ʕam, progressive marker) and  (raḥ, future marker) are usually negated like verbs (see above), they can be negated with  (miš/muš) as well.

title: Levantine Arabic/Negation


text: Category:Book:Proto-Turkic

title: Category:Book:Proto-Turkic


text:
Cookbook:Almond Flour

| Basic foodstuffs | Nuts | Flour

Almond flour or almond meal refers to finely-ground almonds. It is usually made with blanched almonds, although it can include the skins. Almond flour is commonly used in pastry to give a nutty flavour.

Production
Almond flour is made by finely grinding skin-on or blanched almonds to a fine powder, stopping before it turns into a paste (almond butter). This can be done at home by pulverizing raw almonds in a food processor, blender, or coffee/spice grinder, although it will not be as fine as commercially-produced products. Depending on the method used to grind it, the almond meal may need to be further sifted to remove coarser particles. Commercially-produced almond flours may press some of the oils out of the almonds before further processing to a fine texture.

Characteristics
Almond flour has a mild flavor and aroma. It has a relatively high fat content for a flour or meal and lacks gluten. The fat content makes almond flour prone to spoiling as the oils turn rancid—this can be slowed by storing almond meal in an airtight container in the freezer.

Uses
Almond meal is often used in baking, where it contributes moisture, fat, and protein to baked goods. Because it lacks gluten, it can be consumed by those with gluten sensitivities. In France, is used in macarons and frangipane.

title: Cookbook:Almond Flour


text:
Wikijunior talk:Stories/Three School Friends

The girl with the energy


text:
A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Hoenn/Battle Frontier

The Battle Frontier is a region in the fictional Pokémon world, specifically in the Pokémon Emerald video game (where it is located in Hoenn) that specializes in variations of Pokémon battling. After defeating the Elite Four and obtaining the National Pokedex, the trainer needs to obtain the Frontier Pass to roam freely around the Battle Frontier.

After winning at each of the Battle Frontier locations a certain amount of times, the trainer can fight the location's Leader (collectively known as the "Frontier Brains") for a chance to win silver and gold Battle Frontier badges, known as Symbols. When the trainer defeats all of the leaders twice, the trainer receives an extra star added to the Trainer's Card. The Lansat Berry is awarded for a complete set of Silver Symbols, and the Starf Berry is given to those who obtain all seven Gold Symbols.

Location
The Battle Frontier is located in the ocean in the south-east of the Hoenn region. It was established by a man named Scott who is said to seek specially talented Trainers from across the Hoenn region. During the course of the game, the main character will come across Scott who is supposedly observing them as they defeat the various gym leaders around Hoenn. Once the player conquers the regional Pokémon League, then Scott will give them the Frontier Pass, a ferry ticket to the Battle Frontier which can be taken from Slateport City or Lilycove City. The Frontier Pass also replaces the Trainer's ID card, the original card instead being made part of the Frontier Pass.

Gameplay
Battling in the Frontier is done in seven main facilities. The rewards for completing challenges are Battle Points, which can be banked for prizes at an exchange center. If the player can win several consecutive challenges in a row without losing once in a facility, he/she will be challenged by a Frontier Brain, the "boss" of the facility, which is similar to a gym leader. If the player is victorious he/she will be rewarded with a silver symbol which goes onto the Frontier Pass. After winning more consecutive challenges the Frontier Brain will challenge them again for a gold symbol. There are 14 symbols to collect; one silver symbol and one gold symbol for each facility. Symbols can only be obtained in the Single Battle game style if there is more than one battle type for a facility.

Rules
In all facilities of the Frontier only three Pokémon can be entered into the events. None of them can be identical and no two of them can hold the same item, except by coincidence in the Battle Factory or in Multi Battles in the Battle Tower.

There are two different battling "modes" in the Frontier, Level 50 and Open Level. Level 50 enables Pokémon only up to Level 50 to participate in the events. The levels of all opponents are at Level 50. Open Level allows Pokémon of all levels to participate, however, all opponents' Pokémon are at a minimum of Level 60, and are adjusted to match the level of the highest-level Pokémon in the player's party.

Prohibited Pokémon
Certain Pokémon are classified as too powerful and are ineligible:
 * Mewtwo
 * Mew
 * Lugia
 * Ho-oh
 * Celebi
 * Groudon
 * Kyogre
 * Rayquaza
 * Deoxys
 * Jirachi

Eggs cannot participate in the Frontier. There has also been controversy about Wobbuffet participating. Due to its enormously high HP, it is almost impossible for a Pokémon of an equal level to make it faint in one hit. Its only moves are retaliation moves, meaning that if its trainer guesses right, Wobbuffet will deal double the amount of damage to the foe which attacked it. Wobbuffet also learns the move Destiny Bond, meaning that it can faint its opponent if it faints from the opponent's attack. A trainer can also restore its HP by the use of an item, enabling Wobbuffet to deal damage in this way to multiple opponents. While it is accepted into Frontier challenges, many players of the game consider trainers using it to be cheating.

Battle Arena
In the Battle Arena, players must defeat seven opposing trainers to win the challenge. However, players cannot switch Pokémon, and if neither Pokémon is knocked out after three rounds of fighting, the battle ends and the outcome is judged based on comparative attack frequency, attack effectiveness, and vitality. The Pokémon that receives fewer judging points is automatically knocked out.

The Frontier Brain of this facility is Arena Tycoon Greta, who awards the Guts Symbol.

Battle Dome
In the Battle Dome, the trainer is placed in a tournament with 15 other people. He/she has to progress through four rounds of the tournament to become the Champion of that challenge. Between rounds, the trainer can see the opponents' Pokémon, as well as which move they used to win previous battles. Before each battle, the trainer selects two of his/her Pokémon to fight; the same is done by the opponent.

The Frontier Brain of this facility is Dome Ace Tucker. Tucker's team of Pokémon counterbalance each other's weaknesses, to take advantage of the two-Pokémon only rule. After defeat, he gives up the Tactics Symbol.

Battle Factory
In the Battle Factory, the trainer cannot use his/her own Pokémon; instead, the trainer chooses three out of six randomly generated rental Pokémon. If the trainer wins a battle, he/she can swap one of the current rental Pokémon for one of the Pokémon of the defeated trainer, but is unable to see the statistics of that Pokémon beforehand. The trainer must defeat seven opposing trainers, all sporting random Pokémon, to earn victory.

The Frontier Brain of this facility is Factory Head Noland. Like everyone else, Noland will have a team of random Pokémon. Upon victory, the trainer will earn a Knowledge Symbol.

Battle Palace
In the Battle Palace, the trainer can't decide which attacks his/her Pokémon use (or, in double battles, who they attack). Depending on their nature, Pokémon will like certain kinds of moves (offensive, defensive, or supporting). The attitude of the Pokémon may change if their health is low. Because of this dependency on natures, the Battle Palace is considered one of the most challenging Battle Frontier facilities. The player must defeat seven trainers to complete the challenge.

The Frontier Brain of this facility is Palace Maven Spenser. He will award the Spirits symbol upon defeat.

Battle Pike
The Battle Pike (known as the Battle Tube in Japanese versions) is an odd building shaped like a Seviper. The unique thing about the Battle Pike is that a trainer can get through the whole challenge without having to battle once. In each room, the trainer is presented with a choice of three curtains, similar to the 1960's American television gameshow Let's Make a Deal. Following suit, what the trainer finds in the room behind each curtain can vary drastically. This must be done a total of seven times in order for the challenge to be considered completed.

