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User talk:Molly.C99

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Thanks for your contributions -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 12:42, 1 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Molly.C99


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User talk:Gkwon

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, Gkwon!

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Thanks for your contributions -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:15, 1 May 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Gkwon


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User talk:Thegameman1246

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, Thegameman1246!

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-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:25, 1 May 2021 (UTC)

Question
Hello. I'm new here, and can everyone please help me? Thank you. Also, can anyone tell me how to create a brand new wikibook? The Using Wikibooks page isn't helping much.

 * Hi, please ask questions at Reading room/Assistance. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 13:24, 1 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Thegameman1246


text:
Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/Charlotte Smith (1749–1806)

= Charlotte Smith (1749-1806) =

Biography
Charlotte Smith (b. Turner) (b. 1749-d. 1806) was born to prosperous parents Nicholas (d. 1777) and Anna (d. 1752) Turner. Born to wealthy parents, her education was quite traditional for a woman during the late eighteenth century. From a young age, due to the influence and encouragement of her father (who wrote poetry himself), Smith showed a particular interest in reading and begun composing poems of her own.

Due to unfortunate financial difficulties, Smith was married off by her father at the age of fifteen to Benjamin Smith (b. 1743-1806), the son of a wealthy merchant. Together the couple conceived twelve children during their marriage. Together they endured a deeply unhappy relationship and were burdened by financial hardships on her husband’s behalf; Smith later coined her marriage ‘legal prostitution’. Furthermore, in 1783, Smith joined her husband in debtor’s prison, where she composed her first book of poetry, Elegiac Sonnets. This was the starting point of her career as a writer as Elegiac Sonnets achieved success and paid for their release from prison.

Smith went on to write many successful novels after Elegiac Sonnets, and controversially left her husband in 1787 and began to support their children by writing. Circumstances deriving from their separation found Smith having no legal obligation to her earnings from her works; Smith and her husband never signed a legal arrangement to protect her earnings, and Benjamin obtained them under English laws in the eighteenth century. Smith turned to novel writing as a means of income and, in 1788, wrote her first novel titled Emmeline; The Orphan of the Castle. This novel was a semi-autobiographical piece which contain analogies of herself and Benjamin as the main characters and was a great success. Due to this triumph, Smith proceeded to produce nine more novels over the course of ten years. In her forewords, Smith shared her difficulties regarding her adversities; the loss and hardships her children endured prior to her death troubled her greatly. As her novels were selling at high volumes, Smith utilised her platform to raise social concerns such as feminism (in terms of empowerment, biased laws and social constructs), politics and conventional morality. Smith turned to politics in 1791 and actively participated and exploited her platform to state her position in the political sphere of the late eighteenth century.

Toward the end of her life, Smith’s popularity declined. Despite this, Smith published literary canons such as Rural Walks (1795) and Beachy Head and Other Poems (1807). Smith contended with poverty until Benjamin died in a debtor's prison in 1806, where the money he owed her, alongside the money that was rightfully Smiths was returned to her. However, this return was belated; Smith’s deteriorating health attributed to her death eight months later in 1806.

Poetry
Elegiac Sonnets (1784) – identified as her first piece of work, Smith utilises nature and landscape to explore her tangled emotions and wounded soul. Smith’s work in this piece was simplistic and elegant. Her influence was Thomas Gray, whom she often regarded throughout her life and career. Smith’s first piece was a considerable success, with many others praising her work as provocative and were highly respected.

Beachy Head and Other Poems (1807) – Identified as her final work of poetry, it has quite an obituary, melancholy tone. This final piece was welcomed by many, with reviews noting it as a “pleasure…to pay a tribute…to the elegant genius of Mrs. Charlotte Smith.” (The Annual Review, 1809; Roberts, 2019).

Novels
– Smith projects herself and her former husband into this piece and is noted as semi-biographical, ‘Cinderella’ style romance novel. Similar to her other works, this novel was of great success to Smith, and many editions were published proceeding its initial release. The genre of this piece was Gothic, which was a common genre Smith explored.

– Noted as Smith’s most politically radical piece, Desmond is regarded as a bestselling novel. Embodying a romance novel paired with a satirical tone and political relevancy, Smith produced a piece where she could speak from a position of influence as a woman; controversially why this novel sold so many copies within its first year. Again, like Smith’s other pieces, Desmond was regarded quite controversial and received negative reviews. However, this only encouraged Smith to continue to share her political voice.

– Smith composed this as one of her political pieces which challenged contemporary issues society was facing at the time. This included property injustice, neglectfulness toward pressing issues, the ideologies of the American revolution and the overall ideology of how women were expected to live in the eighteenth century. This text is recognised by some as her most notable and famous novel and was reviewed as controversially intense for masking her views through a fictitious avenue. After the release of this book, although selling many copies, her position as a woman found her popularity declining due to her contentious views.

Other works
Rural Walks: In Dialogues Intended for the Use of Young Persons (1795) – One of Smith’s Children’s’ literature educational books, specifically for young girls ostracised from school, contained enlightening tales of equity, perspective and class. Complimenting her earlier poetic pieces, Smith integrates nature into this piece as a nod to her traditional roots. As this piece takes a pedagogical approach for young girls, Smith was regarded highly for converting her literary genre to accommodate what she spoke about in her political pieces: inequity and women’s position and status in society.

Legacy
A common thread sewed throughout Smith’s work is how her pieces were regularly re-printed into numerous editions; ten editions of Elegiac Sonnets, eleven editions of Emmeline; The Orphan of the Castle, three editions of Desmond and so forth. Smith was controversially relevant, and today we could say that the author was ahead of her time. Due to her voice being perceived as too loud, Smith was silenced by many and the author’s popularity declined over the years. Post humanly, Smith was forgotten by many, but not the literary world. Smith encouraged hundreds of artists in the literary world to create their own pieces, including Jane Austen; “… Charlotte Smith influenced her the most frequently and profoundly of any of her predecessors.” (Magee, 1975). Smith was a ‘mentor’ for William Wordsworth, giving copies of Smith’s work to his children and treasured pieces of his own (Blick, 2020). Wordsworth spoke of Smith in the nineteenth century, following her death, stating she was “…a lady to whom English verse is under greater obligations than are likely to be either acknowledged or remembered.” (Wordsworth, 1830s). Smith is said to have influenced many other great authors, such as Keats, Dickens and the Bronte sisters (Martin, 1978). Mary Wollstonecraft reviewed five of Smith’s work, which were “thoroughly apolitical” and “…admired [Smith’s] picturesque descriptions of nature and her skill in the portrayal of manners.” (Martin, 1978).

Contemporary critics state that Smith played an integral role in surviving the Romance and Gothic genres, with many believing that Smith also allowed for women’s voices to be projected at a time when they were more commonly silenced. Unfortunately, as mentioned, over time Smith’s work slowly stopped being published and purchased. It was not until the early twenty-first century that Smith's entire collection of literary works again became available to the general public.


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Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/Mary Ward (1585–1645)

= Mary Ward (1585-1645) =

Biography
Mary Ward (1585-1645) was born to a Catholic family in Yorkshire, England during the reign of Elizabeth I, a time of extreme persecution for Catholics. Her family was kin to the Gascoigne’s, the Vavasors and the Constables families famous for their stoic Catholic loyalty. At age fifteen Mary left England to join the Poor Clares, in the Spanish Netherlands, but after only a year she left as she felt her duty remained outside the convent, this act resulted in some mockery, she was labelled the ‘runaway nun, the visionary and the false prophetess’.

Mary Ward is the foundress of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and her initial views of the role of a nun challenged the English Church’s reformed view of the role of women and as such some modern scholars refer to her as the first English feminist (Thorne, 2021).

Works
Mary Ward's work begins with the founding of a community of sisters in 1609 at St Omer in modern day Belgium. The purpose of this community was to educate young women, assist Catholics who had been persecuted and to spread Catholic gospel in places Priests could not reach. This community was the first free school for English Catholic girls, and through their education the hopeful fulfilment of a religious life or upon returning to England adequately religiously educated to defend Catholicism. At the time of Mary’s Institutes creation, Canon law (Constitution, Periculoso) meant that charity work and the education of young girls by nuns was severely hindered. Ward taught the young women public speaking and performance skills in order to establish pious and articulate Catholic women. Mary Wards Institute was not without its critics, and this type of education was thought to be training young women in the art of heretical deception (Lux-Sterrit, 2006).

