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Professionalism/Poppy Northcutt, Apollo, and Women in Tech

Importance of Equality in the Workplace
Equality in the workplace, specifically gender equality in technology related fields such as aerospace engineering has ethical impact.

Women should not be belittled on the basis of sex, but this has happened repeatedly throughout history. Women have not been recognized or appreciated for their significant contributions to the field of aerospace engineering. This phenomenon is illustrated by equality concerns present during the Apollo 8 Mission.

Poppy Northcutt was the only woman in the control room on this mission. The mission would not have been possible without her calculations, but Northcutt felt discriminated against. When asked about her time during Apollo, she said: “I was certainly aware of the issues that were emerging, working in that environment I could see the discrimination against women.”

Taking progressive stances toward equality regularly pays off across the board in success, respect, financials, recruitment, lasting impact and legacy, and community support.

Gender Inequalities in Space Programs
Women have been an integral part of NASA operations since 1922, filling important roles such as mathematician, computer, astronaut, engineer, and supervisors, without ample recognition.

Before electronic computers, all mathematical equations and computations would be done by hand by people, often known as human computers. Many male employees at NACA left to fight overseas in World War II, so more and more women were needed to fill their roles (NASA, 2019 ).

These women were significantly underpaid and unappreciated compared to their male counterparts. Unlike their male counterparts, who were paid salaries and overtime, “computresses” were hourly workers, capped at nine hours a day, or 54 hours a week. However, if women wanted any chance of getting promoted, they needed to work the same hours as the men, resulting in many hours of unpaid work (Al-Heeti, 2019 ).

The gender inequality present in technology-related fields has led women to leave science and engineering jobs at rates higher than their male counterparts.

In the aerospace industry, only 24 percent of employees are women, and there has been little change in years, according to a study done by Aviation Week. Women make up only about a third of NASA’s workforce. And, they comprise just 28 percent of senior executive leadership positions and make up only 16 percent of senior scientific employees (Davenport, 2019 ).

Brief History of NASA
NASA began in 1941 as NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics). NACA was a small government organization intent on researching the limitations and potentials surrounding flight as well as its scientific principles.

During the cold war era, NACA began research into missiles. This inspired the concept of manned rocket vehicles, which led to an interest in spacecraft.

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1.

On October 1, 1958, NASA was formed as an expansion of NACA with the intention of defeating the Soviets in the space race.

Signed by President Dwight Eisenhower on July 29, 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 "provided for research into the problems of flight within and outside the earth's atmosphere" and established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Apollo Missions
Apollo 8 was a significant mission in history. It was the first crewed mission to leave Earth’s orbit, successfully orbit the Moon, and return the crew to Earth. This mission served as preparation for Apollo 11, the mission in which a man walked on the moon for the first time.

Before the Apollo program, only men had been idolized and credited as the face of NASA’s mission control room. But when Apollo began, amid this sea of men, there was one woman: Poppy Northcutt.

Brief Biography

Frances (Poppy) Northcutt was a "computress" and mathematician at TRW Systems (later to become Northrop Grumman) in 1965. At TRW, Northcutt's skill caused her to stand out. She was assigned to the orbital calculations team for the company’s major contract holder, NASA. Being recognized for her excellence with this work, she was then hired by NASA, working in the Mission Control's Mission Planning and Analysis room on orbital maneuver calculations (Planetary, 2019 ). Northcutt joined the Apollo Program in 1965 and worked in the space program for 5 years. During that time she contributed to the success of Apollo missions 8, 10, 11, 12 and 13. Northcutt was the first female engineer at NASA’s mission control (Ely, 2008 ).

She faced the same sexual discrimination as other women working in the field, but chose to work long hours to strive to have the same responsibility as men. Despite her efforts, her pay was capped at 54 hours a week. When promoted to engineer, she met further pay discrimination. Northcutt said, “The pay raise was so high, they didn’t have the mechanism to approve that, and I was still being underpaid". In an attempt to balanced her pay with her male counterparts, she was scheduled for the maximum frequency of raises possible (Karlin, 2019 ). This experience helped inspired her later work for gender equality. On this, she says, “When income is based on your past pay, and your past pay was discriminatory, you never solve the complete discrimination problem. So even if I got caught up, I would still never get caught up"(Ely, 2008 ).

Northcutt's Work on the Apollo Missions
Northcutt's first position at NASA was plotting critical return-to-Earth trajectories for Apollo 8. This trajectory, called the free return trajectory, used the moon’s gravity to slingshot Apollo 8 back to earth while conserving fuel. Part of her job was initial testing of equipment and hardware that would be used for later lunar missions. Apollo 8 was also the first test of Northcutt and her team’s calculations (PBS, 2019 ).

In Apollo 13, an oversight in pre-launch preparations damaged one of the three oxygen tanks. This lead to its violent rupture once in orbit on the way to the moon. The explosion damaged the fuel cells as well as a second oxygen tank leaving the service module crippled. This was particularly dangerous because, unlike the previous Apollo missions, Apollo 13 was not put on a free return trajectory. Northcutt’s team troubleshot the strategy to course correct Apollo 13, getting it back into the free return trajectory. Northcutt was critical in the mission's proclaimed "successful failure". For their success, Northcutt and her team were awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom Team Award (Karlin, 2019 ).

Northcutt's Experience with Sexism
Northcutt's strong advocacy for women’s rights originated with her personal experience with sexism. Being the sole women at work posed many challenges. In one instance, Northcutt heard other flight engineers discuss enjoying viewing one channel in particular. Upon looking pulling it up, she found it was a video feed directly on her while she was flight testing (Powell, 2019 ).

