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WikiLang

Introduction
Languages are more interwoven with culture than almost anything else. Languages are an important part of the world's knowledge. Losing the language is very often described as losing the identity of a culture. WikiLang is a project to document and share the knowledge about those languages as well as teaching them.

Language loss and shift in the media
Here you can find a list of articles that reported on the loss or shift of language diversity. It shall show that it is a topic that is broadly discussed and severe. You are highly welcomed to contribute and add links to articles.

Purposes
The main goal of WikiLang is to document all languages of the world. WikiLang is organised around "language communities". Each language community having their own "section" on WikiLang and developing it in the way they desire, WikiLang has no rigid standard for structure. The most important thing is to have the project useful for the language community itself and to be appropriate to share and teach the concerned language. Those language communities coordinate the efforts of the community in that language throughout the Wikimedia sphere. The portal pages of the language communities on WikiLang serve as a central place (directory and guide) to the resources in that language even if they are located on an other sister projects like Wiktionary, Wikipedia, Wikiversity, Wikibooks, etc.

The lack of a central place in the current situation on Wikimedia projects makes it hard for language communities to find all the existing resources in their language or about their language. WikiLang is not only useful for the language communities but also for everybody who is interested in learning about a language or learning the language itself.

Language documentation
The main purpose of WikiLang is language documentation. All languages are welcome no matter their size or their status, including dead and sign languages. The purpose of WikiLang is to document and teach all languages and it also can act as a central point for language communities to coordinate their efforts and contribute on Wikimedia projects, including contributions to other sister projects, the goal being to not divide small language communities in different projects.

Resources to develop useful documentation and teaching material for bigger languages are easily available. For small and dead languages there are already grammars or dictionaries that could be used to build detailed grammars and lexicons on WikiLang and the language communities play an essential role in developing the material. Both a grammar and an adequately big dictionary are the essential parts of language documentation. WikiLang will also serve as a database where the ultimate goal is to have enough pieces of information of all languages to make studies with it or to learn/revitalise it to a later time. Wikidata can be used to store some of the data on the languages.

The hitherto existing wiki projects wouldn't fulfill these aims as Wiktionary is not designed to cover and preserve the lexicon of dead or endangered languages because it is more intended as an interlinguistical translation project; and the other wiki projects are not meant to create and compile a growing grammar of a language. To document a language it is beneficial to have both combined lexicon and grammar and to not divide this up onto different wiki projects. That wouldn't be the meaning of "database". One important aspect of WikiLang is the ability for the small language communities to write in the language of their choice, making the project more useful to their respective communities. For example documentation and teaching material of a native language of Central America will be written in Spanish as it is the majority language there. After that it can be translated by other contributors into other languages to make it available to a larger audience.

Language revitalisation
"Many linguists predict that at least half of the world's 6,000 or so languages will be dead or dying by the year 2050. Languages are becoming extinct at twice the rate of endangered mammals and four times the rate of endangered birds. If this trend continues, the world of the future could be dominated by a dozen or fewer languages."

WikiLang, or any other Wikimedia project, cannot take the responsibility to save or revitalise dying languages; this is the sole responsibility of the community of speakers themselves. However a project like WikiLang could be very useful to them and is an honorable cause to support. Since each language communities develop their section on WikiLang as they desire, contributors can make the project more useful for themselves. Pages within a language community of WikiLang can include words lists, languages courses and other didactic material that can help to revitalise languages and be re-used by the communities of speakers. If books, dictionaries or complete courses are developed within a language community of WikiLang, those will be moved to their respective sister project, i.e. Wikibooks, Wiktionary or Wikiversity. The point being that those communities are too small in most cases to develop any content of value directly on those projects and also that there is no existing projects in their own language and the task to create a new project is impossible to undertake for most small language communities. WikiLang contributors can work out ways to normalise a language in its origin area when it is not the majority language anymore, build up new communities of speakers, work on campaigns or strategies to bring back a language into a certain community or as a subject in schools in that region and work out law texts or translate official documents (see "Little Projects"), etc. Discussion pages within a language community of WikiLang can be a very useful forum for the communities of speakers.

Sprachausbau
To reverse language shift sprachausbau or language development is one of the most important steps. The main step of this is to build a lexicon that covers all domains and registers of a modern vocabulary. Many languages don't even have words for a "refrigerator" or a "computer". In linguistics, it is generally accepted that every language has in theory the possibility to express everything that all the other languages do, if it had words for all of it. Another big step is to find a standard variety. That simplifies the handling of it at institutions, in schools, etc. Teaching is easier if everything is based upon a standard. For building a standard many aspects are very important: determining a standard orthography, choosing a variety as standard or creating a new variety as a mix of existing varieties, etc. In order to get wide acceptance of the new standard it is very important to cover as many opinions as possible and to include the whole language community. This is why a free and online platform like this project would be perfect for it. Discussion pages on WikiLang can be used for sprachausbau, or sprachausbau can occur outside within the communities of speakers and the results be documented and shared on WikiLang.

Living dictionaries
A little bit on the same model as the Oracle on Wikipedias living dictionaries on WikiLang are a place where readers and learners can ask questions and get answers from others. A lot of languages don't have existing dictionaries on paper and even less have dictionaries online. A living dictionary is a place where native speakers can help others by giving words in the language that are not present in online dictionaries. After that the words can be documented on the appropriate page on WikiLang and on Wiktionaries.

Little projects
A lot of different little projects can take place within a language community of WikiLang. The efforts of the community could be coordinated for those projects. Examples of little projects include self written stories, translations of books or official documents and laws or learning materials (as long as it is feasible under a free license). After little projects are completed the resulting products could be moved to the relevant sister project if that's the case, for example Wikisource or Wikibooks, or stay on WikiLang if it doesn't fit anywhere. No matter what, the language community portal on WikiLang would be the central point to find all of them no matter on what sister project (or even outside project) the resources are actually hosted.

Examples

 * WikiLang/Main Page — an incomplete but usable project developed only to show how WikiLang would/could look like

How does WikiLang fit WMF's mission?
Languages are part of the world knowledge themselves. At WikiLang we are not saying that every small languages should have a Wikipedia (we are not saying they shouldn't either) especially if there is no monolingual speakers, since those speakers can have access to the information on bigger Wikipedias. However we do believe that languages are part of the world knowledge themselves and this is how it fits WMF's mission to freely share this knowledge; languages are as much if not more part of the world's knowledge than news and quotes, and both of them have their own project in Wikinews and Wikiquote. WikiLang is more to share knowledge about the languages, than to share knowledge in the small languages. Other projects like Wikipedia are ineffective in sharing the knowledge about languages (see below for more information about why WikiLang cannot be included in other sister projects). WikiLang also serves as a central location to find all the available resources in a given language, making existing information on Wikimedia projects more accessible and hence more useful.

Why should it be a wiki project?
A wiki-project is the perfect way to afford the aims mentioned above. In the case of language revitalisation the mass is an important factor. The internet links together people from all over the world and is an easy way to interact almost barrier-freely. And for such aims as sprachausbau it is very important to find a consensus in things like a new orthography or new words. Those would be better adopted if they are based on a broad consensus. Many language communities of endangered languages do not have the knowledge to create such an internet project or to revitalise their language. And this is why this project is so important, to help those communities and make it so much easier for them to build up projects. And in the case of projects like the decipherment of old languages or scripts the wisdom doesn't lie in the élite but in the general public. This project would try to provide all the available information as pictures or sketches of inscriptions, particular letters or corpora of dead languages that are mostly not accessible for the public. By that manner those projects would lead much faster to success than in general.

Why isn't it solvable with the other sister projects?
Updated version of 24/09/2014

WikiLang would work together with all the other sister projects. The language communities are coordinating their efforts to develop educational resources and documentation on WikiLang will move them on the appropriate sister project when it is the case, including but not limited to Wikipedia, Wikibooks, Wiktionary and Wikiversity. The point here is that the community in small languages is too small to be divided to effectively work directly on several different projects. Language portals on WikiLang will also serve as a central directory and guide for all the available resources in a language and about a language to make it easily findable and useful for the language communities.