Ward's written works were composed in defence of her communities and educative beliefs. In her Memorial, Mary argues her justification, reasoning the advantageous influence her and her companions were having. She makes a strong validation that for the previous twelve years her Institute followed scripture and religious decree even when “continual persecutions heaped upon us both by bad and good men ever since our beginnings” (Ward, Memorial). Memorial, was Ward’s response to and adaptation of the 1550 Formula Institute, this is significant because this act of appropriation is a clear and open contest of the male religious discourse that controlled all aspects of religious life. Two aspects of this discourse that Mary Ward strongly rejects is the Enclosure of nuns and their subjection to the authority of a bishop. This enclosure was opposed by Mary as its intention was for women to kneel in faithful silence while a male spokesperson represented them, meaning that it is only through their writing, like Ward’s, that their voices are heard.

Mary Ward's written works, Schola Beatae Mariae composed in 1612, Ratio Instituti in 1616, and Third Plan in 1621 demonstrate her lifelong attentiveness to the inherent possibilities that writing provides. Her Catholic name Mary as a significant indicator of her Catholic identity is her first declaration, and even on her deathbed she refused to sign works provided by the Inquisition until she had transcribed it to her own penchant. Mary Wards awareness for the power of the written word is evident in all of her works. Her writings all include the argument that the lack of education for women may be allowing them to be more receptive and capable of Gods will than men because they have not been exposed to human values and influence through social virtues of education. The significance of Wards writings in a time of women’s expected silence was her alteration of this expectation into the permission for her to tell her story, under the claim that it was demanded of her, “I was commanded three or four years… to set down in writing all I could remember to call to mind of my life past…Jesus give me grace to set it down truly as it passed”(Ward, Third Plan), Ward was able to circumnavigate the Pauline scriptures visions of the silent woman.

Ward's most candid retort to these expectations comes in Three Instructions, written in 1617, in retaliation to constant criticism and judgement from Catholic men. Her language is assertive and impassioned and demonstrated her willingness to deconstruct the traditional male discourse of Catholic scripture. Ward reminds her followers that they have been, and will continue to be, the focus of negative male judgement, she does this not to sway them from their work but uses it as the fuel to foster and grow her Institutes identity, “Men you know, look diversely upon you, all look upon you as new beginners of a course never thought of before, marvelling at what you intend and at what will be the end of you. Some thinking we are women and aiming at greater matters than was ever thought women capable of… expect perhaps to see us fail” (Ward, Three Instructions).

Reputation
Mary Ward's reputation was felt throughout the Catholic community, her efforts to expand the role of nuns and Catholic women were condemned and Church officials called her a heretic. Whilst travelling on foot through Europe, seeking support for her cause, in Munich, January 1631 she was imprisoned for heresy. Ward established free schools for Catholic girls, nursed the sick and provided assistance to persecuted Catholics, even her protestant neighbours testified for her love and persistence in helping the poor and needy. At the time of her Institute, Mary was seen to be attempting to spread Jesuit influence through the English Church, and her embracement of the Society of Jesus as the scaffold for her organisation meant that it was received with suspicion and scepticism.

Mary Ward did not secretively challenge the Catholic male discourse, and her offer to establish an Institutional community in Rome, under the view of the Pope and church officials, was significantly oppositional as it was a practical and visible demonstration that the allowance of female freedom within Catholicism would not manipulate the religious expression. In fact, Ward argued that women were more receptive to the teachings of God, and therefore benefited more from dedicated institutions, because they had not been influenced by traditional theological education only afforded to men at the time [7].

The Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary grew significantly throughout Mary’s life and after, but it did not receive the approval of the Church until 1877, and Mary was not recognised as the foundress until 1909. Ward was direct in her opposition that English ladies would weaken in their resolve to spread the Catholic faith, because it was not a case of gender, but human imperfection as “there is no such difference between men and women” (Ward, Three Instructions). In 2009, Mary was declared venerable and a woman of heroic virtue.


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User:ZI Jony/minerva.js

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User:ShayMTR/sandbox/Epistemology/Innatism

One argument that rationalists have used to argue that not all knowledge is derived from experience is that some of our knowledge is innate. Innateness is a hard concept to pin down but innate knowledge can be thought of as knowledge that is unlearned. One way of understanding the debate between rationalism and empiricism is that rationalists have argued that experience cannot adequately explain all of our knowledge and so we need to appeal to innate knowledge whereas empiricists have claimed on the contrary that all of our knowledge can be derived from experience and so we don't need innateness as a source of knowledge. This is not a perfect way of dividing rationalists and empiricists but, historically, the denial of innate ideas has been an important part of empiricism and has even been proposed as a defining part of empiricism. Whether or not empiricism can be defined so simply, innateness is an interesting source of knowledge that has remained an important issue for debate throughout the history of philosophy up to the present day.

Plato
In the Meno, Plato argues for innate knowledge via a dialogue between Socrates and a slave who has had no training in mathematics. Through a series of questions, Aristotle prompts the slave to go through the following reasoning:

 * The square at the bottom left is 1x1 so it has an area of 1
 * The question is: what square will have double the area (i.e. area = 2)?
 * It isn’t a 2x2 square because we see the area of the big 2x2 square is made up of four little squares (so the area is quadrupled)
 * But if we cut these little squares in half then the areas of each of them is halved.
 * Doing this forms a rotated square; adding up the four halves we find that its area is ½ + ½ + ½ + ½ = 2
 * So this is the square with double the area!

Plato argues that because the slave has not been educated in mathematics and because he is led to discovering the answer for himself rather than being given the answer, they must be remembering knowledge that is given to them innately. Opponents of this argument note that the questions Aristotle asks in the dialogue can be read as leading questions and it seems that he may simply be providing the slave with the answer through cleverly framed questions.

In the Phaedo, Plato uses the example of equality to argue that our abstract ideas must be innate. Once again Socrates is portrayed in dialogue, this time questioning a man who believes that we can gain our idea of equality through experience of things such as equal pieces of sticks. Socrates argues that nothing we ever experience is perfectly equal and so falls short of our idea of perfect equality. But if our idea of perfect equality cannot be found in our experience, then it must come from somewhere else, specifically it must be innate. This applies to all of our ideas which are too general and abstract to be found anywhere in our experience and so seems to indicate that we must have many innate ideas. Whilst Plato here is arguing for innate ideas rather than innate knowledge, it is still important in a discussion of innateness as a source of knowledge because (as Locke argued) it is plausible that for us to know a proposition we must have all the ideas contained in the proposition. For example, to have innate knowledge that "there is a God" requires that we have an innate idea of God that gives the proposition meaning.

Locke
The first book of Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is dedicated to arguing that there are no innate ideas or knowledge. Locke's broad argument throughout book I is that if there was any knowledge that was innate, then everybody should agree to it but according to Locke there are no propositions that all people agree to because infants, "idiots", and those that haven't considered the propositions do not agree to them. This means that none of the knowledge we have could possibly be innate. Furthermore, innate knowledge requires that we have innate ideas of the things we know about but we do not have any innate ideas because infants do not have these ideas (e.g. ideas of God, equality, impossibility not in infants). Locke considers many possible counterarguments that could be used to counter his point.

 * We have innate knowledge but it is uncovered by reason. Locke argues that if the knowledge is uncovered by reason then it cannot possibly be innate because reasoning is the process of inferring what is unknown from what is known. Furthermore, if innate knowledge is uncovered by reason then would this not mean that almost all of our knowledge including knowledge that does not seem innate at all but rather seems learned including all mathematical theorems would be innate. This seems to make the innatists claim trivial, if their definition of innateness is this broad then all of our knowledge (including learned and derived knowledge) counts as innate. Locke continues to argue that it is not even true that children agree to the knowledge that is thought of as innate when they come to reason because the knowledge that is thought of as innate is far too abstract for children to consider at the age they come to reason and even many adults may not think of it. This is because knowledge that is often thought of as innate is abstract and logical truths such as "it is impossible for the same thing to be and to not be".
 * We have innate knowledge but it is only agreed to when proposed and understood. Once again Locke argues that this makes innateness too broad because even quite trivial propositions such as "bitter is not sweet" are agreed to when proposed and understood. He also questions whether knowledge that is only agreed to when proposed to someone could possibly be innate by asking the rhetorical question "doth the proposing them print them clearer in the mind than nature did?"
 * We have innate knowledge but it is only known implicitly. Locke argues that if knowledge is innately imprinted onto the mind that it cannot be implicitly known because according to Locke "No proposition can be said to be in the mind which it never yet knew, which it was never yet conscious of". Locke goes on to argue that implicitly known propositions are incoherent saying "that a truth should be innate and yet not assented to, is to me as unintelligible as for a man to know a truth and be ignorant of it at the same time". These arguments rest on an assumption that all areas of the mind are open to conscious access. As we will see, this is a point that Leibniz utilises in his defense of innate ideas.

