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History of video games/Platforms/Gakken Compact Vision TV Boy

Gakken Founding
Gakken was founded in April of 1946 to provided educational services during the post World War II reconstruction of Japan. Gakken began making educational electronic kits in the 1970's.

Launch

The Gakken Compact Vision TV Boy was released in Japan in October of 1983 for 8,800 yen.

Legacy
The Gakken Compact Vision TV Boy is mostly remembered for its unique design. This strange control scheme is both credited as a factor in the failure of the console, while simultaneously hailed as a bold design that has its own fans.

After the Compact Vision TV Boy, Gakken would not completely exit the gaming industry. It continued to manufacture 4-bit educational computers capable of extremely simple games in the 1980's. A new model in this 4-bit computer line, The Gakken GMC-4, was released as recently as 2009, which included several simple games game, and could be reprogrammed to play new games. Importers charged $39.95 for the GMC-4 system in 2009.

Technology
The 8-bit Motorola MC6801 Microcontroller is kept on the game cartridges. A Motorola MC 6847 video display generator and 2 kilobytes of RAM resides in the console. This approach gave the Gakken Compact TV Boy some of the advantages of systems that kept the computer in the cartridge, as well as the cost saving advantages of reusing hardware between games.

Game library

 * Frogger
 * Urban War Year 200X
 * Super Cobra
 * Robotan Wars
 * Mr. Bomb

Excite Invader
Excite Invader was a 1983 game inspired by Space Invaders, and considered to be among the best for the system. The name of this game is sometimes listed as "Excite Invaders".

External Resources

 * Video Game Kraken - Gakken Compact Vision TV Boy page.


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History of video games/Platforms/Interton Video Computer 4000

History
The Interton Video Computer 4000 was released in Germany in 1978 and was discontinued in 1983. It is a prominent member of a family of consoles called the Advanced Programmable Video System.

Technology
The Interton Video Computer 4000 uses a Signetics 2650A CPU with a Signetics 2636 Programmable Video Interface (PVI).

Uniquely, the Interton Video Computer 4000 had 37 bytes of RAM included within the PVI. Some games cartridges such as Chess include an external 1kB RAM chip. Up to 6 kilobytes of ROM was inluded on the cartridges.

Notable games

 * Car Races
 * Monster Man
 * Super Space

External Resources

 * Old Computers Museum - Interton Video Computer Page featuring history and specs.
 * pre83 - Advanced Programmable Video System page with history and specs.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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History of video games/Platforms/Palladium Tele-Cassetten Game

History
The Palladium Tele-Cassetten Game was released by Neckermann in West Germany in either 1977 or 1978. The system was sold as the MBO - Teleball Cassette and as the Hanimex - Optim 600.

Little more is known about the history of this console.

Technology
General Instrument chips were used in game cartridges.

The system could output color graphics, and used a built in speaker for audio.

The system saw two different case designs used over the course of its production.

Included controllers were analog. Up to two controllers could be used, and an optional digital controller could be used for one tank game. The system could have potentially accepted a light gun.

Game library

 * Ball & Paddle
 * Car race
 * Cycling
 * Shooting Gallery
 * Tank battle
 * Submarine
 * Wipeout

External Resources

 * The Liberator - Offers a history of the console, as well as console photos including of the console interior.


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History of video games/Platforms/RCA Studio II

Background
The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was founded in 1919 and quickly became a consumer electronics titan, having introduced some of the first consumer color television sets to the market in 1954. In fact, RCA had been in such a powerful position that it helped set the standards for color television in the United States of America, and by extension other NTSC countries. Indirectly this would have massive implications for the technologies adopted by the video game industry on its own, and is likely the largest single impact on the video game industry attributable to RCA's industry leadership.

By the late 1970's RCA was not as successful as it once had been due to a lack of solid leadership, and began to seek success in different segments of consumer electronics including their CED media format, and the RCA Studio II home video game console.

Development
Development of the system began in 1969 as the FRED (Flexible Recreational and Educational Device) personal computer, spearheaded by Joseph Weisbecker. This is quite remarkable, as the only other game console in development at the time was the Magnavox Odyssey Brownbox prototypes, which were not based around a proper computer. Poor management at RCA lead the company to not capitalize on this computer for some time, and by the time they did the first generation of video game consoles had already hit the market, and were being replaced by more advanced second generation systems. The Studio II was a version of the FRED.

A related early home computer design, the COSMAC ELF, had also resulted from the work of Joseph Weisbecker.

Joyce Weisbecker, one of Joseph Weisbecker daughters, is believed to have become both one of the first female game developers and is also perhaps the first independent console game developer with her work developing the TV Schoolhouse I quiz game for the system as an outside contractor in 1976.

Despite the name, there was not a product released named the RCA Studio I. The name is instead based on RCA's recording studio naming scheme.

Launch and Legacy
The RCA Studio II was released in January 1977 for about $150 US Dollars. The system was quickly discontinued in February 1978 having been a commercial failure.

A color capable and sound enhanced RCA Studio III was designed by 1977. However the failure of the Studio II lead to RCA leaving the console to its Hong Kong based partner Conic Group, which released the console in a number of countries outside the United States of America under other brands in 1978. Some software for the RCA Studio II and the RCA Studio III is compatible across both systems.

A higher spec RCA Studio IV was planned. A January 1st, 1978 tape made by Joseph Weisbecker containing data for the final interpreter software has lead hobbyists to make a working version of this console in software.

Between 53,000 and 64,000 consoles were sold, with fewer cartridges sold then consoles. RCA as an independent company would not last much longer, following a merger with General Electric in 1986. Despite this, the RCA brand would be used on at least one more console. In Summer of 2002 (RCA DRC300N) and June 2003 (RCA DRC480N) two RCA brand Nuon enhanced DVD player was released, though the both systems are incapable of playing commercial titles and could only be used for homebrew gaming.

At least one tape related to the development of the RCA Studio series is held by the Sarnoff Collection held at the College of New Jersey in Trenton, New Jersey.

Technology
The RCA Studio II uses RCA's own RCA CDP1802 processor, clocked at 1.78 megahertz. The CDP1802 was also developed by Joseph Weisbecker, giving the RCA Studio II the rare advantage of sharing a designer of both the console and the processor inside of it. Furthermore a degree of horizontal integration was present as a result of RCA using their own processor design in their console. This revolutionary processor was the first to use power efficient complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology, and was also a pioneer a RISC like methodology in early microprocessors.

An RCA CDP1861 support processor handles graphical output. The system was limited to black and white graphics, which proved to be a major downside for the console. The system has 512 bytes of RAM, and 2 kilobytes of ROM.

The RCA Studio II and RCA Studio III typically execute software through an interpreter, a very forward thinking design for 1977. This is similar to the CHIP-8 on the COSMAC ELF, though RCA Studio series and COSMAC ELF software are not compatible. Had RCA continued to make consoles and video games, they likely could have maintained backwards compatibility at minimal cost thanks to this technical decision, as future devices would only need the interpreter to be rewritten for their specific hardware.

The console uses a hand drawn PCB designed around through hole components for a motherboard, a fairly typical design for the time. This style of design enhances reliability and made the board easier to repair, especially compared to the then new technology of surface mounted components.

The system used a combined power supply and RF switch, a rare design choice which is similar to the later Atari 5200. This critical part has a high failure rate and is the Achilles heel of maintaining a working RCA Studio II.

Styrofoam casing embossed with the RCA brand was used to protect the Studio II in the box.

Built in software

 * Bowling
 * Addition
 * Doodle
 * Patterns
 * Freeway

Cartridges

 * TV Arcade Series: Speedway/Tag
 * TV School House I
 * TV School House II: Math fun
 * Star Wars

External Resources

 * Video Game Kraken RCA Studio II page - Includes prototype photograph and detailed historical information.
 * Video Game Kraken RCA Studio III page - Includes photographs and detailed historical information.
 * Video Game Kraken Toshiba Visicom C 100 page - Includes photographs and detailed historical information.
 * Old Computers Museum RCA Studio II page - Includes history and specifications.
 * Video Game Console Library - RCA Studio II page - Includes photos and history.


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History of video games/Platforms/SHG Black Point (FS 1003/FS 2000)

History
The SHG Black Point (type FS 1003/FS 2000) was developed by SHG, a company based in the city of Munich in West Germany.

The SHG Black Point was released in West Germany in 1982 at a cost of 168 Deutschmarks. Two compatible PC-50x models of the Black Point were released: the type FS 1003 and the type FS 2000. There are other two incompatible Black Point consoles: the "Black Point Multicolor FS 1001" (four fixed pong games, no cartridges) and the "Black Point 10 Tele Sports FS 1002" (ten fixed pong games, no cartridges).

Technology
The two consoles lacks a processor and the game is entirely implemented in cartridges like all PC-50x family first generation consoles. These cartridges contain an AY-3-8xxx chip from General Instrument.

Notable games

 * Zehn elektronische Fernsehspiele in Farbe
 * Motorradrennen
 * Schützenspiel
 * Seekrieg
 * Grand Prix
 * 1000-Treffer-Spiel


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History of video games/Platforms/Tele-Fever

History
The Tele-Fever was developed by the coffee maker company Tchibo as a late Arcadia 2001 compatible. The system was briefly launched in Germany in 1986 and cost 99 Deutsche Marks

The Tele-Fever would not be the last console released under the brand of the coffee maker. Tchibo released another console in 2019 when they released a handheld retro style game console for 14.99 euros. However aside from the company, this handheld had little to do with the Tele-Fever console.

Technology
The Tele-Fever used an 8-bit Signetics 2650 CPU clocked at 3.58 megahertz.

The system has 1 kilobyte of RAM.


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History of video games/Platforms/VTech CreatiVision

History
The VTech CreatiVision was launched in 1981. The console attempted to serve as both a game console and a computer system.

The VTech CreatiVision sold poorly and was discontinued in either late 1985 or early 1986.

The VTech CreatiVision was followed by the VTech Socrates.

