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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1947 03

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical.

1/-

Vol. 11 - No. 10; March 15, 1947

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 11. - MARCH, 1947. - No. 10.

P.03 - Publication Notes
Editor, Publisher, Proprietor — A. G. HULL, Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic.

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST, 6 Fitzgerald Road, Ermington, N.S.W. 'Phone: WL1101

Ham Notes By — D. B. KNOCK (VK2NO), 43 Yanko Av., Waverley, N.S.W.

Advertising Representative for Vic. — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, 'Phone MU5154

Advertising Representative for N.S.W. - Amalgamated Publications Pty. Ltd., 83 Pitt St., Sydney, Phone: B1077

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address in the world.

Address for all correspondence - Australasian Radio World, Balcombe St., Mornington, Victoria

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Balcombe St., Mornington, Vic. (Footnote P.44)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

TECHNICAL —

Another Type of Beam Array. . . . 5

Electric-Acoustic Coupling. . . . 7

Quick Systematic Testing. . . . 13

Sensitive Four-Valve Circuit. . . . 17

Radio Frequency Chokes. . . . 27

The Truth About Television. . . . 30

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes from My Diary. . . . 38

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 42

P.03 - Guest Editorial
Guest Editorial

The amateur radio world now knows of the achievement of "QST's" VHF Editor, Ed Tilton, W 1HDQ, in getting his 50 Mc/s signals across the Atlantic to G6DH and G5BY last November, and of the excitement at the British end. It fits in nicely with two things; firstly, that at the time it happened, the ARRL, through the radio amateur's "Bible" QST, was celebrating that eventful period 25 years ago, when Paul Godley went to Scotland and heard the first American amateur signals to cross the Atlantic. Godley camped in a tent on a Scottish moore. He heard one or two spark stations and quite a few C.W. British amateurs, working at home locations, burned the midnight oil in the dreary winter nights and they also heard the American signals. It was an exciting period, and one which I, as an active amateur then in England, still picture with vivid detail. Now, 25 years afterward, the Atlantic is again crossed in pioneer fashion, at frequencies very different from those of more than two decades back. The second point that fits in nicely is the location from which W1HDQ did the trick. This QTH is famous as being the spot where the late Ross A. Hull pioneered "Five meter" work in the 1930’s. One can't help feeling that at the Selden Hill location from which W1HDQ at last crossed the Atlantic on "Six," the spirit of "R.A.H." is strongly in evidence. Ponder this over. . . at the time W1HDQ was heard by the G's, there were many American stations on the band trying hard to get across. But Ed Tilton's signal was the one and only one heard, and it held for an hour. Selden Hill is a pip of a VHF location, but is it only a coincidence that no other W's were heard? Maybe. . . but I like to think otherwise.— D.B.K.

P.06 - Technical - F.M. Tests Started in Melbourne
F.M. Tests Started in Melbourne

The Postmaster-General’s Department has begun experiments in frequency modulation from its giant tower at Jolimont, near M elbourne. "Spot readings” to test the field strength of signals in several suburbs, have been successful. A complete survey of the metropolitan area w ill now be made to check official calculations that frequency modulation signals should be received satisfactorily in all districts. Tests are expected to begin in Sydney soon on the recommendation of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Broadcasting that FM experiments be conducted in all States. It is expected to be several weeks before experiments have reached the stage where regular programmes of music and talks w ill be transmitted from Jolimont. A m a t e u r s L is t e n It was stated that some radio amateurs and members of the wireless trade might have built their own FM sets and be listening in to the experiments. For the information of those who wish to build F.M. sets with which to listen to the experimental transmissions, the following data has been supplied: 1. Operating frequency, 91.1 mega-cycles. 2. Audio band width, transmitted 30 c.p.s. to 1500 c.p.s. 3. Pre-emphasis, 75 micro seconds. 4. Deviation, plus or minus 75 kilocycles. Power of transmitter, 2 kilowatts.

P.18 - Shortwave Review - Some Facts about Station CMQ, Havana
SOME FACTS ABOUT STATION CMQ, HAVANA T ranslated from " Radio-G uia” by V. L. Shillcock (V K 2V S ) U NTIL recently the maximum power reached by any station in Cuba was 2,500 watts, ■which was at one time the aerial power o f station CMQ, operating on 880 Kc and located in Havana. The installation of a 25 K w transmitter represented a definite step forward, for with this power an excellent service to all parts o f the republic was assured. It w ill be appreciated that the overcoming of all technical difficulties associated with such a vast project was no small task and due credit must be given to all those responsible for its practical realisation. Among the principal features is the system o f high-level modulation using water-cooled tubes in a class B amplifier. The filaments o f these tubes are operated from a bi-phase

A.C. supply, the d.c. plate potential is 12,500 volts, and the modulation transformer itself is rated at 25,000 watts and capable o f reducing all frequencies between 30 and 12,000 cycles. Incidentally, this transformer weighs more than 5 tons and is 7 feet high! High efficiency in the final r.f. power amplifier is obtained by operating the fdur water-cooled valves in push pull under class C conditions. The tank condensers are submerged in oil and have mica dielectric. Harmonic suppressors are used both in the aerial transmission line and aerial coupling unit. The antenna is a vertical type, which has been found to eliminate all fading o f CMQ’s signals and furthermore increases the radiation

efficiency. The mast is a galvanised steel structure 95 metres high, well anchored as a precaution against cyclones. It is equipped with 'a red beacon light at the top to serve as a warning to aircraft, and floodlit by mercury vapor lights which lend a fantastic and ethereal appearance to the whole structure. The transmitter is housed in a specially constructed building equipped with a means of alarm and protection. A system o f forced air cooling circulates air in the building and in the steel cabinets and provides adequate cooling for the high-power rectifier tubes. "Safety first” is a motto which has been well borne out in practice, and hence we find ample protection against shock fo r the operating personnel. A ll transformers and other places where there are voltages in excess of 110 are protected by earthed metal screens, the doors o f which are equipped with safety switches which automatically turn off all high tension when these doors are opened. A special water-cooling system cools at the rate of 20 gallons o f water per minute and dissipates something like 30 K w o f heat. The water for cooling purpos.es is distilled, and in order to avoid any chemical change all pipes and tanks carrying this water are of bronge. Each valve is equipped with its own meter, indicating the amount of water which circulates, a thermometer for checking the temperature, and an electricallyoperated thermostat. To conclude, here are some figures on the power consumption: Total consumption of power per hour: 87 Kw. Input power to final amplifier: 38 Kw. Loss o f heat communicated to cooling water: 26 Kw. Power required to heat filaments alone of water-cooled tubes: 8.5 Kw. Number of water-cooled tubes: 6.

P.38 - Shortwave Review - Notes from My Diary
Shortwave Review conducted by L. J. Keast

Notes from My Diary.