Locke hopes to strengthen his case against innate knowledge by showing that all of our knowledge can be derived from experience with the use of his empiricist theory. According to Locke, we are born a "tabula rasa" or blank slate without any knowledge or ideas. Through perception we are furnished with all of our ideas and our knowledge. These ideas can be broken down into simple ideas which are the basic building blocks of all of our ideas and which themselves cannot be broken down. These ideas can be combined in many different ways to create all kinds of complex ideas. For example, our idea of a horse may be built from ideas such as the horse having a certain shape, colour, movement and sound (e.g. HORSE = HORSE-SHAPED + BROWN + GALLOPING + NEIGHING). The ideas that we have can be compared with one another to see how similar or dissimilar they are from one another. We can come to our abstract ideas such as equality by a process of abstraction in which we compare our ideas and remove all the differences between them until we get to an idea that only has the similarities between all of our ideas that have equality. Likewise, we can come to a general abstract idea of "human" by comparing all our ideas of particular people and taking away all the differences between people until we get an abstract idea that applies to everyone.

Leibniz
In his New Essays Concerning Human Understanding, Leibniz puts forward a similar argument to Plato's argument about equality. Leibniz argues that experience cannot provide us with knowledge of necessary truths because we only ever experience particular instances but we cannot derive any necessary truths from particular instances because it does not follow that just because something has happened that it must keep on happening. Leibniz then says that the only way that we could possibly know these necessary truths (if not by experience) is that they are just innate. As Leibniz puts it:"Although the senses are necessary for all our actual knowledge, they are not sufficient to provide it all, since they never give us anything but instances, that is particular or singular truths. But however many instances confirm a general truth, they do not suffice to establish its universal necessity; for it does not follow that what has happened will always happen in the same way. Necessary truths, such as we find in pure mathematics and particularly in arithmetic and geometry, must have principles whose proof does not depend on instances nor, consequently, on the testimony of the senses [...] and so the proof of them can only come from inner principles, which are described as innate."Leibniz also responds to Locke's arguments against innate knowledge by utilising a conception of the unconscious as well as arguing that some of our innate knowledge comes in the form of tendencies in our way to think and reason rather than in propositions. For example, in response to Locke's suggestion that our mind begins a blank slate without any ideas or knowledge imprinted onto it, Leibniz writes the following passage:"I have also used the analogy of a veined block of marble, as opposed to an entirely homogenous block of marble, or to a blank slate – what the philosophers call a tabula rasa. For if the soul were like such a blank tablet then truths would be in us as the shape of Hercules is in a piece of marble when the marble is entirely neutral as to whether it assumes this shape or some other. However, if there were veins in the block which marked out the shape of Hercules rather than other shapes, then that block would be more determined to that shape and Hercules would be innate in it, in a way, even though labour would be required to expose the veins and to polish them into clarity, removing everything that prevents their being seen. This is how ideas and truths are innate in us – as inclinations, dispositions, tendencies, or natural potentialities"

Contemporary debates about innateness
[Chomsky, maybe Fodor, moral innatism, innatism in other areas]


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User:M.d.c.perez/sandbox

=Discussion Board Excerpts=

Overview of the Sonoran Desert

 * As stated earlier, I feel like the readings imply that we do not comprehend the shared relationship humans have with nature. I do not think it is their ideology, but instead, they promote us (the readers) to look at the bigger picture and not be so close-minded and notice the little details that make, for instance, the desert.

Developing a Sense of Place

 * As time passes, plants and animals seem to become closes to becoming extinct, and like the question said, pests seem to multiply is simply a matter of sickness symptoms in the land organism. People nowadays do not care since they believe it has nothing to do with them or will not affect them and often dismissed it.
 * I believe that no one has the right to take someone else’s life, no matter if they are human or animals, or plants. Life is given to us, and no one has the right to take it. Instead of targeting the animals, there should be a safe place for them to be relocated if needed instead of killing them. This is how animals typically become extinct because of all the hunting.

Geology/Geography

 * The formation of the Sonoran Desert biotic community as a whole and the formation of the human societies that are here now I do think they are parallel. Since both need evolution to create basically everything they are (plants, in some cases animals, technology, medicine, etc.) but the only difference is that while evolving one does not cause any harm to the other and the other one does.
 * In “The Geological Origin of the Sonoran Desert” the author describes the stages of development that led to the formation of the Basin and Range Landscapes. While there were many aspects to this story that really amazed the one that stood out the most was the fact regarding the mountains in Tucson they were composed from a volcanic episode. I mean I always knew Tucson would be interesting, but I just assumed mountains were all just basically big piles of dirt and rocks (I was wrong).

Water (Gregory McNamee and the Gila River)

 * The word "desert" by itself can be misleading. For instance, before this class whenever I read a book or an article that contained the word desert I would automatically assumed it was boring since I thought of words like dry, dull, or boring. I basically assumed the worst without actually giving it a chance. After doing the reading I can tell you the word desert is quite the opposite. It is full of life and vibrant colors and just like the reading stated of animals like coyotes, mules, deer's, etc.

Water (Gregory McNamee and the Gila River Continue)

 * In regards to how likely are the solutions that McNamee proposes for reversing the destruction of the Gila watershed well it all depends on the effort everyone as a community puts in. I like to be optimistic and think that everything is possible. Personally, I do believe rivers should have rights as well since they are overall everyone including plants and animals main source of life. We don't want to damage or destroy our main source so we ought to take care of it by giving it rights.

Water (Sevigny and the Rights of Rivers)

 * Our main worries back then were giving enough water to plants and helping them grow. Now it seems like our main concern is what filter to use or what angles should pictures be taken. I feel like this is ridiculous. There are bigger problems that concern the environment which should concern us, and we do not do anything about it now what future do we hope for future generations.

Human Ecology of the Sonoran Desert

 * I do believe it is “human nature” to seek dominate and own what we find most beautiful, even if possessing it changes its essence. I think we have to feel in control in order to feel powerful or successful. We constantly have been told that if we fight for what we want we can have it which should not really apply to everything.

Conservation Practices

 * I do not believe that the new habitats that are basically created from humans are “just as good.” They are inherently inferior since by doing so they are harming the environment. Having altered habitats everywhere in the world could also make it hard for other species to survive since they already have adapted to their habitats and if it is altered it could make it hard for them to survive. I personally feel the situation would be extremely difficult to reverse.
 * Restoring biodiversity is so much healthier in every way, I believe that the reason we do not simply do it is because again going back people do not like being told what to do they like to have control. This could also have something to do with the lack of information they have since if they are not well informed they might simply not care.

Water, Redux (Salton Sea/Colorado River Articles)

 * Tests have shown that people, specifically children, who live near Imperial valley have more of a probability of having asthma because of the poor air quality they have been exposed to. The lake and its looming problems can be a symbol of our willingness to accept health problems in the local human population because it would be a constant reminder of how we can change.

History & Culture (from McNamee's "Desert Reader")
=Journals Excerpts=
 * The themes it seems to connect well with are the ones from the Bitter Man and The Drinker in regards to their love for the nature, land, water, and other components. We can conclude from these very short excerpts the world view of the Native American is that they deeply care about nature and their land.

Personal Journal Entry One
January 20,2021
 * Also having too much rain or having rain consecutive could lead to “floods” which again potentially damage the environment. This would cause for seeds and topsoil to wash away and having the plants left behind have no good soil left for them. Because of my science courses I know that whenever there is rain it encourages the grow of new bacteria and fungus which could harm now not just the environment but us as well.

Speaker Brad Pease
January 28, 2021
 * I honestly have always thought of the earth change as just a typical climate change and during his presentation he mentioned how it also changes the chemical components of the earth. It left me wondering how is it that earth changes could change the chemical components of the earth when they are deep within the soil? Would it be possible that it is changing slowly and that just when there is a drastic change in temperature, we notice it?

Speaker Nancy Meister
February 02, 2021
 * When she mentioned she was opposing a Bill it really showed how much she stands up for what she believes and is willing to speak up about it. What I found interesting was when she said how agricultural are not environmentalist but conservationist.

Personal Journal Entry 2
February 06, 2021
 * It just makes me mad how our environment is perishing in front of us. I know I have previously not done anything but would like to get involve it is just a matter of finding a way to fit a plan into my schedule. I hope that by the time other people realize the wrong they have been doing it is not too late and they are still able to fix it.

Speaker Joel Diamond
March 02, 2021
 * I really love it when people take in consideration animals for instance when they were thinking of tearing the bridge down, they thought of the bat population living under it and were thinking on how to replace their habitat. Some of the threats that he mentioned were habitat loss/modification, white nose syndrome, SARS COVID 2 (I hope I wrote it right), energy development, lack of understanding, and basic ecology.