WikiLang cannot be part of an existing sister project for the following reasons:
 * 1) Small communities. WikiLang is dealing with small languages. Most of them don't have an existing Wikipedia and setting up a project in the incubator requires knowledge that most of those communities are lacking. Also a wiki project in the incubator in the goal of creating a new language version of a sister project isn't exactly what the language communities require to revitalise and document their languages. By writing about world language on Wikipedia in a language doesn't revitalise or document it. Linguistical language documentation looks far more different and is way more than only texts. It would have hardly any effect of documentation if a language spoken by then people would open a new Wikipedi Incubator in order to pursue language documentation or revitalisation. Not only would it misuse the Wikipedia platform for that but also wouldn't it be successful. It is a lot more effort to set up an Incubator than opening a new portal on WikiLang. And the majority of the languages we are speaking here of that has to be documented and/or rescued are so small that they would not be big enough to be worth a Wikipedia Incubator. But it only needs at least one person to create documentation material on WikiLang. WikiLang offers a place for small communities to focus and organise what they need for themselves.
 * 2) Language skills: Not only speaks the above against an implementation in Wikipedia or elsewhere but also is it that big parts of documentation resources are made and in possession of linguists that doesn't even know how to speak the language but can offer a lot of information on its pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Especially when we handle with dead and extinct languages, how should they build an Incubator?
 * 3) Centralisation: The big benefit of WikiLang is the centralisation of language projects. One can much easier overlook all of it and participate much simpler than look through all the sister projects and other wiki derivatives that exist out there to find something that is related to a particular language and for revitalisation or documentation. That would also improve its use for scientific and research usage. It also gives the contributors a central place to coordinate their efforts in and about a particular language.
 * 4) Wikipedia: While Wikipedia is great, it is not what the smaller languages need to document and revitalise their languages. In a lot of cases it is more useful to teach and explain the language in another language (i. e. a majority language of the area where the small language is spoken), but Wikipedias have to be written in their own language. Wikipedia has some articles on grammar and phonology but they don't get into detail as much as it would be needed to document a language and can't "explain" it in a way to teach the language, i.e. Wikipedia is talking about the language, it is not teaching it. The grammar articles would be tremendous and too detailed for Wikipedia. That being said what's appropriate in the grammar and similar sections of a language in WikiLang can be re-used on Wikipedia articles about that language.
 * 5) Wiktionary/OmegaWiki. Wiktionary is not ideal to lead discussion on new words and sprachausbau or to come up with a standard variety and standard grammar etc. It is only to document words in any language and explain them in different languages. On WikiLang in order to document a language we would only create word lists with translations/definitions in the appropriate majority language. Creating word articles on Wiktionary would be too much effort for this undertaking. Nobody would want to spend so much time on an article just to document a word. A speaker of an endangered language or a linguist wants to use as less as possible of its own resources to create a documenting word list. Wiktionary is not suitable for the demands on documenting vocabulary on WikiLang. Furthermore, Wiktionary is only available for bigger languages. The little languages have too little participants to set up a whole new Wiktionary in their language, but enough people to build vocabulary lists on WikiLang. However, relevent information developed on WikiLang could be re-used by bigger language Wiktionaries as they see fit.
 * 6) Wikibooks. There is some evident overlap between WikiLang and Wikibooks. However the aims of WikiLang mentioned above makes Wikibooks unsuitable since WikiLang is far more than writing educational books like on Wikibooks. If complete educational books or a series of articles are developed on WikiLang, those will be moved to Wikibooks and linked from the language portal on WikiLang. Other projects on WikiLang are not suitable for Wikibooks, including sprachausbau, living dictionaries, revitalisation projects, etc. And furthermore is the creation of educational material only a small part of the aim of WikiLang.
 * 7) All others. It is unrealistic for small language communities to achieve the goals of WikiLang to be divided into 10 parts and be included on other sister projects. First of all this is detrimental to the efforts of the communities since there is no central place to coordinate the efforts and also no central place to access the existing documentation between the projects. A unique place for discussions within the language communities is essential for some projects such as sprachausbau and languages standardisation.
 * 8) Original research. As mentioned below, WikiLang allows original research which is against most of the wiki policies like Wikipedia. Hence, it wouldn't even work on those sites. This is one of the many reasons WikiLang is a much needed project.
 * 9) The apparent need: A big factor in this whole discussion is that there is an evident big need for this project. Most people would be in favour, almost every linguist would and we can't think of institutions and organisations dedicated to preserve dying languages that wouldn't see in this platform probably the only possibility to push language documentation and revitalisation to another level. The question of the need of WikiLang has of course to be asked, but it seems to be rather formal and obligatory than really a well-founded contradiction. Languages are dying and the internet hasn't brought up a good and free possibility to document them.

All in all the outsourcing of WikiLang to other sister projects would only misuse their resources because it doesn't really fit to any of them. The need for a language documentation is already explained on the discussion page, languages are dying out unbelievably fast and WikiLang would offer a perfect tool to document those languages if it is a real project. Many linguists agree that the use of the internet, specifically free collaboration such as on MediaWiki sites, is the key to endangered languages preservation in today's world. There are a lot of linguists, organisations, societies, activists etc. that would love to take part in WikiLang. The long participant list above already shows a sample of the big urge to participate.

Does WikiLang allow original research?
Language documentation on WikiLang will be based on sources. However original research will be permitted and allowed if it is the wishes of the language community. Allowing original research is necessary for projects such as creating new words or forming new standards.

Original research must be an important part of any project to rescue and revitalise endangered languages. For example, it is necessary to discover the target language's phonology, and to determine which of its sounds (phones) together comprise "the same sound" (phoneme) in its speakers' minds, before it is possible to devise a suitable new orthography (writing and spelling system) for that language.

Wikipedia has a policy of "No original research". However, that policy does not necessarily apply to any other Wikimedia project. It is up to each project to determine its own policies in regard to original research, and there are wikis that support research as one of their chief aims.

Other Wikimedia projects allow original research, like Wikiversity in a specific namespace.

What does it mean for Wikimedia?
First of all this is a very honorable campaign. It would increase the prestige of Wikimedia in the public. Furthermore it would earn a high reputation if some of the projects result in real success like the decipherment of a script or the noteworthy documentation/revitalisation of an endangered language.

How would it be organised?
WikiLang will be structured around language communities. Each language will have its own language main page/portal. This portal can be in the language itself, in the local majority language of the specific language or even be multilingual. Each language community is independant and develop this portal according to their needs and the available resources. WikiLang has no rigid structure about the way the language communities should be organised. They should organise in the way that best fits their needs and intents.

Language communities will include projects such as living dictionaries, proposals for new words, audio recordings of words, development of teaching material, etc. This is an example for a page for a dictionary with new words we are trying to build on the Gothic Wikipedia: Gothic dictionary It is divided into a discussion page, where new proposals for words can be posted and discussed and if it is widely accepted the words get added to the word list on another page.

Invitations and recommendations of institutes, organisations and relevant persons
An e-mail of invitation and aware-making has been sent to the following institutes and organisations. Please, feel free to write it to other entities as well and spread the word.

(If you are from an institute or organisation or are a relevant person/linguist and want to post your encouragement or positive ideas on this project you can do so by writing it under your name in the list or add your name and comment. Thank you a lot.)
 * Endangered Languages Documentation Programme: They are very happy to hear about such a project and would like to spread the word but, however, they have to stay neutral for they are a funding agency and cannot endorse one project over another.
 * Indigenous Language Institute
 * Endangered Languages Archive
 * Internet library for 'Aboriginal Languages of Australia'
 * Alaska Native Language Center (ANLC)
 * Netherlands Center for Indigenous Peoples (NCIV)
 * E-MELD (Electronic Metastructure for Endangered Languages)
 * The Linguist List
 * The Endangered Language Project
 * University of Hawai'i Mānoa, Department of linguistics
 * Endangered Language Alliance
 * Living Tongues, Institute for Endangered Languages
 * Endangered Languages Project
 * Lacito, Langues et civilisations à tradition orale
 * First People's Cultural Council
 * First Voices
 * University of Cambridge (World Oral Literature Project)
 * Paradisec (Pacific and Regional Archive for Digital Sources in Endangered Languages)
 * SIL International
 * I couldn't find any contact address for: DoBeS

title: WikiLang


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WikiLang/Africa

Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: WikiLang/Africa


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WikiLang/Algic

Algic languages are a family of indigenous languages of North America. The Algic family includes the Algonquian languages family as well as the Wiyot and Yurok languages.

All Algic languages still spoken are endangered or vulnerable.

There are 41 living Algic languages, with a total of about 138,000 speakers.

Family
Algic
 * Algonquian (40)
 * Blackfoot [bla] (A language of Canada)
 * Cheyenne [chy] (A language of United States)
 * Menominee [mez] (A language of United States)
 * Miami [mia] (A language of United States)
 * Shawnee [sjw] (A language of United States)
 * Arapaho (2)
 * Arapaho [arp] (A language of United States)
 * Gros Ventre [ats] (A language of United States)
 * Cree-Montagnais (9)
 * Atikamekw [atj] (A language of Canada)
 * Cree, Moose [crm] (A language of Canada)
 * Cree, Northern East [crl] (A language of Canada)
 * Cree, Plains [crk] (A language of Canada)
 * Cree, Southern East [crj] (A language of Canada)
 * Cree, Swampy [csw] (A language of Canada)
 * Cree, Woods [cwd] (A language of Canada)
 * Montagnais [moe] (A language of Canada)
 * Naskapi [nsk] (A language of Canada)
 * Eastern Algonquian (12)
 * Malecite-Passamaquoddy [pqm] (A language of Canada)
 * Micmac [mic] (A language of Canada)
 * Mohegan-Pequot [xpq] (A language of United States)
 * Narragansett [xnt] (A language of United States)
 * Powhatan [pim] (A language of United States)
 * Wampanoag [wam] (A language of United States)
 * Abenaki (2)
 * Abenaki, Eastern [aaq] (A language of United States)
 * Abenaki, Western [abe] (A language of Canada)
 * Delaware (2)
 * Munsee [umu] (A language of Canada)
 * Unami [unm] (A language of United States)
 * Nanticoke-Conoy (2)
 * Nanticoke [nnt] (A language of United States)
 * Piscataway [psy] (A language of United States)
 * Fox (2)
 * Kickapoo [kic] (A language of United States)
 * Meskwaki [sac] (A language of United States)
 * Ojibwa-Potawatomi (9)
 * Algonquin [alq] (A language of Canada)
 * Chippewa [ciw] (A language of United States)
 * Ojibwa, Central [ojc] (A language of Canada)
 * Ojibwa, Eastern [ojg] (A language of Canada)
 * Ojibwa, Northwestern [ojb] (A language of Canada)
 * Ojibwa, Severn [ojs] (A language of Canada)
 * jibwa, Western [ojw] (A language of Canada)
 * Ottawa [otw] (A language of Canada)
 * Potawatomi [pot] (A language of United States)
 * Unclassified (1)
 * Lumbee [lmz] (A language of United States)
 * Ritwan (2)
 * Wiyot [wiy] (A language of United States)
 * Yurok [yur] (A language of United States)

External resources

 *

title: WikiLang/Algic


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WikiLang/Algonquian

Algonquian languages are a family of indigenous languages of North America that are part of the Algic languages family. The Algonquian family is divided into three main geographic groups: Plains, Central and Eastern. However, only Eastern Algonquian is a true genetic subgroup, the others being only geographical divisions (i.e. the languages were spoken in the same area, they are not more related to each another than languages from another groups). The Algonquian family includes around 30 languages.