Technology
The VTech CreatiVision uses an 8-bit Rockwell 6502A CPU clocked at 2 megahertz. This chip was a version of the MOS Technology 6502, a common processor used in game consoles and home computers of the time.

The CreatiVision could display 32 sprites.

The system is equipped with 1 kilobyte of RAM and 16 kilobytes of video RAM.

Notable games

 * Air/Sea Attack
 * Planet Defender
 * Sonic Invader

External Resources

 * Video Game Console Library - History and specs for the CreatiVision.
 * Video Game Kraken - Detailed history for the CreatiVision.


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History of video games/Platforms/Halcyon

History
"Do you believe in magic? You will."

RDI was a small company based out of Carlsbad, California. The company was headed by Rick Dyer, and had prior experience in the industry, most notably producing Don Bluth's milestone laserdisk arcade game Dragon's Lair.

The Halcyon was set to release in 1985 with the voice controlled console costing either $2,500, or $2,100 and the non-voice enabled console costing $1,800. Though the produced consoles were never sold at retail, up to ten Halcyon consoles exist from kits sent to investors. RDI projected their own first year sales to be 25,000 units sold, though it is impossible to say if this would have actually occurred had the console actually launched.

Technology
The Halcyon used an 8-bit Z80B CPU clocked at 6 megahertz and had 64 kilobytes of RAM.

The Halcyon could interpret 200 words.

Released games

 * Thayer's Quest
 * NFL Football LA Raiders vs SD Chargers

External Resources

 * Video Game Kraken - Halcyon by RDI video systems page.
 * Handheld Museum - RDI Halcyon page.


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History of video games/Platforms/Video Challenger

History
The Video Challenger was a VHS based console released in Japan in 1987. The Video Challenger was released in other countries under different brands. The system was oriented around light gun games.

Technology
The Video Challenger uses a Hitachi 8-bit HD401010 processor clocked at four megahertz, with access to 32 bytes of RAM.

Notable games

 * After Burner II by Sega
 * Turtle Challenge - Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles game.
 * Sky Wars
 * Thunder Storm by Data East
 * Road Blaster by Data East
 * Space Challenge
 * /Godzilla/ Challenger 1
 * Godzilla Challenger 2

External Resources

 * Video Game Kraken - Video Challenger page with photo and marketing information.
 * Video Game Console Library - Video Challenger page with model and spec info.


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History of video games/Platforms/Commodore CDTV

History
The system was announced in Summer of 1990. At CES 1990 the Commodore 64 Games System overshadowed the Commodore CDTV at the Commodore booth.

The CDTV was launched in 1991.

The system was discontinued in 1993. Sales for the CDTV were as low as 30,000 units, with the highest sales figures given is still under 60,000 units. Despite poor sales of the CDTV, Commodore would try again with a similar concept in the Amiga CD32.

Technology
The CDTV is based on a Amiga 500 computer equipped with 1 megabyte of RAM.


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History of video games/Platforms/FM Towns

History
The FM Towns was a Fujitsu computer that excelled at gaming and released in Japan in February 1989 for 338,000 yen.

The Towns part of the name is said to be a reference to Charles Hard Townes, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964. As Charles Hard Townes invented the laser , the name is perhaps appropriate for the CD-ROM based computer, which uses a laser to read optical media.

Compute
The FM Towns is powered by a 32 bit Intel 80386dx processor clocked at 16 megahertz, with a 80387 coprocessor.

The FM Towns contained between 1 and 6 megabytes of RAM depending on the configuration.

Hardware
The FM Towns contained a built in CD-ROM drive standard.

Software
The FM Towns ran the custom Towns OS made by Fujitsu.


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History of video games/Platforms/PC Engine SuperGrafx

History
The PC Engine SuperGrafx was released in Japan on December 8th, 1989 - just two years after the original PC Engine released in 1987. The system was said to be released in France in May 1990.

The SuperGrafx did not do well commercially, and only 75,000 consoles were sold. A CD Add on was planned, but not released.

Technology
The PC Engine SuperGrafx uses an 8-bit HuC6280A processor clocked at 7.16 megahertz.

The system has 32 kilobytes of RAM and 128 kilobytes of VRAM.

The SuperGrafx has an extra video processor compared to the original PC Engine though bottlenecking limited performance.

SuperGrafx specific games

 * Aldynes
 * 1941: Counter Attack
 * Ghouls 'n Ghosts
 * Madö King Granzört
 * Battle Ace
 * Darius Plus (Standard PC engine compatible game, with SuperGrafx enhancements)


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History of video games/Platforms/Tandy Video Information System

Launch
The Tandy Video Information System (VIS) was released in Fall of 1992, and was sold at RadioShack under the Tandy brand at a cost of $699. The system was intended to compete with other home entertainment devices such as the CD-i and the Commodore CDTV. However the system was uncompetitive, and among sales staff, the VIS had the nickname "Virtually Impossible to Sell".

Legacy
The Tandy Video Information System was discontinued in Spring of 1994 after a price cut to $399, a drastic move which pushed the price $45 below the cost to manufacture the system, failed increase sales. Remaining units were liquidated. This amount of time on the market was rather short, and the desperate measures taken to increase sales demonstrates the difficulties the system found on the market.

The VIS ultimately lost Tandy between 50 and 75 million dollars. About 11,000 systems were likely sold, which was a paltry number for any console, and was especially bad for Tandy given compared to the massive resources they invested in the system.

Technology
The system was effectively built on a PC architecture, and was among the first gaming devices to run a locked down version of Windows as an operating system.

The Tandy Video Information System uses an 16 bit Intel 80286 CPU clocked at 12.5 megahertz. The system has 1 megabyte of RAM.

Software was based on Modular Windows, a modified version of Windows 3.1. Some software for Modular Windows did not run correctly on the VIS.

Notable games
Over 60 titles were released for the VIS, most of which were edutainment software.

External Resources

 * Video Game Kraken - VIS page with detailed history, photo, and software list.


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History of video games/Platforms/Terebikko

History
The Bandai Terebikko was launched in 1988. The system was branded as the See 'N Say Video Phone in the United States.

The system was discontinued in 1994.

Technology
The Terebikko required a VCR to operate.

Notable games

 * Dragon Ball Z: Gather Together! Goku's World
 * Moomin no Sutekina Present
 * Sailor Moon S: Kotaete Moon Call
 * Soreike! Anpanman: Karada no Naka no Dai Bōken
 * Soreike! Anpanman: Yukai nao Tanjōe
 * Super Mario World Mario to Yoshi no Bōken Land - A rare example of a licenced Nintendo property on a non-Nintendo system.


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History of video games/Platforms/TurboDuo

Launch
The PC Engine Duo saw a Japanese launch in September of 1991 for 59,800 yen.

The TurboDuo was launched in the United States in October of 1992 for $299. To advertise the system the mascot Johnny Turbo was created, who battled FEKA, a thinly veiled copy of SEGA.

Legacy
The TurboDuo was discontinued in 1995.

Johnny Turbo was brought back as a character in the 2019 game Crystal Crisis.

Technology
The TurboDuo is powered by twin 8-bit HuC6280A processors clocked at 7.16 Megahertz.

The TurboDuo has 256 kilobytes (2 Megabits) of RAM and 64 kilobytes of Video RAM.

The TurboDuo has 192 kilobytes of internal storage for saving games.

Games
The TurboDuo runs PC Engine games, being a PC Engine with the CD and RAM expansions built in.


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History of video games/Platforms/LeapTV

History
The LeapTV was released in 2014 at a cost of $150.

By November 2020 the LeapTV had been listed as discontinued on some websites, however the system was still available on the LeapFrog website.

Compute
The LeapTV uses a nxp4330q ARM7-A architecture quad core processor clocked at one gigahertz.

The console has one gigabyte of DDR3 RAM.

Hardware
The console has 16 gigabytes of flash memory storage.

The LeapTV outputs 720p video over HDMI.

For networking, the LeapTV includes Wi-Fi b/g/n, Bluetooth 2.1 with the controller supporting Bluetooth LE, as well as an ethernet port.

The LeapTV includes a USB camera with a resolution of 640 by 480 that captures video at 30 frames per second for motion sensing games.

The controller can be adjusted to different form factors, and includes an accelerometer.

Notable games
Games are available on cartridges or through digital downloads.

title: History of video games/Platforms/LeapTV


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History of video games/Platforms/AirConsole

Development
In 2015 N-Dream AG was founded. The Zurich, Switzerland based company goes on to develop the AirConsole.

Market
In early 2020 AirConsole offered free access for two weeks during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In 2021 AirConsole entered a partnership with the company Xiaomi to include AirConsole on their Android TV television sets.

Technology
AirConsole streams gameplay through a browser, and controllers through smartphones.

Games
Games on AirConsole focused on offering local multiplayer.


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History of video games/Platforms/Nvidia Shield Portable

History
The Nvidia Shield Portable was launched in 2013 at a cost of $299. At the time of launch the system was simply known as the Nvidia Shield.

The Nvidia Shield Tablet was announced in 2014.

Compute
A Nvidia Tegra 4 SoC with a quad core ARM Cortex-A15 CPU clocked 1.9GHz at powers the Nvidia Shield Portable

The Shield Portable has 2 gigabytes of RAM.

Hardware
The Nvidia Shield Portable has 16 gigabytes of built in storage, as well as a microSDXC card slot.

The Nvidia Shield Portable has a five inch screen with a resolution of 1280 by 720 pixels and multitouch support. The system also has a micro-HDMI port for AV out.

The system has a microphone, GPS, a three axis accelerometer and three axis gyroscope.

The Shield Portable has 2x2 Mimo b/g/n WiFi, and Bluetooth 3.0.

The Nvidia Shield Portable has a 28.8 watt hour battery.

Unusually for handheld gaming devices of the time, the shield sported an ergonomic grip design.

Software
The system was shipped with version 4.2 of the Android operating system.

Portal
A port of Portal was released for the Nvidia Shield Portable.