Speaker Monica Ketchum
March 11, 2021
 * One myth that she mentioned was the “Myth of the Pristine Wilderness” which was basically the belief that the Americas were a sparsely populated wilderness, a world where humans did not disturb. I personally believe this myth because I have always thought of nature being here before us and how we are the reason nature is deteriorating slowly.

Speaker Cary Meister
March 18, 2021
 * I would always pass-through Gila Bend because of sports but never did I stop and wonder why it was called Gila Bend and Cary Meister mentioned that it was called Gila Bend because there is a bend in the river, and it is funny because you would of think that it was the first idea that popped into my head, but it did not. Something that was also interesting was when he mentioned how “playa” can also mean an intermitted (hope I spelled it right) lake that does not drain anywhere else.

Speaker Dr. Ellen Riek
March 23, 2021
 * She afterward shared with all of us her motto/favorite quote, which I believe stated the following, "You cannot know who you are until you know where you are." She mentioned how part of the problem we have with our relationship with the environment is that we tend to separate ourselves from it. I believe she is right, even if we hate to admit it. Every day we become less engaged with the environment because "we do not have time" or to some people simply not caring but mainly as one of our previous presenters mentioned the lack of information, they have regarding the topic is the main issue.

Speaker Cary Meister
April 08, 2021
 * I found it interesting how reclaiming water was only used, as Cary stated in golf courses and such. However, now, they are trying to develop a solution to what I believe is to purify the water so that it is ultimately drinkable. What worries me now is, like Cary said, the contract was signed when the River was on its high end, and now it is coming up short, but no one wants to mention it since they are afraid that they will lose.

Speaker Gregory McNamee
April 13, 2021
 * I agree with what he said that sometimes we ignore the fact that we live in a dry place and behave as we live in a place where rivers flow water everywhere, which is not valid. I always knew a natural disaster could cause people to lose their homes, but I never thought it could be the other way around (the town/city lose its people like Hohokam City).

Speaker Morgan Moore
April 22, 2021
 * Audubon Society is a conservation nonprofit organization that protects birds and the places they need today and tomorrow throughout the “Americas.” They also try to find solutions for people as well. They are local everywhere, which is impressive. They work on bird counts, different education programs, surveys, habitat monitoring, conservation, community engagement, and advocacy.

Personal Entry 3
April 30, 2021 =References=
 * I thought with the whole pandemic that we would be a little more concerned about what is happening to our environment and take action. Instead, we see people simply not caring and what makes me mad is that they later wonder what is wrong with the environment. How can they expect it to be all clean and healthy when all we do is destroy it little by little.

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Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/John Foxe

= John Foxe (1516-1587) = John Foxe was an English historian and martyrologist in 16th century England. Foxe is most known for his book titled Actes and Monuments, or more popularly known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Foxe's work was written in the height of the English Reformation and was extremely popular and influential to the Protestant cause, due to polemic accounts on persecuted Protestant men and women.

Biography:
John Foxe, born 1516 in Boston, England, was an English Historian and martyrologist. His father passed when he was young, his mother remarried, and he entered Brasenose College when he was 16. Foxe attended Oxford University where he personally witnessed the burning of William Cowbridge, He resigned from Oxford due to a possible change and conflict of religious opinion and his opposition of celibacy. This change caused conflict between his peers and the relationship with his stepfather. Because of his change in religious opinion, he was forced to abandon his academic career, but also met his wife and mother of his children. Foxe also experienced a period of hardship, being offered a place to live with his friends as he was in need. The accession of Mary I in 1533 forced him to flee overseas where he travelled around and started publishing his accounts. He returned home later after Mary I’s death and waited to see the religious changes. Foxe was ordained an Angelic priest in 1560. “In the plague of 1563 he ministered to the victims and wrote a moving tract of consolation. When Anabaptists in 1575 and Jesuits in 1581 were condemned to death, Foxe wrote vehement letters to Queen Elizabeth and her counsellors, begging reprieves.” Foxe died on 1587 and was buried in St Giles’s, Cripplegate. After his death, his son, Samuel, preserved his fathers’ manuscripts and they are held in the British Library.

He was described as a workaholic as he took his study very seriously and worked hard writing his manuscripts to publish his work. He also took his role as Angelic priest seriously as he came to the aid of many victims in need during the plague. He worked with what he wrote about and was involved with his passion of awareness, writing about the victims of those who participated in their beliefs and were killed for it, becoming martyrs. He was dedicated to his work and also his family, taking his time to travel with them during Mary I’s accession.

He was open about his beliefs and dislikes in life, disagreeing with people and speaking his honest opinion, not shy to debate. He spoke out against cruelty and used his advocacy to be heard. He became a man of the people and used his place in society and amongst people to stand up for his beliefs and others, becoming well known and mourned by many at his funeral.

Works:
Foxe’s work commonly known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs, also known as Actes and Monuments, his greatest succession and was published in English in 1563. Foxe revised his work four times in his lifetime. He wrote this book about the sufferings of people who were subjected to torture and execution for not succeeding to Queen Mary I and to the Catholic Church. Foxe wrote in detail about the sufferings of Christians and how they took their punishment and death willing in respect of their faith.

As warnings to people who continued to protest the beliefs of the Catholic Church, Mary ordered for more executions, and over three hundred men, women and children were burnt alive. Foxe had fled England as a result of this but tried to incorporate information of the victims into his book. Once the first edition of his book was published in Latin, Elizabeth had succeeded the throne and he was able to return to England. When Foxe returned, he was able to collect a significant amount of evidence and documentation of the victims of Mary and put it together in his book which became his most famous work, Book of Martyrs, showing the rejection and brutality that the people of the Christian Church faced when they refused to convert. It also explained that the sufferings of people caused by religion are brutal, as even if the victims willingly subject themselves to their punishment through praying or singing at the same time while they die, this proves that conversion does not work causing more death and harm than good. Foxe’s depiction of Catholic’s in his book are constantly referred to as blood thirsty, merciless and brutal and are accompanied by graphic images of people being burned alive, tortured and beaten. The victims always stayed true to their faith and dying with their religion. Though the accuracy is always questioned in his book, it is certainly the most significant work Foxe has produced.

Book of Martyrs holds great significant in the identity of England and religion today as it details the events and hardship that England experienced for a period of time. Scholars have studied the accuracy of Foxe’s book since its early edits, wondering about the exaggeration of events that occurred during Mary I’s reign. His book has been studied as a major contestant for England becoming a protestant nation, the first edition containing over eighteen hundred pages, which was the largest project ever completed in England that time.

Legacy:
The legacy of Foxe is established through the popular read that his books provide to his great audience of readers, his work being published long after his death. Foxe's legacy lives on through his son, Samuel, who went on to care for his works and made sure they were well-preserved. Samuel went off to enter the service of the vice-chamberlain of the Queen.

In his examination of The Practyse of Prelates, Rankin stated Foxe's work Actes and Monuments was critical in shaping the "religious and cultural life in England down at least to the eighteenth century" (Rankin 159). It is further explored by him that Foxe's text made Tyndale's work more complete and well known (Rankin 191). As such, he was a critical figure at his time and his contribution to the area is still recognised and appreciated today.

King also asserts that Foxe illustrated the crucial idea that Protestantism and print culture worked alongside each other (King 53). It is portrayed that Foxe made it possible for Tyndale's role of the "Father of Reformation" to become apparent as he was able to transform Tyndale's ideas into a more accessible form (King 56).

Further Reading:
For more a detailed reading and better lay out of his life through stages, along how the different influences of the throne had on his writing, Spartacus Educational delivers with information ripe with learning and details. www.spartacus-educational.com

Foxe Voices of the Martrys: A.D. 33 - Today, by John Foxe and Voice of the Martyrs

Examinations and Martyrdom of Dr. Rowland Taylor, A.D. 1555, by John Foxe

The Acts and Monuments of John Foxe: With a Preliminary Dissertation by the REV. George Townsend, Volume 3, by John Foxe and George Townsend

For a compilation and account of Foxe's works, Warren Wooden has composed a book that focuses on this; Wooden, Warren W. John Foxe. vol. TEAS 345., Twayne Publishers, Boston, 1983.


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Talk:Information Technology and Ethics/Ethics for IT Professionals

The Blue Team of the Spring 2021 ITMM 485/585 course at Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago created new content for the Information Technology and Ethics/IT Professional wiki page.