Television Regarding my reference to the Television Set in Sydney. . . see January issue. . . Mr. A. R. McRitchie (AW550DX) from Whyalla, South Australia, writes: "Reading your diary in A.R.W. of January, I noticed reference to 'The first Television RX set in Australia.' I again don't wish to be catty, but during 1938 whilst I was working in Melbourne (I am a native of Melbourne) I happened to call in to see a friend of mine in The British General Electric Co., Bourke Street, Melbourne, and during my visit I noticed they had on display in their Radio Department a mantle and a large console Television receiver which I believe they had specially shipped over from their main office in London just for the purpose of display. I suppose you will receive a few other letters similar to this but I just thought you may be interested." Byrd Antarctic Expedition On board the Mt. Olympus, with a call-sign NAVE, this expedition contacts Press Wireless and RCA, New York, on 17.84mc, 1 6.82m, and have been heard at 9.30 a.m. Several other frequencies have been allotted as follows: 20.40mc, 17.82mc, 15.96mc, 15.93mc, 12.26 me, 12.24mc, 9.67mc and 9.28mc, and the varied list should permit of transmissions at any time, so should you pick up NAVE, send your report to Radio-Television Section, Office of Public Information, Navy Department, Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A. The Navy Department states reports must NOT be sent to the Mt. Olympus and that verification w ill take from 5 to 6 months. W W V, N a t io n a l B u r e a u o f St an d a r d s This station situated in Washington, D.C., U.S.A., is now on 8 outlets with frequency checks. The complete list is: 2500, 500, 10,000, 15,000, 20,000, 25,000, 30,000 and 35,000 kc. At present W W V is heard well at 10 p.m. on the first 5 outlets. DX listeners may like to correspond with International Short Wave Club, Adams Gardens Estate, London, S.E. 16, but if you desire a reply it w ill be necessary to enclose an Empire Coupon procurable at the G.P.O .). They publish a monthly News Letter devoted entirely to Shbrt-waves and is quite good. The subscription to the Club is 4/- per year. (To this, o f course, exchange will have to be added.) Pitcairn Island Listeners might keep a watch for this station, the call-sign of which is V R 6A Y and it will most likely be heard on the 20-metre band. The owner is Andrew Young, who operated this station before the war. (I am proud of a verification card from Mr. Young.) During the war the call-sign was Z K G and it was conducted by a New Zealander, Nelson Dyett, and used as a weather reporting station. Rad io A u st r a l ia H ere are a fe w in teresting item s about "Radio Australia." Inaugural transmission, December 20th, 1939, directed to British Isles. Transmits in six languages: English, Dutch, French, Siamese, Chinese, Malay. Also in Japanese until September, 1946. Is on the air 20 hours a day, seven days a week. Puts out 24 different programmes a day, including 23 news bulletins. Played leading part in Allied psychological campaign in Pacific and Asia during the war. Its policy is to tell the world about the Australian way of life in the city and country, and programmes of news, music, sport, literature, agriculture and finance are directed to that end. Shepparton transmitters, among the most modern and powerful in the world, occupy a site of 567 acres and cost £A546,000. There are 19 multi-element directional aerial arrays. The above particulars have been taken from a pamphlet received from the Department of Information. It is most gratifying that these stations are doing such a fine job, as I recall way back in 1939 there was talk that they would be "jammed” . . . Germany would blot them out, but I would never subscribe to that thought and said as much when I was writing for Sm ith’s W eekly (vide January 6th, ’4 0 ). H e l p W a n t e d Two mysteries from Rex Gillett: "On about 6.08mc, 49.34m ., I have been hearing a station using French language and playing native music from about 11.3 0 p.m. A t 12.30 a.m. a clock chimes about 5 times. Latest American information says Radio Azarbaijan opens at M/N with chimes and clock striking on 6087 or 6090kc. I could not make my frequency any different and am wondering if I am hearing the same station. Interference from SEAC is rather severe.” The other is French, announcing: "Ici Radio ---? Seems to open at 10 p.m. and closes at 11.3 0 p.m. with a march on about 9.87 me. Signals have been quite good but just cannot get that last word, which is only a short one.” Verifications. Rex Gillett, of Prospect, South Australia, writes: "Was thrilled to get a nice but plain card from ZPA-5, Encarnacion, Paraguay. This brought up my 71st verified country. I am very much afraid the next 30 are going to be tough. Latest veries here are Klofta, on

6 .20mc, Vienna 984m c and 12.21 me, Capetown 9.6lm c; CR7BJ, Lourenco Marques, 9.65mc, and VU D -8 on 13.95mc and 21.50mc. K lofta in their verification said they ceased transmitting on September 1st.” Arthur Cushen, of Invercargill, has also received some nice verifications : O AX4M, Miraflores, Peru, 6.315. (They have now moved to 6.22mc as CE622 has been deleted and replaced by C E 1173.) The address of O AX 4M is: 'Radio Miraflores,’ Jesus Nazareno 113, Of. 213-214, LimaPeru. (I think the slogan o f this station is "La Voz de la Democracia.”— L.J.K.) CSX-2, Ponta Delgada, Azores, 4.04mc; VUM-2, 7.26mc; Singapore, 11.735m c; LKJ, Oslo, 9.54mc; FZK-6, Dakar, 6 .9 1 5mc; and Paris on 11.845 and 9.985mc. My verie from LKJ is the 92nd country I have verified.” (V ery nice work, Arthur.) And Miss Sanderson, of Melbourne, says: "Veries have been coming along very well, and I now have one from Poland which came by air-mail; a Xmas card from the Swedish Broadcasting Co., besides a card and letter from SDB-2, and a letter from Nairobi for reporting VLQLO on 62 metres back in September.” SAYS WHO? An air-mail letter from Charles -C. Norton, Editor, "Universalite,” states all shortwave notes are to be sent to the new URDXC SW Editor, Lee Neidow, Jr., 16 11 Grace Street, Chicago 13, Illinois. No reference to what has happened to Bill Howe or why the change. I am sure we all hope he is O.K. . . . he has done a wonderful job over the many years.— L.J.K. Miss Sanderson, of Malvern, Victoria, says: “Conditions have been fair and I have heard several stations that are new to me, although they may have been heard by other reporters. ZBW, Hongkong, 6.5 2mc, 31.49m , is heard at 8.30 p.m. in a programme of music for the Services, then a relay of BBC news is taken with commentary. Another 15 minutes o f music and then a programme of news for Chinese listeners. "NAVE (the station which is broadcasting from the Antarctic) was heard at 9.15 p.m. on a frequency o f 17.90m c or wavelength o f 16.75m. This station was calling New York with despatches. "Two stations in Munich are heard with good signals in the 49 and 41 metre bands on frequencies of 6.10mc and 7.29mc. These are heard in music and news in German, French and English at 6.30 a.m. and 7.15. "Macassar is on another frequency with quite good signal on 24.35m or 12.32mc. Another station, this time in Haiti, is to be heard opening at 9.35 p.m. with news in French and a musical programme. I rate the signal at R9 Q 4 ” Rex Gillett writes: Here are a 'fe w D X .tips: Radio Noumea is now on 6.l6m c, 48.70m, signing off at 8 p.m. with 'Marseillaise.’ "Radio Brazzaville is now being heard with News in English at 6.45 a.m. on about 7.00mc, 42.86 m, in relay with other outlets. "Radio Paris on 7.24mc, 4l.44m seemed to sign off at 8.15 a.m. following programmes in various languages. W as clear o f VLQ. "Radio Tananarive has been particularly fine on 9.69mc, 30.95m, in relay with 6.065mc, 49.46m outlet. Station identification was clearly given in French. The latter channel was nearly as good. " 'You are listening to Bombay’ identifies VUB-2 on 3.365mc, 89.15m, at 3 a.m., during a programme of dance music. Scheduled closing time is 3.30. "Radio Moscow has news in English at 9 p.m. on two 31-metre channels, these being 9.565mc, 31.37m, and 9.545mc, 31.43m . A ( ? ) new frequency is 6.112m c, 49.08m , both in the a.m. and p.m.

English is concluded at 11.13 p.m. .. . Foreign language commences at 11.15. Two other Moscow outlets heard at 7 a.m. are 6.l4m c, 48.86m, and 6.13mc, 48.94m. Yet another at the same time heard through the interference o f Luxembourg, I presume, was 6.09mc, 49.26m. Moscow was identified on about 9.80mc, 30.6lm at 6.15 a.m. with a Danish-type programme.” Mr. R. I. Henry, of New Farm, Queensland, writes: "I don’t know whether you people are interested or not but recently I noticed when listening to W W V on lOmc that they are broadcasting on 8 frequencies in all. I first heard the announcement o f the additional frequencies when listening-in during a holiday in Victoria.” (Yes, Mr. Henry, we are always pleased to get notes about any alterations. Had your letter been addressed to Ermington, N .S.W ., your memo would have enabled us to show the new frequencies in last issue. However, just before your letter, re-addressed from Mornington, reached me, I had noted the complete list in "Notes From My Diary.”-—L.J.K .) No doubt you get some adverse reports on the production o f A R W and also some good reports. As for me, I consider it the best periodical of its kind in Australia. I particularly like Don Knock’s "Calling CQ ” each month and the titbits about amateur radio. I am not a licensed Ham but am doing a bit o f swatting on theory and a fair bit of practice on the code, so I don’t think it w ill be long before I ana on the air. W ishing your paper the very best.” (Thank you, Mr. Henry, and I trust it w ill not be long before you have your licence. - L .J .K .) Mr. H. A. Callander, o f Richmond, Victoria, writes that he has added two more receivers to his shack, this time an Hallicrafters S27 Ultra High Frequency Communications receiver— tunes from 27mc to l45m c on three bands and uses AM and FM— and a 32-valve Scott, which incorporates the latest oscilloscope tuning. Just to make sure the S27 would "woik” he purchased a portable Ultra High Frequency antenna of American make which has three sets o f interchangeable elements for coverage of ranges from 2\ to 11 metres. As can be imagined, Mr. Callander has made some excellent loggings but, as they are mostly on 10 and 20 metres, I have handed them over to Don Knock. After talking to him about Mr. Callander's luck, in picking up such fine receivers, Don told me o f a beauty he was using, so with tears in my eyes, I hiked back to Ermington, swearing I would read the Radio Sets and Accessories column before I considered the Parliamentary report. Sc * * Arthur Cushen, from Invercargill, N.Z., says: "HH3W, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, using 500 watts, now verifying by letter in English. Has English identification at 10 p.m. . . . opens at 9.30. It is news indeed to get a verification from here, as they have religiously refrained from verifying for many years. "WLKS, Kure, Japan, has good signals to 7 p.m. .. . mainly relays 'Radio Australia’ sports programmes. The New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in Japan are to operate WLKW on l470kc broadcast band with 500 watts and a shortwave outlet. Information on the latter has not been released yet. "XNCR, Yunan, China, is active on 7.58mc . . . call is heard at 9.15 p.m. "PLY, Java, 10.06mc, has news in English and commentary at 9 p.m.; chimes at 9.30. Roy Hallett, of Enfield, writes: "PCJ is using their rotating aerial on 3 1-metre transmissions, but