External Resources

 * Archived version of Official Website in 2014


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History of video games/Platforms/Intellivision Amico

Background
After the original Intellivision, the brand was dormant for some time, at most seeing compilation consoles released.

Development
A new system bearing the name of Intellivision was announced in 2018. The Intellivision Amico was scheduled for a October 2020 release with a launch price of $250, but the launch was delayed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In September of 2020 it was announced that Ark Electronics would handle manufacturing of the Amico.

The company making the system partnered with GameStop to do physical marketing in stores in 2021.

A third delay for the Intellivision Amico was announced on August 7th, 2021.

By January 2022 it was estimated that there were around 6,000 orders for the system.

In February 2022 Phil Adam became CEO of Intelivision Entertainment.

Around early April 2022 Gamestop preorders of the Amico were purported to have been canceled.

In July 2022 it was stated that the console was still in development.

Compute
The Intellivision Amico has an unspecified Qualcomm Snapdragon 8 core CPU clocked at 1.8 gigahertz. Developer documentation indicated the Amico CPU was similar to the model APQ8053-Lite of Qualcomm's Smart Display 200 platform. Given the focus on simplistic, easy to pick up, games, technical specifications were less emphasized then on other major consoles of the era, allowing resources to be focused in more impactful areas.

The Amico has 2 gigabytes of RAM, and 32 gigabytes of flash storage.

Software
The Intellivision Amico runs an operating system described as a hybrid of Android and Linux.

Most Amico games are made with the Unity game engine.

Notable games
The Amico contains a few games bundled, and has a digital marketplace. Most games for the Amico are designed for couch co-op and all games for the Amico are rated E or E10. (Presumed to be under the ESRB rating system.)

Earthworm Jim 4
Read more about Earthworm Jim 4 on Wikipedia.

Standard

 * "Glacier White"
 * "Graphite Black"
 * "GTO Red"
 * "Vintage Woodgrain" - Intellivision website shop exclusive finish.
 * "Galaxy Purple" - GameStop Exclusive color

Founders Edition
2600 preorders of the wood grained Intellivision Amico Founders Edition consoles were made avalible.

External Resources

 * Official Website


text:
User talk:GCooper316/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 10/Evidence

Referencing for "Evidence in Economics"
I noticed that some of the references in the References list repeat a few times (References 5, 7, 18, 19, 21; 12 and 14, etc). Since you are referencing to the same source each time in the text, I believe you can just reuse the same in-text reference so that there is only a single entry for each reference in the list at the end, to make things simpler. Let me know if you're okay with this, op - I can help you edit the citations/in-text citations! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 09:55, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Uhh this is pretty awkward, but @Gonkponk I just saw your message in the discussion after the edits but whoever wrote "evidence in economics" and "sociology", I have already made some edits to your sources that were repeated in the reference list, do comment if you find any issues with it! Gingerisadog3025 (discuss • contribs) 04:58, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

 * No worries - as long as the references are formatted to your liking and correctly of course. Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 08:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * I wrote "evidence in economics": thanks so much @Gingerisadog3025, looks great! RandomOmellette (discuss • contribs) 07:44, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Rearrangement of the sections
I assembled the sections talking about Sociology and Economics because I've noticed that they were both social sciences. I will be adding my text about psychology (also a social science) in this section in a short time, however, if someone is interested about this field, they are other disciplines who were still not discussed. Just to give you an idea: history, law, geography... Feel free to explore this field further to have a good overall view on the issues in evidence related to the social sciences. Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 08:17, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

I have added an introduction for the main section: Evidence in social sciences. My references are more focused on psychology because it is the discipline I did my research on. Feel free to add informations in it (new ideas, references...) since it is regrouping the work of everyone who talked about a social science discipline. Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 06:47, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

 * That's a great idea. I agree that presenting them as one gives a better overview of how evidence is used in different areas of social sciences. I will be adding a bit to the introduction from a sociology perspective. Avotoast (discuss • contribs) 19:36, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Great! I realized that someone talked about Neuropsychology, it is a good example of cross-disciplinarily evidence, therefore I added it in the section of social science under psychology. I didn't forget to precise that it was not a social science like the others in the section but I found it interesting to put it in relation with the discipline from which it originated. It allows use to compare the two approach to evidence and helps us elaborate the link between social and natural sciences. Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 07:59, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Formatting for "Evidence in Sociology"
I noticed that the formating of the entry was slightly off, in that the heading made it seem as though it were a part of the "evidence in economics" section instead. Hence, I changed the line in question from "=== Evidence in Sociology ===" to "== Evidence in Sociology ==". As there was a small introductory paragraph as well, I added the heading "==== Introduction to Sociology ====". With this small change in formatting, I feel that the entry looks more organized and each mini section is more distinct. RandomOmellette (discuss 04:09, 28 October 2020 (HKT)

 * I am sorry, it may seemed confusing because I added my explication on the discussion just after you ended your message. This was voluntary, I put the two sections together because they had something in common I wanted to show it on the sandbox. If someone prefer the sections to be totally separated, please get in touch with me and I will separate the sections again Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 08:23, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I see! no worries, i checked again and it seems to flow fine! it just happened to be a bit of a bad timing thing then RandomOmellette (discuss • contribs) 14:24, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

In-text citation edits (formatting)
As with the History sandbox, I've re-formatted some of the in-text citations so that the number comes after the period/comma rather than before it. Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 19:13, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

Numbers in References
While looking through the references, some of the references had numbers in front of the actual reference - ie. 1.6 some author etc., so I edited it to make it easier to read Gingerisadog3025 (discuss • contribs) 19:16, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Tones in "Evidence in Social Sciences"
"However, a question rose: could the same methods be used in the natural and social sciences knowing that the fields where the research is carried is not the same (it is easier to do experiments on a living cell than on the behaviour of a human) which resulted in a broader definition of science[3]." I noticed that the tone of this sentence is rather informal as evidenced by the structure used. I suggest you to rephrase it by using the passive form. Example: "However, the question stands whether the same methods could be used in the natural and social sciences, knowing that the fields of the research differ--it is easier to do experiments on a living cell than on human behaviour--, which resulted in a broader definition of science."uhmmmm (discuss • contribs) 06:23, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Throughout the article in "Evidence in Social Sciences", the writer should avoid using "we" since, for informative essays, it is always advised to take on the third person point of view. For example, "We will see the methods that have been implemented in these numerous disciplines to collect evidences." can be rewritten like "Methods implemented in these numerous disciplines to collect evidences will be explored.” uhmmmm (discuss • contribs) 06:40, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your suggestions, I wanted my introduction to sound like an introduction to a group project but I didn't realize that it wasn't the best format for this particular context. Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 08:03, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestions for "Evidence in Neuropsychology"
I think this sentence "The qualitative evaluation includes analysis of remarkable neuropsychological syndromes, which are matched up with the intricate regions of the brain and its deficit." needs a reference. Moreover, I believe the author should elaborate on the techniques and especially the benefits of using qualitative or quantitative evidence in the respective subsections. "By observing symptoms with its feasible origins, it can organize the overall structure of the analysis and data elucidation" in this section, who are you referring to by 'it'? It sounds like you are referring to a machine perhaps that produces data, but it's unclear. Avotoast (discuss • contribs) 19:47, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your feedback. "it" refers back to the subject in the previous sentence: a qualitative evaluation. Thus, I changed it to minimize confusion. Also, I expanded the idea through examples which use a qualitative and quantitative approach. uhmmmm (discuss • contribs) 15:01, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Formatting in spacing overall
I noticed some inconsistency in the spacings within the page, so I edited it so that the spacings are consistent, otherwise it looks a bit visually disorganised. RandomOmellette (discuss • contribs) 14:28, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestions for "Evidence in Cultural Anthropology
I think the entry is great, though i think maybe the titles can be changed to reflect quantitative/qualitative methods because the entry already discusses them quite a bit. This way, it ties in more with how quantitative/qualitative methods were discussed in the lecture.(RandomOmellette (discuss • contribs) 14:57, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi, thanks for your advice! I changed the title of my "participation observation" to "qualitative methods in anthropology" to better describe the contribution as a whole but to also more effectively tie in in what was taught in the lecture. Thanks again! (Gingerisadog3025 (discuss • contribs) 14:57, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Grammar Correction
Just as in the History sandbox I have read through the whole sandbox as and corrected any double spaces, misspellings, added comas where is needed and corrected any typos--Piscesmoodphase (discuss • contribs) 19:06, 15 November 2020 (UTC)


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User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ Evidence

Who has added '==Psychology: the reliability of eyewitness testimony'? are you in the middle of making a contribution or was it a mistake/should we delete?


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Truth/Logical Truth

Definition and context
Logic is the study of the reasoning that leads to the acceptance of conclusions on the basis of premises. Logical truth is a core part of the study of logic, and a general interpretation of what it is involves the idea that a logical truth is such that it cannot be false. Logical truths are necessarily a priori truths, true if you replace certain meanings of individual words in the proposition (counterfactual circumstances), and must remain true in all replacement instances of its form. It is important to note that logical truths are analytic statements and are not used to propose informations about matters of fact. Logical truth is thus synonymous with one meaning of the word tautology, whereby tautology means that the statement (or proposition) is true under any interpretation of the words.

Implications
One of the most important applications of truth values in the study of logic is when they consequently apply to mathematics too. Hence the notion of a truth value not only has enormous semantic consequences but also scientific. Thus in considering logical truth, considering the term formalization becomes extremely necessary too. In propositional logic, formalization is the process of translating spoken language (e.g.: English) into the logical language (e.g.: Predicate). Here, the role of truth functional connectives must be carefully considered to apply the right transformation to the initial statement and ensure it's truth value is not mis-represented. In branches of logic such as proof theory, formalization and being able to render truth values into logic become extremely valuable.