Spring 2021 Blue Team members: Greg Eure Vedant Vashishtha Jie Shen Armani Lesure Mohammad Alahmari

Section Update
Section updated as part of the Spring 2022 ITMM 485/585 course at Illinois Institute of Technology By the "Bronze Team" Dylan Baltrus Tyrone Green Joshua Lau Nayanika Nandy Lev Pesin


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User talk:Zeshankhan.bzu

Blocked
You cannot edit indefinitely due to disruptive editing. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

Pending a CU check, because I have suspicions that you're abusing multiple accounts. for that Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 07:41, 2 May 2021 (UTC)

Unclear from the CU but sufficient behavioural evidence to confirm it's a sock. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 14:19, 2 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zeshankhan.bzu


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Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference/Anne Cooke Bacon (1527–1610)

= Anne Cooke Bacon (1527-1610) =

Biography
Anne Cooke Bacon, or Lady Bacon, was an English Lady of the British Court, scholar and translator. Her exact birthdate is unknown, but estimated to be 1527-8. Many of the details about her life are unknown. Bacon contributed to English religious literature with her English translation of John Jewel's Latin Apologie of the Anglican Church in 1564.

Bacon was born in Essex, England, as one of nine siblings. Her father, Anthony Cooke, was a tutor to Henry VIII's son Edward Tudor. He was renowned for his progressive attitudes towards women's education, and as a result, ensured that all his children were well-educated in the humanist tradition. Bacon studied languages such as Latin, French, Italian, and Greek as well as literature. All of her sisters had success from Anthony’s teachings, such as Lady Elizabeth Hoby who is also know for translating texts, as well as her poetic and musical talents. The Cooke sisters—Anne, Elizabeth, Mildred, and Katherine—are arguably more famous than the brothers, despite the patriarchal culture of the time that would see them buried. The high status of the Tudor family bought wealth and social status to the Bacon family mostly due to her father working with the royal Tudor family.

In a letter dated the 27 of August 1610, Francis wrote to Lady Bacon's close friend Sir Michael Hicks, inviting him to her funeral, so although her exact death date is unknown, it is clearly in the days surrounding this letter. She was about 82 when she died, and was entombed in St Michael's Church, St Albans, where her second son, Sir Francis Bacon was also buried. .

Marriage
Lady Anne Cooke was the second wife of Sir Nicholas Bacon (28 December 1510–20 February 1579), “Queen Elizabeth's Keeper of the Great Seal”. The couple had two sons, Anthony (1558–1601) and Francis (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626). Anthony was a spy and diplomat in the Elizabethan era, while Francis Bacon became a widely known English philosopher and a pioneer of the scientific revolution. Lady Bacon oversaw their education herself.

Religion
Lady Bacon for a time was a leading Lady-in-Waiting to Queen Elizabeth. Her religious views remained strongly Puritan, and she called for the eradication of all Popery in the Church of England. Most of the letters she exchanged with friends, clergymen and even her husband, are "fervent with her passion for her Protestant beliefs."

Little is known about the later years of Lady Bacon's life, especially following the death of her husband. It seems a mystery, as she wrote very few letters and was not present at many court events, although she did illegally shelter Puritan preachers who lost in licenses in their defiance of the religious politics at the time.

Works

 * Sermons of Barnardine Ochyne, (to the number of 25.) concerning the predestination and election of god: very expedient to the setting forth of his glory among his creature.

 * An apologie or answere in defence of the Churche of Englande, with a briefe and plaine declaration of the true religion professed and used in the same.

Lady Bacon was a very religious woman, and her main works and letters that are now famously known convey this. In her later years, she mostly wrote letters to her sons, where she is said to express “the jealousy with which she regarded her authority over them long after they had reached manhood,” although it seems that her main concern was their spiritual welfare and their religious lives.

In her early twenties, she translated and published several volumes of sermons from Bernardino Ochino, an Italian preacher who was very popular with the Italian 'foreigners' Church in England. Lady Bacon dedicated one such volume to her mother, because of her mother's staunch disapproval of Anne learning Italian and of Roman Catholicism generally.

Her translation from the Latin into English of Bishop John Jewel's work of 1564 “Apology for the Church of England” was a significant step in the intellectual justification of Protestantism in England. The work was a clarification of the differences between Anglicanism and Roman Catholicism, and was critical to the support of Elizabeth I's religious policies.

Reputation and legacy
Bacon's translation of Jewel's Apology is, to this day, "indispensable to any historical understanding of the Elizabethan Settlement... commissioned by officials who perceived a need for a more definitive rendering of a text that could explain the Elizabethan Settlement to an English readership... [it] was subsequently chained to pulpits throughout England, ensuring long-lasting public access to this crucial treatise." Alongside her letters, it also provides a perfect and crucial example of women's writing of this era, and of the fraught, dynamic relationships between varying religious groups and the treatment of those who refused to conform or succumb.

Her legacy can also be found in the achievements of her son, Francis, known as the father of empiricism and a later founder of the scientific method.


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Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Finance

Introduction
Privacy for digital transactions is becoming increasingly important. Data breaches are now an inevitable part of our digital lives, but unlike other global events, many financial institutions collect information about their customers as a regular part of their business of providing products or services. For example, when you apply for a loan, you provide your name, phone number, address, income, and details about your assets. As the institution considers your application, it may collect additional details from other sources, such as credit reports prepared by credit bureaus. Even when you use a financial product-a credit card, for example-your institution will have a record of how much you buy and borrow, where you like to shop, and whether you repay your balance on time. Besides leading to more unwanted junk mail and telemarketer calls and credit card cramming, privacy invasions and information sharing could lead to denial of insurance or loans. Privacy invasions also lead to expensive rip-offs, identity theft and stalking.

Stolen Credentials
When addressing privacy in finance there are some important risk factors to look at. These are areas of privacy in finance that can be more susceptible to attack or breach compared to other areas. One of these areas is private credentials. These credentials are used to access financial information like bank statements or accounts. According to a Ponemon study from 2021, the compromising of those details accounted for 20% of breaches. This is such a big factor since once those credentials are obtained, it is hard for a security system too identify them as being false or misused. So, keeping those credentials private can help maintain privacy for finances and financial institutions.

Legal Compliance
Another important area of risk to look at in finances is compliance with local, state, and/or federal law. Oftentimes, data needs to be kept private not just out of an ethical imperative, but also due to a legal requirement. For example, if a medical institution in the United States fails to comply with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), they can face up to a $25,000 fine in civil violations, and up to $50,000 fine plus jail time for criminal violations. In the United States, there are no national privacy laws, so those instances will vary state to state. However, the General Protection Data Regulation (GDPR) from the European Union (EU) does impose either a €20 million or 4% of annual global gross revenue (whichever is greater) on violators of their privacy regulations.

Statistics
Every year millions of instances of identity theft and fraud occur in the United Sates of America. Below are some statistics from the Federal Trade Commission's (FTC) Consumer Sentinel Network ranging from 2018 to 2022. These statistics show how reports of identity theft and fraud have increased over the years in the past, only decreasing in total amount of reports in 2022. It is also important to know what forms of identity theft are most prevalent. In 2022, the most common form of identity theft was credit card fraud, where the perpetrators would open a new credit card under someone else's name and use it themselves. Below are some statistics from the FTC's Consumer Sentinel Network on other most common forms of identity theft in 2022. * This refers to forms of identity theft like online shopping and payment account fraud, email and social media fraud, medical services fraud, insurance and securities account fraud, and other types of identity theft.

What do they do with your information?
Banks share experience and transaction information, but also share Social Security Numbers. On the positive side, federal regulators have determined that Social Security Numbers are non-public personal information that cannot be shared by financial institutions if consumers exercise their right to opt-out under the new law. Banks have been sharing names, addresses and Social Security Numbers of customers with credit bureaus, which subsequently sold this information to internet information brokers, private detectives, and debt collectors. Most experts believe the sale of these products, known as credit headers, leads to financial identity theft and stalking. Over 500,000 Americans a year are victims of identity theft.

There is Someone Listening
Gregory Mankiw from Harvard University wrote about the nature, features, and functions of money. He explains that Money is the language via which societies transact goods and services and coordinates. As cash starts to disappear from societies and new digital forms of payments are introduced, for example credit cards and digital payments, transactions without intermediaries also start to go away. This means that people lose the ability to have privacy on our financial transactions and many of our fundamental rights and freedoms are undermined. By stripping away financial privacy in many ways people lose their fundamental rights. For example with modern credit cards people are surveilled via their associations they form, the contents of their purchases and also their geographical location. This means that people can no longer transact privately as an intermediary like a bank is there surveilling these associations. People can be tracked through the whereabouts of their bank accounts. All of these are critical aspects of rights and as cash starts to fade away our freedoms gradually start to go away. Governments can also gain significant power from such a system as they can control the people and their political opponents and also penalize expressions. Privacy is crucial to a liberal and democratic society. Even the most prominent advocate for ridding economies of large note denominations, Harvard economist Kenneth Rogoff, acknowledges “we need cash for privacy.”


