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User:Triple zero one/sandbox

A broad introduction to the issues of Understanding the History of Moral Philosophy

Moral philosophy has been historically defined through large paradigm shifts in ideas, both in our concept of ethics and ethics in practice. Despite there often being large schools of specific ethical thought throughout history, the analysis of the history of Ethical Thought is precarious. There is a fine balance to be struck between looking back at ethical thought through our own modern preconceptions whilst avoiding a Hegelian view on history. A Hegelian view can be problematic as it leads to the searching for the wrong ideas and concepts as he sees history as acting purely towards forming the present. On the contrary, a view with our own preconceptions can leave out many trains of Ethical thought that we simply would not regard as ethics today. To further this idea, Schneewind argues that it is impossible to go into the history of moral philosophy without some form of established view. He draws upon two traditional, but opposing views, the first being the study of morals on a Socratic basis where we aim to find moral truths, and the second being that moral truths already exist and always have, whether for secular or religious reasons. When we study morals, we tend to take one of these ideas with us. However, whilst Schneewind accepts that these beliefs can influence how we perceive the history of morality, they can also help us answer different questions. He argues that the interrelationship between these ideas can help explain a lot about contemporary societies, and how the two clash/concile can explain a lot about contemporary norms, values and issues.

The Birth of Moral Philosophy

The first usage of what we would call Ethics began with the first ascriptions of positive behaviour within the earliest forms of literature, such as in the Iliad However, it took up to the 5th century for the actual discipline to begin to form under Socrates, with the introduction of thought to help develop a way of life in a form of care for the soul. It is Socrates who introduced a vital aspect of Moral Philosophy which distinguishes him from predecessors. In historical Greek works, such as the Iliad, shows the ascription of specific moral traits to specific classes in society, eg. a King should have X traits, a warrior should have Y traits. Thus, the concept of the good (agathos) was only relevant towards one social standings. To put it simply, Socrates identified changes in society and aimed to adapt morals into the more universal approach that we see today. It is through this change in perspective that many scholars prescribe the title "the first moral philosopher" to Socrates.

Mythology in Antiquity

The study of Mythology and Antiquity tend to go hand in hand, yet neither can be interpreted as one another. Mythology tends to be regarded as an ahistorical approach, breaking away from traditional historiography, looking at the nature of traditional societies. Many stories that hold mythological status, such as the story of the Founding of Rome, have no historical evidence to support that the events took place, and the first, arguable, form of evidence of the recognition of the story comes in the 4th century BC. Due to this lack of evidence, it is clearly understandable why historians see of a lack of value, in narrative purposes, for these stories; there is simply no evidence that they occurred. The further divergence of the story of the founding of Rome, where some claim Aeneas was the founder of Rome, whilst some see Romulus, as well as the differing narratives that exist, particularly in the latter, further create more contradictions and confusion when trying to use the source for narrative purposes and thus detract from the sources' value. Whilst it is normal for there to be different opinions and views upon events in antiquity due to the differing circumstances that contemporary writers experienced, for there to be such a lack of consensus over the key narrative points makes the narrative value of this myth low. This concept of the mythology being an ahistorical recording modern historians to claim that the two stand as "antithetical modes of explanation".

However, myths introduce different forms of qualitative evidence which can be used for different historical purposes. Whilst Historians don't take myths literally as a genuine narrative of events ., myths provide alternative ways to understand societies at the time. They help exemplify the sentiments of contemporary societies, for example, the concept that Romulus was responsible for Remus' murder in a form of fratricide echoes the idea that Rome was destined to tear itself apart. They help explain the broader sentiments, whether desires, fears or simply areas that lacked understanding within a society. It can be argued so far as that mythology helps explain a different aspect of history, and that mythology is the driver of history and societies. Thus, whilst mythology holds little evidential value for narrative events, it can hold significant evidential value when it comes to understanding ancient societies.

The issue of Evidentialism

One key aspect of theology revolves around the question of God's existence. Throughout history there have been numerous attempts at trying to prove that God does exist. Theories began with the Ontological Argument, formed by Anselm, and have been continued by a huge variety of theologians, like Aquinas and Augustine, as well as numerous philosophers such as Descartes, Hume and Locke. Particularly with Descartes, he sees God's existence as the first truth that we experience beyond the comprehension our own existence of ourselves in a form of ontological argument. None of these proofs have successfully and undisputedly proved the existence of God, but instead they have introduced the concept that it isn't entirely irrational for God to exist and that there are ways that we could potentially rationalise God's existence.

Today the debate has shifted towards the concept of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialism#:~:text=Evidentialism%20is%20a%20thesis%20in,supports%20his%20or%20her%20belief. Evidentialism], which entails that a belief is only justified if there is conclusive evidence for it. Hence, the tradition of proofs for God's existence stand aiming to provide the evidence to justify a belief in God in an evidentialist fashion. However, the debate, today, exists around whether religious beliefs should be governed by these rule of evidentialist, or to what extent religious beliefs should be. To exemplify recent challenges to this belief, I will draw upon the works of two key 20th century philosophers, Wittgenstein and Plantinga. Wittgenstein, a once logical positivist turned fideist, introduces the concept of language games. A language game is the concept that words only hold any meaning in the context of the language, ie. the game played . This relates back to epistemology as the concept of epistemology differs depending on which one of these games are being played. We are transposing scientific standards of epistemology into an area where the scientific approach shouldn't be used . Plantinga has many issue with evidentialism, but his main idea, of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_epistemology#:~:text=from%20reformed%20epistemology.-,Plantinga's%20Reformed%20epistemology,reformed%20epistemology%20is%20Alvin%20Plantinga.&text=More%20specifically%2C%20Plantinga%20argues%20that,be%20justified%20independently%20of%20evidence. reformed epistemology] argues that a belief in god is a "fundamental belief" and should not be deduced from other truths, he draws upon concepts such as the fact that we can believe in other minds, it should be equally rational that we can believe in God for both are based of which we cannot prove but we should take to be true. . He also criticises the evidentialist roots in classical foundationalism, where he argues that the latter is "self-referentially incoherent" due to it failing its own rules.

The power of Advertising
Advertising is potentially one of the most influential establishments in the 20th and 21st century. The power that it holds within society is immense, it is capable of deciding social and market trends. The true power of advertising is first, truly, seen under the work of Edward Bernays. Bernays was the nephew of Freud, and drew upon Freud's work in order to tap into the mind of the public. His most famous work, was in regard to the Torches of Freedom, a movement created in order to encourage more women to smoke in what was a societally frowned upon activity. The main aspect of his plan was to turn the cigarette into a symbol for feminine empowerment and as a symbol for gender equality. This lead contributed greatly to the steady increase of women smokers, from 5% in 1923 to 18.1% in 1935 to 33.3% by 1965, and by the 90s, the message of "Torches of Freedom", began to be used in cigarette exports to emerging markets. This example clearly shows that marketing can be effective, over the space of a decade it can create large demand for a product out of next to nothing. One consideration to take is that this example is set in the 1920s; the access to markets and the ability and effectiveness of the spread of information was incredibly limited when compared to the globalised world that we live in today. The estimated radio ownership for a family in America was around 35-40% by 1929, and comparing this to smartphone ownership in America in 2019 at 90% exemplifies how adverts can reach a significantly greater audience, especially if we take into account the differing nature between smartphones and radios; smartphones can be accessed anywhere and can provide more information. Combining this with the capitalist ethos of hyper-consumerism, the shortening attention span of each generation and the increasing media consumption of each generation, it is clear what role advertising is to play in the future. Bernays indeed did foresee the growing necessity and need for advertising. He gave the concept of "Engineered Consent", where, when democracy was pushed due to the growing masses, the need for manufactured obedience through the creation of ideas (by the ruling minority) and implantation (into the masses) would ensure democracy's survival, or at least capitalism's. It is thus clear that the power that advertising holds over consumers is immense. However, it is not only consumers that advertising holds over, but instead it can lead to the domination of an industry and formation of monopolies through entry barriers. This is highlighted by the importance of distribution costs, where adverts have become a necessity, especially in today's world, and if one cannot generate demand for their product then their business will fail. In already saturated or monopolised industries this means immense costs in order to compete, which is why it can act as such a barrier. As such, both of these points highlight the immense power that advertising holds, both in the controlling and monopolising of an industry, and over the consumer/citizen in regards to both what they want to buy as well as what they should believe in.