The possible situations are:

 * A winding path in which wild Pokémon will randomly appear.
 * A man who is having trouble taming a Kirlia or Dusclops. His Pokémon will either poison, paralyse, freeze, burn or put to sleep a random number of Pokémon in the player's party.
 * Two Trainers will appear to challenge the player to a 2-on-2 battle.
 * One Trainer will appear to challenge the player to a single battle.
 * One Trainer accompanied by a maid will challenge the player to a single battle. If the player wins the maid heals all his Pokémon.
 * Nothing happens. A person is standing on one side of the room.
 * A man will restore a random number of the player's Pokémon to full health.

In order to put the odds in the player's favor, there is a Battle Pike assistant in each odd-numbered room who will give enigmatic clues that reduce guesswork. She also warns the player of the arrival of Pike Queen Lucy. The trainer must successfully pass through fourteen rooms to complete the challenge.

The Frontier Brain of this facility is Pike Queen Lucy. If the trainer defeats her, she awards a Luck Symbol.

Battle Pyramid
The Battle Pyramid is an endurance-based challenge in which the player has to navigate through a 7-floored pyramid in darkness. Each floor contains items, trainers, wild Pokémon and a teleport to the floor above. The objective is simply to reach the peak of the pyramid.

The player is given a separate bag to store any items they collect in the pyramid. This bag and the items in it are stored by the staff every time the challenge is successfully completed and the Trainer can use the same bag with the same items in it on his/her next challenge. If a Trainer loses, however, he/she loses all the items in the bag. Some items can be held by Pokémon however they must be returned to the bag at the end of every challenge.

There is also a woman at the reception of the facility telling what type of problems will appear in the next Battle Pyramid challenge. Each try has its own problem

1. Wild Pokémon will paralyze you (generally electric and grass types)

2. Wild Pokémon will poison you (generally Poison types)

3. Wild Pokémon will burn you (generally Fire-types and Pokémon that know Will-O-Wisp)

4. Wild Pokémon will drain you of your power points (Pokémon with Pressure and Ghosts)

5. Wild Pokémon will render your ground attacks useless (Pokémon with Levitate, like Flygon, Solrock etc.)

6. You are unable to escape from wild Pokémon (Arena Trap, Shadow Tag, Wobbuffet)

7. Ice-type Pokémon (Cloyster, Piloswine etc.)

8. Round Pokémon (Golem, Claydol etc.)

9. Psychic-type Pokémon

10. Rock-type Pokémon

The Frontier Brain of this facility is Pyramid King Brandon. He awards the Brave Symbol.

Battle Tower
The Battle Tower is the predominant facility in the Battle Frontier. It is the orginal Battle Tower which was also present in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire which gave players a peek of the Battle Frontier introduced in Emerald. The battles are simply the very basic style, no special rules or adjustments besides the overall Frontier regulations. There are four types of battles which can be held here:

 * Single Battle - A simple 1-on-1 battle challenge.
 * Double Battle - A 2-on-2 challenge.

 * Multi Battle - The player can only enter 2 Pokémon. He/she will be directed to a lobby in which he/she will be asked to pick a parter to battle with, who will also only have 2 Pokémon. The character and his/her partner will battle as a team in 2-2 battles against other teams. Each trainer only has control of his/her own Pokémon.

 * Link Multi Battle - The player links up with another human player over a GBA connection to do 2-on-2 battles similar to the Multi Battle style above.

Once the player has reached the 7th battle of the 5th consecutive challenge, he/she will be challenged by the Salon Maiden Anabel, the Frontier Brain of the Tower, for a silver symbol. She challenges the player again for the gold symbol in the 7th battle of the 10th consecutive tournament.

Other points of interest

 * A level 40 Sudowoodo is located in the southeast section of the Battle Frontier; like in Pokémon Gold, Silver, and Crystal, if it is watered with the Wailmer Pail, it will attack. This is one of the only two ways to catch Sudowoodo in the third generation (the other being in Pokémon Colosseum). When the Sudowoodo is forced out of the way, the player can surf down a waterfall to reach the entrance to the Artisan Cave.

 * The Artisan Cave is a long cave connecting one end of the Battle Frontier to the other. It can be entered from a hole underneath the surface, and an exit lies near the Battle Tower next to the Ranking Hall. This cave is unique in that it only contains wild Smeargle. Another strange thing is that Repel never works in that cave.

 * The Betting House is south of the Battle Pyramid. After the trainer gets 3 Silver Symbols from any of the facilities, there will be four people inside. One of those is a Hiker, and if the trainer talks to him and agrees to his request, he'll ask the trainer for Battle Points. If the player bets correctly, he/she will receive double the Battle Points back. The kind of competition changes every day and follows a regular pattern, but all involve competitions within the various facilities.

 * The Battle Frontier Exchange Service Corner sells various goods in exchange for Battle Points. The trainer can purchase goods for the secret base, items for raising the statistics of the trainer's Pokémon, and items that can be held by Pokémon.

 * There is a house next to the Battle Tower. Inside is a trainer who will trade a Skitty for a Meowth.

 * There are two Move Tutors in a house next to the Battle Dome. They will teach the trainer's Pokémon a selection of attacks for a price in Battle Points. The moves made available by the left tutor are also available in Pokémon Fire Red and Leaf Green.

 * The Record Hall contains all of the records the trainer has set for each of the Battle Frontier facilities. If the player mixes records with another Emerald game, he/she can also get the Battle Frontier records from the other game.

 * Scott, the owner of the Battle Frontier, lives in a house in a clearing near the Battle Pyramid. When spoken to, he gives a speech about the Frontier and, if the player visits him for the first time, he will award 2 Battle Points. Scott also awards various prizes if the player achieves many victories at the various facilities.

In the anime
In the anime, the Battle Frontier is set in Kanto, rather than Hoenn, with the individual facilities scattered all over the region. After the Hoenn league, Ash Ketchum meets Scott in Viridian City, who invites Ash to visit the Frontier after seeing his skill against Agatha, one of the Elite Four. The rules in each of the facilities are also different than those in the game - for one, Ash challenges the head of the facility immediately, without having to win a series of battles first. In the Japanese theme song of Battle Frontier, every time a Frontier Brain makes his or her anime debut, the Brain's silhouette will be revealed during the opening theme.

Since the anime tends to follow the games to an extent, it is presumable that the Battle Frontier was moved to Kanto for the anime in order to take elements from Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen and Pokémon Emerald.

The first facility, the Battle Factory, was located near Cerulean City. Instead of random Pokémon, Noland had a large variety, and the challenger chose which Pokémon he would use. The Pokémon he used for battle was an Articuno that he befriended. Noland also had Venusaur, Machamp, Rhyhorn, Breloom, Rhydon, Lairon, Camerupt, Pinsir, Sandslash, Golduck, Manectric, and Trapinch.

The Battle Arena was located near Saffron City. Before the match began, a roulette determined whether the battle would be fought 1-on-1, 2-on-2, or 3-on-3. Ash ended up with a double battle. Greta used her Medicham and Hariyama against Ash's Grovyle and Snorlax.

The Battle Dome was located near Lavender Town. Tucker's Pokémon were Arcanine and Swampert, and Ash used Corphish and Swellow.

The Battle Pike was located near Fuchsia City. Lucy's Seviper and Milotic battled Ash's Pikachu and Donphan. Other Pokémon Lucy had in her possession are Snorlax, Makuhita, Abra, Swinub, Skitty and Cyndaquil. Also, Lucy seems to have a crush on Brock.

The Battle Palace was located between Cinnabar Island and the Seafoam Islands. Spenser used Venusaur, Shiftry, and Claydol the battle, and Ash used Sceptile, Heracross, and Swellow. Spencer also had a Chansey which did not battle.

The Battle Tower was located near Tohjo Falls. Ash challenged Anabel using Pikachu, Corphish and Tauros while Anabel used Metagross and Alakazam, and lost to her the first time. The second time Ash battled with Anabel, she also used Espeon. After he beat her she gave him the location of the Battle Pyramid. Anabel has a crush on Ash due to them sharing the love of the same things.

