text:
World of Dinosaurs/Dinosaur Clades

SAURISCHIANS
"lizard hips"

This clade includes theropods and sauropods.

 * Yes, this means that our ferocious meat-eaters are in a clade with our dopey long-necked plant eaters.
 * They are called "lizard hipped" because their pelvis makes a nice triangle when viewed from the side:
 * The illium rests alongside the sacral vertebrae.
 * The ischium frames the rear plumbing. Poop!
 * The pubis generally extends from the closure of the femur-socket to the lower belly area of the animal.
 * This is in CONTRAST to the "bird hipped" ornithischian dinosaurs that have a rear-facing part on the pubis bones.
 * Ironically, the "bird hipped" dinosaurs are an ENTIRELY extinct clade that does NOT include birds.
 * Facepalm!

Theropods

 * word means:"Beast foot".
 * Clade includes: The last common ancestor of a pigeon and a Coelophysis and all of its descendants.
 * Critical traits:
 * furcula ("wish bone")
 * reduced number of digits on limbs
 * shin bone: bigger tibia, smaller fibula
 * foot: stands on toes, lots of changes in the foot bones

Sub-clades within Theropods
These are groups that we want to be able to distinguish and read about in cladograms.

 * Tetanurae (stiff tail)
 * Who's in: last common ancestor of Spinosaurus & pigeon and all it's descendants
 * Key trait: teeth at front of jaws
 * Avetheropoda (bird beast foot)
 * Who's in: Last common ancestor of Allosaurus & pigeon, and all its descendants
 * Key traits:
 * max 3 fingers on hand
 * bigger air pockets in vertebrae
 * Maniraptora (hand theif!)
 * Who's in: Last common ancestor of a therazinosaur & pigeon, and all its descendants.
 * Key trait: half-moon wrist bone ("semi-lunate carpal")
 * SWEET new research on hip muscles in this group, and what it has to do with birds!
 * Paraves (Kinda birds)
 * Who's in: Last common ancestor of Utahraptor & pigeon, and all its descendants
 * Key trait: pennaceous feathers attach directly to the shin
 * https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-017-1496-y
 * Aves (Birds, legit)
 * Who's in: Last common ancestor of Confusiusornis & pigeon, and all its descendants.
 * Key trait: PYGOSTYLE! (stumpy tail bone instead of a long bony tail).
 * Alternately Avialae, but let's not get too picky!
 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avialae
 * Who's in: Last common ancestor of Confusiusornis & pigeon, and all its descendants.
 * Key trait: PYGOSTYLE! (stumpy tail bone instead of a long bony tail).
 * Alternately Avialae, but let's not get too picky!
 * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avialae

Sauropodomorphs
"Lizard foot-shaped-ish". Long-necked dinosaurs are in this clade.

Some of the most basal dinosaur fossils we have might be sauropodomorphs - paleontologists argue about this as they keep finding new fossils.

A good example is Eoraptor ("dawn thief").

 * Initially it was described as a basal theropod,
 * but it might be a basal sauropodomorph,
 * and in this class we're just keeping it in the very basal bullpen of dinosaur clades.

Definitely a basal sauropod is the big, goofy Plateosaurus ("flat lizard").

 * Plateosaurus walked on two legs, just like other basal dinosaurs.
 * Recent fossil reconstructions emphasize that the forelimbs were not positioned to hold the animal's weight.
 * Generally you can distinguish it from theropods because it retains five fingers and five toes.
 * Plateosaurus shows off traits that distinguish sauropodomorphs from derived theropods:
 * robust, long, thick femur
 * long neck
 * very small head, compared to the body!

Sauropods
The more derived long-neck dinosaurs are proper sauropods.

Surprising things about Sauropods include:

 * Quadrupedal posture (walking on four legs) is a derived trait in Sauropods.
 * Basal dinosaurs, including basal sauropodomorphs, walked on two legs.
 * Derived Sauropods have thick, dense leg bones, like pillars of a huge suspension bridge.
 * Sauropods did NOT chew their food!
 * They certainly ate plant material, and a LOT of it!
 * But they did not grind up the plants in their mouth. We can tell because:
 * They don't have cheeks to keep the food in their mouth while chewing!
 * They don't have flat grinding teeth.
 * When their teeth DO show wear-marks, it's from repeated crashing together of the teeth in the upper-and-lower jaw.
 * Think of their jaws like hedge-clippers, not like a wood chipper.
 * Sauropods have five toes on their back feet, with big claws.
 * Their ankle would be a little off the ground, but not high up like theropods.
 * There would probably be a pad of fat under the foot, like an elephant.
 * UNLIKE an elephant, Sauropod feet have big claws. It seems weird for walking but they figured it out.
 * This is why they're called "lizard foot"; living lizards today have five long toes with claws.
 * Sauropod vertebrae have big air pockets!
 * Think of their spine like the archways of a suspension bridge crossing a river or bay.
 * Complex struts extend between the elements in the archway to keep it from collapsing, folding, or bending at too sharp an angle.
 * Air pockets probably helped reduce the overall mass in a Sauropod body.
 * Air pockets in bones are a basal dinosaur trait (and probably basal to ornithodira - including the flying pteranodon), but big air pockets are a derived trait in Sauropods AND Theropods.

Within Sauropods we can consider two sister clades.

Diplodocoids
"Two beams".

These are long, long, long long dinosaurs!

 * Many Diplodocoids have long, whip-like tails, and very long necks.
 * Rather than sticking straight up, the neck may have stretched out in a long, sweeping arc to munch on brush and low plants.

Diplodocoids have long faces and peg-like teeth.

 * Their skulls are very flat compared to basal dinosaurs, with a silly smooshed, wide face.
 * The end of their mouth has little peg-like teeth.

We will pay attention to two Diplodocoids in this class.

Diplodocus, a classic example of the clade.

Barosaurus, a Diplodocoid common in Utah from Jurassic rocks. It's on display in the Natural History Museum of Utah.

Macronaria
"Big nose"

These are tall, bulky dinosaurus.

 * This clade includes the biggest dinosaurs ever, including the Titanosaurs and Argintinasaurus.
 * Their tails are not so long as Diplodocoids.
 * Their necks could probably support a more upright posture, a little more like a giraffe.
 * Their front legs actually get longer than their back legs, giving some derived ones kind of a sloped posture like an inbred German Shepard dog.
 * Their heads have a bulky nasal cavity structure on top.

We will pay attention to two Macronarians in this class.

Brachiosaurus, a classic example of the clade. It lived late in the time of dinosaurs.

Camarasaurus, a Macronarian common in Utah from Jurassic rocks. There are LOTS of them in Dinosaur National Monument.

ORNITHISCHIANS
"Bird Hips"

Welcome to a very important dinosaur category that has a very silly name!

Ornithischians include:

 * The last common ancestor of a spiky Stegosaurus and a horned Utahceratops, plus all of its descendants.
 * Most of the classic, easy to recognize "plant eating" dinosaurs EXCEPT the long-necked Sauropods.
 * At least two different independent lineages of quadrupedal gait!

What traits distinguish an Ornithischian dinosaur from other dinosaurs?

 * The pre-dentary bone.
 * This is a "beak"-like tip on the lower jaw. It is an additional little bone that makes the jaw come to a tip.
 * Once you know what to look for, it's pretty easy to recognize on the skull of ornithischian dinosaurs.
 * The predentary bone is present in basal ornithischians,
 * AND the predentary bone is critical to the fancy feeding structures that appear in derived ornithischians.

 * A rear-facing projection on the pubis bone.
 * The dinosaur pelvis is made of three bones: illium, ischium, and pubis.
 * The illium runs parallel to the spine. This is the part that gets all expanded like a big shield in the derived armored Thyreophoran dinosaurs like ankylosaurids.
 * The ischium frames the rear-end plumbing of the animal. (Rather than the specialized variety of pelvic anatomy found in most mammals, we can guess dinosaurs had a simple multi-purpose outlet channel, called a cloaca, like frogs and birds have today.)
 * The pubis bone produces the forward corner of the pelvis socket where the femur fits in.
 * In ornithischians, some portion of the pubis bone is pointing backward, toward the plumbing side of the animal's pubis.
 * This can look very obvious in derived animals, where the rear-facing pubis bone is almost parallel to the ischium.
 * Or it can be subtle, as on the basal Fruitadens.
 * One proposed advantage of the rear-facing pubis bone is that it would leave more space for a big, gassy belly in these plant-eating animals, allowing them more space for digestion aided by bacteria and other microbes. Contrast this to the giant pubis bone that jams into the belly of long-necked Sauropod dinosaurs.

Genosaurs
"Cheek Lizards"

This clade includes the most recognized plant-eating dinosaurs, except for the long-necked Sauropods.

Chewing is a derived trait in dinosaurs, and this is the clade that gets it!

Genosaur clades include:

 * Armored thyreophorans
 * Duck-billed ornithopods
 * Horned marginocephalians (coming soon!)

Thyreophorans
"armor bearer"

Derived thyreophorans are easily recognized by their gnarly body armor: Stegosaurus, Ankylosaurs, etc.

Dinosaur body armor is made from scutes (pronounced "scooooooooooots", as in "Hey let's get some of those scooters and go to Yoko."), which are bones that grow right out of the skin!

 * Scutes are what make a crocodile look bumpy!
 * Scutes are basal in archosaurs, so they pop up in a lot of different groups
 * Scutes appear on some sauropods and theropods, but not as big or as many as on thyreophorans.

Our favorite basal thyreophoran is Scutellosaurus, aka "scute lizard" aka "skin bone lizard".

 * Fossils of Scutellosaurus are rare
 * Reconstructions of the animal's skeleton, posture, and capabilities are constantly revised & debated.
 * General observations & interpretations include:
 * The overall body is small; it is small like other basal dinosaurs.
 * the hindlimbs are longer and stouter than the forelimbs; this was a bipedal, or primarily bipedal, animal
 * the teeth are simple, spread across the whole jaw, and not very pointy; this animal ate plants or plants + bugs and stuff
 * the body is lined in little scutes; the skin was protected by this tough exterior

Eurypoda
"wide foot" Honestly I don't understand this name because their feet aren't, like, that wide, but I guess compared to the more basal dudes like Scutellosaurus it fits.