Law, Philosophy and the Role of Human Rights
A key tension over the justification for the Security Law is the nature of human rights. It is around this issue that there has been much contention, namely with the UN high commissioner for human rights calling for a rewrite on the grounds of human rights. As laws are ultimately justified through the authority that a government is granted to create laws (regardless of where or who this power is granted from), the only evidential claim against the law is on the grounds of human rights, for the law supposedly underwent the legitimate processes of the French government. Thus, the question of human rights is key in this discussion in the justification for this law. Human rights are claimed to be "inherent to all human beings" by the united nations yet there is no evidence for their existence as intrinsic truths, but instead are ascribed value amongst ideas of human morals. Unless one stands in an moral absolute stance, there is no justification for intrinsic human rights. However, the issue isn't about whether those rights exist, as this is more semantic and taking the argument into too abstract an area, but instead on what these rights should have priority. Macron justified the law through the rights that police had to be protected (family 1 of rights), whilst protesters argued it stood against their right of freedom (family 3 of rights). Legally, Human rights hold a higher standing than international law and can be used by citizens to hold their governments accountable, so if the liberty of the populace is prioritised over the security of the police then obligations to the law are justified. However, if we observe the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, the precursor to the French Constitution in 1791, there is a key issue between article 4, where one has the freedom to do what they wish as long as they harm no others, and article 15, which is the right to hold public agents accountable. It is here that philosophy can help exemplify which of these rights should be protected. Whilst there is no philosophical consensus, as mentioned earlier a Hobbesian (who would believe in absolute state authority) would disagree with a Lockean (who believed in inalienable natural rights), but the purpose of these writers was to create rules for a more generalised approach to the legal powers of states. When it comes to rights themselves, approaches by Cranston, who aims to provide a way to analyse rights themselves and prevent the issue of rights inflation, which is the concept that too many rights may arise if we keep the definitions of rights as broad as they are now. If we apply some of Cranston's tests, particularly the idea that rights must respond to threats to other or the same rights, we can see that we can justify the UN reaction as the right of the freedom of press in regards to the police contributes to the prevention of future injustices done by the police, so the rights of freedoms, in this case, help protect future security rights of the public. On the contrary, the rights the police have to security stand not in defence of any other rights, but instead stand in contradiction to the future security rights of the public. As such, through this combined approach we can justify the UN response and see how we can prioritise rights over one another.

The Interdisciplinary Approach
The usage of evidence in these three disciplines is ultimately very different, and as such lead to very different outcomes. Political Philosophy uses evidence to support normative claims, whilst Sociology aims to explain why things are in society and create theories around that and law is used to exert powers over a society. This is the main reason for why an interdisciplinary approach is needed in the understanding the issue. The philsophy helps us grasp the purpose of the law in a wider societal perspective, the sociology helps us grasp how the law will impact society and the discipline of law helps explain how the law will be put into practice and on what grounds. It is through evidence that we can justify the claims and actions that arise from each of these disciplines, and whilst many of them paint conflicting or differing pictures, they are vital in understanding the French Security Law as a whole, not just a single aspect of it.

title: User:Triple zero one/sandbox


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User:Theunbearablelightnessofbeing/sandbox

Sociology is "the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society". Even though ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle studied the relationship between individuals and society, it only emerged as an academic discipline in 1985 when the first European department of sociology was created by Emile Durkheim at the University of Bordeaux.

Sociology aims to make a comprehensive and analytical study of human societies but has paradoxically excluded women from its analysis and theories for a considerable period of time. This was the result of the idea that men's experience of society is universal and normative, which has isolated women's place in the family prism. Foundational thinkers like Emile Durkheim or Max Weber saw men as the "core constitutive category of the social/cultural".

However, the feminist movements of the 1970s rooted the feminist paradigm shift in sociology and social sciences in general. Women's experiences were used to create new research on topics like sexual harrassment (McKinnon, 1979) or lesbian communities (Krieger, 1982), resulting in a more complex and comprehensive analysis of society. The concept of gender was given a new approach through feminist articles like “Doing Gender”, published in 1987 by Candace West and Don Zimmerman wrote. The article identified gender as a social contruct, therefore challenging the sociological theories arguing that men a woman are naturally determined by their biological differences. The new theories, concepts and research developed by feminists have helped to correct gender biases in the discipline and to bridge the silences around women's experiences. This evolution was reflected across other discplines like history, anthropoly and psychology.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC001/2020-21/Thursday2-3/History

An interdisciplinary approach between Architecture and biology
I have taken the liberty to include a short paragraph about an architectural movement Art Nouveau as it is an example of what you had described regarding the interplay between Architecture and Biology. I was inspired to add this as I found the first paragraphs very engaging as they highlighted an example of interdisciplinary work between the artistic side of architecture and biology, two disciplines which some would consider to be opposing regarding the art against science aspect. However, with the examples that you presented we can see that when these two disciplines collide and work together, this can result in the creation of beautiful and unique styles of architecture hence, producing new, creative knowledge. MM.Mar 08 (discuss • contribs) 11:46, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Thank you so much for your contribution. When I finished that section I felt like it was missing something more related to the artistic side of architecture but I couldn't think of anything. I feel like your contribution summarizes perfectly what I wanted to add and closes my article perfectly. Cannedtomatoes (discuss • contribs) 20:40, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

History of Forensic Science: The Use of Fingerprint Classification and Identification in the Conviction of Criminals
I have added a short section below this article, capturing how Fingerprint analysis is used today and the research it prompted into Biometrics. The sections above these two little paragraphs, describe how Fingerprint analysis helped Forensic Science grow as a discipline in the past, and I felt that an insight into how it may impact our future, would further help demonstrate how valuable this paradigm shift was. The method helped Biometrics start, gain recognition, and effectively grow, and with this short section I wanted to show that Fingerprint analysis is no longer just relevant to the forensic sciences and judiciary system. Bienchen4338 (discuss • contribs)

Thank you for your contribution. I found the idea you included of Biometrics extremely interesting as it highlights a modern application of Fingerprint analysis as well as, the interaction between the disciplines of biology, forensics and technology. The concept of Biometrics provides a good example of how interdisciplinary research can help develop concepts/methods that have existed for a long time, such as fingerprint analysis, into other techniques/concepts with completely unique and revolutionary applications. MM.Mar 08 (discuss • contribs) 10:32, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

History of marketing
I added a subsection on this topic about the history of marketing and consumer psychology, explaining how it emerged as a sub-discipline within marketing and the effects on marketing in general in its approach and methodology. I think it is a significant area within marketing, as it is now very heavily utilised in advertisement with an emphasis on consumer behaviour, so I believe it was an interesting and important area to elaborate on. Alpacamaka (discuss • contribs) 16:29, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

History of Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy
I just made a structural edit positioning the notes after your contribution instead of before, and included your references within the general notes section. I feel like this suits the page more in terms of structure - tell me if you think this is better. Alpacamaka (discuss • contribs) 17:11, 03 November 2020 (UTC)

I have added some subheadings to this contribution, to give it a bit more structure and show how the article progresses systematically. Please let me know if these titles are appropriate and accurately reflect the content of your paragraphs you wanted to highlight. (Bienchen4338 (discuss • contribs) 16:40, 10 November 2020 (UTC))