Finally, the last facility, the Battle Pyramid, led by Brandon, was located near Pewter City the first time Ash and his friends encountered it. The episode "Battle Pyramid! VS Regirock!" revealed that Regirock is somehow affiliated with the Battle Pyramid. This is similar to the events of the game, in which Brandon uses Regirock during his first battle with the player. The same episode revealed that the Battle Pyramid is mobile; it can be rendered airborne using turbines. This makes its location variable rather than fixed like the other Battle Frontier facilities.

The Battle Pyramid's second location was at the Ferrudan Ruins near Indigo Plateau. After Ash arrived at the new location, Ash encountered Brandon again, and battled against Registeel. Ash lost again, and fought a third and final encounter with Brandon against Regice. Ash finally received the Brave Symbol and then a plaque from Scott with all the Battle Frontier Symbols on it. Scott then offered a role to Ash as a Frontier Brain should one step down, but Ash declined the role. (This doesn't mean Ash will not take the offer at a later date, but being stuck in Kanto at a facility would prevent Ash from exploring the world of Sinnoh in the next anime series.) This concluded the Battle Frontier story arc.

In the trading card game
The card "Battle Frontier" from the EX: Emerald expansion is a particularly influential card to the Ruby/Sapphire and Hidden Legends-on formats, by shutting down such staples as "Pidgeot" from the EX: Fire Red/Leaf Green expansion. It was also the theme of the 2005-2006 league season for Pokemon Organized Play.

Frontier Spin-offs
The Battle Tower in the frontier comes from an original facility in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire. The Battle Tower had exactly the same challenge types as the one in Emerald. There are no Symbol awards, however there are Battle Points which can be exchanged. Many people believe the Battle Frontier to be an enhancement of the Tower, however most believe that the Battle Tower in Ruby and Sapphire is a preview of the Battle Frontier in Emerald.

A new Battle Tower is featured in the Pokémon Diamond and Pearl games. That Battle Tower awards Battle Points for victories and is led by Tower Tycoon Palmer. The Battle Tower in Pokémon Diamond and Pearl features Single, Double, Multi(Link) and Wi-Fi battles. This new Battle Tower, along with the "Point Exchange Counter" are collectively called the "Battle Park".


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A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kanto/Cinnabar Island

Cinnabar Island is a volcanic island in the Kanto Region. It is the home of a laboratory, an abandoned mansion, and a Pokémon gym.

Cuisine
Though it is never seen on Cinnabar Island, the Cinnabar Volcano Burger is enjoyed in New Bark Town of the nearby Johto region.


text:
A Traveler's Guide to the World of Pokémon/Kalos/Lumiose City

Lumiose City is a the largest in the Kalos Region.

Real Life Influence
Lumiose City is analogous to the French city of Paris in real life.


text:
User:Mbrickn/Strategy Guide Writing/

Classic
These are the kinds of books restored from 2006 at Wikibooks:
 * Game Specific strategy guides - Focusing on a specific game, and by far the most popular. Analogous to a print strategy guide of the 1980's-Present Day.
 * Game Series strategy guides - Broadly focusing on a game series. Similar to the Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter, but with strategy guides as an element.
 * Game Lore guides - Not actually strategy guides - Far closer to the literature books on Wikibooks than Strategy Guides. Roughly equivalent to the characters and places sections of Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter.

Revival
These are the kinds of strategy guides created following the reinstatement of Strategy Guides on Wikibooks.
 * Educational - Two varieties, both of which are primarily game specific strategy guides with added content.
 * Notes game locations, characters to tie real world educational content when relevant.
 * Notes game design decisions both to enhance value as a strategy guide, and to be a tool for game designers.

title: User:Mbrickn/Strategy Guide Writing/


text: Category:Book:Environmental Chemistry

title: Category:Book:Environmental Chemistry


text:
Talk:Perspectives of Aquatic Toxicology

Formatting Improvements
Would it be alright if I made some formatting improvements in this Wikibook? Thanks! --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 05:56, 11 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perspectives of Aquatic Toxicology


text:
Robotics and the World/The Future of Robots

1. The Future of Robots
Robots will soon be everywhere, in our home and at work. They will change the way we live. This will raise many philosophical, social, and political questions that will have to be answered. In science fiction, robots become so intelligent that they decide to take over the world because humans are deemed inferior. In real life, however, they might not choose to do that.

Robots will be commonplace: in home, factories, agriculture, building & construction, undersea, space, mining, hospitals and streets for repair, construction, maintenance, security, entertainment, companionship, care.

Purposes of Future Robots:

-Robotized space vehicles and facilities

-Anthropomorphic general-purpose robots with hands like humans used for factory jobs

-Intelligent robots for unmanned plants

-Totally automated factories will be commonplace.

-Robots for guiding blind people Robots for almost any job in home or hospital, including Robo-surgery.

-Housework robots for cleaning, washing etc

-Domestic robots will be small, specialized and attractive.

Economic:

It will greatly affect the economy as well. Given that in the next two decades robots will be capable of replacing humans in most manufacturing and service jobs, economic development will be primarily determined by the advancement of robotics. Given Japan's current strength in this field, it may well become the economic leader in the next 20 years.


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Robotics and the World/Programming Concepts

2. Programming Concepts
The development of robot programming concepts is almost as old as the development of robot manipulators itself. As the ultimate goal of industrial robotics has been the development of sophisticated production machines with the hope to reduce costs in manufacturing areas like material handling, welding, spray-painting and assembly, tremendous efforts have been undertaken by the international robotics community to design user-friendly and at the same time powerful methods. The evolution reaches from early control concepts on the hardware level via point-to-point and simple motion level languages to motion-oriented structured robot programming languages. The robot programming languages can be classified according to the robot reference model, the type of control structure used for data, type of motion specification, the sensors, the interfaces to external machines, and the peripherals used. The following types of programming languages are available.

Point to point motion language, Basic motion languages at assembler level, Non-structured high level programming languages, Structured high level programming languages, NC type languages, Object oriented languages, Task oriented languages.


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Robotics and the World/Robot Control

Control software
There are many ways to design software for controlling a robot. The focus is not on low-level coding issues, but on high level concepts about the special situations robots will encounter and ways to address these peculiarities. The approach taken here proposes and examines some control software architectures that will comprise the brains of the robot.

System reliability and failures
Probably the biggest problem facing a robot is overall system reliability. A robot might face any combination of the following failure modes:

Mechanical Failures - These might range from temporarily jammed movements to wedged geartrains or a serious mechanical breakdown.

Electrical Failures - We hope it is safe to assume that the computer itself will not fail but loose connections of motors and sensors are a common problem.

Sensor Unreliability - Sensors will provide noisy data (data that is sometimes accurate, sometimes not) or data that is simply incorrect (touch sensor fails to be triggered).

The first two of the above problems can be minimized with careful design, but the third category, sensor unreliability, warrants a closer look. Before discussing control ideas further, here is a brief analysis of the sensor problem.

An example of robot control is when it interacts with a wall. In a worst-case scenario, what could happen while a robot was merrily running along, following a wall? Several possibilities:

 * 1) The robot could run into an object or a corner, properly triggering a touch sensor.
 * 2) The robot could run into an object or corner, not triggering a touch sensor.
 * 3) The robot could wander off away from the wall.
 * 4) The robot could slam into the wall, get stuck, and conditionally trigger a touch sensor.
 * 5) The proximity sensor could fall off its mount, causing a series of incorrect sensor readings.

