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Brief History of Europe/Europe since 1914

Europe since 1914 includes the end of the late modern period, and the contemporary period, which was from circa 1945 (post World War II) to the present time.

Prelude to World War I
The war had roots in the tensions between France and Germany, exacerbated by the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), and the French defeat and loss of Alsace-Lorraine to the Prussians. The Dual Alliance (1879) and Triple Alliance (1882) created an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy that excluded France. Partly in response, and after the failure of the German–Austrian–Russian League of the Three Emperors (1873–1880) and the secret German–Russian Reinsurance Treaty (1887–1890), the French–Russian Franco-Russian Alliance was created with agreements between 1891 and 1894.

The Anglo-German naval arms race (1898–1912) worsened British and German relations. The Entente Cordiale (1904) between the British and French improved their relations, and marked the end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict between them. The First and Second Moroccan Crises (1905–1906, 1911) worsened German relations with both France and the Britain. The Anglo-Russian Convention (1907) led to the creation of the Triple Entente (1907), an alliance between Britain, France and Russia.

The Bosnian crisis (1908–1909), when Austria-Hungary announced the formal annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Ottomans, worsened Austria-Hungarian relations with Italy, Serbia, and Russia. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was on Sunday, 28 June 1914; the Austrian heir was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist. Franz Ferdinand was visiting Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Bosnia and Herzegovina was a mixture of South-Slavic peoples: Bosniaks, Bosnian Serbs, and Bosnian Croats. Many Bosnian Serbs and other Bosnians opposed the Austrian annexation; Serbia was sympathetic to them, and the Black Hand, a secret military society formed by officers in the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia, had helped the assassins.

World War I summary
World War I (the Great War, 1914–1918) had the Allied Powers defeating the Central Powers. The Allied Powers included the Triple Entente of France, the British Empire, and Russia (to 1917), but also include Japan (from August 1914), Italy (from April 1915), the USA (from April 1917), and other allies and co-belligerents. The Central Powers would eventually include Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, and other co-belligerents and client states; it evolved from the earlier Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (but Italy never fought for the Central Powers). Key aspects include:
 * In the July Crisis, after a series of diplomatic maneuvers, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July, who they blamed for the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Serbia was a Russian ally, so Russian mobilization had already commenced.
 * Events of August 1914: Germany declared war on Russia, and then France and Belgium; they would invade France through Belgium according to the Schlieffen Plan. Britain then declared war against Germany for violating Belgian neutrality, and sent the British Expeditionary Force to France. Austria-Hungary declared war against Russia, and Britain and France declared war against Austria-Hungary.
 * German advances in France came to a halt after the First Battle of the Marne (September 1914) with over a half a million casualties; afterwards the Western Front was little changed until 1917.
 * In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the war in support of the Central Powers, and opened fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai Peninsula. The Middle Eastern theater included the Gallipoli campaign (1915), which resulted in over half a million casualties.
 * The Balkans Campaign (1914–1918) extended the war to the Balkans, with Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in 1915 and the Greece joining the Allies in 1917.
 * On the Eastern Front, the Austro-Hungarian offensive at the Battle of Galicia (1914) resulted in over half a million casualties; the German Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive (1915) resulted in as many as half a million casualties; the Russian Brusilov Offensive (1916) resulted in over a million casualties.
 * On the Western Front, the Battle of Verdun (1916), the longest offensive of the War, resulted in over a half a million casulaties; the First Battle of the Somme (1916) resulted in over a million casualties; the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) (1917) resulted in over half a million casualties.
 * In 1917, the Central Powers achieved victory on the Eastern Front, with Russian capitulation. Other Allied defeats included Serbia (1915) and Romania (1917).
 * The USA joined the Allied Powers in 1917, after German U-boats sank seven US merchant ships, and the Zimmermann Telegram suggesting that Germany was inciting a Mexican-American war.
 * On the Western Front in 1918, the German Spring Offensive resulted in one and a half million casualties; and the Allied Powers' Hundred Days Offensive resulted in over two million casualties.
 * The Central Powers, of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, all capitulated to the Allied Powers in 1918. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and Germany signed an armistice on 11 November 1918.

World War I was largely based on the attrition due to casualties of troops, rather than decisive territorial gains. As a result of the World War I, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires ceased to exist. An estimated nine million combatants and seven million civilians died as a direct result of the war. The 1918 influenza pandemic caused another 50 to 100 million deaths worldwide.

Eastern Question

The Ottoman Empire, then described as the "sick man of Europe", was in decline in the 19th and early 20th centuries. What would happen to the failing empire would be called the Eastern Question.

It led to a number of newly independent or autonomous Balkan countries by 1908. These included Greece in 1829, and the Cretan State of 1898–1908; Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and the autonomy of Bulgaria after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. Further afield, the Ottoman Empire had lost a number of territories by 1908: France had occupied Algeria and Tunisia; Great Britain had occupied Egypt and Cyprus, and gained the Aden Protectorate (1872–1963) in the Yemen.

Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
In July 1908, the Young Turk Revolution created multi-party democracy; the Bosnian crisis (1908–1909) occurred after Austria-Hungary announced the formal annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Ottomans. After Italian victory in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), Italian Libya was occupied by Italy. The Balkan Wars (1912–1913) resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire by the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro; they conquered Ottoman-held Macedonia, Albania (which gained independence), and most of Thrace, but then fell out over the division of the spoils.

During World War I, genocide in Anatolia became prevalent; 1.5 million Armenians were killed in the Armenian Genocide (1914–1923), and there was also genocide of Greek and Assyrian minorities.

In 1916, Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, led the Great Arab Revolt, a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. There was fighting in Hejaz, Transjordan, and Syria. Although Arab efforts to achieve unified independence failed, Allied victory in World War I assured the end of the Ottoman Empire. With the end of Ottoman suzerainty in Arabia, Hussein bin Ali became King of the Kingdom of Hejaz (1916–1925). The Saudi conquest of Hejaz (1924–25) was a major step in the unification of Saudi Arabia, along with defeat of the Rashidi Emirate (1836–1921). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the third Saudi state ruled by the House of Saud, and was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud; it dominates the Arabian peninsula.

Partition of the Ottoman Empire, after World War I outside of the Arabian peninsula, was largely under the terms of the British/French Sykes-Picot Agreement, which planned for a geographical divider called the Sykes-Picot line, with French influence to the north and British influence to the south. To the north, French had the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1923−1946). To the south, British mandates included: Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948, today Israel and the State of Palestine), and Mandatory Iraq (1921–1932); the Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946, today Jordan) was a British protectorate. Slowly, these states would became independent from the French and British.

Turkish War of Independence
The Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922) was a war for a Turkish state covering Anatolia and Eastern Thrace; the Turks defeated Greece, the United Kingdom, France, and Armenia. The Ottoman Sultanate was then abolished (1922), and the Republic of Turkey declared (1923).

The Turks were led by Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who became known as Atatürk. Atatürk had come to prominence during the Ottoman Turkish victory at the Battle of Gallipoli (1915) during World War I; and as the leading figure of the Turkish National Movement he won the Turkish War of Independence. Atatürk became the first President of Turkey, with Turkey guided by Atatürk's Reforms and Kemalism.

Interwar period

The interwar period was from 1918 post-World War I, until 1939 and World War II.

The Roaring Twenties, a period of economic prosperity, would end with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and followed by the Great Depression during the 1930s.

Territorial changes
With the Treaty of Versailles, negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the Big Four imposed their terms on Germany; they were represented by David Lloyd George (for Britain), Georges Clemenceau (for France), Woodrow Wilson (for the USA), and Vittorio Orlando (for Italy).

Covenant of the League of Nations was a charter for the League of Nations, negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference. The League of Nations was founded in 1920 to maintain world peace, and dissolved in 1946, replaced by the United Nations.

Consequences of the Treaty of Versailles included:

 * Germany would lose European territories to France (Alsace-Lorraine), Belgium, Denmark, Czechoslovakia, Poland (the Polish corridor), the Free City of Danzig, Lithuania (the Memel Territory), and under League of Nations protection (Territory of the Saar Basin).
 * Germany's overseas empire was dismantled.
 * Germany was disarmed, with restrictions imposed on their military; the Rhineland was demilitarized.
 * Germany was forced to make reparation payments, and admit "war guilt".

Austria-Hungary was dismantled largely under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Treaty of Trianon, prepared at the Paris Peace Conference.

Territorial changes that involved former Austria-Hungary territories included:

 * Austria and Hungary were founded as reduced states with the end of Austria-Hungary.
 * Czechoslovakia was created from former lands of Austria-Hungary, including Bohemia and Moravia.
 * Poland was reborn as the Second Polish Republic (1918–1939; the first republic being the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). The borders of the state were finalized in 1922 after the Polish–Ukrainian War, Greater Poland uprising, Polish–Czechoslovak War, Polish–Lithuanian War, and Polish–Soviet War; It included former parts of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian Empire.
 * Yugoslavia was created as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; it included Serbia, Montenegro, and some former lands of Austria-Hungary. Josip Broz, also known as Tito, would later become the Yugoslav leader.
 * Romania would expand; it gained the duchies of Bukovina, Transylvania and two-thirds of the Banat from the former Austria-Hungary; Bessarabia (roughly the present-day Republic of Moldova) would be annexed by Romania from Russia.
 * Italy would gain some former Austro-Hungarian lands.
 * Principality of Liechtenstein, which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection, formed a customs and defense union with Switzerland, and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian.