Lots of traits distinguish this clade but the coolest one is their bony eye sockets. Although scutes grow out of skin, on the skulls of these animals that scutes can tend to collide and grow along with the skull bones. Also a lot of the skull bones fuse together and get thick and wide, which is very different from the theropods and sauropods. A consequence of this that's easy to see on a skeleton in a museum is the fused bony socket around the eye - it's serious.

Also - obligate quadrupedalism. Eurypods walk on four legs, unlike basal thyreophorans and other basal dinosaurs.

But then the two main groups of eurypoda go very weird and different directions with the whole scute business.

Stegosaurids
"roof lizard" Stegosaur dinosaurs have big plate-shaped scutes on their back.

Different species of stegosaurids are distinguished easily by their wacky combinations of plates and spikes. Some have spikes on the tail, some have spikes on the shoulders, and all look like no one was taking their lunch money easily.

General observations and interpretations about stegosaurids:

 * Long femur and robust lower humerus; Stegosaurids were obligate quadrupeds, always walking on four legs.
 * Big plate-like scutes on the back and tail; Stegosaurids are really derived and these features might have served many different functions.
 * Stegosaurs are typically found as individual fossils, rather than big piles of bones from many individuals; Stegosaurids probably lived alone, like Pandas, rather than in a herd, like Reindeer.

Ankylosaurids
"fused lizard"

Ankylosaurs look a little less flashy than stegosaurs from a distance, but they have lots of wacky derived features with ecological interpretations.

 * Scutes line their back and sides; they were probably hard to bite.
 * Their top hip bone flares out to make a big sheild-like flat lower area along their back; they were probably less nimble than other dinosaurs.
 * Their tail bones can be fused together, making a stiff feature like a baseball bat.
 * Ankylosaurids include two sub-clades. Regular Ankylosaurs – that includes Ankylosaurus, a classic, and Acainocephalus, a new one from Utah – had clubs on the end of the tail.
 * Members of their sister clade Nodosaurids ("knot lizard") do NOT have the club on the tail, but they do rock AMAZING big shoulder spikes. Very cool.
 * Ankylosaurs have fancy nose chambers that might have helped them maintain their body temperature.
 * Ankylosaurs have decent teeth and cheeks more inset than Stegosaurids; they could probably chew tough plants better than other Thyreophorans.

Cerapoda
"horn foot"

What's this? An extra clade that is a NODE joining the branches that lead to duckbills and to horn-faces.

Duck-bills and horn faces have these features in common, which they get from a last-common ancestor:

 * rear-facing pubis extension
 * pre-dentary bone on lower jaw
 * cheeks
 * diastema

The name horn-foot can refer to the hoof-like toes that form in the derived members of this clade.

By now we are starting to notice that a lot of clades are named for DERIVED traits that show up in their famous members, so sometimes the name of the clade doesn't match to the trait that shows up on the branch leading to that node and joining all those animals via mutual inheritance.

Ornithopods
"bird foot" (are we sick of bird-this and bird-that yet? sheesh!!)

Better-known as Duck-Billed Dinosaurs!

 * Includes the last common ancestor of an Iguanadon and a Parasaurolophus, and ALL of its descendants.
 * These animals could CHEW, and are members of the genosaurs.
 * This means they share a closer common ancestor to Stegosaurus than to, say, a Diplodocus.

 * Duckbills and iguanadontians have feet with THREE TOES. (hence: bird foot, ornithopod)

Duckbills and iguanadons have derived features for eating plant material.

 * Iguanadon teeth have ridges that would help gnash plant material.
 * Derived duck-billed dinosaurs, like Parasaurolophus, had packed-together batteries of teeth that could slap together to grind food.
 * Cheeks set the teeth in closer to the tongue, allowing muscles to hold food in the mouth for extra processing.
 * Even fancier, these mouths have a diastema!
 * This is an open space in between a snipping front and crunching back.
 * It leaves space for the tongue to move food around for more chewing time.
 * Look at your WOLF SKULL 3D print. Lots of derived mammals have evolved a diastema, too.

Duckbills and Iguanadons probably mostly walked on two legs, but could also support their weight on their front legs.

 * Their toes on the hindlimbs developed hoof-like toenails.
 * Iguanadons also had hoof-like toenails on their forelimbs, PLUS a wacky stabby pointy nail on one digit.

The ecology of derived duck-bill dinosaurs is really well known from some excellent fossil examples of nests, and even from whole-body fossils from settings where the soft-parts preserved a bit, like a mummy.

Marginocephalia
"edge heads"

This group includes very recognizable and less-familiar animals. What they have in common is stuff on the edges of their heads.

There are two main sub-clades in Marginocephalia.

 * Pachycephalosaurs,"tough heads",
 * example: Pachycephalosaurus
 * Had thick-domed skulls rimmed with little spikes.
 * Walked on two legs.
 * Ok plant-eating teeth.

 * Ceratopsians, the "horn eyes"
 * Basal example: Psittacosaurus, "parrot lizard"
 * walks on 4 or 2 legs
 * had long, simple filament feathers on its rear
 * has a ROSTRAL BONE
 * this is a bone that is added to the front of the face
 * Together with the pre-dentary, this forms a "beak" on the face
 * Derived example: Utahceratops, "Utah horn eyes"
 * A lot like the more-familiar Triceratops, but this is our special Utah version!
 * Walked on 4 legs, with hoofed toes
 * Horns
 * two substantial brow horns and a nose horn
 * Has a big frill with horns along the edges
 * and cheek horns!
 * Elaborate chewing features
 * cheeks!
 * packs of tough replacing teeth that form a grinding surface
 * plus the "beak" in the front
 * and a diastema in between - a space to move food around with the tongue.
 * Big belly
 * the ornithischian trait of a rear-facing pubis bone is really exagerated.
 * This makes a lot of space in the belly area
 * One interpretation is this space was used for guts filled with bacterial symbionts that processed tough plant foods.
 * Derived example: Centrosaurus, "middle lizard"
 * Centrosaurs are derived ceratopsians with a few key distinctive features:
 * usually a big nose horn
 * usually small or absent brow horns
 * usually a not-huge rostral bone (the upper "beak" bone on the face)
 * Walked on 4 legs, with hoofed toes
 * Elaborate chewing features
 * cheeks!
 * packs of tough replacing teeth that form a grinding surface
 * plus the "beak" in the front
 * and a diastema in between - a space to move food around with the tongue.
 * Big belly
 * the ornithischian trait of a rear-facing pubis bone is really exagerated.
 * This makes a lot of space in the belly area
 * One interpretation is this space was used for guts filled with bacterial symbionts that processed tough plant foods

title: World of Dinosaurs/Dinosaur Clades


text:
Overview of Elasticity of Materials/Introduction to Tensors

Introduction to Tensors
We have been working with stress and in particular looking at stress at a point and the impact of rotating the reference frame. Using the tools in the previous sections, it is possible to identify the principal stresses and the orientation of the reference frame relative to the principal axis, which allows for the determination of the stress state in any orientation. This also allows for the determination of the orientation and value of the maximum shear and normal forces, which are critical for engineering design. As you have seen, computing this information requires either extensive use of equations or geometry/trigonometry. In this section, tensors are introduced, which allows for a more elegant means of addressing coordination transformations.

We will begin by thinking about vectors, such as

\mathbf{S} = \left \langle S_1, S_2, S_3 \right \rangle $$ This vector is represented using the $$x_i$$ coordinates, but it just as well could have been expressed relative to a different set, which we will call $$x'_i$$. The direction cosines, the cosine between all the axis of the two coordinate systems, allows us to rewrite the vector

S'_1 = S_1 \cos\left ( x_1, x'_1 \right ) + S_2 \cos\left ( x_2, x'_1 \right ) + S_3 \cos\left ( x_3, x'_1 \right ) $$ where $\cos\left ( x_i, x'_j \right )$ is the cosine between $$x_i$$ and $$x'_j$$ and can be rewritten as $a_{ji} = \cos\left ( x_i, x'_j \right )$  which allows forː
 * $$\begin{align}

S'_1 = a_{11} S_1 + a_{12}S_2 + a_{13} S_3 \end{align} $$     [1]

 * $$\begin{align}

S'_2 = a_{21} S_1 + a_{22}S_2 + a_{23} S_3 \end{align} $$     [2]

 * $$\begin{align}

S'_3 = a_{31} S_1 + a_{32}S_2 + a_{33} S_3 \end{align}$$     [3] recognizing that for the cosine of an angle, $$a_{ji} = a_{ij}$$. Equations 1-3 can be written in a compact form, known as Einstein notation:

S'_i=a_{ij}S_j $$    [4] In Einstein notation, if a subscript is seen two or more times on a side of an equation, a summation is performed. In the example above, the $$j$$ shows up twice on the right side of the equation, but the $$i$$ only once. This means that this equation becomes:

S'_i = a_{ij}S_j = \sum_{j=1}^{3} a_{ij}S_j = a_{i1} S_1 + a_{i2}S_2 + a_{i3} S_3 $$ In this equation, $$i$$ is a dummy variable; substituting the value 1, 2, or 3 in for $$i$$ returns the equations above.