Ideally, control software should expect occurrences of cases like those numbered #1 through #4 and be able to detect case #5.

title: Robotics and the World/Robot Control


text:
Perspectives of Aquatic Toxicology/Chapter Four: Analytical Methodology for Detecting & Monitoring Synthetic Organic Contaminants in the Aquatic Environment

Introduction
Synthetic Organic contaminants are man-made carbon-based chemicals which often enter aquatic environments through drainage from agricultural land and through discharge from industrial areas (1). The United States Environmental Protection Agency has put legal limits on the concentration that can be present in drinking water of 56 organic contaminates due to their potential adverse effects to humans (1). However, this does not stop these contaminants from entering aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic biomes encompass the largest portion of Earth’s surface (~75%) and are often divided into freshwater and saltwater biomes. Aquatic biomes are home to more than a million different plant and animal species and provide many ecosystem services. Examples of these services include fish harvest (food), wild plant and animal resources, water, recreation, flood control, carbon sequestration and storm protection which make aquatic ecosystems and their protection vital for human success (2). Therefore, we must address issues of pollution and work to understand the potential risk associated with it.


text:
Robotics and the World/Robot Hardware

4. Robot Hardware
examples:

Wheels Robot builders often find that the trickiest part of a robotics project is making the wheels. First you need to find a suitable tire/wheel combination, then you must figure out a way to attach a sprocket so that it will handle the torque of a geared-down drive motor.

Motors From the start, operating motors seem quite simple. Apply a voltage to both terminals, and it spins. But what if you want to control which direction the motor spins? Correct, you reverse the wires. Now what if you want the motor to spin at half that speed? You would use less voltage. But how would you get a robot to do those things autonomously? How would you know what voltage a motor should get? Why not 50V instead of 12V? What about motor overheating? Operating motors can be much more complicated than you think. Sensors The light sensor uses a photocell that allows your robot to detect and react to light. With the light sensor, you can program a whole new range of capabilities to your robot. Design a simple tracker that follows the beam of a flashlight, or use a light sensor to help your robot to avoid getting stuck under furniture by making it steer away from shadows. You can even give your robot color vision by putting colored filters on different light sensors!

title: Robotics and the World/Robot Hardware


text:
Robotics and the World/Mathematics of Robot Control

Robot Kinematics
Mathematics in robotics mainly involves robot kinematics. Robot kinematics is the study of the motion (kinematics) of robots. In a kinematic analysis the position, velocity and acceleration of all the links are calculated without considering the forces that cause this motion. The relationship between motion, and the associated forces and torques is studied in robot dynamics. One of the most active areas within robot kinematics is the screw theory.

Robot kinematics deals with aspects of redundancy, collision avoidance and singularity avoidance. While dealing with the kinematics used in the robots we deal each parts of the robot by assigning a frame of reference to it and hence a robot with many parts may have many individual frames assigned to each movable parts. For simplicity we deal with the single manipulator arm of the robot. Each frames are named systematically with numbers, for example the immovable base part of the manipulator is numbered 0, and the first link joined to the base is numbered 1, and the next link 2 and similarly till n for the last nth link.

Robot kinematics are mainly the following two types: forward kinematics and inverse kinematics. Forward kinematics is also known as direct kinematics. In forward kinematics, the length of each link and the angle of each joint is given and we have to calculate the position of any point in the work volume of the robot. In inverse kinematics, the length of each link and position of the point in work volume is given and we have to calculate the angle of each joint.


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Robotics and the World/Robot Programming

6. Robot Programming
How to Program a Robot

Step1- Buy a factory-built robot. There are a few different manufacturers, but the most popular and well-established maker of domestic robots is the iRobot company. You can visit their site by following the link posted below.

Step2- Set the internal clock on your factory-built robot. It may come with an atomic or radio-controlled clock already in it, which means you will only have to turn it on to set the time. Once the robot is set to the right date, schedule the times that you would like the robot to operate. For cleaning robots, it’s usually when you are away from the home. Some robots also may require the measurements of the room it is to be traveling in.

Step3- Build a robot. This step is for the far more advanced robot users. The parts and construction of a robot largely depend on what the robot’s primary function will be. If you want the robot to carry things around, it will probably look like an arm mounted on wheels. Because of the large variety of different robots and the complex nature of their construction, it is advised to seek out specific plans for the robot you wish to build.

Step4- Write the code for your robot. Again, this seems like a vague and huge task for one step, and it is. There are a couple of different programming languages you can write your code in depending on the software you are using. The code that you write will also depend on what the robots primary function is. Since you don’t want your robot to get stuck in a corner, a common piece of programming deals with what to do when in such a situation. The programming should vaguely resemble basic reasoning. For example, IF left sensor detects an object THEN turn the wheels to the right. Programming requires a lot of foresight and trial and error.

Step5- Test your programming. This is important for both factory and home-built robots. Run the robot through all possible situations it may encounter and take note of how it performs. Go back and fix the code as you see fit.


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Robotics and the World/Obstacle Avoidance

7. Obstacle Avoidance
Obstacle Avoidance is a robotic discipline with the objective of moving vehicles on the basis of the sensorial information. The use of these methods front to classic methods (path planning) is a natural alternative when the scenario is dynamic with an unpredictable behaviour. In these cases, the surroundings do not remain invariable, and thus the sensory information is used to detect the changes consequently adapting moving.

The research conducted faces two major problems in this discipline. The first is to move vehicles in troublesome scenarios, where current technology has proven limited applicability. The second one is to understand the role of the vehicle characteristics (shape, kinematics and dynamics) within the obstacle avoidance paradigm.

Most obstacle avoidance techniques do not take into account vehicle shape and kinematic constraints. They assume a punctual and omnidirectional vehicle and are doomed to rely on approximations. Our contribution is a framework to consider shape and kinematics together in a exact manner, in the obstacle avoidance process, by abstracting these constraints from the avoidance method usage. Our approach can be applied to many non holonomic vehicles with arbitrary shape.

For these vehicles, the configuration space is 3 dimensional, while the control space is 2-dimensional. The main idea is to construct (centered on the robot at any time) the two-dimensional manifold of the configuration space that is defined by elementary circular paths. This manifold contains all the configurations that can be attained at each step of the obstacle avoidance and is thus general for all methods. Another important contribution of the paper is the exact calculus of the obstacle representation in this manifold for any robot shape (i.e. the configuration regions in collision). Finally, we propose a change of coordinates of this manifold in such a way that the elementary paths become straight lines. Therefore, the 3-dimensional obstacle avoidance problem with kinematic constraints is transformed into a simple obstacle avoidance problem for a point moving in a 2-dimensional space without any kinematic restriction (the usual approximation in obstacle avoidance). Thus, existing avoidance techniques become applicable.


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Robotics and the World/Task Planning and Navigation

8. Task Planning and Navigation
Task planning for mobile robots usually relies solely on spatial information and on shallow domain knowledge, such as labels attached to objects and places. Although spatial information is necessary for performing basic robot operations (navigation and localization), the use of deeper domain knowledge is pivotal to endow a robot with higher degrees of autonomy and intelligence. Defining specific types of semantic maps is key, which integrates hierarchical spatial information and semantic knowledge. Semantic maps can improve task planning in two ways: extending the capabilities of the planner by reasoning about semantic information, and improving the planning efficiency in large domains. Several experiments demonstrate the effectiveness of solutions in a domain involving robot navigation in a domestic environment.

For any mobile device, the ability to navigate in its environment is one of the most important capabilities of all. Staying operational, i.e. avoiding dangerous situations such as collisions and staying within safe operating conditions (temperature, radiation, exposure to weather, etc.) come first, but if any tasks are to be performed that relate to specific places in the robot environment, navigation is a must. In the following, we will present an overview of the skill of navigation and try to identify the basic blocks of a robot navigation system, types of navigation systems, and closer look at its related building components.