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Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Children

Introduction
In recent years, protecting children's privacy has taken on greater significance, especially in light of how quickly technology is developing. Concerns about ethics and the law have been raised because children are particularly susceptible to having their personal information gathered and exploited without their awareness or agreement. In order to better comprehend the current situation and the difficulties that lie ahead, it is essential to look at the history of legal and ethical ideas related to privacy and children. This article tries to highlight some of the most important topics that are presently being discussed in this field and to give a quick review of the history of legal and ethical notions relating to privacy and children.

History
Recent technological developments that have made it simpler to obtain and utilize personal information without authorization have increased worry about protecting children's privacy. The development and adaption of legal and ethical ideas about children's privacy have been continuous throughout history. Children's privacy was not a worry in the early 20th century, and they were seen as extensions of their parents. But as the century went on, it became clearer and clearer that children's privacy needed to be protected.

To protect children's privacy rights, laws like the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) have been passed. The creation of kid privacy regulations has also been significantly influenced by ethical considerations. Numerous experts contend that children should be given legal protection for their right to privacy, which is separate from their parents' rights. In addition to legislative safeguards, there is a rising campaign to raise public awareness and education concerning children's privacy.

Overall, there has been constant change and adaptation throughout the history of legal and ethical notions relating to children's privacy. New ethical and legal issues will probably arise as technology develops, and the debate over children's privacy will probably continue to change

Online Grooming
Online grooming is the practice of predators forming relationships with youngsters on social media and the internet in order to sexually exploit or abuse them. Children, who might not be aware of the risks associated with online interactions with strangers, are a particular worry.

Cyberbullying
Peer harassment or bullying of a youngster through the internet is referred to as cyberbullying. Cyberbullying, which can result in sadness, anxiety, and other mental health problems, is especially dangerous for children.

Data collection
Businesses may gather children's personal information without their awareness or consent, which raises questions regarding how the information will be used and protected. This may contain private data like your name, age, location, and browsing history.

Social Media Risks
Children may not completely comprehend the hazards associated with disclosing personal information on social networking sites, which leaves them open to online predators or cyberbullies. Social networking sites may also gather personal data about children for other purposes, such as targeted advertising.

Exposure to Harmful Online Content
Children may come into contact with improper or dangerous materials online, such as violent or sexual content, hate speech, or extremist material. Their well-being and mental health may suffer as a result.

Summary
These privacy concerns must be taken seriously, and action must be taken to safeguard children's private rights. This includes informing kids about the dangers of disclosing private information online, making use of privacy settings on social media and other websites, and carefully reading the privacy statements of the applications and gadgets they use. To create efficient laws and policies that safeguard children's privacy in the digital era, parents, teachers, and lawmakers must collaborate.

Privacy Laws
In the digital age, there are several laws and rules in place to safeguard children's privacy. The following are a few of the important laws and rules:

The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)
A federal legislation known as COPPA mandates that websites and online services get permission from parents before collecting personal data from children under the age of 13. The rule also mandates that businesses offer simple privacy policies that make it clear what data is being gathered and how it will be used.

General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
GDPR is a law of the European Union that regulates data privacy and protection for all people, including minors. In accordance with the GDPR, businesses must get explicit agreement from minors under the age of 16 before collecting their personal information, and they must be open and honest about how they gather data.

Consumer Privacy Act of California (CCPA)
A California state legislation known as the CCPA gives inhabitants of the Golden State the right to know what personal data is being collected about them, the ability to ask for the erasure of that data, and the right to refuse to have their personal data sold. The law also has particular guidelines for gathering personal data from minors under the age of 16.

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
FERPA is a federal statute that safeguards the confidentiality of student academic data. The legislation gives parents the opportunity to see and modify their child's educational records and mandates that schools acquire written parental approval before disclosing personally identifying information about their children.

Children's privacy is protected by these laws and regulations, and it is ensured that businesses and organizations are held responsible for their data gathering and privacy policies. Understanding these regulations and taking action to preserve children's privacy rights in the digital era is crucial for parents and educators.

Importance of Privacy for Children
Children are using technology and the internet at higher rates than ever before due to technology’s increased accessibility. Similar to adults, children use the internet and technology to play online video games, chat with friends, use social media, research, watch TV or movies, and more! However, with all of the use of the internet, there is more opportunity for children to expose information about themselves that they might not intend. Additionally, parents may not be fully aware of all their childrens’ online activity. Not many parents have conversations with their children about cybersafety and privacy on the internet because they themselves may not understand the risk and consequences. Children are now at equal risk as adults for being traced by profit-seeking advertisers, cybercriminals, and even bullies.

Privacy is a fundamental human right. Data storage for minors are really strict because children’s information is deemed as extremely sensitive information. But even still, minors are on social media platforms that actively collect and store data for all users! Children need to be vigilant when talking to strangers online and what they post online. There are additional risks that come with being a child on the internet such as naivety, increased vulnerability due to an undeveloped frontal lobe, and then being a target of sexual exploitation or other child endangerment. Privacy awareness is key to protecting children from financial disaster, stalking, and exploitation by corporations and other types of businesses. Children face the same consequences as adults when it comes to breached privacy. Some of these issues include not understanding privacy policies by different websites and companies, exposure of information that is not intended to a wide audience.

Solutions for Privacy Issues related to Children
The Children’s Online Privacy Protection act was enacted in April 2000 to help address the problem of children's vulnerability to privacy breach on the internet. The law applies to the online collection of data for those under the age of 13 years old for United States jurisdictions. It provides websites information about how to handle privacy policies, when and how to seek parental/guardian consent on behalf of a child, and “what responsibilities an operator has to protect children's privacy and safety online including restrictions on the marketing of those under 13.”

Cybersecurity and privacy education for children is a must when it comes to protecting children online and making sure they understand what they can and cannot share. Additionally, it is important that children understand that anything and everything they do online is likely to follow them. Key studies indicate that there are significant effects of using quiz and educational video to enhance best online safety beliefs and restrict online sharing. Additionally, the role of perceived parental influence are important to children and agencies that offer privacy education campaigns to help empower children to protect their privacy are beneficial.

Conclusion
In conclusion, privacy is an important feature of children's life, especially in the digital era. Children are exposed to a variety of privacy hazards due to the growing use of technology, which might jeopardize their safety and security. But now that rules and regulations have been established, there are safeguards in place to protect children's privacy. These rules and regulations mandate that businesses and organizations acquire parental permission before collecting children's personal information, disclose explicit information about how data is collected, and give parents access to and control over their children's educational records. Parents, teachers, and lawmakers must be aware of these rules and regulations and take proactive measures to safeguard children's privacy in the digital era. By doing this, we can make it safer and more secure for kids to develop and thrive online.


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History of video games/Terminology

Many terms and phrases in this book require no explanation to be understood by a gamer. However to an outsider looking in, some aspects of gaming can be opaque. This section clarifies terms, practices, and other facts.

Shooters
Games which feature projectile shooting as a primary mechanic. This covers an extremely large number of games and themes. Projectiles are often bullets, but magic spells, energy beams, arrows, etc can all be seen frequently in the genre, in addition to more exotic projectiles.

Review Score
Reviewers and critics of games, both professional and casual, often assign games and gaming products a grade. This rating is often out of 100, 10, 5, a star rating, a simple approval or disapproval, or some other quantifiable system. This is common practice in many industries, but review scores in video games have their own peculiar trends.

In particular the grading of games translates somewhat differently than in other industries. Below is scale based on common knowledge of these practices.

 * A 1/10 or sometimes 0/10 is typically reserved for a game which outright fails to work, or is otherwise extremely antagonistic to the reviewer.
 * A 6/10 or lower is poor quality, or awful.
 * A 7/10 is mediocre or average. Most ratings fall between this and 8/10.
 * A 8/10 is good. Most ratings fall between 7/10 and this.
 * A 9/10 is an exceptional game, and perhaps among the best released in a season or year.
 * A 10/10 is a masterpiece. Some reviewers see 10/10 ratings as equal to perfection and refuse to assign this rating to any game (Instead they might give a 9.9/10 as a substitute).

It is important to note that that some reviewers have avoided this trend, and choose to either enforce their own ratings (So a 5/10 refers to an average game and not a poor one). Some reviewers use a point rubric, or assign multiple scores to a game in different subcategories. It is ill advised to take these numbers alone at face value without knowing the standards and context of the reviewer.