Here, $$ \mathbf{a} $$ is a rank two tensor that relates the two vectors $$ \mathbf{S} $$ and $$ \mathbf{S'} $$. Tensors are geometric objects that describe the linear relationship between scalars, vectors, and other tensors. The rank of a tensor is the number of indexes, or directions needed to describe it which directly translates to the dimensionality of the respective array. Therefore, $$ \mathbf{a} $$ is a rank two tensor because it requires $$i$$ and $$j$$ ($$a_{ij}$$) to describe it, and as such, is defined by a two dimensional array. Other texts may refer to rank as dimensionality or order as the terms can be used interchangeably. The table below may be helpful in understanding the concept of rank:
 * {| class="wikitable"

!Name !Rank/dimensionality/order of tensor !Example (11) $$ \left ( \begin{matrix} {25} & {32} & {11} \end{matrix} \right ) $$ or $$ \left ( \begin{matrix} {25} \\ {32} \\ {11} \end{matrix} \right ) $$ \left ( \begin{matrix} {25} & {32} & {11} \\ {14} & {56} & {4} \\ {79} & {42} & {51} \end{matrix} \right ) $$ Are the vectors $$ \mathbf{S} $$ and $$ \mathbf{S'} $$ tensors? Although vectors can be tensors, in this case they are not because $$ \mathbf{S} $$ and $$ \mathbf{S'} $$ do not act to map linear spaces onto each other.
 * Scalar
 * Zero
 * Zero
 * Vector
 * One
 * One
 * Matrix
 * Two
 * Two
 * }

Tensors are used frequently to represent the intrinsic physical properties of materials. A good example is electrical conductivity, $$\boldsymbol{\phi}$$, which is a rank two tensor that expresses the current density in a material, $$\mathbf{J}$$, induced by the application of an electric field, $$\mathbf{E}$$.

\mathbf{J}=\mathbf{\phi}\mathbf{E} $$ Both $$\mathbf{J}$$ and $$\mathbf{E}$$ are vectors since they have both a magnitude and direction. Interestingly, the off-axis terms in $$\mathbf{J}$$ implies cross interactions between the vectors, e.g., the current response in the $$x_1$$ direction is influenced by the electric field in the $$x_2$$ and $$x_3$$ directions, which is indeed true.

There are many other tensors that represent material properties including the thermal conductivity, diffusivity, permittivity, dielectric susceptibility, permeability, and magnetic susceptibility to name a few. We will see that stress and strain also are tensors. Stress relates the surface normal to an arbitrary imaginary surface, $$\mathbf{n}$$, to the stress vector at that point, $$\mathbf{S}$$, as was discussed in the previous section.

Tensor Transformations
The vectors that represent material properties also must be able to transform. This is useful for coordinate transformation, which are essentially rotations. It also allows the tensors that represent material responses to transform according to crystallographic symmetry. These can involve rotations, mirror operations, and inversions. Because these transformations involve linear one-to-one mapping, the transformations themselves are enabled by transformation tensors.

In Equation 4 we rotated vector $$\mathbf{S}$$ to $$\mathbf{S'}$$ by applying transformation tensor $$\mathbf{a}$$

S'_i=a_{ij}S_j $$ What if we want to reverse this? We can simply reverse the equation:

S_i=a_{ji}S'_i $$    [5] Note that there are implications here regarding the inversion of $$\mathbf{a}$$. Since

a_{ji}S'_i=a_{ji}a_{ij}S_j=S_j $$ we have $$a_{ji}a_{ij}=I$$, which means that transposing $$\mathbf{a}$$ yields the inverse of $$\mathbf{a}$$, written as $$\mathbf{a^{-1}}=\mathbf{a^{T}}$$.

Consider now that there is a second vector, that we will call $$\mathbf{Q}$$, which is related to $$\mathbf{S}$$ by the rank two material property tensor $$\mathbf{T}$$:

\mathbf{S}_{i} = \mathbf{T}_{ij} \mathbf{Q}_j $$     [6] In a transformed coordinate system, we can express this as

{\mathbf{S}_{i}}' = {\mathbf{T}_{ij}}' {\mathbf{Q}_{j}}' $$    [7] So we can now write

\begin{align} {\mathbf{S}_{i}}' &= {\mathbf{a}_{ij}} {\mathbf{S}_{j}} \\ &= {\mathbf{a}_{ij}} {\mathbf{T}_{jk}} {\mathbf{Q}_{k}} \\ &= \underbrace{{\mathbf{a}_{ij}} {\mathbf{T}_{jk}} {\mathbf{a}_{lk}}}_{\mathbf{T}_{i\ell}} {\mathbf{Q}_{\ell}}' \end{align} $$

This tells us that the transformation of $$ x_j $$ to $$ x_j' $$ causes the transformations from $$ \mathbf{S} $$ to $$ \mathbf{S}' $$, $$ \mathbf{Q} $$ to $$ \mathbf{Q}' $$, and $$ \mathbf{T} $$ to $$ \mathbf{T}' $$, where the vector transformations are given by Equations 4 & 5, and the tensor transformation is given by

{\mathbf{T}_{i\ell}}' = {\mathbf{T}_{ij}} {\mathbf{T}_{jk}} {\mathbf{a}_{\ell k}} $$    [8] and

{\mathbf{T}_{i\ell}} = {\mathbf{a}_{ji}} {\mathbf{T}_{jk}}' {\mathbf{a}_{k\ell}} $$    [9] Note that these solutions are really double sums over $$ j $$ and $$ k $$, due to Einstein Notation.

Because the order of the summation is not important, we can writeː

{\mathbf{a}_{ij}} {\mathbf{T}_{jk}} {\mathbf{a}_{\ell k}} = {\mathbf{a}_{ij}} {\mathbf{a}_{\ell k}} {\mathbf{T}_{jk}} $$    [10]

This is a Tensor that relates $$ \mathbf{T} $$ and $$ \mathbf{T}' $$. Since it is a double sum, each term in $$ \mathbf{T} $$ has nine elements and the total tensor mapping the relationship between $$ \mathbf{T} $$ and $$ \mathbf{T}' $$ must have a total of $$ 81 $$ terms as $$ (9 \times 9 = 81) $$.

Tensor Symmetry
The nature of a tensor is determined by its application. There are subsets of tensors that we can classify according to their symmetry properties.

Symmetric tensors have a structure such asː $$ \left [ \begin{matrix} \alpha_1 & \beta_1 & \beta_2 \\ \beta_1 & \alpha_2 & \beta_3 \\ \beta_2 & \beta_3 & \alpha_3 \end{matrix} \right ] $$ where $$ \mathbf{T}_{ij} = \mathbf{T}_{ij} $$

Antisymmetric Tensors have a structure such asː $$ \left [ \begin{matrix} 0 & -\alpha & -\gamma \\ \alpha & 0 & \beta \\ \gamma & \beta & 0 \end{matrix} \right ] $$ where $$ \mathbf{T}_{ij} = -\mathbf{T}_{ij} $$

Note that the main diagonal of an antisymmetric tensor must be zero and the overall symmetry, or antisymmetry, depends on the reference frame selected. Any second rank tensor can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and antisymmetric tensor asː

\mathbf{T}_{ij} = \underbrace{{1 \over 2} (\mathbf{T}_{ij} + \mathbf{T}_{ji})}_{Symmetric} + \underbrace{{1 \over 2} (\mathbf{T}_{ij} - \mathbf{T}_{ji})}_{Antisymmetric} $$    [11]

We will find this useful in the next section dealing with strain. Meanwhile, any symmetric tensor can be transformed by rotations to be aligned along its principal axis, such thatː

\left [ \begin{matrix} \text{T}_{11} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \text{T}_{22} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \text{T}_{33} \end{matrix} \right ] $$

The properties of tensors are highly related to the crystal symmetry of the material they represent. For example, say that we have two vector properties $$ \mathbf{S} $$ and $$ \mathbf{Q} $$ in a crystal which are related by a tensor $$ \mathbf{T} $$. If we rotate the reference frame according to a symmetry element of the crystal, then

{\mathbf{T}_{ij}}' = \mathbf{T}_{ij} $$ We will examine this by looking at a simple cubic crystal such as the one in Figure 1. When rotated, this crystal will periodically rotate back on itself, and the properties of the relevant tensors should do the same. By applying this theory to each possible crystal formations, we can develop simplified tensors for each, which represent this symmetry.
 * {| class="wikitable"

!Crystal Formation !Tensor !Number of Independent
 * +Crystal Tensors

Components \left [ \begin{matrix} \text{S} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \text{S} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \text{S} \end{matrix} \right ] $$ Hexagonal
 * Cubic
 * Cubic
 * 1
 * Tetragonal
 * Tetragonal

Trigonal \left [ \begin{matrix} \text{S}_{1} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \text{S}_{1} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \text{S}_{3} \end{matrix} \right ] $$ \left [ \begin{matrix} \text{S}_{1} & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \text{S}_{2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \text{S}_{3} \end{matrix} \right ] $$ \left [ \begin{matrix} \text{S}_{11} & 0 & \text{S}_{13} \\ 0 & \text{S}_{22} & 0 \\ \text{S}_{13} & 0 & \text{S}_{33} \end{matrix} \right ] $$ \left [ \begin{matrix} \text{S}_{11} & \text{S}_{12} & \text{S}_{13} \\ \text{S}_{21} & \text{S}_{22} & \text{S}_{23} \\ \text{S}_{31} & \text{S}_{32} & \text{T}_{33} \end{matrix} \right ] $$
 * 2
 * Orthorhombic
 * Orthorhombic
 * 3
 * Monoclinic
 * Monoclinic
 * 4
 * Triclinic
 * Triclinic
 * 6
 * }

Tensor Contractions and Invariant Relations in Stress
Much of this discussion has been about property relations, but here our interest is in the stress tensor; a symmetric tensor that can therefore be arranged to be aligned in the principal axis. We will now rederive the 3D stress relationships using tensors. The stresses normal to an oblique plane are writtenː

\sigma_{nj} = a_{ni} \sigma_{ij} $$    [12]

Here, $$ n $$ is the direction of the normal to the plane and is the original stress state. If the oblique plane is a principal direction, with a normal stress of $$ \sigma_p $$, then we can write our equation asː

\sigma_{nj} = a_{pj} \sigma_p $$    [13]

By combining Equations 12 & 13, we getː

\underbrace{a_{ni} \sigma_{ij}}_{sum \ over \ i} - a_{pj} \sigma_p = 0 $$    [14]

Kronecker Delta
Additionally, there is a handy expression called the Kronecker Delta $$ (\delta_{ij}) $$ that has the propertiesː

\delta_{ij} = \left [ \begin{matrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{matrix} \right ] = \begin{cases} 1 \ \text{if} \ i=j \\ 0 \ \text{if} \ i \neq j \end{cases} $$

When applied to a tensor, the Kronecker Delta is said to "contract" the tensor's rank by two. This turns a 4th rank tensor into a 2nd rank, a 3rd rank tensor into a 1st rank, etc... For the purpose of this text, we will not be using this expression often, but in applying this to Equation 14 $ (a_{ni} \sigma_{ij} - a_{pj} \sigma_p = 0) $, we can replace the scalar $$ a_{pj} $$ with the contraction of the second rank tensor such thatː

a_{pj} = \mathbf{a}_{pi} \delta_{ji} $$

The rule for contraction here is to replace $$ i $$ with $$ j $$ and remove the Kronecker Delta term.