Robot navigation means its ability to determine its own position in its frame of reference and then to plan a path towards some goal location. In order to navigate in its environment, the robot or any another mobility device requires representation i.e. a map of the environment and the ability to interpret that representation. Then we talk about robot which is very useful for college and school students. Navigation can be defined as the combination of the Three fundamental competences:


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Robotics and the World/Robot Vision

9. Robot Vision
One of the most fundamental tasks that vision is very useful for is the recognition of objects (be they machine parts, light bulbs, etc) Evolution Robotics introduced a significant milestone in the near-realtime recognition of objects based on various points. The software identifies points in an image that look the same even if the object is moved, rotated or scaled by some small degree. Matching these points to previously seen image points allows the software to 'understand' what it is looking at even if it does not see exactly the same image.

As the hobbyist robotics market rapidly grows so too are the machine vision choices that the hobbyist has at their disposal. The CMUCam (initially created at Carnegie Mellon) is by far the most popular vision camera that can track an object based on its color and even move the camera if it is mounted on servos (small motors) to track the object. At a low price and basic usage it has become very widely used by hobby and academic roboticits.

title: Robotics and the World/Robot Vision


text:
Robotics and the World/Knowledge Based Vision Systems

10. Knowledge Based Vision Systems
Knowledge Based Vision Systems are described as which configurates automatically programs for image processing and supports the recognition of objects. The system runs in two phases. In the first phase based on the primitives (curved edges, corners etc.) and the explicit specification of the content of the image given by the user a sequence of operators will be generated and all their free parameters will be computed adaptivelly. In this phase the system uses a rule base composed of knowledge of visual processing operators, their parameters, and their interdependence. In the second phase a hierachical object model is formulated and edited by the user based on the primitives selected in the first phase. The system editor is specially provided for this purpose. Using the hierachical object model facilitates a rapid interpretation of the result obtained from the previous image processing for the subsequent object recognation.


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Robotics and the World/Robots and Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it. Major AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents," where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines."

The field was founded on the claim that a central property of human beings, intelligence—the sapience of Homo sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and limits of scientific hubris, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of breathtaking optimism, has suffered stunning setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science.

AI research is highly technical and specialized, so much so that some critics decry the "fragmentation" of the field. Subfields of AI are organized around particular problems, the application of particular tools and around longstanding theoretical differences of opinion. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.


text: Category:Book:Internet Fundamentals

title: Category:Book:Internet Fundamentals


text:
Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Poa

<< Moderately invasive plants at the SCA

Poa spp. (bluegrass)
There are about 15 bluegrass (Poa species) growing wild in New York state, including both native and introduced grasses. Of these species, 5 are considered to be invasive:

 * Poa compressa (Canada blue grass) - Moderately invasive (69%)
 * Poa pratensis (Kentucky blue grass) - Moderately invasive (68%)
 * Poa bulbosa (bulbous blue grass) - Invasive (49%)
 * Poa annua (annual bluegrass) -
 * Poa trivialis (rough-sheathed blue grass) - widespread weed of seasonally-wet shaded areas

Invasiveness ranking for Poa (bluegrass)
Regulated by New York State law.

1. Ecological impact (/)
1.1. Impact on Natural Ecosystem Processes and System-Wide Parameters

1.2. Impact on Natural Community Structure

1.3. Impact on Natural Community Composition

1.4. Impact on other species or species groups

2. Biological characteristics and dispersal ability (/)
2.1. Mode and rate of reproduction

2.2 Innate potential for long-distance dispersal

2.3. Potential to be spread by human activities

2.4. Characteristics that increase competitive advantage

2.5. Growth vigor

2.6. Germination/Regeneration

2.7. Other species in the genus invasive in New York or elsewhere

3. Ecological amplitude and distribution (/)
3.1. Density of stands in natural areas in the northeastern USA and eastern Canada

3.2. Number of habitats the species may invade

3.3. Role of disturbance in establishment

3.4. Climate in native range

3.5. Current introduced distribution in the northeastern USA and eastern Canada

3.6. Current introduced distribution of the species in natural areas in the 8 NY PRISMs

4. Difficulty of control (/)
4.1. Seed banks

4.2. Vegetative regeneration

4.3. Level of effort required


text:
User:職員室/sandbox

あいうえお

title: User:職員室/sandbox


text:
Proto-Turkic/Genitive, accusative and dative cases

Welcome to sixth lesson of Proto-Turkic!

Genitive case (*-nIŋ)
We have already mentioned the genitive case in lesson one. The suffix *-nIŋ gives us the genitive case.

Possessive case
The important thing here is how you will provide the possessive case. Because there are six different forms according to the pronoun. It takes *-Xm for first person singular, *-Xŋ for second person singular, *-XmXŕ for first person plural, *-XŋXŕ for second person plural, the forms *-sI and *-I for both third person singular and third person plural. Unlike Turkish or Azerbaijani, there is no separate third person plural possessive suffix.

First person singular (*-Xm, *-m)

 * My father - Beniŋ atam
 * My dog - Beniŋ itim
 * My horse - Beniŋ atïm
 * My arrow - Beniŋ okum
 * My ox - Beniŋ öküŕüm

If you are confused about vowel harmony, please go back to the previous fourth lesson.

Second person singular (*-Xŋ, *-ŋ)

 * Your father - Seniŋ ataŋ
 * Your dog - Seniŋ itiŋ
 * Your horse - Seniŋ atïŋ
 * Your arrow - Seniŋ okuŋ
 * Your ox - Seniŋ öküŕüŋ

First person plural (*-XmXŕ, *-mXŕ)

 * Our father - Biŕniŋ atamïŕ
 * Our dog - Biŕniŋ itimiŕ
 * Our horse - Biŕniŋ atïmïŕ
 * Our arrow - Biŕniŋ okumuŕ
 * Our ox - Biŕniŋ öküŕümüŕ

Second person plural (*-XŋXŕ, *-ŋXŕ)

 * Your father - Siŕniŋ ataŋïŕ
 * Your dog - Siŕniŋ itiŋiŕ
 * Your horse - Siŕniŋ atïŋïŕ
 * Your arrow - Siŕniŋ okuŋuŕ
 * Your ox - Siŕniŋ öküŕüŋüŕ

Third person singular and plural (*-sI, *-I)
It takes the suffix *-sI after the vowel and *-I after the consonant. Twofold suffix is only available in third person possessive. In Oghur, however, final vowels are deleted before adding the suffix -ï, as opposed to the rest of Turkic (ana → an a -ï → anï, ebniŋ anï).

It is not necessary to have the genitive suffix in the third person. (e.g; eb anasï - mother of the house, dabul adakï - the end of the storm). If exists, such forms is only exist paradigmatical category.
 * Ebniŋ anasï - mother of the house
 * Dabulnuŋ adakï - the end of the storm
 * Eligniŋ ạbučï - palm of hand
 * Ẹk(k)iŕniŋ ētüki - boot(s) of twins

Accusative and Dative cases
One of the complex subjects in Proto-Turkic is accusative and dative cases. Because these cases may vary if they have the possessive suffix.

So let's start with accusative.

Accusative case (*-nI)
In the Oghur group, both in Volga Bulgarian and Chuvash, accusative and dative are provided with the same suffixes. This of course creates confusion for linguists. But the fact that both cases watch as close attachments brings us to a configuration. In early Proto-Turkic, this suffix would be *-nIg, if the last letter isn't a later mongolic appendage, in Mongolic *-nig.

 * me (accusative) — bẹni
 * house (accusative) — ebni

The accusative case, which comes after the third person possessive suffix in some Common-Turkic languages, is added without the i letter. But it was probably a Shaz variant. That's why we don't experience any changes when it takes a possessive suffix. In this context, accusative is not as complex as dative.