other bands use another aerial system. "Radio SEAC has technical talk around 11.15 p.m. on Sundays on their 25-metre outlet. Session commences around 11.15 or so, maybe at late as 11.25. "A reply to a report I sent to the BBG after some sunspot activity not so long back, was, through a slip, sent to L. Hallett, 200 Baker Street, Enfield, Middlesex, England. (Roy Hallett's address is 36 Baker Street, Enfield, N .S.W .)

My namesake opened the letter when it arrived, and upon discovering the slip very kindly sent the letter over here, accompanied by a short note explaining the situation and requesting information about our Enfield. "And in conclusion, perhaps your readers would be pleased to know VK3WI on 40 metres at 10.30 a.m. on Sundays and at 7.30 p.m. on Tuesdays gives slow morse transmissions which should help beginners.”

P.41 - Shortwave Review - New Stations
---, Munich, 9.54mc, 31.42m : "Voice o f the United States of America” is now being heard on this additional outlet and at 1 a.m. News in English is heard, whilst at 4.45 a.m. "Cross-section” is given. This station is also heard at the same time on 6.10, 6 .17 and 7.29mc. I have to thank Arthur Cushen for above information. X R A Y, Peiping, 8.89mc, 33.74 m: And Arthur also advises this new AFRS station. He says they are heard best on Tuesdays with request session fo r Forces at 8 p.m. but there is plenty o f Morse interference. ---, Munich, 6.17m c: The wavelength, due to a typographical error, was shown in last issue as 38.62m. This, course, should read 48.62m. W a t c h F o r T h is S p e c ia l B r o a d c a st Date: Sunday, March 16. Time: 8.15-8.45 p.m. Station: Radio Saigon, on 11.78 me, 25.47m, and 4.81m c, 62.37m. The above special broadcast has been arranged by Ken Boord, Shortwave Editor of Radio N ews. A talk, followed by Oriental and other music, will occupy the 30 minutes and correct reports w ill be verified from Saigon. (A s I have mentioned in these columns before, my first verification was from Radio Saigon away back in ’27.— L.J.K .) Reports should be addressed to: M. Pipon, English Dept., Radio Saigon, 198 Rue Chasseloup My namesake opened the letter when it arrived, and upon discovering the slip very kindly sent the letter over here, accompanied by a short note explaining the situation and requesting information about our Enfield. "And in conclusion, perhaps your readers would be pleased to know V K 3W I on 40 metres at 10.30 a.m. on Sundays and at 7.30 p.m. on Tuesdays gives slow morse transmissions which should help beginners.” Laubat, Saigon, French Indo-China (Indochine). Do NOT send return postage, as IRC’s are not negotiable now in French Indo-China. Radio Noumea: 6.l6m c, 48.70 m: This New Caledonian station has moved from 6.208mc and is still announcing as "The Voice of France in the Pacific” ; is on the air from 5.30-8 p.m. VQ7LO, Nairobi, 4.855mc, 6 l.4 lm : Ray Simpson tells me he has been hearing this Kenya Colony station on this new frequency around 5 a.m. (This is the spot allotted to Pietermaritzburg, Northern Rhodesia, and transmitter was to have 500 watts, but VQ7LO has 1,500.— L.J.K. ) Miss Sanderson says she has been hearing a station which gives its locality as Nanking and is an AFRS station with a very good variety programme. As far as I can calculate, it is somewhere in 26-metre band and is heard at 9.45 p.m. Its call-sign sounds like X M AG. (This is the call-sign for Nanking on 7.34mc, 40.87m, and relays AFRS at 2 a.m., according to an air-mail letter from Ken Boord. It looks as though Miss Sanderson has picked up a new frequency for Nanking. They have something like 25 or 30 allotted frequencies but the calls have the prefix X G .— L.J.K.) And from Ken Boord, Chicago, also comes this: ETA A is call fo r Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on 15.074m c. Turkey will have lOOkw. power on a new transmitter now being built. Bryan Hayes, BBC representative, who has been acknowledging correct reports on BBC transmissions, has ceased verifying. C h a n g e s I n C a n a d ia n B r o a d c a s t s CKNC, 17.82mc, 16.84m : M/N6 a.m. (from 10 p.m. Sundays). CKCX, 15.19m c, 19.75m : M/N3 a.m. (from 10 p.m. Sundays). CKCS, 15.32mc, 19.58m : 3.05- 7.30 a.m. CHOL, 11.72m c, 25.60m : 6.15- 9.05 a.m. CKLO, 9.63mc, 31.15m : 7.45- 9.05 a.m. The Latin-American Service now on CKCS-CKRA. Station CKRZ has been withdrawn. PCJ, HILVERSUM, HOLLAND Transmission Schedule As at January, 1947, o f the "Happy Station” programmes produced and presented by Edward Startz: S u n d a y 15.22mc, 19.71m ; U.73m c, 25.57m ; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 15.30- 17.00« GMT, East and Near East. 1.30 a.m. to 3.00 a.m., Sydney time. 11.73m c, 25.57m ; 9.59-mc, 31.28 m; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 21.00-23.30 GMT, Africa and Mediterranean. 7.00 a.m, to 8.30 a.m., Sydney time. 11.73m c, 25.57m ; 9.59mc, 31.28 m; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 0230-0400 GMT, America (Mond. morning). 12.30 to 2 p.m., Sydney time. T u e sd a y 11.73m c, 25.57m ; 9.59mc, 31.28 m; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 08.00-09.30 GMT, Pacific and Australasia. 6.00 p.m. to 7.30 p.m., Sydney time. W e d n e sd a y 15.22mc, 19.71m : 11.73m c, 25.57m ; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 15.30- 17.00 GMT, East and Near East. 1.30 a.m. to 3.00 a.m., Sydney time. 11.73m c, 25.57m ; 9.59mc, 31.28 m; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 21.00-22.30 GMT, Africa and Mediterranean. 7.00 a.m. to 8.30 a.m., Sydney time. 11.73m c, 25.57m ; 9.59mc, 31.28 m; 6.02mc, 49.79m : 02.30-04.00 GMT, America. 12.30-2 p.m.; Sydney time.


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Planet Earth/3a. Gas, Liquid, Solid (and other states of matter)

What is stuff made of?
Ancient classifications of Earth’s matter were early attempts to determine what makes up the material world we live in. Aristotle, teacher of Alexander the Great, in Ancient Greece in 343 BCE proposed five “elements”: earth, water, air, fire, and aether. These five elements were likely adapted from older cultures, such as ancient Egyptian teachings. The Chinese Wu Xing system, developed around 200 BCE during the Han dynasty, listed the “elements” Wood (木), Fire (火), Earth (土), Metal (金), and Water (水). These ideas suggested that the ingredients that make up all matter were some combination of these elements, but theories of what those elements were appeared arbitrary in early texts. Around 850 CE, the Islamic philosopher Al-Kindi who had read of Aristotle in his native Baghdad, conducted early experiments in distillation, the process of heating a liquid and collecting the cooled produced steam in a separate container. He discovered that the process of distillation could make more poignant perfumes and stronger wines. His experiments suggested that there were in fact just three states of matter: solid, liquid and gaseous.