Eastern Algonquian
See detailed page: Eastern Algonquian

Eastern Algonquian languages are indigenous to the Atlantic coast of Canada and United States and the regions immediately inland from it. Prior to European contact it included at least 17 languages. On those, Mi'kmaq and Malecite-Passamaquoddy languages are the only two with a relatively appreciable number of speakers today. Some others still have a few speakers, but most Eastern Algonquian languages are extinct.

See the detailed page for the list of Eastern Algonquian languages.

Central Algonquian
Central Algonquian languages include:
 * Cree languages
 * Atikamekw
 * East Cree
 * Northern East Cree
 * Southern East Cree
 * Innu
 * Moose Cree
 * Naskapi
 * Plains Cree
 * Swampy Cree
 * Woods Cree
 * Fox
 * Kickapoo
 * Mascouten (extinct and unattested)
 * Menominee
 * Miami-Illinois
 * Ojibwe languages
 * Algonquin
 * Chippewa
 * Central Ojibwe
 * Eastern Ojibwe
 * Northern Ojibwe
 * Oji-Cree
 * Ottawa
 * Western Ojibwe
 * Potawatomi
 * Sauk
 * Shawnee

Plains Algonquian
Plains Algonquian languages are indigenous to the Great Plains of Northern United States and Southern Canada. Within the Algonquian languages family, Plains Algonquian languages are the ones that diverged the most from the common ancestor, Proto-Algonquian.

Plains Algonquian languages include:
 * Arapahoan languages
 * Arapho
 * Besawunena (extinct)
 * Gros Ventre
 * Ha'anahawunena (extinct)
 * Nawathinehena (extinct)
 * Blackfoot
 * Cheyenne

Revitalization projects
Wampanoag language

title: WikiLang/Algonquian


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WikiLang/Antarctica

There are no languages native to Antarctica.

Other projects

 * Antarctica article on English Wikipedia

Portal

 * Back to Main page

title: WikiLang/Antarctica


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WikiLang/Asia

Asia includes six main regions: Central Asia (blue on map), East Asia (yellow/orange), Middle East (brown), Russia and the Caucasus (purple), South Asia (green) and Southeast Asia (red). The main majority languages of this continent

South Korea

 * Jeju language
 * ... (table)

Indonesia

 * There are 10 countries in SE Asia, with Indonesia as the most linguistically-diverse country (see Language in Southeast Asia). There are more than 700 languages in this region alone, and many of them does not have their languages documented.

Philippines

 * There are some 130 to 195 languages spoken in the Philippines, depending on the method of classification. Almost all are Malayo-Polynesian languages native to the archipelago (see Languages of the Philippines). A number of Spanish-influenced creole varieties generally called Chavacano along with some local varieties of Chinese are also spoken in certain communities. The 1987 constitution designates Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, as the national language and an official language along with English. Filipino is regulated by Commission on the Filipino Language and serves as a lingua franca used by Filipinos of various ethnolinguistic backgrounds.

Portal

 * Back to Main page

title: WikiLang/Asia


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WikiLang/Atikamekw

Atikamekw is a language spoken by the Aboriginal nation of the same name in Quebec, Canada. The language status is "developing" with approximately 6,000 speakers. The majority language in Atikamekw communities is French, but Atikamekw is the mother language of 95% of the members of the nation's communities and some communities have even 100% members that have Atikamekw as a mother tongue. Some people, mostly elders, are monolingual Atikamekw. It is one of the most vibrant of the Native American languages in Canada today. The average age of Atikamekw speakers is 21 years, the lowest in Canada. However French is used for the education starting at the second cycle of elementary school. French is also used for "modern activities" such as television and Internet. Many Atikamekw speakers use French at work and some also speak English. There is an "Institut linguistique atikamekw" (ILA) that is responsible to standardize and promote the language.

Atikamekw is a language part of the macrolanguage Cree, but is different from other Cree languages and dialects in that it has a lot of borrowed words from Ojibwe. Another important difference is that Atikamekw is the only Alonguian language to use the letter "r" of the latin alphabet.

Technical info

 * Language family: Algic languages/Algonquian languages/Cree languages
 * Regions: Quebec, Canada
 * Number of speakers: approx. 5,900
 * Script(s): Latin alphabet (LTR)
 * Majority language(s): French

Writing systems
Although Atikemekw is part of the Cree language family, it doesn't use the Canadian Unified Syllabics. It uses the latin alphabet. Atikamekw has 11 consonants and 4 vowels.

Vowels with an accent represents the long vowels. However in the written language accents are usually not used in Atikamekw. Vowels a, i, o can be either short or long while the vowel e is always long.

Other articles

 * Algonquian languages
 * Canada

Portal

 * Atikamekw Portal

Other projects

 * Wikipedia in Atikamekw
 * Atikamekw language's article on English Wikipedia
 * Atikamekw language's article on French Wikipedia

title: WikiLang/Atikamekw


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WikiLang/Atikamekw/Portal

Atikamekw

title: WikiLang/Atikamekw/Portal


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WikiLang/Atikamekw/Animals

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Atikamekw language. It lists a sample of animal names in Atikamekw with their English translation.

Portal

 * WikiLang/Atikamekw/Portal

title: WikiLang/Atikamekw/Animals


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WikiLang/Blackfoot/Animals

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Blackfoot language. It lists a sample of animal names in Blackfoot with their English translation.

Portal

 * WikiLang/Blackfoot/Portal

title: WikiLang/Blackfoot/Animals


text:
WikiLang/Blackfoot/Counting

Blackfoot language uses a decimal numeral system and uses the arab numbers as numeric symbols, the same way English do.

Portal

 * WikiLang/Blackfoot/Portal

title: WikiLang/Blackfoot/Counting


text:
WikiLang/Blackfoot/Portal

Blackfoot

title: WikiLang/Blackfoot/Portal


text:
WikiLang/Blackfoot/Writing systems

Originally, the Blackfoot language used a syllabary, but, nowadays the Latin alphabet is more and more used. It had its own syllabary developed in the 1880s, but it also later used the Plains Cree syllabary.

Blackfoot syllabary
The Blackfoot syllabary had been developed by John Williams Tims, an Anglican missionary, between 1883 and 1895. It was based on the Ojibwe syllabary developed by James Evans.

Unlike letters of an alphabet, each character in a syllabary represents a syllable. For example, the syllable "pa" written in Latin alphabet uses two letters, "p" and "a", while in the Blackfoot syllabary this syllable is represented by only one character.

...

Plains Cree syllabary
See Plains Cree Writing systems for more details.

...

Latin alphabet
...

Portal

 * WikiLang/Blackfoot/Portal

title: WikiLang/Blackfoot/Writing systems


text:
WikiLang/Canada

The majority languages in Canada are English and French, they are also the two official languages of the country. English is the official language de jure or de facto of most provinces, while French is the official language in Quebec, and New Brunswick has both languages as official languages (Manitoba also has some official reconnaissance of French).

The English spoken in Canada follow the rules of the British English, but is orally closer to the American English while having its own distinct particularities. On the other side, French in Canada is very different from the French spoken elsewhere in the world. There are two main distinctive categories of French in Canada: Quebec French and Acadian French, respectively spoken in Quebec and in the Atlantic provinces. Both have their own particularities and have kept many aspects of the French that was spoken at the time of colonization during the 17th and 18th centuries that have been abandoned in Europe. The "chiac" is a mix of Acadian French and English spoken in New Brunswick. There is also several communities of French speakers in Ontario called Franco-ontariens that speak a French influenced by English at different levels from a community to another. Some French minority communities also exist throughout the rest of Canada.

However, prior to European colonization of the North American continent, the vast lands of Canada were the territories of many Amerindians and Inuits nations. It also saw the development of the Métis nation, a nation from French and Cree descendants that speak Michif, a mix of Cree and French. Western Canada also saw the Bungi language, a creole of Scottish English influenced by Scottish Gaelic, Cree and Ojibwe, but it is most likely extinct today.

Knowing the exact number of Aboriginal languages across Canada is almost impossible especially since many Natives speak English or French as a mother tongue and most of them have only a limited passive knowledge of their ancestral languages. The task is even more difficult since the majority of languages has many dialects. Ethnologue lists 63 languages for Canada. There are only three indigenous languages of Canada that are not threatened or endangered: Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibwe. Below is the most exhaustive list of indigenous languages of Canada that are not considered dead.

Languages of Canada with a language community on Wikilang

 * Atikamekw
 * Blackfoot
 * Mi'kmaq

List of indigenous languages of Canada
Note: This list only includes languages that are still existing today (i.e. languages with living speakers) that are indigenous to Canada (although some are also present in the United States).

Revitalization projects
...

Other projects

 * English Wikipedia:
 * Languages of Canada
 * List of endangered languages in Canada
 * Indigenous languages of the Americas

title: WikiLang/Canada


text:
WikiLang/Constructed languages

Constructed languages are languages that are created artificially by one or more people.

title: WikiLang/Constructed languages


text:
WikiLang/Eastern Algonquian

Eastern Algonquian languages are a subgroup of the Algonquian languages family, itself a part of the Algic languages family indigenous to the East coast of Canada and United States and the region immediately inland from it. At the time of contact with Europeans there were at least 17 languages part of the Eastern Algonquian subgroup. Today, most of them are extinct.