 * his/her/its house — anïŋ ebini

Dative cases (-kA)
Dative case is configured as *-kA.

 * to the wall - *tāmka
 * to the sea - *teŋiŕke

The letter k falls after the first, second and third possessive suffixes, it only takes the -a suffix in many Turkic languages but Yenisei Kyrgyz inscriptions and also modern Kyrgyz language don't have this change, shows that it was developed later. There's nothing different.

 * to my sword - bẹniŋ kïlï̄čïmka
 * to your bow - Sẹniŋ yāyïŋka

Initial in Proto-Turkic
If suffixes that start with a consonant come in a word that ends with a monosyllable and a vowel, they take the n consonant unless the initial letter is n, and in this context *bẹ becomes *ben. In Shaz Turkic, *ben has become stereotyped and has taken the place of *bẹ.

 * at me — *bente
 * from you — *senten
 * to me — *benke

Same situation also applies to words with third-person possessive suffixes.

 * on the mountains of country — ēlniŋ tāgïŕïnda
 * from the border of wall — tāmnïŋ kïdïgïndan
 * to his/her/its house — anïŋ ebinke

It would not be correct to say that these configurations are correct, as there is only -ne form in the Lir group. But what we have can lead us to this configuration at most. The probability of it being correct is therefore quite high.

Next lesson: Suffixes used to create new words with new meanings


text:
High School Geometry/Lines and Angles

Parallel and perpendicular lines require you to be able to calculate the prerequisites of distance, gradient,midpoint,and taneΦ.

title: High School Geometry/Lines and Angles


text: User:Mittali Vaidya

title: User:Mittali Vaidya


text:
User:GTA Is So Good

e

title: User:GTA Is So Good


text:
User:Mbrickn/Usable Images

Images that I plan on using in Wikibooks eventually

title: User:Mbrickn/Usable Images


text:
Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2021/April

for Wikibooks
Currently, the  permission, which is required to import contents from most wikis (other than the ones where importers can import), can only be assigned by stewards following a RfP. My proposal is to bundle  into sysops and importers (if possible), as they will allow trusted users to import content from StrategyWiki and other sources (relevant because we allowed video game strategy guides). What do you think? Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 13:36, 20 March 2021 (UTC)

 * I think we should show a lot of caution. Looking at Importer it describes 🇨🇴. The danger is explained at m:Help:Import as 🇨🇴 So it is a fairly technical thing to do, as if usernames shared by different users between, say, StrategyWiki and Wikibooks, the XML file will have to be edited.
 * My feelings is that we should create a policy for importupload, which could be amended at Importers. What that policy contains could be decided later, by my personal feeling is that we should restrict it to administrators, and it should remain separate from admin rights; the user group already exists, but with no users, see import uploaders. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:11, 20 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Just to note, that importupload isn't technically required if importing from StrategyWiki, as the CC-BY-SA copyright compliance doesn't require it; attribution can merely be a link to the page from which it is imported. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:19, 20 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Your approach is also OK by me, as I can understand the hesitation of providing importupload to importers. That being said, while importupload isn't technically needed for StrategyWiki, it's still useful, and importupload also helps when importing from most other Wikimedia wikis (other than the whitelist). Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 20:51, 20 March 2021 (UTC)
 * OK I'll look into it. I was giving my opinion on what should be done, but what we decide could different to that. Importing histories is definitely better than importing without histories, but if usernames are shared by different users between projects then that could cause problems, and you would have to be careful to avoid this. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 21:02, 20 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I've created a draft proposal at Importers/sandbox. What do you think? -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 22:32, 21 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I think your proposal for importers is OK.
 * With regards to, I am not sure whether we need admins to request it separately (that is, why not include it in the admin toolkit?). Additionally, I am not sure that we need to restrict it to admins either - I can see legitimate use-cases for non-admins to hold   and I don't want to restrict them from holding the right if needed. Whether importupload should be assigned by admins or bureaucrats is up for debate - I am fine with either. Regardless, I feel that at least one local group should be able to assign this right - we shouldn't have to go to stewards like I had to. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 08:23, 22 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Agree it should be assigned locally. Assignment, and removal, should be by admins not crats as really this project is too small for crats - if we didn't have one, you'd probably find that the Stewards wouldn't create any even if the community requested it. Regarding the points above, the issue is really non-WMF Wikis. Using it to bring data in from a WMF project that isn't supported by  is fine, but once you start with other projects you can mess up the attribution and data mapping to a degree. Given this, it shouldn't be part of the standard importer permissions. It makes sense to include it by default to admins. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 09:10, 22 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Agree it should be assigned locally. Assignment, and removal, should be by admins not crats as really this project is too small for crats - if we didn't have one, you'd probably find that the Stewards wouldn't create any even if the community requested it. Regarding the points above, the issue is really non-WMF Wikis. Using it to bring data in from a WMF project that isn't supported by  is fine, but once you start with other projects you can mess up the attribution and data mapping to a degree. Given this, it shouldn't be part of the standard importer permissions. It makes sense to include it by default to admins. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 09:10, 22 March 2021 (UTC)

Thanks for your feedback. Well I think there is a couple of issues to address:

Firstly, I accept whatever the consensus is for assigning the importupload right. And that currently seems to be that only admins should have the right.

Secondly, there seems to be consensus here that admins should automatically be given the right as part of their toolkit. If that's the decision I'm fine with it. However, I would give caution with a couple of possible scenarios on how it might go wrong, which I would like some feedback on if possible.

 * 1) Scenario : Editor X (on StrategyWiki) and Editor Y (on Wikibooks) share the same username on their respective projects. Now an importupload from StrategyWiki is performed, but the usernames are not altered to reflect this. Unfortunately, Editor X has performed some offensive edits, but after it is imported it looks like Editor Y has performed these edits, and this is then discovered; but it is not realised that this is due to an importupload.
 * 2) Scenario : A corrupt Admin X (or another editor with access to their account) decides to get their own back on Editor Y by rewriting history. They perform an fake importupload, with Editor Y making an offensive edit. Again this comes to light, but again it is not realised that this is due to an importupload.

Now you could say that this is pretty unlikely; but at the same time it would have the potential to cause a furore. I think that's why I see importupload as a dangerous permission, that needs considerable care and integrity. So that's why I suggested a process akin to interface admin. Furthermore its not actually needed for CC-BY-SA compliance, a link is all you really need.

Anyway, what do you think? If you're not convinced then perhaps we could just add it to the admin toolkit.-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 19:49, 22 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I maybe wasn't clear. I think it is okay to assign the right to non-admins on request in principle but I also think that we need to be cautious and only assign it to highly trusted editors who fully understand the kind of issues you are discussing above, particularly the attribution point as this is more likely. That would mean a proper RFP along the lines of request admin with community consensus. If this approach is taken, I support making it a standard admin tool and allowing admins to assign the rights. If the preference is to only assign it on request to admins, then I suggest making this a crat responsibility as it doesn't make sense for admins to be able to assign themselves a right that isn't part of the toolkit. Personally I agree that it is probably unnecessary given that attribution can be done by a URL. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 22:13, 22 March 2021 (UTC)
 * While I agree that all this is not necessary from a theoretical perspective, I am personally still of the opinion that it is a useful right to have; after all, we don't technically need the importer permission either as a link would suffice.
 * Regarding the scenarios, it's possible but unlikely, and would form the trust we give to these users. After all, a steward going rogue can make a large amount of damage very quickly. One way to mitigate the risk would be to ask users performing importupload to not select the option to attribute edits to locally existing users.
 * In my personal opinion, I would stand by keeping importupload by default for admins, and perhaps (in light of concerns) assigning importupload to non-admins (by either admins or 'crats) with somewhat stricter rules (which could range from experience, and perhaps even enforce 2FA). Wikibooks does require more imports than the average Wikimedia site. However, all this will depend on the direction taken by the community. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 08:10, 23 March 2021 (UTC)
 * OK well I suggest that you amend Importers/sandbox to how you see fit, and present it to the community for approval. I will !vote and comment on whatever you come up with; if it appears to be reasonable I will support. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 11:58, 23 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I've made some updates to that; what do you think? Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 18:06, 23 March 2021 (UTC)
 * yes its looking fine. I added some details about having a "proper" RfP per comments by QuiteUnusual above, and a bit of c/e. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 19:42, 23 March 2021 (UTC)

Proposal to update Card Catalog Office with Card Catalog Office/sandbox
I've been working on a new page for Card Catalog Office, which I have created at Card Catalog Office/sandbox. Its rather more detailed, and it combines elements of Wikibooks Stacks/Departments with that of the present page.