Other post-war European territorial changes included:

 * Finland achieve independence from Russia.
 * The Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia achieved independence from Russia.
 * Bulgaria ceded territories to Greece, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Romania.
 * Following the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921), the Irish Free State (1922–1937), of southern Ireland, achieved independence with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921 as a Dominion of the British Commonwealth of Nations. The earlier Easter Rising (1916) had been unsuccessful. The Irish Civil War (1922–1923) followed the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It is now the Republic of Ireland (1937–present day).
 * Republic of Turkey founded in 1923 after the Turkish War of Independence, and the end of the Ottoman Empire.

Spanish Civil War

Following the First Spanish Republic (1873–1874), a coup d'état by Martínez Campos restored the Bourbons to the Spanish crown, beginning the period known as the Restoration (1874–1931). The reign of Alfonso XII (1874–1885) was followed by Alfonso XIII (1886–1931). After the fall of Alfonso XIII, in part due to economic chaos caused by the Wall Street Crash (1929), the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) was established.

The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) began when General Franco was proclaimed Head of State, after the Spanish coup of July 1936. It was a war of two factions:

 * Republicans, loyal to the left-leaning Second Spanish Republic, was an alliance with communist and syndicalist anarchists. They received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. The International Brigades, of foreign nationals, mainly fought for the Republicans.
 * Nationalists, loyal to General Francisco Franco, was an alliance of Falangists (with fascist leanings), monarchists, conservatives and traditionalists. They received support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.

The war was characterized by many atrocities on both sides, and created hundreds of thousands of refugees, who fled mainly to camps in southern France; total deaths have been estimated at 500,000. After winning the Spanish Civil War in 1939, Franco would remain dictator of Francoist Spain (1936–1975), officially known as the Spanish State (Spanish: Estado Español), until his death in 1975.

In 1947, Spain was declared a kingdom, but without a monarch; not until 1969 did Franco establish Juan Carlos of Bourbon as the heir to the monarchy. After Franco's death, democracy was slowly established under a constitutional monarchy with a Bourbon monarch; this continues to this day. Juan Carlos I (who reigned 1975–2014) was succeeded by Felipe VI (2014 to present).

Russian revolutions and Soviet Union

Russian revolutions: the first successful revolution was the February Revolution (March 1917), and the Russian Provisional Government, a coalition of various revolutionary factions, came to power. With the October Revolution (November 1917), the Bolsheviks, a communist faction led by Vladimir Lenin, took over, and established the Russian SFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic). The Russian SFSR left World War I with the armistice of December 1917, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918).

Russian Civil War (1917–1922): was a civil war in which the Red Army of the Bolsheviks defeated the anti-communist White Army; there were between 7 and 12 million deaths during the Russian Civil War (including civilians). In July 1918, the former Russian Emperor Nicholas II, and his wife Alexandra and their five children, were executed. The Russian famine of 1921–1922 killed an estimated 5 million people.

The Second Polish Republic was declared in 1918; after the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921), Ukraine and Belarus were partitioned between Poland and the Soviet Union. There were successful wars of independence in Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, and Finland declared independence.

Subsequently the Soviet Union or USSR (1922–1991) was established as a union of socialist states formerly in the Russian Empire; the Soviet Union was dominated by the Russian SFSR. Decossackization was a policy of elimination against the Cossacks who had formed the effective core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army.

After the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924, he was replaced by a "troika" ('a set of three') consisting of Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and Joseph Stalin. Joseph Stalin, who had been General Secretary since 1922, gradually became an absolute ruler; working with Nikolai Bukharin, he had his great rival Leon Trotsky, along with Zinoviev and Kamenev, ousted from the party in 1927; in 1929 Trotsky was exiled, and then murdered in 1940.

The Soviet famine of 1932–33 may have killed as many as eight million, and was related to the forced collectivization of agriculture as a part of the Soviet first five-year plan; it included the Holodomor, widely seen as genocide against the Ukrainians, as well as alleged genocide against the Kazakhs. Stalin's Great Purge (1936–38) was a campaign of political repression that killed hundreds of thousands; it included the executions after show trials of Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Bukharin.

Background to World War II
Benito Mussolini became Prime Minister of Italy in 1922. In 1933 Adolf Hitler became Chancellor (and later Führer) of Nazi Germany, and Germany withdrew from the League of Nations. Ethiopia was invaded by Italy in 1935. Italy and Germany created the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936, which was later widened to Japan. In 1938 Germany annexed Austria; Czechoslovakia was then annexed by Germany, Hungary and Poland. In March 1939 the UK and France promised to defend the independence of Poland. In August 1939, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Soviet Union and Germany planned for mutual non-aggression, and the division of Europe into spheres of influence.

World War II summary
World War II (1939–1945): was a world war in which the Allies would eventually defeat the Axis powers.

The Allies of World War II would eventually include the Big Four of the USA, UK (United Kingdom), Soviet Union, and China; and also governments-in-exile of occupied countries and other combatant states. It started as France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and their dependent states. They were joined by independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. Netherlands, Belgium, Greece, and Yugoslavia joined the Allies, but would quickly fall to the Axis powers, as did France, and Poland (with German–Soviet partitioning).

The Axis powers included the Tripartite Pact (September 1940) powers of Germany, Japan and Italy (until 1943); the pact later included Hungary (1940), Romania (1940), Bulgaria (1941), Slovakia (1940, a German client state), and the State of Croatia (an Italo-German client state of 1941 covering much of Yugoslavia). There were other co-belligerents, such as Finland (Soviet–Finnish Continuation War), Iraq (Anglo-Iraqi War), Thailand, and the Soviet Union (until their invasion).

Key aspects include (this list is very limited):
 * Preceded by and included the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), after Japan invaded China, who already occupied Manchuria after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931–1932), with resulting Soviet–Japanese border conflicts (1932 to 1939).
 * In September 1939 the UK and France declared war on Germany after the Invasion of Poland, which included Germany and the Soviet Union. This commenced the European theatre of conflict. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Eastern Europe was occupied by Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland was partitioned, and the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) were occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940.
 * Phoney War (September 1939 to May 1940) was a period of limited engagement, although the Soviets attacked Finland in the Winter War (November 1939 to March 1940), and there was the German invasion of Denmark and Norway (April 1940).
 * The Western Front commenced with the Battle of France (May 1940); within six weeks Germany had conquered France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Germany avoided the stronger Maginot Line fortifications by invading through the Ardennes forest. Erich von Manstein formulated the plan for the battle. This ended land operations on the Western Front until D-Day. Germany divided France into German-occupied northern France and a German-friendly Vichy France to the south. The UK evacuated their forces with the Dunkirk evacuation.
 * The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre opened in June 1940, beginning with the Battle of the Mediterranean, and later extending to the Middle East, North Africa, and West Africa. Erwin Rommel commanded the Germans in the North African campaign.
 * Conflict in the South-East Asian theater began when Japan invaded French Indochina in September 1940, who they occupied. It later included British Burma, Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore; and in Thailand. There was also warfare in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Philippines, Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, and Borneo (see the Pacific War).
 * By early June 1941, only the UK actively opposed Germany in Europe; the Soviet Union and Germany were still at peace, and controlled much of Europe. The Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945) had weakened the UK due to a blockade of supplies by German U-boats. During July–October 1940, the Battle of Britain was the successful defense of the UK from the German air force.
 * On the 22nd June 1941, Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, commenced the German-Soviet War at the Eastern Front; German-occupied Europe reached a territorial peak 1941–1942. On the Eastern Front, Georgy Zhukov was responsible for some of the Russian Red Army's most decisive victories.
 * In 1941 the USA joined the war after the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japan on December 7. This commenced the Pacific War; theaters can be divided into North; Central (including Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Midway); South (including the Solomon Islands and the Battle of Guadalcanal); and South West (including the Philippines, Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, and Borneo). Warfare continued in the South-East Asian theater and China.
 * During 1942, key Axis defeats included the Battle of Midway (in the Pacific), the Second Battle of El Alamein (in North Africa), and Stalingrad (in the Soviet Union, ending in 1943). The Italian Campaign, commencing July 1943, resulted in the collapse of Fascist Italy (1943) and the Allied occupation of all of Italy by 1945. In December 1943 Dwight D. Eisenhower was made Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. On 6 June 1944, D-Day commenced the Allied invasion of northern Europe, the second stage of conflict on the Western Front.
 * V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day) declared on May 8, 1945, after the defeat and occupation of Germany by the Allies. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki contributed to the surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945 (V-J Day).

Conferences and aftermath
There were a number of conferences during and after World War II, which involved members of the Big Three (USA, UK and Russia). Conferences included:
 * Casablanca Conference (January 1943): included Franklin D. Roosevelt (USA President), Winston Churchill (UK Prime Minister), and Charles de Gaulle and Henri Giraud (for Free France).
 * Cairo Conference (November 1943): included Roosevelt, Churchill, and Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (of the Republic of China). It ended with the Cairo Declaration for post-war Asia.
 * Tehran Conference (November and December 1943), the first meeting of the Big Three: with Roosevelt, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin for Russia. It planned for the continuing European war, and a date for D-Day.
 * Fourth Moscow Conference (October 1944): included Churchill and Stalin and some ministers, with planning for post-war spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.
 * Yalta Conference (February 1945), a pre-V-E Day conference between the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin). It planned for the defeat of Germany, and post-war arrangements.
 * Potsdam Conference (July to August 1945), a pre-V-J Day conference between the Big Three: Stalin, Harry S. Truman (USA President), and Churchill and Clement Attlee (UK Prime Ministers). It created the Potsdam Declaration on the surrender of Japan, and a policy for Germany.

Aftermath of World War II: there were between 50 to 85 million fatalities, mostly civilians in the Soviet Union and China. The war marked the advent of air supremacy and nuclear warfare. The Holocaust, a genocide perpetrated by the Germans during the war, resulted in 17 million deaths, including 6 million Jews. Strategic bombing, the bombing of non-military targets, was a result of the blurring between civilian and military contributions to the war effort, and total war meant that entire populations were dedicated to the war effort. The end of the war marked the beginnings of the Cold War.

