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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 4/Power

Michel Foucault and Power
Michel Foucault, who was a French philosopher, worked on the notion of power. He studied it on two levels -empirical and theoretical. The first one aims to identify the kinds of power and to understand their evolutions. In premodern area, the exercise of power is established through the “sovereign power” -the power is controlled by the king at the top of the pyramid. However, this form of power is not effective in modern time because of the plurality of interactions. Indeed, the exercises of power has evolved to the “disciplinary power” and the “biopower”.

The second level is theoretical. It grasps the general features of power. According to Foucault, power is omnipresent in all social interactions. However, he did not mean that power explains everything. Power starts from below, from the individual scale (also called micro-level) to the bigger scale (macro-level). Power is intentional: thus, power is used to achieve aims and objectives. It is also nonsubjective. In fact, exercises of power are beyond any individual’s intentions. Thus, micro-events lead power at a macro-level but the later results from multiple actions: so “power consists of multiple force relations” [Taylor, 25]. Foucault also links freedom and power. For the philosopher, power takes place between two free subjects that have an unequal relationship. Power is then the ability to influence the actions of someone else by “shaping [one’s] behavior” [Foucault, 1980]. We could make a reference to Power of Keith Dowding, in which he identifies two kinds of power: “power to” and “power over” [Dowding, 4]. “Power to” refers to the ability to realize an outcome while “power over”, also called social power, is the ability to “change the incentive structure of another actor [...] to bring about outcomes” [Dowding, 5].

Sources

Michel Foucault, Key concepts, Dianna Taylor

Power, Keith Dowding

Application of Foucault’s theory in Medical Research

This distinction that Dowding makes between ‘power to’ and ‘power over’ is interesting, and can be applied to how the disciplines interact when collaborating in a project. Usually the aim is combining their research to result in ‘power to’ shape a theory or understand phenomena, but often this can lead more in the direction of ‘power over’ one discipline by another. If we take Foucault’s assertion that power is omnipresent in all social interactions, it would follow that any time interdisciplinary work is carried out, there is a power dynamic between disciplines. Moreover if this dynamic is recognised, it would not remove the power element, just re-frame it in a more constructive way.

To put this idea into a real world-context, we can look at the combination of traditional Medicine discipline and Social Work discipline. In order for the NHS to work more efficiently and save money, there is a research movement integrate the different elements of healthcare for a more holistic approach. One such project is explained in a joint report by The College of Social Work and the Royal College of General Practitioners, outlining the importance of partnership between social workers and general practitioners within the NHS.

The report immediately addresses potential areas of power imbalance by identifying differences in funding for research within both disciplines, professional cultures and training of both social workers and GPs. (CITE) Due to GPs having to undergo a lengthy education and practical training programme, there is potential to be a feeling that they are more ‘qualified’ in medical understanding, yet the report emphasises the importance of a shared common interest in strengthening local communities, which can motivate both sides to address power imbalances through transparent research.

Interestingly, in the inital summary the report begins by outlining that GPs and social workers have different roles, yet both are important when used together and not in competition. While GPs are involved in active and immediate care, social workers have a crucial job for longer term ‘care reform’. By recognising this difference, the power shifts from competing over the same goal to understanding the allocation of responsibility. A particular point raised in the summary is worth quoting directly: “Social workers and GPs regularly fail to understand each other’s unique role, responsibilities and perspectives, barriers that may have to be dismantled through inter-professional education, co-location and informal networking, among other things.”

The report goes on to give evidence of regional examples where this partnership has begun to flourish, and this is a possible research topic which could be studied in Approaches to Knowledge, looking at a specific case study.

Sources:

College of Social work and Royal College of General Practitioners. GPs and Social Workers: Partners for Better Care [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www.basw.co.uk/system/files/resources/basw_104434-7_0.pdf

Koopman C, Haselby S. The Power Thinker [Internet]. Aeon Essays. 2017 [cited 3 December 2019]. Available from: https://aeon.co/essays/why-foucaults-work-on-power-is-more-important-than-ever

Why I’m No Longer Talking To White People About Race, Reni Eddo-Lodge (2017)
"“Seeing race is essential to changing the system.” [Eddo-Lodge, p.84]"

Racism is often described as a discrimination or a prejudice. For Reni Eddo-Lodge, racism comes under power.

Being color-blind is to refuse to talk about race because it is identified as discrimination; however, by ignoring it one fail to see that racism is hidden in the form of the structural racism.

Structural racism can significantly affect people’s life quality, often with not granting them equal opportunity. The author gives some examples in the United Kingdom:

 * "black and minority ethnic people are much more likely to live in income poverty than their white counterparts.” [Eddo-Lodge, p.193]. Percentages support the claim with 20% of white people in the UK living in income poverty, 45% of black Africans and 65% of Bangladeshis.
 * black women suffer more from unemployment than white women.
 * structural racism affects urbanization with the gentrification of neighborhoods.
 * the names of candidates have an impact on being called or not for the job interview. In fact, people with white sounding name are more often called for an interview than people with African- or Asian-sounding names.

Racism is still present and it is clear that we do not live in a meritocracy. Some people, white people, benefit from it. T. W. Allen, who was influenced by W.E.B. Du Bois, created the term “white privilege”. Reni Eddo-Lodge defines it as the “absence of”: “white privilege is an absence of the consequences of racism” [Reni Eddo-Lodge, p.96].

Racism and Power
According to Eddo-Lodge, racism is therefore often used as a tool of power, where people with white privileges are usually the one in power, and they have little incentive to give up those privileges. However, racism is a multidimensional problem, requiring interdisciplinary approach. For example, in many countries, United Kingdom amongst them, there is no racism in theory - laws grant everyone equal opportunity, and prevent discrimination on the basis of race. Since this does not translate into practice (as we are told by empirical evidence), we have to see further into the problem. Racism, through power, is present in a society in form of discrimination and prejudices as a result of upbringing, education, etc. - forcing us to seek sociological, psychological approaches to the problem. Starting with education, state should ensure the addressing of racism in sufficient and appropriate manner, as to bring awareness to the problem, as well as seek to prevent any form of racism in schools, where it manifests itself in forms of e.g. achievement gap - where "Although no one is born prejudiced, many of the assumptions, values, and practices of people and institutions hinder the learning of students of color and students from low-socioeconomic classes. Race and class biases in particular are major causes of differential success"

Sources:

Weissglass J. Racism and the Achievement Gap. Education week. 2001; 20(43): 49-50

Power in Documentary Making
'Nanook of the North' made in 1922 by Robert J. Flaherty was the first ethnographic documentary. It presents itself as an observational film, showing evidence for the perils of living as an Itivimuit, with little interaction between the filmmaker and the Itivimuit hunter and his family. In the interview 'Flaherty and Film', Robert J. Flaherty's wife Frances H. Flaherty states that Flaherty's approach was exploratory, in contrast to the theatricality of other documentaries. The Flahertys claim the scenes presented in the documentary to be true, bringing together the exploratory aims of science and art.

It has since been discovered that Robert J. Flaherty enforced the Western idea of life in the North was like upon 'Nanook' the main character in the film (real name Allakariallak). A major part of the film was hunting, shown to be depended on for survival. In the 1920s, the tribe mainly hunted using guns but Flaherty persuaded the hunters to use harpoons. The process of igloo construction is shown in detail, but many say Flaherty 'cheated' because he required two to be built: one to show the process, one double the size, in order to film more easily inside.

It brings the question of truth in documentary into account. Frances Flaherty states that 'one hint of artificiality [makes the true] feeling of oneness disappear' and also states the family were 'not acting, but being'. This claim and intention of the necessity of truth depreciates the final product as it has been found to not present positivist truth due to Flaherty's direction. The actions of the family can be perceived to be natural and truthful due to Flaherty's long relationship with them, but that does not negate Flaherty's direction. The actions shown really did happen, but only due to the filming, thus the presence of the filmmaker changed the truth of the family. It could be argued that reinforcing a truth that is already in the audience's minds, it could hold some interpretive truth for the audience.

This topic has issues in History, Truth and Evidence, but I think the most pertinent is power.

The power of the western filmmaker to manipulate the truth of the lives of vulnerable* subjects. The power of documentaries in sharing a perception of truth to those who understand it as absolute truth, therefore spreading falsities.

To quell some of the historic power dynamics within the media and arts, creators and broadcasters should clarify the difference between positivist and interpretivist truths, so audiences know the boundaries between fact and fiction.

In terms of art, Nanook of the North is a beautiful film, but it blurs the boundaries between documentary and docudrama in a way that the audience are not aware of. Creators of art and media should be more aware of the power they hold over audiences, as well as over the subjects of their films.

* It is known the technology was unknown to the subjects of the film, so they were not fully informed of the extent of the broadcast.

 * 1) ↑ The Physiology of Truth, Neuroscience and human Knowledge Jean-Pierre Changeux
 * 2) ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4kOIzMqso0
 * 3) ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Flaherty
 * 4) ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mvzxu3syq_A
 * 5) ↑ https://www.theguardian.com/film/2000/apr/13/1
 * 6) ↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mvzxu3syq_A

Power in Anthropology
As we saw in our lecture, “power is the ability to act or produce an effect, and is a legal or official authority”. I would like to take a look at how power has impacted the discipline of anthropology, specifically social anthropology.