History of Obstetrics and Midwifery: how social construct and religious beliefs delayed their development into medical sub-disciplines
I added titles and subheadings to your section because I noticed you had divided it into very clear separate paragraphs, and I thought that adding them to the section would make it look clearer and intelligible. Let me know what you think of the ones I chose and feel free to change them if they do not suit the information in that paragraph. Cannedtomatoes (discuss • contribs) 13:33, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * The headings fit perfectly. They allow for an easier overview of my contribution and explicitly demonstrate how the article progresses. I really appreciate this addition - thank you for giving my contribution a more visible structure. (Bienchen4338 (discuss • contribs) 13:40, 10 November 2020 (UTC))

History of Evolutionary Biology
Under 'Evolutionary thought throughout history' I added '19' to what you had put as '80s' to make it '1980s' as I thought that this made it more precise. Let me know if this was not what you intended, or if you disagree. 12Tig (discuss • contribs) 16.31, 15 November 2020 (UTC))


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User talk:Pelz234

Hi
Hi Pelz234 (discuss • contribs) 15:04, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Hi Pelz234 (discuss • contribs) 15:05, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Use of Multiple Accounts
Use of multiple accounts is strongly discouraged unless there is a clear legitimate purpose. Editing patterns indicate that you are using at least three accounts. I suggest you stop using them, or disclose them as alternate legitimate accounts. Thanks - QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 16:10, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Thanks for the advice,i"ll put it into action Ka3naBeyond (discuss • contribs) 14:26, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

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User:Frenchman2/sandbox

History within anthropology
'''Different orientations and methods in the history of anthropology. '''

Anthropology, since its early ages, had the aim to be a discipline that studied humankind as a whole. However a duality between the social and life sciences can be observed throughout the history of anthropology. Indeed the Bartholins who were the first scholars to define it, described it in 1567 as a science which studies the humankind as a whole but separates the body (studied in Anatomy) from the soul (studied in Psychology).

Throughout history, a curiosity of discovering new peoples and civilizations existed. The literature of new discoveries, especially in the 15th and 16th century shows that humans have developed an interest in the study of other social groups. This could be associated as an early form of social anthropology.

The first anthropologists used to study human fist via an evolutionist approach; as many in most fields viewed progress as the aim of society. During the 19th century, this vision was of course reinforced by Darwin’s theory of evolution.

At the same time the second branch of anthropology developed itself, starting earlier in Germany and in parallel with sociology. New approaches were explored, with the aim of distinguishing themselves from the natural sciences; showing how the uniqueness of humankind could be studied.

The establishment of the Société d’Anthropologie de Paris in 1859 by the French physician and anatomist Paul Broca could be considered as the beginning of anthropology as a discipline. It could indeed be the first time that the study of anthropology included all of its branches. Since then, some could say that anthropology has continued to develop to be a more inclusive discipline as most university nowadays offer to study its different fields together. Today, as Franz Boas observes it, the main focus of anthropologist seems to be the mental and physical health of human beings.

Evidence within biology
Different methods in the two branches of biology.

Two branches can be seen in biology. The theoretical one and the experimental one. Thus, different methods exists to prove evidence in this field.

Theoretical biology is said to be very quantitative. The method of model building very useful in biology implies many quantitative approaches. Evidence is here found through logic.

Oppositely, in experimental biology, Marcel Weber argues that strong evidence is provided because a very large diversity of approaches are presented. This type of evidence can be seen as qualitative.

Link between the quantitative and the qualitative evidence that biology provides.

Stephen H. Jenkins argues that evidence can be seen both in comparative studies as well as in experiments. Both need observation. Therefore, one can argue that here, at least, evidence is based on observation.

For instance, a comparative studies shows that there is a high risk of toxicity for aquatic species for a high environmental concentrations of a specific chemical compound (bisphenol-A) can be harmful for aquatic communities. Here, repetitive observation brings evidence.

But furthermore, Jenkins says that observation implies data. The accumulation of empirical observation can form a data. Therefore the method of analysis here shifts from a qualitative one to a quantitative one. In this point of view, we could conclude saying that in biology, both methods are needed but one should be used before the other.

'''Biological and scientific evidence in public context. '''

Evidence in biology and more largely in science can be see at a different scale. Here, Jenkins talks about how scientific research is spread in the media and how it is difficult for the general public to find evidence in this unorganized spread of facts. He argues that even if all methods and assumptions used in a research project are not shared by the media, the general public can still find ways to try to question and interpret these research methods.

Truth in Politics
Politics could be defined as « the activities of the government, members of law-making organizations, or people who try to influence the way a country is governed ».

Politics epistemology seems to be social constructionism. Truth in politics can be sought through quantitative and qualitative methods: to construct data (from interviews for instance) or to understand social behaviors (from focus groups for instance).

A telephone survey of voters during the 2012 US presidential campaign has shown how partisanship information enhances self-efficacy theory. Random North Carolina voters were asked several questions about how they have been and are informed about the election. It shown that most of them sought for partisan information online; rather than simply reading or watching mainstream media. This confirms Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. Following this argument, one can argue that individuals have the ability to find truth in politics on their own.

However, one might argue the opposite. Given the amount of fake news shared during a US presidential election, some say that people don’t behave in a way that enhances truth. A psychological study done by the Pro-Truth Pledge has tried to interfere in this process by giving 12 types of behaviors to signees of the research to adopt. After this, they were much more inclined than before for a seeking of truth. The study included random citizens as well as public figures. Therefore, truth isn't empirical. There are certain behaviours to adopt to find it.

These studies show how truth can be found in different ways; through qualitative as well as quantitative methods which are both related to the constructivist epistemology.

Finally, there is a strong debate on wether truth should be dissociated or not from politics. For Theresa Man Ling Lee, truth is today what is fought in wars. She takes the example of the Cold War which was in her opinion a dual between Marxism and Liberalism. But the issue here is that on both political sides the center of power retains the center of truth. Theresa Man Ling Lee puts forward Czech statesman Vaclav Havel argument that in politics the center of power cannot be the center of truth. Instead of deciding between Marxism or Liberalism, Theresa Man Ling Lee proposes the theory of post-modernism which enhances to have truth in politics as considered as subjective or contextual; not as centered and irremovable.

Power in Mathematics
Power as direct coercion in mathematics

For John Conway, there is a form of power offered to anyone in mathematics. He argues that ideas in mathematics are simple and that anyone could have discovered them. It is simply a matter of hazard. John Conway argues that these simple ideas can be used anywhere, in any other matter. This is a way in which anyone can handle power in mathematics. By giving freedom of thoughts to their rational mind, human beings can look for ways in which we can use mathematics in life. Here, we can refer to power as direct coercion, in the way that many forms of power can be used by anyone in any matter.

Power as strategy in mathematics

Mathematics holds a power in its structure of classification and characterization. Children have the ability to use this power in many ways. But usually it is the teachers who give them the structures when they could create their own. John Mason argues that we should give more emphasize to students to create these structures of classification and characterization as they have the capabilities to do so. There is indeed a considerable amount of ways of doing so. By doing so, learners will find their own way of doing and appreciating mathematics. This is another way in which anyone can handle power in his studies of mathematics. It can be referred to as an example of power as strategy. The ways in which we use classification and characterization can restrain our power of perspectives in mathematics.

title: User:Frenchman2/sandbox


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User:KorikS/sandbox

What is Ethics?
Ethics is a discipline that deals with questions of morality, what is good and what is bad, trying to create a set of moral values, it "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". From Ancient Greek the work ēthos means "habitual character and disposition; moral character; habit, custom;". The origin of ethics as a system of moral norms cannot be described in the same sense as the origin of, for example, science or philosophy. There was no particular point on a timeline when morality arose, morality was inherent in the society, in one form or another, at all stages of its development. People living together were bound by different moral norms shaped by accepted beliefs, tendencies, and presuppositions.