Returning to Equation 14, we replace the $$ a_{pj} $$ with our Kronecker Delta expansion to getː

a_{ni} \sigma_{ij} - \sigma_p a_{pi} \delta_{ji} =0 $$    [15]

This equation can be entirely summed over $$ i $$, and because $$ p $$ is normal to the plane, this makes $$ a_{ni} $$ equal to $$ a_{pi} $$ and our equation evolves toː

(\sigma_{ij} - \sigma_p \delta_{ji}) a_{pi} = 0 $$    [16]

This gives us a set of three equations where $$ j = 1, 2, 3 $$. By substituting the direction cosines into the left term and using $$ a_{p1} = \ell $$, $$ a_{p2} = m $$, $$ a_{p3} = n $$ and $$ \delta_{ji} = 0 $$ when $$ j \neq i $$, we can solve for the non-trivial (non-zero) solution by taking the determinant ofː

\left| \begin{matrix} \sigma_x - \sigma_p & \tau_{xy} & \tau_{xz} \\ \tau_{yx} & \sigma_y - \sigma_p & \tau_{yz} \\ \tau_{zx} & \tau_{zy} & \sigma_z - \sigma_p \end{matrix} \right | =0 $$ Which yields the same result as returned before.
 * \sigma_{ij} - \sigma_p \delta_{ji}| =

The Three Invariants
We also identify the invariant relations. It should be noted that these also can come from the stress tensor. First, let's apply a contraction to $$\boldsymbol{\sigma}$$ː
 * $$\boldsymbol{\sigma}_{ij} \delta_{ij} = \sigma_{ii} = \sigma_{11} + \sigma_{22} + \sigma_{33} = \text{I}_1$$

This is our first invariant. The second invariant comes from the minors of $$\boldsymbol{\sigma}$$, which can be used to expand the determinant.

 * $$\text{I}_2 =

\left | \begin{matrix} \sigma_{22} & \sigma_{23} \\ \sigma_{32} & \sigma_{33} \end{matrix} \right | + \left | \begin{matrix} \sigma_{11} & \sigma_{13} \\ \sigma_{31} & \sigma_{33} \end{matrix} \right | + \left | \begin{matrix} \sigma_{11} & \sigma_{12} \\ \sigma_{21} & \sigma_{22} \end{matrix} \right |$$

The third invariant is the determinant of $$\boldsymbol{\sigma}$$ where $$\text{I}_3 = \det[\boldsymbol{\sigma}]$$.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:41.113.138.100

NBC

title: User talk:41.113.138.100


text:
Learning anatomy/Artery

Heart - Arteriole

Anatomy
The arteries are made up of 3 layers which are the intima, media, and adventitia. The artery is made up of the endothelium, smooth muscle, and epithelium.

Function
The arteries move oxygenated blood away from the heart and to the entire body.

title: Learning anatomy/Artery


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Pokémon Crystal/Facing Falkner

The Violet City Gym
Enter the gym when you are ready. The trainers in this gym use flying types, and are lead by Falkner, who is "The Elegant Master of Flying Pokemon" according to the sign outside of the gym.

Gym Tips
Notably rock type Pokémon will have an advantage, and grass type Pokémon will have a disadvantage. If you have trouble, Rickey the Onyx, even at level 5, can easily take hits thanks to it's type advantage. However it will do so slowly since it will not know any super effective moves.

There are three trainers in this gym who must be battled sequentially, but not necessarily consecutively. You can leave at any point and return with all your progress retained, so it's easy to visit a Pokémon center between battles if needed.

If you chose Cyndaquil then at level 12 it will learn ember, its first fire type move. Though it's not strong against flying types, it is a relatively powerful move for this part of the game.

Bird Keeper Abe
Head forward to be challenged by Bird Keeper Abe. Abe uses a single level 9 male Spearow, which knows peck.

Beat him to gain 55 exp and 216.

Bird Keeper Rod
Next up is Bird Keeper Rod. Rod starts out with a level 7 male Pidgey that knows Tackle. He follows this with an identical Pidgey.

Defeat him for 168.

Gym Leader Falkner
Heal up if needed before you face Falkner.

Falkner starts out by sending out a level 7 male Pidgey. Defeat it for 82 exp.

His next Pokémon is his ace, a level 9 male Pidgeotto. This is the evolved form of Pidgey and is a bit more powerful. Defeat it for 217 exp.

Beating Falkner gives you the Zephyrbadge, which raises the attack power of Pokémon. It also enables the use of the utility HM move Flash.

Further rewards for beating Falkner include TM31, which is a consumable item that teaches a Pokémon the move Mud-Slap. Finally, the battle gives the player a cool 900.

Leaving the Gym
Leave the Gym to receive a call from Professor Elm, who reports a curious discovery about the Pokémon Egg. He has sent his assistant to the Violet City Pokémon center for you to meet.

Head into the Pokémon Center, and be sure to first deposit one Pokémon in the PC if you currently have a full team of 6. Talk to the assistant by the counter, and the assistant will offer a Pokemon egg. The game doesn't force you to accept, so you can say no for some humorous dialogue. However accepting is only to your benefit, so talk to him to receive a Pokémon Egg. Once the egg has been accepted, the assistant will run off. Heal up if needed, then head to Sprout Tower.

Questions

 * Falkner inherited his team from his father, and is the weakest Gym Leader. Is this a coincidence, or are these character traits related?
 * Professor Elm sends his assistant to give the player character an Pokémon egg since he believes the egg must be around active Pokémon to hatch. Is this similar to real natural phenomena?

title: Pokémon Crystal/Facing Falkner


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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Tables

Wiki tables help pages
This page is for use as a ready reference for all things table related, especially the various help guides in Wikimedia, Wikipedia and Wikibooks

Wiki Table Editing Pages

 * Wikibooks - Editing Wikitext Tables

 * Wikibooks - Tables Ready to Use


text: User talk:MarcToll

title: User talk:MarcToll


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease

This critique is of the research article: Zhu, M., Zhang, Y., Pan, J., Fu, C., & Wang, Y. (2020). Effect of simplified Tai Chi exercise on relieving symptoms of patients with mild to moderate Parkinson's disease. The journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, vol 60(2), pp 282-288.

What is the background to this research?
Parkinson Disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease, which is influenced by both genetics and environmental factors. Typical treatment involves Dopaminergic medication. Familial PD accounts for 5-15% in Europe, and worldwide 10 million are thought to be affected by the disease. Numerous studies have indicated the genes involved such as PINK 1, PARK 2, and PARK 7 which are typically inherited and passed from both parents, increasing your risk of the disease. In Australia 1 in every 308 people live with PD, with 37 newly diagnosed every day, 18% of which are still of working age. 20% of sufferers are under 50 and 10% are diagnosed before the age of 40, and the financial cost of this disease has increased by 103% since 2005.

Tai Chi, a traditional Chinese exercise dating back to the Ming dynasty, is derived from martial arts. Emphasis is on exercising the consciousness, with movements continuous from beginning to end in an integrated circular motion with variations of strength and softness, becoming focused on the body's internal homeostasis with the benefits acting upon the Kinesiology, physiology, and psychology of the body

Where is the research from?
This research was conducted at the Neurology and Rehabilitation Dept. of the Hangzhou Hospital, China. The research was completed by a number of doctors specialising in Neuroscience and the rehabilitation of neurological conditions. One such doctor is Dr. Mingjing Zhu, division of Cognitive and Developmental Psychology at the Chinese Academy of sciences, he drafted the paper and conducted the analysis and interpretation of data.

This study was funded by a grant, from the Project of the Science Technology Dept. of Zhejiang province China and was first published in the October of 2019.

What kind of research was it?
This paper was a randomized control study, with self-reported questionnaires. All participants had a clinical diagnosis of PD and not suffering any severe cognitive impairments, and all were measured using the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS).

What did the research involve?
41 participants into two groups, a control group (22 participants) that conducted their normal exercise routine, which consisted of cycling, walking, and resistance exercises. The remaining group, the Tai Chi group (19 participants), were taught Tai Chi movements, 9 moves in total, as these particular movements were thought to be easier to learn and required repeated bilateral transfer of body weight through each movement. All participants conducted exercises at the rehabilitation hospital, 5 days a week for 12 weeks.

Before any exercise was undertaken the following questionnaires were completed prior to commencing, and upon completion after the 12-week program.

 * Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) part III, a widely used reliable scale of motor skills.
 * The Berg Balance Scale (BBS), a common test for assessing balance impairments which has a highly reliable form of testing in relation to PD.
 * Hamilton Depression scale (HAMD) and Hamilton Anxiety scale (HAMA).
 * The participants also underwent the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) as PD patients have a higher risk of developing dementia.
 * Also completed was the Parkinson Disease Sleep Scale (PDSS).
 * A Parkinson Disease Questionnaire 39 (PDQ-39), to assess the quality of life in the PD patients participating.

Whilst many studies have been conducted into the effects of physical activity on PD, and the benefits of aerobic exercise none have conclusively named or agreed upon one form of exercise for non-motor symptoms of PD. Limitations to this study; no follow-ups were done on patients, post the 12 weeks. Did all participants understand the questionnaires, the educational background of the participants could have disadvantaged their understanding of the questions.