Her experience in the media was far worse. She had to endure cringe-worthy interview comments, once being asked “How much attention do the men in Mission Control pay to a pretty girl in miniskirts”. She was regularly interviewed and put on TV as a rare exception rather than an engineer who had earned her position. Northcutt contended the media attention was worth the discriminating comments as she was able to reach a new generation of young girls, letting them know it was possible for women to reach her level of success. Young women empowered by Northcutt's television appearances sent her letters. These letters inspired Northcutt to continue her efforts (Karlin, 2019 ).

Beginning with her original workplace, TWR, Northcutt improved the company’s affirmative action and pregnancy leave policies. She also took on a leadership role in the National Organization for Women, leading women’s strikes while still employed at NASA, putting her job and career at risk. In 1972 she helped pass the Texas Equal Rights Amendment which decreed equality under the law regardless of gender, skin color, race, national origin or religious identity. She then became the first Women’s Advocate for the city of Houston in 1975 (Ely, 2008 ).

In 1984 Northcutt earned her law degree from the University of Houston Law Center. She then served the first felony prosecutor in the domestic violence unit of the Texas Appellate Court, followed by a career as a defense attorney. Today Northcutt continues to advocate for women by providing legal services for pregnant teen. She also actively educates young voters and women from immigrant communities about the importance of their political participation (Ely, 2008 ).

Women from hidden figures
Media can have a substantial impact on the knowledge and recognition of people throughout history. Katherine Johnson, Mary Jackson, and Dorothy Vaughan were three incredible women who worked at NASA but were not recognized for their work until years later. These women were the stars of the Oscar-nominated movie and book Hidden Figures in 2017.

Katherine Johnson had a pivotal role at NASA in the calculations used for the country’s space missions, yet remained unrecognized for decades. She did the trajectory analysis for the Mercury missions, and John Glenn insisted she did the same job for his orbital mission in 1962 (Martin, 2017 ). Finally, in 2015, at age 97, she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Mary Jackson was a “human computer” at the all-black West Computing Section at NASA. In addition to extracting the relevant data from experiments and flight tests, she spent much of her time helping other women advance in their career by advising them on potential educational pursuits (Howell, 2017 ). Dorothy Vaughan began working at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in 1943 and became and expert programmer in FORTRAN, the popular computer language at the time. In 1949, she was promoted to be the first black NACA supervisor (Shetterly, 2016 ).

Status of Women in NASA
In recent years, NASA has made a visible effort to praise the women that have helped and continue to help them. On their website, there is a page dedicated solely to women at NASA, where they state: “Women in STEM have, and continue to, play a critical role in how we explore the universe and what it has to offer.” (Ramji, 2019 )

The page recognizes women who have had significant impacts on NASA’s progress. For example, Christa McAuliffe was the first teacher selected to go to space as part of the Teacher in Space project in 1986. Christina Koch and Jessica Meir were the first team of all-female space-walkers in October 2019. More recently, NASA has announced the new Artemis mission which plans to land the first woman on the Moon by 2024.

Impact on Women in Tech
The number of women at NASA and in science is growing, yet men continue to outnumber women, especially at the upper levels of these professions. According to the Society of Women Engineers, women have increased their numbers in many professions previously dominated by men, including law, business, and medicine; however, the number of women in engineering in the U.S. has not increased since the early 2000s. This graph, using data supplied from the American Physical Society, shows this trend as there has been a plateau of growth in female STEM bachelor degrees in recent years (APS, 2017 ).

According to the US census bureau, in all engineering and computer occupations, the median earnings of females are less than those of males. The size of the gap varies by discipline, with women receiving anywhere from 86% to 95% of the median earnings of their male colleagues (SWE, 2019 ).

Despite issues with earnings gaps and STEM degrees, women in tech are coming together more than ever before. Many professional groups such as Women@NASA, Women in Computer Science (or WICS), and Society of Women Engineers (SWE) have formed as a result. Because of women like Poppy Northcutt, who faced discrimination in the workplace but continued to work, women in tech are now gaining more support and recognition.


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User:Peyton09

New editor, interested in writing non-fictional articles. "Aim for top-level quality, know that I am a beginner." -Peyton Currently, I have connection problems. It is difficult for me to connect online. Sorry. 10:56, 11 May 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Peyton09


text: User talk:Davidbena

title: User talk:Davidbena


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Oberon/ETH Oberon/ports

Serial and parallel port support

Summary Oberon supports parallel or serial ports for controlling peripheral devices such as mice (serial), printers (parallel or serial), modems (serial), routers, bridges, firewalls.

Hint: Communication devices such as the Zyxel Prestige 100 ISDN Router and the Zyxel ZyWall firewall can easily be configured via their serial control port with the V24.Panel, the GUI of a simple terminal-emulation application. The bloated configuration software delivered with the devices can quietly be ignored.

Parallel ports All of the three possible parallel ports are supported. The ports are set up as follows:            Addr. LPT1   378H LPT2   278H LPT3   3BCH and operate in unidirectional mode only. Hence, no IRQ is assigned or used. A bi-directional protocol is not implemented.

A machine is usually equiped with a single parallel port set up as shown above. If an add-on I/O card with additional ports is installed, the address and the IRQ assigned to a port are usually jumpered on the card. The jumpers setting must comply with what is shown above.

For additional information consult Wikipedia. How to control a parallel port by program

Use the procedures in module Centronics.Mod in your own program. They support output only. The Centronics module imports SYSTEM and uses the PORTIN / PORTOUT procedures. The latter are for use with Native Oberon of course. Note that a module importing SYSTEM is not portable. The PlugIn version of Oberon for Windows uses the Native Oberon compiler and consequently, PORTIN and PORTOUT are also useable. Under Windows NT and Win 2000, executing one of these procedures will however lead to a "privileged instruction" TRAP.

PORTIN and PORTOUT can also be implemented with in-line assembler code.