Western Ethics
In the western tradition, philosophical reflection on morality is considered to have started with the sophists in the fifth century B.C.E. The Sophists were teachers who taught a wide range of different subjects from philosophy and rhetoric to mathematics. They were focusing on arete –"virtue" or "excellence" Socrates challenged the subjectivism of Sophist ethics. He held the belief that ethical principles were universal and they were able to be identified, examined, and improved within the individual . Our knowledge of Socrates is derived mainly from Plato’s dialogues, such as The Republic and Gorgias. Plato’s student, Aristotle builds his view of ethics upon his teacher’s beliefs but with significant differences. Unlike Plato, he viewed the goodness as a part of a flourishing life (or eudaimonia ) as the highest good, not the good itself. And eudaimonia can only be achieved through virtuous life.

With the development of the discipline, philosophers started to distinguish between deontological ethics (from Greek: δέον, 'obligation, duty' + λόγος, 'study') and consequentialism, the first of the two hold that morality of an action is determined by the action itself, while the second one focuses on the consequences or results of an action. In this sense, deontology is often associated with Immanuel Kant, who believed that ethical actions follow universal laws, while utilitarianists, such as Jeremy Bentham or John Stuart Mill, believed in maximization of utility of an action.

Ethics as a separate discipline
Ethics is now a part of most degrees in Philosophy, moreover, you can even find undergraduate degrees that concentrate on ethics. Some universities even have also have a B.A. in Ethics and Public Polic. At the master's degree level, ethics is studied to be applied "to solve moral dilemmas of pastoral care, social opposition to new biotechnologies, or other ethical issues faced by contemporary society." Ethics is also now implemented into other disciplines, such as Medicine and Law, and helps to tackle moral dilemmas within these disciplines.

Manipulation of Statistics
Statistics is often viewed as an ultimate mean to present evidence. When evidence is quantitative and maths-based rather than qualitative, it is easier to believe in. Techniques of data representation in statistical research can often be flawed. Consequently, there is a huge amount of statistics that is unjustified but still presented to the general public, creating the spread of fake news and unreasonable opinions. Unfortunately, not many people are willing to fact-check and analyse the information that they read, particularly, on internet. And not only an ordinary reader can fall victim to misuse of statistics, but even professional scientists can sometimes be decieved.

It was already proven that manipulation of statistics is very easy and common, particularly by Darrell Huff, the author of the book How to lie with statistics . In this book, he described the ways that are used to make information more appealing, to take the necessary parts of the research, leaving the unnecessary befind, and to misuse statistics in order to deceive the audience and manipulate their opinion. Misuse of statistics can be best described as "using numbers in such a manner that – either by intent or through ignorance or carelessness – the conclusions are unjustified or incorrect." The implementation of false evidence via misuse of statistics is common in media. Darrell Huff described many methods that can be used to manipulate the numbers, from non-representative sampling and manipulation of processing to overgeneralization.

Covid-19 Statistics in the Russian Media
In order to track how statistics have been manipulated for self-serving purposes, we can look at the example of the coronavirus and trace how the russian governmental media have described the situation. The Russian authorities claimed that the reason of low numbers of deaths during the first wave in spring was the high quality of healthcare in the country. However, the pathologists who perform autopsies state that they have been concealing the cause of death because of the instructions from the Ministry of Health. For example, if the cause of death is pneumonia that was caused by coronavirus, the documents will state 'pneumonia', rather than 'covid'. Demographers who study Russian health statistics believe that this is deliberate manipulation of data caused by the federal government that distorts the picture of the pandemic. These kinds of distortions are not uncommon in the Russian media. They became especially widespred after Vladimir Putin's "May 2012 Decrees", that obliged the regions of the country to reduce mortality from certain diseases.

Moreover, during the second wave of coronavirus in autumn, in St. Petersburg, for several weeks, the daily number of people recovering from Covid-19 have been half of the daily number of cases. This suspicious pattern has been noticed by local media, but even after their publications, the strange ratio in the statistics of the coronavirus remained the same. The local authorities did not explain this strange pattern, only noted that daily statistics may not be completely accurate, due to the heavy load in hospitals and the delay in documenation.

Consequences
As a result, it is not only impossible to state with complete certainty what is the number of cases, but also to make sure that the health care system is able to manage with the large flow of patients. Using this statistics, the government officials can easily say that the country is able to provide everyone with sufficient health care, when it is clearly not so.

Truth in Videography or the Future of Fake News
The time when a photo or a video could be used as a certain proof is now behind us. Photo manipulation was developed long time ago and now only moving forward, while the manipulations with videos is becoming more and more common. Deepfake is a new format of videos in which faces on the original video are replaced with other faces. Generative-adversarial neural networks (GANS) are used to create such videos. Generative Adversarial Networks are an approach to generative modeling using deep learning methods, such as convolutional neural networks. The mechanism is as follows: one part of the algorithm learns from real photos of a certain person and creates an image, literally "competing" with the second part of the algorithm, until it begins to confuse the copy with the original.↵GAN technology was developed in 2014 by Stanford University student Ian Goodfellow, and for a long time it was used only among AI researchers and developers. The latest software and the spread of machine learning have simplified the process of creating fake videos. The Internet learned about deepfakes in 2017, when porn videos began to appear on Reddit, in which the faces of porn actresses were replaced with the faces of celebrities. ↵Given a training set, this technique learns to generate new data with the same statistics as the training set. For example, a GAN trained on photographs can generate new photographs that look at least superficially authentic to human observers, having many realistic characteristics.↵GANs enable algorithms to move beyond classifying data into generating or creating images. This occurs when two GANs try to fool each other into thinking an image is “real.” Using as little as one image, a seasoned GAN can create a video clip of that person.

Malicious Applications of Deepfake Technology
↵At first, most of the deepfake content was used only for entertainment purposes. However, during the last few years, the technology has developed so much that the materials created with it have become frighteningly convincing. The dissemination of false information, invasion of privacy, destruction of reputation — this is only a small part of what deepfakes can cause. Large corporations, such as Facebook, Microsoft, Google, are trying to fight the spread of fake videos by creating datasets using which the developers will be able to train algorithms to detect deepfakes.This technology makes it easy to manipulate audio and video content, and with its development, it becomes much more difficult to figure out where the truth is and where the fake is.↵A recent study by Deeptrace, a Netherland based cybersecurity company, showed that nearly 96% of deepfake videos are porn .↵With the spread of deepfakes, there were cases of discreditation of public figures, whose images can be easily found on the internet. For example, in the spring of 2019, the network published a deepfake video with the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, Nancy Pelosi. The author of the video with the help of AI changed Pelosi's speech so that she did not pronounce words well, and those who watched the video thought that the politician was drunk. The situation turned into a loud scandal, and only after some time it was proved that Pelosi's speech was generated by AI.

Laws against the Misuse of the Technology
↵In 2019 the state of California passed on October 3, 2019 the bill AB-602, which bans depiction of individual using digital or electronic technology that can be used as sexually explicit material without the consent of the people depicted.

Power in Politics
The concept of power is unseparable from politics, those in the position of power are able to influence the actions and beliefs of others. Consequently, it is inevitable that power can sometimes be used for self-serving purposes or execised unjustly. How can a government execise its power?

Authoritatian Point of View
Authoritarianism is, first of all, a social and political system that is focused around obedience to the state and its leaders. In an authoritarian state, the power is concentrated in the hands of one sovereign or a small group people in charge, with everyone living in that state obiding the sovereign. Second of all, it is a social view characterized by the belief that society should have strict and unconditional loyalty and subordination to the ruler. Authoritarianism is the principle of blind submission to authority.