Ancient early classifications of matter differ significantly from today’s modern atomic theory of matter, that forms the basis of the field of chemistry. Modern atomic theory classifies matter into 94 naturally occurring elements, and an additional 24 elements if you include elements synthesized by scientists. The atomic theory of matter suggests that all matter is composed of a combination or mixture of these 118 elements. However, all these substances can adopt three basic states of matter as a result of differences in temperature and pressure. Hence all combinations of these elements can exist theoretically in solid, liquid and gas phases dependent on their temperature and pressure. Most states of matter can be classified as solid, liquid or gas, despite the fact that they are made up of different elements.

A good example is ice, water and steam. Ice is a solid form of hydrogen atoms bonded to oxygen atoms, symbolized by H2O, as it contains twice as many hydrogens (H) as oxygen (O) atoms. H2O is the chemical formula of ice. Ice can be heated to form liquid water. At Earth’s surface pressures (1 atmosphere) ice will melt into water at 0° Celsius (32° Fahrenheit). Likewise, water will freeze at the same temperature 0° Celsius (32° Fahrenheit). If you continue to heat the water it will boil at 100° Celsius (212° Fahrenheit). Boiling water produces steam, or water vapor, which is a form of gas. If water vapor is cooled below 100° Celsius (212° Fahrenheit), it will turn back into water.

One of the most fascinating simple experiments is to observe the temperature in a pot of water as it is heated to 100° Celsius (212° Fahrenheit). The water will rise in temperature until it reaches 100° Celsius (212° Fahrenheit), at that temperature it will remain until all the water is evaporated into steam (a gas) before the steam will rise any higher. A pot of boiling water is precisely at 100° Celsius (212° Fahrenheit), as long as it is pure water and is at 1 atmosphere of pressure (at sea level).

The amount of pressure can affect the temperatures that phase transitions take place at. For example, on top of a 10,000-foot mountain, water will boil at 89.6° Celsius (193.2° Fahrenheit), because it has less atmospheric pressure. This is why you often see adjustments to cooking instructions based on altitude, since it takes longer to cook something at higher altitudes. If you place a glass of water in a vacuum by pumping gases out of a container, you can get a glass of water to boil at room temperature. This phase transition happens when the pressure drops below about 1 kilopascal in the vacuum. The three basic states of matter are dependent on both the pressure and temperature of a substance. Scientists can diagram the different states of matter of any substance by charting the observed state of matter at any temperature and pressure. These diagrams are called phase diagrams.

A phase diagram can be read by observing the temperatures and pressures substances will change phases from solid, liquid and gas. If the pressure remains constant, you can read the diagram by following a horizontal line across the diagram, observing the temperatures a substance melts or freezes (solid↔liquid) and boils or evaporates (liquid↔gas). You can also read the diagram by following a vertical line across the diagram, observing the pressures that a substance melts or freezes (solid↔liquid) and boils or evaporates (liquid↔gas).

On the phase diagram for water, you will notice that the division between solid ice and liquid water is not a perfectly vertical line around 0° Celsius, at high pressures around 200 to 632 MPa, ice will melt at temperatures slightly lower than 0° Celsius. This zone causes ice to melt that is buried deeply under ice sheets, which increases the pressure on the ice. Another strange phenomenon can happen to water heated to 100° Celsius. If you subject normal water heated to 100° Celsius to increasing pressures, up above 2.1 GPa, the hot water will turn to solid ice and “freeze” at 100° Celsius. Hence, at very high pressures, you can form ice at the bizarrely hot temperatures of 100° Celsius! If you were able to touch this ice, you would get burned. Another strange phenomenon happens if you subject ice to decreasing pressures in a vacuum, the ice will sublimate, turn from a solid to a gas at temperatures below 0° Celsius in a vacuum. The process of a solid turning to a gas is called sublimation, and the process of a gas turning into a solid is called deposition. One of the most bizarre phenomena happens at a triple junction of the three states of matter, where the solid, liquid and gas phases can co-exist. For pure water (H2O) this happens at 0.01° Celsius and a pressure of 611.657 Pa. When water, ice or water vapor is subjected to this temperature and pressure, you get the weird phenomena of water both boiling and freezing at the same time!

What phase diagrams demonstrate is that the states of matter are a function of the space between molecules within a substance. As temperatures increase, the vibrational forces push the molecules of a substance farther apart, likewise as pressures increases, the molecules of a substance are pushed closer together. This balance between temperature and pressure dictate which phase of matter will exist at each discrete temperature and pressure.

More advanced phase diagrams may indicate different arrangements of molecules in solid states, as they are subjected to different temperatures and pressures. These more advance phase diagrams illustrate crystal lattice structural changes in solid matter that is more densely packed and can form different crystals arrangements.

Each substance has different phase diagrams, for example a substance of pure carbon dioxide (CO2), which is composed of a single carbon atom (C) bonded to two oxygen atoms (O) is mostly a gas at normal temperatures and pressures on the surface of Earth. However, carbon dioxide when cooled down to −78° Celsius undergoes deposition, and turns from a gas to a solid. Dry ice, which is solid carbon dioxide, sublimates at room temperatures making a gas. It is called dry ice, because the phase transition between solid and gas at normal pressures does not go through a liquid phase like water. This is why dry ice kept in a cooler will not get your food wet, but will keep your food cold and actually much colder than normal frozen ice made of H2O.

Strange things happen when gases are heated and subjected to increasingly high pressures. At some point these hot gasses under increasing compression will become classified as a super critical fluid. Super critical fluids act both like a gas and a liquid, suggesting an additional fourth state of matter. Super critical fluids of H2O occur when water is raised to temperatures above 374° Celsius and subjected to 22.1 MPa or more of pressure, at this point the super critical fluid of water will appear like a cloudy steamy fluid. Super critical fluids of CO2 occur at temperatures above of 31.1° Celsius and subjected to 7.39 MPa or more of pressure. Because super critical fluids act like a liquid and a gas, they can be used as solvents in dry cleaning without getting fabrics wet. Super critical fluids are used in the process of decaffeinating coffee beans, as caffeine is absorbed by super critical fluids of carbon dioxide when mixed with coffee beans.

Phase diagrams can get more complex when you consider two or more substances mixed together and examine how they interact with each other. These more complex phase diagrams with two different substances are called binary systems, as they compare not only temperatures and pressures, but also the ratio of two (and sometimes more) components. Al-Kindi when developing his distillation processes, utilized the difference in boiling temperature of water (H2O) which occurs at 100° Celsius and alcohol (C2H6O) which occurs at 78.37° Celsius. The captured gas resulting from a mixture of water and alcohol heated up to 78.37° Celsius, would contain only alcohol. If this separated gas is then cooled, it would be a more concentrated form of alcohol, this is how distillation works. Utilizing the knowledge of phase diagrams, the distribution of the different compositions of the 94 naturally occurring elements can be elucidated. And scientists can determine how substances can get enriched or depleted in these natural occurring substances as a result of changes in temperature and pressure.

Plasma
Plasma is used to describe free flowing electrons, as seen in electrical sparks, lighting and found encircling the sun. Plasma is not technically a state of matter since it does not contain particles of sufficient mass. Although sometimes included as a state of matter, plasma, like electromagnetic radiation such as light which contains photons is best considered a form of energy rather than matter. Although electrons play a vital role in bonding different types of atoms together. In the next module you will be introduced to additional phases of matter at the extreme limits of phase diagrams.

Density
Different phases of matter have different densities. Density as you may recall is a measure of a substance’s Mass per Volume. In other words, it is the number of atoms (mass) within a given space (volume). Specific gravity is the comparison of a substance’s density compared to water. It is a simple test to see if an object floats or sinks, such observations are measured as specific gravity. A specific gravity of precisely 1, means that the object has the same density as water. Substances whether solid, liquid or a gas with specific densities higher than 1 will sink, while substances with a specific gravity lower than 1 will float. Specific gravity of liquids is measured using a hydrometer. Otherwise, density is measured by finding the mass and dividing it by its measured volume (usually by displacement of water if the object is an irregular solid). Most substances will tend to have higher density as a solid than a liquid, and most liquids have a greater density than in a gas phase. This is because solids pack more atoms together in less space, than a liquid, and much more atoms are packed in a solid phase of matter than a gas phase. There are exceptions to this rule, for example ice, the solid form of water floats. This is because there is less mass per volume in an ice cube than liquid water, as the crystal lattice of ice (H2O) forms a less dense network of bonds between atoms and spreads out over more space to accommodate this crystal lattice structure. This is why leaving a soda can in the freezer will cause it to expand and burst open. However, most substances will be denser in the solid phase than their liquid phase.