As Dr Lauren Bird said in our history lecture: “Anthropology is a scientific study of humans both past and present. Social anthropology may investigate patterns of behaviours, cultural meaning, norms and values”. Thus, anthropologists aim to understand people and especially people’s connections in communities.

At first, anthropology was a discipline to learn about the “other” which already implies a certain hierarchy as we see the “other” as someone different to us. In the past, anthropology was a racial science and somewhat still is to this day. In fact, the first anthropologists saw themselves as “powerful and superior scientists” as they analysed “the other” and pointed out how they were not as “developed”. By positioning themselves at the top of the hierarchy, anthropologists used their power to judge what was right and considered the people they were studying as “primitive” and “inferior”. They even called them “backwards” and “savage”. With the colonial expansion in the nineteenth century, most anthropologists were white European men and placed themselves above.

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, one of the founders of the discipline, even stated in his book Primitive Culture in 1871 that there were three stages of human development. The first one was savagery, linked to Magical Thinking, the second one was barbarism, linked to languages, laws and institutions and the third was civilization. He described civilization as the stage a society reaches when it has “reason and science”. Even though Tylor tried to understand individuals and their communities, his view seems problematic nowadays. Every community has different thoughts and outlooks on what reason is and what development is, so judging another as someone who is not “civilized” yet is an assertion of power. At the time, the idea of the “noble savage”, which was the idea that people needed to be conquered and saved, persisted.

However, during the twentieth century, two anthropologists challenged this idea of power and hierarchy in anthropology. The first one is Franz Boas who believed in cultural relativism which is “The idea that all cultures are equally developed, and should be understood on their own terms” (definition from one of the lectures). He wanted to explicitly challenge how people saw race, which is a social construct, at a time where many people believed in eugenics. He actively campaigned for black rights. Du Bois, another anthropologist who was the first African-american to obtain a PHD in the Unites States of America, also challenged the idea of power and race. He fought so that cultures could be analysed without a hierarchical view in anthropology.

Although progress has been made, the fight hasn’t ended as power is still very present in this discipline, whether anthropology fights against power or is directly affected by it. In Abu-Lughod’s article American Anthropologist in 2002, she shows that the mentality of « saving others » still persists. She takes the case of Muslim women in Afghanistan and how some Americans still wanted to “save them” without knowing if they wanted to be “saved”. Therefore, it seems like social anthropology is always connected to power.

Power in the Anthropology of Art
The Anthropology of art has been dramatically reframed with the contributions of Alfred Gell to the discipline, notably found in his works Art and Agency (Gell, 1998). For Gell, the handling of works of art was at risk of falling "under the sway of colonialism" insomuch that only non-Western 'craft' objects were evaluated within the discipline. However Gell protests that anthropology is not a humanity, it is a social science. In this way, it should seek be more inclusive and engage with all art for, "if western (aesthetic) theories of art applied to 'our' art, then they apply to everybody's art, and should be applied so."

As hinted at here, Gell was confronting the reality in how we classify art - and argues that our judging systems of what constitutes art operates from an "unredeemably ethnocentric attitude" (Gell, 1992) that gravitates under the captivating effects of aesthetics. For Gell. this becomes an issue of power because the " attitude of aesthetics is culture-bound even though the objects in question derive from many cultures." The repercussions of this upon this field within anthropology is radical because of the emerging dichotomy of what art pieces are/not evaluated in the anthropological gaze. In other words, anthropology exclusively deals with 'craft' from the beginning of the century and is actively ignorant to what is circulated as 'art' in the 20th century (Gell, 1996).

The reason Gell is challenging the "continuing hold of the 'aesthetic' notion of art over the anthropological mind" is because art functions as more than merely an object. Supposing we evaluate the agency that an object is able to index of the maker/user, we are therefore given insight into the social relations that produced, distributed and maintain circulation of these objects. For Gell, this is the function of the the discipline. Therefore, we have been able to see the dangerous powers of aesthetics in the anthropology of art through its capacity to exclude vast collections of works, which inhibit us in exploring the network of relations that brought and maintain the existence of these art objects today.

Gell, A. (1998). Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory. Oxford, Claredon Press.

Gell, A. (1992). The Technology of Enchantment and the Enchantment of Technology in J. Coote and A. Shelton. (eds), Anthropology, Art and Aesthetic, Oxford.

Gell, A. (1996). Vogel's Net. Journal of Material Culture, 1(1), pp.15-38.

Niccolo Machiavelli and His Study of Power
Statesman, Historian and Italian political thinker of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Niccolo Machiavelli observed the mechanics of power. Indeed, in his work 'The Prince', he separated politics from morality and religion. In Machiavel's point of view, the head of state must adapt to the circumstances, and, in that way get rid of morality. For him, that does not mean that there is no morality when it comes to political power, but that whoever holds political power must be pragmatic. In other words, the importance of the efficiency of the head of state is reflected in an immanent morality.

Furthermore than the need of controlling the power by the head of state, this last has a unique purpose : the conservation of power. For that, he has to dominate its opponent and control its image.

However, what would prevent this preservation of power is the homeland. Indeed, power is the central element of politics. There is an essential link between politics power and the homeland, as the people and their patriotism may compromise the power of the head of state, if they have their own liberties.

Power and Religion
Religion has an enormous power - it has the power to unite individuals into a group, community, state. Even if these individuals do not have much in common, they can be united under this same belief, that enables them to cooperate, live together, fight together. Religion has also the power to control and to manipulate the masses - religion itself is one of the most powerful tools of the people in power.

Alamut by Slovenian author Vladimir Bartol is a novel that explores the idea of religion as a tool of power. It takes place in 11th century Persia, in the fortress of Alamut, where self-proclaimed prophet Hasan ibn Sabbah has a vision how to create elite fighters, called "living daggers", that become the most powerful army ever seen. By creating a virtual paradise of Alamut, filled with beautiful women, lush gardens, wine and by blurring the lines between fantasy and reality with hashish, Sabbah convinces the fighters that they can reach the paradise if they follow his commands.

Alamut tells the story of how Sabbah was able to instill fear into the ruling class by creating a small army of devotees who were willing to kill, and be killed, in order to achieve paradise. Believing in the supreme Ismaili motto “Nothing is true, everything is permitted,” Sabbah wanted to “experiment” with how far he could manipulate religious devotion for his own political gain through appealing to what he called "the stupidity and gullibility of people and their passion for pleasure and selfish desires."

The novel cleverly masks moral and philosophical questions in the form of fiction. It deals particularly with the question whether people are unable to live with the acknowledgement that the absolute truth is unreachable and whether it is wrong if someone takes advantage of it and fill the void with virtual paradise they all want to believe in. If all our experiences are evaluated based on how we perceive them, then we can conclude that one is happier leaving in a lie, with a clear view of the paradise – paradise that is just a figment of ruler's imagination and has been used as a manipulation and does not exist – but at the same time does exist in the minds of the manipulated mass whose belief is the only thing that counts in the end. Religion, or particular belief, gives people an illusion of absolute truth, and by doing that, has the power to shape their actions, thoughts, consciousness - and can be exploited to direct it to particular political gains.

We can draw a parallel with the real world - we have a history full of empirical evidences of how religion, or certain belief, has been used to control and direct masses to the causes of the rulers. The Crusades or Thirty Years' War are just some of many examples how religion was the reason for conflicts and justification of wars. However, as much as the difference in religion seems to be the only cause for such events, it was usually more of a tool of power, a tool to unite people and convince them to fight for various political causes under the pretence of religion.

Comment: I find it really interesting how fiction can be used to explore such grand issues like power and religion. I found especially interesting, though, the idea of it not being religion itself causing the harm, but people using the influence it has on a people to make themselves and their motives more powerful - people of power/authority bringing theology into their politics for higher influence, though the theology might not have actually intended this.

Power and the ecological transition
Power is the ability to influence people’s behaviors. The ecological transition can be defined as an adaptation that aims to anticipate the impacts of climate change, and limit their potential damage by intervening on factors that control their magnitude, such as CO2 emissions. This transition will require adjustments and changes at every level –from small communities to the national and international level. Here, I will explore the ways in which power in politics, economics, sociology and environmental science is involved in the ecological transition.

Politics : The power of governments in the ecological transition

Governments have the power to enable workable and effective adaptation measures, such as reducing our CO2 emissions, by integrating climate change in their policy making, planning and budgeting. The UN scientists recently released an alarming report on climate change. They are convinced that “everything comes down to the government's decision”. They explain that we can only stay below a two degree increase compared to before the industrial revolution if politicians do something about it. In addition, governments have the power to come together to accelerate the process. This was the purpose of the many United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change (COP).

Economics : The economic power over governments is preventing the ecological transition

The ecological transition seems to move very slowly as already 24 of United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change have taken place and no real change has been seen. The power that the free-market has over governments is one of the elements that prevents the ecological transition. First of all, most firms lobby against climate regulations because greater regulation seem to come across economic interest. To do so, these firms hire lobbyists, a discrete pressure group, to attempt to influence the government’s decisions. In 2014, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the country’s largest commercial federation, spent $90 million towards lobbying around climate change legislation. In addition, the global economic system has a real power over governments. In our current economic system, countries seem to be in competition. In today's global and interconnected world, in order to adapt to climate change, a government can’t change its system on its own.