Hobbes on the Power of the Government
An English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, argued for absolute monarchy, when monarch has absolute autocratic authority that is not limited by laws or legislature. In his book Leviathan, Hobbes states that the life in the natural condition of mankind is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”, since there is no force to restrain humans, who are constantly in pursuit for power, because power provides survival, and, according to Hobbes, survival is the main thing that humans seek in the state of nature. Surprisingly, Hobbes does consider all people equal, however, being a pessimist, he also mentions that equality means that everyone is equally capable of killing others in order to preserve own life – it is called “the rights of nature”. This right invites a serious conflict, especially if there is lack of resources or any other crossing of interests. This everlasting competition leads to what Hobbes called “bellum omnium contra omnes” or “the war of all against all’. It is important to note that Hobbes viewed humans as fundamentally egoistic, hence their main motivation for actions is self-interest. Considering all of the above, he stated that humanity needs some kind of authority that subdues their natural desires in order to escape from the chaos. The only way to achieve peace is to develop a covenant or a “social contract” that prevents people from violence and seeking for power, and transfers this power to an ultimate mutually-recognized sovereign. Essentially, legitimacy of such sovereign depends on whether it can provide survival, which humans still need as they gave up their natural rights, the main being liberty. As people give up their natural rights, the sovereign gains power.

Consequences of Authoritarianism
This kind of political system implies a strict suppression of any kind of non-systemic opposition by the authoritarian authorities and the inability of the legal opposition to significantly influence the course of state development. Sometimes it implies the absolute absence of opposition. Authoritarian leaders use power with little regard for popular views that differ from the views of the government and the opposition, and it is almost impossible to change this kind of authority through legitimate elections. Considering this, it is possible to say that the power is exercised in no accordance with the opinions of citizens and often with the law, hence the people living in this society can be wronged by the government without any kind of repercussions for the sovereign. This leads to the abuse of power in politics.

Liberal Point of View
Liberalism focuses on protection of humans' liberty and in this political doctrine, government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others, but the government itself can pose a threat to liberty, therefore its power should be limited.

Locke on the Power of the Government
Unlike Hobbes, Locke is optimistic about man’s nature and he sees humans as naturally peaceful and cooperative creatures, that are capable of rational thought and mutual self-recognition. That is why he does not believe that the State of Nature is the state of “war of all against all”, from his point of view it is the state of absolute equality and freedom. “It is evident that all human beings – as creatures belonging to the same species and rank and born with the indiscriminately with all the same natural advantages and faculties – are equal amongst themselves” – wrote Locke in “Second Treasure”. Men in the State of Nature are free and equal – no one has the right to rule over others. The only right humans have is Natural Law – right to life, liberty and possessions. However, Locke’s definition of freedom differs from Hobbes’: a person does have liberty to do whatever he pleases with himself or his property, but he cannot harm anybody else. This freedom is limited by the Natural Law that states that nobody can restrict anyone in his life, health or possession, that is why the power of the government can’t be absolute – it is limited by the Natural Law – so its role is to overview the humanity and ensure well-being and honest mutual relationships. We can see that Locke was a strong individualist and he thought that the government should just make the State of Nature better, but it can’t have ultimate control over people’s lives.

The Extent of Governmental Power
All of the above raises a question of the extent to which the government can exercise its power, and both Hobbes and Locke provide us with two extremes - one being the restriction of individual's negative liberty (a concept described by a philosopher Isaiah Berlin as a freedom from external barriers ) and the second being the restriction of positive liberty (a concept of freedom from internal barriers ).

title: User:KorikS/sandbox


text:
User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Economics

I was also very interested in economics as a discipline, specifically in relation to psychology (behavioural economics). I know that some universities offer this degree as a masters however I only know of 1 that offers it as an undergrad. I wonder if this "sub-discipline" will continue to develop and eventually become its own, especially now that interdisciplinary degrees are becoming more and more popular in the modern world. I also wonder what would have to happen for it to be officially considered a discipline? Or do you think it is already considered one?
 * In my opinion behavioural economics is definitely one of the 'sub-disciplines' on the surge. I think there has been a rise in the numbers of academic articles published that links psychology with economics, and given its possible application in many future solutions (think big data advertising, AI education, automated finance) I do agree that it will eventually be a discipline itself. This advancement in status will perhaps be indicated by the foundation of academic societies, wide representation in undergraduate and graduate degrees, or even the publishing of a piece of groundbreaking, discipline-defining academic writing. XxXdiehardbascloverXxX (discuss • contribs) 01:31, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Economics in the 3rd sentence is capitalized - but not elsewhere. I was wondering as to why it would be capitalised in the context "economics as a discipline" - are you referring to the study of economics or more to a particular Departement of Economics - I'm not sure what the right solution is so I thought I'd bring it up Uclqdeb (discuss • contribs) 09:33, 21 October 2020 (UTC)
 * I think that is just a typo on my part, but it is surely interesting to think about capitalising the first letter of names of disciplines to indicate their status as a widely recognized discipline/school of study of their own. XxXdiehardbascloverXxX (discuss • contribs) 01:31, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

I added a little bit on the interdisciplinary application of economics with demography - I hope you don't mind! If so, feel free to remove the section. I also added hyperlinks for some concepts or actors within the discipline as I thought they might be of importance for readers - I hope that was appropriate. Andreilla.m.l (discuss • contribs) 22:00, 9 November 2020 (UTC)


text:
User talk:GCooper316/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 10/History

Update to the "main" sections
I changed the name of the "main" section "Understanding Society" to "Understanding human Behaviour". It gives more opportunities to develop the section and everyone who wants to add something is welcome. Since I changed the name of the main section, I could add the section about Neuropsychology in it. Furthermore, I created another "main" section called "History of Disciplines: relation between aesthetic and utility" and combined the sections about applied art and design thinking as I could draw a connection between the two disciplines". I was thinking of changing the name to "History of Disciplines: combine the useful with the pleasant" which is a famous quote by Horace but I am not sure if it is appropriate here. I would like to have your opinion. Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 08:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I think this is up to personal preference, and I like the first one better because it fits the tone of the sandbox. But I changed it to "History of Disciplines: combining aesthetic and utility" because it's more grammatically correct (rather than "combine...") Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 14:01, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Formatting the references list
After uploading my entry, I realised that the references all compile into one list on the bottom, so I removed the "References" title off the Managerial Economics entry to make way for one single reference section at the bottom. Hope this is okay with op and for other entries! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 13:59, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Language editing
I was reading over the examples published and I noticed for the sociology one, the section was titled "sociology as a discipline" but focused more on the history of the discipline's emergence, so I just reworded the title to "The emergence of sociology as a discipline". randomOmelette(discuss • contribs) 01:37, 22 October 2020 (HKT)

I also read over the "history of disciplines: applied art" and slightly changed the wording of what was initially "introduction to applied art" to "An Introduction to Applied Art as a discipline". This was because the paragraph seemed to focus more on it as a discipline, and it fit better given the overall title of the entry. randomOmelette(discuss • contribs) 01:38, 22 October 2020 (HKT)

I was reading over the "The History of Design Thinking: A new Discipline merging Anthropology and Design" and slightly changed "As defined by Tim Brown, the executive chair of IDEO, the consultancy often credited with inventing the term," to "As defined by Tim Brown, the executive chair of IDEO where the term originated,". By using a relative clause, I erase commas in order to make the sentence simpler.uhmmmm(discuss • contribs) 15:47, 6 November 2020 (BST)

I also found a grammar mistake in the same section. "Even though innovation is still an important aspect of design thinking, Arnold did not mention another fundamental aim;" In this sentence, I changed semi clone to clone. "when the design consultancy IDEO adapted design thinking as their learnable and teachable mindset" Also, I personally suggest you change "learnable" to another word. uhmmmm(discuss • contribs) 15:47, 6 November 2020 (BST)

I deleted the introduction section for the sociology section as it was unique to this section and we don't need to explain that this is the concept we discussed in the lectures this week, it's enough to jump right into it. I have also made some minor edits and corrected a few typos. Avotoast (discuss • contribs) 18:29, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

I've read through the whole sandbox and corrected any misspellings, grammar mistakes or typos as the final touch, since everyone has already finished their edits. --Piscesmoodphase (discuss • contribs) 18:40, 15 November 2020 (UTC)