What were the basic results?
What the study did show was a significant measurable improvement in cognitive function and sleep quality relating to the Tai Chi group. Both of which have a significant effect on the quality of life in PD patients as a non-motor symptom of PD. Whilst this study did show some improvement to motor control, balance, depressive state, and quality of life, none of these can be attributed to Tai Chi alone. The number of participants in this study was too little. Also the reliability of the results are questionable, the Tai Chi group undertook their normal exercise classes, 2 days of the week also.

What conclusion can we take from the research?
We can gain some insight into the benefits of exercise and Tai Chi as a form of treatment for Parkinsons Disease from this study. The findings of this study did show improvements in most areas, but again not all can be attributed to Tai Chi alone. Further longitudinal studies are needed in the area of non-motor symptoms and with a much larger number of participants, as non-motor symptoms can be just as debilitating as motor function disability.

Provide own insights
From previous studies, Tai Chi as a form of exercise treatment for PD has shown statistically significant reductions in balance impairments, thus improving functional capacity and continued improvement three months post-study. It is my assessment that the findings of improved cognitive function and sleep quality in the Tai Chi group may have something to do with the level of cognitive concentration required to perform Tai Chi, this then provides higher cognitive stimulation.

Parkinson's Disease is a growing neurological condition and is only second in prevalence to dementia, and more prevalent than some cancers. It is estimated 6.1 million people worldwide were diagnosed with PD in 2016 and this number is expected to double by 2030. In Australia 38 people are diagnosed with PD every day, 20% of these are under 50 years old and 10% are under 40 years old.

Practical advise
When it comes to any new diagnosis, knowledge is power. The more we know and understand how this condition works, the better we can learn how to treat it; dopaminergic medication only works for so long before becoming ineffective. PD has long been associated as an "old person's disease", this is not the case. Young-onset Parkinsons Disease refers to people under the age of 50.

Getting diagnosed at a young age is not as common, as the symptoms can be passed off as muscle strain, soreness from occupation, or sports injury. The commonly known symptoms associated with the disease such as tremors and uncontrolled gait, don't show until later in the disease progression. Every person will show different symptoms, non-motor symptoms can pre-date any gait or tremor issues by up to 10 years.

In 2014 an estimated 8461 people with PD were living in aged care facilities, and 201 of these were under 65 years old. Finding treatments and interventions that are more cost-effective for the community, such as exercise treatment, may help to prolong the quality of life and delay the use of dopaminergic medication, whilst also lowering the burden of cost to families and society.

Further information/Resources
For further information, and or help, here are some useful sites and readings;

www.shakeitup.org.au A useful organisation associated with the Michael J Fox foundation.

www.parkinsonsact.org.au This site is a resource of information for Parkinsons and has links to the young onset parkinsons exchange, which is a group of people diagnosed with young onset Parkinsons disease and are a wealth of information and resources.

Zhou, J. et al. (2015) ‘A Meta-Analysis on the Efficacy of Tai Chi in Patients with Parkinson's Disease between 2008 and 2014. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine.

Irwin, M. et al. (2014). Cognitive behavioral therapy vs. Tai Chi for late life insomnia and inflammatory risk: a randomized controlled comparative efficacy trial. Sleep, vol37(9).


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Talk:Public International Law/Interaction/Interaction within International Law

Dear Adamantia Rachovitsa,

this looks very interesting and I am very much looking forward to reading more about it! I really like the titles of your sections and subsections and I believe the order and categorisation that you propose is very well researched and reasonable. I was wondering, whether you will also look into "cross-fertilization", how some have called it, or a possible refinement in the course of the chapter? I guess it could be addressed in the sub-section on interpretation? or dialogue? Again, I just wondered...

I am very much looking forward to seeing how you continue to work on this!

Best Anne

Review 2 November 2021
Dear Mando,

I agree with Anne that the outline looks very promising. Here are some suggestions for works written by FLINT scholars and/or scholars working from Global South perspectives that may be particularly relevant to your chapter: Anne Charlotte Martineau, The Rhetoric of Fragmentation; Tamar Megiddo, Beyond Fragmentation; Liliana Popa, Patterns of Treaty-Interpretation as Anti-Fragmentation Tools; Musa Njabulo Shongwe, The Fragmentation of International Law; Our own Silvia Steininger, What's Human Rights got to do with it?. Luis Eslava and Sundhya Pahuja also include some observations on fragmentation in their article on the Everyday Life of International Law. You may also find my own PhD dissertation useful, which is available here. I am really looking forward to reading future versions of this chapter! Sué Sué González Hauck (discuss • contribs) 08:57, 2 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Thanks, Sue and Anne for the comments and the references! Yes, let's see how this unfolds. Re Anne on "cross-fertilization": I am not quite sure whether and, if yes, to what extent I will discuss it - it depends on the word limitation.. Mando Rachovitsa (discuss • contribs) 15:55, 3 November 2021 (UTC)


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Learning anatomy/Arteriole

Artery - Capillary

Anatomy
Just like the arteries, the arterioles have 3 layers called the adventitia, media, and intima.

Function
The arterioles move blood from the arteries to the capillaries.

title: Learning anatomy/Arteriole


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Medical Machines/Centrifuges

A centrifuge can separate components of a fluid by density. They are often used in medicine for tasks such as bloodwork.

title: Medical Machines/Centrifuges


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User:Idrel/sandbox

pagina di prova1

title: User:Idrel/sandbox


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User talk:Idrel/sandbox

Pagina di prova1

title: User talk:Idrel/sandbox


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History of video games/Platforms/Sportronic Electronic TV Sport

Background
Bob Kerridge, son of the Christchurch New Zealand theater tycoon Sir. Robert James Carridge, would found two two media companies involved in the production of the Sportstronic. The first was the parent Spectrum Group of Companies, which was founded in 1966. The second was a division of the former in Sportronic Television Ltd, founded in either 1977, or the 30th of August, 1976.

Development
The Spectrum Group of Companies was located at 82 Symonds Street in Auckland New Zealand at the time of manufacturing.

Actual manufacturing of the console was done in New Zealand by Osborne Professional Electronics Ltd.

Marketing
"Sportronic The games people play."

"Introducing the Third TV Channel."

Marketing materials for the Sportronic featured a nuclear family, with a mother and father watching their daughter and son playing the console. This marketing material is fairly egalitarian, which was common in 1970's game marketing materials.

"Shoot your TV!"

Interestingly, advertising for the light gun shows gameplay for a pong like game.

Launch
The console is said to have been released in 1977. The Sportronic 6 console with light gun included retailed for $135.20 New Zealand Dollars.

Legacy
Sportronic TV Ltd was removed from government listings in September of 2002.

Technology
The Sportronic was a dedicated console with all of it's games built in to the system.

The Sportronic was able to keep an on screen score.

The "Sportronic Phaser Gun" light gun for the Sportronic was fairly aggressively styled for the time, featuring a look similar to a submachine gun.

Similar to other consoles of the era, the Sportronic was battery powered.

There were at least two models of the Sportronic with different trims, the Sportronic 4 without rifle games, and the Sportronic 6 with rifle games.

Games
Games were built in and could be selected with a dial on top of the console. Games were all themed around sports, as the name implies.

The built in games were as follows:
 * Solo
 * Squash
 * Soccer
 * Tennis
 * Rifle 1
 * Rifle 2


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Learning anatomy/Capillary

Arteriole - Vein

Anatomy
The capillaries are broken into 3 types which are the continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal capillaries.

Function
The capillaries move blood from the arterioles to the venules.

title: Learning anatomy/Capillary


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Pokémon Crystal/Climbing Sprout Tower

Walkthrough
When you are ready, enter Sprout Tower and climb the first set of stairs.

Sage Nico
The first trainer encountered is Sage Nico, who can be avoided with luck. However it's best to face him for the experience.

He starts with a level 3 male Bellsprout, which gives 54 exp when defeated.

He follows with a second level 3 male Bellsprout, which gives 54 exp when defeated.

He ends with a level 3 male Bellsprout, which gives 54 exp when defeated.

Winning the battle earns 96.

Head right to reach some stairs back down to the first level. Head south to find a item ball containing a free PARLYZ HEAL. Stay on the floor and head west.

Sage Chow
You will be spotted by Sage Chow, who uses three level 3 male Bellsprouts. Beat them earn 54 exp each, 96, as well as an awkward thank you from Sage Chow.

Go south to head back upstairs from a different point.

Head north to find an item ball with a free X ACCURACY.

Sage Edmond
Head south to potentially encounter Sage Edmond. To avoid him go all the way south before turning right. Edmond has three level 3 male Bellspout. Beat them for 54 exp each, and 96 total.

Continue east and head up the stairs. Head immediately east to open an item ball containing a potion.

Head up the central path to face a gauntlet of sages.

Sage Jin
First up is Sage Jin, who has a single Pokémon - a level 6 male Bellsprout. This may require a slight change in strategy, from sweeping weak teams to countering a strong Pokémon. This Bellsprout knows Growth, a move which raises its special attack, and knows Vine Whip as it's attacking move.

Beat it to gain 108 exp and 192. Talk to Sage Jin after winning for a tidbit about personal growth.

Sage Neal
Sage Neal hypes up the HM here before you fight him, describing its utility in lighting dark places.

Sage Neal has a single level 6 male Bellsprout, which knows Vine Whip.

Beat it to gain 108 exp and 192.

Sage Troy
Go left and up from Sage Neal to optionally trigger a battle with Sage Troy. Doing this does not open a path forward, but it may earn experience.

Sage Troy has a level 7 male Bellsprout, the strongest so far. It knows Growth to raise it's special attack and vine whip.

Beat it to get 126 exp.

Sage Troy follows up with a level 7 male HootHoot. Beat it to get 87 exp.

You'll get 224 for winning the battle.

Sage Li
Go right around the pillar to see a fight break out between your rival and the elder. The elder gives your rival an HM, but scolds him for his harsh style. Your rival will bump into you and espouse his philosophy, then use an escape rope to leave immediately. In game design, this is teaching mechanics by showing, rather then telling. You can get your own free escape rope by examining the item ball in the upper right corner of the floor.

Speak to the elder, Sage Li, when you are ready to begin a battle.