When visitors first visit the site, the most likely way they're going to search is by going to "browse" on the left sidebar. Hopefully this page will be more engaging and give a better sense of where to find content than the current page. Any views are most welcome. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 11:08, 29 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Looks fine to me. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 12:39, 29 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Thanks . Another thing I was thinking of doing was to raise Shelf:Recreational activities to Department:Recreational activities. It seems to me that this is the most popular shelf in Department:Miscellaneous, so it makes sense to give it more prominence. I've been studying the Wikibooks Stacks a fair bit, and I think it is actually very easy. I think what you need to do is:

 * 1) Update Card Catalog Office.
 * 2) Create: "Department: Recreational activities" and "Category:Department:Recreational activities" with the relevant templates
 * 3) "Shelf:Recreational activities", "Shelf:Collecting", "Shelf:Games", "Shelf:Outdoor recreation", "Shelf:Physical fitness", "Shelf:Tourism", "Shelf:Arts and crafts":  migrate parent=Miscellaneous to parent=Recreational activities
 * 4) "Shelf:Athletic games", "Shelf:Board games", "Shelf:Card games", "Shelf:Electronic games", "Shelf:Game design" are already subshelves of Games, so wont need migration.
 * 5) Rebuild these shelves through purging.
 * Any thoughts? If it didn't work it would be easy to reverse. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 16:32, 29 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Looks fine to me. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 10:24, 17 April 2021 (UTC)

Update on my work
I have made some changes that I would like to advertise:

 * I have created a new department, Department:Recreational activities, which was previously a shelf. This means that Shelf:Games is more visible.
 * I have updated Card Catalog Office and Wikibooks Stacks/Departments; they now use CSS flexbox, and should display ok on smartphones.
 * I have created Wikibooks Stacks/Adding books and Wikibooks Stacks/Detailed structure, which should help with understanding of Stacks.
 * I have updated Main Page with more departments, using CSS flexbox for smartphone rendering.
 * Miscellaneous changes here and there.

As a general point, I'm learning more about Wikibooks Stacks, although I don't fully understand it I'm getting more aware of how it can be manipulated. I think I might manipulate Stacks further, I am concerned about smartphone rendering on pages. I imagine many users are put off by this, as most users today use mobile devices to access websites.

Any comments are welcome. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 23:06, 6 April 2021 (UTC)

Proposal for new Main Page
See Main Page/sandbox. I am proposing that this replace the present Main Page. Changes can be summarized as follows:

 * The page now use CSS flexbox (for the most part). This means that rendering should be improved, even for very low resolution smartphones. There are also a few cosmetic changes here and there.
 * The page includes "promoted shelves" (see below) in addition to featured content.

The basic idea behind promoted shelves is that they exemplify the most popular areas of Wikibooks. The promoted shelves are "top-level shelves" (just below departments), and have some of the popular books upon them. I've based them largely on Wikistats at https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikibooks.org/reading/top-viewed-articles, and an analysis of what shelves (from which books) should be most popular with readers.

They are therefore selected on the basis of popularity not quality. Now that is a departure from a featured items on the Main Page, but is done for the following reasons:

 * Featured books/Wikijunior books/recipes are retained, with promoted shelves as an addition.
 * The recent video game strategy guides acceptance hasn't gained a strong foothold yet. Perhaps this will give it a boost with the inclusion of Shelf:Games as a promoted shelf.
 * Shelves are the main organizational structure of Wikibooks, yet possibly remain mysterious and obtuse to the general readership.
 * I think at this stage of Wikibooks we need to do something radical to try to boost readership. Readership is quite down from previous years, see https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikibooks.org . For example, total page views are down -37.35% year over year. Without readers our active contributors will also fall, and the stats bear this out too. Perhaps it is a time to focus on what brings the readership here, and at the same time popularize our Stacks sorting mechanism of departments and shelves.

At the moment promoted shelves are fixed, but in the future there could be a rotational aspect, like featured content. Anyway, all views and comments on this are most welcome. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 09:58, 17 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Looks fine to me. However, should the promoted shelves be categorised? Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 10:23, 17 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Indeed that would be a logical step. If this gains acceptance then that should be done. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 10:31, 17 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Support, current main page is too short. Enjoyer of World (discuss • contribs) 22:45, 19 April 2021 (UTC)


text:
Skaneateles Conservation Area/Invasive species/Microstegium vimineum

Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stiltgrass )
Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) also called Nepalese browntop, is an aggressive invader of eastern forests. Infestations can impact the diversity of native species, reduce wildlife habitat, and disrupt important ecosystem functions. It is considered one of the most damaging invasive plant species in the United States. Infestations spread rapidly and the seed can remain viable in the soil for up to five years.

Nearest locations
This very-highly invasive grass is present within the Finger Lakes PRISM, where it is assigned Tier 3. Reports nearest the SCA include:
 * Green Lakes State park, via iMapInvasives,
 * |ConfirmedPresenceTOC;0;0=1;0|aoiTOC;0;0=0;40|statesTOC;0;0=0;0|countiesTOC;0;0=0;0|waterbodiesTOC;0;0=0;40|conservationLandsTOC;0;0=0;40|usgsTopoTOC;0;0=0;0|ismaTOC;0;0=0;0|hydrobasinTOC;0;0=0;0|countryTOC;0;0=0;0|municipalBoundariesTOC;0;0=0;0|tncIPMMS;0;0=0;40|mobiToc;0;0=0;0&fobs=&fhbtt=&fspec=2071&fstyp=n&fkdom=&fgens=&fbdte=&fadte=&fproj=&forg=&fjur=&felim= Montezuma Marsh, iMap
 * Near Wells College Golf Course, iMap

Identification
Stiltgrass is said to get its name from the aerial rootlets near the base of the weak stems.

Its leaves are relatively short, measuring from 2-4 inches long and 1/2 inch wide.

Plants with similarities to Japanese stiltgrass

 * White cut grass (Leersia virginica)

 * Nimblewill muhly (Muhlenbergia schreberi)

 * Wavyleaf basketgrass (Oplismenus hirtellus) is native to the southeastern US and is unlikely to be present as far north as the SCA, but it is included here because it is prohibited in New York State and apparent similarities to Japanese stiltgrass.

 * Deer-tongue rosette grass (Dichanthelium clandestinum)

Invasiveness ranking for Microstegium vimineum (Japanese stiltgrass )
Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) is ranked as very highly invasive, with a ranking of 85/100 (85%).

Prohibited by New York State law.

1. Ecological impact (33/40)
1.1. Impact on Natural Ecosystem Processes and System-Wide Parameters

  Major, possibly irreversible, alteration or disruption of ecosystem processes (10/10)

 * Pronounced differences in nitrogen cycling and soil pH beneath exotic understory plants compared to adjacent native understory plants.
 * Exotic species induce changes in the composition and/or activity of soil microbiota.