Sociology: The power that citizens’ have to encourage governments to act

Citizens have the power encourage governments to adapt to climate change. For instance, protesting is a way for people to pressurize the government and ask for a real change. Recently, young generations across Europe, and Australia, have been skipping school to protest: they demand that politicians take actions before it is too late. Their protest is inspired by a 16-years old Swedish student Greata Tunberg who performs a school strike every Friday in front of the Swedish parliament. Some non-profit organisations also pressurize and encourage governments to adapt to climate change. Greenpeace or WWF are one of them. These organisations can point out the governments lack of action in the ecological transition and can also lobby in favor of climate regulations.

Environmental Sciences: Scientists have the power to inform the public about the climate crisis

Scientists publish reports on environmental catastrophes and explain the urgency of the problem also pressurize governments to adapt to climate change. The UN scientists recently released an alarming report on climate change

Power and Gender Inequality
Definition: the ability to act or produce an effect. Inequality is often the result of power being held completely by one person/ place / entity.

Gender inequality has increasingly become a problem in society. Sexism, pay gaps, abuse and discrimination are products of gender inequality. The disciplines of anthropology and psychology can work together to explain how gender-based power has come about. Social role theory suggests that there is a gender-based division of labour and hierarchy where men are seen to be more powerful physically and hold higher status socially. This theory suggests that cultural stereotypes surrounding gender is rooted in biology for example the idea that women are more nurturing because they are linked to child bearing which is biologically true. Stereotypically men are seen as the providers for resources which historically required skills such as bravery and leadership. These traits therefore are seen as having higher status as they have more risk associated with them. This suggests that stereotypes about men and women are not arbitrary and therefore have value in society. One argument suggests that considering gender inequality exists on such a widespread scale, across different cultures and time periods that there must be something intrinsic, perhaps biologically, which means that men have always dominated.

Reference: Laurie A. Rudman, Peter Glick. 2008.The social psychology of gender: how power and intimacy. Shape gender relations. The Guilford Press.

Obstetric violence
This article talks about obstetric violence in the United States. It begins to be mentioned and acknowledged as causing “physical and emotional harms ”. Even though there is no official definition for obstetric violence, we can divide it in three categories: abuse, coercion and disrespect. Abuse includes forced surgery such as forced cesarean and forced episiotomy, which is a violation of the woman’s body. It could also refer to a physical restraint: some women are forced to stay in a position during child labor (on their backs) even if they prefer otherwise (cf 2-). Coercion refers to threats produced by medical staff, forcing the women to consent to a medical act (surgery, use medication...). Disrespect makes a reference to verbal harm: for example, women are blamed to be “too” sensitive to pain or accused to bad mother because they refuse medical act.

Obstetric violence reflects the power inequalities between doctors and women in a moment of vulnerability. As well as punishing the medical personnel who are directly implicated, the obstetric should be rethink in order to listen and value women’s voice.

An example of obstetrics violence: the evolution of birthing position and its power issues
It is quite a recent development that pregnant women and their partners i.e. anyone with particular interest in the circumstances of the birth get involved with the specific circumstances of how this birth will occur, for instance the position of the woman during birth. When looking at the history of the birthing position though, one can find that the origins of the horizontal birthing position, which may be thought of as the most common/obvious position for the mother, is rather questionable. Lauren Dundes' paper "The Evolution of Maternal Birthing Position" explores the time when the common position in Western cultures for women to give birth changed from upright (either sitting or kneeling) to horizontal (lying down completely flat or reclining), which was about 200 years ago. The reasons she explores seem to lack scientific research and evidence, but rather seem to be rooted in certain power issues. Before this change, female midwives were the only professionals involved during birth, as it was seen as inappropriate for men to see the female body and because birth was considered natural and simply not in need of someone practicing medicine. Male surgeons only started getting involved when there were complications during birth that threatened the mother and needed surgical interference. With time, male surgeons and physicians of high rank caused a shift from seeing birth as natural to more of a disease, supporting their increased involvement outside of life-threatening cases, and lessening the authority of the midwife. It was these surgeons who introduced the horizontal birthing position, based on apparent convenience for both the mother and the one delivering the child. There are also indications that King Louis XIV influenced the change, who "reportedly enjoyed watching women giving birth (and) became frustrated by the obscured view of birth when it occurred on a birthing stool" (Dundes 1988).

The power issues apparent in this example seem twofold: both gender- and discipline based. At the time of the change, midwives' knowledge and experience of the ideal position for the woman giving birth exceeded that of surgeons. However, it was still male surgeons who introduced the new position, and this with little scientific research. Additionally, it is questionable whether the change had only the comfort and well-being of the mother as intention, or largely also the comfort of the surgeon performing the delivery. This makes the interdisciplinary power struggle of surgeons and midwives very evident, to which gender power tensions most likely contribute, as there was a clear distinction of gender visible in the two disciplines.

Reference: Dundes, Lauren. “The Evolution of Maternal Birthing Position.” Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, vol. 43, no. 1, 1988, pp. 47–48., doi:10.1097/00006254-198843010-00013.

 * Notes

 * References


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 3/History

Political ideologies
When looking at the origin of political ideologies such as modern liberalism and democratic socialism we must take a diachronic perspective to see the lead up for these ideas. As politics naturally evolves at a very fast pace it is hard to keep refining these ideas and so the original concepts are taken and translated onto the modern day. This results in many issues. An example might be how Prime Ministers refer to themselves as a given ideology, relying on the image of those who coined the terms in creating an image for themselves; a specific example would be Theresa May describing herself as 'One Nation' although her policies have been significantly different to those of Benjamin Disraeli who was responsible for the branch of conservatism. There's no way recreating the circumstances from which each ideology emerged and so it may be concluded that political philosophy is too static and cannot be fully applied to modern situations.

-Why are history and geography linked in French programs?
Mainly because of the history of the way we’re teaching those disciplines.

In France these two disciplines are widely related since the 19th century in bot primary secondary and higher education. The combination of these two disciplines was already used in antiquity to form the future rulers. A number of historic kings were trained to those two disciplines such as Louis 16, Roger 2 etc…

According to André Meynier (1969), after a decrease of the popularity of geography in the middle of the 19th century, the combination of those two disciplines become again a part of citizens formation after the Himly-Levasseur’s report (beginning of the 20th century).

Modern view on the national system sealed the association between history and geography as they are both considered to be part of the construction of the citizenship. Today, professor of ‘histoire-géorgraphie’ are also teachers of the program of ‘civic education’.

-‘Un couple orageux’
But even after those many years of coexistence, those two subjects are in a tumultuous relation (Pitte, 1994), geography is often seen as a ‘background’ for history or just as a pain for history teachers. A majority of secondary teacher have a formation in history. And history is often the priority, as it always seems harder to complete the history program than the geographical one.

-Towards a conciliation?
Scholars programs have tried to articulate the disciplines in a common logic, a common movement. In 1995, programs were changed and the program of ‘3eme’ changed to add a transversal analysis of the ‘world of today’, but this shift was canceled with the reform of ‘college’.

It seems that today the situation is still evolving with new reform of the scholar system. Teachers argue that this shift is the responsibility of the organization and state.

Biology
The science of biology was invented by Aristotle (384–322 BC). Before Aristotle, many Greek philosophers had speculated about the origins of the Earth and of Life, but their theorizing was unsupported by empirical investigation.

Purpose: may be linked to the evolution, and medicine. Medical research, researching the environment and life around us, from plants to animals

Examples of history of biology: living world-class the diversity of life

Paradigm: Darwin is the biggest paradigm shift in biology.

Physics
Origins: The field of physics was begun by Ancient Greek philosophers, many of whom theorized about the nature of the universe. Specifically, Thales is widely considered to have begun the field, because his theory was the first to explain natural phenomena without gods.

Purpose: True to its origins, the field of physics has always endeavored to understand completely the material universe. This main goal remains to this day. Nonetheless, physics has paved the way for incredible innovation in technology, as well as in other academic fields.

 * Threshold Concepts: The threshold concepts in physics are matter and energy - resulting in sub-concepts such as momentum and time.
 * Paradigm: There have been many paradigm shifts throughout the history of physics. However, perhaps the greatest paradigm shift in recent history was due to Albert Einstein, who proposed the existence of spacetime, as well as essentially creating the field of quantum physics.
 * Schema: Schema in Physics include atoms, space, Einstein, mathematics, black holes, etc.
 * Lexicon: Lexicon in Physics is quite definitive. For quantitative definitions, it defines the fundamental quantities (distance, time, mass, current, temperature, etc.) and everything else is an extension/derivation of those. For qualitative definitions (such as “a planet is…”), definitions are relative to some established reference e.g. “A planet is any celestial body which orbits a star.” But, as we’ve seen with the above example, these references are subject to change. A planet is now “a body that orbits the sun, has enough gravity to make it round, and has ‘cleared its neighborhood’ of smaller objects around its orbit.”

Mathematics
Origins: There have been records of mathematics being used from as early as 3000BC in civilisations in Mesopotamia and later Egypt. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry were mainly used for purposes such as commerce, taxation, and astronomy. However, mathematics didn't formally become a discipline until roughly the 6th century BC when mathematicians such as Pythagoras and Euclid in Greece largely defined and contributed to the discipline.