This leads also to the consideration of analytic–synthetic distinction. Here, we are considering only analytic propositions in the consideration of applications of philosophical logic in mathematics. However, synthetic propositions, propositions which are true depending on how their meaning relates to the world, also contain elements of truth that must be considered. These distinctions were primarily put through by the philosopher Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century.


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IB Physics/Measurements and Uncertainties (2016)/Measurements in Physics (2016)

Physics is the study of real, physical phenomena. Anything that exists or can be directly or indirectly measured, with any measuring instrument or thought experiment, can be thought of as a quantity. This idea of the world being described by however so many different quantities, which, in IB physics, you will learn about them, as well as how to measure, manipulate and utilise the relationships we've found between them, is the basis of physics as an experimental science. Quantities are made up of two components - a number and a unit. These ideas are explained below.

Units
Think back to your early childhood. What were numbers to you? They probably represented some quantity of a real thing - 2 apples, 3 cookies, and so on. "2 apples" is a very real thing, but "2" is merely an abstract idea that happens to describe how numerous those apples are.

Likewise, "5 metres" is a real thing, that can be drawn out, pointed to, and visualised in reality; on the other hand, "5" is just another abstract concept that may describe some real things when used in a certain way.

The key difference between those two terms in quotes is the fact that the first term is the physical, real concept of a metre multiplied by 5, whereas "5" is still just a number. These physical, real concepts which are multiplied by numbers in order to represent things in the real world are called units.

Fundamentally speaking, the idea of a physical unit is what allows us to express very real things through the powerful abstract system of mathematics. That's why you should never omit the unit, if present, when finding a quantity in physics - the number by itself is meaningless - it is merely the act of multiplying it by some physical or abstract concept that gives it meaning.

Fundamental SI Units
There are seven basic units - seven basic physical things or phenomena - that can be combined through multiplication and division to describe every single quantity that is measured in the course of doing physics experiments and solving physics problems.

These are the metre (distance), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (flow of charge carriers / electric current), kelvin (absolute temperature, starting at 0), mole (unit of amount, a number, that allows conversion between subatomic particle masses and grams), and candela (light intensity; not touched in IB physics).

These units are defined and regulated by the BIPM; the acronym is French for the organisation's name, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The base SI units are called "SI", another French acronym meaning International System, to indicate how they are in practically universal international use in physics (except, sometimes, in the United States).

These seven units propagate through the various physics equations we have discovered that accurately describe reality to combine into new units. They can be divided by one another - for instance, the metre, $$\mathrm{m}$$, can be divided by the second, $$\mathrm{s}$$, to get the unit of velocity - the "metre per second", or $$\mathrm{m}\,\mathrm{s}^{-1}$$ - a compound unit for speed or velocity.

Derived SI Units
While it is possible to show the nature of any physical quantity you might want to just in terms of the above 7 basic SI units, this can often become cumbersome when units get more complex. For instance, consider the formula for kinetic energy below.

$$E_k = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$$

The units of energy are thus the units of mass, multiplied by the units of velocity squared - or, $$\mathrm{kg}\,\mathrm{m}^2\,\mathrm{s}^{-2}$$. Writing this out every time you want to describe some amount of energy would just be tedious. As such, some combinations of the basic SI units have their own names and symbols - in this case, one $$\mathrm{kg}\,\mathrm{m}^2\,\mathrm{s}^{-2}$$ is called a joule, with the symbol $$\mathrm{J}$$.

These derived units are in practically universal use in physics. Throughout the course, you will learn of more derived units and what they represent. All derived SI units can still be expressed in basic SI units, as the equation used to find the quantity with a particular derived unit will describe - however, the derived SI unit and its symbol is used for simplicity.

Numbers
Numbers are the other part of a quantity, in addition to units - the multiplier - which describe the magnitude of the physical quantity by scaling the unit up or down. The idea of a number is not as hard to comprehend as the idea of a unit; however, scientists have a wide diversity of conventions, or established practices, that they use in order to make their usage of numbers quick and precise.

Orders of Magnitude
One thing that you ought to know is the idea of orders of magnitude. They are not a natural concept, but a human-created one - essentially, an extra power of 10 is an additional order of magnitude, and taking away a power of 10 is one fewer order of magnitude. Although one might discuss orders of magnitude formally in the sense that $$300$$ is on the second order of magnitude (like other numbers around $$100$$), this is never really done in practice.

Instead, the key uses of orders of magnitude in physics are in communication - for instance, of the fact that two quantities are of the same order of magnitude, or that a quantity is several, or a particular number of, orders of magnitude greater or smaller than another.

As an example, I might say that "the gas constant, $$R$$, is on the same order of magnitude as the number of fingers I have on my hands". I might say that "the mass of the earth is many orders of magnitude greater than the mass of my apartment building". I might also say, more relevantly to physics, for instance, that "electric fields are many orders of magnitude stronger than gravitational fields".

Orders of magnitude are a qualitative measurement that are really just used in conversation or informal writing between physicists. Exam questions on this topic may be phrased awkwardly because of this informal use, but will be easy.

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation, overall, is a standard way to write down numbers such that the below objectives in communication are achieved.

 * 1) The number of significant figures to which a quantity is precise is clearly indicated.
 * 2) The order of magnitude is clearly indicated.
 * 3) The number will never have an incredible amount of zeroes, nor will it have any more detail than is needed to convey all of the information about the number that we know.

All numbers written in scientific notation are done so in the form $$a \times 10^b$$. Here, $$b$$ is any integer, including 0. It is used to define the order of magnitude of the number - essentially, the place value where the number begins - a number in the thousands, hundreds of thousands, trillions, and so on can all be described as such by that power of 10, $$10^b$$. Given this, all the numbers which have a place value beginning at a certain power of 10, and a certain number of significant figures' precision, can be described by the decimal term multiplied by that power of 10 - $$a$$. The number $$a$$ must be greater than or equal to 1 (or else a lower order of magnitude would be appropriate), and must be less than 10 (or else a higher order of magnitude would be appropriate). It is usually a decimal, but not always - and it is written to exactly the number of significant figures that the writer can be sure of.

For instance, if I have measured the height of a skyscraper to be $$257.3 \, \mathrm{m}$$, but only to a precision of around $$10 \, \mathrm{m}$$, or two significant figures, then I would write this height as $$2.6 \times 10^2 \, \mathrm{m}$$.

Metric Multipliers
Another tool that scientists use to show the order of magnitude of a quantity, which goes hand in hand with scientific notation, is metric multipliers. These are like little, pre-packaged powers of 10 that can be multiplied onto a particular unit to make it easier to read, pronounce, and talk about quantities. The common examples of these, that you might be expected to know, are in the table below.

Although these are technically numbers, they are shunted right next to the units to multiply them, essentially creating a new unit that is a few orders of magnitude away from the original. That's what's unique about them - even though they are technically a number, they make up a part of the unit. In IB physics, you will be expected to have a solid command of these metric multipliers,

It must be noted that while the $$\mathrm{kg}$$ is technically a modified unit because it has the "kilo" metric multiplier (i.e., a kilogram is a unit of mass equivalent to $$10^3$$ grams), it is still a base SI unit. Generally, through, people will speak of "milligrams" and "nanograms" rather than "micro-kilograms" and "pico-kilograms". In practice, metric multipliers are mainly used for derived units, in addition to the metre, ampere and second, and are more often used to make units smaller rather than to make them larger.

Estimation
The idea of estimation is not something that can be easily taught in a textbook. In a few words, it is "calculating but not really", or making "an educated guess".

One form of estimation centers around the idea of doing calculations only with order-of-magnitude figures in one's head, such that an estimate for the order of magnitude of the answer might be figured out. It's a quick way to check that a calculation seems valid. Did you find that a snail might move at 94% of the speed of light? You've probably done something wrong. That's where this form of estimation comes in most often.


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Cookbook:Chicken Soup with Dumplings

| Soup | Chicken

This is a rich, complex chicken soup with dumplings. It is based on a recipe by Thomas Keller as written in his book, Ad Hoc at Home.

Chicken stock

 * 5 lbs chicken bones, necks, and backs
 * 1 lb chicken feet
 * 4 quarts cold water
 * 8 cups ice cubes
 * 1 ¾ cups carrots, 1-inch diced
 * 2 cups leeks, 1-inch diced
 * 1 ½ cups Spanish onions, 1-inch diced
 * 1 bay leaf

Dumplings

 * ½ cup water
 * 4 tbsp unsalted butter
 * 1 ½ tsp kosher salt
 * ⅔ cup flour
 * 1 tsp Dijon mustard
 * 2 large eggs
 * 4 tsp minced chives

Broth

 * 1 tbsp unsalted butter
 * 1 cup sliced carrots
 * 1 cup coarsely-chopped celery
 * 1 cup coarsely-chopped onion
 * 1 cup coarsely-chopped leeks
 * Kosher salt
 * ½ cup roux

Finishing

 * 1 ½ cups celery, peeled and sliced ⅛ inch
 * 1 ½ cups carrots, scrubbed and cut bite size
 * 1 tsp honey
 * 1 bay leaf
 * 2 thyme sprigs
 * 1 large garlic clove, crushed with skin on
 * Kosher salt
 * Freshly-ground black pepper
 * 2 cups cooked chicken (diced, shredded, dark, white, as you like)
 * ¼ cup minced chives
 * Champagne vinegar to taste
 * Parsley to garnish

Stock

 * 1) Wash blood and organs off of all the chicken parts.
 * 2) Bring chicken and water to a simmer, skim, and add ice. Skim the fat that's consolidated by the ice.
 * 3) Add the rest of the ingredients, simmer for 40 minutes, then rest for 10 minutes.
 * 4) Gently strain stock so as to not push impurities through mesh.
 * 5) Bring back to heat and cook down to 4 ½ quarts.