Sage Li has three Pokémon, starting with a level 7 male Bellsprout. It knows Vine Whip. Beat it for 126 EXP.

Sage Li follows with a level 10 male HootHoot. It knows tackle. Beat it for 123 EXP.

Sage Li ends with a level 7 male Bellsprout. Beat it for 126 EXP.

At the end of the battle Sage Li awards the player character 320, as well as the HM Flash (HM05).

Leave the tower to continue onwards.

Pokémon
Unusually for a building, wild Pokémon can be encountered inside above the ground level.
 * Ghastly - Level ~4

Questions

 * The sages here wear robes and have shaved heads. Are there real positions which have this dress code?
 * Sage Nico says the flexible pillar affords the tower a degree of protection from earthquakes. Do real buildings use such techniques?
 * Sage Chow mentions they honor all Pokémon. However the sages mostly use Bellsprout. Is this a contradiction?
 * Sage Chow mentions that all life coexists through cooperation. Does this match a real life philosophy?

title: Pokémon Crystal/Climbing Sprout Tower


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections

The following Wikibooks page is an analysis of 'Moderate to vigorous physical activity and risk of upper-respiratory tract infection' a study published in 'Medicine & Science in Sport & Exercise (March 2002) CHARLES E. MATTHEWS, IRA S. OCKENE, PATTY S. FREEDSON, MILAGROS C. ROSAL, PHILIP A. MERRIAM, and JAMES R. HEBERT.

What is the background to this research?
Upper-respiratory tract infections (URTI's) are Widely acknowledged to be among the most common types of infections contracted by humans. Per year the average adult suffers from between 2 and 5 URTI's such as the common cold and influenza. A J shaped model is commonly used to describe the relationships between physical activity and the level of risk of contracting a URTI, this suggests that the lowest risk of contracting a URTI is found in people that are moderately active, while people that participate in a high level of physical activity or are physically inactive are at a significantly higher risk.

However, there is a lack of epidemiologic data that supports the connection between moderately active individuals and a lowered risk of contracting a URTI. URTI's are the leading cause of physician visits and days missed of work This study aims to create a better understanding of the relationship between physical activity and the risk of contracting URTI's.

Where is the research from?
This Study was conducted by Charles E, Matthews, Ira S. Ockene, Patty S. Freedson, Milagros C. Rosal, Philip A. Merriam and James R. Herbert in the department of epidemiology and biostatics at the University of South Carolina and was published in Medicine and science in sports and exercise, which is the American College of Sports Medicines flagship monthly peer reviewed journal.

Although the study took place in Carolina, USA. The research results are relevant to the Australian demographic.

Charles E Matthews is a physical epidemiologist and investigator in metabolic epidemiology and has published a number of papers on the relationships between physical activity and human conditions. The other authors have published multiple papers relating to physical activity

What kind of research was this?
This was a observational study of 547 healthy participants (49% women) aged 20-70yrs. URTI events were reported over 12 months in 90 day intervals, 3 24 hour physical activity recalls per 90 day interval were obtained to quantify total moderate physical activity.

The relationships between URTI's and physical activity levels were estimated using incidence rate ratios while being adjusted based on a number of factors such as age, education, anxiety, cynicism and dietary factors.

What did the research involve?
Participants at the baseline of the study and also in each of the four follow up periods (90 days) were required to provide blood samples and have their body mass (BMI) measured in a clinic.

Demographic data such as age, gender, marital status, employment as well as health habits (smoking and multivitamin usage) were recorded through self-administrated questionnaires at the beginning of the study.

Physical activity assessment was conducted though 15 24 hour recalls where participants recalled the number of time, they spent in each of the four exercise intensities (light, moderate, vigorous, very vigorous). Light exposure and diet data were collected using 24 hour recalls at the end of each of the 90-day intervals surrounding each clinic visit, these were conducted through unannounced telephone-administrated interviews on 3 randomly selected days throughout the week. Data regarding URTI's such as the number colds, flus or allergic episodes were recorded at each of the 90 day clinic visits.

Strengths of the study's methodology:

- An observational longitudinal study with a large cohort and a wide variety in demographic over a long period of time spanning the various seasons throughout the year provides a strong foundation for the study.

- In person clinic meet ups every 90 days as well as randomized telephone interviews throughout the 90-day period.

- 4 levels of physical activity intensity (light, moderate, vigorous, and very vigorous)

- Recording the data in 90-day periods allows the data to reflect the various seasons throughout the year and allows for comparisons between winter and summer URTI rates.

Participants physical activity and URTI data were primarily recorded through self-reporting which has been shown to be somewhat inaccurate due to over/under reporting of physical activity compared to other methods such as motion monitors (GPS watch, Fitbit)

Low number of individuals completing very vigorous activity levels limiting their ability to affectively evaluate the relationship between very vigorous activity levels and URTI's

What were the basic results? What were the important findings?
The results of the study support the hypothesis of the J shaped relationship between physical activity levels and the risk of contracting a URTI. The results demonstrate that high levels of moderate vigorous activity were associated with a 20-30% reduced risk of URTI annually with a majority of the reduction in risk being realized in the summer and fall months. URTI events were reported highest in the winter and fall with approximately 40% of the participants reporting a URTI, compared to only 10% in the summer. Having a stronger effect in men than women.

In further analysis demographic and other factors such as BMI, smoking history, vitamin supplementation, occupation and leisure that were recorded did not affect URTI risk.

The researchers did acknowledge the limitations of an observational study that heavily relies on self-reports of URTI's and physical activity levels although found that their results mimicked results from various other studies that utilized more invasive assessment methods. Lack of participants completing in high levels of vigorous activity limits the studies ability to produce a meaningful conclusion on high levels of vigorous activity on URTI risk.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
The findings within this analysis demonstrate the beneficial relationship between moderate levels of vigorous activity and healthy immune system function. The research strongly supports the hypothesis of the J shaped relationship demonstrating the best benefit in moderate levels rather than low or high levels which show to increase the risk of URTI's.

The results of the study align with various other papers published on this subject although most seem to be limited by their lack of control groups. Due to the large scale of the study the reliance on self-reporting is increased. Only a small percentage of the participants completed a significant amount of very vigorous exercise making it difficult to compare results.

Practical advice
URTI's are the most common illness suffered by humans presenting a huge strain on the economy reportedly costing the U.S $40 billion and Australia $7 billion a year through missed days of work and public health subsidies

The results from this research demonstrated the relationship between different levels of physical activity and the risk of URTI's. Encouraging the population to participate in moderate levels of vigorous (3.0 - 5.9 MET's) could significantly reduce the burden of URTI's on the economy. The Australian Government Department of Health recommendations are for adults to accumulate 2.5-5 hours of moderate (swimming, walking) and 1.25 -2.5 hours of vigorous intensity (jogging, cycling) or an equivalent combination of both each week.

Further information/resources

 * Physical activity and exercise guidelines for all Australians https://www.health.gov.au/health-topics/physical-activity-and-exercise/physical-activity-and-exercise-guidelines-for-all-australians
 * Flu costs Australian employers $7 billion in lost productivity https://thesector.com.au/2019/02/27/flu-costs-australian-employers-7-billion-in-lost-productivity/


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms

This Wiki page is an assignment where the article titled 'Effectiveness of home-based and remotely supervised aerobic exercise in Parkinson's disease: A double-blind, randomised controlled trial' is critically appraised.

What is the background to this research?
As Parkinson's disease symptoms progress over-time, research has found that participating in physical activity can slow down the rate at which these symptoms advance, while also providing a range of other benefits. This studies aim was to provide an insight into the effect that high-intensity aerobic exercise can have on the motor symptoms of those diagnosed with mild Parkinson's using the Park-in-Shape intervention. This study is unique to others as it is administered at home with monitoring taking place remotely, while also being conducted using a cycling machine which is important to examine, as treadmills have predominantly been assessed in past research. Recent data projects that there are currently over 100,000 Australians diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. Therefore, the findings and methodisation of this study is relevant and necessary for future exercise interventions to be developed to help those suffering from the disease.

Where is the research from?
This study was published in 2019 in The Lancet Neurology journal by a collective group of researchers in the Netherlands, with funding from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development. The article declared that none of the researchers involved in the study had any conflict of interest and provided an extensive list of the author's associations and credentials, creating transparency and honesty with the readers, enhancing the integrity of the article.

What kind of research was this?
This study was conducted as a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. This type of design requires the blinding of participants as well as a large sample population to make findings more reliable. This was evident as a large sample of participants were involved in a variety of screening protocols before they were randomly allocated to an exercise group. A recent review found that this study presents a low risk of bias compared to other randomised controlled trials in this area of research due to it's large sample size, use of an active control group and its ability to effectively blind those involved in the study. It is worth noting that three of the author's of the Park-in-Shape study were also author's on this review. No conflict of interest was stated, however one of the author's was also partly responsible for the investigation into the bias found in the trials. When compared to previous literature, the study did provide a very clear method and analysis as well as a detailed explanation and descriptions of the sample population throughout the screening and provided details into the reasoning behind participants leaving and/or reasons for exclusion. Therefore, this supports the findings that very little chance of bias was indeed evident, making the reviews claims plausible.

What did the research involve?
This study implements the use of the Park-in-Shape intervention over six months, to further understand the effects that high-intensity aerobic exercise has on alleviating symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Participants were recruited from a clinic in the Netherlands and underwent a variety of screening processes to check for eligibility. 130 participants (50 females, 80 males) were allocated to either the aerobic intervention which took part in exercise on a stationary cycling machine for 30-45 minutes or the active control group which participated in a half hour stretching program, with both groups participating in their exercises 3 times a week. Both exercise groups were administered at home with remote supervision and intensity was individualised for participant's. Heart rate data was collected and stored on the cycle's computer while a motivational application was provided to help keep participant's on track and provide information regarding their progress. Limitations to this study includes it's reliance on technology, which was discussed by the author's, as there is a high risk of technical difficulties and accessibility issues, specifically for older participants as they may not be equiped to handle such technology which they found to be true as five participants exited the study due to this. The remotely supervised aspect also presents a risk for injuries and/or complications, which was evident as eleven participants experienced adverse events that may have been related to the program, with three causing withdrawal from the study.