1.2. Impact on Natural Community Structure

1.3. Impact on Natural Community Composition

1.4. Impact on other species or species groups

2. Biological characteristics and dispersal ability (/)
2.1. Mode and rate of reproduction

2.2 Innate potential for long-distance dispersal

2.3. Potential to be spread by human activities

2.4. Characteristics that increase competitive advantage

2.5. Growth vigor

2.6. Germination/Regeneration

2.7. Other species in the genus invasive in New York or elsewhere

3. Ecological amplitude and distribution (/)
3.1. Density of stands in natural areas in the northeastern USA and eastern Canada

3.2. Number of habitats the species may invade

3.3. Role of disturbance in establishment

3.4. Climate in native range

3.5. Current introduced distribution in the northeastern USA and eastern Canada

3.6. Current introduced distribution of the species in natural areas in the 8 NY PRISMs

4. Difficulty of control (/)
4.1. Seed banks

4.2. Vegetative regeneration

4.3. Level of effort required


text:
User talk:2A02:C7F:2C88:A900:8CF1:C402:1B70:E9E7

Danny bryer


text:
PyTorch/Introduction

Introduction
PyTorch, aka pytorch, is a package for deep learning. It can also be used for shallow learning, for optimization tasks unrelated to deep learning, and for general linear algebra calculations with or without CUDA.

PyTorch is one of many packages for deep learning. As for November 2018, it was the second after TensorFlow by number of contributors, the third after TensorFlow and Caffe by number of stars in github. Keras also should be mentioned here.

PyTorch descended from the Torch package under a language called Lua. For that reason, pytorch is called torch within python. For example,  but.

To install PyTorch, go to it's official page, [pytorch.org]. Unfortunately, you cannot install PyTorch with.

Advandages and disadvantages
PyTorch is simpler and easier to learn than TensorFlow, and offers more freedom. As Kirill Doubikov wrote,

"Overall, the [PyTorch] framework is more tightly integrated with Python language and feels more native most of the times. When you write in TensorFlow sometimes you feel that your model is behind a brick wall with several tiny holes to communicate over."

On the other hand, he wrote:

"Currently, TensorFlow is considered as a to-go tool by many researchers and industry professionals. The framework is well documented and if the documentation will not suffice there are many extremely well-written tutorials on the internet. You can find hundreds of implemented and trained models on github, start here."

"PyTorch is relatively new compared to its competitor (and is still in beta), but it is quickly getting its momentum. Documentation and official tutorials are also nice. PyTorch also include several implementations of popular computer vision architectures which are super-easy to use."

As for September 2019, PyTorch is not beta anymore, but the difference still holds.

TensorFlow has a great visualization tool, TensorBoard. Starting from the version 1.1, PyTorch also wholly supports TensorBoard.

title: PyTorch/Introduction


text:
PyTorch/Tensor

Tensor
The basic object in PyTorch is tensor. Tensors are similar to numpy matrices with two important additions: they work with CUDA, and they can calculate gradients.

Tensors are created and manipulated similarly to numpy matrices: >>> a = np.random.rand(10000, 10000).astype(np.float32) >>> b = np.random.rand(10000, 10000).astype(np.float32) >>> t = time.time; c = np.matmul(a, b); time.time-t 7.447854280471802

>>> a1 = torch.rand(10000, 10000, dtype=torch.float32) # note how torch.rand supports dtype >>> b1 = torch.rand(10000, 10000, dtype=torch.float32) >>> t = time.time; c1 = torch.matmul(a1, b1); time.time-t 7.758733749389648

All function like np.ones, np.zeros, np.empty and so on, as well as other main functions and arythmeric operators, also present in torch:

>>> torch.ones(2,2) tensor(1., 1.],           [1., 1.) >>> torch.ones(2,2, dtype=torch.int32) tensor(1, 1],           [1, 1, dtype=torch.int32) >>> a=torch.ones(2,2) # or torch.ones((2,2)) which is the same >>> b=a+1 >>> c=a*b >>> c.reshape(1,4) # or c.view(1,4) which is the same tensor(2., 2., 2., 2.)

For tensors, the function  is a function which returns   object, rather then a member which is a tuple. It is good, because torch.Size inherits tuple and has some additional operators defined:

>>> a=torch.ones(2,3,4) >>> a.size torch.Size([2, 3, 4]) >>> a.size.numel 24

The functions sum, mean and so on for tensors return not a number but a zero dimensional tensor. Tensor elements are also zero dimensional tensors rather than numbers: >>> a = torch.ones(2,2) >>> a.sum tensor(4.) >>> a.sum.size torch.Size([]) >>> a.sum.dim 0   >>> a[0,0] tensor(1.)

To convert a zero dimensional tensor to a number, you should explicitly call the function : >>> a.sum.item 4.0

Instead of numpy's, in torch there is a function >>> a.to(torch.int16) tensor(1, 1],           [1, 1, dtype=torch.int16)

The name is changed because the function  can do more than just change element types. It can also move data to and from CUDA, and it works for the wide range of torch datatypes, including neural networks.

Tensors and numpy matrices
Since tensors and numpy matrices are so similar, it would be nice if we could convert them to each other. And we, indeed, can. It is as easy as cake. To convert tensor to matrix, just call  method. For the opposite, call  constructor: >>> a=torch.ones(2,2, dtype=torch.float16) >>> a.numpy array(1., 1.],          [1., 1., dtype=float16) >>> b=np.ones((2,2), dtype=np.float16) >>> torch.tensor(b) tensor(1., 1.],           [1., 1., dtype=torch.float16)

CUDA
While you can use PyTorch without CUDA, it accelerates the computations by a factor of 10-20.

Before using CUDA, check whether it is available. Type: torch.cuda.is_available If it returned False, you may skip the rest of this section.

You may also check the versions of CUDA and cuDNN library: >>> torch.version.cuda '10.0'   >>> torch.backends.cudnn.version 7401   >>> torch.backends.cudnn.enabled True

Unlike numpy, tensors can be easily moved to and from CUDA memory. In CUDA, you can do almost whatever you can do out of it. If your computer is equipped with CUDA, and you installed the driver (NVIDIA CUDA 10.0 or higher), you can do the following: cuda = torch.device('cuda') a = torch.randn(10000, 10000, device=cuda) b = torch.randn(10000, 10000, device=cuda) t = time.time; c = torch.matmul(a, b); print(time.time-t)

On my computer, the time was 0.4 seconds, which is $$2.5\times 10^{12}$$ multiplications per second.

You can easily move tensors to and from CUDA memory with  method >>> cuda = torch.device('cuda') >>> cpu = torch.device('cpu') >>> a = torch.ones(5,5) >>> b = a.to(cuda) # move to cuda >>> c = b.to(cpu) # move back to cpu >>> a.device device(type='cpu') >>> b.device device(type='cuda') >>> c.device device(type='cpu')

You cannot mix CUDA and CPU tensors in your expressions: >>> a+b Traceback (most recent call last): File " ", line 1, in RuntimeError: expected backend CPU and dtype Float but got backend CUDA and dtype Float

Autograd
The autograd module implemented into PyTorch makes calculating gradients via backpropagation a piece of cake. You need to specify the requires_grad parameter ("requires" with -s, "grad" without), and call  method.

>>> a=torch.ones(2,2, requires_grad=True) >>> b=torch.eye(2,2, requires_grad=True) >>> c = a*a*(b+1) >>> d=c.sum >>> d.backward # calculate gradients >>> a.grad # gradient of d with respect to a tensor(4., 2.],        [2., 4.) >>> b.grad # gradient of d with respect to b tensor(1., 1.],        [1., 1.)

title: PyTorch/Tensor