Density is measured as kg/m3 or specific gravity (in comparison to liquid water). Liquid water has a density of 1,000 kg/m3 at 4° Celsius, and steam (water vapor) has a density of 0.6 kg/m3. Milk has a density of 1,026 kg/cm3, slightly more than pure water, and the density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3. At 100 kilometers above the surface of the Earth (near the edge of outer space), the density of air drops down to 0.00000055 kg/m3 (5.5 × 10−7 kg / m3).

Mass
Remember, the acceleration of gravity (g) is dependent on an object’s mass, hence the denser an object is, the more gravitational force will be exerted on it. This previously came into discussion on calculating the density of the Earth, in refuting a hypothesis of a hollow center inside the Earth.

It is important to distinguish an object’s Mass from an object’s Weight. Weight is the combined force of gravity (g) and an object’s Mass (M), such that Weight = M × g. This is why objects in space are weightless, and objects have different weights on other planets, because the value of g differs depending on the density of each planet. However, Mass, which is equivalent to the total number of atoms within an object, remains the same no matter which planet you visit. Weight is measured by scales that use springs pushing down which combines mass and gravity pushing an object toward the Earth and recording the displacement of the spring. Mass is measured by scales that compare an object to standards, like in a balance-type scale, where standards of known mass are balanced on the scale.


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Planet Earth/3b. Atoms: Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

Planck’s length, the fabric of the universe, and extreme forms of matter
What would happen to water (H2O) if you subjected it to the absolute zero temperature predicted by Lord Kelvin, of 0 Kelvin or −273.15° Celsius and under a complete vacuum of 0 Pascals of pressure? What would happen to water (H2O) if you subjected it to extremely high temperatures and pressures, like those found in the cores of the densest stars in the universe?

Such answers to these questions may seem beyond the limits of practical experimentation, but new research is discovering new states of matter at these limits. These additional states of matter exist at the extreme end of all phase diagrams; at the limits of observable temperature and pressure. It is here in the corners of phase diagrams that matter behaves in strangely weird ways. However, these new forms of matter were predicted nearly a century before it was discovered by a unique collaboration between two scientists living on different sides of the Earth.

As the eldest boy in a large family with seven younger sisters, Satyendra Nath Bose grew up in the bustling city of Calcutta, India. His family was well off, as his father was a railway engineer and a member of the upper-class Hindu society that lived in the Bengal Presidency. Bose showed an aptitude for mathematics, and rose up the ranks as a teacher and later became a professor at University of Dhaka, where he taught physics. Bose read Albert Einstein’s papers and translated his writings from English to Hindi, and started a correspondence with Albert Einstein. While lecturing his class in India on Planck’s constant and black body radiators, he stumbled upon a unique realization, a statistical mathematical mistake that Einstein had made in describing the nature of the interaction between atoms and photons (electromagnetic radiation).

As you might recall Planck’s Constant relates to how light or energy striking matter is absorbed or radiates in a perfect black body radiator. In 1900, Max Planck used his constant ($$h$$), and calculated a minimum distance between wavelengths of photons possible for electromagnetic radiation. The equation is

 * $$\text {Planck's Length} = \sqrt\frac{\hbar G}{c^3} $$

where ℏ is the reduced Planck’s constant (h) which is equal to 1.054571817x 10-34 Joules Second or ℏ and equals h divided by 2π. G is Henry Cavendish’s calculation for gravity G= 6.67408x10−11 Meters3/Kilograms Seconds2, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum, 299,792,458 Meters per Second.

This length is called Planck’s length. It is the theoretical smallest distance between wavelengths of the highest energy electromagnetic radiation possible. It also relates to the theoretical smallest distance between electrons within an atom. The current calculated Planck’s length is 1.6 x 10-35 meters which is incredibly small, as the decimal place has 35 zeros in front of it, or is 0.000000000000000000000000000000000016 meters long.

Bohr’s Model of the Atom
In physics it is the smallest measurement of distance. Satyendra Nath Bose was also aware of a new model of the atom, proposed by Niels Bohr a Danish scientist, who viewed atoms similar to how the solar system is arranged, with planets orbiting around stars, but instead of planets, tiny electrons orbiting around the atom’s nucleus. Under Bohr’s model of the atom, the simplest type of atom (hydrogen) is a single electron orbiting around a nucleus composed of a single proton.

Electron Orbital Shells
Experiments in fluorescence demonstrates that when electromagnetic radiation, such as light is absorbed by atoms, the electrons rise to a higher energy state. They subsequently fall back down to a natural energy state and release energy as photons. This is why materials glow when heated and why radioactive materials glow when subjected to gamma or x-ray electromagnetic radiation. Scientists can measure the amount of energy released as photons when this occurs, and Niels Bohr suggested that the amount of energy released appeared to be related to orbital shell distances, at tiny units measured in Planck’s lengths. Niels Bohr developed a model explaining how each orbital shell appeared to hold increasing numbers of electrons, with an increasing number of protons.

One way to think of these electron orbital shells is that they are like notches along a ruler. Electrons must encircle each atom’s nucleus from one or more of those discrete notches, which are separated by distances measured in Planck’s lengths, the smallest measurement of distance theoretically possible. To test this idea, scientists excited atoms with high energy light, and measured the amount of electromagnetic radiation that was emitted by the atoms. When electrons absorb light they move up the notches by discrete Planck lengths, however they also would move back down a notch and release photons, emitting in the process electromagnetic radiation, until they settle on a notch that is supported by an equal number of protons in the nucleus. This effect is called the photoelectric effect. Albert Einstein earned his Nobel prize in 1921 by showing that it was the frequency of electromagnetic radiation that excites electrons by a factor of Planck’s constant in determining energy output.

Such, that E = hv, where E is the energy measured in Joules, h is Planck’s constant, and v is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. We can use v = c / λ, where c is the speed of light, and λ is the wavelength to determine v for the frequency of the different light wave lengths, finding that the shorter the wavelength, the higher the amount of energy.

As electrons move up the notches away from the nucleus by absorbing more electromagnetic radiation they can eventually become so excited that they can become completely free of the nucleus all together and become free electrons (electricity). This happens especially with metal materials that have a looser connection with orbiting electrons, but can theoretically happen with any type of material, given enough electromagnetic radiation subjected to the matter. This is what happens to matter when it is heated, the electrons move upward in their energy states, causing the atoms to jiggle which is subjected to the surrounding particles as electromagnetic radiation, their electromagnetic energy expands. This is why there is an overall trend with increasing temperatures and decreasing pressures toward matter that is less dense, expanding in volume from a solid to a liquid to a gas, eventually with enough energy the electrons become freed from the nucleus and result in plasma of free-flowing electrons or electricity.

These notches that the electrons encircle the nucleus are focused upon certain orbital shells of stability, such that the number of electrons exactly match the number of protons within the nucleus and fill orbital shells in a sequential order. The orbital shells of stability form the organization of the Periodic Table of Elements that you see in many classrooms.

One way to think of these orbital shells of stability is as discrete notches on a ruler, each “centimeter” on this ruler representing an orbital distance in the electron shell. There can be smaller units such as millimeters, with the smallest unit measured in Planck lengths. Scientists were eager to measure these tiny distances within atoms, but found it impossible, because the electrons behave not like planets orbiting a sun, but as oscillating waves forming a probability function around each of those discrete distances of stability. Hence it is impossible to predict the exact location of an electron along these notched distances from the nucleus. This is known as the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which states that the position and the velocity of an electron cannot both be measured exactly at the same time. In a sense this makes sense. Electrons like photons encircle the nucleus traveling at the speed of light and as oscillating waves, making it impossible to measure a specific position of an electron within its orbit around the nucleus. The study of atomic structures, such as this is called quantum physics.

Satyendra Nath Bose had read Einstein’s work on the subject, and noted some mathematical mistakes in Einstein’s calculations of the photoelectric effect. Bose offered a new solution, and ask Einstein to translate the work into German for publication. Einstein generously agreed and Bose’s paper was published. Einstein and Bose took this new solution to the question of what happens to these electron orbitals when atoms are subjected to Lord Kelvin’s extremely low temperature of absolute zero.