Real numbers: We are familiar with Pythagoras' theorem that the sum of the squares of the sides of a right triangle gives the square of the hypotenuse but we are often unaware of why this left the man disgruntled. As children we are introduced first to whole, counting numbers (natural numbers), then negative numbers (integers) and then fractions (rational numbers. This is a sensible progression as we can see how one follows on from the other. An issue arises with a right triangle of side lengths each 1 unit - the length of the hypotenuse is root 2. This new number does not belong in any of the established groups, thus creating the Real numbers. The geometric discovery made thousands of years ago had a significant impact on modern mathematics - without the concept of real numbers (and following on from that, complex numbers) we would not have been able to develop our systems for engineering, weather prediction or population studies - to name only a few examples.

Film studies
Origins: It emerged in the twentieth century, decades after the invention of motion picture. Film studies exists only with the creation of film theories and the writing of film historiography. Early film schools focused on the production and subjective critique of film rather than on the critical approaches, history and theory used to study academically. Since the time film was created, the concept of film studies as a whole grew to analyze the formal aspects of film as they were created. Hence, today's career options include both critique and production. Film studies, as opposed to other similar disciplines, focus on narrative, artistic and social/ideological choices rather than, for example, technical improvements to production. Established in 1919 the Moscow Film School was the first school in the world to focus on film. However, it took a while for the discipline to be truly accepted as one. This is partially due to the, previously mentioned, divide between theory and practice. It led to confusion and blurry boundaries whom progressively became clearer.

Anthropology
Anthropology is a discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences; it is the study of societies, human behaviour and humans in the past and in the present. The American anthropologist Eric Wolf described the discipline as “the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the social sciences”. The etymology of the word reveals its main purpose; in Greek “anthropos” means “human being” referring to humanity, and “logia” means “study”. Therefore the etymology of “anthropology” reveals that it is “the study of man”. Although the origin of the word is Greek, there is a lack of any denotation prior to the Renaissance. In the age of Enlightenment Europeans started to abandon the religious explanations of the origin of humanity and turned to science seeking for reasonable answers. Curiosity was motivated as well by the first European colonisation wave, increasing considerably the known variety within human kind, and encouraging the development of natural sciences. Thus, in the words of Herbert Spencer, anthropology can be described as the "natural history of society".

Truth in art
Whereas the studies on art go back to prehistory, its nature is still undetermined. For some people it may be an academic discipline, for others a lifestyle. We disagree about its meaning and the characteristics that make art out of someone’s work. Although art has no universal definition on which everyone agrees, it is certainly related to creativity. As a reference and starting point to seek for truth in art, creativity is related to the ability to perceive the world in original ways. Thus art can be seen as the expression of such interpretations of the world. It is why Plato placed it as far as possible from truth; for the Greek philosopher art was the strongest form of illusion. Plato believed the world of Forms is the reality and the physical one (the one we perceive with our senses) an imitation of the first one. Whereas art is an expression, an imitation of what some may perceive from the physical world, it is further from reality than the ordinary world. But Plato’s theory was grounded on the belief that reality, therefore truth, lies beyond the physical world we can perceive with our senses. But we can also think that the world we perceive through our senses is the only reality. If art is the expression of an alternative and maybe a deeper perception of the world, it could be the bridge that connects our understanding to reality. This way it allows us to see further than we do relying exclusively on empirical evidence. Art can enlighten past events, showing historians a deeper version about historical events than evidence does. If we apply this concept to History of Art, we have an example of how art contributes to the study of events, allowing History to a more complete reconstruction of the past.

Truth and philosophy.
The common sense of the word truth defines a ‘true’ proposition or theory as conforming with reality, a true proposition is conformed to reality thanks to observation and experimentation. This is the same approach as the one use in philosophy, but only in a certain mesure. Philosophers teached us, since Socrate not to define truth in a too sharp or naïve way. Truth depends on language, and language is a conventional system. Conventions are, by definition, contestable. Indeed, the human are struggling to conform on a common definition of truth.

Truth and reality.
Basically, we don’t know the truth. Platon observes in the Ménin that, if we knew what truth is, we wouldn’t have to be looking for it; or this research defines philosophy. Common language often confounds truth and reality. <hen we say the wool is real, we mean that the wool is natural, in the sense of authentic, not in the sense that the wool is the truth. Because a thing doesn’t say a thing, or only what is say can be truth or false. A politician who speaks truly cannot be confronted. But the problem gets trickier when we deal with scientific truth or philosophical truth.

Criteria for truth.
We often admit that the truth is subjective, that means that what is true for me is true. We call relativism the doctrine by which every opinion has the same valor, every opinion is true or false, depending on the point of view. Philosophy has been fighting with the relativism ever since it was created. Even if the truth is hard to define, we never should stop the quest for a definition. Not only because lies are dangerous but also because of the ethic.

Is there a methodical way to reach truth?.
As mentioned previously,"truth" is a complex and often subjective term that possesses various definitions. Is there a method that enables us to clearly define what is true and what isn't? French philosopher, believes that with the mathematical method everything can be demonstrated and defined ; including truth. This mathematical knowledge consists of four rules:

Evidence : Accept as true only what is indubitable/obvious Analysis : Divide every question /difficulty into manageable parts Synthesis: Begin with the simplest issues and ascend to the more complex Verification : Summarize every operation and review frequently enough to retain the whole argument at once

A global observatory for gene editing

Biology and Ethics
Whereas biologists may tend to suggest that gene editing has improved the human condition, (bio)ethicists would probably suggest the opposite. Indeed, gene editing raises some crucial questions about what truth is, because if you modify genes, then you also do modify the truth of that initial gene and hence force others to accept a truth which you have created. Therefore, their truths would arguably never coincide dynamically because of the oppositions present in their disciplines.

Perspectives on Gene Editing
With new technological advances, such as machine learning, we are increasingly able to read DNA like code, and therefore to crack it and hack it.

 * Information Technology perspective: Technically, DNA can be viewed like a computer code, so if we can edit computer code then why shouldn’t we treat our DNA like code and edit it to make amends/improvements?

 * Biological perspective: If we are able to edit our genes to make us resistant to diseases and to remove the risk of getting genetic diseases, why shouldn’t we? This would make our species stronger as a whole, while drastically putting a halt to the idea of natural selection (Charles Darwin) as there would no longer be selective pressures causing us to mutate and adapt, due to us ‘mutating’ our DNA ourselves and therefore adapting in a different way.

 * Ethical perspective: Of course, we have to question the morality of gene editing. Where do we draw the line between what we can edit and what we can’t/shouldn’t edit? For example, if you know your family has this genetic disease running in their genes, then it would make sense to remove these genes from your future baby’s DNA. However, once you get to this stage, would you then want to choose the baby’s gender, or change its personality traits? We certainly feel more inclined to say that removing genetic diseases is more acceptable because it has to do with health, but when it comes to editing /choosing gender and personality traits we look down on it and view it as selfish. However, we still have to remember that removing genetic diseases is still interfering with one’s DNA, so is that still fine?

 * Politician perspective: Politicians have a crucial role in the genetic revolution, as ultimately, they are the ones with the power and who can pass law regarding this. They would have to carefully consider the huge cultural, religious and social implications this would have. Some cultures and religions would be strongly against gene editing, but if it were to be legal and people started removing genetic diseases from their offspring’s DNA, would these cultures and religions be at a significant disadvantage just because of their beliefs? Would this cause even greater isolation? What would the cost of gene editing be? Would it only be available to the wealthy, so to cause an even greater divide between the rich and the poor, and causing the wealthy population to be significantly healthier? And again, where do we draw the line with what we can or should edit? These are the kinds of things a politician should think about while creating laws to do with gene editing.

How they work together in a dynamic way: I think each perspective has something different to offer, yet I find it interesting that they always conclude with the question of ‘where do we draw the line’. All four may agree with the aspect of editing for genetic disease, with the ethical perspective and perhaps politician being more against this, due to the morality of it. However, I think that at least for now, all four would disagree with gene editing with regards to gender and personality traits, simply for the fact that it can be deemed as selfish, unnatural and morally unjust to have control over the DNA of an unborn offspring when it still has no rights.

Gene Editing Controversies
The first human gene editing has already been done. In November 2018, the twin girls Lulu and Nana were born with a CRISPR-altered genome. The scientist who edited their genomes, He Jiankui, said that because the girls' father had HIV, he tried to immunize them to the virus. Although he claims to have succeeded to an extent, there was enormous backlash from the scientific community. Among other criticisms, He's peers said that there were other, less risky solutions to the situation, and that the technology was not ready for human testing.

Many argue that gene editing should not be done at all on humans, but especially not at this juncture, because even one human's genetic edits (if they affect germ line cells) can spread reproductively into the general population. Since gene editing is not fail-safe at this point, and may never be, they claim it is unethical to put future generations at risk.

Gene editing is obviously a very contentious topic. It is (or could be) used on humans in a multitude of ways, some being more controversial than others. This being a non-exhaustive list, the most controversial uses or proposed uses include: genetic disease and homosexuality/LGBTQ+ erasure; designer babies; mail-order DNA kits; and bioweapons.