Dumplings

 * 1) Fill a wide pot with salted water and bring to simmer.
 * 2) Combine water, butter, and 1 tsp of salt in a medium saucepan; bring to simmer.
 * 3) Add flour and cook on medium for about 5 minutes, bringing out a nutty aroma, but being careful not to brown.
 * 4) Put dough in mixing bowl, add mustard and salt, and start mixing on low speed.
 * 5) Add eggs one at a time, beating until incorporated. Add chives.
 * 6) Make quenelles from the dough with two spoons, and cook for about 7 minutes in the large pot of salted water. Rest on cutting board.

Broth

 * 1) Melt the butter on low heat.
 * 2) Add vegetables and salt, then cook on low heat for 30–35 minutes, covered with a parchment lid.
 * 3) Add the stock, and simmer for 30 minutes. Strain out the vegetables and discard.
 * 4) Whisk in the roux, a little at a time, and simmer for 30 minutes, skimming out impurities. Use enough roux to thicken to your preference.

Finishing

 * 1) Blanche the celery in salted water until tender, then cool in ice bath.
 * 2) Put carrots in a saucepan with honey, bay, thyme, garlic, a pinch of salt, and water to just cover. Simmer until tender (5 minutes).
 * 3) Add dumplings, chicken, carrots, celery, and chives to the soup.
 * 4) Add vinegar ½ tbsp at a time to taste.
 * 5) Sprinkle with parsley and serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Dairy free variation: use Miyokos butter or oil, but experiment so the roux is the right consistency (not solid, should flow off of a spoon).
 * Whole grain flour tastes great in both dumplings and roux, but is harder to strain out because of the bran, so plan a bit extra time and patience for that.
 * Soup keeps fresh for five days in the refrigerator.

title: Cookbook:Chicken Soup with Dumplings


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Cookbook:Pizza Stone

When designed for cooking pizzas, a baking stone is often referred to as a pizza stone. Using a pizza stone more or less mimics the effects of cooking a pizza in a masonry oven. The porous nature of the stone is commonly believed to absorb moisture; resulting in a crispier crust.

Small pizza stones can be purchased to fit any conventional cooking oven or an enclosed barbecue-style grill. High-end ovens sometimes offer optional pizza stones that are specifically designed for each oven model and may include a specialized heating element. In addition to traditional methods, a pizza stone can also be made out of metal.

Types of pizza stone

 * 1) Stone
 * 2) Ceramic
 * 3) Cast Iron
 * 4) Cordierite
 * 5) Clay

Using a pizza stone

 * 1) Preparation: Preheat your stone for at least 30 minutes at the highest oven temperature.
 * 2) Baking: Slide your pizza directly onto the stone for an evenly cooked, crispy crust.
 * 3) Aftercare: Allow the stone to cool in the oven before removing it.

Additional tips and tricks

 * 1) Seasoning Your Stone: For cast iron, apply a light coat of oil and heat in the oven.
 * 2) Dealing with Odors: If your stone absorbs odors, bake a mixture of baking soda and water on it.
 * 3) Repairing Cracks: Minor cracks can be repaired with food-safe adhesives.

title: Cookbook:Pizza Stone


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Cookbook:Grapefruit and Crab Cocktail

Ingredients

 * 2 grapefruits
 * 8 cooked asparagus tips
 * 2 tablespoons crab meat seasoning
 * 2 tablespoons salad oil
 * 4 teaspoons mayonnaise
 * 1 teaspoon lemon juice
 * Chopped parsley

Procedure

 * 1) Cut the grapefruits in half. Carefully remove and chop the flesh.
 * 2) Divide the chopped grapefruit between 4 grapefruit hulls or 4 serving glasses
 * 3) Toss the asparagus tips with the oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Pile on top of the chopped grapefruit, and top each with a little crab.
 * 4) To decorate, put 1 teaspoon mayonnaise on each portion, and garnish with parsley.

title: Cookbook:Grapefruit and Crab Cocktail


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User:Commons is in a thing/sandbox

cookbook:Hopping John with Pinto or Great Northern Beans

title: User:Commons is in a thing/sandbox


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Cookbook:Hopping John with Pinto or Great Northern Beans

Ingredients

 * 1 cup dried beans
 * 1 cup cooked rice
 * 2 cups water
 * Salt
 * 2 ounces salt pork, diced
 * Pepper
 * ¼ cup chopped onion

Procedure

 * 1) Wash the beans well and soak overnight in water to cover.
 * 2) In the morning add 2 cups more water. Simmer until tender.
 * 3) Fry the salt pork until crisp, remove from the fat, and add to the beans.
 * 4) Brown the onion in the salt pork fat.
 * 5) Mix all the ingredients, and add salt and pepper to taste.
 * 6) Continue cooking for 10 minutes.
 * 7) And serve at once.


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User talk:2620:1D5:A00:5:B043:6926:2676:10EC

Yay


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5/Truth

= Truth =

Truth Determined by Research of W.E.I.R.D Societies
The aim of research is to find the truth about a topic. It is generally trusted as a 'truthful' source as the claims made are usually explained and backed up with evidence collected and interpreted by experts. Research is generally seen as positivist as it tries to prove its findings and reflect the real picture of society. However, there is dispute as to whether research actually finds the truth, or if it is flawed. A 'sample' in research, as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary, is a smaller group extracted from a larger population, who are intended to represent the properties of the larger population. This is done because it is often impossible for researchers to assess the entire sample as it is too large and there would be too much data to collect and analyse, especially if they're attempting to make conclusions that apply to the entire human population, for example; it would be infeasible to collect data from 7.8 billion people. There are different methods of sampling, used in different situations, and they all have their advantages and disadvantages, and there are many papers out there to aid researchers in this process, such as Taherdoost's 'Sampling Methods in Research Methodology; How to Choose a Sampling Technique for Research'. The aim of all of these methods is to obtain a group of people who are representative of the entire population. This means that they are expected to illustrate the characteristics of the entire population. This will help researchers to gain the truth about a topic in an efficient way. It has been argued, though, that this aim is not met in research, even when samples are taken to be 'representative'.

The acronym W.E.I.R.D came about in 2010 in an article by Joseph Henrich, Steven Heine, and Ara Norenzayan called 'The weirdest people in the world?'. W.E.I.R.D stands for Westernised, Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic, and the concept behind it is highlighting that the majority of research samples come from societies that have these features. They state that these kinds of societies are actually the minority in the world, yet they are over-represented in research and generalisations about the entire world are made based on them, meaning that research does not acknowledge cultural diversity and differences in populations which would change a research conclusion. Thus, the sample can be very representative of the larger population of W.E.I.R.D countries, but it will be unrepresentative of countries that do not have these characteristics. Therefore, the research that is accepted as truth is actually conveying a truth for a narrow set of people, meaning it is not truth for some of those which believe it. An example of this happening comes from Jeffrey J Arnett who stated that the vast majority of APA (American Psychological Association) journals were based on Americans, who only make up 5% of the world's population and that 96% of subjects in the top journals were from W.E.I.R.D countries, even though people from these countries only made up 12% of the world's population. This shows that truths in psychology are based on a tiny minority of the sample they are looking to represent and there is unequal representation of different cultures. Conceptions of truth from this kind of sample could be damaging as the potential for differences may be overlooked when utilising the research, leading to a 'one size fits all' approach.

The use of W.E.I.R.D research and how it skews truths has been recognised greatly since the introduction of the acronym 10 years ago. There have been responses from countries who do not fall into that bracket, emphasising how different their societies are to that of the assumed truths, and the issue that it causes. Kwang-Kuo Hwang wrote about Chinese psychology, discussing the lack of applicability of W.E.I.R.D research to non- Western societies, saying that "Western paradigms of scientific psychology are often irrelevant to or inappropriate for resolving problems encountered by local people in their daily lives". This shows the issue with truths in the world, though the recognition of such facts has led to changes and the rise of a movement where indigenous research is being generated and recognised more as a result. This suggests that conclusions from research may become more reflective of truth in future.

Truth in Philosophy
Truth has always been one of the fundamental questions researched by philosophers. Over the centuries, many different theories or interpretations of truth have emerged, each being subject to criticism. Truth is so hard to define and theorise, that some philosophers have even rejected the idea completely. Philosophical skepticism for example argues that no knowledge can be proven, and no evidence is sufficient to any establishment of certainty. On the other hand, philosophers such as pragmatist Richard Rorty wanted an endless re-evaluation of beliefs to replace the idea of set truth. However, despite those who rejected truth, many have tried to define it in philosophical terms.

One of the most well-known theories of truth, perhaps because it is laid out the most simply, is the Correspondence theory. This theory states that a claim or belief is true if it corresponds with a fact. In Book Z of Metaphysics, Aristotle had formulated it as follows: “To say of what is that it is, or of what is not that it is not, is true”. However, this theory, although important and largely recognised, has been criticised for being overly simple, as it relies on the vague idea of "fact". Indeed, a fact is often defined as a belief which is true, meaning both "fact" and "truth" rely on each other.

Another theory emerged in the 19th century which strayed from the Correspondence theory's concentration on singular beliefs or events. The Coherence theory provides a more global view, looking at 'systems' of knowledge, which, taking into account interdependent beliefs, must be coherent to be 'true'. In 1906, Harold H. Joachim explained it as "Truth in its essential nature is that systematic coherence which is the character of a significant whole" in Nature of Truth.

A different kind of interpretation of truth was created by the logician Tarski in the 1930s. While the last few theories we have covered consider beliefs and propositions to be the bearers of truth, Tarski claimed that sentences were. Indeed, the expression of truth through language is a highly important aspect of its philosophy. For any given language, Tarski established that, for S a sentence, 'S is true if and only if S' (e.g. 2+2=4 is true if and only if 2+2=4). His explanation also takes into account what he calls 'Reference and Satisfaction'. This means that the object of a sentence must be referenced by the corresponding term (e.g. "Snow" references snow) and must satisfy a state or action (e.g. "snow" satisfies "is cold"). Some philosophers such as Davidson or Field, considered his theory somewhat as a mathematical explanation of the Correspondence theory.