Cold War

The Cold War (1945–1991) was a period of simmering tension between the USA with its allies (the Western Bloc), and the Soviet Union and its satellite states (the Eastern Bloc), after World War II. There were sporadic wars in various theaters which did not directly involve the major powers, but instead were wars by proxy. Eventually it would end with the Revolutions of 1989, and the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991).

Two major military treaties divided the Cold War factions:

 * The Western Bloc countries; many of these formed NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in 1949. Twelve countries were part of the founding of NATO: the European countries of Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United Kingdom; and the North American countries of the United States, and Canada. It would later expand to other European countries.
 * The Eastern Bloc countries, which were described as being "behind the Iron Curtain". They signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955, a treaty establishing the mutual defense organization known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) of communist countries; these included the Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary; but Albania withdrew in 1960. Yugoslavia was a communist state that remained non-aligned.

Notable events during this period included:

 * United Nations: founded in 1945 it replaced the ineffective League of Nations.
 * Truman Doctrine (1947): the US doctrine aimed at "containing" Soviet expansion.
 * Marshall Plan (1948): economic aid was offered to European nations that worked out a program for rehabilitation.
 * Czechoslovak Communists seized control of the country in 1948.
 * USA, UK and France merged their German zones in 1947 and 1948, which became West Germany in 1949, as opposed to East Germany.
 * Berlin Blockade (1948–1949): the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' access to Berlin, resulting in the Berlin airlift to supply Berlin
 * North Atlantic Treaty Organization founded in April 1949.
 * People's Republic of China established in 1949 by Mao Zedong, and the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek retreated to Taiwan.
 * Korean War (1950–1953), a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union), and South Korea (with the support of the United Nations).
 * Cuban Revolution (1953–1959): Fidel Castro's forces defeated the military dictatorship of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista.
 * Warsaw Pact (Warsaw Treaty Organization) founded in May 1955.
 * Vietnam War (1955–1975): or Second Indochina War, took place after the First Indochina War (1946–1954), a war of independence from the French. It was principally a conflict between the communist North Vietnam and its allies, and the anti-communist South Vietnam and its allies.
 * Hungarian Revolution of 1956, which was crushed by a Soviet invasion.
 * Suez crisis (1956), after Egypt attempts to nationalize the Suez Canal.
 * Berlin Wall construction began in 1961, separating West Berlin (a political enclave surrounded by East Germany) from East Berlin.
 * Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961, Cuba requested nuclear missiles to deter a future invasion, causing a showdown with the USA.
 * Prague Spring (1968), a period of political liberalization and mass protest in Czechoslovakia, resulting in Warsaw Pact occupation.
 * Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989): resulted in a strong denunciation of the Soviet Union by the West.
 * Strategic Defense Initiative (1983): dubbed "Star Wars", it was a proposed missile defense system of the United States from ballistic strategic nuclear weapons.

Fall of communism
Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, and brought policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). Following the 1989 revolutions, dissolution of the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact was in 1991. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 came German reunification in 1990.

15 states were formed from the former USSR: in Europe they consisted of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova; and the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Other states were states in the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

Yugoslav Wars

Yugoslav Wars (1991–2001) were civil wars that resulted in the partitioning of the six constituent republics of Yugoslavia; plus the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo in 2008. The countries are:

 * Serbia. According to Serbia, it includes the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, and the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina.
 * Montenegro.
 * Croatia.
 * Slovenia.
 * North Macedonia, also called the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
 * Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 * Kosovo, which unilaterally declared independence from Serbia in 2008; this is currently recognized by about 100 UN states but not Serbia.

Wars included:

 * Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995): there was a long war in Croatia between the ethnic Croats and Serbs.
 * Bosnian War (1992–1995): the peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina include ethnic Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs, and saw much conflict.
 * Kosovo War (1998–1999): in the Kosovo region of Serbia, there was fighting between the Serbs and the ethnic Albanian majority.

Other wars included the Ten-Day War (1991) in Slovenia; Insurgency in the Preševo Valley (1999–2001) in southern Serbia; and Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia (2001).

Much of the conflict was a result of the religious differences between the mix of ethnicities that inhabit the former Yugoslav countries:

 * Slovenians and Croats: are South-Western Slavic and mainly Catholic Christian, and make up much of Slovenia and Croatia.
 * Bosniaks: are South-Western Slavic and mainly Sunni Muslim; they make up about half of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which also has many Serbs and Croats.
 * Serbs and Montenegrins: are South-Western Slavic and mainly Orthodox Christian, and make up much of Serbia and Montenegro.
 * Macedonians: are South-Eastern Slavic and mainly Orthodox Christian, and make up much of North Macedonia.
 * Albanians: are non-Slavic and mainly Sunni Muslim. They make up much of Albania (not a Yugoslav country), but there is a sizeable Albanian diaspora especially in Kosovo, a disputed region of the former Socialist Republic of Serbia.

Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, and Slovenians speak Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin, and Slovene; they are a closely related group of South-Slavic languages called South-Western Slavic (formerly "Serbo-Croato-Slovenian"). Macedonians speak Macedonian, which is a South-Eastern Slavic language like Bulgarian. Albanians speak Albanian, which is a non-Slavic language.

Other aspects of the contemporary period
Decolonisation gained traction, with European colonial empires in Africa and Asia gone by 1975. In 1947, the British Empire had begun a process of voluntarily dismantling with the granting of independence to India and Pakistan.

Spain: democracy was restored in Spain in 1975, with a constitutional monarchy.

EEC and EU: Treaty of Rome (1957) founds the European Economic Community. The European Union formed in 1993 with the Maastricht Treaty. The Euro adopted as a currency in 2002. Enlargement of the EU in 2004: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Accession of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007

The 2014 Ukrainian revolution had armed conflict in the regions of Donetsk and Lugansk, after attempts to cede to the Russian Federation. A referendum held in Crimea led to its annexation to the Russian Federation as the Republic of Crimea, which is largely unrecognized.

Technology and industry: Western countries began de-industrialisation; globalization led to the emergence of new industrial centres, including Japan, Taiwan, China. The rise of science, technology, and computers led to the Information Age (1971–) and the widespread use of the Internet, creating profound changes. The Space Age was established in 1957.

The arts: popular music became prominent in the 20th Century. Postmodernism (c. 1930–) was an arts movement that developed in the mid- to late 20th century; the avant-garde (from the French for "advance guard") was seen as the cutting edge of experimentation.


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User talk:Praxidicae

Cheese Spread on French Bread
Hi Praxidicae, I feel that the preparation time should be more than 3 1/2 hours as the spread needs to be refrigerated and left out before serving for 3 hours and 1/2 hour respectively. 大诺史 (discuss • contribs) 14:57, 25 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Ahhhh that makes more sense! Praxidicae (discuss • contribs) 14:58, 25 August 2019 (UTC)

TIP Edit Filter
Hi, this filter seems to be catching multiple good edits although it is not obvious to me why it should be doing so - I need to investigate further. Due to the collateral damage I've disabled it for now - thanks QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 12:12, 27 September 2019 (UTC)

Question
Why is my page speedy deletion? BookImaginationIsNeeded helps (discuss • contribs) 20:12, 29 July 2020 (UTC)
 * It's out of scope, it's not a book, it's you promoting yourself. Praxidicae (discuss • contribs) 20:12, 29 July 2020 (UTC)

Oh, ok, sorry. What wiki page can I post this at? Just curious BookImaginationIsNeeded helps (discuss • contribs) 20:14, 29 July 2020 (UTC)

Im still new here BookImaginationIsNeeded helps (discuss • contribs) 20:14, 29 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Nowhere, it's not appropriate. Praxidicae (discuss • contribs) 20:14, 29 July 2020 (UTC)

Ok, thanks for letting me know! BookImaginationIsNeeded helps (discuss • contribs) 20:15, 29 July 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Praxidicae


text:
User talk:Atom.Saleb.Pizza.Pedia

--Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 15:13, 25 August 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Atom.Saleb.Pizza.Pedia


text:
Algorithm Implementation/Mathematics/Polynomial evaluation

Horner's method allows the efficient computation of the value of $p(x_{0})$ for any polynomial $p(x)$ = $a_{0} + a_{1}x + ... + a_{n}x^{n}$ and value $x_{0}$.

Algorithm
Rather than the naive method of computing each term individually, in Horner's method you rewrite the polynomial as $p(x)$ = $a_{0} + a_{1}x + ... + a_{n}x^{n}$ = $a_{0} + x(a_{1} + x(a_{2} + ... x(a_{n}))...))$, and then use a recursive method to compute its value for a specific $x_{0}$. The result is an algorithm requiring $n$ multiplies, rather than the 2$n$ multiplies needed by the best variant of the naive approach (and much more if each $x^{i}$ is computed separately).

In both the pseudocode and each implementation below, the polynomial $p(x)$ is represented as an array of it's coefficients.

Pseudocode
input: ($a_{0}$, ..., $a_{n}$) input: $x_{0}$ output: $p(x_{0})$

accum := 0 for i = n, n-1, n-2, ..., 2, 1, 0 accum := $x_{0}$(accum + $a_{i}$) return accum

Variants
The Compensated Horner Scheme is a variant of Horner's Algorithm that compensates for floating-point inaccuracies. It takes 1.5x the time of normal Horner to calculate for 2x the accuracy.

Loop unrolling can be used with Horner's Scheme to evalulate multiple multiplications at once. This is called a kth-order Horner.