What were the basic results?
Note: 3.5 points between intervention difference is clinically significant

Off-state= over 12hrs after dopaminergic medication

The main result measured was the Movement Disorders Society- Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS), with results finding a  between groups difference of 4.2 points , indicating a positive outcome for the aerobic intervention group regarding motor control, while improvements in VO2 max were also evident in the aerobic group. Of the 130 participants involved in the study, 10 from each group did not complete their exercise intervention, while 5 were not involved in the follow-up.

What conclusions can we take from this research?

 * This studies inclusion of gaming stimulation, motivational technology, cycling and remote supervision provides a new approach to exercise prescription for people living with Parkinson's disease.
 * The author's conclusion seems plausible as they do not overestimate their findings, rather reinforce the idea that aerobic exercise can have positive effects on the motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease as well as overall fitness levels.
 * Provides new insight into to the efficacy of remotely supervised exercise programs.
 * Adherence to the program was good overall, which raises the question of how programs can be administered remotely in the future.
 * Further research is necessary as this study is limited, due to testing taking place during an off-state from medication.

Practical advice
It has never been so important to find ways to be physically active in the comfort of your own home due to the current global pandemic, as a decline in physical activity levels has emerged. Research suggests that the pandemic may lead to long-term negative implications regarding the progression of Parkinson's symptoms if changes cannot be made to ensure that exercise and rehabilitation programs are able to continue remotely. The Park-in-Shape intervention shows that home-based, high-intensity exercise programs can work to improve motor symptoms in mild severity Parkinson's disease patients which may inform future interventions regarding the implementation of remotely supervised exercise programs.

Further information/resources
For more information/support please visit:

Parkinson's Australia Website

Parkinson's Foundation


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User talk:Arronparker96

Welcome!
Welcome, Arronparker96!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 04:33, 9 September 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Arronparker96


text:
User:Vulcan300

Nananannananananana

title: User:Vulcan300


text:
Exercise as it relates to Disease/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?

This page is a critique of the research article of: Silva, J., Rodrigues Neto, G., Freitas, E., Neto, E., Batista, G., Torres, M., & do Socorro Sousa, M. (2015). Chronic Effect of Strength Training with Blood Flow Restriction on Muscular Strength among Women with Osteoporosis. Official Research Journal of the American Society of Exercise Physiologists, 18(4), 33-41.

Contents

 * 1 What is the background to this research?
 * 2 Where is the research from?
 * 3 What kind of research was this?
 * 4 What did the research involve?
 * 5 What were the basic results?
 * 6 What conclusions can we take from this research?
 * 7 Practical advice
 * 8 Further information/resources
 * 9 References

Background
Strength training has been identified as both a preventative measure for the onset of osteoporosis, and for increasing bone strength and slowing down the rate of degeneration of bone mass with those already diagnosed. Resistance exercise will induce osteogenesis, and inhibit bone reabsorption, strengthening bones. It will also increase mobility and balance, reducing the risk of falling.

Blood flow restriction training (BFR), or occlusion training, is a training method where the muscles being worked have a disrupted blood flow. It can induce increased muscular strength and hypertrophy at a very low intensity (20% 1RM). Training without blood flow restriction at this low intensity is ineffective.

This study focuses on older women with osteoporosis, and determining if it is an effective regime for this population for increasing strength. The results for this study will be insightful from a clinical perspective, as many may not be able to physically handle heavier loads that would normally be required for strength and hypertrophy progressions.

Where is the research from?
This study was published 2015, with the authors from the Federal University of Paraíba, and the State University of Rio de Janeiro. The authors of the article appear to be reputable and experienced, with the authors to date having been apart of 195 publications. It's important to note that Brazil is a developing country, so the incidence and severity of osteoporosis may vary from that of a developed country.

The funding of this study appears to come from the universities. There does not appear to be any obvious or concerning conflict of interest or bias from any authors or parties involved.

What kind of research was this?
This study was executed as a randomised control trial. A randomised control trial is best for this study, being the gold standard in assessing potential new interventions. The randomised allocation of the participants cancels out potential biases, and differences in the results can be attributed to the intervention itself. Other study designs may lack this, as it could not be determined if a confounding variable influenced the outcomes.

What did the research involve?
There were a total of 15 participants. The participants were women over 50 years of age, had spent at least 6 months without performing any lower body strength training, and were diagnosed with osteoperosis with a t-score lower than -2.5 standard deviations. The strength training program lasted 12 weeks. The control group were to go about their normal lifestyle with no strenuous activity of the lower limbs. The intervention groups trained twice per week, with a unilateral leg extension as the exercise being tested. The high intensity group did 4 sets until concentric failure, at 80% 1RM. The BFR group were fitted with a blood pressure cuff at a mean pressure of 104 Hg, and a vascular doppler placed on the tibial artery of the right leg. They then performed 4 sets until concentric failure at 30% 1RM.

1RM testing was conducted before initiation of the program, in the sixth week, and in the 12th week, with the maximum strength of the right lower limb being tested.

The study could have gone into more depth by testing several unilateral and bilateral exercises targeting different movements. If the results in this study show a positive adaptation to the intervention, it is only localised to the right lower limb, and whether this intervention is useful for other limbs remains to be seen. This is important as osteoporosis affects many structures, such as the spine, humerus and the wrist.

The population of the study was very small. The participants were all in Brazil, and likely confined to an area close to the researchers for convenience of recruitment. This means that the results of the study may not be a valid to a wider population as there was not enough participation nor variety in the demographics.

The discrepancy in body mass with the group training with blood flow restriction is undesirable. However, due to the low number of participants and substantial standard deviation, this may be irrelevant.

Results

 * Strength is increased gradually by a high intensity program, as well as a lower intensity BFR program.

 * The control group showed no improvement.
 * High intensity training was the best method in increasing strength, being slightly more effective than the BFR method.

 * The researchers concluded that a low intensity regime with BFR is a viable alternative for a clinical population who may find it difficult to train.

 * The researchers acknowledged the small impact of their study due to sample size, and have encouraged further studies on an elderly osteoporotic population.
 * They have exuded confidence, emphasising previous studies into strength training with BFR in healthy populations which correlated with the results.

Conclusions

 * More evidence is required. Further replications of this study will ensure the findings are reliable.

 * The small sample size may render this study invalid, so further study is critical.

 * The discrepancy in the weight lifted in the BFR group in the pre test is concerning, considering it was a randomised control trial.

 * This may mean that the strength increases with this intervention may be inaccurate in a larger population, and will need to be confirmed with further studies.

 * It is reassuring that these findings line up with those of other studies. A meta analysis on low intensity BFR training found it was an effective way to increase muscular hypertrophy, strength, and eventually neural adaptations.
 * Evidence suggests that initial increases in strength is solely due to muscular hypertrophy, with neural adaptations occuring later, which is an opposite trend compared to traditional strength training.

Practical advice

 * BFR training is safe in healthy populations, but more research is required before it can be widespread in a clinical setting.
 * May be a useful tool to induce hypertrophy and strength at lower intensity in a clinical population.

 * If you suffer from osteoporosis, the best way at present to build muscle strength and size is to follow a traditional high intensity program.
 * A BFR program will provide similar adaptations with reduced mechanical stress and should be encouraged if a client cannot cope with heavy loads.
 * A full body program should be implemented, as adaptations are highly specified to what part of the body you are training.

 * Make sure your program is specialised, as osteoporosis will present limitations to completing a normal strength training program.
 * High volume is preferable.

Further information

 * Osteoporosis: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/chronic-musculoskeletal-conditions/osteoporosis/contents/what-is-osteoporosis
 * Blood occlusion training: https://www.healthline.com/health/fitness-exercise/occlusion-training

 * https://healthybonesaustralia.org.au
 * Contact an orthopaedic surgeon for an assessment.


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis

This page is based on the research article conducted by Mohammed Alkatan, et al, in 2016. The title of the article is; Improved Function and Reduced Pain after Swimming and Cycling Training in Patients with Osteoarthritis

What is the background to this research?
Arthritis by definition is the swelling/inflammation of one or more joints and has many different categories and the different categories have different symptoms, such as Rheumatoid arthritis, childhood arthritis, fibromyalgia to name a few but the one being looked at in this research is Osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis symptoms include joint pain, stiffness, decreased range of motion in joints and swelling, it is caused by damage to joint cartilage between the bones. Cycling was used in this research as a comparison group because it has been shown to be effective in alleviating pain for patients with osteoarthritis and is a land-based non-weight bearing exercise.

The primary aim of this study was to determine the effects of a swimming exercise training intervention on the primary symptoms of osteoarthritis this is because the traits of water based exercise, because of the buoyancy of the water creates minimal weight bearing for a participant and has been widely recommended as a treatment option for osteoarthritis. Considering how widely recommended it is this is the first research piece to look at the effects of a swimming exercise program for patients with osteoarthritis and with substantially more studies to be conducted. Another factor about a swimming intervention is that most patients with osteoarthritis are obese and with that comes heat-related problems when exercising outside especially during summer, so swimming decreases the risk of the heat-related problems because they are surrounded by water that cools down the body.

A secondary aim of the effect on quality of like was addressed in this study. The hypothesis for this study was that the swimming intervention would produce reductions in joint pain, stiffness and improvements in functional capacity in patients with osteoarthritis.

It is important to look at studies like this for patients with osteoarthritis because it could potentially decrease the severity of symptoms which then improves how they cope doing everyday activities without pain or limitations. It is also a way for them to do exercise that doesn't put them in a place of discomfort and is easily accessible to a lot of people with the wide variety and access to pools.

Where is the research from?
This study was approved by the Board at the University of Texas Austin and was conducted through the cardiovascular ageing research laboratory at the university. It included participants with mild to moderate radiographic osteoarthritis. The researchers conducting this research piece were Mohammed Alkatan, Jeffrey R. Baker, Daniel R. Machin, Wonil Park, Amanda S. Akkari, Evan P. Pasha and Hirofumi Tanaka.