Free Guy
An older expression (Late 1980's-Early 1990's) used to refer to an extra life.

Series Specific Terminology

 * Gen Oner / Gen Wuner - A Pokémon Gamer who is particularly fond of the first generation games.
 * Mats / Materials - Used in reference to crafting mechanics in crafting games.

Frames per second
Similar terms often used interchangeably by gaming media, despite being technically different in significant ways: Refresh Rate.

The number of frames rendered in a second. Generally speaking, more frames per second is seen as desirable in games, with the caveat that increasing FPS can often require sacrificing visual effects or resolution depending on platform limitations. In early gaming history, when analog television standards were used, frame rate was roughly tied to the frequency of the standard in the region (Typically a multiple of 29.970 hertz for NTSC or 25 hertz for PAL), though small deviations were common.

This term is often shortened as FPS.

title: History of video games/Terminology


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User:BalebReads

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title: User:BalebReads


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Professionalism/Voluntourism

Voluntourism is a form of international traveling by volunteers from wealthy western countries to resource-poor settings - primarily the Global South, which includes Africa, Asia, and Latin America - with a primary purpose of serving the host community. These trips are typically coordinated by intermediate agencies which connect volunteers to host organizations addressing educational, health-related, environmental and economic issues. Participants are often young adults, and trips are typically under 3 months in duration. More than 1.6 million volunteer-tourists spend around two billion dollars on these activities each year. Agencies coordinating international volunteer programs focus upon the experience of the volunteer rather than the social good achieved, such as Global Crossroad, a popular voluntourism site with the tagline “over 20,000 happy volunteers since 2003" . Another agency, Hope of Life International, writes on its website, "[local orphans'] parents are too poor to help them—but you can rescue a child and nurse them back to health" simultaneously targeting the reader's sympathy for a donation while portraying local families as incapable. These organizations strategically perpetuate images of poverty and helplessness within local communities, incorporating paternalistic and racist views among volunteers towards the non-developed world.

Origins
The modern idea of providing external volunteer support to foreign communities is oftentimes traced to the creation of the Peace Corps in 1961. The field grew in popularity in the 1990s and adopted the name "voluntourism," which was originally coined in 1998 by the governor of Nevada to describe volunteer efforts that made local state tourism more attractive.

Evolutionary science suggests that humans are satisfied through actively helping one another. Although many participants in international volunteering are hoping to pad their resume or improve their public image, this sense of purpose and fulfillment is another common and more benign motivation of volunteers. However, the assumption that westerners with little background knowledge or skill in a given subject matter can fly over and immediately benefit a community of individuals intimately familiar with the challenges facing them. The privilege of volunteers who can afford the financial costs and time associated with these programs often contributes to a White Savior complex in which white men or women step into difficult situations believing that they can heroically leverage their power, money, and intellect to solve problems. This affliction oftentimes feeds into an overly simplistic perspective of complex foreign problems and blinds participants to the negative consequences of their engagements.

International Volunteering and Neocolonialism
In order to preserve voluntourism's exploitative nature, agencies portray a self-flattering story of service. The White Man's Burden fiction sets the perception that these agencies are doing good by rescuing underdeveloped regions. These agencies justify their presence in foreign countries with the narrative that the local's affliction arises from their ignorance not colonialism. In both colonialism and voluntourism, the implicit message tends to be that a white person with no specialized skills is automatically in a position to be of use as a teacher, orphanage worker, or medical professional. As in colonialism, local exploiters have become a component in the neocolonial machine. This modern mechanism now allows volunteers to benefit from traveling experience and improving their curriculum by exploiting impoverished countries. By establishing an incentive for participants to gain from voluntourism, core issues in impoverished countries are never effectively solved but rather kept in place (such as orphanages) so that wealthy foreigners may pay to participate in a seemingly charitable activity.

Background
Seeking to gain clinical experiences unavailable in their native home countries due to medical regulations, unqualified volunteers often perform important, high-risk procedures including administering vaccines, delivering babies, and even conducting surgeries.

Noelle Sullivan, global health professor at Northwestern university, has "studied medical volunteering in Tanzania since 2011, including over 1,600 hours observing volunteer-patient interactions across six health facilities" and has found that the practice "opens the door to potentially disastrous outcomes". Volunteers on these trips are sometimes medical students seeking experience, but many programs require no training, certifications, or knowledge of the local language. Sullivan has observed these individuals routinely violating best practices in ways that threaten the wellbeing and livelihoods of patients, creating complications that lead to future healthcare burdens.

A 1998 article by British medical experts suggested that "any student studying in such countries who is unregistered but who pretends to be a doctor does so both unethically and illegally". These authors put much of the onus on medical schools, which they suggest should implement more stringent and clear guidelines to prevent unethical field work by prospective and admitted students. Others have suggested that "a larger paradigm shift" is necessary, with potential action items including increased certification standards, visa fees for volunteers that go directly to host nation governments rather than private third party organizations, and accountability for volunteers to understand local health systems.

Ethical Concerns

 * Volunteer-Centric Medicine - One reason that medical voluntourism is widely critiqued as a short-term bandage fix rather than sustainable change is that volunteers assume responsibility for procedures and accordingly develop their own medical skills rather than helping to train local individuals. Since volunteers are often inexperienced students or doctors hoping to perform procedures they cannot pursue back home, there have been countless reports of individuals treating patients like test subjects rather than human beings worthy of diligent care. These local health workers are also left with the responsibility of providing subsequent care and addressing complications for these patients with whom they have been unable to develop relationships and familiarity.
 * Substandard Quality of Care - Patients with medical needs in target communities are unlikely to refuse services offered to them, and volunteers assume that "any care is better than nothing," and use this mindset to excuse their lack of responsibility for patient outcomes and lower standards for treatment quality . The fact that volunteers do not stay embedded within communities for long enough to witness and bear responsibility for the results of their treatments also removes incentives to perform at a high level and breeds carelessness.

Orphanage Voluntourism
Well-intentioned westerners perpetuate a highly damaging system encouraging the creation and expansion of orphanages, run as businesses, breaking up families in very poor countries. Over 80 percent of the 5.4 million children in the world’s orphanages have at least one living parent and most have relatives. They should be at home with their families, not in institutions. What orphanage children and their parents really need is to be reunited, with all the support and services that will enable those families - no matter how poor - to give their children what they need to thrive and reach their full potential.

Research proves that children do best in a family. They’re far less likely experience abuse, cruelty or neglect. Even in a well-run facility, children do not develop normally given the lack physical and emotional contact. Therefore, the institutionalization of children in wealthy countries has almost completely stopped. Governments offer supportive services that help families keep their children with them; if that is not possible, they seek adoptive parents or foster families. Wealthy countries, who consider orphanages harmful for their own children, provide a stream of charitable giving enabling the business of orphanages abroad. In Haiti, some 30,000 children live in orphanages. These institutions receive $100 million a year in foreign donations, which is half the total amount of US aid to Haiti last year, five times the budget of Haiti’s social affairs ministry, and 130 times the country’s child protection budget.

Orphanages convince desperate parents that it's their only option. This results in girls growing up to be ten times more likely to be involved in prostitution and all children being forty times more likely to have a criminal record and five-hundred times more likely to commit suicide. Instead, aid should be redirected to poor families through financial support, teaching, and training enabling each child to be feel love and connection. Rwanda is a poster child for de-institutionalization; the nation has placed four out of five children in safe, nurturing, monitored homes, turned orphanages into day-care centers, and retrained staff as day-care workers, while supporting and monitoring families who take in children.

Conclusion
Despite being rooted in altruistic intentions, voluntourism is overwhelmingly damaging to local communities. Wealthy westerners can much more effectively improve health and socioeconomic outcomes by instead directing their money towards supporting and expanding existing permanent infrastructures in target areas. Folks participating in voluntourism have misaligned their primary goal of achieving good and meaningful work. Thought the goal claims to be helping others, participants actualized effects are far from their intentions. The generalized lesson learned is to establish a goal of doing good work with meaningful metrics and holistically analyzing impacts of methods enacted towards that goal.

Evaluating, promoting, and pursuing aid activities based upon outcomes rather than volunteer experiences is an essential first step to reforming voluntourism. Effective altruism proponent William MacAskill writes that "we very often fail to think as carefully about helping others as we could, mistakenly believing that applying data and rationality to a charitable endeavor robs the act of virtue. And that means we pass up opportunities to make a tremendous difference” . In this case, countless stories of failed aid necessitate an intentional and objective review of voluntourism efforts that continue at a large scale despite widespread criticism.