There are also non-Horner schemes for evalulating polynomials: the naive method, the Estrin method, and factorization.


text:
User talk:Gencmevtoo

Welcome
Welcome to Wikibooks, Gencmevtoo!

 First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for collaborative development of free textbooks.

You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
 * You can get friendly help from the community in the user assistance room or our IRC channel.
 * Upload freely licensed files to Wikimedia Commons. You may request permission to upload fair use files locally. Please include author and source information and a non-free use rationale for non-free files.
 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
 * Please fill in the edit summary and preview your edits before saving.
 * Sign your name on discussion pages by typing ~~~~
 * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the Gadgets tab of my preferences; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit save!

--Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 20:03, 25 August 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gencmevtoo


text:
Exercise as it relates to Disease/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"

A critical appraisal of the journal article: "Effect of 2 weeks of sprint interval training on health-related outcomes in sedentary overweight/obese men" (Whyte LJ, Gill JM, Cathcart AJ. Metabolism. 2010;59(10):1421–8).

What is the background to this research?
Despite generally accepted knowledge that participating in regular physical activity lowers the risk of many diseases, participation still remains low. For many years The American College of Sports Medicine has stipulated that to attain the health benefits of physical activity, adults should aim to accumulate at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise on most days. This recommendation is a common guideline for physical activity and is also implemented by the United Kingdom and Australia.

Despite only being advised to accumulate 30 minutes of physical activity each day, lack of time has been reported as a significant barrier to exercise and associated with low physical activity. If time is a major issue in physical activity participation, could a quick high intensity workout be the solution? Most recently The American College of Sports Medicine has placed greater emphasis on shorter duration, high-intensity exercise performed a minimum of 3 times per week.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of high-intensity sprint training on metabolic and vascular risk factors in overweight/obese sedentary men. If this type of exercise is proven to provide a meaningful and significant health benefit then perhaps guidelines might consider modifying their recommendations to include specific information on interval style training.

Where is the research from?
This research was conducted by Laura Whyte, Jason Gill and Andrew Cathcart from the University of Glasgow. The study was published in the journal: Metabolism Clinical and Experimental volume 59 in 2010. The Journal of Metabolism publishes original cutting-edge research papers exclusively in the field of metabolism related sciences.

All authors of this study have written a variety of papers centered around exercise performance and the relationship between exercise and health. Since publishing this 2010 study, Whyte and Gill have continued to research the the effect of high-intensity exercise on metabolic health biomarkers in overweight/obese sedentary men in their 2013 paper.

What kind of research was this?
This research is classified as an interventional study, specifically a single arm pre-post study due to only having one test group. There was no blinding in the study as all subjects were aware of the intervention and its aims. This study could have benefitted from a control group and perhaps other groups performing different exercise programs for comparison.

What did the research involve?
The participants in this study consisted of ten male volunteers between the ages of 18 and 40 who were overweight/obese and participated in less than 1 hour per week of structured exercise. The training protocol consisted of 6 sessions of sprint interval training across a 2 week period, with 1 to 2 days recovery in between sessions. Each session required the participant to perform 30 second "all out" sprints on a cycle ergometer with a fixed recovery period of 4.5 minutes.

A limitation of this study is the sample size, 10 subjects is not well representative of the entire population and may bias the results as outlying results can have a skewing affect on the mean and standard deviation. The other major limitation is that although subjects were asked to consume their normal diet and continue living their normal sedentary lifestyle, it is not guaranteed that they followed instructions. Without monitoring of diet and exercise one cannot say confidently that the sprint interval intervention was solely responsible for the health benefits experienced post study.

What were the basic results?
The researchers tracked many different health and physical fitness related measures at baseline and at 24 hours and 72 hours post-intervention in order to establish the physiological affects of this intervention. The crucial and most significant changes seen in the subjects after the intervention were:
 * Increase in absolute (8.4%) and relative (9.5%) VO2 max. Higher aerobic fitness levels are associated with numerous health benefits most importantly a longer lifespan.
 * Decrease in body mass (1.1%). Mortality rates decrease when a person's body mass index is within a healthy range.
 * Decrease in waist (1.1%) and hip circumference (1.0%). Hip and waist circumference are a measure of abdominal obesity which is associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality.
 * Increased insulin sensitivity (23.3%). Low insulin sensitivity will stimulate the body to try to compensate by producing more insulin which can lead to health complications.
 * Decreased fasting insulin (24.6%). Having a high level of circulating insulin (hyperinsulinemia) can lead to damaged blood vessels, high blood pressure, heart disease, heart failure and obesity.
 * Decrease in systolic (5%) and diastolic (12.7%) blood pressure. High blood pressure or hypertension, can increase the risk of stroke, heart attack and kidney disease.

All results indicate that this type of exercise had positive affect on health for the subjects of this intervention. The magnitude of health changes seen by using sprint interval training were comparable to those observed after 6 to 8 weeks of conventional endurance exercise training in untrained or moderately trained adults.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
Earlier studies conducted on young, fit, normal-weight men concluded that sprint interval training can improve cardiorespiratory fitness and insulin sensitivity. This study concurs that sprint interval training has a positive affect on health and that additional benefits in body composition and blood pressure are also seen when sprint interval training is applied to overweight/obese sedentary populations.

While sprint interval training involves very short efforts of physical exercise, the 4-5 minute rest times between efforts makes the total session duration comparable to the 30 minutes stated in physical activity guidelines. Although the time excising is a fraction of the time of moderate intensity activity, the time taken to complete the sprint interval session does not make it any more viable as a time saving exercise. Despite this, further research into sprint interval training in which diet and all physical activity are controlled is still important in order to see the direct affects of the sprint interval training.

Two of the authors of this study; Whyte and Gill have conducted further study into determining the shortest exercise with significant health benefits. Their later study has concluded that a maximal extended sprint, not sprint interval training is the most time efficient exercise for overweight/obese individuals.

Practical advice
This intervention has shown significant health benefits for overweight/obese individuals, however, informed decision making needs to be practiced when considering high intensity activity for this population. Exercise specialists need to consider motivation, adherence and above all else safety. Pre-exercise screening must be followed to identify individuals at an elevated risk of having an adverse event in response to exercise.

Further information/resources
Current physical activity guidelines from:
 * United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
 * Australia.
 * United States of American.

Information on the benefits of high intensity interval training.

Exercise and Sports Science Australia pre-exercise screening tool.

If you have a chronic health condition and are unsure of how to begin an exercise program, an exercise physiologist is the best allied health professional to help you safely begin your exercise journey.


text:
User talk:Andersyu31415

Welcome, Andersyu31415!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 07:20, 26 August 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Andersyu31415


text:
Cookbook talk:Pressure Cooking

Christmas Pudding in a pressure cooker
The Christmas Puddings in my kitchen are all cooked in pressure cookers. Using the Christmas Pudding recipe in Wikibooks do the following:

Prepare two (2) 1 litre Pyrex bowls with butter or vegetable shortening to the inside and placing a round of greased parchment paper in the bottom center of each bowl. Then pack the pudding mixture into the bowls to within 1/4” of the top edge. Using a pot cover which is 1” wider than the top of the Pyrex bowl, trace two circles on parchment paper and cut them out. Coat both sides with butter or vegetable shortening and lay one circle on the rim of each bowl. Make four more (1” larger) circles of aluminium kitchen foil and lay them atop the parchment circles. Fold the 3 circles down around each bowl (form a thick flat foil handle under and up the sides of the bowl for removing it from the cooker) and tie them tightly in place.

Place the bowls in the pressure cooker containing 1 1/2” of water over the spacer disk in the bottom of the pot. Steam cook for 30 minutes with no pressure regulator on the cooker. Remove the cover and check the water level in the pressure cooker. Add enough boiling water to bring the level up to the original depth - but no higher than half way up the exterior of the bowl. Replace the cooker cover with the high pressure (15 PSI) regulator and cook for 90 minutes. Turn off the heat and allow the pressure cooker to release the pressure naturally. Take the bowl out but do not remove the foil cover on the bowl until it is completely cool. Invert the bowl and allow the pudding to release as it cools. John Charles Farrell (discuss • contribs) 16:17, 26 August 2019 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Pressure Cooking


text:
Talk:Principles of Economics/Elasticity

I do not agree that Elasticity is finished. This is not enough for any college course, and it seems more like an outline on how to use a formula instead of anything that can be explored in depth and "discovered" by the student. I am going to drastically change the format of this page because of it. If there are any changes, you will know who to look for. Musical Inquisit (discuss • contribs) 06:16, 27 August 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Principles of Economics/Elasticity


text:
User talk:Mrjulesd

Hi
Can you please help me out SOUUUP (discuss • contribs) 00:16, 10 April 2022 (UTC)
 * What do you want help with? That might be a better question. See Help:Editing for general editing advice. (I am not Mrjulesd, I just saw your message on my watchlist.) L10nM4st3r -Roar at me 21:53, 14 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your help. But I didn't answer because the account has been globally locked for long term abuse (but not by myself): see Special:CentralAuth/SOUUUP. That means nobody can log into it. I think it is probably a sock-puppet account, and it vandalized some wikis. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 22:58, 14 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Ahhh. OK then. L10nM4st3r -Roar at me 07:27, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

Hi SOUUUP I need your help. Goku (discuss • contribs) 19:15, 18 June 2022 (UTC)

Duplicate user right
Please can you remove my "Autoreviewer" user right as that user right is already in "reviewer". Thanks. L10nM4st3r -Roar at me 14:02, 18 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Yes_check.svg Done You're right, you don't need it now you are a reviewer. -- Jules  (Mrjulesd) 17:00, 18 April 2022 (UTC)