List of languages

 * Abenaki languages
 * Eastern Abenaki (nearly extinct, part of revival programs)
 * Western Abenaki (extinct in 1993)
 * Carolina Algonquian (extinct)
 * Delaware languages
 * Munsee
 * Unami (extinct)
 * Etchemin (extinct)
 * Loup A (extinct)
 * Loup B (extinct)
 * Lumbee (extinct)
 * Mahican (extinct)
 * Malecite-Passamaquoddy
 * Massachusett (revived in 1993)
 * Mi'kmaq
 * Mohegan-Pequot (extinct)
 * Nanticoke (extinct)
 * Narragansett (extinct)
 * Pamlico (extinct)
 * Powhatan (extinct)
 * Quiripi (extinct)

Revitalization projects
...

title: WikiLang/Eastern Algonquian


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WikiLang/Endangered languages

Endangered languages are those language where linguists estimate a possible menace to become extinct. Endangered languages mostly struggle to be learned by children or that it is given from one generation to the next one which means that within some generation the language may die. Currently, there are a lot of languages that are considered to be endangered. If one faces the fact that 90% of all languages are just spoken by 10% of the world's population and 10% of the languages are spoken by 90% of the population the dimensions and relations speak for themselves. So, 50-90% of the languages are endangered; some of them are highly endangered as there are only some or sometimes only one speaker(s) remains. If they decease the whole language dies. In opposition to extinct languages an endangered language can be revitalised more easily for there is still a (mostly small) community. This is the point where Wikilang shows up. We offer the possibility for every language community to use this page to build up projects to revitalise, reinforce and/or develop their language. For us the extinction of languages and the decreasing language diversity are a big threat to the world's culture which can be somehow stopped or prevented.

title: WikiLang/Endangered languages


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WikiLang/Europe

In ancient history, there were presumably a variety of language families spoken in Europe. However, today, the vast majority are Indo-European. Sub-families of Indo-European spoken in Europe are: Germanic, Balto-Slavonic, Italic, Greek, Celtic, and others. In addition to the Indo-European languages there are also the non-Indo-European language family Finno-Urgic and the Basque language.

Living languages
These are all living languages spoken in Europe.

Eastern Europe
Languages currently spoken in Eastern Europe are:
 * Belarussian (in Belarus)
 * Czech (in the Czech Republic)
 * Estonian (in Estonia)
 * Hungarian (in Hungary and Romania)
 * Latvian (in Latvia)
 * Latgalian
 * Lithuanian (in Lithuania)
 * Aukštaitian (Highland)
 * Samogitian (Lowland)
 * Polish (in Poland)
 * Greater Polish
 * Lesser Polish
 * Masovian
 * Silesian
 * Romanian (in Romania)
 * Russian (in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus)
 * Sami (in Finland and Russia, also Norway and Sweden)
 * many dialects/languages
 * Slovak (in Slovakia)
 * Ukrainian (in Ukraine)

Northern Europe

 * Danish (in Denmark and the Faroe Islands)
 * Faroese (in the Faroe Islands)
 * Finnish (in Finland)
 * Icelandic (in Iceland)
 * Norwegian (in Norway)
 * Sami (in Finland, Norway, and Sweden)
 * Swedish (in Sweden and Finland)

Southern Europe
Languages currently spoken in Southern Europe are:
 * Armenian (in Armenia)
 * Basque (in Spain)
 * Catalan (in Spain)
 * Croation (in Croatia)
 * German (in Italy)
 * Italian (in Italy)
 * Greek (in Greece)
 * Lombard (in Italy)
 * Maltese (in Malta)
 * Portuguese (in Portugal)
 * Serbian (in Serbia)
 * Sicilian (in Italy)
 * Spanish (in Spain)

Western Europe
Languages currently spoken in Western Europe are:
 * Basque (in France and Spain)
 * Breton (in France)
 * Dutch (in the Netherlands and Belgium)
 * Catalan (in France)
 * Cornish (in England)
 * English (in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales)
 * French (in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland)
 * Franco-Provençal languages/dialects (in France, Italy, and Switzerland)
 * Frisian languages (in the Netherlands and Germany)
 * German (in Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, and Luxembourg)
 * High German languages/dialects (in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland)
 * Irish Gaelic (in Ireland)
 * Italian (in Switzerland)
 * Low German languages/dialects (in Germany and the Netherlands)
 * Manx Gaelic (on the Isle of Man)
 * Romansh (in Switzerland)
 * Scots (in Scotland)
 * Scottish Gaelic (in Scotland)
 * Walloon (in Belgium)
 * Welsh (in Wales)

Not area-specific

 * Yiddish (many countries)

Dead languages
These are documented languages that were once spoken in Europe. There are certainly many other now-dead languages once spoken in Europe that were not documented. Languages that died without transitioning into another language, are marked (d) for "dead"; languages that died by or after transitioning into another stage, are marked (t) for "transitioned" or "transformed". The approximate date of death is given where possible, and broad language family groups that the languages belong to.
 * Andalusian Arabic (d) (1600AD) (Semitic)
 * Classical Greek (t) (300BC) (Greek)
 * Classical Latin (t) (200AD) (Italic)
 * Crimean Gothic (d) (1900AD) (Germanic)
 * Gothic (t) (700AD-800AD?) (Germanic)
 * Koine Greek (t) (300AD) (Greek)
 * Late Latin (t) (500AD) (Italic)
 * Marsi (150BC) (Italic)
 * Middle English (t) (1400AD) (Germanic)
 * Old Church Slavonic (t) (1000AD) (Balto-Slavic)
 * Old English (t) (1100AD) (Germanic)
 * Old Irish (t) (900AD) (Celtic)
 * Old Welsh (t) (1100) (Celtic)
 * Oscan (d) (100BC) (Italic)
 * South Picene (d) (400BC) (Italic)
 * Umbrian (d) (100BC) (Italic)
 * Volscian (300BC?) (Italic)

title: WikiLang/Europe


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WikiLang/Extinct languages

Extinct languages have no remaining speakers, native or non-native. However, that doesn't mean those languages cannot be reclaimed and revitalized. Projects have occurred in the past where an extinct language have been revitalized by a community with the help of linguists, using existing documentation and archives.

title: WikiLang/Extinct languages


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WikiLang/German/Animals

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the German language. It lists a sample of animal names in German with their English translation.

Portal

 * WikiLang/German/Portal

title: WikiLang/German/Animals


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WikiLang/German/Counting

German language uses a decimal numeral system and uses the Arab numbers as numeric symbols, the same way English do. Two-digit numbers ending with 0 will end in -zig (e.g., achtzig would translate into eighty.) For a trillion (1,000,000,000,000), a quadrillion, and a quintillion, these words would translate to billion, billiarde, and trillion respectively. German numbers are sometimes one word, not more than one word. For example, zweihundertfünfzig is used as the number 250 in German, but the single word can be split in three parts, like the English word form of that number.

Portal

 * WikiLang/German/Portal

title: WikiLang/German/Counting


text:
WikiLang/German/Portal

German

title: WikiLang/German/Portal


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WikiLang/German language

The German language (German: Deutsch) is a West Germanic Language. It is the official language(s) of Germany, Austria, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg. There are at least 78,245,280 speakers of that language.

title: WikiLang/German language


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WikiLang/Germanic languages

The Germanic languages are an Indo-European family of languages spoken by the Germanic peoples. The common ancestor of all Germanic languages is Proto-Germanic, although there may never have been any one Proto-Germanic language, spoken about mid-1st millennium BC in northern Europe. All Germanic languages are characterized by some unique features, including the consonant shift called Grimm's law. Germanic languages are first mentioned in history after some Germanic tribes moved south to north-central Europe and came into contact with the Roman Empire.

The most widely spoken Germanic languages today are English and German, with English having possibly over or near 400 million native speakers, and German over 100 million. Also, English is an important international trade language and the most used language of the internet, with many millions of second-language speakers. They belong to the West Germanic branch, which also includes the next most spoken Germanic language after German, Dutch, with 23 million speakers, and then Afrikaans, with 7 million speakers.

Living North Germanic languages are Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which together have about 20 million speakers. There are no known living East Germanic languages, although one ancient one is attested - Gothic. There are also many other living, less spoken Germanic languages, including Frisian, Low German, and Scots.

title: WikiLang/Germanic languages


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Transwiki:WikiLang/Gothic alphabet/𐌰

 The Gothic alphabet  𐌰 | 𐌱 | 𐌲 | ► | ►►

The letter 𐌰 is the first letter of the Gothic alphabet. Its numeric value is 1 and the letter derrives from the Greek letter A.

It is normally pronounced as a short a /a/, or in some cases as a long a /aː/.

The 𐌰 is often part of a digraph, as in aí or aú. Their pronounciation is not quite proven yet but mostly it is said for aí to be a short /ɛ/, and for aú to be a short and open /ɔ/. They should not be confounded with ái and áu. In the original Gothic script, there is no acute used to distinguish aí/aú from ái/áu; this distinction is just made in the transcription. Those with the acute on the a are used to describe that there are two seperated sounds /a, i/ or /a, u/.

In the [//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Vindobonensis_795 Codex Vindobonensis 795] the Gothic letters are derrived with their names. The name of 𐌰 is according to that codex aza which was later reconstructed as Gothic ans for "god" or asks for "ash". The Proto Germanic name is reconstructed as *ansuz.

title: Transwiki:WikiLang/Gothic alphabet/𐌰


text: WikiLang/Hello in every language

title: WikiLang/Hello in every language


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Transwiki:WikiLang/Jeju

Jeju language

Jeju is a critically endangered language and one of the two surviving Koreanic languages.

title: Transwiki:WikiLang/Jeju


text:
WikiLang/Jeju Animals

Jeju Words for animals

Note: The following table uses pronounciation systems for Korean, which may not be suitable for Jeju.