 * Genetic Disease and LGBTQ+ Concerns: There is little contention as to whether genes that predispose deadly diseases, such as cancer, should be edited: most agree that it is ethical to remove such genes. However, non-deadly genetic conditions are another matter entirely. One major concern from disabled communities is that, should gene editing procedures be developed for genetic conditions such as deafness or dwarfism, their communities will disappear. Many members of these communities feel that their genetic conditions are part of their identities; some furthermore claim that gene-editing their conditions in the name of "the good of the species" is essentially eugenics under another name. To an extent, this issue is already playing out in the real world: couples who attempt to have children through in-vitro fertilization (IVF) are able to have their embryos tested for genetic diseases prior to implantation, then decide whether to use the embryo. In a similar vein, some members of the LGBTQ+ community have expressed concerns that, should a genetic cause be discovered for a person to be LGBTQ+, parents may choose to remove these genes from their children's genomes.

 * Designer Babies: One step forward from the above controversy is the more far-off concern about genetically engineering children, for non-disease-related reasons, before they are born. Many have concerns that if/when DNA is so well-understood that it can be "hacked", parents will choose to genetically edit their children, selecting the traits (e.g. intelligence, height, eye color, athletic ability, etc.) that they want their children to have. These hypothetical offspring would be called "designer babies." This eventuality raises ethical questions of how much power a parent should have over their child's life. Furthermore, presumably only the wealthy would be able to afford such procedures; thus, their children would have an even greater pre-existing advantage over the less wealthy general population.

 * Mail-Order DNA Kits: At this time, most major countries have little to no legal regulations in place for CRISPR or other gene editing technologies. It is currently possible to order a DNA-editing kit online, relatively cheaply (the first Google result is $159), and there is a community of DIYers who use these gene-editing kits on themselves. DIYers claim to mostly use CRISPR for benign reasons, although some also do "stunts" such as muscle enhancement. However, many argue that this is extremely dangerous, and that people should not be allowed to edit their own genomes. Furthermore, the free availability of DNA editing kits raises public health concerns (see below).

 * Bioweapons: The free availability of CRISPR and other gene-editing tools has raised concerns of genetically targeted bioweapons. It is theoretically possible, for example, to use a virus to target people with high melanin expression, i.e. people of color (see the Netflix show Designated Survivor to watch this scenario play out dramatically). Once again, the tools to create such weapons are freely available on the internet, and anyone with the technical know-how may be able to create such bioweapons. Sleep well.

Gene Editing and Environmental Science
The impact of gene editing on the environment and its ecosystems is a topic that must be considered before implementing such techniques in the real world. As gene editing has a potential of completely changing the ecosystem and environment, looking at gene editing from the point of view of environmental science can reveal more truths of its potentially large impacts.

For example, there has been a success in the effort to eliminate the population of malaria-carrying mosquitoes through the use of gene editing. The female mosquitoes carrying the edited genome wouldn’t be able to reproduce or suck human blood, while its male counterpart will develop normally and pass on the edited genome until eventually, the whole population goes extinct. This new discovery in the field of gene editing seems entirely beneficial as it eliminates the threat of malaria, which is known to be the most deadly disease in the world. However, using the basic truths of environmental sciences, further implications of the study can be revealed.

The first truth in environmental sciences is the idea of the interconnectedness of the various aspects that make up our environment. This represents itself, for example, in the idea of ecosystems. Each species in the ecosystem has its role, and the altering of one species can have a potentially disastrous effect on both the other animals in the ecosystem and on the environment in which it lives. This truth can be applied to see the effects of potentially removing the entire species of malaria bearing mosquitoes. They have the role of subduing other potentially harmful mosquitoes by occupying the most dominant position as well as serving as food for species of fish. Wiping out the mosquitoes can also wipe out or heavily alter the lives of the fish, thereby altering the ecosystem.

The truth that environmental science brings to the table can also be used to improve the function and lower the potentially disastrous effects of gene editing. By bringing to light such potential downsides to the idea, it can then be used to make sure to keep the ecosystem intact or approach the problem from a different angle.

Artistic approach of gene editing
As gene editing can be seen as an improvement of our life conditions, some people, including artists, perceive it as a threat to mankind and thus try to depict the fear they feel when they face this issue.

Released in 1997, Gattaca is an anticipation movie which depicts a world where gene editing has become mainstream and so widely used that people are afraid to have babies “naturally”. The movie describes a cloned society where only these perfect human beings have access to decent employment, and normal individuals who are not killed before their birth are less valued than clones because they are full of natural defects. The movie tries to make us understand that even if we are capable of producing genetically perfect individuals, they will not necessarily be better than their natural counterparts, and that in any case, by “playing the role of Nature”, we are finally going to lose our humanity.

Another way of feeling how gene editing is often seen as a threat is a cover of the Newsweek magazine published in 2004, which headline reads “Boy or girl, now you can choose, but should you, the new science of sex selection”. This document shows that technology and science have progressed so much that today, even the most natural aspect of life can be altered by progress. Science now allows to “manipulate” the natural process of having babies, allowing to choose the gender, getting rid of some imperfections, and selecting a few features, such as the color of the eyes, hair, body type, etc. Science clearly influences what used to be natural odds, and people are scared about it. Ethics and moral considerations are taken into account, and the magazine clearly shows it as it directly asks the reader "should you?".

The cartoon named Clones R Us, published in 2012, is an anticipation cartoon in which we can see an assembly line with 5 individuals on a speedwalk. 4 of them are strictly identical, tall and muscular, with perfect body features. The fifth one is much smaller and thinner, and the machine above them picks him up to eliminate him from the line. He is put in a crate for rejects. It can be considered as the genesis of a new era of eugenics. This cartoon can be considered as a warning: if in 2004 it was only possible to see basic commercial implications of cloning, in 10 years, preoccupations have considerably evolved: we are not excited anymore about choosing a baby’s eyes color, but we are scared that if technology keeps on evolving, it could constitute a threat to mankind; threat that would result in a uniform society, where difference would be seen as bad, and thus eliminated.

Through these three examples we can see how artists, in various artistic disciplines such as cinema or drawings, can perceive gene editing as dangerous in different ways, and thus convey several truths (that can actually coexist) about a same topic.

What is the link between truth and history of arts ?
First of all, we can establish that truth in history can be found only by trusting historians and their objectivity. However, we’ve seen during the seminars that art relies on subjectivity more than it does on objectivity. Thus, relying on the artist’s objectivity is an inefficient way to find the truth (if it exists) in a piece of art.

That’s why we are facing a problem. On the one hand, objectivity is the criteria to be able to reach historical truth. On the other hand, it seems that artists are moved by their subjectivity and that the concept of truth is quite blurry in art. History of arts being a combination of both, that is to say a study of art, through the ages, made by historians; none of the criteria mentioned before would be pertinent to achieve our quest for truth, if we keep them separated.

Hence, we need to embrace both of them and to combine them in order to approach the truth in history of arts. Firstly, a good historian is an objective historian, and we are going to use this quality to reach our goal. Indeed, his knowledge and studies will allow us to recreate the environment (whether it is politically, economically or ideologically) in which the artist has evolved and created. The historian will depict a precise period of time and its values.

We said previously that artists were defined by their subjectivity, but some writers, such as the French novelist Emile Zola consider that human beings are mostly influenced by their environment. Thus, we can infer that artists’ subjectivity is the result of their time, which as we said, has been described by the historian. Theses researches allow us to understand deeply this subjectivity and to seize the artists’ message thanks to the context he has lived in.

This is why we can say that history of arts and truth are intimately linked: studying art through history of arts allows us to get closer to the truth. Indeed, we won’t simply study the artwork, we won’t simply study the historical context: we will combine both in order to make sure to seize the message in the most efficient and precise way. Therefore, we are able to differentiate the part of the piece of art that has to do with subjectivity only, since we were able to define and set the borders of this subjectivity using the historical context.

For example: Spanish painter Francisco de Goya painted “El Tres de Mayo” in 1814. He depicts how Spanish patriots were slaughtered by the French army during the war. His painting can be understood more clearly with the context: the French Emperor Napoleon, wanted to invade Spain, and thus thousands of innocent Spanish people have been killed. De Goya stood alongside them and this is why he represented this scene, showing a French army without mercy, slaughtering Spanish harmless and unarmed citizens. His subjectivity as a Spanish patriot allows us to understand the pictorial choices he has made for this painting.

Law
Even if evidence evolve depending on the country we are dealing with, it seems that we can clearly define 4 type of proofs in law: The literal proof, the testimonial proof, the confession and the oath.

The perfect modes of proof
The literal proof and the oath are the two forms of perfect proofs. The perfect proof is an instrument of the ascertainment of a juridical fact.

Literal proof
Traditionally the literal proof is on a paper support, but lately in a majority of countries the informatic support became part of the literal proof.

Confession
The confession is a declaration by which an individual recognizes facts that can have a negative influence on him. It is a perfect proof as a receivable confession is made during a proceeding. In French law for example the confession has an absolute power of probity.

The oath
The oath is a proof is the result of a declaration made under oath at the tribunal. This is a very risky process as the court. As it asks the jury to rely on honesty.

Testimony
Finally, the last evidence is the testimony, the proof by which a person attest he knew the experience. The testimony must deal with direct facts.

Presumption
Presumptions are opinions based on the elements' coherence and plausibility. They are generally made by a judge who is trained in this action and who will use them in case of missing elements for a judgment. They are not evidence as such but rather the result of a certain amount of evidence. These are clues on which the judge will rely to establish his conviction. These presumptions have a reduced admissibility. They are the intervention of human intelligence in the issue of evidence.