On the basis that this study was performed at and through the University of Texas at the Austin campus it implies that all participants would have been around that area restricting the amount of participants being able to participate in the study. Considering Texas is the second largest state by population and size it has a low percentage of people with any kind of arthritis with only 20.2% where as other states such as West Virginia and Kentucky have over 30% of their population living with arthritis. This means the results won't be as accurate because it is based on one area in one country and could possible not be as effective in another state or country.

What kind of research was this?
The study was randomised clinical trial and the researchers settled on doing it this way to avoid having any possible bias. There were precautions taken when randomly assigning the participants to a group with having a blinded investigator hand out envelopes with the prevention group the participant would be in. A randomised clinical trial was the best possible kind of study to do in this particular research because it would produce reliable evidence and ensure bias would not play a factor in the results.

What did the research involve?
All participants were recruited from orthopaedic clinics and senior centres through emails, flyers and sharing information. All participants were either middle age or older with osteoarthritis and had to go a careful screening process to make sure they qualified .Baseline measurements were taken before undertaking any exercise. Then using the randomised study design participants were randomly assigned either the swimming or cycling exercise program by a blinded investigator.

For the first few weeks participants exercised in their allocated group for 20-30 minutes a day, 3 days a week at an intensity of 40-50% of their heart rate reserve. As the participants level improved over the weeks the intensity and duration of the exercise was increased with the maximum participants reached being 40-45min a day, 3 days a week at an intensity of 60-70% of their heart rate reserve. The exercise program ran for 12 weeks and while undertaking the exercise programs all participants were instructed to maintain their usual lifestyle and dietary habits.

The swimming exercise group was located at the Gregory gymnasium at the University of Texas at Austin campus in a 25-yard pool (22.86 m) and to ensure the participants felt comfortable the pool was kept at a temperature between 27-28 degrees celsius. The swimming session were overseen by an investigator that was certified as a Red Cross Water Safety and Red Cross Lifeguard instructor. The participants either used the stroke freestyle or breast stroke or a combination of the both for the duration of the program. One participant had no previous experience in swimming so they undertook one on one session containing swimming with a kick board and fins to maintain the prescribe heart rate zone. The heart rate monitors were strapped around the participants chest and were waterproof so they could wear them while swimming.

The cycling program on a stationary bike located in the exercise training intervention core laboratory at the University of Texas at the Austin campus, this exercise program was supervised by an investigator that was a certified personal trainer. The program included the investigator instructing the participants to cycle continuously except for the times when heart rate needed to be measured. The heart rate monitors were strapped around the participants chest.

At the end of the 12 week all participants then went through the testing phase agin maintaining the order of how it was conducted when doing the baseline tests. To test physical performance participants completed a 6 min walk test, to determine the pain and disease severity the researchers used a WOMAC index (self-administered questionnaire). The questionnaire consists of 24 questions and each is rated on a 5-point likert scale with 0= no pain, 4= extreme pain, these deals with the participant's perception of pain, stiffness and physical function all symptoms of osteoarthritis.

Limitations to the study as pointed out by Alkatan and colleagues was that the study was only conducted over a 3 months span only showing what 3 months of a swimming intervention program can do to benefit osteoarthritis symptoms. Another limitation is the lack of participant blinding to treatment allocation and this is shown through the withdrawal of 2 participants because they were unhappy with the intervention group they were placed in. Only using patients who have mild to moderate radiographic osteoarthritis were included in the study, there were no severe cases of osteoarthritis such as patients that require a walker to assist them in walking meaning the results can not be generalised to patients with more severe cases of osteoarthritis. So to improve the study would be getting a larger amount and more variety of participants well as conducting the study for longer to see if the benefits kept increasing or if it was only for a certain amount of time.

What were the basic results?
Out of the 48 participants that passed the screening process 40 completed the research with 8 withdrawing. Out of the 8 that withdrew 4 were from the swimming intervention group and 4 were from the cycling intervention group. In the swimming intervention group 1 person withdrew due to a chlorine sensitivity, 1 withdrew due to personal reasons, 1 withdrew from a non- related injury and another 1 withdrew because they were unhappy with the randomisation. In the cycling intervention group 1 person withdrew due to an employment conflict, 1 withdrew because they were unhappy with the randomisation and 2 withdrew due to knee pain when cycling.

Between the 2 groups after the baseline testing was conducted there was there was no significant differences between the physical characteristics and body stature. After the completion of the 12-week program body mass, visceral adiposity and hip/waist circumference decreased in both training groups (all p < 0.01) but there was no significant difference between the two intervention groups. There were reductions in joint pain, stiffness and functional limitations that was determined using the WOMAC index between both intervention groups. There was also significant increases in the distance covered in the 6-minute walking test between both the swimming and cycling intervention groups (p < 0.001).

Focusing on the swimming intervention group it produced approximately 40% reduction in joint pain, approximately 30% reduction in the feeling of stiffness and approximately 25% reduction in functional limitation in every day activities. In conjunction with these improvements there were improvements in physical performance, upper and lower body muscle strength and a reduction in in body mass.

Alkatan and colleagues interpreted this data as that a swimming intervention produce the same results as a cycling intervention program meaning the benefits for this population are well established but there will still need to be more studies conducted to determine if there would be continuous benefits and if they would improve the symptoms of osteoarthritis if the swimming program continued for a longer period of time.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
Based on previous research patients have already benefitted from participation in a cycling as an exercise intervention to help reduce the symptoms of osteoarthritis but there has been numerous studies which has concluded that it is beneficial for patients.

Considering it is the first study looking at the effects of swimming it has shown a positive benefit for the participants. Based on the buoyancy of the water and minimal weight bearing it is a perfect fit for patients with osteoarthritis because there is minimal impact in the joints that are usually affected when doing tasks that are land based. This study has proven to a minimal extent that a swimming exercise intervention has beneficial impacts reducing stiffness and joint pain. More research has to be conducted before it can be considered the best intervention for patients with osteoarthritis.

Practical advice
When consulting with a doctor about ways to help alleviate joint pain and stiffness and to help improve function in every day life activities mention a swimming exercise program and see what your doctor recommends.

If you participate in a swimming program recommended by a doctor you need to ensure you stay within the guidelines that are set by a doctor to ensure oyu get the proper benefits.

Water aerobics can be an alternative to a swimming program because has been proven to decrease pain by a 5-point lower score. So due to the lack of research based on a swimming program water aerobics can be an alternative based on all the benefits of minimal weight bearing that is produced when being in water.

Further information/resources
What is arthritis?

Types of arthritis

Osteoarthritis

Prevalence of arthritis in the US

Prevalence of arthritis in Australia


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User:Jens Theilen

Dr. Jens T. Theilen (they/them) is a senior research associate at Helmut-Schmidt-University, Hamburg, Germany.

title: User:Jens Theilen


text:
Learning anatomy/Vein

Anatomy
Just like the other blood vessels, the parts of the vein are the intima, media, and adventitia.

Function
Oxygen has been used so it travels back to the heart through the veins.

title: Learning anatomy/Vein


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User:PhysiologyStudent-T/sandbox

This page is a university assignment that aims to critique the article: Pilates and aerobic training improve levels of depression, anxiety and quality of life in overweight and obese individuals.

What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source]

 * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about,
 * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge,
 * and why it is important

Where is the research from?[edit | edit source]

 * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share?

 * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field?

 * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings?

What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source]

 * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis?
 * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ?

What did the research involve?[edit | edit source]

 * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study?
 * Was the methodology the best approach?
 * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)?

What were the basic results?[edit | edit source]

 * What were the important findings?
 * How did the researchers interpret the results?
 * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings?

What conclusions can we take from this research?[edit | edit source]

 * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors)
 * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper)

Practical advice[edit | edit source]

 * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes:
 * criteria for not exercising,
 * recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them,
 * recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations,
 * considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc
 * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources?

Further information/resources[edit | edit source]

 * What further reading may interested readers benefit from?
 * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment?
 * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals)

References[edit | edit source]
Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it)

And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this)

title: User:PhysiologyStudent-T/sandbox


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Levantine Arabic/Weather

Basic terms
(iṭ-ṭaqs) is followed by an adjective (hot, cold, sunny etc.).

(id-dinya) is used as a dummy subject like “It's ...” in English. It can be followed by a verb (raining, snowing etc.), or a noun corresponding to an adjective (heat = hot, sun = sunny etc.).

Temperature
In order to express someone's sensation of the temperature, special adjectives with the ending “-ān” are used.

The sky
When used with a verb, (id-dinya) can be omitted as long as the verb is not the only remaining word in the sentence.

States like “sunny” and “cloudy” can be expressed by verbs well, which have the meaning of “to be ...” or “to become ...”.

title: Levantine Arabic/Weather


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Star Fox franchise strategy guide/Vehicles/Blue Marine

The Blue-Marine is a research submersible from the Star Fox series of video games.

Description
The Blue-Marine was designed and built by Slippy Toad with the assistance of his father, Beltino Toad. Once Andross invaded the Lylat System, Slippy converted the machine into a combat submarine with lasers and a device that can make an infinite amount of energy torpedoes that can not only be used as weapons, but as a means of lighting up the dark depths of the Lylat System's many oceans, but it's not the fastest or most manuverable craft.

The official Star Fox 64 player's guide provided statistics for the Blue Marine.

 * 16.5 sm in length
 * 7 sm in height
 * maximum speed of 116 skt/h
 * a maximum dive of 2,000 sm
 * armament including a T&B-U3 laser cannon and a Homing Torpedo launcher.

Additionally, the guide states that both the Landmaster and the Blue-Marine use propulsions system components originally developed for the Arwing. All three can synthesize their own hydrogen fuel for their plasma engines, giving them extended operating ranges.

In Star Fox 64, Fox McCloud took the machine into the depths of Aquas, a planet covered entirely by one huge ocean.

It does not appear in any game afterwards. In Star Fox Command, Star Fox returns to Aquas (in some stories) and the Arwings prove to work just fine underwater, rendering the Blue Marine useless.