Portal

 * WikiLang/Jeju Portal

title: WikiLang/Jeju Animals


text:
WikiLang/Jeju Phonology

Jeju Phonology

Consonants: Voiced bilabial stop (/b/), tensed voiced bilabial stop, voiced alveolar stop (/d/), tensed voiced alveolar stop , voiceless alveolar stop (/t/), voiceless alveolar sibilant (/s/), tensed voiceless alveolar sibilant , palatal approximant (/j/), tensed palatal approximant , voiceless alveolar affricate , voiced velar stop (/g/), tensed voiced velar stop , voiceless velar stop (/k/), voiceless glottal fricative (/h/), bilabial nasal (/m/), alveolar nasal (/n/), velar nasal (/ŋ/), alveolar lateral approximant (/l/), labio-velar approximant (/w/), velar approximant (/պ/)

Vowels: Close front unrounded vowel (/i/), close-mid front unrounded vowel (/e/), open-mid front unrounded vowel (/ɛ/), open-mid close back unrounded vowel (/ա/), open-mid back unrounded vowel (/ʌ/), open central unrounded vowel (/a/), close back rounded vowel (/u/), mid back rounded vowel (/o/), near-open central vowel (/ɐ/), close front rounded vowel (/y/)

Tenses exist in Jeju, but only serve to express the speaker's mood or differentiate between clauses and sentences.

Portal

 * WikiLang/Jeju Portal

title: WikiLang/Jeju Phonology


text:
WikiLang/Jeju Portal

Jeju

title: WikiLang/Jeju Portal


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WikiLang/Language revitalization

Language revitalization is exactly what WikiLang is trying to achieve. Endangered languages are likely to become extinct in the near future; language death is, especially for the language community, a great pity. In attempt to stop this from happening, this page offers a variety of possibilities to create and build up projects to help reinforce and revitalize a language. This should lead to the goal of a particular language gaining speakers, being spoken more often, and gaining more prestige. That is what revitalization helps to achieve.

title: WikiLang/Language revitalization


text:
WikiLang/List of general articles

 * Constructed languages
 * Endangered languages
 * Extinct languages
 * Language revitalization
 * Sign languages
 * Sprachausbau
 * Writing systems

title: WikiLang/List of general articles


text:
WikiLang/List of languages

 * Atikamekw
 * Blackfoot
 * Gothic
 * Jeju
 * Mi'kmaq
 * Old English
 * Plattdüütsch (Low German)
 * Southern Quechua

title: WikiLang/List of languages


text: WikiLang/Main Page

title: WikiLang/Main Page


text:
WikiLang/Main Page old

View this page in other languages
(nothing yet)

title: WikiLang/Main Page old


text: WikiLang/Map

title: WikiLang/Map


text: WikiLang/Map/Langs N.Amer.png

title: WikiLang/Map/Langs N.Amer.png


text: WikiLang/Map/Langs N.Amer.png/Full

title: WikiLang/Map/Langs N.Amer.png/Full


text: WikiLang/Map/North America

title: WikiLang/Map/North America


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WikiLang/Media

Here you can find a list of articles that report on the loss of languages, about language shift, the decreasing language diversity or engagements in terms of documentation of revitalisation. It shall document that it is a severe topic that is broadly identified as such by the media. We ask you to add articles if you stumble upon them that would fit to this topic. Thank you.

Articles

 * About the Ket language, Languages in Siberia and language loss in general, Silent Extinction: Language Loss Reaches Crisis Levels
 * The Livonian languages dies as Grizelda Kristina did so, too, in the age of 103, Death of a language: last ever speaker of Livonian passes away aged 103, Obituary: Last Speaker of Livonian Language Died Age 103
 * Revitalisation of Yurok which once only had 6 speakers, Revival of nearly extinct Yurok language is a success story
 * A Scots dialect dies out, Last native speaker of Scots dialect dies
 * The Bo language, some of the oldest language assumed to be 65.000 years of age, died together with Boa Sr, Last member of 65,000-year-old tribe dies, taking one of world's earliest languages to the grave
 * Last speaker of 'Kiksht' died at the age of 97, Last Fluent Speaker Of Oregon Tribal Language 'Kiksht' Dies

title: WikiLang/Media


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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq

Mi'kmaq or Mi'gmaq, also called Micmac, is a language spoken by the Aboriginal nation of the same name in Eastern Canada and United States. The language status is "threatened" with approximately 8,000 speakers. The majority language in Mi'kmaq's communities is English or French (in Quebec). The population of actual Mi'kmaq speakers is decreasing, most speakers being the elders of the communities. There is no monolingual Mi'kmaq speaker and Mi'kmaq is not the first language of the younger generations that speak Mi'kmaq.

Technical info

 * Language family: Algic languages/Algonquian languages
 * Regions: Eastern Canada (Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador) and United States (Maine and Massachusetts)
 * Number of speakers: approx. 8,100
 * Script(s): Latin alphabet (LTR)
 * Majority language(s): English (mostly) and French (some)

Writing systems
See detailed page: Mi'kmaq Orthographies

Today, Mi'kmaq is written with the latin alphabet. However, a Mi'kmaq hieroglyph writing system has been used in the past. Those hieroglyphs are partially from Native creation, making Mi'kmaq one of the few American languages to have a writing system pre-contact with the Europeans. However, those hieroglyphs were more pictographs used as visual memory aids than a real writing system.

Different orthographies exist to write in Mi'kmaq (see the table below). The most widely used is the Francis-Smith orthography, developed in 1974. It is used in Nova Scotia and it's the orthography used by the Mi'kmaq Grand Council. The Listuguj orthography is used in Quebec and is the same as the Francis-Smith except the "k" is replaced by "g". The Pacifique orthography has been developed in early 20th century by Father Pacifique, but it omits couple vowels. The Rand orthography, developed in late 19th century by Reverand Silas Tertius Rand, is not used anymore and is more complex (even more complex than the table below suggests as far as the number of vowels is concerned).

The main orthographies used to write Mi'kmaq today have an alphabet of six vowels and thirteen consonants. The vowels include five full vowels, that are represented with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) by [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u] and are respectively written "a", "e", "i", "o" and "u", and one reduced vowel represented by [ə] in IPA that is called the "schwa". The schwa is written by a barred-i, ɨ, in Francis-Smith orthography and by an apostrophe in the Listuguj orthography. However, since the location of the schwa in a word can be predictable for a Mi'kmaq speaker, it is not always written. There are twelve consonants plus the "i" which also serves as a consonant that sounds like the "y" in English, in Francis-Smith and Listuguj orthographies.

Borrowed words
Mi'kmaq language reflects contact with English and French languages. Many words that didn't exist in Mi'kmaq when Europeans began to commerce in North America are borrowed from French words. The conversion to the Catholic religion also had an influence on the Mi'kmaq language. Some examples of borrowed words are shown in the table below.

Mi'kmaq speakers at the time of contact with Europeans also developed words by analogy for new concepts, such as "wenjitia'm" which litteraly means "French-moose" for the word "cow" (cows have been imported on the North American continent by Europeans).

Animacy
See detailed page: Mi'kmaq Animacy

Mi'kmaq, like most Algonquian languages, uses "animacy" (animate or inanimate) to classify all nouns into two categories, the same way French and Spanish use "gender" (masculine or feminine) for example. Animate nouns are generally alive things such as people and animals and inanimate nouns are generally not alive things such as objects and places. However, there are a lot of exceptions. For example, gmu'jmin (raspberry) is an animate noun while aloqoman (grape) is an inanimate noun.

Animacy determines which ending the noun will take in its plural form. Generally, animate nouns take the ending "-k" or "-g" (depending of the orthography) and sometimes the ending "-q" while inanimate nouns generally take the ending "-l" and sometimes the ending "-n". The animacy of the subject also determines the ending of verbs.

In most Mi'kmaq dictionaries, the abreviations "n.a." and "n.i." are used for "noun animate" and "noun inanimate" respectively.

Person
See detailed page: Mi'kmaq Person and number

Person is a grammar concept that is used to know the relations between people, or objects, involved in a sentence. For example, in English there are three persons: first (I), second (you) and third (he/she/it and they). Mi'kmaq has five persons: first, second, third, fourth and zero (see the table below). The first, second and third persons are the same as in English. The fourth person is called "obviate" (see next section) and the zero person is used to refer to inanimate things.

Obviation
See detailed page: Mi'kmaq Obviation

Obviation is a grammar concept to distinguish different "third persons". In a sentence, if there are two animate third persons, the one being the object takes the obviate ending "-l", "-al" or "-tl". Since the order of the words in a sentence is not important in Mi'kmaq this help to keep track of who is the subject and who is the object in a sentence. For example, in the following sentence "the hunter" is the subject and "the deer" is the object: "The hunter shoots the deer.", so, in Mi'kmaq, the word "deer" takes the obviate ending. Plural nouns don't take any obviate ending.

Verbs also take obviate endings. For verbs, obviative endings are generally "-l" for singular and "-i" or sometimes "-a" for plural. For example, the verb "gesalatl" which means "he/she loves him/her" has the ending "-l" to mark a singular third person as being the object while the verb "gesalaji" which means "he/she loves them" has the ending "-i" to indicate that the object is plural.

Number
See detailed page: Mi'kmaq Person and number

In grammar, number is used to indicate how many people or things the subject of a verb encompasses. For example, English has two numbers: singular (I, you and he/she/it) and plural (we, you and they). Mi'kmaq has three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Singular is the same as English and refers to only one person. Dual is used for two people, equivalent to English "you two" for example, while plural refers to more than two. The dual number is only used with animate intransitive verbs, all other types of verbs have only singular and plural (so for those verbs, plural actually means more than one).

However, even if it is gramatically incorrect, more and more, orally, only the dual number is used even to refer to more than two and the plural number is almost not used, especially by the younger generations of Mi'kmaq speakers.

Counting
See detailed page: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Counting

Like English and French, the Mi'kmaq language uses the arab numbers for numeric symbols and uses a decimal numeral system. The numbers in the table below are only the roots, since different endings are used if the number is used to count animate or inanimate nouns. Generally, the ending "-ijik" or "-ijig" (depending of the orthography) is used for counting animate things while the ending "-kna'q" or "-gna'q" (depending of the orthography) is used to count inanimate things.