Shelf:Minecraft
Hi Jules, there are now 3 books about Minecraft: Minecraft resource gathering, Minecraft Speedrunning, and Minecraft Mobs. Could you please create a shelf for Minecraft? Thanks in advance, - 🇺🇦 Slava🇺🇦Ukraini 🇺🇦 Heroyam🇺🇦Slava🇺🇦(talk)🇺🇦 19:24, 20 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Hi ! I have created it at Shelf:Minecraft which can be populated. You might want to alter the blurb and icon. Cheers -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 19:43, 20 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much! I changed the icon but I think the blurb is fine. - 🇺🇦 Slava🇺🇦Ukraini 🇺🇦 Heroyam🇺🇦Slava🇺🇦(talk)🇺🇦 08:58, 21 April 2022 (UTC)

Spam
Hi Jules! Could someone block the user IlttIe Caesars? They have been spamming, including on Wikijunior. I've been reverting their edits, but they keep coming :( Thanks!! Nostriker (discuss • contribs) 22:52, 23 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Done --Xania [[Image:Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Mann.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] talk 02:23, 24 April 2022 (UTC)
 * He's back. You could probably recognize him. "Llttle Caesars Pizza is back".L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 15:02, 11 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Hmm blocked. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 15:52, 11 May 2022 (UTC)

X days. Until what!?
On Special:PendingChanges and Special:UnreviewedPages, there says something like "310 days". What does it mean? Thanks. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:13, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi there how's it going? I think it means how many days since the last review, or how many days since the unreviewed page was created, or something along those lines.
 * Some of the dates are quite old. Well I do review pages like you, see Special:Log/review. But I typically use Special:RecentChanges rather than these lists, but someone should tackle them really. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 14:30, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * (edit conflict) Oh, I think it's how many days since the changes were made. There are over 1400 pending changes, and around 6000 unreviewed pages I think. Is this a problem? I've been reviewing pages nonstop for the last half hour and there is just no end!L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:35, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Well see my earlier post! Only dip into them if you fancy it really, the idea here should be to enjoy yourself! I doubt (or at least hope) that there is nothing too bad lurking there! Cheers -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 14:39, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * (edit conflict - we gotta stop sometime :D) Yea, it's going good. I used them since Recent changes no-longer hides reviewed edits and I know it has something to do with preferences, but I can't find the setting. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:41, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * ha ha yes conversations are difficult, right? What happens if you use this link: ? -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 14:45, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I dunno how you did it, but it works. Must be a bug on my device. I've bookmarked the page - and renamed the bookmark just in case. Thanks! L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:50, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Excellent! The way to do it (if you ever need to again) is to go to Special:RecentChanges and select two filters: "page edits" and "needs review". It seems to work for me anyway, but as you say if you bookmark the link you don't need to worry. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 14:55, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I had a "recent changes" bookmark for about a month, and it must have somehow changed over time as I changed filters and it must have tried to automatically change the bookmark link. What I need is a computer that isn't 17 years old from my dad's old work and can use internet. Then I'll contribute with that, and THAT will come with many more benefits, including copy-paste. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 15:03, 25 April 2022 (UTC)

Vandalism by user Dfvn fbgbgbgbgbgb
See Special:Contributions/Dfvn fbgbgbgbgbgb. What's that warn template again? Also, might wanna keep an eye on them. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 08:11, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I found Template:warn but says "This is your final warning" which if there's only one thing I learned here about this is it's around 4-5 warnings usually. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 08:18, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * And just as I find the right warning template, they blank another page. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 08:27, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * has bloked Dfvn. I'd thank him, but I can't find the thank button! Anyway, I've reverted Dfvn's newer page blanks. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 10:18, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Errrr... Read that message without the colon... L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 10:27, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks for sorting that out. Been busy the last couple of days so haven't logged in; see Reading room/Administrative Assistance if I'm not around. That template is fine, but see Templates/User notices and UserPageNavbox for others. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 19:40, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Ahh, thanks. I bookmarked the first one and I'll have a think where to use the nav-box. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 20:23, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * That template is also at the bottom of Templates/User notices, so you only need to bookmark that one. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:25, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Unrelated, I saw a userpage with a different title than the actual page name, but I can't find it again. Is it some kind of template (if so, which one?) or did I make mistake? Thanks. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 20:40, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

Nor really a template, but a magic word. Use to do this. For reference see mw:Extension:Display Title. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:46, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * See my talkpage. When I tested it, all I could say was "WOW!". It says "Roar at L10nM4st3r". L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 20:57, 27 April 2022 (UTC)
 * ha ha I like it! -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 21:01, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

I want your oppinion on something
In Minecraft Mobs, the template used to lay out every page has BookCat in it. Some subpages don't have BookCat directly, but have the catogory from the template. Would you rather BookCat on those pages anyway, or would you rather not bother? See Minecraft Mobs/Guardian as an example.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 07:42, 29 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I can't see too much point in it then. The function of the BookCat template is to add pages to the book's cat, if this is the case it is unneeded really, although it doesn't matter either way. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 11:57, 29 April 2022 (UTC)

 * , I’m curious to know how it knows to do DEFAULTSORT. In the incubator where I usually edit, I need to do it manually since all pages have prefix Wp/enm. - 🇺🇦 Slava🇺🇦Ukraini 🇺🇦 Heroyam🇺🇦Slava🇺🇦(talk)🇺🇦 17:43, 29 April 2022 (UTC)
 * 1: What is "DEFAULTSORT" and 2: I have no idea what you mean. Sorry. Could you explain? Thanks.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 17:53, 29 April 2022 (UTC)

 * See w:WP:DEFAULTSORT. Basically you can change the order of pages on a category page: for example on the "Albert Einstein" page  would order the page by E rather than A in Category:People. Rather than doing this for each cat, you can use the magic word   and then , so its like a shorthand. All the cats you add to the page will use this "Einstein, Albert" sortkey.
 * It doesn't get used much here, but it is common at Wikipedia. It just makes things simpler if you've added a lot of cats to a page. Here you can just use BookCat pretty well. -- Jules  (Mrjulesd) 20:58, 29 April 2022 (UTC)

 * , Jules has explained above what DEFAULTSORT is. I use it in the incubator since all pages have prefix Wp/enm. Also in English Wikibooks all pages have a prefix (the book name). Does BookCat take care of this. - 🇺🇦 Slava🇺🇦Ukraini 🇺🇦 Heroyam🇺🇦Slava🇺🇦(talk)🇺🇦 06:58, 30 April 2022 (UTC)
 * BookCat adds the catogory of the book it is part of to it. Also, don't make the mistake of using it on the main page of a book ;p I did! L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 08:51, 30 April 2022 (UTC)
 * generally we don't add any cats to books, short of those added automatically by the CCO Resources. See Wikibooks Stacks/Adding books, any subcats should be subpages of the book category. So in this sense Wikibooks is very different to Wikipedia, but it's because books should try to be self-contained units, and linking to other books should be fairly minimal, and these include inter-book categories which are discouraged. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 11:01, 30 April 2022 (UTC)
 * I see. I was asking how Category:Book:Minecraft Mobs knows how sort them, like why aren’t all listed as pages that begin with M. After checking Template:BookCat, I saw the template takes care of the sortkey. Also I understand why you don’t use DEFAULTSORT (because it won’t be in many categories). - 🇺🇦 Slava🇺🇦Ukraini 🇺🇦 Heroyam🇺🇦Slava🇺🇦(talk)🇺🇦 11:26, 30 April 2022 (UTC)

Does moving a page move subpages?
If not, could I get sombody to make a bot move them? And who would I go to? Thanks. I want Guide to the Godot game engine/What I can code with (and sub-pages) moved to Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming (without redirect. I'll fix broken links). L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 13:20, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

 * It depends on the account. With an admin account you have the right "Move pages with their subpages (up to 500 pages at once) (move-subpages)"; see Special:ListGroupRights. But no other user groups have this right.
 * Would you like for me to move Guide to the Godot game engine/What I can code with to Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming, including subpages? Be aware that this may break links, and might need quite a lot of cleanup should I do so. There are 47 subpages that would also be moved. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:32, 4 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Only 2 links to the "parent" page: On the main page of the book and your talk page. And the last one probably isn't worth it ;) L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 13:37, 4 May 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅, you will need to be update those links. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:41, 4 May 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ and now I got 27 or something new notifications and watchlist entries. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 13:52, 4 May 2022 (UTC)
 * And I'm gonna get 27-47 new ones soon. I'm truly sorry, but there's a typo. It should be "programing", not "programming". Please can you move them again? Thanks. I know you're away, but this is for when you come back. Truly sorry about this.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 08:47, 13 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Ahh, please can you do this? Thanks.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 09:15, 13 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I don't think my ping was sent. Please read above. Thank-you.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 19:22, 13 May 2022 (UTC)
 * I've been away. Do you still want this actioned? -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:33, 15 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes please (I knew that you were away)L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 07:59, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Done. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:50, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Crap. It was right before :(. I only just figured it out, but (truly sorry again) can you move it back please? I'm full of shame for this mistake. Yet I can't stop giggling... (Say "no" if I ask again!)L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:59, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
 * I'm also putting this on my userpage in my "list of mistakes"L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 15:08, 16 May 2022 (UTC)

ha ha I thought it was a rather odd request! Back at Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming now. I'll remember this next time I mess up completely. Murphy's law for why this happens. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 16:38, 16 May 2022 (UTC)