Organization of the sections
I arranged the sections so that we can see more clearly the reasoning for each discipline and I find it easier to edit this way (if we want to add something later). It is my opinion, if someone preferred the way it was before, please let me know, I will put it back as it was.(Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 17:03, 21 October 2020 (UTC))

Collaboration idea
I have created a section talking about discipline concerned in understanding society. I have talked about sociology, which is a society which investigate society from a social point of view (social science). I f someone want to talk about another discipline, for example one from the natural sciences or even from the humanities, that is interested in understanding or explaining society, you are welcome to add it to this section. It will be then be a good idea to see if they are bonds between those distincts disciplines. (Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 17:03, 21 October 2020 (UTC))

I know this is so late but I would be interested in creating a short paragraph regarding how approaches in viewing society in anthropology have changed over time. (Gingerisadog3025 (discuss • contribs) 12:45, 31 October 2020 (UTC))

 * I don't have my paragraph right now, also this isn't a natural science or humanities discipline per se, but I think it'd be interesting to write a short paragraph about how the visual arts are forms of criticism/reflections of society and how they alter people's perception of society over time. I'll add to it if time allows me to, maybe under a new section called Other Disciplines. (for the anthropology paragraph too) Hope this idea is okay, also @Gingerisadog3025 I don't think it's too late to add to it if you have your paragraph! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 18:24, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Since the section is now changed to "Understanding Human Behaviour", I think I'll leave out the idea that I mentioned above, just letting everyone know! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 08:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

@Gingerisadog3025 It is a good idea! @Gonkponk I am sorry I saw your message too late but I have an idea in how you could implement it: I am going to change the name of section again to "Understanding Human nature". I hope this may help. Anarmi632 (discuss • contribs) 09:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Apologies for the literal last minute message but I didn't have the time to work on this extra contrib and didn't add it in. Just fyi! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 16:59, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

In-text citation edits
Hi all, I was checking through the whole sandbox making edits to a few sandboxes (grammar, spelling, rephrasing etc.) and I realised that some of the in-text citations were done before the period. I changed all of the in-text citations of all entries so that the number is placed outside the period/commas instead of before it.

I am basing this in-text citation formatting style off other Wikipedia articles, and this website: https://wilkes.libguides.com/c.php?g=191948&p=1266506#:~:text=Placement%20of%20the%20citation%20numbers,inside%20of%20colons%20and%20semicolons., whereby it states "Generally reference numbers should be placed outside of periods and commas, inside of colons and semicolons." If I made a mistake with the in-text citation format, please let me know and I'll revert them back! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 18:45, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

hi! Thanks fro clarifying, I always forget whether I'm supposed to insert the citation before or after.--Avotoast (discuss • contribs) 18:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi, while I was skimming through my paragraph's references, I decided to make it less redundant by compressing some repeated citations (ie. ones that have ibid) into one single reference (I'm not sure what the specific type of reference is called but it has letters in it) so I also did the same with some of the other contributions if that's fine with the rest of you. Gingerisadog3025 (discuss • contribs) 10:31, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

 * That's definitely okay- I think it'll be easier to go through the references this way as well, and perhaps this can be applied to the other sandboxes. Thanks! Gonkponk (discuss • contribs) 07:09, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for "The History of Design Thinking"
I think it would be helpful to mention that some universities actually have "design thinking" as a degree! I know you've already established that it is taught in universities, but having a full program for the descipline would further cement design thinking as a descipline. The one I found, after a very brief round of digging, is "Design Thinking (M.A.) at macromedia university of applied sciences". Hope this helps! RandomOmellette (discuss • contribs) 14:34, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestion for "The emergence of digital sociology
I think for that section, the title "the emergence of digital sociology as a descipline" makes more sence, because you talk about how it rose in popularity and how this eventually led to the descipline having its first program and being recognised formally as a descipline. Also, I think it would help to mention that multiple universities now, including Edinburgh and Warwick, either offer it as a program or teach it as a course. RandomOmellette (discuss • contribs) 14:34, 9 November 2020 (UTC)


text:
History of video games/Platforms/WonderSwan

Development
Following his 1996 departure from Nintendo, Gunpei Yokoi, the designer of the Game Boy and the Virtual Boy, spearheaded the creation of a new handheld with Bandai through his new company Koto Laboratory. Though Gunpei would die in a traffic accident in 1997 the console continued to be developed.

Launch
The original WonderSwan was released in Japan on March 4th, 1999 by Bandai at a cost of ¥6800 yen.

In 1999 an accessory was announced that would allow photos from a specific digital camera to be sent to a WonderSwan, however this device was not released.

In 2000 the WonderGate was announced, a device which would allow the WonderSwan to connect to NTT DoCoMo mobile phones and connect to the Internet.

The improved Wonderswan Color was released in December 2000, and managed to climb close to a 10% marketshare of Japanese gaming handhelds before the GameBoy Advance was released.

An ultimately unreleased GPS add on was demoed in 2001, as well as three games by Namco that would leverage the GPS support. Also in 2001 an unreleased wireless adapter for a Casio watch camera was announced.

The WonderSwan crystal was released in 2002 with an improved display.

Legacy
The WonderSwan Monochrome, Color, and Crystal collectively sold an estimated 3.5 million systems in Japan, the only region it was officially sold.

Compute
The WonderSwan uses a 16 bit SPGY-1001 processor, a custom version of the NEC V30 MZ, clocked at 3.072MHz.

The WonderSwan has 16 kilobytes of RAM.

Design
The layout of buttons on the system was designed to allow for either vertical or horizontal play.

1999

 * Gunpey
 * Digimon Adventure: Anode/Cathode Tamer
 * Ganso JaJaMaru-kun
 * Buffers Evolution
 * Clock Tower
 * Kaze no Klonoa: Moonlight Museum
 * Magical Drop for Wonderswan
 * Makaimura for WonderSwan
 * Mr. Driller
 * Puyo Puyo 2
 * Tekken Card Challenge
 * Rockman & Forte Mirai kara no Chōsensha

2000

 * One Piece: Become the Pirate King!
 * Rainbow Islands: Putty's Party
 * Super Gem Fighter Mini Mix
 * Romance of the Three Kingdoms II
 * Ring: Infinity
 * Rhyme Rider Kerorican - The only game to use the system diagonally.

2001

 * Blue Wing Blitz
 * Digimon Battle Spirit
 * Guilty Gear Petit
 * Guilty Gear Petit 2
 * Final Fantasy II
 * Judgement Silversword
 * Romancing SaGa

2002

 * Final Fantasy IV - RPG
 * Digimon Tamers: Battle Spirit Ver. 1.5
 * Digimon Battle Spirit 2
 * The Final Fantasy Legend
 * Front Mission
 * Namco Super Wars - Crossover Tactical RPG
 * Riviera: The Promised Land - RPG
 * X: Card of Fate - Card battle game based on a manga.

2003

 * Rockman EXE N1 Battle
 * Rockman EXE WS
 * Kidou Senshi Gundam: Gihren no Yabou Special - Mobile Suit Gundam: Gihren's Greed
 * Wizardry: Proving Grounds of the Mad Overlord


text:
User:Oliveoilandgarlic/sandbox

This is my sandbox! Here I play with Wikicode and write things before they're ready to go elsewhere.

structured by disciplines
Dementia group of related symptoms associated with a gradual decline in brain functioning. There is currently considerable concern about it's exponentially increasing prevelence in due to the ageing population.  The euthanasia of dementia patients is a peticularly contencious issue as it brings up issues

Ethics
Given the declining role of religion as a supplier and upholder of moral values in western society, medicine and law have been given increasingly more responsibilities in building society-wide value systems {ref from mcgill study} and upholding the strong enough societal consensus on which healthcare and a trustworthy medical law can be built. The case of euthanasia or physician assisted suicide, medical ethicists have had to increasingly approach the issue secularly and provide arguments that reconcile the continually conflicting values of the right to life, self-determination, dignity, and the power of the state. As it is practiced wholly theoretically, and is not bounded by overarching codes or goals, an ethical exploration is able to subsume the biases that could impair an approach by medics or legal scholars. As such, the ethical arguments for and against euthanasia reach only for the four axioms of formal Ethics[gensler] and for the basic values of the ethicist and those who share them. While lending the discipline apparent [ref] impartiality, Ethics’ lack of a uniform approach has done little to attack the underlying dilemma since the 19th century, though our understanding of the practical and moral consequences of each of the values, once agreed upon, has been well developed [ref]. As many ethical arguments (and popular movements advocating) for euthanasia in general stipulate terminal illness as a necessary condition, many progressive debilitating conditions, like dementia are excluded. Thus, dementia patients, who are very often unable to make legally competent decisions, also excluding them from the necessary condition of informed, competent consent, are left out by ethicists ‘strong’ arguments. Legally, even in countries most permissive of physician assisted suicide in particular The Netherlands, many dementia patients would have no recourse but clauses such as the proposed, but not legalised, “Over 70 and Tired of Life” petition [ref].