MODULE PortIO; IMPORT SYSTEM;

PROCEDURE - inch 066H, 08BH, 055H, 00CH, 0ECH, 08BH, 05DH, 008H, 088H, 003H;

PROCEDURE InCh(VAR ch: CHAR; port: INTEGER); BEGIN inch END InCh;

PROCEDURE - outch 066H, 08BH, 055H, 00CH, 08AH, 045H, 008H, 0EEH;

PROCEDURE OutCh(ch: CHAR; port: INTEGER); BEGIN outch END OutCh;

END PortIO.

A similar implementation is found in Oberon V4, but the formal parameters in InCh and OutCh are permuted because the Oberon V4 compiler uses the C language convention for sequencing the parameters. Serial ports All of the four possible serial RS-232 ports are supported. A machine is usually equiped with two serial ports, either built in on the motherboard or on an add-on I/O card. Built in COM ports are usually configured with the BIOS set up program, but may be configured with jumpers in older computers. COM ports on add-on cards are normally configured with jumpers on the card. By default, in Oberon, the base address and the IRQs of the ports are set up as follows:            Addr. IRQ COM1   3F8H    4 COM2   2F8H    3 COM3   3E8H    4 COM4   2E8H    3

The base addresses above for COM1 and COM2 are standard. There are several alternate addresses that can be used for COM3 and COM4. If these are hard-wired into a board or card they will normally be paired as shown. If they are individually selectable, it is desirable to use them in the pairs shown below:

   COM3 - 3E8H 338H 3F8H 2E8H 220H COM4 - 2E8H 238H 2F8H 2E0H 228H

The support, together with the BIOS set up program of the machine and the jumpers, allow to arrange the COM ports among the serial interfaces as desired and to associate them with the best suited IRQ lines. The following commands are available for setting up the ports.

ConfigV24.SetIRQs { [ xxxH | 000H ] IRQx } ~
 * Assign four pairs of base address + IRQ to the serial ports. No duplicate address is allowed. Uninstalled or disabled ports are assigned the address 000H. The IRQs may be chosen among the free (i.e. non-conflicting) IRQs of the machine. Duplicate IRQs may be assigned, provided the ports are not used simultaneously. It is common practice to see COM3 using IRQ 4 and COM4 using IRQ 3, as is done by default. The final settings are displayed in the System log in the form of a new ConfigV24.SetIRQs command ready for editing and executing.

 * This command is best placed in Oberon.Text ahead of a possible ConfigInput.Mouse or ConfigInput.WatchMouse command, specially if a serial mouse is attached which should be recognized immediately when Oberon is started.

ConfigV24.GetIRQs
 * Display the serial port settings in the System log. The current settings are displayed in the System log in the form of a new ConfigV24.SetIRQs command ready for editing and executing.

For additional information consult Wikipedia. For the programmer V24.Mod is the device driver of an asynchronous RS-232 interface and in OSI terminology, it handles protocols on level 2a - the media access control. Client modules must implement the protocols of level 2b - the logical link control. The receiving part is timing critical: the receive buffer may overflow and data may get lost as a consequence of an overrun condition. The buffer has a fixed length of 4'096 bytes. Serial connect In addition to using an external modem connected to a serial port, it is also possible to establish direct communication to another computer by connecting the serial ports through a crossed serial cable (also known as a null-modem cable) and using a generic communications program. V24.Panel was designed for this purpose. The most likely use you will have for this technique is trapping debug output from a problematic machine to another faultless machine for analyzing the debug information and diagnosing the problem. This technique is described in Low-level tracing.

[Top]

''11 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved.''

E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch

Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/

title: Oberon/ETH Oberon/ports


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Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Decisions

Introduction
You are aiming to make a programming language. However, there are many existing languages in the market. What is the purpose of yours? Well, it is mostly about the minute differences in the syntax and the output code that creates the resultant diversity of languages. Mostly it is about memory format and speed of execution. However, generally these two cannot exist together. Thus there are to be certain tradeoffs that in the end will determine the importance of your language and where it stands in the global market. There are some minute factors such as general scope of variables, redundancy of instructions, style of compilation and execution speed differences, which may seem trivial at first but when they add up in a long source file, they can mean the difference between the program execution time in minutes and hours. These minute factors remain the driving force in the continuing research for new and better programming languages. The following sections will cover some major decisions you have to undertake before you even start on your language

Base Languages
It is very difficult to compile to machine language, and generally the next best step, assembly language is undertaken. However, even in assembly language, the actual file input and output operations necessary for compilation are very complex and difficult to write. However, fortunately there exist some high-level languages in which to write our compiler. Note that the selection of the Base language is not important for the end output quality, but for the compilation speed and ease of writing the compiler. This project is likely to be very long and thus it is imperative that you select a language in which you are comfortable.

Usually execution in compiled languages such as C++ and C is much faster than in Interpreted Languages. However, they have the disadvantage of having lower portability, and thus the choice of the Base language depends totally on your priorities.

Memory Format
Memory nowadays is very high, (usually around 8 GB RAM), thus the earlier unthinkable format of default static memory layout can be considered. In this format, the variables declared within a function remain active, i.e. they retain their value even after the function returns control, up until the termination of the program. This means that functions can hold their values for longer, an important fact that can allow for much shorter and efficient programs. However, most languages have what is called 'Stack' variables, where variables are pushed onto a memory unit called stack, and they remain there until the function ends. However, after their life ends, the stack is not cleared but left as it is, just that now it is available to further variables who overwrite the previous variables. However, this leads to 'Garbage values' which can lead to program errors. Also, it demands a complicated system of data management.However, stack variables occupy much less space and are also accessed faster. Further, there is the option of register variables, which remain in registers which are accessed up-to 30 times faster than stack variables. However register variables require huge levels of complex data management which would make the compiler more complex.