Other
Oh my, I think I'm having an edit war with, of all people... Myself! I undid an edit. Then I undid it by accident by pressing "rollback" - which doesn't ask for confirmation, sadly - only to then undo the rollback to correct the mistake. 3 reverts. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 11:08, 11 May 2022 (UTC)
 * That shouldn't happen again. I found a preferences setting that asks for rollback confirmation. And also tested it (on my sandbox to be safe).L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 13:03, 11 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Oh that's interesting. What setting did you change? I didn't realize you could do that. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 15:55, 11 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Under "Advanced options", turn on "Show confirmation when using rollback links"... or something along those lines. I think it's new, I haven't seen it before.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 17:27, 11 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Oh yeah, Special:Preferences "Show a confirmation prompt when clicking on a rollback link". Never knew it was there.
 * One tends to find new things all the time, it's so freaking complicated. And what I do learn I tend to forget! Such is life as they say...
 * Thanks for the "IlttIe Caesars" above. But I'm going away for a few days, so I may not log-in while I'm gone, so may not be around to block anyone else. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 18:41, 11 May 2022 (UTC)

Page delete
Please delete my IPs talk page you may remember I added a link to my userpage on. If possible, please also not show page content. Thanks.L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 07:46, 17 May 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 20:19, 17 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Ahh, thanks. You did it so well that your contributions don't show you did it, yet I can't find the page. Thank you. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 20:53, 17 May 2022 (UTC)

TOC front page for book
Jules, I've created a TOC for the Oberon book, analogous to Brief History of Europe/TOC. Comments welcome. Delaying change in Oberon pending feedback. Thx, ... PeterEasthope (discuss • contribs) 04:15, 29 May 2022 (UTC)

P.s. Can't find the discussion where you suggested I look at Brief History of Europe. ... Correction, the discussion is in Reading Room/General at 2022-05-03. One detail I haven't caught: is there an advantage to putting the contents in Brief_History_of_Europe/TOC rather than directly in Brief_History_of_Europe? Thanks, ... PeterEasthope (discuss • contribs) 13:46, 29 May 2022 (UTC)

 * looking good I think! No I don't think there is any particular advantage in putting the TOC on a subpage; you can do so, but it makes little difference I think. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 00:19, 4 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Overhaul completed. Big improvement. Oberon. Thanks for prompting in this direction! ... PeterEasthope (discuss • contribs) 15:40, 10 June 2022 (UTC)

A ton of page deletes, please
Sub-pages (only) of Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming/GDScript/Data types and Guide to the Godot game engine/Programming/GDScript/Keywords. The contents of all subpages have been added to the page above it, with any templates substituted. Thanks. (Though please tell me if I missed something, or if the pages look different after deleting the subpages.)L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:55, 1 June 2022 (UTC)
 * just to be clear you want all the pages Special:PrefixIndex/Guide_to_the_Godot_game_engine/Programming/GDScript/Data_types/ and Special:PrefixIndex/Guide_to_the_Godot_game_engine/Programming/GDScript/Keywords/ deleted? -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 00:07, 4 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes. Little use in keeping them now. Thanks. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 05:54, 4 June 2022 (UTC)
 * By the way: no. I'm not gonna come back saying "Oh shit, can you undelete them? Thanks.". Well, I shouldn't. If I do...  Say "no" (see )L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 20:47, 4 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes_check.svg Done . If you do change your mind you might hear a audible groan across the Internet ha ha! -- Jules  (Mrjulesd) 21:37, 4 June 2022 (UTC)

Range block
Hi, can you please confirm that I blocked the correct thing. Tried to block a range of IP addresses related to the endless word list page creations. I'm wary of blocking ranges of IPs but I think I did it right as once I blocked the range it showed that you had already blocked the same range about 6 weeks ago. here--Xania   talk 13:51, 3 June 2022 (UTC)
 * yes that is the correct range I think. Please note that a Ipv6 /64 range-block should only block a single connection, see mw:Help:Range blocks/IPv6 and w:User:TonyBallioni/Just block the /64 for an explanation. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 23:37, 3 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks --Xania [[Image:Flag_of_the_Isle_of_Mann.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] talk 01:17, 4 June 2022 (UTC)

Shelf:Novial
Hi Jules, I think there should be a subshelf for Novial in Shelf:Constructed languages. There are 3 books: Novial, Fasili Novial, and Saluto, Jonathan!. - 🇺🇦 Слава🇺🇦Україні 🇺🇦 Героям🇺🇦Слава🇺🇦 (talk)🇺🇦 16:19, 3 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi I have created Shelf:Novial which can now be populated. -- Jules  (Mrjulesd) 00:13, 4 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much! - 🇺🇦 Слава🇺🇦Україні 🇺🇦 Героям🇺🇦Слава🇺🇦 (talk)🇺🇦 05:38, 4 June 2022 (UTC)

Deletion
I don't see why the discussion for deleting that page was ended so soon. There were only a few votes made and the only arguments against deletion related to either past discussions about that page or policy. --Xania   talk 02:58, 6 June 2022 (UTC)

 * apologies you have a point. On Wikipedia, AfDs are closed after a week, which is what I went by. But rereading Deletion policy I feel it is different, as it states "One week after the last comment if participants have mostly reached consensus about what to do, action will be taken by an administrator", and it wasn't left open a week after the last comment, although it had been open since 25 May. But if you want to reverse my close and reopen for a longer period I wont object. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:08, 6 June 2022 (UTC)
 * No, it's all good. I knew that any discussion/vote would end up as 'keep' so I'm not sure what I'm getting all worked up about.--Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] talk 13:46, 6 June 2022 (UTC)

An idea...
I thought Minecraft Mobs, maybe I could turn it to a full book, like a kind of Minecraft encyclopedia (out of Wikipedia's scope as I intend to incude tips for using everything). But I am known to having strange and ambitious ideas like this, that usually (61%) fail or are forgotten, so please tell me if such an idea is foolish or is "strange and ambitious" before I do so. And of course if this style of book would be acceptable. I once had an idea for this kind of thing, but gave up once I realized it was on pen and paper and I would likely need to rewrite it all over again. But now I will only need to write it once. And I don't need to pay for 6000 sheets of paper, 700 pencils and 50 rubbers (and wait 3 years, most of it waiting for paper)

This "enclypedia" will start with only the notable things (mobs, transport, structures, commonly wanted tutorials and first day, some blocks and items - with room to add too).

The layout plan is like this:

Minecraft

Minecraft/Mobs -> links to:
 * Minecraft/Cat
 * Minecraft/Chicken
 * ect

Minecraft/Blocks -> links to:
 * Minecraft/Diamond Ore
 * ect

Minecraft/Items -> links to pages like above

ect

Each page would have a box at the bottom linking to similar pages of the same category (so mob pages link to other mob pages, seperated based on location (done by template)), and an infobox at the top (idea taken from the stardew valley wiki).

Input and ideas by you, @Atcovi and other random people is welcome (and appreciated). L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 10:01, 6 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Okay, not quite an encyclopedia if Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter isn't considered one. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 12:32, 6 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I saw your active now, but you havn't replied yet. Any reasons to this or am I just being too inpatient? L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 14:19, 6 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I wouldn't see any issue with it. If I have time, I also don't mind helping you out. Me and Mrjulesd can track the progress of your book. And FYI, I'm sure Mrjulesd will respond to your message. I would give it more time. Thanks for your help! —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 03:03, 7 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I have begun the first steps. What is that template that says "This article is about X. For Y, please go to #|Y." L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 10:07, 7 June 2022 (UTC)
 * I've never put a template for that. I just wrote it manually. Check the wikicode of articles that have that statement. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 03:25, 9 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Also, "page views in the past 30 days" is that how many times the page is opened or how many people open it? Or how many times it's opened not counting times the same person opens it in the same day? Thanks. (it is around 130 for the book main page.)L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 08:28, 9 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Page views refers to the number of times "a page has been requested" - aka how many times people/bots have opened it. I wouldn't exactly conclude that 130 different people have opened up the main page because you'd have to factor in bots (bots from google, for example) and I'm not sure if the tool is 100% accurate. See Wikipedia:Pageview statistics for more information. But don't worry too much about it - since it's not 100% accurate, it wouldn't make sense to base a page's value on it. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 19:50, 9 June 2022 (UTC)

Hi I also have an idea my idea is about a website for kids and teens it is a website that educates children so I need help to create this website please let me know on my watch page. Goku (discuss • contribs) 19:26, 18 June 2022 (UTC)

A dewikified page has a missing image from Wikipedia
The image was at before it was deleted. I have no idea what to do, or if to just remove the file link, but I'm sure that you might. Thanks. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 15:02, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

Shelf:Ido
Why does Shelf:Ido redirect to Category:Shelf:Ido? Is it normal? Thanks in advance, - 🇺🇦 Слава🇺🇦Україні 🇺🇦 Героям🇺🇦Слава🇺🇦 (talk)🇺🇦 19:18, 28 October 2022 (UTC)

Greetings
Hi @Mrjulesd, how are you doing? Yayyy, it’s me again, we e-met sometimes ago when we held the Nigerian Cuisine event which saw the cookbook been enriched with a lot of Nigerian cuisine, thank you so much for your support throughout the project.

This is to bring to your notice that we have initiated a follow up project called African Cuisine, to drill down into some more African cuisine and specifically improve and clean up some of the articles created during Nigerian Cuisine.

As always your support would really be appreciated.

Kind regards B.Korlah (discuss • contribs) 06:24, 13 June 2023 (UTC)

New book idea
Hi there,

I’m new here. Do you think a reference guide for cases in the Ukrainian language is in the scope of Wikibooks? Thanks in advance, -Futurama forever (discuss • contribs) 15:01, 16 June 2023 (UTC)

Admin inactivity
Hi, Mrjulesd, please see Requests for permissions. --SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 09:29, 1 April 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mrjulesd


text:
User:Sergey Romanov

I co-run the anti-denial blog Holocaust Controversies. Among other things I have written "Rebutting the 'Twitter denial': the most popular denier memes debunked".

title: User:Sergey Romanov


text:
User:Rcampbell1/sandbox

Lagrange interpolation is an algorithm which returns the polynomial of minimum degree which passes through a given set of points {$(x_{i}, y_{i})$}.