Other articles

 * Algonquian languages
 * Canada

Portal

 * Mi'kmaq Portal

Other projects

 * Mi'kmaq language's article on the English Wikipedia
 * Mi'kmaq test-Wikipedia in the Wikimedia Incubator

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq


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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Animals

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Mi'kmaq language. It lists a sample of animal names in Mi'kmaq with their English equivalent. The table also includes Mi'kmaq plural and fourth person forms.

Note: All names in the below table are in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details).

Portal

 * WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Animals


text:
WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Body parts

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Mi'kmaq language. It lists a sample of body part names in Mi'kmaq with their English equivalent. Since the words for body parts in Mi'kmaq change according to the person, all words in the table below are for the first person, meaning for example "my hand".

Note: All names in the below table are in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details).

Portal

 * WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Body parts


text:
WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Calendar

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Mi'kmaq language. It shows the words in Mi'kmaq for the seasons, the months of the year and the days of the week with their English equivalent.

Note: All words in the below tables are in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq orthographies for more details).

Portal

 * WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Calendar


text:
WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Colors

There is no adjectives per say in Mi'kmaq. The words in the table below are verbs meaning "He/she/it is black" (or another color). All verbs shown are for the third person and are singular.

Note: All words in the below table are in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details).

Portal

 * WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Colors


text:
WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Counting

Mi'kmaq language uses a decimal numeral system and uses the arab numbers as numeric symbols, the same way English and French do. Numbers take different endings depending if the things being counted are animate or inanimate. For 1 to 5, the endings are generally "-ijik" for animate and "-kl" for inanimate, while for 6 to 10, the word "te'sijik" is added for animate and the word "te'sɨkl" for inanimate (see the first table below).

Unless otherwise indicated, the numbers shown below are the roots without those endings. This page uses the Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details).

Firstly, the roots for numbers 0 to 9 are shown in the table below. The complete forms for animate and inanimate are also included.

For the tens, the ending "-iska'q" is added to the root from the table above for 10s to 50s while the word "te'siska'q" is added after the root from the table above for 60s to 90s as shown in the table below. Note that ten (10) is an exception where the word mtln is traditionnaly more used instead of newtiska'q, but both are correct.

For the numbers between the tens, the word "jel" and the root of the first table are added. The table below only shows 10 to 19, but the same can be applied for all other numbers up to 99. For example, 21 is "tapuiska'q jel ne'wt" and 62 is "asukom te'iska'q jel ta'pu".

The word for hundred (100) is "kaskimtlnaqn". For number between 100 and 199, the words "te'iska'q jel" and the number are added after "kaskimtlnaqn". For example, 102 is "kaskimtlnaqn te'iska'q jel ta'pu". For the 200s to 900s, the number of the hundreds is added before the word "kaskimtlnaqn". For example, 200 is "ta'pu kaskimtlnaqn". The same rule is followed for number between hundreds up to 999. For example, 405 is "ne'w kaskimtlnaqn te'iska'q jel na'n".

The word for thousand (1000) is "pituimtlnaqn" and the one for ten thousand (10,000) is "pituimtlnaqnepikatun". The same rule apply for thousands and ten thousands than the above rule for hundreds. For example, 1001 is "pituimtlnaqn te'sika'q jel ne'wt" and 10,001 is "pituimtlnaqnepikatun te'sika'q jel ne'wt". Note that "mtln te's" is also used to 10,000.

The word for one million is "kji-pituimtlnaqn".

Portal

 * WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Counting


text:
WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Currency

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Mi'kmaq language. Since the vast majority of Mi'kmaq speakers are in Canada, this page lists the Mi'kmaq words for the different denominations for Canadian money.

Note: All names in the below table are in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq orthographies for more details).

Portal

 * WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

title: WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Currency


text:
WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Dialects

Listuguj
The Listuguj dialect, also called Restigouche, is from the Gaspé Peninsula in Eastern Quebec. It uses the orthography of the same name (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details).

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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Food

This article is part of the vocabulary section of the Mi'kmaq language. It lists a sample of words for food in Mi'kmaq with their English equivalent.

Note: All words in the below table are in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq orthographies for more details).

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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Grammar

Note: all the words in the below tables are in Francis-Smith orthography, for more details, see Mi'kmaq Orthographies.

Word types
Like other Algonquian languages, Mi'kmaq language has three types of words: nouns, verbs and particles. The particles' type includes the pronouns.

Nouns
Mi'kmaq language has two genders for nouns which is called "animacy" for Algonquian languages. Those are "animate" and "inanimate". Animate nouns include persons, animals, spirits and large trees as well as some objects. While it is straightforward for persons and animals, it is not the case for all words. For example, in Mi'kmaq, the calf of the leg is an animate noun while the thigh is inanimate and a raspberry is animate while a strawberry is inanimate.

Verbs
In Mi'kmaq verbs are either transitive or intransitive and both can be animate or inanimate. The animacy of intransitive verbs depends on the animacy of the subject they refer to. For example, the Mi'kmaq verb "she moves fast" is intransitive animate while the verb "it moves fast" is intransitive inanimate. For transitive verbs, it is the animacy of the object that determines the animacy of the verb. For example, the verb "I pull him" is transitive animate while the verb "I pull it" is transitive inanimate. Note that we assume here that "it" is an inanimate Mi'kmaq word, but remember that some objects are also animate words.

Particles
Particles is the third word type in Algonquian languages, including Mi'kmaq. Since pronouns in Mi'kmaq are not inflected, they are considered as the same word type as particles.

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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Lesson 1: Greetings

Below are samples of simple conversations with their English translations demonstrating the basic greetings in Mi'kmaq.

Note: The Mi'kmaq text in the below table is in Francis-Smith orthography (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details).

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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Orthographies

Mi'kmaq language used different orthographies throughout its history. Today, two orthographies are principally used: Francis-Smith and Listuguj.

Francis-Smith
The Francis-Smith orthography has been developed in the 1970s by Doug Smith and Bernard Francis. It is the most used orthography today, especially in Nova Scotia.

It has 5 short vowels, a, e, i, o and u, and 5 long vowels, a', e', i', o' and u'. It has 11 consonants: j, k, l, m, n, p, q, s, t, kw, qw, and i can also act as a consonant.

Listuguj
The Listuguj (or Restigouche) orthography is mainly used in Quebec. The main difference from the Francis-Smith orthography is that the "k" letter is replaced by "g".

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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Phonology

The Mi'kmaq language's phonology consists of 6 short vowels and 5 long vowels as well as 11 consonants. In Mi'kmaq, each letter represents a sound.

The tables below show the Mi'kmaq characters in Francis-Smith and Listuguj orthographies (see Mi'kmaq Orthographies for more details) and their pronunciation using the symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Consonants
When consonants are doubled, they must be pronounced with double length, as if there were a word break between the two consonants. Also note that in Mi'kmaq, the consonants l, m and n can also form syllabic peaks like vowels. As such, words don't need to have a vowel, as it is the case with "kmtm" (or "gmtm" depending on the orthography) meaning "mountain" for example.

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WikiLang/Mi'kmaq Portal

Mi'kmaq

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WikiLang/News

 * Livonian: The Finnic language Livonian died out as the last speaker, Grizelda Kristina, died at the age of 103.
 * Yurok: Down to only 6 speakers at one point, the Yurok language is now taught in Northern California schools. Now, over 300 people have at least a basic knowledge of Yurok. Los Angeles Times
 * Cromarty fishfolk: The last speaker of the Scots dialect named Cromarty fishfolk, Bobby Hogg, passed away in October 2012; with him died the dialect. CNN
 * Bo: The last speaker of the Bo language, Boa Sr, died in early February 2010, bringing with her a 65,000-year-old language to the grave. Mail Online

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WikiLang/North America

North America includes six main regions: Canada, Caribbean, Central America, Greenland, Mexico and United States of America. The main majority languages of this continent are English (mainly USA and Canada), Spanish (Mexico, most of Central America and some of Caribbean) and French (Canada, especially Quebec, Haiti, Guadeloupe).

Before colonization from European nations, North America was inhabited by several Aboriginal nations speaking a wide variety of languages from several different language families, most of them being long forgotten now, but a lot are still known by a few and are currently in danger of extinction. In fact, only a small number of those Aboriginal languages are not considered endangered.

Canada
See detailed page: Canada

Canada has two official languages: English and French. French is the official language in the province of Quebec. The province of New Brunswick has both French and English as official languages. All other provinces have English as official language, but French has some legal recognition in Ontario and Manitoba.

Knowing the exact number of Aboriginal languages across Canada is almost impossible especially since many Natives speak English or French as a mother tongue and most of them have only a limited passive knowledge of their ancestral languages. The task is even more difficult since the majority of languages has many dialects. Ethnologue lists 63 languages for Canada. There are 74 different indigenous languages with their own ISO 639-3 code that have alive speakers in Canada. There are only three indigenous languages of Canada that are not considered threatened or endangered: Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibwe.

Caribbean
See detailed page: Caribbean

Central America
See detailed page: Central America

Greenland
See detailed page: Greenland

Mexico
See detailed page: Mexico

United States of America
See detailed page: United States of America

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WikiLang/Oceania

Oceania is divided in six main regions: Australia (orange on the map), Melanesia (green), Micronesia (pink), New Zealand (blue), Papua New Guinea (dark blue) and Polynesia (purple). The majority language in Oceania is English.

Oceania has many indigenous languages, though many have been replaced by English and other European languages. Melanesia and Australia is home to over 5,000 languages alone, with one of the greatest linguistic diversity in the world.

In comparison, Polynesia lacks great diversity, because they are all descendants of a migrant community from southern China (the proto-Austronesians) and have the same language family.