After that, there is the option of .[MODE] directive in assembly. This depends on the type of processor you are writing the compiler for. For 808386 processor use .386 for 808486 use .486 and so on. Some assembly languages support multiple modes for one processor, however each mode is best suited for its own specific processor. Further more, there is the MODEL directive , namely FLAT model, BIG, TINY, LARGE and MEDIUM. Each is best suited for its own type. In this book we use the FLAT model. A lot depends also on the MODE of the OS. Here we use the protected mode which provides 16 TB (can vary from machine to machine) of "virtual memory".

Moreover, in the case of actual memory allocation, there is NEAR and FAR pointers used for NEAR and FAR model respectively. In protected mode, the OS assumes NEAR mode and thus NEAR pointers.

Another thing to consider is the size of your variables. Commonly three variables int, char and float are used. In C compilers for 32-bit environment, int takes 4 bytes, char takes 1 byte and float requires 8 bytes (for double). There are further directives short, long, single and double which you may or may not include in your programming language.

Most assemblers handle memory allocation on their own, however with some you have to be more explicit and give precise instructions as to where exactly you want your variables to be.

Speed
Every language-maker knows that by far the most important factor distinguishing programming languages in these days is the speed of execution. However, speed does not come easy and if you want speed, you better be prepared for many days of hard labor in the process of what is known as optimization. Moreover, speed often clashes with memory layout, thus you need to decide which is more important to you. Redundancy is another factor, but to remove redundancy you need to write very long algorithms that check for every possibility of redundancy.


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Create Vampires

Create Vampires is a book, intended as a guide around literary pitfalls, and as a non-Fictional resource written for readers fascinated by vampires and similar monsters!

Vampires Of The Imagination
Although vampires are creatures of folklore, monsters from the afterlife that are sometimes called the "un-dead," vampires are uniquely different from ghost, those lingering spirits who refuse to die.

Although vampires, by definition, are animated corpses, vampires of the imagination must feed on human blood in order to continue their earthly existence.

This unique quality makes vampires a popular and original type of fiction, slightly different from other creatures found in folklore.

About This Book

We hope this book will clear up many mis-notions, and common misunderstandings associated with the "un-dead," especially a common confusion about the actual people who did inspire vampire folklore, verses the evolved horror creations called vampires of the imagination.

Preface: The Factual Roots Of Vampires
What Type Of Book Is This?

This book will introduce 5 "original" fictional creations (or oddly unique persons):
 * 1) vampire-person
 * 2) zombie-person
 * 3) hungry-ghost-person
 * 4) ghost-person
 * 5) demon-person

This book, intended as a short guide for people, should focus on why a vampire-person is a original fictional creation.

We hope this book will include tips that will help writers, and questions that challenge our notions.

What type of book can help people became better writers?

A factual book with useful information.

A combination text-book, tutorial, and self-study course-option is intended, yet if done wrong, results may be a experimental book, in need of improvements and development.

[Many links do not direct to electronic pages]

Reference
Definition: What are Vampires?

The definition for a vampire varies dependent on what dictionary one uses.

For example:

Dictionary.com has a general definition:

Vampire : n. a preternatural being

2. (in Eastern European Folklore) a corpse, animated by an undeparted soul or demon.

According to Wikipedia.org, a vampire is "a creature from folklore that subsists by feeding on the vital essence [ the blood] of the living." [//en.wikipedia.org]

Create A Vampire:

https://www.wikihow.com/Look-Like-a-Vampire

Tips:

Stereotypes To Avoid:

Kid Vampires. Creating child-vampire types.

History of Vampires:

African Folklore:

American Folklore:

Eastern Folklore:

Eastern European Folklore:

Latin Folklore:

es:Vampiro

Vampires and Popular Culture:

Authors Who Created Vampires:

[Unconfirmed] "Carmilla by S. L. Fanu"

Writers Who Did Not Create Vampires: wiki:The_Vampire

Scientific Evidence:

For Vampires:

Against vampires:

Paul Barber in his book Vampires, Burial and Death has described that belief in vampires resulted from people of pre-industrial societies attempting to explain the natural, but to them inexplicable, process of death and decomposition. DEATH w:Death

title: Create Vampires


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Talk:Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies/ToonDoo

ToonDoo Data Breach & Shutdown
The ToonDoo and ToonDoo Spaces websites have been shut down permanently as of November 11, 2019 because of a data breach (source). This article should be changed to reflect that ToonDoo is no longer active. Trg5503 (discuss • contribs) 17:26, 28 April 2020 (UTC)


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Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Data Protection

Introduction
In this section, we are discussing privacy and data protection. We will be focusing on a few laws and policies passed to protect a person’s privacy online, specifically concerning data protection. This is in response to the many technologies that have arisen with time. The issue with rapid advances in technology has caused many new avenues for nefarious people looking to obtain someone’s personal information. This has led to an increase in the need for data protection. In this specific section, we will discuss the background of Privacy and why it has changed. How did this lead to a need for data protection? What are the technologies that were developed for Data Protection? What laws and policies were passed for Data Protection? As mentioned before, this chapter focuses mainly on privacy and the issues concerning data protection. This is so you might understand that no matter how privacy has advanced in many forms in our society, there is a constant measure made to try and protect a person’s privacy and their personal information on the web.

How has Privacy evolved?
Privacy was created with a different mindset when the concept was first introduced in our society. It has always been considered a basic human right and has always encompassed many areas of a person’s life. The right to the privacy of the home, the privacy to your possessions, the privacy of your information. It is usually the government that has to protect and make sure that every citizen has a right to privacy in their lives. It can be quite difficult clarifying though, as many times documents concerning privacy and the subjects it protects are vague. In the US specifically, the Fourth and Fifth Amendments are used as the main source for determining what violates a person’s privacy today. This is because the right to privacy is not explicitly clarified in the Constitution, there is a lack of documentation at times to help clarify privacy and this has led to many having to look at whatever documentation they could and deciding if that is considered part of a person’s privacy. As well as protected by the government as well. As stated by Senator D. Brent Waltz “Even the most casual student of American Constitutional scholarship will note that the notion of “privacy” as a distinct legal construct is lacking in our founding documents.”(Waltz, 2014,p. 205). With the advancement of technology and the “Internet of Things,” privacy has become a big topic when dealing with matters of information online.