Evidence in Photography
Since their invention, photographs have been used as forms of evidence. They started to be used enthusiastically by organisations like the police as legal proof, which was very innovative. Photographs are very persuasive, when we hear about something happening but doubt its occurrence, we tend to believe it to be true when shown a photograph of it.

Despite this, artists working with photography began to create images which relied on the manipulation of their photographs using techniques like combination printing, undermining their use for providing evidence

In addition, we live in an era of "fake news" and nothing convinces people of the apparent 'truth' of a story than seeing it in a photograph. Doctoring images is one thing but fake news can still be made by misusing photographs as forms of evidence. Inventing captions, presenting unrelated images side by side and cropping are all ways of exploiting the believability of photographs.

This leads to the fact that photographs often require the addition of words to secure their meaning. People tend to think that the image, in itself, is an evidence or that the image, in itself, is almost never an evidence. It has to be validated, legitimised, interpreted, read and delivered by an expert who is providing words.

We can thus interpret the omnipresence of photography as evidences as a form of threat. Being considered at first as the "ultimate" proofs, they have been manipulated over time in order to create an alternative truth. Examples of this misusage are numerous. We can cite photographs taken during the "yellow vests" riots in France, that allowed different versions of a same event to coexist in public opinion, whereas only one of them actually corresponded to what happened during the protest.

Evidence in WW2 and Cold War
Atrocities have been committed on both sides, yet we tend to focus mostly on the Axis'. What about the Soviet Union, the USA, France or Britain ? Have they committed no crimes ? Where is the evidence for that ? What is the role of evidence ? If we take for example the massacre of Jews by the USSR during WW2 (although it happened before). The USSR shot more than 33,000 Jews in Ukraine in 1941, but who has ever heard this ? Probably a minority, because our knowledge has been conditioned to focus on the 'bad guys', the one who lost the war and have to live on with the consequences of their action and blame for doing such atrocities. Perhaps the USSR hid this in its archive before they were opened in 1991. Yet, we cannot but wonder how the government of the USSR had the guts evidence from its people and the world community and often even deny that such thing ever happened, either by physically removing the sources (had they been people or books) or 'mentally' by using propaganda and reshaping the education of its young people using its 'own' evidence.

Evidence in History
History is a discipline that very much relies on evidence, which is used to construct the timeline of events we now see in our history books. Historians most often use three key types of evidence: primary and secondary sources and oral tradition.

Primary sources consist of original documents, letters, artefacts, and other pieces of information that were created during the time under study. For example, if the ancient Egyptian era was being examined, this would consist of statues and jewellery as well as scripts written during the time. This type of evidence tends to be valued the most as it has the most credibility and authenticity.

Secondary sources are usually sources such as books, scholarly articles, and magazines that most typically analyse or interpret a primary source from a different perspective and/or a different time. Although primary sources can be more reliable, many primarily use secondary sources as they can provide an insight into primary sources that are now gone or a time period with little to no primary evidence.

Oral tradition is often highly used in historical research. This consists of traditional stories typically not written down but passed down verbally, usually from a first-hand witness to later generations. This type of source is important when looking at the history of specific cultures where history isn't commonly documented in writing. Oral tradition is sometimes classified as a primary source; however, there currently is a debate on whether it does indeed fit the requirements to be a primary source.

Historians use these various forms of evidence to form their conclusions and insights into the era in question. Despite using clear evidence, this is when the historians' individual ideas or biases may form and shape their view of the era. It is important when researching in history to look at multiple sources and types of evidence before drawing conclusions.

Evidence in Philosophy: Empiricism
Empiricism is a philosophical theory of knowledge that claims that all beliefs or conclusions must be based on experience. There are many interpretations of this general definition (e.g. some only include sensory experience, while others include internal experiences, and some add science as empirical); however, one significant objection to this school of thought is that there is no empirical evidence that evidence must be used to come to conclusions. In fact, there cannot be, since it would be circular use evidence to prove that one must use evidence. While this difficulty is perhaps not practically useful or even relevant, it should be kept in mind when exploring "empirical" evidence.

was a philosopher of this theory of knowledge. He justified empiricism with various examples, relying on theological texts such as the Bible and previous philosophers. For instance, in his book Enquiry into Human understanding, he points out how Adam would never have been able to guess that water, which at first sight appears as fluid and transparent was capable of drowning him, or that the light and warmth of fire could consume him. Reason is unable to tell, just by looking at an object or phenomenon the causes that produce them, or the effects that arise from them. It is only with experience and therefore evidence that one can determine what is real and what is not. Opposing views include those of and the idealism philosophy which claims that only reason enables us to know reality, or those of, who combines the latter and argues that reality is known when one asks questions, through reason, and observes the answers, through experience/evidence.

History
Do we sometimes forget the beneficial consequences of some historical events that we, at first, considered to be enforced upon us by some powerful people? Let's take a look at one highly controversial event is this regard: the Industrial Revolution. The usual argument that one could find is that the upper-class forced people to work "between 14-16 hours a day" to increase their profit. However, we also tend to forget what such exploitation of workers brought to our society today. Did you know, for example, that thanks to the scientific discoveries following the Industrial Revolution, which started in 1760, the life expectancy of a British man raised from 35 to nearly 43 by 1850? This piece of evidence is breathtaking as it suggests that life expectancy nearly increased by a year increased every 9 years. Thus, before deciding whether a discipline is biased regarding issues like power, we should really consider its impact years later to form a proper judgment.

On the other hand, much of this evidence indeed indicates that historic power inequalities directly caused much of the rampant inequality of the present day. Take, for instance, the gender and race pay gaps, which are the results of systematic devaluation of these groups' work in order to maximize the profit of those in power. If one looks "decades" back, they may note that until 1980, "hysteria" was a formally studied mental disorder classified in the DSM, which only afflicted women. Apparently, it often did, since it usually acted as a blanket diagnosis for all mentally ill women; with the same diagnoses for different disorders, many women did not receive appropriate care and many suffered unnecessarily. Furthermore, gender differences in mental disorders (and the field of medicine, generally) have not been studied sufficiently, affecting women in the modern day. Looking "centuries" back, one may note that while British colonialism certainly was profitable to Britain, many former colonies are underdeveloped and have lower life expectancy, lower standards of living, worse education, etc. Of course, those resources historically saved by treating women and minorities unequally went to those in power; it cannot then be surprising that these groups profited with longer lifespans and better quality of life.

The fight for revelation and the dictature in Argentina from 1976 to 1982.
In Argentina, the dictator Videla took over the country in 1976, he was a conservative and militarist politician.

Right after the putsch, a left-wing contestation started to raise in the country.

Videla’s government started to apply a systematic terror movement, with the help of the army, and with ‘laisser-aller’ of the united states. Indeed, Videla was facing a communist opposition that really bothered the USA at the time, the USA were following the Condor plan, a strategy of supply for the South American dictatorships in order to prevent the communist’s revolutions (as it happened in Cuba).

But after a few years of calm and total leadership, Videla faced the first waves of demonstration when he decided to raise the price of transports and oil. A student revolution took over the country.

Videla deployed the armed forces and decided to start a new terror strategy: make people disappear.

'las abuelas de la placa de mayo'
The movement of ‘las abuelas de la place de Mayo’ was raised to find the children of this women. Every Thursday they gathered on the central place of Buenos Aires and demonstrated for hours. This is where the concept of power comes in place as the government of Argentina tried to hide this part of history for years, until the movement reached the international stage with interests from both the EU and the US.

The movement CHICOS was then created to sensitize other countries to this cause. Some children were found thanks to the will of this grandmothers. But the question of the conflict between history and politics is here very interesting.

We can ask ourselves about the will of the Argentinian government to hide this part of the past, the ethic of this practice, and the relations of power between history and politics and how politics can use history ‘et vice versa’.

The terror
So, the process was to send the army to an opponent house, take him to jail, then kill him, sink his body in the river or ship it from a plane to the ocean. His name was erased, and his identity forget.

But this strategy provoked a reaction from the elders of the country, indeed, the women who were taken pregnant had to give away their baby to Videla’s supporters before they were killed.

In History: 'La Terreur'
The period of ‘la terreur’ in France really illustrate the multiple influences of power on a discipline.On the one hand the interpretation of this event relays the point of view of the winner, as often in history. But on the other hand, there is a counter-interpretation of this event that developed through the 19th century.

The ‘winner’ point of view.
Robespierre, the political leader of France from 1791 to 1794 decided to lead a vigorous politic against democracies’ opposition. He passed a bunch of law thanks to his influence that led to large series of execution. This measure was, at the time, considered as essentials to fight against the inside rebellion for royalism. A witch hunt started and the ‘guillotinages’ became more and more common. In 1794, Robespierre was isolated by the city council and finally executed by the same process of ‘guillotinage’ that led to thousands of innocent deaths.

Questions on the role of Robespierre
Multiple critical source argued that the role of Robespierre wasn’t that important and that he was just the tool of a bigger system. Some historians showed that the vague of violence that took over France wasn’t the result of Robespierre’s will. But we can see a power influence in this new interpretation: there is a correlation between the point of view of these historians and the point of view of Napoleon Bonaparte. He argued that the ‘terreur’ wasn’t just the result of Robespierre, he explained that it is not because ‘terreur’ stopped with the death of Robespierre that the ‘terreur’ was Robespierre. But the fact that this view is common between the historians and Robespierre might create some kind of a correlation between the legitimization of Napoleon’s putsch and the will to establish and historical truth.