Practically, the ethical approach to dementia patients who are believed to want to die, whether or not such a desire is recognised legally, has been reduced to

In Ethics, patients of dementia who are believed to want to die, whether or not such a desire is recognised legally, have been excluded from arguments based on long prognoses, infirm mental capacities, and in proposed laws, by not being old enough. Practically it can be argued that medicine has been more effective in

ethics is bad at dealing with dementia and euthanasia because of the fact that d3mentia patients cant give competent consent and are not terminally ill. more practically medicine is able to deal with these patients because many doctors are already practicing it because they are 'double dosing' and using the doctrine of double effect to practice euthanasia. Ethics is limited by its lack of grounding (only axioms are personal values) and so is unable to crystalline a consensus that a healthcare or legal system can be based on.

Medicine as a Discipline
“Medicine is the science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease”. It primarily draws upon quantitative evidence, such as randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic review, which are designed to remove any forms of bias. This objectivity, coupled with medicine's inherent focus on saving and prolonging life, makes its empirical approach to euthanasia and dementia one that often meets tension with other disciplines that are more holistic, or grounded in axiology.

QALY
Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALY) "is routinely used as a summary measure of health outcome for economic evaluation, which incorporates the impact on both the quantity and quality of life."(5) It is a large, useful part of medical economics that allows for the objective comparison of diseases, populations and programs(6), and guides the distribution of healthcare resources. Due to the objective, quantitative nature of its evidence, QALY inevitably favours those in a better position to benefit, and is often criticised by other disciplines for its systematic discrimination against the ageing and disabled. (7)(8) This is especially true in dementia patients, who then face both the stigmatisation of their condition, and financial pressures to carry out their "special duty to die".(9)(10) We must also consider whether the experience of life can be adequately represented by numerical evidence.

The Biomedicalisation of Dementia
The medical diagnosis of dementia involves cognitive and neuropsychological tests, lab tests, brain scans, psychiatric evaluation, and genetic tests (11). These procedures generate the quantitative evidence that medicine's highly biomedical focus is grounded in. Medicine pays little attention to social or psychological factors, viewing what was once a natural part of ageing as a medical problem, rather than the group of symptoms that dementia is.(12)(13) This biomedicalisation of dementia has led to pressures for timely diagnosis and rapid transition into care programs (14)- programs that are undoubtedly important, but that create a sense of fatalism around the condition, perhaps contributing to many people's decisions to request for euthanasia.

Interdisciplinary Tensions
Where medicine is a discipline largely centred on objective evidence, ethics draws from qualitative, subjective evidence. This creates inevitable interdisciplinary tension when it comes to the euthanasia of dementia patients. Medicine centres around the culture of "[dedication] completely to life under all circumstances.”(15), as shown in Rurup et al's study that found that physicians were far less likely to demonstrate tolerant behaviour towards life terminating attitudes (16%) in comparison to nurses (57%) and relatives (90%). (16) This tension plays out in the quality of life debate.

The quality-of-life approach to euthanasia believes that a person with dementia should be granted euthanasia when they feel their life is not worth living. Evidence for quality of life is purely subjective, varying from person to person, leaving vulnerable dementia patients at risk of having different values projected onto them by the people around them. In line with this ethical perspective, and in contrast to that of medicine, our palliative care should focus not so much on the protection of life, but of the autonomy of the patient.(16)

Sociology
Sociology is the science of society; the study of the collective aspects of human behaviour and the dynamics of the groups and organisations that make it up. It's demographic, relational, and experiential focus and the complexity of the systems it investigates lead to a greater focus on qualitative data and the use of hypothetical frameworks than many of the other disciplines addressing dementia and euthanasia. There are two major branches that generate tension with other disciplines in the sociological work on dementia and euthanasia.

The Experience of the Community
First, there is a tension between the perspective of individualist ethicists and a significant portion of the sociological literature adressing this issue. This can be understood in terms of ethics drawing on the evidence of subjective experience that suggests that decisions are autonomous and should therefore be respected, paying less attention to the influences on their decisions than sociology. By definition sociology finds the comonalites between the behaviour and experience of individuals based on their demographic groups, and is therefore concerned with the influences on decision making and the effects of those decisions associated with a group as a whole.

Although many of the relevant studies are published in medical journals, the value of their sociological approach in adding to the medical and ethical discussion is evident. In these studies some important conclusions are drawn which contrast with the individualist ethical naratives. Several studies explore the effects of euthanasia and dementia on the experiences of family members, suggesting that euthanasia may decrease the levels of grief, trauma and depression experienced. Roest (2019) conducted a study which found that despite the legal, ethical and medical narratives suggesting otherwise, family relations and values played a key role in both physician and patient decisions regarding assisted suicide, especially relevantly it is suggested that the suffering that may be experienced by the patients family should be considered, questioning the individualist narrative of autonomy and the primacy of the individual.

Social Construction
The second branch explores the issue through a social constructionist framework, looking at the cultural, social and demographic factors that impact the prevelence and perception of the disease. This approach leads to a view of dementia very much at odds with the prevailing medical view by studying the experience of living with dementia as an intersection of demographic class and the concept and symptoms of dementia itself. Due to this wider evidential pool and understanding dementia as socially constructed by medical classifications and media presentation, Johnstone (2013) and others argue that the stigma and fear around the ageing process has been generated by the biomedicalisation of dementia leads to the depersonalisation of patients. This combined with the literature showing how dementia prevelence and the suffering of patients is increased by low economic status and experiences of descrimination has lead to considerable concern that allowing the euthanasia of dementia patients would become discriminatory.

Beard (2017) encapsulates the tensions between this view and that of the medical community as an unresolved dichotomy between the medical view of dementia as a pesemistic 'black hole of aging', drawing paralells to the living dead archetype, in contrast to the sociological literature presenting the possibity of living and ageing well despite the disease. They also critisise the neglect of research into the social factors and management of the disease in preference of finding a cure. This tension is the result of the different forms of evidence the two disciplines are exposed to and value. Sociology studies individuals with dementia across the course of the disease and by dividing them by demographics and gathering qualititive evidence sees the affects of thier position in society and subjective experience on the course of the disease and the wider benefits and risks of allowing them euthanasia. Medicine on the other hand focuses on the quantitively measurable indicators of the disease and physical causes proposing corresponding interventions that may extend the life of a patient, often focussing on the later stages of the disease with little regard for their personal experience or social situation. There is, however, an encouraging movement towards holistic care and incorperation of sociological methods and evidence throughout the medical journals studying dementia and euthanasia as can be seen in many of the citations in this section.

Sociological Perspective
Sociology is the science of society, the study of the collective aspects of human behavior and the dynamics of the groups and organisations that make it up. It's collective, relational and experiential focus and the complexity of the systems it investigates leads to a greater focus on qualititive data and the use of hypothetical frameworks than many of the other disciplines adressing dementia and euthanasia.