What is Data Protection?
Data protection can be described simply as measures or technologies used to make sure that a person’s data or information is protected. Specifically, it aims to protect 3 aspects of data that can be clarified more by what is known as the C.I.A triad.

C.I.A Triad
The C.I.A Triad has nothing to do with the CIA, but is a model for organizations to look at certain aspects of information. It helps organizations by making sure several aspects are covered. By managing these aspects well, they can create reliable cybersecurity policies and procedures to protect that information and allow for proper data protection. CIA stands for Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability, and these aspects allow for proper data protection.

Confidentiality
Data protection tries to protect the confidentiality of your information. It is the process of limiting access to information and data. It basically means that the information provided can only be seen by certain people, and making sure anyone unauthorized can not view or access the information. It is related to privacy, as it answers the question of who will use the data. People don't want their data to be seen or accessed by everyone. It can lead to damage to their assets or privacy. To achieve confidentiality of information, organizations use policies that educate employees on what they can view or not and tools such as data storage and cryptography to add security to the information. Examples of Confidentiality being breached are data dumps or disclosures of personal information on the internet.

Integrity
The next aspect of information in the C.I.A triad is Integrity. It is the process of protecting data to make sure that it stays unchanged and in the original condition that it was received. That means the information must not have been edited, modified, or deleted in any way unless authorized. The integrity of information can be at risk anytime it is being acquired, stored, or exchanged. This can be because of attacks from malware and viruses such as worms, trojans, logic bombs, or boot viruses. It also can be caused by buggy software or noise when transmitting data. To achieve integrity and maintain it, checksums and error-correcting are used to verify if bits or hashes were changed, and see if the integrity of the information was lost.

Availability
The last aspect of Information in the triad is Availability. This means that access to the information is always ready to be given to those that are authorized. To explain it, it is like a building with a keycard reader on the door. When you scan your card, you expect to be able to enter the building and use the resources inside. If the reader reads your card, but the door glitches and doesn’t open, you are denied Availability. This applies to information and data as well.

ESG Data Protection Family Tree
Now how does Data Protection accomplish the aspects stated above? Well, Data Protection covers this by many activities.

E-Discovery and Compliance:
It is the gathering of knowledge and information in electronic forms. It is the process of locating, extracting, analyzing, and reviewing digital data such as images, files, emails, network traffic, and more. It helps to draw a picture or, allow for there guidelines for people in the field of E-Discovery that are tasked with locating essential information.

Archiving:
Archiving is the process of securing information, especially inactive information for an unknown amount of time or a tremendous amount of time. the information can be brought out anytime and can be referenced but it is mostly not usable currently but still should be protected.

Backups:
Backups are creating copies of the information. Basically creating a secure copy of them so that if the original data is tampered with or corrupted, that you can use the backup copy to restore the original data.

Snapshots:
Snapshots are the process of recording the state of a machine at a specific time. Usually for storage devices, taking a snapshot is a good way to create a copy of data and information, similar to backups. Data and Information can be restored to that specific time of the snapshot.

Replication:
Replication is a very costly part of data protection that is quite necessary for the disaster recovery process. Involves replicating and duplicating the data and then move it to an offsite location so that it is protected. This is more so for organizations to recover after attacks, natural disasters, and other incidents of great damage or harm to the data and information under them.

Availability:
Availability is making sure that the data and information are accessible at times to whoever has access to it. To make sure it is not completely restricted and unattended to or unsupervised.

Disaster Recovery:
Disaster Recovery is the process of an organization making sure to recover from disasters and look at the state of their data. Basically seeing what might have lost Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. This involves using the tools and processes above and also trying to find what caused the disaster and how to plan for it in the future so that they would be able to recover more effectively if it ever happens again.

Business Continuity:
Business Continuity is the process of creating systems and tools to help with the recovery process and deal with threats in the future. Basically planning ahead, to secure themselves, and make sure that threats can be taken care of or avoided again.

General Data Protection Regulation (European Union)
Yet there is more to ensure data protection than just tools and processes. There are many regulations, laws, and policies as well to help and ensure proper data protection. One of these regulations that are considered to be strongly accepted by many is the GDPR. Since 1995, Europe's data privacy has been regulated under the Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament along with the Council of 24 October 1995. The regulations would be on the protection of individuals with concern to the treatment of the data, 1995 O.J. (I. 281) (Directive). These regulations were viewed to be ineffective due to the rapid evolution of technology, they want to offer better protection and rights to EU citizens, and unification of data protection laws. This resulted in the creation of the “General Data Protection Regulation”(GDPR), which its final text was approved of in 2016. The GDPR came into implementation on May 25, 2018.

The GDPR's main goal is to hold companies more accountable to user’s data and strengthen the control of users on their personal data. It does this by having provisions that require a business to safeguard the personal data and privacy of EU citizens for every transaction that transpires within the EU. Exportation of personal data outside of the EU is also regulated by the GDPR. This legislation would force companies to have separated consent forms for the different types of data they collect along with the feasibility to retract consent. It would also prevent companies from the collection of data for children under 16 without a person that holds “parental responsibility”. Companies that have had their databases breach would have to release a notice to those affected within 72 hours. It will also give the consumer the ability to wipe out all data that has been collected on them by companies. Types of data that is protected by GDPR are basic identity information, web data, health and genetic data, biometric data, racial or ethnic data, political opinions, and sexual orientation. The GDPR defines roles within a company for who is responsible for ensuring compliance with the GDPR’s regulations. These would be the data controller, data processor, and the data protection officer (DPO). Any company that violates the rules of the GDPR would be subjected to a fine of up to 4 percent of annual global turnover or 20 million euros, whichever is larger.