Finally, Deflationism claims that the idea of truth in itself is redundant, and insignificant. This is because saying that X is true, is essentially the same as saying X. So saying that 'It is true that snow is cold.', is the same as 'Snow is cold'. This is called the Redundancy theory. As we can see, there are several theories which reject the idea of truth, and perhaps this can be attributed to the fact that truth is such a difficult concept to define, that many think it simply cannot be defined on a metaphysical level.

Truth in Philosophy of Religion
When one considers the notion of truth within religion and religious studies, they may argue that religious beliefs are based upon a phenomenological approach. Those who claim to have had religious experiences, truly believe that they have had an encounter with a god or gods, thus, suggesting that their experience proves the existence of the supernatural being whom they believe in. However, there seems to be some friction between the concepts of experiential truth and empirical truth, as experiential truth suggests subjectivism whilst empirical truth connotes objectivism.

Although it is impossible to prove universal non-existence, it is possible to to prove existence. This is why several arguments have been constructed within Religious Studies, more specifically within the religion of Christianity, in attempts to prove the existence of God, from ontological arguments to teleological arguments. Religious experience also seems to fall under the category of evidence, but it is often met with scepticism, as non-believers tend to suggest that these experiences can usually be explained by another phenomenon, other than the supernatural. Psychologist, Ludwig Feuerbach contends that God is merely a projection of human beings ideal attributes, thus reducing what one may consider to be a supernatural being, or an encounter with a supernatural being, to solely a figment of their imagination. Nevertheless, in order to prove the validity of religious experience, scholars such as Richard Swinburne have proposed arguments in response to the scepticism. Swinburne proposes both the Principle of Credulity and the Principle of Testimony in order to support postulations of religious encounters. In relation to truth, Swinburne's Principle of Credulity attests that "If it seems (epistemically) to a subject S that x is present, then probably x is present." The notion of truth being subject to human beings' sensory experiences seems both naive and rational, as our senses can deceive us, but to constantly be in a state of scepticism seems both paranoid and irrational. Therefore, what Swinburne suggests, is that unless we are given ample reason to believe that our senses are misleading us, we should not doubt them, as they can lead us to truth; this should apply to all experiences, including religious ones.

For those who believe, religious experience aligns with the their truth and their reality, that being that God exists, whilst for non-believers, religious experience is a misconstrued perception of reality and truth. Therefore, it could be argued that truth within religious studies tends to be relative due to the subjectivity of individuals' perception of reality.

Truth in Politics
As Hannah Arendt says, “truth and politics are on rather bad terms with each other.”

As a discipline that encompasses nearly all other disciplines (e.g. economics, psychology), politics inherently has a mixture of constructivist and interpretive (also referred to as perspectivist) theories.

Many political essayists emphasise the use of lies in political campaigns, in the sense that manipulating what can be called a truth is subsequently a lie. The problem is, in the era of post-truth, when considering facts used in political campaigns or in news coverage of said campaigns, each individual has their own interpretation of the truth. For example, a study conducted by the Stanford Law review in 2012 demonstrated how ‘cultural cognition’ has a significant influence on how facts are perceived. In the study, participants were shown a video of a group of protestors and it was seen in either one of two ways: as a peaceful protest or as a riot. It could be argued that this illustrates the role of fact-checkers and why we have them; yet, it must also be acknowledged that they themselves have their own political bias and, arguably more importantly, their own social status. This is key in analysing truth in politics as politicians cannot get far in their career without the support of people who view the same truths as them. To quote James Madison, “all governments rest on opinion.” More so, it can be said that they gain and then retain power through how they manipulate the truth. To counteract bias, the Stanford Law Review proposes “adversarial fact-checking” but others have argued that this would end in an ‘infinite regress toward an uncertain truth.’

Politics relies on factual truth; at the same time, it can be a detriment to politics as factual truths are ‘acknowledged without debate and debate constitutes politics.’ Here lies the problem with truth in politics - factual truths are malleable. Where scientific theories, such as Einstein’s theory of relativity, can be proven time and time again, factual truths can be manipulated. People often rewrite history to fit their narrative and they’re able to do so since facts and events can’t be ‘proven’ in the same way theories can, and thus, will always be fallible in society. Even by considering the role of a historian or a philosopher, which is not only to interpret facts but to choose facts to explain events, it poses the question of whether facts can even exist, especially in a political setting.

Truth in History
Interpretation of evidence is important for the construction of historical truths (facts), which must be meaningful and refer to past events. In order to generate logically-constructed compelling truths and reconstructions of historical events, historians must make sure their statements are consistent with all the evidence that is available, without contradictions, and thus, once that is achieved, the possibilities are regarded as historical truth.

The approach to truth in history is also very scientific as we may note that academics favour to update the foundation of knowledge - as with the actualization of scientific theories - rather than being attached to a bundle of information that cannot be revised. Sigmund Freud examined the idea of truth in history in his religious analyses, as he wrote that "at first [historians] shaped their accounts according to their needs and tendencies of the moment.” Humans indeed have the propensity to remember the past as it pleases them, from a comforting perspective. It would yet be wrongful to call ancient historians liars. They were simply stating their truth.

The interpretive nature of historical truth inevitably adds a degree of subjectivity, as it is dependent on the historian’s own views of human behaviour and activity. Moreover, it may sometimes include the omission of data which is seen as unrelated to the focus of a particular historian or occasionally, it may be necessary for certain facts to be inferred through speculation, when sources are insufficient to portray the entirety of an event.

Although it could be seen as if they lack historical credibility, these sources still have a strong academic value. Modernist historians indeed crave for purely objective truth which sometimes leads them to disregard any untrustworthy material, but this stance is inconceivable as it would force us to question the reliability and truthfulness of all past sources.

The dialectical nature of truth makes it impossible for someone to find a historical truth if the chain of truths and untruths is not closely examined. This is why truth in history is a versatile process, in which partiality, contradiction and incompleteness are essential in order for one to find the truth. It would indeed be imprudent to believe that truth in history is always absolute, as this same truth relies on different perceptions, which inevitably alter it, including the perspective of the person who witnessed these events or the perspective of the translators and of the editors. Absolute truths do still exist in history, but they are limited to the historical facts of an event i.e. date, participants, course of action. This is vital for society to learn from its past and not being able to dismiss their dark history as a fairy tale. Hence, historians' responsibility to take into account contradictions and different sides of an historical event is of paramount importance, before relaying this information to the broader public.

Furthermore, historical truths and reconstructions are not static. They are changed and readjusted as new sources of information are discovered, as well as shift to reflect a society’s views and perceptions of events. An example of the former can often be seen in totalitarian societies, such as Stalin’s dictatorship in the Soviet Union. Much information (or truth) was withheld from both historians and the public, and was falsified to reflect the regime’s ideology. Nevertheless, David King’s 1997 book ‘The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin's Russia’ reveals the censoring and modification of historical records under Stalinism, which would often airbrush or crop out people who were seen as political enemies (after they had disappeared from their homes or were publicly executed).

The latter can be seen through the idea that historical truths are automatically linked to the language being used to explain them, which can often reflect the subjective ideas of a certain time period. For example, by labelling the 1857 Indian Mutiny (the anti-colonial resistance against Britain’s rule) as a “mutiny”, it depicts the event as a rebellion against Britain’s “legitimate authority” and “rightful dominance” over India. However, currently many Indians and historians refer to it as the Indian War of Independence, which presents a different interpretive view of the truth.

“History is a set of lies agreed upon” Napoléon Bonaparte once said. One may assert that history is written by the victors, yet they also forget to say that it is rewritten over time transformed by books, reinvented by those who didn’t live through it. To this may be added the overwhelming quantity of sources, in which most of the material turns out to be extremely tendentious. Where does truth lie in history then?

If we take the example of Napoléon Bonaparte, French historical accounts have a tendency to portray him as a hero, France’s saviour after the French Revolution. On the other hand, his more obscure role in the French history has been hidden for a long time and is only slowly coming to light. This shows how historical perspective has evolved around Napoléon Bonaparte, highlighting a willingness to more accurately recall the truth, even if this means opening up old wounds.

Treating history as a hermetic fog is thus an inadequate mindset, as we have seen that history is an everchanging discipline, to which new added evidence brings to light aspects of truth or untruth. Going back in time to witness past events or having the ability to get into one’s head must yet be discovered for us to completely evaluate truth in history. In the mean-time, any historical analyses may only be insightful and truthful, if the public is looking out for any biased or misleading information.

Conspiracy theories
A conspiracy theory is “a theory that rejects the standard explanation for an event and instead credits a covert group or organization with carrying out a secret plot”. However, the term “conspiracy theory”, is most often associated with lacking evidence, unscientific methods and distortion of truth. This gives the term a powerful meaning because being associated with that term, can lead to a theory and research about it being disregarded without proper consideration for the advanced thesis. Historical conspiracy theories are particularly difficult to judge, as evidence is rarer, could have been fabricated in retrospect and challenges our understanding of a widely accepted side of the story. The conspiracy theorists, who argue their case can vary from independent researchers to entire government agencies. For instance, in February 2003, Colin Powell presented to the United Nations Security Council, the theory, that Sadam Hussein and Al Qaeda were planning on cooperating to attack the U.S.A with weapons of mass destruction. How much this affected the invasion of Iraq the next month can hardly be assessed, as that decision took many other factors into account. Nevertheless, this apparent relationship between Hussein and Al Qaeda was proven to be false in later years yet it was never labelled a major conspiracy theory.

Any theory is only temporary until enough evidence is brought forward to either confirm or dismiss the theory. This should not be any different, for conspiracy theories, as the past has proven that ridiculously sounding theories, were actually true. This is the case for Operation Northwoods, a planned mission from the US military that included propositions of staged terrorist attacks on the USA. This mission had the goal to blame the Cuban government with these attacks and therefore justify military intervention in Cuba. Although, Operation Northwoods never went through, the idea of the US government planning to stage terrorist attacks would suffice for that theory to be regarded as a conspiracy. And yet, the operation did exist, showcasing that truth and conspiracy theories are not incompatible entities.