Algorithm
Given the $n$ points $(x_{0}, y_{0}), ..., (x_{n-1}, y_{n-1})$, compute the Lagrange polynomial $$p(x) = \sum_{i=0,...,n-1}y_i\frac{\prod_{j\neq i}(x-x_j)}{\prod_{j\neq i}(x_i-x_j)}$$. Note that the $i^{th}$ term in the sum, $$y_i\frac{\prod_{j\neq i}(x-x_j)}{\prod_{j\neq i}(x_i-x_j)}$$ is constructed so that when $x_{j}$ is substituted for $x$ to have a value of zero whenever $j≠i$, and a value of $y_{j}$ whenever $j$ = $i$. The resulting Lagrange polynomial is the sum of these terms, so has a value of $p(x_{j})$ = $0 + 0 + ... + y_{j} + ... + 0$ = $y_{j}$ for each of the specified points $(x_{j}, y_{j})$.

In both the pseudocode and each implementation below, the polynomial $p(x)$ = $a_{0} + a_{1}x + a_{2}x^{2} + ... + a_{n-1}x^{n-1}$ is represented as an array of it's coefficients, $(a_{0}, a_{1}, a_{2}, ..., a_{n-1})$.

Pseudocode
algorithm lagrange-interpolate is input: points $(x_{0}, y_{0}), ..., (x_{n-1}, y_{n-1})$ output: Polynomial p such that $p(x)$ passes through the input points and is of minimal degree for each point (xi, yi) do compute tmp := $$y_i/\prod_{j\neq i}(x_i-x_j)$$ compute term := tmp*$$\left(\prod_{j\neq i}(x-x_j)\right)$$ return p, the sum of the values of term

In sample implementations below, the polynomial $p(x)$ = $a_{0} + a_{1}x + a_{2}x^{2} + ... + a_{n-1}x^{n-1}$ is represented as an array of it's coefficients, $(a_{0}, a_{1}, a_{2}, ..., a_{n-1})$.

While the code is written to expect points taken from the real numbers (aka floating point), returning a polynomial with coefficients in the reals, this basic algorithm can be adapted to work with inputs and polynomial coefficients from any field, such as the complex numbers, integers mod a prime or finite fields.

title: User:Rcampbell1/sandbox


text:
Exercise as it relates to Disease/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children

Effect of Low Cost Teacher Directed Classroom Intervention on elementary Students' Physical Activity

What is the background to this research?
The school system has been identified as a logical tool for increasing children's involvement in physical activity. For this reason a study was conducted to explore the effect of a classroom-based physical activity intervention. This paper explores the impact of a low-cost, teacher-directed classroom intervention for increasing elementary student's physical activity.

Statistical evidence identifies that youths with low physical activity levels are at a higher risk of negative health effects. A wide range of research has demonstrated a significant and positive outcome for physical activity interventions in schools. However, these interventions resulted from highly funded grants requiring significant resources to implement and maintain. This paper identified the need for research surrounding a classroom intervention that was low in cost, easy to implement and effective in its results.

This study is important as it fills the gap in existing research by exploring a classroom physical activity intervention that is low in cost, resources and effective in increasing children's activity during the school day. It has been noted that there is a reduction in physical education programs resultant from low funding in schools, pressures on teachers to focus on academic standards and economical fluctuations. For these reasons a simple, low-cost method that requires minimal training to implement is a valuable tool to enhance physical activity levels.

Where is the research from?
Published in 2011, this research study was conducted in America with the intervention being implemented in two elementary schools residing in the Southern East of the United States. This is significant as the study is based off previous research and statistical data conducted in America. Since publication, the study has been cited fifty-three times, remaining relevant throughout decades.

The research article was published by the American School Health Association (ASHA). ASHA was founded in 1927, with memberships available to professionals promoting school health. The authors have each been involved in a number of research articles, with each one involved in at least one research paper similar in nature to this one, ensuring a high level of expertise. All authors have obtained a Doctor of Philosophy (PHD).

Participants were required to wear a pedometer from Walk4Life. It was reported that this brand was selected as it is accurate and appropriate for research with children.

What kind of research was this?
The study was a Randomised Control Trial (RCT), a gold standard method for studying exposures such as physical activity. An RCT is most likely to demonstrate a link between the intervention and respective health outcome due to the randomised nature of the study.

Advantages of RCTs include:

 * Eliminates biases.
 * Safe for testing.
 * Minimal expense to conduct.
 * High success rate.
 * Control groups.

In comparison to other types of research, an RCT is best for obtaining accurate data as a clear relationship between the intervention and participants can be established. A meta-analysis could be beneficial, as the conclusion is supported by a wide range of literature, determining a highly accurate outcome. However, if the results from the studies differed, drawing an accurate conclusion may be difficult. An observational study would not be viable for an exercise intervention due to the lack of interaction from the researchers.

What did the research involve?
Participants 106 students ranging from grade three to five.

Method

The procedure of this study consisted of activity break cards provided to the teachers to conduct with their students. The activity breaks were roughly five to ten minutes in length and consisted of movement activities that were suited to a small space. Students were fitted with pedometers and given training on how to use them.

Limitations

Limitations included lack of specification surrounding the length of each classroom physical activity break. It was noted that this would be beneficial in determining optimal length and regularity of movement breaks.

Due to the nature of the research study, the authors were limited in accruing participants for optimal data collection; a number of students dropped out of the study, transferred schools or had malfunctioning pedometers. It was noted that the pedometers may not have been accurate due to user faults. Furthermore, pedometers are not capable of determining exercise intensity. In order to be more accurate, future research should explore the impact of intensity, length of time and type of movement.

What were the basic results?
Main Findings

Teachers who complied with the intervention improved student's average steps during the school day by 33%. These students had more steps in comparison to children in the control and non-compliance groups. The intervention was most effective in classrooms where the teacher implemented at least one activity break per day.

Analysis of Results

Students in the compliance intervention demonstrated a significantly increased number of steps. There were no significant differences between gender, however it was noted this data is not valid as there was a significantly higher number of girls than boys. Baseline measures ensured accurate analysis of follow up and post follow up data. The results demonstrated a large effect size and good validity due to minimisation of biases and the large number of participants.

A simple dose-response relationship has been supported through statistical significance and the conclusion does not stray from or exemplify this data.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
Conclusively, the implementation of a low-cost, teacher directed, classroom based physical activity intervention was effective in increasing student's accumulation of steps during the school day. As reported by more recent journals, the results of this article have been accurately reported and a concise conclusion has been devised.

Comparatively, the conclusions from other researchers and insight for future research appear similar. A number of studies have demonstrated that classroom based physical activity is an effective method in ensuring daily activity levels are increased. The majority of research is based around pedometers and step counting as it is cost effective and easy to use. More recent studies utilised measurements of height, weight, body mass index and adiposity to enhance data collection. However, it is apparent that in order for research to be more concise, accelerometers and analysis of exercise time, type and intensity would be beneficial.

Practical advice
This study suggests that activity breaks, consisting of fitness and locomotion tasks, increases the number of steps accumulated per day. However, it is important to recognise that these activity breaks should compliment two daily recess breaks, two weekly 30 minute physical education classes and, ideally, after school activity. While interspersing short activity breaks between education classes has increased accumulated number of steps, it is not enough to meet daily physical activity guidelines. As recommended by the authors, children should be encouraged to participate in before/after school programs, engage in physical activity at home and participate in physical education classes.

Monitoring Progress

Pedometers have been shown to be effective and low cost tools for monitoring exercise in this age demographic. However, it would be beneficial to utilise heart rate monitors and accelerometers in order to monitor progression of the activity intensity and length of time. Progression of activity is important as it ensures the students are motivated and engaged.

Conclusively

Classroom-based and school-based activity programs should be implemented in all schools as it ensures all students have equal opportunities during school hours to be physically active and develop healthy habits. However, children should be encouraged to engage in extracurricular activities to meet physical activity guidelines.

Further information/resources
How YOU can get active:

 * Just Play

Australian School Based Exercise Initiatives:

 * Healthy Kids
 * Healthy Harold
 * Active Kids

Other interesting research articles:

 * Children’s Physical Activity Levels Following Participation in a Classroom-Based Physical Activity Curriculum
 * The Patterns of Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity and Physical Education Enjoyment Through a 2‐Year School‐Based Program
 * Effects of different types of classroom physical activity breaks on children’s on‐task behaviour, academic achievement and cognition


text:
Exercise as it relates to Disease/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients

This is a critique of the article "Long-Term exercise training in persons with spinal cord injury: effects on strength, arm ergometry performance and psychological well-being" by AL Hicks, KA Martin, DS Ditor, AE Latimer, C Craven, J Bugaresti and N McCartney.

What is the background to this research?
Despite major medical advancements and improvements in life expectancy, many individuals (approximately 70% ) with a spinal cord injury (SCI) suffer from secondary factors as a result of the physical disability including stress, depression, pain, quality of life, functional ability (independence) and inactivity-related chronic diseases. As rehabilitation for SCI shifts from extension of life to enhancement of it, there is a gap in the existing literature on the importance of regular and consistent long-term physical activity. While it has been proven that physical activity in individuals with a SCI is important for maintaining health and increasing independence, little research had been conducted on clinical practice guidelines for prescribing exercise, and the impact of this exercise on psychological well-being of individuals.