GDPR Principles to process data ethically
The GDPR states the principles in Articles (5-11) on how all the personal data should be processed. Data controllers are expected to process personal data in an ethical manner. The six principles that account for ethical data processing are:

 * 1) Lawful, Fair and Transparent: Personal information of the data subject should be processed ethically, fairly and in a transparent manner. When in relation to the data subject, All the processes should be justifiable to the law.
 * 2) Purpose Limitation: The processes involving personal data should only be limited to the original purpose for which it was collected from the data subject.
 * 3) Data Minimisation: When collecting data, data controllers must ensure that only relevant information is collected in relation to the purposes.
 * 4) Accuracy: Personal data of data subjects must be accurate and kept up to date. Inaccurate or outdated data should be deleted.
 * 5) Storage limitation: The personal data collected must retain only when necessary. The data must be deleted when it is no longer needed for any legitimate purpose
 * 6) Integrity and confidentiality: Company must take technical measures that ensure the protection of personal data that include unauthorized access or unethical processing and against accidental loss.

Privacy policies
Organizations should practice good ethics by following GDPR guidelines. According to Northwestern, A person’s name, email, phone, address, and SSN all count as being a user’s personal data as it identifies the user, “in practice, these also include all data which are or can be assigned to a person in any kind of way”. Since these data entries are considered personal, the policies that govern them must use these data entries to a very limited extent. Ethical organizations should be protecting this information and only gathering the necessary information.

For the processor, the data must be limited to the extent required by the controller, and then must swiftly be deleted to ensure that the user’s information can not be used for other purposes except what is required. For the controller, the information provided by the processor must be categorized for deletion based on the conclusion that was resolved from the issue. For instance, within Oracle’s privacy policy is a statement reading, “engage in transactions with our customers, suppliers and business partners, and to process purchases of our products and services, will be retained for the duration of the transaction or services period”. Failure to follow these guidelines is not only unethical but can lead to penalties.

US Privacy Law
In the US laws related to data protection are quite diverse. They have defined laws related to a different sector and medium-specific data security laws, for example, they have different laws and regulation are applied to financial companies, telecom department, health care, credit report, children's information gathering, etc. Moreover, every 50 states in the United States have their own laws and regulation which an organization has to abide. So, if anyone is trying to set up an organization they first have to regulate with the federal (if the bill is passed by the Congress)and then the state laws.

As the US doesn’t have a Federal law specifically for the data protection or data breach all the 50 states came together and created rules and regulations. The state laws mostly focus on protecting data, proper privacy policies are created by the organization, how and what are the steps that are taken in securing and safeguarding SSN and driver’s license number, and the timeline for notifying about the data breach. Now, if we talk about the privacy laws California tops the chart it alone has more than 25 state laws that are related to data privacy/protection. Recently the state has introduced a new law California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018 (CCPA) which will be effective from January 1, 2020. On March 21st, 2018, South Dakota has signed a new law that is implied to an organization that are conducting business in the state. Considering the factor of having the most strict laws related to the financial sector New York tops the chart.

Though the US privacy laws are very complex and difficult to understand, it’s very important to understand them and abide by the rules and regulations. Not only the state the Attorney General of the state or Federal Trade Commission has the right to take action against the organization too. They have set up rules and regulations too.


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Talk:Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Data Protection

The chapter Privacy was overhauled by the Spring 2020 ITMM 485/585 course at Illinois Institute of Technology, by Orange Team. Members and sections of the chapter contributed by them include :

PRIYA DALAL : Privacy and Social Networking Sites

Username- Pdalal3

MAJDA MUDAFAR : Privacy and Internet Of Things

Username- Mmudafar

ABHISHEK DANGI : Privacy and HealthCare

Username- Abhi12111

SCOTT PARTACZ : Privacy Policies and Principles

Username- ScottPartacz

ELIJAH IRIZARRY : Privacy and Data Protection

Username- Eirizarr1


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User:Hazelgarcia

i am david

title: User:Hazelgarcia


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User talk:Pdalal3

The Privacy chapter was overhauled by the Spring 2020 ITMM 485/585 course at Illinois Institute of Technology by Orange Team. The members include :

Priya Dalal

User name- Pdalal3

Majda Mudafar

User name- Mmudafar

Abhishek Dangi

User name- Abhi12111

Scott Partacz

User name- ScottPartacz

Elijah Irizarry

User name - Eirizarr

title: User talk:Pdalal3


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Talk:Information Technology and Ethics/Introduction

The chapter Privacy was overhauled by the Spring 2020 ITMM 485/585 course at Illinois Institute of Technology, by Orange Team. Members and sections of the chapter contributed by them include :

PRIYA DALAL : Privacy and Social Networking Sites

Username- Pdalal3

MAJDA MUDAFAR : Privacy and Internet Of Things

Username- Mmudafar

ABHISHEK DANGI : Privacy and HealthCare

Username- Abhi12111

SCOTT PARTACZ : Privacy Policies and Principles

Username- ScottPartacz

ELIJAH IRIZARRY : Privacy and Data Protection

Username- Eirizarr178


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World Stamp Catalogue/Fauna

 * World Stamp Catalogue/List of barn swallows on postage stamps

title: World Stamp Catalogue/Fauna


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World Stamp Catalogue/List of barn swallows on postage stamps

Back to: World_Stamp_Catalogue

Barn Swallows are one of the most depicted birds on postage stamps around the world.