The evolution of memories concerning the Second World War in France between 1945 and Today
As explained below, historical truths are not static: they are in constant evolution. A great example of this quest of a historical truth is the evolution of memories concerning the Second World War in France between 1945 and Today.

Having a critical and neutral point of view of the horrors of Second World War is a difficult task for historians. One of the main characteristics of History is to trace the experiences suffered. In order to do this, historians must cross different sources of evidences such as interviews or archives. The variety of individual war experiences during the Second World War II, the role of the French State in deportation and the place of the fight in public debate were some of many difficulties that Historians faced in order to trace the truth.

When the war ended in 1945, France was extremely divided. A sentiment of injustice and shame was deeply felt and the main officials of Vichy’ government were brought to justice. In urge of unity and reconstruction, the new elected government conveyed the image of a victorious France and hide French implications into mass deportation. In 1972, through his book Vichy France and the Jews, the historian Robert Paxton wrote “Vichy France bears an important part of responsibility for this disaster, as the records of both French and German governments make clear“. Truth was shaped again and Vichy’ History reinterpreted.

Moreover, until the seventies, Jewish and Roma mass deportation camps weren’t seen as a racial mass deportation. The concentrationist system was seen as a whole. No distinction was made between a concentration camp and an extermination camp or a political deportation and a racial deportation. The specificity of Jewish genocide emerged progressively. The Eichmann trial in 1961 can be considered as the start of the recognition of the Holocaust and many historians intervene as experts during similar trials in France. One of their principal roles was to protect memory and historical facts against a negationist tendency. Through their works, Historian proved the scientific nonsense of the negationist speeches and showed the diversity of the memories of the war.

Truth in Architecture
Truth in architecture deals with architecture as a whole, from the foundation to the roof, from the surrounding landscapes to the most interior spaces. The study of buildings' authenticity and architectural truth such as scientific truth cannot be absolute truth, it can only give concepts and ideas that work when applied to the data possessed. Randy Ray Gaines believes that truth in architecture is an honest approach to materials, and in line with Franck Lloyd Wright with his work on the meaning of materials, studies of human-material interactions establish a true meaning of buildings components.

According to Jeff Malpas, truth is related to authenticity and correctness between the representation and that which it represents. Consequently, the representation of the building is analysed, through sentences, from different points of view concerning the different objectives that the building has to fulfil in a given context. Looking to an editorial standpoint, architectural discourses prioritize the visual sense rather than any other senses to understand the shapes and social appearances of a building. The representational and the visual linked with sentences highlight the relation between truth and ethics from different opinions. Thus, photography’s in architectural research have an important role in the meaning of truth.

From a scientific perspective, architecture is related to Design-science research to prove truthful usefulness and helpfulness of building, including an ontological basis and epistemological stance. Design-science underlines different articulation of the world-views to avoid hegemony across the research paradigm. On the other hand, according to a recent article in Architectural Review, post-truth is rising which means that objective facts are less influential within the social sphere than emotion and personal belief. Media can create images that look real and instantly manipulate them for economic purposes. Our constant connection to the screen tends us to perceive good and bad architecture favouring the rise of homogeneous architecture less related to Design-science research. Following pre-modern thinking, the world is part of a symbolic order expressed by buildings. Each society has its symbolic order, and architectural analysis illustrates visually this specific order, such as capitalism linked with bureaucracy in European cities. undefined

A recent critique from the urbanist Richard Sennet in the book “Designing Disorder” says that truthful architecture should be today disorganized in favour of spontaneous encounters, to the detriment of optimised spaces linked to the profitability of capitalism.

Case Study: Trial of Chicago 7
The 24th of September 1969 began the almost five-month trial of seven plus one activists accused of conspiracy to incite riots that happened in the city of Chicago, United States. It took place during the Democratic National Convention, after a student’s manifestation against the Vietnam War, which sent many young American soldiers to their death. Opinions differ between the defense and the prosecution on whether this demonstration, which led to violence opposing demonstrators to police officers, was supposed to be peaceful or a purposely confrontation with the police. Thereby, the Trial of Chicago 7 could benefit from an interdisciplinary approach, as it involves few disciplines that have a different way to unfold the truth on the events: law and criminology, politics, and media.

Politics
“Political language is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable” – George Orwell. The Chicago 7 is a political trial as it involves the manifestants of the political protest that fought against the police, supported by the government. The eight defendants, Tom Hayden, Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, David Hellinger, Rennie Davis, John Froines, Lee Reiner and Booby Seale (the leader of the Black Panther Party that was first judged with the others and then got his own trial, as he didn’t take a part in the manifestation), were charged by Republican President Nixon, and the Attorney General, John Mitchell. Both of them hired the lawyer Richard Schultz to find a good reason to indict and put the blame on the defendants for the violence that occurred during the manifestation with the police. If all their charges were judged correct, the defendants risked a ten-year in prison. In order to follow their political agenda, the prosecution based their argument upon undercover informants (policemen especially) that testified on the violence provoked by the demonstrators. On the contrary, the defense tried to prove that the indictment relied on a political trial rather than a criminal one.

Law
Whereas the prosecution argued that the defendants described as “outside agitators” or “revolutionaries” violated the Anti-Riot Act of 1968 by inciting riots during speeches and provoking the police “to respond with violence”, the defense claimed that their charges went against the right of freedom of speech written in the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. As a matter of principle, judges ascertain the facts of each case by assessing eyewitnesses, defendants, testimonies, forensic and documentary evidence. Later on, it was proved by the U.S. Federal Court of Appeals that the trial Judge Julius Hoffman made errors and misjudgments and reversed most of his decisions. It reveals that he sided with the government attorneys and led the case with a strong bias in evidence gathering and an even stronger bias against the defendants. He ignored questions posed by the defense attorneys, denied the defense attorney’s access to government evidence obtained without a warrant and barred the defense from submitting the documents in which the defendants set out their non-violent strategy. He also prohibited the former Attorney General from testifying about his opposition to prosecution of demonstrators.

Media
One of the ethical codes that journalists must follow according to the Society of Professional Journalists is to “seek truth and report it” “with fairness and accuracy”. Having said that, the media coverage played an essential part in revealing the truth on the events of Chicago Seven, and led to investigations on the violence’s source. Photographs, articles in newspaper and radio broadcasts provided data to the public in order to report the manifestation’s violence between demonstrators and the law enforcement officers, as well as the trial proceedings. For instance, to report the beginning of the trial the first day it started, the journalist James W. Singer published in the Sun-Times an article entitled “Chicago 8 go on trial today”, and many more preceded or followed it from other sources such as The New York Times, and The Washington Post. However, the media coverage was limited as journalists could only stayed in one room of the court, and a report of Daniel Walker from the Chicago Study Team published the 1st of December 1968 based upon “3,437 eyewitnesses and participants, 180 hours of film, and over 12,000 still photographs” showed that journalists weren’t welcome during the demonstration because their equipment had been damaged by police officers. In “A wild night’s ride with the kids”, Tom Fitzpatrick, a Chicago Sun-times journalist who won the 1970 Pulitzer Prize for local reporting depicts the violence of the two sides, police and protesters alike. Although both sides claimed to be non-violent, it appears that facts-based information contradicts these claims. Nonetheless, a lot of media outlets reported the truth in a subjective way. Indeed, the demonstration was represented in a biased way, as photographers captured a specific moment in the riot without telling us the context. For instance, after the Walker Report was released, television media were criticized and accused to focus on the police violence and not that of the demonstrators.

Conclusion
The Conspiracy Trial of Chicago Seven can benefit from an interdisciplinary approach to understand how truth unfolds. Indeed, politics, law and media have different way to report and find the truth, as they do not have the same objective.

Truth in Advertising
Advertising is a means of communication where firms provide information about a product or service to aid consumers’ decision making process, yet it is not strange to see businesses engage in misleading, deceptive, or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_advertising#:~:text=False%20advertising%20is%20the%20use,it%20in%20fact%20does%20not. false advertising] by promoting claims that their product is superior. Consumers expect truth in advertisements; when they are persuaded to buy a product that fails to match their claims, they feel they were taken advantage of and develop a defensive stance towards advertising. This has led to the emergence of "consumer skepticism", referring to “the tendency toward disbelief of advertising claims”.

Many governments employ regulations to protect consumers from fraudulent advertising, such as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the United States and the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 in the United Kingdom. Despite this, manipulation of advertising content persists to this day. In 2015, Procter & Gamble’s toothpaste brand Crest was found exaggerating the beneficial effects of their toothpaste in an advertisement for Chinese consumers, by using digital software to make the model’s teeth appear whiter. Chinese authorities have thus fined Crest nearly $1 million (USD) for false advertising. Simultaneously, there are cases where government regulation failed to ensure the promotion of truth in marketing. In 2016, a The Coca-Cola Company was sued for supposedly misleadingly advertising the soft drink Seagram’s Ginger Ale as “made from real ginger” when it was not made from real ginger root. The case eventually reached a settlement in 2019 where class members were entitled to a $0.80 (USD) cash reward for each purchase, while the company was permitted the use of the phrases “real ginger” and “natural ginger” paired with “taste” or “flavour”.

Recently, a theoretical model was developed in attempt to assess the relationship between protective legislation and sceptical consumers. Results demonstrated that stricter regulation may hinder consumers’ ability to distinguish truth among false claims. When penalties for false advertising are high, firms are motivated to invest more into the validation of their claims to avoid being fined by regulators. As a result, it would be increasingly difficult for consumers to differentiate between a low quality product and a high quality one. In order to achieve absolute truth in advertising, it is proposed that regulators increase the penalty extortionately. However, the researchers recognise the solution’s impracticality as litigation costs would have to rise accordingly, which would make it more difficult for victims of false advertising to be compensated.