New Zealand
Historically native languages to New Zealand are:
 * Maori (with various dialects)
 * Moriori (closely related to Maori)

Official languages of New Zealand are:
 * New Zealand English
 * Maori
 * New Zealand Sign Language

Papua New Guinea
With over 850 languages, Papua New Guinea holds a tenth of the world's 20,000 languages, despite its small population. Most are undocumented, especially as many of its users have not had contact with non-Papuan peoples. Papua New Guinea has 3 official languages: English, Hiri Motu and Tok Pisin. Tok Pisin language is the most spoken in the country and is used as the local lingua franca, it is an English-based creole.

Polynesia
Historically native languages to Polynesia are:
 * Cook Islands Maori
 * Niuean
 * Picairn
 * Samoan
 * Tongan

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WikiLang/Old English

Old English or Anglo-Saxon was the West Germanic language spoken in England from about 500 AD, after the arrival of several Germanic tribes (mostly the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes) to southern Great Britain, until about 1100 AD, shortly after the Norman Conquest. It died by evolving into Middle English, which had a simpler declension and conjugation system and somewhat Frenchified orthography, and which also borrowed a significant number of Norman-French words due to Norman-French being the language of the aristocracy.

Technical Info

 * Language family: Indo-European languages/Germanic languages/West-Germanic languages
 * Region: Was spoken in southern Britain, approximately modern-day England (but also the south of modern-day Scotland, and probably not in the entirety of modern-day Cornwall)
 * Number of speakers: Currently probably thousands of (mostly?) academics with some knowledge; much fewer with any kind of fluency; no known native speakers
 * Scripts: Insular Latin alphabet (with the addition of ash, thorn, eth, and wynn to fill some gaps); small amount written in Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc runes
 * Majority language: Itself (languages of neighbouring nations included Old Welsh, Old Gaelic, Old Norse, and amongst scholars Latin)

Writing system
The vast majority of Old English manuscripts were written in a modified version of the Insular Latin script, with the additional letters ash (Æ, æ), eth (Ð, ð), thorn (Þ, þ), and wynn (Ƿ, ƿ) (the last two were borrowed from the fuþorc). Unlike most modern written Old English, most Old English texts did not have long vowels explicitly marked. There are a few examples of long vowels in Old English being represented with doubled letters and possibly also by having an acute-accent-like mark above the vowel (though the latter method was not clearly definitely used to mark long vowels). In modern editions of Old English texts, double-u is usually used instead of wynn, and long vowels are usually marked with macrons. Also, palatalization is sometimes marked (see paragraph below).

It is most likely that the Anglo-Saxons wrote very phonologically (as did most European languages that had a writing system at the time), which does help in attempts to reconstruct the language's phonology. However, their writing system seems to largely represent a pre-palatalization pronunciation, while we know that the palatalization phenomenon in Old English was already complete by the time Middle English came around (because they explicitly recognized palatalization in Middle English orthography). In other words, in the latter Old English stage at least, the writing did not necessarily recognize all significant features of the phonology (possibly because writing standards tend to lag behind spoken speech); but there is certainly some evidence in latter Old English writing that palatalization had already taken place or was taking place. But there are other, etymological reasons to believe that at least a "germ" of the palatalization phenomenon was present in Old English from the time of the first written records – perhaps the palatalized forms earlier on did not sound different enough to the Old English ear to be recognized as separate in writing.

Borrowed words
Before their arrival to Britain, various Germanic tribes had contact with the Roman empire, and borrowed a small few words into their own language or languages. After arrival, to Britain, they borrowed and adapted many Celtic place-names, but borrowed very few everyday words from the Celtic languages apart from that. After the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons, quite a few (possibly several hundred) words were borrowed from Greco-Latin, especially for church-related areas.

Some Anglo-Saxon writers seem to show a tendency to calque words. For example, the word efenniht from "equinox" – "equal night". A few seemed to be particularly creative in translating foreign words with totally new neologisms, for example "Sundorhālgan" ("separate holy people") for "Pharisee". In Anglo-Saxon poetic tradition, as in other ancient Germanic languages, poets would regularly make up neologisms (called today "kennings") "on-the-fly" to help fit a particular idea into their poetic meter.

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WikiLang/Plattdüütsch Grammar

Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English, and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects.

Nouns
Low German declension has only two morphologically marked noun cases, where accusative and dative together constitute an oblique case, and the genitive case has been lost.

Dative dän
In most modern dialects, the nominative and oblique cases are primarily distinguished only in the singular of masculine nouns. In very few Low German dialects, the genitive case is distinguished as well (e.g. varieties of Mennonite Low German.) It is marked in the masculine gender by changing the masculine definite determiner 'de' from de to dän. By contrast, German distinguishes four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. So, for example, the definite article of the masculine singular has the forms: der (nom), den (acc), des (gen), and dem (dat.)  Thus case marking in Low German is simpler than German's.

Verbs
In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. Verb conjugation for person is only differentiated in the singular. There are five tenses in Low German: present tense, preterite, perfect, and pluperfect, and in Mennonite Low German the present perfect which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example "Ekj sie jekomen", "I am come", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.

Unlike Dutch, German, and southern Low German, the northern dialects form the participle without the prefix ge-, like the Scandinavian languages, Frisian and English. Compare to the German past participle geschlafen. This past participle is formed with the auxiliary verbs hebben "to have" and ween/wesen/sien "to be". It should be noted that e- is used instead of ge- in most Southern (below Groningen in the Netherlands) dialects, though often not when the past participle ends with -en or in a few oft-used words like west (been).

The reason for the two conjugations shown in the plural is regional: dialects in the central area use -t while the dialects in East Frisia and the dialects in Mecklenburg and further east use -en. The -en suffix is of Dutch influence.

There are 26 verb affixes.

There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language. It is formed with ween (to be), the preposition an (at) and "dat" (the/it).

1 Instead of 'to wesen, wean (to be) Saxon uses doon (to do) to make to present continious. 2 Many see the 'n as an old dative ending of dat which only occurs when being shortened after prepositions. This is actually the most frequently-used form in colloquial Low German. 3 This form is archaic and mostly unknown to Low German speakers. It is the same pattern as in the English example "I am making." The present participle has the same form as the infinitive: maken is either "to make" or "making".

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WikiLang/Plattdüütsch Numbers

=Low German Numbers=

Note: This table uses a Low German orthography that is more orientated at the language's features rules than the orthography of Sass does.

Annotations: 1 One sees that in English, Low German and partly in Dutch the first number in "thirteen" and "fifteen" changes, the r changes places due to r-metathesis in "thirteen" and the vowel in "fifteen" becomes short. Furthermore German has evolved quite differently through the second sound shift, so its forms have become quite distinct to the other varieties shown here which all have together that they weren't affected by that sound shift.

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WikiLang/Plattdüütsch Orthography

Low German is written using the Latin alphabet. There is no true standard orthography, only several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines, those in the Netherlands mostly based on Dutch orthography, and those in Germany mostly based on German orthography. There is a standard orthography which was invented by "Sass". It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level. Interregional and international communication is severely hampered by this. Most of these systems aim at representing the phonetic (allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations but trying to conserve many etymological spellings. Furthermore, many writers follow guidelines only roughly. This adds numerous idiosyncratic and often inconsistent ways of spelling to the already existing great orthographic diversity.

In 2011, writers of the Dutch Low Saxon Wikipedia developed a spelling that would be suitable and applicable to all varieties of Low Saxon in the Netherlands, although the semi-official dialect institutes have not picked up on this, or indicated that they believed that yet another writing system will only further confuse dialect writers, rather than suit them. The new spelling was introduced to the Dutch Low Saxon Wikipedia, to unify the spelling of categories, templates and comparable source code writings.

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Transwiki:WikiLang/Plattdüütsch Phonology

Consonants
Since there is no standard Low German, there is no standard Low German consonant system. The table shows the consonant system of North Saxon, a West Low Saxon dialect.


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WikiLang/Plattdüütsch Portal

Plattdüütsch engl. Low German / Low Saxon

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WikiLang/Quechua languages

The Quechua languages are a native South American language family spoken mostly around the Andes, all from a common proto-language. Together, they are sometimes considered as one language, and under such a definition they are the most spoken language of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, with probably between 8 and 10 million speakers. It well known as the language of the Incas, and Quechua variants have official status in Bolivia and Peru. The most spoken variant of Quechua is Southern Quechua, which includes Bolivian Quechua and Cuzco Quechua. Northern Quechua is spoken in northern Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador, where it has a significant number of speakers.

Although Quechua was spread further in the Incan Empire, it had already spread far before that. It was also thrived after the Spanish conquest of the 16th century as a kind of general language for communivation between the Spanish and the indigenous population, including being used by the Catholic Church for evangelization efforts. However, use by the church ended in the 18th century when it was banned from public use in Peru in reponse to the Tupac Amaru II rebellion. Today it is mostly spoken in rural areas.

The oldest written records of the language are the writings of Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540, and published his book Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560.

Today, even though it is a co-official language with Spanish in Peru and Bolivia, there is relatively little written material, meaning that it is mostly an oral language. Recently, Quechua has been introduced as part of intercultural bilingual education in Bolivia, Exuador, and Peru, which is only reaching parts of the Quechua-speaking population. Quechua continues to decline in usage, being replaced by Spanish for the purpose of social advancement.

Influences
In the time of the Empire of the Incas, Southern Quechua's grammar, vocabulary, and possibly phobology were heavily influenced by Aymara.

Quechua has borrowed several hundred, at least, words from Spanish, even borrowing some grammatically important common words. Spanish, in turn, has also borrowed a notable number of words from Quechua, some of which have found their way into English, for example "llama" and "viscacha".