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Privacy Policies in the Digital World

Chapter Summary
This chapter will inform the reader of the most recent privacy legislations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). Readers will also explore what privacy policies are and why they are necessary. Privacy legislations have significant changes designed to better address the realities of an evolving, digital world while increasing the level of compliance and accountability for organizations processing personal data. Important concepts include greater transparency for individuals on how and why personal data is processed while strengthening the rights of individuals with regard to their personal data. This chapter will take a deep dive into the details that make up privacy policies/legislations. In addition, the chapter will discuss how the US is following in the European Union’s footsteps in implementing federal updated privacy legislation to protect consumers and mandate companies to address privacy controls and risks in our evolving digital world.

1.7.1 Privacy Policy Overview
Privacy policies are legally binding statements that specify how personal data is collected, processed, and stored. As computing power increases allowing for technology to become an everyday tool, the amount of personal data being collected from individuals is exponentially increasing. Personal data can be anything that can be utilized to identify an individual including, but not limited to, an individual’s name, contact information, address, etc. With the idea of big data increasingly becoming a reality, it is imperative to ensure that proper privacy policies are in place. Privacy policies ensure the security of the collected data and guarantee the use of data follows only the guidelines shared with the individuals whose data is being collected. For privacy policies to be effective they should be clear and highly visible. Privacy on the internet is a concern because there is a lot of valuable information being sent and received online. Privacy Policy agreements are mandatory in the United States if any personal data is to be collected. To enforce the need for privacy policies and the proper collection and use of personal data, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has enforced state and federal level laws outlining the do’s and don’ts surrounding data collection, data procession, data storage, and data usage. The FTC has outlined five principles to promote fair data collection practices. These principles are commonly referred to as the Fair Information Practice Principles (FIPP), which are:notice/awareness,choice/consent,access/participation,integrity/security,and enforcement/readiness. The first principle, notice/awareness, requires industries to provide consumers/users with a notice before they can proceed to collect any personal information. Choice/consent outlines the option for the consumer with the option for how their information is used. Access/participation allows consumers to view the data being collected on them and provides them with the opportunity to edit any of the collected data. Integrity/security requires the data collected to be stored in a safe and secure manner. Lastly, enforcement/redress requires that the above four principles are constantly reinforced throughout the entire data collection, processing, usage, and storage process.

1.7.2 Privacy Policies
The United States has little to no federal privacy policies to protect consumer data. The amount of data that consumers disclose to various websites and applications is staggering and there is very little regulation surrounding the collection, security, use, and storage of consumer information [in the United States]. There is no current framework for federal privacy laws in the United States compared to other countries. The European union has released a General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) which clearly outlines the protection of consumer data and processing. Canada has enacted a Privacy Act which highlights the purpose of the act, the policies that are required for data collection, retention, and disposal. Additionally, the Canadian Privacy Act outlines any possible exemptions from the policy and how users are allowed to access their data. Countries such as Russia, Singapore, United Kingdom, and Philippines have also created privacy policies to effectively govern and protect consumer information. The United States is following slowly behind. Below we will explore some of the current privacy policies enforced in the U.S. and globally.

US Privacy Act (1974)

The US Privacy Act of 1974 gave US citizens the right to access any data held by a government agency, the right to copy that data, the right to collect data errors, and the ability to restrict access to data on a need to know basis. The regulations of the US Privacy Act include:

Right of US citizens to access any data held by government agencies Right of US citizens to hold a copy of the same data Agencies should follow data minimization principles during the data collection process Access to data is restricted on a need to know basis Sharing information between other federal and non-federal agencies is restricted and only allowed under certain conditions

HIPAA - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (1996)

It was passed by Congress in 1996.

HIPAA is responsible for the following: It provides the ability to transfer and continue health insurance coverage for millions of American workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs It reduces fraud and abuse in the health care sector It mandates standards for information on electronic billing and other health-care processes It requires the protection and confidential handling of protected health information The HIPAA Privacy regulations require all parties in the health care sector (including providers and organizations), as well as their business associates, to develop and follow procedures that ensure the confidentiality and security of protected health information (PHI) when it is transferred, received, handled, or shared. Different forms of PHI include paper, oral, and electronic. Additionally, It minimizes health information to be used and shared to the minimum extent that is necessary to conduct business with.

HIPAA and the US Privacy Act of 1974 only defines policies regarding consumer health and government data, leaving the majority of other forms of consumer data to be governed by policies defined by industries and/or corporations. Some states have taken it upon themselves to create legislation to change what data the people have access and control over and almost all states have a notification policy to let you know when your data has been breached, but that would not be preventive like many of the proposed federal bills would.

COPPA - Children’s Online Privacy Act (2000)

COPPA is responsible for regulating personal information collected from minors. It was initially established to prohibit online companies from requesting PII from children that are under 12 years old, unless a verifiable parental consent is present. After updates to the regulations were conducted, the scope of the law was expanded and broadened the types of PII that it covers (screen names, email addresses, photographs, audio files are included).

COPPA additionally protects the privacy of children by allowing access only to companies that are capable of ensuring confidentiality and security.