Einstein, following Bose, proposed that the electron orbital distances would collapse, moving down to the lowest possible notch on the Planck scale. This tiny distance prevents the atom from collapsing, and is referred to as zero-point energy. What is so strange, is that all atoms no matter how many protons or electrons it contains, will result in a similar collapse of the electrons down to the lowest notch at these extremely low temperatures.

At this point the atoms become a new state of matter called Bose-Einstein condensate. Bose-Einstein condensate has some weird proprieties. First is that it is a superconductor, because electrons are weakly held to the nucleus, second all elements except helium become solids, and the strangest propriety, all atoms in this state will exhibit the same chemical properties since the electrons are so close to the nucleus and they occupy the lowest orbital shell.

Helium, which is a gas at normal room temperatures and pressures, has two protons and two electrons. When it is cooled to absolute zero in a vacuum, it remains in liquid form, rather than the denser solid, like all other elements, and only when additional pressure is added does helium eventually turn into a solid. It is the only element to do this, all others become solids at absolute zero temperatures. This is because the zero-point energy in the electron orbitals is enough to keep helium as a liquid even at temperatures approaching absolute zero. In 1995 two scientists at the University of Colorado Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman super cooled rubidium-87, generating the first evidence of Bose-Einstein condensate in a lab, which earned them a Nobel prize in 2001. Since then numerous other labs have been experimenting with Bose-Einstein condensate, pushing electrons within a hair’s breadth away from the nucleus.

What happens to atoms when subjected to intense heat and pressure? Well electrons will move up these notches until they become far enough from the nucleus that they leave the atom and become a plasma, a flow of free electrons. Hence the first thing that happens at high pressure and high temperature is the generation of electricity from the free flow of these electrons. If pressure and temperature continue to increase, the protons will convert to neutrons, releasing photons as gamma radiation and neutrinos. This nuclear fusion is what generates the energy inside the cores of stars, such as the sun. If neutrons are subjected to even more pressure and temperature, they form black holes, the most mysterious form of matter in the universe.

One of the frontiers of science is the linkage between the extremely small Planck’s length and the observed cosmic expansion of the universe as determined by Hubble’s constant. One way to describe this relationship is to imagine a fabric to matter, which is being stretched apart (expanding) at the individual atomic level resulting in an expanding universe. The study of this aspect of science is called cosmology.

Electrons
In chemistry, the electrons are often considered the most important aspect of the atom, because they determine how atoms bond together to form molecules. However, electrons can move around between atoms, and even form plasma. Maybe of more importance in chemistry is the number of protons within the nucleus of the atom.

Protons
The number of protons within an atom determines the names of the elements. Such that all atoms with 1 proton are called hydrogen, atoms with 2 protons are called helium, while 3 proton atoms are called lithium. The number of protons in an atom is referred to as the Atomic Number (Z). Each element is classified by its atomic number, which appears in the top corner of a periodic table of elements, along with the chemical symbol of each element. The first 26 elements formed during fusion in the earlier proto-sun while the elements with atomic numbers higher than 26 formed during the supernova event and elements higher than 94 are not found in nature and must be synthesized in labs. Here is a list of elements listing the atomic number and name of the element, as of 2020.

Elements formed in the sun through fusion
 * 1-Hydrogen (H)
 * 2-Helium (He)
 * 3-Lithium (Li)
 * 4-Beryllium (Be)
 * 5-Boron (B)
 * 6-Carbon (C)
 * 7-Nitrogen (N)
 * 8-Oxygen (O)

Elements formed in the larger proto-sun through fusion
 * 9-Fluorine (F)
 * 10-Neon (Ne)
 * 11-Sodium (Na)
 * 12-Magnesium (Mg)
 * 13-Aluminium (Al)
 * 14-Silicon (Si)
 * 15-Phosphorus (P)
 * 16-Sulfur (S)
 * 17-Chlorine (Cl)
 * 18-Argon (Ar)
 * 19-Potassium (K)
 * 20-Calcium (Ca)
 * 21-Scandium (Sc)
 * 22-Titanium (Ti)
 * 23-Vanadium (V)
 * 24-Chromium (Cr)
 * 25-Manganese (Mn)
 * 26-Iron (Fe)

Elements formed from the Supernova Event
 * 27-Cobalt (Co)
 * 28-Nickel (Ni)
 * 29-Copper (Cu)
 * 30-Zinc (Zn)
 * 31-Gallium (Ga)
 * 32-Germanium (Ge)
 * 33-Arsenic (As)
 * 34-Selenium (Se)
 * 35-Bromine (Br)
 * 36-Krypton (Kr)
 * 37-Rubidium (Rb)
 * 38-Strontium (Sr)
 * 39-Yttrium (Y)
 * 40-Zirconium (Zr)
 * 41-Niobium (Nb)
 * 42-Molybdenum (Mo)
 * 43-Technetium (Tc)
 * 44-Ruthenium (Ru)
 * 45-Rhodium (Rh)
 * 46-Palladium (Pd)
 * 47-Silver (Ag)
 * 48-Cadmium (Cd)
 * 49-Indium (In)
 * 50-Tin (Sn)
 * 51-Antimony (Sb)
 * 52-Tellurium (Te)
 * 53-Iodine (I)
 * 54-Xenon (Xe)
 * 55-Caesium (Cs)
 * 56-Barium (Ba)
 * 57-Lanthanum (La)
 * 58-Cerium (Ce)
 * 59-Praseodymium (Pr)
 * 60-Neodymium (Nd)
 * 61-Promethium (Pm)
 * 62-Samarium (Sm)
 * 63-Europium (Eu)
 * 64-Gadolinium (Gd)
 * 65-Terbium (Tb)
 * 66-Dysprosium (Dy)
 * 67-Holmium (Ho)
 * 68-Erbium (Er)
 * 69-Thulium (Tm)
 * 70-Ytterbium (Yb)
 * 71-Lutetium (Lu)
 * 72-Hafnium (Hf)
 * 73-Tantalum (Ta)
 * 74-Tungsten (W)
 * 75-Rhenium (Re)
 * 76-Osmium (Os)
 * 77-Iridium (Ir)
 * 78-Platinum (Pt)
 * 79-Gold (Au)
 * 80-Mercury (Hg)
 * 81-Thallium (Tl)
 * 82-Lead (Pb)
 * 83-Bismuth (Bi)
 * 84-Polonium (Po)
 * 85-Astatine (At)
 * 86-Radon (Rn)
 * 87-Francium (Fr)
 * 88-Radium (Ra)
 * 89-Actinium (Ac)
 * 90-Thorium (Th)
 * 91-Protactinium (Pa)
 * 92-Uranium (U)
 * 93-Neptunium (Np)
 * 94-Plutonium (Pu)

Non-naturally occurring elements, synthesized in labs
 * 95-Americium (Am)
 * 96-Curium (Cm)
 * 97-Berkelium (Bk)
 * 98-Californium (Cf)
 * 99-Einsteinium (Es)
 * 100-Fermium (Fm)
 * 101-Mendelevium (Md)
 * 102-Nobelium (No)
 * 103-Lawrencium (Lr)
 * 104-Rutherfordium (Rf)
 * 105-Dubnium (Db)
 * 106-Seaborgium (Sg)
 * 107-Bohrium (Bh)
 * 108-Hassium (Hs)
 * 109-Meitnerium (Mt)
 * 110-Damstadtium (Ds)
 * 111-Roentgenium (Rg)
 * 112-Copernicium (Cn)
 * 113-Nihonium (Nh)
 * 114-Flerovium (Fl)
 * 115-Moscovium (Mc)
 * 116-Livermorium (Lv)
 * 117-Tennessine (Ts)
 * 118-Oganesson (Og)

Reading through these names is a mix of familiar elements, such as oxygen, helium, iron and gold, and the unusual. It may be the first time you have heard of indium, technetium, terbium and holmium. This is because each element has different occurrences in nature, with some orders of magnitude more common on Earth than others. For example, the highest atomic number element, element 118 Oganesson formally named in 2016, is so rare only 5 to 6 single atoms have been reported by scientists. These elements are so extremely rare, because as the number of protons increases in the nucleus of the atom, the more unstable the atom becomes.