Many native American languages have been significantly influenced by Quechua

External resources

 * Southern Quechua Wikipedia
 * Freelang Dictionary
 *
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WikiLang/Sign languages

Sign languages use visually transmitted patterns to convey meanings, instead of sounds like spoken languages. Signs languages are specifically developed in deaf communities, which also includes interpreters as well as friends and families of deaf people. Hundreds of sign languages are used around the World, some having legal recognition.

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WikiLang/South America

South America includes 12 countries and two non-sovereign entities: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Falkland Islands (United Kingdom), French Guiana (France), Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela. Spanish is the official language in all South American countries except Brazil, Guyana, Suriname French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, and is spoken even in country that are not historically Spanish. Portugese is the official language in Brazil. Official languages in Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are respectively English, Dutch and French. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands.

Before colonization from European nations, South America was inhabited by several Aboriginal nations speaking a wide variety of languages from different language families, most of them being long forgotten now, but a lot are still known by few and are currently in danger of extinction. At the time of European contact, it is estimated that 1,500 languages were spoken in South America; only 350 of those languages are still spoken today. Quechua is the native language family with the most speakers.

The classification and studies of indigenous languages in South America is not very advanced compared to the classification of North American indigenous languages. As such, it is difficult to determine what languages are related to each other to develop proper language families.

List of indigenous languages
This list only includes languages with living speakers.

 * Akawaio (Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela)
 * Arawak (French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
 * Arutani (Brazil, Venezuela)
 * Baniwa (Brazil, Venezuela)
 * Baré (Venezuela)
 * Barí (Colombia, Venezuela)
 * Carib (French Guinea, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela)
 * Chaima (Venezuela)
 * Cuiba (Colombia, Venezuela)
 * Cumanagoto (Venezuela)
 * Curripaco (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela)
 * E’ñapa Woromaipu (Venezuela)
 * To be completed...

Other languages

 * German, Colonia Tovar (Venezuela)
 * To be completed...

Extinct languages

 * Baniva
 * To be completed...

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WikiLang/Southern Quechua Sprachausbau

Computer-related words used by Microsoft Windows 8 Quechua translation
Microsoft Windows has a Quechua translation. This is probably quite groundbreaking in terms of computer terminology in Quechua because it is perhaps the only desktop operating system with a GUI translated into Quechua (at least, Ubuntu and Mac OS X do not have Quechua translations as of May 2013). As such, it is appropriate to document the precedents set by it.

Note that many of these words are very obvious to use, for example "maskay" - "to search" for searching.

Also, the Windows translation is not 100% complete as of April 2013, and many words were borrowed from Spanish.

Look here for Quechua version of this, with table.

General

 * akllana - option
 * chaylla yaykuna - shortcut
 * chiru - icon
 * computadora (borrowed from Spanish) - computer
 * hanpara - desptop
 * harkasqa - security
 * hatun llinpinachiq - theme
 * hatunyachiy - to maximize (a window)
 * kallpa - power (to turn on, off, restart)
 * kipu - file
 * kawsachisqa - on (of an option)
 * kuchuy - to cut
 * kunayachiy - an update
 * laqay - to paste
 * llamkana - program (literally "tool")
 * llika - network
 * llinpi - colour
 * lista (borrowed from Spanish) - list
 * maskay - to search
 * mirachiy - to paste
 * munasqakuna - favorites (list of favorite locations in file explorer)
 * purichiy - to play (music, video)
 * reqsichiy - edit (dropdown menu from top bar)
 * qawana - display (settings)
 * qaway - view (option to change how something is displayed, for example in file explorer)
 * qillqa willakuquna - documents (media library)
 * qunakuy - to share (content on the web)
 * rikchaq - format (for file)
 * rikchaykuna - pictures (media library)
 * rurana - task
 * ruwaq - user
 * sayachiy - to cancel
 * taki - song, piece of music
 * tupachiy - settings (used in the search)
 * uchuyachiy - to minimize (a window)
 * uraykaychikuna - downloads (folder)
 * yapay - add (to a list)
 * wañuchisqa - off (of an option)
 * waqaychana - folder
 * waqaychay - to save
 * wichqay - to close (a program)
 * willana - notification
 * yachay taqikuna - media libraries
 * yanapay - help (dropdown menu from top bar)

Windows-specific features and apps

 * kamachina qata - control panel
 * kaylla ruyru - local disk
 * kipukuna maskana - file explorer
 * qallariy - "start", start screen
 * tupuq - calculator
 * uchuy word - wordpad
 * warmakuna harkaq - family safety (the setting)
 * wasihuñu - homegroup
 * willakuykuna qellqana - notepad (the program)

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WikiLang/Today's featured article

 * Plattdüütsch (Low German), an endangered and regional Germanic language descended from Old Saxon that is spoken in Northern Germany, the Eastern Netherlands, and in small communities throughout the world.
 * Gothic, a dead Germanic language that was spoken in the middle of the first millennium.
 * Mi'kmaq, an Algonquian language spoken in Eastern Canada and the United States.

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WikiLang/WikiLang:About

WikiLang is a free Mediawiki-based project that anyone can edit operated by the Wikimedia Foundation with the goal of documenting, recording, sharing and teaching all languages, including endangered and dead languages.

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WikiLang/WikiLang:Introduction

''' What is WikiLang? '''

Wikilang is a free project, written collaboratively by the people who use it, to document, share, teach and record all languages, including endangered and dead languages. It is based on [//www.mediawiki.org/wiki/MediaWiki Mediawiki], a type of website called "wiki" designed to make collaboration easy. Everybody can contribute to Wikilang.

For a more detailed account of the project, see About Wikilang.

How you can contribute

Don't be afraid to edit – everybody can edit almost every page and is encouraged to be bold! You can improve every pages to make them better by adding content or by correcting spelling and grammar mistakes.

Remember – you can't break Wikilang; all edits can be reversed, fixed or improved later. Wikilang is allowed to be imperfect. So go ahead, edit an article and help make Wikilang the best information source about languages on the Internet!

Why not try out the editor right now?
 * 1) [//meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meta:Sandbox&action=edit Click here] to edit the sandbox, a place to make test edits. (If there is already some text there, add to the end of the text.)
 * 2) Type some text.
 * 3) Click ' to test your changes, or ' when you're happy with the way it looks.
 * Note that saving the page will make the text publicly visible, but previewing it won't.

Next: Learn more about editing →

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Feminism/Patriarchy

Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property. Some patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage.

Patriarchy is associated with a set of ideas, a patriarchal ideology that acts to explain and justify this dominance and attributes it to inherent natural differences between men and women. Sociologists hold varied opinions on whether patriarchy is a social product or an outcome of innate differences between the sexes. Sociobiologists have argued that the roots of inequality were set in humanity's earliest period and are primarily due to genetic and reproductive differences between men and women. Aligned closely with evolutionary psychology, this theory posits that gender inequity is an inherent part of human social structures.

Social constructionists contest this argument, arguing that gender roles and gender inequity are instruments of power and have become social norms to maintain control over women. Constructionists would contend that sociobiological arguments serve to justify the oppression of women.

Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in the social, legal, political, religious, and economic organization of a range of different cultures. Most contemporary societies are, in practice, patriarchal.

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User:Pd4u/sandbox

LaTeX

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Cookbook talk:Cocoa-Coconut Bites

Suggested name change
I think it's misleading to label this recipe "sugar-free" since it contains maple syrup. Maple syrup is largely sucrose, which is the primary component of white table sugar. I would propose changing "sugar-free" to something like "refined sugar-free" or "white sugar-free". Nostriker (discuss • contribs) 17:02, 15 December 2021 (UTC)

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Cookbook talk:Peanut Butter Banana Oatmeal

How to cook oatmeal?
This recipe does not provide instructions or link to how to cook the oatmeal, for those who do not know. If possible, this should be clarified. Nostriker (discuss • contribs) 23:49, 15 December 2021 (UTC)


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Signetics 2650 & 2636 programming/Score

=Tutorial — Score=

Four score digits can be programmed to appear at the top or bottom of the screen. They may be arranged as either one group of four digits, or two groups of two digits. The digits displayed are programmed as BCD (Binary Coded Decimal). If any nibble is set as greater than or equal to $A, the corresponding digit is left blank.

Tutorial code
The code for this tutorial can be found at Tutorial code - score. Once it is assembled and run you should see a screen like the one shown here.

This is the part of the program that sets up the score: 000F 0403    :        lodi,r0 $03 0011 CC1FC3  :        stra,r0 scoreformat 0014 0498    :        lodi,r0 $98 0016 CC1FC8  :        stra,r0 score12 0019 0476    :        lodi,r0 $76 001B CC1FC9  :        stra,r0 score34 Both bits in scoreformat are set to one, so the score digits appear as a single block of four characters at the bottom of the screen. One way of changing this would be to edit the assembly language file and assemble it. There are faster ways to experiment with this using some tools in WinArcadia.

WinArcadia tools
One way we can make changes is to directly edit the values in the PVI in real-time. From the Tools menu, open the PVI monitor. The top panel lets you change the registers in the PVI. Change SCORELT from 98 to 2A and the displayed score will change from 9876 to 2 76. Notice how the use of the hex digit A displays as a blank. Now change SCORECTRL from 03 to 00 and see how the score moves to the top of the screen and displays as two, two-digit numbers. It is also possible to change the machine code that the assembler has created. First though we should run our program again: File > Reset to game and that should return the screen to its original condition.

Refer to the code snippet above, and see how the value $03 that gets put into the scoreformat register appears in the machine code at address $0010. Open the Memory editor from the Tools menu and click on the box containing 03 at $0010. This opens a dialogue box where this byte can be changed. Set it to 0. Notice that the emulator screen has not changed. This is because we have only changed the program and we still have to execute it, which we do once again via File > Reset to game. Now the score digits should be displayed as 98 76 at the top of the screen.

title: Signetics 2650 & 2636 programming/Score


text: User talk:148.78.3.74

title: User talk:148.78.3.74