Where is the research from?
The study was conducted in the Centre for Health Promotion and Rehabilitation, McMaster University in Canada. The lead author, Audrey Hicks, is a reputable scholar and professor at Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University and has over 159 research items. Dr Hicks is highly regarded for her work on exercise rehabilitation in special reference to individuals with mobility impairments resulting from either SCI or multiple sclerosis. The study was supported by a grant from the Ontario Neurotrauma Foundation which strives to provide integrated, efficient and equitable support and care for people living with SCI and acquired brain injuries.

What kind of research was this?
The research conducted was a randomised controlled trial of exercise training, with patients being allocated to either an exercise group, or control group. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are deemed the gold-standard in clinical research for examining safety and efficacy of new treatments. This was an appropriate choice of methodology as RCTs are designed to be unbiased (classed as the highest level of evidence) and the structure of the study allows for clear statistical analysis between the exercising and control groups.

What did the research involve?
Over a period of 9-months 34 participants took place in the study and were randomly allocated to an exercise group which completed twice-weekly exercise sessions lasting 90–120 minutes(n = 21) or were part of the control group (n = 13) who had access to bi-monthly information sessions. Participants comprised of both males and females aged 19–65 years that had suffered traumatic spinal cord injuries of 1–24 years in duration. The exercise sessions consisted of an aerobic portion involving arm ergometry for 15-30minutes at 70% MHR, and a resistance portion consisting of wall-pully exercises, free weights and an Equaliser-weight machine.

Assessments consisted of 1RM strength testing, arm ergometry, and a series of psychological tests testing quality of life components (stress, depression, physical self-concept, pain, perceived health and quality of life). These tests were taken at baseline, 3, 6, and 9-months post.

Study Strengths
 * Gold-standard methodology design
 * Examines both physiological and psychological outcome measures
 * Participants assigned to exercise or control groups at a 2:1 ratio as a higher dropout was anticipated for exercising individuals (sample size needed to be sufficiently large enough for statistical analysis. )

Study Limitations
 * Program completion was an issue with only 11 out of the 21 participants completing the full 9-month duration of the program
 * Psychological well-being could have been influenced by the social-setting of the exercise group rather than being purely interpreted from exercise (control group did not have access to such social interactions)
 * Unsure of the level of activity the control group participated in outside of the program

What were the basic results?
The study found the following key results:
 * Twice-weekly strength and endurance training results in significant increases in strength, arm ergometry performance and quality of life
 * Subjects experienced decreased pain and increase physical functioning
 * Positive adaptations over the 9-months allowed subjects to perform daily living tasks much easier than at baseline, resulting in greater independence

What conclusions can we take from this research?
Overall the study provides evidence to practitioners that exercise is important in the maintenance and development of a healthy lifestyle for individuals with SCIs. This research is supported by the formulation of recent evidence-based guidelines on the type and minimum dose of exercise necessary to improve fitness and cardiometabolic health in SCI adults. A follow up study conducted by DS Ditor and accompanied by AL Hiks examined the voluntary continuation of exercise training after the original study had ended, and its subsequent implications on the patient's psychological well-being. This study found that after a significant decrease in program adherence 3-months post study, participants reported decreases in perceived quality of life, as well as increases in pain and stress.

Practical advice
If you are an individual that has sustained a spinal cord injury, there are a number of ways you can improve both your physiological and psychological well-being
 * Participate in 20 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity aerobic exercise 2x a week
 * AND 3 sets of strength exercises for each major functioning muscle group at moderate to vigorous intensity 2x a week
 * Seek aid from an Exercise Physiologist or SCI-related company if you are unsure on what programs are for offer, what exercise you should be doing and how to train around possible limitations

Further information/resources
If you are interested, listed below are some more information regarding SCI and physical activity, as well as links to companies mentioned in this review.
 * The Ontario Neurotrauma Foundation https://onf.org/
 * SCI Action Guidelines for Activity http://sciactioncanada.ca/docs/guidelines/spinal-cord-injury-guidelines-blue.pdf


text:
User:Hadi.Nasereddine/sandbox

/ Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Improves Physical Fitness in Older Adults with Rheumatoid Arthritis / the weather is nice

title: User:Hadi.Nasereddine/sandbox


text:
Exercise as it relates to Disease/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?

What is the background to this research?
This research paper seeks to identify whether there is a relationship between the level of physical activity undertaken by children while at school, and whether this impacts their PA levels outside of school hours. This is a gap commonly found in literature as most studies revolve around influencing factors such as the physical environment or parenting factors

In 2016, the World Health Organisation stated that 41 million children under the age of 5 were overweight or obese, while 340 million children and adolescents were overweight or obese. With research proving that in conjunction with healthy eating, physical activity is a critical factor in both maintaining health and losing weight, it becomes clear as to why studies such as this are important for helping to combat childhood obesity.

Where is the research from?
At the time of this research paper being written, the two head researchers, Darren Dale and Charles B. Corbin were both practising in the health field at their respective universities.

Darren Dale worked in the Department of Health, Kinesiology and Leisure Studies at Purdue University, while Charles B. Corbin worked with the Department of Exercise Science and Physical Education at Arizona State University. Both of these men were highly regarded for their studies in the children and adolescents health and physical education field, and have produced many high quality papers throughout their years in the field. Kathleen S. Dale also provided valuable contribution to the study through her role at Mt. Carmel Elementary School in Tempe, Arizona.

Throughout the study it does not appear as though there is any sort of bias which may be created by either organisational or sponsorship links that could generate a conflict of interest. The only significant mention of another party which may have created a conflict in interest is the use of the specific 'Computer Science and Applications Accelerometer (CSA)', but this is merely to provide detail about the devices that were used.

What kind of research was this?
This research paper utilises a quasi-experimental research design to help reach its desired outcomes. A quasi-experimental design functions by manipulating an independent variable in the attempt to then record changes in another set of variables.

In the instance of this research, the independent variable which is being altered is the structure of the schooling day surrounding whether or not there is physical activity being scheduled. This is then intended to impact the dependent variable of whether there is an increase or decrease in the amount of physical activity which is completed outside of school hours.

In regards to the validity of the quasi-experimental design, there are four key points surrounding the model; This provides both positive and negative factors, as with most research methods, but succeeds in reaching the intended set of results in identifying a trend in physical activity outside of school hours.
 * Can only test casual hypothesis
 * Lacks random assignment to test groups
 * Identify a comparison group as similar as possible to treatment group
 * Different techniques for creating a valid comparison group

What did the research involve?
This research sought to determine whether the structuring of the school day had an impact on the level of physical activity that children complete outside of school hours. The study observed 76 children from both third and fourth grade using a CSA accelerometer to track activity throughout the day. Children were tracked for a total of four days throughout a 14-week period, two of these days being 'active' and two being 'restricted'. An active day was defined as a school day where children participated in physical education classes and outdoor recess play, while restricted days involved children staying inside during recess and not having scheduled physical education class. The recorded time frames of activity were 9am-3pm (during school) and 3pm-7:30pm (after school).

The study utilised the approach of qualitative research in conjunction with having a set of variables to determine results of the study. The three variables of the study were Independent (School day structure), Dependent (Student activity level) and Constant (CSA Accelerometer). Identifying these three variables is a crucial step, as it is highly important to know which variable can be changed to assist in finding the correct information. In relation to the objectives of this study, a method such as this is the most effective way of conducting the research due to its ability to account for numerous aspects which are all seeing changes occur.

What were the basic results?
The study found that there was a direct link between the structuring of the school day and the amount of physical activity which was conducted outside of school hours. On days where children participated in a scheduled physical education class and were able to play outside during recess, it was shown that there was almost 3 times as much physical activity completed outside of school hours (3pm-7:30pm) when compared to school days with no scheduled activity and restriction to being inside during recess.

Upon the conclusion of this report, the major hypothesis was made surrounding the importance of having central nervous system (CNS) arousal in children and the impact of lowering their energy expenditure. It was initially argued that limiting children's amount of physical activity during the school day would then lead to them compensating for this through an increase of activity after the school day. The findings of this research found this to be incorrect, as children's amount of physical activity was lower on the days where their activity was limited throughout the school day.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
From the findings of this research we can begin to draw the conclusions that the structuring of the school day does have a direct impact on the amount of physical activity which children complete outside of school hours. There was a strong link established between children participating in scheduled physical activity classes and increased physical activity levels. It was hypothesised that the lack of stimulation of the CNS from a sedentary school day would lead to increases in activity outside of school as compensation, although this was not the case. This is likely because the limited stimulation of the CNS contributes to a fatiguing of the system, therefore leading to lower energy levels in the system.

It is agreeable that this hypothesis is highly likely as being the key contributing factor to this scenario, and difficult to be argued due to the lack of other literature addressing this topic.

Practical advice
Although there are strong hypothesis made about reasons why physical activity is not made up for outside of school hours, there are still numerous areas which may provide implications to the results. Some factors which may have impacted the accuracy of results are;
 * The family commitments of children outside of school hours on active/non-active days
 * Scheduled sports training after school hours
 * The children's dietary intake on a particular day (low energy or high energy intakes)
 * Amount/urgency of homework having to be completed outside of school

A study like this would greatly benefit from having a method of follow on approach regarding how children can fit physical activity into their day. This could be through the implementation of a physical activity education program, where children are better informed about the importance of incorporating enough activity into their day, and examples of how they can account for this.

Further information/resources
Further information for this specific topic is difficult to find as there is not research done specifically in this area. Content surrounding children's health can be found at the following sites;
 * Child activity guidelines - World Health Organisation
 * Children 5-12 years - Australian Activity Guidelines
 * Motivating Kids to Be Active
 * Heart Foundation - Get Active
 * Australian Medical Association