Atoms with more than 1 proton need additional neutrons to overcome the repulsion of the two or more protons. Protons are positively charged and will attract negatively charged electrons, but these positive charges also push protons away from each other. The addition of neutrons helps stabilize the nucleus allowing multiple protons to co-exist in the nucleus. In general, the more protons that an atom contains the more unstable the atom becomes, resulting in radioactive decay. This is why elements with large atomic numbers, like 90 for Thorium, 92 for Uranium and 94 for Plutonium are radioactive. Scientists speculate on even higher atomic numbers beyond 118 might exist, where the atoms could be stable, but so far, they have not been discovered. Another important fact is that unlike electrons, protons have atomic mass. This important fact will be revisited when you learn how scientists determine what types of elements are actually within solids, liquids and gases.

Neutrons
The last component of atoms is neutrons. Neutrons, like protons have an atomic mass, but lack any charge, and hence are electrically neutral in respect to electrons. Neutrons form in stars by the fusion of protons, but can also appear in the beta decay of atoms during nuclear fission. Unlike protons, which can be free and stable independent of electrons and neutrons (as hydrogen ions). Free neutrons quickly decay within a few minutes to protons when on Earth. These free neutrons are produced through beta decay of larger elements, but neutrons are stable within the cores of the densest stars, which can hold them together within their gigantic gravitational accelerations within the largest type of stars; neutron stars. Neutrons almost exclusively exist on Earth within atoms next to protons adding stability to atoms with more than 1 proton. Protons and neutrons are the only atomic particles within the nucleus, and the only atomic particles that contribute to an atom’s mass.


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Web App Development with Google Apps Script/Templated html

Putting variables into html pages
As noted in the Hello World chapter, you can have a basis of an html page by creating one and using it as a template. Normally you'd want to tailor that page with information from the server (ie usually one of your Google Sheets). You can use the various templating tools to do that.

You send a variable to the template with  and you put it in the html document with.

doGet code
from "code.gs":

html code
From "main.html":

More complex variables
If you want to send something more complex than a string, there are a few options:
 * will print things with special characters in it. This is useful, for example, for strings that contain html tags in them.
 * inside a  tag on the html page will then let the local javascript deal with it as a global variable.
 * If you have a bunch of variables that you want to have as global variables in the html document:
 * in the code.gs doc
 * this works because the  object is the global so-called "namespace" for the html document. That just means it's where global variables sit.
 * this works because the  object is the global so-called "namespace" for the html document. That just means it's where global variables sit.

Passing functions
The Google Apps Script editor doesn't work very well when checking for syntax errors in javascript code that's embedded in an html file. Here's a trick to let you write javascript functions in the server code spaces (which lets them be syntax checked) and then pass them to the client. The trick is to use function expressions.

In the server side you'd do this:

and in the client html file you'd do this:


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Web App Development with Google Apps Script/Data from spreadsheets

Structure overview
lets you have access to Google Sheets. You do it by making a connection first to the Google Drive Sheet. There are two ways to do this:
 * where "id" is the typical google drive id (the long string of characters usually right after "https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/" in the url of a sheet).
 * if your script is tied to a Spreadsheet (see below)

Once you have the spreadsheet variable ( in those examples), you can access the various sheets (some people call them tabs) in that doc and any data inside them.

Script tied to spreadsheet
If you want you can tie your script to a spreadsheet. Then the script doesn't live as a stand-alone google drive file but rather is stored with the Google Sheet. You can access the script by going to Tools->Script editor. It'll then look just like any other script. Oddly it still needs a name, but it'll prompt you to name it when you try to run something.

If you have it connected to a spreadsheet you definitely want to use the second approach mentioned above. Interestingly, the first method always works. There are some subtleties to access control when you tie it to a spreadsheet. Personally I do this a lot because if I want to edit the script I usually want access to the data at the same time. This way they're all stored together.

Read the data from a spreadsheet
If you have the spreadsheet variable, let's say you wanted to get all the data in a sheet called "Sheet1", which is the default name for the first sheet in a brand new Google Sheet document. You'd do that like this: This usually takes a second or two, even for large (500+ row) spreadsheets. Once you have the data you can do all sorts of things. Let's say you have a spreadsheet that looks like this:

Assuming it's in "Sheet1", you could augment the above code to create an html list to be displayed on the main.html page like this:


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Planet Earth/3c. The Chart of the Nuclides

An Invasion
On April 9th, 1940, news came over the radio that Nazi Germany had invaded neutral Norway. Leif Tronstad was teaching his chemistry class at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim in the northern part of the country, when the news arrived. As a military trained officer Leif Tronstad was trained in weapons combat, and upon hearing the news informed his students that they were now at war, and to report to the nearest military station and take up arms. He and his family left Trondheim, making the six-hour drive south to Oslo to help defend the country, but half way there, the terrible news arrived that Oslo had been overtaken by the Nazis. He took shelter in Dovre Mountains, in the rugged mountainous region in the Rondane National Park. Here he trained volunteers in the use of rifles to defend the country against the invasion. Leif Tronstad was a well-liked professor of chemistry, and had been working on a newly discovered substance. A substance that would alter the course of World War II, and lead to the creation of atomic weapons. In May of 1940, Leif Tronstad had learned that the plant which produced this substance for his lab was now under Nazi control, and that they had ordered increased production from the captured Norwegian operators. The substance was called an isotope, and it does not appear on the periodic table of elements.

What is an isotope?
Twenty-seven years earlier, the chemist Frederick Soddy was attending a dinner party, with his wife’s family in Scotland. During the dinner he got into a discussion with a guest named Margaret Todd, a retired medical doctor. Conversation likely turned to the research Soddy was doing on atomic structure and radioactivity. Soddy had recently discovered that atoms could be identical on the outside, but have differences on their insides. This difference would not appear on standard periodic tables which arrange elements by the number of electrons and protons, and that he was trying to come up with a different way to arrange these new substances. Margaret Todd suggested the term Isotope for these substances, Iso- meaning same, and -tope meaning place. Soddy liked the term, and published a paper late that year using the new term isotope, to denote atoms that differ only in the number of neutrons in a nucleus, but had the same number of protons.

Protons and neutrons exist only within the center of an atom, in the nucleus of atoms, and are called nuclides. An arguably better way to organize the different types of atoms is to chart the number of protons (Z) and number of neutrons (N) inside the nucleus of atoms, (see https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/ for interactive chart). Unlike a periodic table of elements, every single type of atom can be plotted on such a chart, including atoms that are not seen in nature or are highly unstable (radioactive). This type of chart is called the chart of the nuclides.

For example, we can have an atom with 1 proton and 0 neutrons, which is called hydrogen. However, we can also have an atom with 1 proton and 1 neutron, which is called hydrogen as well. The name of the element only indicates the number of protons. In fact, you can theoretically have hydrogen with 1 proton and 13 neutrons. However, such atoms do not appear to exist on Earth, because it is nearly impossible to get 13 neutrons to come together given Earth’s pressure and temperatures with a single proton. However, such atoms might exist in extremely dense stars. A hydrogen with 1 proton and 13 neutrons would act similar to normal hydrogen, but would have an atomic mass of 14 (1 + 13), making it much heavier than normal hydrogen, with an atomic mass of only 1. Atomic mass is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Most charts of the nuclides do not include atoms that have not been observed, however hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron has been discovered, which is called an isotope of hydrogen. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes can be stable or unstable (radioactive). For example, hydrogen has two stable isotopes, atoms with 1 proton and 0 neutrons, and atoms with 1 proton and 1 neutron, but atoms with 1 proton and 2 neutrons are radioactive. Note that atomic mass differs depending on the isotope, such that we could call a hydrogen isotope with 1 proton and 0 neutrons (with 1 atomic mass) light, compared to an isotope of hydrogen with 1 proton and 1 neutron (with 2 atomic mass) heavy. Scientists will often refer to isotopes as either light or heavy, or by a superscript prefix, such as 1H and 2H, where the superscript prefix indicates the atomic mass.

In 1931, Harold Urey and his colleagues Ferdinand G. Brickwedde and George M. Murphy at the University of Chicago isolated heavy hydrogen (2H), by distilling liquid hydrogen over and over again to purify the liquid hydrogen to contain more of the heavy hydrogen. In discovering heavy hydrogen, Harold Urey named this type of atom, deuterium (sometimes abbreviated as D). Only isotopes of hydrogen are named, all other elements are known only by their atomic mass number, such as 14Carbon (i.e. carbon-14). The number indicates the atomic mass which is the number of protons and number of neutrons, so 14C (carbon-14) has 6 protons and 8 neutrons (6+8 = 14).