Truth in Economics
The truth in Economics comes from the endless theories created and developed mainly by economists, however, occasionally collaborated with philosophers, psychologists and other scientists. Therefore, every truth in economics comes from its according scientific theory. A statement made by the former US secretary of labor Robert Reich, states that every economy in the world obviously has it doubts and leakages, but the main theories applied in the economies are supported by facts and data. The truth in economics cannot be discussed easily as it has two sides to it. The truth on one side of economics comes from bedrock economics, such as scientific theories from John Maynard Keynes. One theory, economists use as their 'gadget' to find the truth to problems/issues in the real world, is the circular flow model, which describes how households and firms interact in the market of goods and services and the labor market. The main reason it is used is to teach people to think in a correct and so a true way for themselves or their firm.

An introduction to the second side of the truth to economics is necessary to understand where the truth in both sides splits apart. The second side of truth in economics approaches once again more the interdisciplinary and cross disciplinary path, as the truth in economics often does not follow the principle that something is true when it is precisely matching the definition of truth. It rather uses theories with have gone through the process of truth with other disciplines equivalently, to be able to find the truth no matter what the issue or problem in the real world is.

What does the truth in Economics have to do with Maths and Philosophy?
The second side of truth in economics, is more related to have evidence of other disciplines behind it and collaborate the working progress. Economics deals generally with the problems of reality, policies, peoples environment and their processes, therefore, often finds its truth in philosophy with the normative theory of truth, where with the 4 characteristics of truth, it finds the ideal knowledge and a solution to achieve it. However, economists such as Lionel Robbins, used maths to find truth in economic theories, as in the modern classifications of economics, it belongs to the social sciences and should be used with mathematical facts. Lionel Robbins approach was clear, as economics studies how to best allocate scarce resources in the world, with a changing environment however there is always a different approach and solution to an issue, which leads to the problem that economics expresses the monetary solution and how people should allocate their benefits and expenses in a different way each time. To an end he believed, maths was the right approach to show the truth in economics, however, economics used in politics strives to make the best solutions for the country and believes it to be true, as it is the model with the highest respect to human beings.

Lastly, the truth in economics has to be discussed in relation with the Neo-Classical theory, so the model of "Homo-Economicus". It describes the role of consumers in a market as utility maximisers, therefore, the assumption is that those theories and models are there to predict what is the best outcome for the consumer or even producer to gain the maximum of utility. Many economists can calculate the utility of a consumer when buying a certain bundle of products, but state themselves that it might not be the truth that this bundle is the optimum to buy for the consumer. In fact, they describe it as a limited applicability.


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User:Ridumdepiro/sandbox

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User talk:HMaloigne/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 15/Evidence

 * Has anyone discovered any limitations to the forms of evidence that are used in their disciplines? Frenchfries124 (discuss • contribs) 18:36, 27 October 2020 (UTC)
 * I haven't but after a lot of additions by the group I'm finding out more about the evidence of meditation in different disciplines!Sunnday (discuss • contribs) 16:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)


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Talk:Supplemental Guide to Lord of the Flies/Fire on the Mountain

What is the purpose of the fire on top of the mountain?


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User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Ballet

As a small point, maybe you could have more in-text references, in order to make sure all statements are verifiable? Andreilla.m.l (discuss • contribs) 19:39, 27 October 2020 (UTC)


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Evidence/Evidence in Politics

What is the aim of evidence in politics?
The aim of evidence in politics is to defeat biases that influential figures could have, (which might lead them to take the wrong decisions) by using a scientific process, a process that is purely practical and unbiased.

Is there such a thing as evidence in politics?
To answer this question, we will review a major political episode that can potentially discredit the alleged presence of evidence in politics. The concept of EBPM (Evidence Based Policy Making)  was popularised by United Kingdom Prime Minister, from 1997 to 2007, Tony Blair. Indeed, “What matters is what works” was his party’s slogan. RTC (randomised controlled trial) was a method used in order to implement that concept, the final goal being for policies to be sensible and economical. In other words, the 1997’s Labour party wanted evidence to be central to their politics. However, in the early 2000s, what had become the face of EBPM, Tony Blair supported  President George W. Bush when he denounced Saddam Hussein’s Iraq for building Weapons of Mass Destruction. In this case, we could consider the primary evidence to be Saddam Hussein’s claim to have stopped any project involving nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, after the Persian Gulf War in 1991. Bush’s administration, had satellite picture showing Iraq had military bases. A picture, as it shows us directly the information, could be primary evidence as well. However in that case, there was no hard, tangible proof. Investigations proved that Iraq had not been engaging in what they were accused of but Bush was doubtful and decided to go into war with Iraq on March 19th 2003. Although his decision has been contested  by many, qualifying the war as "a mistake". Bush, still sustained in his 2010 memoir : “The conclusion that Saddam had WMD was nearly a universal consensus. My predecessor believed it. Republicans and Democrats on Capitol Hill believed it. Intelligence agencies in Germany, France, Great Britain, Russia, China, and Egypt believed it,” (Decision Points,  2010, p.242)

In that situation, there seemed to be evidence, but it was misused. Why? Because it was an example of evidentiary bias, more precisely issue bias : when the prioritisation and selection of certain pieces of evidence can bias policy agendas in unseen ways (GRIPHEALTH, A cognitive-political model of evidentiary bias, 2016, p.1); which manifested itself through subtle mechanisms.

Indeed, Bush's mistakes did not seem to have been deliberate. Rather, the administration seemed to "have misled themselves", according to Robin Butler in the 2004 "Butler Review" and Hans Blix at Tufts University in 2005.

Why does it seem there is little evidence in politics?
Aristotle stated that, in order to win-over an audience, a speaker must use three rethorical ideas:

 * Ethos : assertion of power based off of accomplishments that justify legitimacy to speak of a certain topic.
 * Logos : using irrefutable logic, such as scientific evidence and data.
 * Pathos : targetting the audience's emotions.

Recently, it seems that politics as well as the media, emphasize the "Pathos" aspect. Especially with the 45th United States president Donald Trump who heavily relied on degrading his oponent Hilary Clinton in order to make his points come across. This strategy is linked to "post-truth politics" which describes the role of the media today, which overwhelms the population with information tragetting their emotions, so that the population will not know how or where to find objective facts.

References


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Irish/Unit 1/Lesson 3

In this lesson, you will learn about:
 * Final consonants "b" "m" and "g"
 * Masculine and feminine nouns
 * Séimhiú, the first of Irish's three initial mutations

Reviewing our Unit 1 Goals
So far, we've only learned a few words' worth of vocabulary. That's on purpose! Unit 1 focuses on pronunciation because:
 * It's the hardest part of the language for people studying on their own, without the help of a native speaker or speakers
 * It's important to internalize the unexpected sounds of Irish before you start memorizing mispronounced words that you'll have to unlearn or relearn later

At the same time, we've been introducing some basic grammatical concepts. Starting next lesson, while we'll continue to talk about pronunciation, we'll also start combining some of what we've learned into typical Irish sentences.

Extra Consonants, Extra Syllables
In English, every syllable includes a vowel. In Irish, there are exceptions to this rule.

Some Irish words end with a cluster of consonants that, in English, would be sounded together in one syllable. In Irish, these consonants can form their own syllable. As there is no verb, a schwa is added to the beginning of the syllable.

So while in English, "form" and "berg" are one-syllable words, in Irish we have:

This happens most commonly with final letters "m" and "g", and more rarely with final "b".

Nouns and Gender
Every Irish noun is either masculine (firinscneach) or feminine (baininscneach). As in many other languages, these grammatical genders don't always match the words; for example, cailín (girl) is masculine.

Learning the Genders
As with plurals, beginners will need to memorize each noun's gender--but as you learn you will learn patterns that will help you guess the gender of unfamiliar words. Often words with the same endings have the same genders, and some categories of words tend to be one gender or the other. For instance, words for countries and languages are usually feminine, and words for jobs or professions are usually masculine.

Gender and the Articles
Unlike some languages, all Irish nouns use the same articles regardless of gender; an (singular) and na (plural).

However, you still need to know a noun's gender to use it with the article an, and in some other situations. This is because of the last subject we're going to talk about in this unit: initial mutations.

Initial Mutations
Many European languages convey grammatical information by making changes to the ends of words. Less familiar to English speakers are initial mutations: changes made to the beginning of a word.

There are three initial mutations that are important in Irish: séimhiú, urú, and prothesis. In English, séimhiú is sometimes called lenition and urú is sometimes called eclipsis, but as those words aren't likely to mean much even to most English speakers, this course will mostly use the Irish terms.

In this lesson we're going to learn the basics of séimhiú and prothesis. We'll tackle prothesis in the next lesson, and urú a little later on, when we discuss prepositions.

Introduction to Séimhiú
Séimhiú is the easier of the two mutations. Here are the rules in brief:

Séimhiú and Articles
One of the most common reasons for applying a séimhiú to a word is following the singular definite article an. Here are the rules for initial mutations after an:

 * Feminine nouns get a séimhiú after "an" except:
 * Words starting with "s" get a "ts" instead of a "sh", and
 * Words starting with "d" or "t" don't change.

Remember the sentences we built in the last lesson:

Because scéal is masculine and ceist is feminine, if we add definite articles to both of these sentences we get:

After an, the feminine noun ceist gets a séimhiú and becomes cheist. The masculine noun scéal does not change.

Because of this, many learners prefer to learn all nouns together with the definite article, making flash cards that say an cheist (the story) rather than just ceist (story). That way, they always know whether the noun is masculine or feminine.

There are other situations where you will need to apply a séimhiú, which we will explore in later lessons. For now, concentrate on learning the patterns of which consonants take a séimhiú and which don't.

title: Irish/Unit 1/Lesson 3


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User talk:17508j

email me if needed.17508j (discuss • contribs) 21:08, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

Warning
—Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 01:29, 28 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:17508j


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User:17508j/sandbox

my draft page.

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User talk:17508j/sandbox

email me about changes to this page. at https://joshua17508@gmail.com17508j (discuss • contribs) 21:11, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:17508j/sandbox


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User:17508j

my stories The Ghost Of Halloween

title: User:17508j