CCPA- California Consumer Privacy Act

California is in the process of passing the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). The CCPA outlines that eligible California residents will have the right to:

· 	Know what personal information (PI) is being collected about them · 	Access their PI twice in a 12-month period · 	Receive a copy of their PI being collected · 	Know if their PI is being sold or disclosed, and to whom · 	Request their PI to be deleted · 	Receive an equal level of service when exercising their rights The right to know, delete, access, be made aware of any portability, and opt-out are necessary in order to ensure that consumers have visibility towards their data. Having federal/state wide privacy policies standardizes the proper methods and practices associated with data collection. California passed the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA ) unanimously, went into effect at the beginning of 2020 and will begin to be enforced in July. This is groundbreaking legislation and gives the power back to the people. Since it is only a state level act, it does not have any direct effect on the other 49 states but could set a precedent. It would also be a huge step forward because California is the home of most technology companies. This act would require companies to disclose what information they are collecting, why they are collecting it and who is using the data. It also gives the customer the right to have any unwanted data deleted or to have the companies not share the data that has been collected. This would follow suit with California’s amended constitution stating that privacy is an “inalienable” right of the people (Chau, 2018). This legislation will apply for any company that operates within the state and “either makes at least $25 million in annual revenue, gathers data on more than 50,000 users, or makes more than half its money off of user data” (Edelman, 2020). This would affect many large companies, including Facebook, Google and Amazon. When someone with an IP address based in California accesses a website they will get a banner on the screen saying “Do Not Sell My Personal Information.” This will stop websites from targeted ads because no cookies will be sold to third parties. If companies do not comply with CCPA, users will be able to sue. The attorney general’s office will have the responsibility to bring any other companies that have violated the law to court. They have already said they will not be bringing cases to court just based on resources.

GDPR-General Data Protection Regulation

The General Data Protection Regulation is a privacy policy established in the European union. It describes the law on data protection and privacy in the European Union. It also addresses the transfer of personal data outside the european union. As the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) applies to consumers outside the European union, it is something that countries around the world have slowly begun to adopt. The data protection principles outlined within the GDPR are:

·  	Data fairness and lawfulness ·  	Data purpose limitations ·  	Data minimization ·  	Data accuracy ·  	Data storage limits ·  	Data integrity and confidentiality ·  	Data protection being the core foundational process The GDPR extends consumers in the European Union’s rights including access, consent, portability, restriction, and erasure of PI data. EU consumers under the GDPR have the right to discover how PI is being used and for what purpose. However, this does not apply to only industries and/or corporations within the EU. For example, if an individual accessing a US website/platform from within the EU the US website/platform will have to align with the GDPR policy. For this reason, many countries are slowly moving towards adopting their own privacy policies similar to the GDPR.

1.7.3 GDPR V.S. CCPA
Both the GDPR and the CCPA are meant to define how businesses handle consumers’ personal data, but there are just as many similarities as differences between the two. The CCPA was passed over 1.5 years later than the GDPR, and much of its policies are based on the GDPR. Both of them also carry penalties for companies found in violation, and they both address the right to be informed, right of access, and right of portability. All of these encompass consumers’ rights to own their private data. Specifically, they both give consumers the right to deletion of personal data, opting out, and data transparency. There are some key distinctions between the GDPR and the CCPA other than just location. The CCPA applies to Californian businesses that either have over $25 million in revenue or whose primary business is handling consumers’ data. The GDPR applies to any businesses handling European citizens’ data. Another big difference is the monetary punishment for the two, and the requirements for monetary punishments. The GDPR allows for up to 4% of a company’s annual turnover or $20 million, whichever is bigger. This punishment can be applied before and violation has happened if the company is determined to be at risk or has been irresponsible with their handling of data. The CCPA on the other hand is much lighter: violations occur up to $7,500, but allow consumers to mass-sue the company in violation. The requirements for these violations are only after a breach or incident has occurred. Many argue that this is too lenient and is too late for any real data breach prevention to occur. Overall the GDPR is focused on creating a “privacy by default” legal framework for all of the EU, while the CCPA is focusing on creating transparency in California’s huge data economy.

1.7.4 The Future of U.S. Privacy Law
The creation and adoption of a new US privacy law similar to GDPR could positively impact the country from various aspects to include economically, politically, and culturally.

From an economic perspective, implementing new and updated privacy law in the US not only protects our consumers but our US based corporations. When we think of implementing new US privacy law similar to GDPR we have to implement it both from a consumer and corporation perspective. Having a new federal privacy law rather than having each state create its own privacy law similar to CCPA would be a more common sense and efficient method to implementing new data privacy law in a digital world. Focusing on the corporate and economic perspective implementing new and updated privacy law is not a want it’s a critical need for the US. The US as an economic super power and having the largest economy in the world needs to align to global data protection standards such as GDPR. Aligning to global data protection standards will ensure the US maintains a competitive advantage in the global digital economy. As a country and having so many US based Technology companies integrating with global protection standard to include GDPR is an economic must.

From a political perspective, there are also positive impacts of implementing a new privacy law in the US similar to GDPR. Politically, it could be a good strategy to implement new privacy law similar to the EU as it would improve and maintain EU and US relations. The EU and the US are interconnected politically and economically as they heavily support the needs of each other. Data privacy in the digital world and economy should be no different than support each other’s Wars.

From a cultural perspective, the US is more than ready to adopt its own GDPR based privacy policy and CCPA is a perfect example of how consumers are in favor of stricter data privacy and security laws. GDPR sparked US consumers to demand a country and culture of digital and data privacy. US consumer have a shift in how and when US based organizations protect the data they collect, where it’s stored, and how it flows. The focus now in the US is protecting digital and data privacy as a legal imperative as protecting property or contracts. Similar to EU citizens/consumers our US citizens/consumers are now more than ready to treat privacy including digital privacy as a “Human Right”.

Conclusion
Privacy policies are essential components of society, especially in the digital age. With the amount of personal data available on consumers increasing exponentially, privacy policies and legislations are imperative to outline and standardize proper data collection, use, and protection methods. Efficient privacy policies are visible for both the user and the corporation, business, or government entity collecting any user information. These policies and legislations should clearly outline what data is being collected, how it is being collected, what measures are taken to ensure that data is protected in all stages, who [if anyone] the data will be shared with, how that data will be shared, how the data will be stored, and how to access the data being collected. Following the European Union’s lead the rest of the globe has begun to create national level, standardized privacy policies and legislations to effectively protect user data.

title: Privacy Policies in the Digital World