Hydrogen that contains 1 proton, and hydrogen that contains 1 proton and 1 neutron will behave similarly in their bonding properties to other atoms and are difficult to tell apart. Hydrogen no matter the number of neutrons will have 1 electron to equally matching the number of protons.

They do, however have slightly different physical properties because of the difference in mass. For example, 1H, will release 7.2889 Δ(MeV), while 2H (deuterium) will release 13.1357 Δ(MeV), slightly more energy when subjected to photons, due to the fact that the nucleus of the atom contains more mass, and the electron orbital shells are pulled a few Planck’s lengths closer to the nucleus in deuterium than typical hydrogen. The excited electrons will have farther to fall and will release more energy. These slight differences in chemical properties allows isotopes to undergo fractionation. Fractionation is the process of changing the abundance or ratio of various isotopes within a substance, by either enriching or depleting various isotopes in a substance.

Heavy Water
Water that contains deuterium, or heavy hydrogen has a higher boiling temperature of 101.4 degrees Celsius (at 1 atmosphere of pressure) compared to normal water that boils at 100 degrees Celsius (at 1 atmosphere of pressure). Deuterium is very rare, accounting for only 0.0115% of hydrogen atoms, so to isolate deuterium would require boiling away a lot of water, and keeping the last remaining drops each time, over and over again to increase the amount of deuterium in the water. Heavy water is expensive to make, because it requires so much normal water and distilling it over and over again. This is a process of fractionation. In 1939 deuterium was discovered to be important in the production of plutonium-239 (239Pu), a radioactive isotope used to make atomic weapons. In an article published in the peer-reviewed journal Nature in 1939, the daughter of Marie Curie, Irène Joliot-Curie and her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie described how powerful plutonium-239 could be, and how it could be made from uranium using deuterium to moderate free neutrons. The article excited much interest in Nazi Germany, and a campaign was made to produce deuterium. Deuterium bonded to oxygen in water molecules is called heavy water. In 1940 Germany invaded Norway and captured the Vemork power station at the Rjukan waterfall in Telemark, Norway, which had produced deuterium for Leif Tronstad’s lab, but now was capable of producing deuterium for the Germans in the production of the isotope plutonium-239 (239Pu).

Leif Tronstad needed to warn the world that Germany would soon have the ability to make plutonium-239 (239Pu) bombs. But the fighting across Norway was going poorly, as soon the city of Trondheim in the north surrendered, and Leif Tronstad was now a resistance fighter in a country overrun by Nazi Germany. He sent a coded message to Britain warning them of the increased production of deuterium by the Germans. But he was unable to verify the message was received, so he had to escape Norway and warn the world. Leif Tronstad left his family’s cabin on skis and made his way over the Norwegian border with Sweden, and found passage to England. Once in England his warning was received with grave concern by Winston Churchill, who would later write “heavy water – a sinister term, eerie, unnatural, which began to creep into our secret papers. What if the enemy should get the atomic bomb before we did! We could not run the mortal risk of being outstripped in this awful sphere.”

The Race for the Atomic Bomb
Leif Tronstad wanted to lead the mission back to Norway, but was commanded by the British to train Norwegian refugees instead of returning for the impossible mission himself. In 1941 Harold Urey visited Britain where Leif Tronstad pushed Urey to convince President Franklin Roosevelt that the Allies needed to develop an atomic weapon before the Germans did. The captured Norsk Hydro heavy water production plant at Vemork, Norway, gave Nazi Germany a head start. The American military wanted to bomb the plant from the air, which was fortified under seven stories of concrete walls. Leif Tronstad pleaded not to bomb the plant and risk killing civilians because the plant also produced anhydrous ammonia which is extremely explosive. In November of 1942 the first mission was sent to Norway, led by two groups of commandoes. When the second group’s planes drifted off course in bad weather and crashed, most of the commandoes were killed in the crash, and the survivors executed by German soldiers. The first group, which had parachuted into the frozen terrain were now isolated and had to face a harsh winter alone dodging German forces patrolling the neighboring mountains and starvation. The Germans were now also alarmed that an attack was imminent. In February of 1943 a Norwegian special operations team parachuted in behind enemy lines, and relocated the stranded team in the mountains. In the cloak of the night, the team scaled the rock cliffs of the mountainous valley and broke into the manufacturing room of the plant. With plastic explosives the team blew up the room, and fled over the frozen mountainous landscape. The mission was a success, however in the summer of 1943 the plant was repaired. Bombing raids by the American Air Force took out the city. The remaining produced heavy water was to be transported back to Germany, but the boat carrying it was blown up in an act of sabotage in February of 1944. By October of 1944, Leif Tronstad returned to fight in Norway as a resistance fighter. Sadly, he was killed in action in March 1945, a few months before the first atomic bombs were used on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August of 1945 by Allied forces. The atomic bombs killed around 200,000 people, bringing a dramatic end to the war.

The Hydrogen Bomb
Knowledge of isotopes and understanding how to the read the chart of the nuclides you can understand the frightening nature of atomic power. For example, there is another type of isotope of hydrogen that contains 1 proton and 2 neutrons, called tritium (3H), which has an atomic mass of 3. Unlike deuterium which is stable, tritium is very radioactive, and will decay within a few years, with a half-life of 12.32 years. Half-life is the length of time for half of the atoms to decay, so in 12.32 years, 50% of the atoms will remain, in 24.64 years, only 25% of the atoms will remain, and each 12.32 years into the future, the percentage of remaining tritium will decrease by one half. As a very radioactive isotope, tritium is made inside of hydrogen atomic bombs (H-Bombs) through a process of fission of the stable isotope 6-Lithium (6Li) with free neutrons, which acts like a catalyst by increasing energy released during this decay. In nature, tritium does not exist because it decays so quickly, but is a radioactive component of nuclear fall-out in the much more powerful H-bombs or Hydrogen-Bombs first tested after the war in 1952.

Are there hydrogen atoms with 1 proton and 3 neutrons? No, as it appears that atoms with this configuration cannot exist, hydrogen atoms with 3, 4, 5 and 6 neutrons decay so quickly that it is nearly impossible to detect them. The energy released can be measured when hydrogen atoms are bombarded by neutrons, but these atoms are so unstable they cannot exist for any length of time. In fact, for most proton and neutron combinations there are no existing atoms in nature. The number of protons and neutrons appears to be fairly equal, although the larger the atom, the more neutrons are present. For example, plutonium contains 94 protons, the greatest number of protons in a naturally occurring element, but contains between 145 and 150 neutrons to hold those 94 protons together, and even with these neutrons, all isotopes of plutonium are radioactive, with the radioactive 244Pu isotope having the longest half-life of 80 million years. Oganesson (294Og) is the largest isotope ever synthesized and has 118 protons and 176 neutrons (118+176 = 294), but has a half-life of only 0.69 microseconds!

There are 252 isotopes of elements that do not decay and are stable isotopes. The largest stable isotope was thought to be 209Bi, but recently it has been discovered to decay very very slowly with a half-life that is more than a billion times the age of the universe. The largest stable isotope known is 208Pb (lead), which has 82 protons and 126 neutrons. There are actually three stable isotopes of lead, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb, all appear not to decay over time.


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Talk:Shelf:Nuclear engineering

Suggestion
The summary of this page (The part that says "Books on this shelf deal with nuclear engineering: the application of the breakdown of atomic nuclei and/or other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. It includes, but is not limited to, the interaction and maintenance of nuclear fission systems and components — specifically, nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants, and nuclear weapons. The field may also include the study of nuclear fusion, medical applications of radiation, nuclear safety, heat/thermodynamics transport, nuclear fuel, nuclear proliferation, and the effect of radioactive waste or radioactivity in the environment.") Should add a warning that this information should not be used for the wrong reasons such as make your own nuclear weapons of mass destruction. — Preceding unsigned comment added by AdrianDC2009 (talk • contribs) 02:25, 29 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Knowledge can be misused; there's nothing particularly surprising or remarkable about that, and it's not practical to try to dream up warnings about every way that each sort of knowledge can be misused. The nuisance dust masks I wear when lawn-mowing have a sticker on them that says "Warning: misuse of this product may result in death." --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 04:30, 29 May 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Shelf:Nuclear engineering