Regardless of intentions, impacts cause tremendous problems for communities. Foreign aid is viewed by many to be counterproductive, forcing countries to rely on outside help.

Out Scoping
The debate regarding the effect of both travel and volunteering should not be used to end their pursuits but rather broaden awareness of the systems and the complexity of voluntourism to create more effective and impactful volunteer and travel opportunities. The voluntourism debate addresses identity, race, privilege, and class, but the issues reach beyond Westerner’s actions. With rising middle classes worldwide, more schools, companies, and individuals are volunteering, implementing broken models. An English camp in Thailand designed by international schools encourages students from the city to travel to small villages to teach English, yet in reality does not teach English at all. Speaking solely in Thai, continually taking pictures while villagers go through the motions of the day waiting for their gifts result in no improvements of skills, no genuine exchange, and more litter left in the village than prior to their arrival. From Bulgaria to the Philippines, local volunteer initiatives face many of the same mistakes and challenges as Western voluntourists.

Future Work
Areas this chapter may be improved upon include investigating why people engage in charitable activities as well as psychological and social forces that cause people to believe they are doing good work. Further investigations on other case studies of harmful voluntourism would supplement this chapter's body. Looking into the professional benefits of a rich curriculum vitae would also prove to be useful in identifying the extent to which participants gain from voluntourism.

= References =

title: Professionalism/Voluntourism


text:
Professionalism/FDA and the Emergency Use Authorization

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for "protecting the public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices." The global pandemic caused by SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19) occurring in the U.S. from early 2020 to present times presented scenarios that required the FDA to determine how to approve new medical products. The FDA needed to balance outside pressure, its public image, and its stated mission when making decisions regarding the Emergency Use Authorization (EUA). This casebook chapter will limit its scope to the specific decisions made during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Emergency Use Authorization, Defined
The FDA defines an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) as a "mechanism to facilitate the availability of medical countermeasures... during public health emergencies." This provides a fast-track route to the public market for companies to be able to legally sell their products within the United States.

An EUA is a different route of approval than filing for FDA Approval. A company can choose between pursuing an EUA or regular FDA approval and different guidelines dictate each. While the research and development stages of the medical product is unchanged no matter what route is pursued, pursuing EUA allows for production to occur at the same time as testing, rather than after testing, the normal procedure. After testing, approval can be given and then distribution may occur.

It is important to note that filing for an EUA does not change the testing requirements that the FDA stipulates, simply the timeline of when certain production stages may occur. However, several important criteria must be met to lead to a successful EUA approval, including:

 * No other medical alternatives exist
 * Completed Phase 3 clinical trial
 * All safety information, including follow-ups, submitted
 * Also includes chemistry and manufacturing data

The FDA has previously used the EUA procedure to approve medical products related to the following:

 * H1N1 Virus
 * MERS-CoV
 * Ebola virus
 * Zika virus

Ethical Considerations for an EUA
There are several reasons that the use of EUAs could be considered ethical, such as:

 * Expedience - An EUA protects the public health with getting products to market quickly

 * Safety - The EUA does not compromise screening requirements

 * Conditional - An EUA product must be continually safe, effective, and secure

The use of EUA's might also be considered unethical for the following reasons:

 * Long-Term Effects - Expedited timescales could prevent the discovery of long-term effects, endangering the public health

 * Rushed Timelines - Avoidable errors could occur during testing, production, or distribution that lead to public harm or delays

 * Control - Medical products and opinions on them are difficult to control or redact once they are on the market or in public

The FDA and Pressure
The FDA experienced pressure from multiple sources during the Covid-19 pandemic. It felt political pressure from the Trump administration to authorize treatments and a vaccine before election day, and political pressure from other countries as they developed their own vaccine, since the US didn't want to be left behind or be reliant on a vaccine from another country. The FDA also felt pressure from the public to issue EUA's for treatments that could help patients suffering from severe Covid, as well as for a vaccine that could make everything go back to normal. Finally, there was likely some pressure from companies for the FDA to approve their drugs for commercial use.

The Trump administration in particular pressed the FDA to approve treatments and a vaccine as soon as possible. Trump wanted a vaccine out before election day, and called the FDA a “big, old, slow turtle” for not issuing an EUA for one faster. The FDA decided that for a vaccine to be approved, it would need two months of data first. This meant a vaccine would be unlikely to come out before election day, which Trump interpreted as a political move. Trump also pushed the FDA to issue an EUA for several experimental Covid treatments.

COVID-19-Specific EUAs
When deciding whether to issue an EUA for a experimental treatment, the FDA is in a tough situation. They have a duty to only authorize treatments that will be safe for public use, so they need good data to do so. But if they take too long to approve a treatment that could be helpful, the public will often accuse them of waiting too long without doing anything to help those suffering from Covid. There were many claims that the FDA was willing to keep people's lives in danger during the pandemic. If the FDA issues an early EUA for treatments without enough data, however, they will lose respect from the scientific community, and if they then have to later revoke that EUA, it will degrade public trust. This happened in at least two instances.

Hydroxychloroquine
Hydroxychloroquine, a drug typically used for treating malaria, became supported by many officials under Trump after two studies which seemed to show some effectiveness of Hydroxychloroquine at treating Covid-19. These studies were small, each with 100 or less patients, and in one of them, patients with the drug were given double the amount of steroids compared to the control group. The Trump Administration pressed the FDA to issue an EUA for the drug, and eventually the FDA did. Later rigorous studies, however, didn't find it to be effective at treating Covid patients, and after a study that attested the drug could cause severe cardiac arrest, the FDA revoked the EUA. This caused some officials to worry about the degradation of public trust in the FDA.

Convalescent Plasma
Convalescent Plasma was another treatment pushed by the Trump administration. The treatment involves taking the blood plasma full of antibodies from patients that had recovered from Covid-19, and donating it to sick patients to boost their immune system. The FDA approved the treatment while weren't any rigorous, well-controlled trials that showed strong evidence that it helped fight the virus, leading to more accusations of bowing the pressure. After later studies showed limited effectiveness, the FDA updated the EUA to only allow use of plasma with large concentrations of antibodies, which could further degrade public trust.

Public Opinion and Reactions
The FDA has maintained public trust through its record of strict review policies for approval and authorization, and its experience in handling other viruses, like H1N1, Zika Virus, and the Ebola Virus. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic, public trust has eroded: The number of Americans somewhat or very likely to get a vaccine if it were available dropped between April 2020 and December 2020. This drop was consistent across all races and genders, and some attribute the decline in willingness to a lack of trust in the FDA’s vaccine approval process. As mentioned above, allegations of political interference also diminish public trust in the FDA. The fact that these allegations are even brought up is a signal of the FDA’s loss of trust. These surveys were taken while vaccines were still in development, and David Altman, the president of the Kaiser Family Foundation, worries, “public skepticism about the FDA and the process of approving a vaccine is eroding public confidence even before a vaccine gets to the starting gate”.

Expert Opinion and Reactions
Experts have also weighed in on the use of the EUA to authorize vaccines, urging the FDA to exercise caution when issuing any EUAs. Eric Topol alludes to the EUA as a shortcut, warning “We are not in a high-trust mode, and the last thing you want to do is take a short cut and put everything at risk”. Arthur Caplan, president of the NYU medical school, encourages the FDA to “not put a COVID-19 vaccine on the U.S. market unless there is overwhelming evidence of safety and efficacy”. In a joint letter, the Infectious Diseases Society and the HIV Medicine Association urged, “While we believe that meeting the requirements for full approval is the surest route to maximum public trust and vaccine uptake, if a COVID-19 vaccine is made available via EUA, some specific actions may be necessary to shore up public confidence”.

Efforts to Restore Confidence
The FDA is working to restore public confidence, learning from past pandemics. A study conducted during the H1N1 pandemic showed that effective and clear communication is vital to trust in the FDA; use of words like ’experimental’ and ‘accelerated approval’ decreased confidence in a proposed H1N1 vaccine. If the FDA is to reinforce trust, its explanations of approval processes must be clear and straightforward. In an effort to increase public confidence in COVID-19 vaccines, the FDA announced new guidelines for the EUA process, including longer trials and more diverse trial pools. These guidelines increased confidence that the FDA was ensuring maximum safety of the vaccines and pushed hopeful vaccine approvals past election day, further mitigating worry over political pressure to issue an EUA. Also, the FDA held open meetings (comparable to town hall meetings) when discussing the use of EUAs for COVID-19, allowing the public to listen in on the discussions and fostering trust through transparency.

These efforts underscore the FDA’s professional goal: to ensure the safety of the public. To keep the confidence of the public, the FDA must maintain its strict standards and not succumb to pressures, even during health emergencies.