Questions that need to be solve
To conclude we can find the origin of this debate in the last month of life of Robespierre. The question is to define if either he wanted to defend democracy against oppressors or prone the regular executions just for terror and to keep the government in place. The other question that needs to be solve is the degree of manipulation of Robespierre.

Power in Science
The power structure in science affects the production of scientific knowledge.

The pressure of ‘publish or perish’ is something every researcher faces, and getting published in a high-quality journal helps move on to the next step (or even skip a few steps) and get to the next level. The journey from finishing a scientific study and getting it into the public eye can be long and strenuous. According to an Elsevier report, 1.8 million authors submitted 1.3 million manuscripts in 2015, however, only 400,000 (approximately 22%) of them were published. Nature publishes only 8% of the 200 papers it receives each week. So, while you may be making significant progress in your research in the confines of your lab, telling the world about it involves quite a few barriers — and also requires years of patience.

This shows how the production of scientific knowledge is affected by the power structure in publishing scientific journals, as there are many steps involved before getting published in a journal. These steps include choosing the target journal, manuscript writing, getting peer reviews, submission and review, sending letters/rebuttal letters to the editor and the whole post-acceptance publication process, as well as other smaller but still meaningful steps.

One can see how these steps can hinder the production of scientific knowledge, as great ideas could be stopped from being published at any step along the way depending on how they are presented.

On the other hand, this power structure could also help filter out what kind of knowledge is produced, in order to produce the most up to date and reliable knowledge there is.

Physics
The influence and power of religion greatly altered the ideas and research of physicists in the past. It is common knowledge that it was a Christian effort to back the idea that the sun and the stars revolve around the Earth, making Earth the centre of the universe, a move made to bolster the Christian idea of the Earth’s divine significance in God’s plan. When physicists such as Copernicus and Galileo refuted this idea with their new heliocentric view of the universe, the Church resisted the idea. However, it was during this period where more new significant advancements in physics and astronomy were made, a key one being Kepler’s discovery of equations that explain the planetary orbits, claiming their orbits to be elliptical when planets were previously assumed to move in circular motions. This is thought to be another big step towards secularism in science, as the discovery of elliptical orbits refuted the Christian view of an astral “dome” of the heavens revolving around the Earth. However, Kepler himself was a devout Lutheran and carried out his research with the purpose of revealing “God’s design” through the discovery of the fundamental equations that govern nature. He believed that his laws of planetary motion were proof that God does actually exist. In this way, religious power has had an effect of shaping physics and astronomy, both serving as an inhibitor as well as a motivator to pursue truth.

Literature
Power dynamics relating to gender, race, ethnicity, class and so on, have shaped various disciplines and literature is no exception. Whether it be regarding the authors or the characters represented, literary power generally seems to. be concentrated in the hands of “rich white men”.

Who is writing
American writer Roxane Gay published a paper entitled Where Things Stand, in which she looked at 742 books, across all genres, reviewed in The New York Times. She reports that “of those 742, 655 were written by Caucasian authors (1 transgender writer, 437 men, and 217 women). Thirty-one were written by Africans or African Americans (21 men, 10 women), 9 were written by Hispanic authors (8 men, 1 woman), 33 by Asian, Asian-American or South Asian writers (19 men, 14 women), 8 by Middle Eastern writers (5 men, 3 women) and 6 were books written by writers whose racial background we were simply unable to identify”. In other words, nearly 90 percent of the books were written by whites. The percentage of men writers also highly surpasses that of women (although improvements have been made since the 18th century and social emancipation of women writers and gender as a whole ). This particular study does not mention social status or class, but similar observations could be made.

Who is represented
The problem of power in literature doesn’t only concern who is writing but also who is written about. Indeed, literature as a whole notably lacks diversity. White men remain the most common characters. This issue is rather complex as the problem doesn’t rely solely on numbers but on characterisation as well. For example many women serve as characters in literature, however, they are often reduced to stereotypes and generalisations, whereas male characters show more depth and development. Sometimes, the lack of representation lies both in the numbers and narrative. For instance, characters of colour and un-heterosexual relationships are often both under and mis represented.

Who is reading
Finally, power dynamics and inequalities also play out in who has access to literature. Indeed, reading requires education, a luxury not available to all, especially young girls. Furthermore, it is not just a question of literacy but also of culture. Indeed higher social classes tend to participate more in "cultural activities" such as reading, going to the theatre, exposing in or visiting museums ...

Power in women's prison
Giddens (1984) refers to power as "the ability to achieve and desired and intended outcomes". A case study of two women's prisons shows the tactics and power in one open prison and one closed prison. Ideally, both prisoners and stuff developed their own set of manoeuvres in order to "survive" the system. As expected, being a prisoner is more challenging than being an officer, as you are apposed at 2 types of hierarchy: officer-prisoner, prisoner-prisoner.

The prisoner-prisoner relationship
Prisoners made use of tactical manoeuvres in order to solve problems generated by the constraints of imprisonment. It is highly visible that power of identity has a crucial part in a system such as a prison, where fear governs between the less advantaged ones. Prisoners took tactical approaches to achieving a variety of ends, from meeting basic material needs, to acting on grudges and rivalries with other inmates, and resolving complex problems of impression management. The nature of the problems prisoners sought to solve and the ways they found to do so were indicative of the precariousness of their position and the complex and often painful conditions of existence in a punitive environment, in which neither fair treatment, material provision, nor a smooth progression through a prison sentence could be guaranteed.

The officer-prisoner relationship
Police officers need to be able to cut tension between prisoners, developing in time different tactics to solve the issues.. In order to sustain their ability to ensure the smooth-running of the institution, officers must uphold prison hierarchies, staff solidarity and the asymmetric distribution of power between themselves and prisoners, in addition to safeguarding a certain level of co-operation and perceived legitimacy in relationships with inmates.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 3/Truth

as ethics, laws and the will for progress obviously clash when it comes to such a touchy subject
 * Gene Editing
 * on the topic of gene editing there is an obvious clash between the moral and the scientific point fo views.

Truth in the promotion of Tobacco
Tobacco was often smoked for recreation by wealthy men, but soon health concerns began to arise. To combat this many cigarette brands used fake physicians in their advertisements recommending their brand over others. In particular, the brand Lucky Strike used the tag line '20,679 physicians say ‘Luckies are less irritating' '. Interestingly, since the nicotine in cigarettes made them addictive some doctors were actually regular smokers and thus claimed that health issues were not directly related to cigarettes and were instead regarded as a case by case problem. It was in the mid 1950s that studies were being published showing the effect of smoking on the development of lung cancer.


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 3/Evidence

Evidence in philosophy
Logic: Arguments in philosophy are made using mathematical ideas such that they cannot be contested. Truth tables are used to present the flow of an argument using a range of symbols although all arguments can be condensed into using the symbols 'not' and 'implies'. This is not always the clearest way to read and understand an argument and so many other symbols are also used. Despite philosophy being seen as a potentially subjective discipline it uses this positivist approach when providing evidence for claims

The Ontological argument: The claim for the existence of an omnipotent, omniscient and omnipotent god by means of the ontological argument make it illogical to deny the existence of a 'greatest possible being'. This philosophical argument is different to many others by its nature of being non-empirical, not based on experience or evidence. Instead it defines God in a very specific way and goes on to compare a concept and an existence.


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User:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 3/Power

Power

Power and Psychology - The East German secret police
The secret police of East Germany, known as the Stasi, adopted a number of psychological torture methods that have only officially been recognised by the German Society for Psychology very recently. This method of ‘white torture’ is in a sense untraceable in that the signs of it are not immediately obvious unlike physical torture methods. The practices were taught at the Department of Operative Psychology at the Academy of the Ministry for State Security - the university for Stasi. This ‘Operative Psychology’ is also referred to as ‘’Zersetzung’’ which means decomposition, a term more commonly used in chemistry and biology; the method involved heavy manipulation to mental destabilise and was based on the idea that individuals are not free in their cognitions and emotions. A sense of trust was developed between the interrogator, known as the ‘informal collaborator’, and the person being interrogated with a specific distinction that on one side there is complete trust whereas on the other it is more the illusion of trust. On acquisition of this trust kompromat (compromising material) specific to an individual would be used as a form of blackmail. It is suggested that up to 10,000 ‘’Zersetzung’’ measures were implemented with 5,000 people developing serious mental health issues in consequence.

As a misuse of power, psychological manipulation is often difficult to recognise; there are no physical signs and due to the interpretivistic nature of mental health studies it cannot be easily proved that there is an indisputable connection between the experience of ‘’Zersetzung’’ techniques and the development of neuroticism.

Many ethical concerns are raised with the study of psychology due to the power of methods developed by it.


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Wikijunior:Asia/Yemen

Yemen is a country...

Where is Yemen?
Yemen is located in the Middle East, south of Saudi Arabia and southwest of Oman.

How many people live in Yemen?
As of 2021, there are about 32.98 million people living in Yemen. The people there tend to identify themselves as Arab.

What are the most common languages in Yemen?
The most common language in Yemen is Modern Standard Arabic, one of the many dialects of the language Arabic.

What is the most common religion in Yemen?
The most common religion in Yemen is Islam, 65% of the whole population are Sunnis and 35% are Shiite.

What is the sport of Yemen?
The national sport in Yemen is camel jumping. It is more commonly tried by the Zaraniq tribe. The objective of the sport is to clean jump a group of camels that are stacked together horizontally. A jump is not considered valid if any part of the body touches any of the camels. Players compete barefoot and wear traditional attire; but the long attire is tucked in at their waist level to prevent it from hindering during the jump.

What are some important sites?
Dar al-Hajar - It is a castle that's built atop a tall natural rock spire. The Middle-Eastern styled palace as it stands today was actually built relatively recently, in the 1930s by an Islamic spiritual leader named Yahya Muhammad Hamiddin, but it seems that he was building atop a preexisting structure that was built in the 1700s by an Islamic scholar.

Hababah Water Cistern - Cisterns are a classic feature in many of Yemen’s old settlements. Villagers carved the large pools out of the rock and used them to store rainwater. These reservoirs were a key water source within the parched desert and kept the land from flooding during downpours.

Socotra Island - The island of Socotra is part of an archipelago in the Indian Ocean. It is so isolated that a third of its plant life is found nowhere else on the planet. Notable are the dragon’s blood trees that look like flying saucers perched on trunks.

title: Wikijunior:Asia/Yemen


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Radiation Oncology/Miscellaneous

Geriatric Oncology

 * Arya Amini et al. Radiation Therapy in Older Adults With Cancer: A Critical Modality in Geriatric Oncology. J Clin Oncol. 2022 Jun 1;40(16):1806-1811. ( 35417248)
 * Falk Roeder et al. Geriatric Radiation Oncology: What We Know and What Can We Do Better? Clin Interv Aging. 2023 May 4;18:689-711. ( 37168037)

Transfusion Medicine

 * Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease (TA-GvHD)

Regenerative Medicine

 * Stem Cell Therapy
 * Organ Transplantation
 * Anti-Aging Medicine

Natural Medicine

 * Energy Medicine
 * Quantum Medicine
 * Orthomolecular Medicine

Traditional Medicine
 Traditional alternative medicine may include:
 * Acupuncture
 * Ayurveda
 * Homeopathy
 * Naturopathy
 * Chinese or Oriental medicine

Telemedicine

 * Gary D Lewis et al. Adv Radiat Oncol. 2020. Long-Term Institutional Experience With Telemedicine Services for Radiation Oncology: A Potential Model for Long-Term Utilization ( 32391444)

Health Informatics

 * DICOM-RT
 * Artificial Intelligence in Medicine

Precision Medicine

 * Next Generation Sequencing
 * Michael Baumann et al. Nat Rev Cancer. 2016 Apr. Radiation oncology in the era of precision medicine ( 27009394)

Translational Medicine

 * C N Coleman et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2001. Translational research in radiation oncology ( 11172972)

Evidence-based Medicine

 * S M Bentzen. Radiother Oncol. 1998 Jan. Towards evidence based radiation oncology: improving the design, analysis, and reporting of clinical outcome studies in radiotherapy ( 9488121)

title: Radiation Oncology/Miscellaneous


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User:Teeseased/sandbox

Wikipedia and the Wikimedia family wants all the world's knowledge, and nice people want to contribute because freely available knowledge helps everyone.

title: User:Teeseased/sandbox


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Wikijunior talk:Big Book of Fun Science Experiments/Guide a termite

Agriculture
Discussion about animals Wetaka Simon (discuss • contribs) 13:24, 4 October 2019 (UTC)


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Talk:History of New York State/Modern New York

couple of image files not showing up. GazaOaku (discuss • contribs) 13:58, 5 October 2019 (UTC)


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User:Ainz Ooal Gown/minerva.js

mw.loader.load('//meta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Masumrezarock100/global-minerva.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); // mobileGlobalJS mw.loader.load('//en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Uziel302/typo.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); // typo fixer

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User:Shwamit91

Again

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Wikijunior:Asia/Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan is a country where the nomads roam freely on their homeland. In fact, the word "Kazakh" means "a free and independent nomad" in ancient Turkish. It is also known as the largest landlocked country (29 million km2) in the world.

Nur-Sultan previously known as Astana is the capital city of Kazakhstan. Tenge is the currency of Kazakhstan.

Where is Kazakhstan?
Kazakhstan is bordering Russia to north, southwest to  Uzbekistan, southeast to  Kyrgyzstan and  China and to the east of  Mongolia.

How many people live in Kazakhstan?
According to 2018 census, there are estimated 18.2 million people lived in Kazakhstan. The people lives in Kazakhstan identifies themselves as Kazakhs. The ethnic Kazakhs are 63% of the population. Due to the proximity to Russia, there are about 23% of population which considered themselves as ethnic Russians. The rest of 14% consists of minority ethnic such as Tatars, Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Belarusians, Uyghurs, Azerbaijanis, Poles, and Lithuanians.

What are the most common languages in Kazakhstan?
Kazakh language, spoken by 65% of the population, has the status of the "state" language, while Russian, which is spoken by almost all of populations

What is the most common religion in Kazakhstan?
The most common religion practiced in Kazakhstan are Islam (70%) followed by Eastern Orthodox Christianity (26%). The balance 4% population are practicing Roman Catholic,Protestant Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, Baha'i Faith, and other beliefs.

What is the sport of Kazakhstan?

In Kazakh language kyz kuu literally means "catch the girl". This national game is regarded as a piece of fun than serious competition.

Two horse riders (a man and a woman) participate in it. To start the competition, a female rider stands at a certain distance behind a horseman. She starts riding at full speed and, as soon as she reaches him, male rider moves. Both race towards the finishing line. Along the race, the female rider whips the male until she is caught. If the male catches the female he is then rewarded with a kiss.

If the man wins he has the right to kiss the girl.

What are some important sites?
Tamgaly-Tas - It literally means ‘written rocks’ as the rocks here are inscribed with beautiful images of Tibetan scriptures and Buddha. The site is marked with thousands of rock paintings and carvings dating from the Bronze Age onward. The carvings shows the hunting scenes and animal figures, Buddha, Buddhist mantras in Sanskrit and pictures of important Buddhist teachers.

title: Wikijunior:Asia/Kazakhstan


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User:Minorax/sandbox

Cookbook:

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ICT4 Elderly

 The ICT4 the Elderly Handbook serves as a toolkit and training space for trainers and trainees working on digital skills for the elderly

ICT4 the Elderly is a European project that aims to facilitate a pathway for up-skilling the digital competences of individuals between 55 and 75 and to make them aware of some of the many opportunities that Internet offers. The ICT4 the Elderly Handbook is an online training space for trainers and trainees on specific digital skills. The goal of the handbook is to serve as a collaborative documentation space for all participants in our training activities. This is how we define our online academy: an open, public space, easily accessible, with useful content (scenarios, educational resources and results) for other people to reuse. It is our intention to create a community of practice around digital skills for the elderly. Our preparation activities include the collection of best practices from other successful projects to be used to develop a training manual and an online academy. Once the training materials are ready, individuals aged 55-75 will be selected through a call for applicants and will take part in the piloting as ambassadors of the project. Two pilots with 12 people each will take place in Malta and in Berlin. All these training activities will use the ICT4 the Elderly Handbook as their space of reference, documentation, collaborative editing and creation of new content.

In a nutshell, the ICT4 the Elderly Handbook aims to:

 * Help the participants of the program to learn and find information about the different subjects treated on the program;
 * Be the platform used by the participants to transmit what they have learned to other persons, interested by the themes treated in this course.

Introduction and background information on digital literacy
Digital literacy refers to "the awareness, skills, understandings, and reflective approaches necessary for an individual to operate comfortably in information-rich and IT-enabled environments”. It is the ability to ‘get around’ safely and effectively in the new digital environment. Today our knowledge-based society requires it: a person has to effectively perform tasks in this digital environment. Being digital and information literate is crucial in order to participate in modern society, although not every citizen has the necessary means and resources to achieve these skills.

The Elderly are one of the most disadvantaged social groups in this aspect, due to knowledge/practice gaps, differences in technology uptake, complex product designs, and other factors such as lack of motivation and intergenerational communication. Digital skills are also increasingly required for performing instrumental tasks, such as searching for contacts, medical help, paying bills and taking part in democratic processes. To ensure that no one is left behind in today’s fast-changing world driven by technological advancement, it is critical for global citizens of all ages to have a set of digital skills to live, learn, and participate in modern society.

Content of the Handbook
The content of this Handbook includes the curriculum content used by educators in the organisations that deal with the education of elderly, as well as by the elderly themselves, and the serves training activities as an Online Academy.

This learning strategy provides for the teaching content of the ICT 4 the Elderly project, introducing 6 Competences Areas. Each of these is further deconstructed into several modules. Two of these competencies – security and privacy, self-organisation – will be horizontally introduced into various work sessions and should be followed in every spectrum of advancing the digital skills through the curriculum:

title: ICT4 Elderly


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User:DVD206/sandbox

candy made muffin with berry western siberian

title: User:DVD206/sandbox


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User talk:そらたこ

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. --そらたこ (discuss • contribs) 15:34, 7 October 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:そらたこ


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The Lyrics of Henry VIII/Acknowledgements

These materials were originated by Ray Siemens, working with a group that included Alyssa Arbuckle, Lindsey Seatter, Karin Armstrong, and Barbara Bond as assistants in recent research. Adoption of the material into Wikibooks format has been handled by Tim Sobie.


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