The sociological work on dementia tends to explore

experience of carers and family and how this interacts with the experience of patients https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/59/5/e597/5033595 the affects of race and class on dementia prevelance, experience and treatement https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1039856219878645 the affectiveness of care from an experiencial perspective https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269216311423443 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1191/0969733002ne554oa

there is also a considerable amount of literature critisizing the 'biomedicalization' of humans and their incorperation into the economy in reference to the allocation of medical resources and euthanasia

(oliveoilandgarlic)

Topic Sentance
Sociology is the science of society: the study of the collective aspects of human behavior and the dynamics of the groups and organisations that make it up. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291520-6696%28199610%2932%3A4%3C379%3A%3AAID-JHBS4%3E3.0.CO%3B2-M https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology It's collective and relational focus, as well as its interest in human experience focus and the complexity of the systems and causal relationships it studies leads to a greater focus on qualititive data and the use of hypothetical frameworks than other disciplines. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096141?seq=1 https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology DONE What is the consensus stance on euthanasia and dementia in sociology?

https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/59/5/e597/5033595 meta analysis of 26 studies on the experience of carers of people with dementia, found that up to 80% of carer's experience depression. but that the literature is unclear as to a causal relationship. this highlights the sociological focus on human experience and relations etc

'''what is the DALY measure for dementia? are DALY's more the work of sociology, economics or medicine?'''

what is the distribution of dementia acrosses the divisions between groups sociology draws?

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/article-abstract/2729093 economic status as well of health are greater predictors of dementia than race or culture. This is thought to be due to access to education and nutrition as well as healthcare.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269216311423443 meta analysis of qualitive research conducted in the uk into the transition into paliative care (the closest thing to euthanasia that exists in the uk) for dementia patients, highlights the lack of the 'long view' in the medical community, also a failure to except that dementia might be a cause of death in it's own right was noted, as patients usually die from complications or accidents caused by the disease rather than the disease itself.

How is sociology defined? DONE

Google definition:
 * -the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society.
 * -the study of social problems.

Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology
 * -studies the dynamics of society by looking at its organisations and drawing division within it, looking at the interactions between these parts.
 * -studies the "collective aspects of human behaviour" especially looking at the way an individual's group influences their behaviour

Methods and Evidence
What types of evidence are prioritised in sociology and how are they wieghted? DONE Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology :
 * -ecological patterning - the way groups, behaviour, wealth, industry and land value change over time and relate to one another
 * Experimental methods - observing social interactions in controlled enviroments,

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096141?seq=1 an analysis of the uncertainties around this issue and the confusion interaction between theory and evidence in the evidence's interpretation, mentions as a side point the importance of statistical methods and computing in sociology.

'''What theoretical frameworks and axiomatic assumptions are used to interpret this data? especially in reference to euthanasia in dementia. '''

How do tensions form?
Differences in evidence, assumptions and interpretation? - maybe best summerised once we have the methods and evidence section for all the disciplines

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1191/0969733002ne554oa this study interviewing carers at one hospital found that carer's understoon dementia patients decision to starve but thier moral and ethical beliefs hampered them in respecting patients autonomy.

Examples of direct clashes or contrasting quotes
note: assess how sociological these papers and articles actually are

points, there is a considerable push back against the 'biomedicalization' of human being in the sociological literature https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1467-9566.12152 more sociological literature on the dehumanisation of dementia patients by the media, and how this leads to increased use of euthanasia

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1471301217709661 critisizing the 'hegemony of american allopathic medicine' due to is depersonalization of people with dementia using fairly strong language. It argues that the combination of medical attitudes and media presentation conflate dementia with it's final stages (loss of agency, contact with reality and finally life). It critisises the dichotomy between positive and negative aging, and claims that this medical view eclipses the diversity between aging processes and the effects of race, culture and sex on these processes. It argues that is 'a social construct created by people and within social institutions'. 'it says 'If forgetfulness in seniors continues to be medicalised, then we might well find that we have destroyed the precious little space within which we as modern humans can age meaningfully'. criticises the medical perspective as 'oversimplifying the lived experience'- this is a clear example of the clash between empirical scientific evidence and sociology's qualitive more experience focussed aproach

https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tran.12055 a critique of the DALY (disability adjusted life year) a common measure used in medicine to evaluate treatment efficiency and make decisions on it's distribution due to it's assumption that the life of someone with a disibility is less valuable than the life of someone without it, it argues this is due to the blurring of the line between the human biological being, and the economy and political sphere. It also speaks of how the DALY measurement leaves out the poorest classes due to thier lack of access to medical care leading to a lack of generation of data. this is a direct tension between the medical and economic perspectives and the ethical and sociological perspectives. although it does not mention dementia specifically it is highly revavent due to the increasing importance of the DALY and QALY in medical decisions.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1039856219878645 in oregon over 50% of people requesting euthanaisa claim 'being a burden to their families' as the main reason for the decision, this article argues that poverty and old age contribute largely to these decisions, creating a class discrepancy.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bernadette_Roest/publication/332237833_The_involvement_of_family_in_the_Dutch_practice_of_euthanasia_and_physician_assisted_suicide_a_systematic_mixed_studies_review/links/5caaebc5299bf118c4ba88be/The-involvement-of-family-in-the-Dutch-practice-of-euthanasia-and-physician-assisted-suicide-a-systematic-mixed-studies-review.pdf doctors struggled to empathise with patients citing existential reasons for thier request for euthanasia, and psychological suffering was given less consideration than physical symptoms. the more sociological aspects of the paper reveal the importance of family relations and 'being a burden' in decision making, doctors are resistant to consider the suffering of the family as a whole due to the medical focus on the experience, especially the physical experience, of thier single patient over wider more sociological considerations of the suffering of the family unit as a whole and the impacts of the implimentation or non implementation of euthanasia at these different levels.

Introduction
There is an ardent debate as to how facts should be determined and the way the models of philosophy and science can be mapped onto reality, both within and between both disciplines, psychology has had a fruitful interplay with both of these areas.

The roots of psychology reach deep into the philosophical tradition. In the late 18th century Immanuel Kant hypothesized the first dimensional model of personality, paving the way for a huge variety of personality models as well as statistical psychology. Friedrich Nietzsche, although now thought of as a philosopher, often referred to himself as a psychologist and criticized much of the preceding philosophical tradition as overly introspective and self-indulgent. This foreshadowed the rift that formed over the coming century between the psychologist-philosophers and the institutions of psychology.

The Rift
This rift was largely due to the rapid progress was made in understanding the brain and human behavior and the desire of psychology departments to establish themselves as equals to the already established natural sciences. Psychology suceeded in this through the use of empirical and statistical methods and rigorous scientific methodology and experimental protocols in conjunction with technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging and advances in biochemistry that were facilitated by quantum mechanics. However, this materialistic focus led to a loss of confidence in the utility of psychoanalytic theories and widespread criticism of the psycho-philosophers that claimed knowledge or predictions about human behavior individually and societally based on introspective experiences or enumerative inductivism (the repeated observation instances which fit a framework or hypothesis).

Conclusion
Freud, Jung, and Addler, for example, thought of themselves as psychologists and scientists. However, by the end of the twentieth century their work was respected and taught more in fringe institutions, humanities, and social science departments. In psychology departments, if taught, these thinker's work is usually in the context of a historical artifact rather than a working theory. The discussion that lead to this view of psychoanalytical work helped separate psychology, based on empirical evidence and methods of experimentation developed in the natural sciences, from the multitude of observation, interpretation, introspection and enumerative inductivism based hypotheses developed by early 'psychologists', both turned psychology into a true science and advanced the scientific method as a whole as well as producing some fascinating, important and useful philosophies and interpretive models. However, the psychoanalitic discipline has been left in disarray by its dissociation from academic institutions, which still considerably hampers it's developement despite it's continueing importance in theraputic settings and culture.

Generational Issues
Planck's principle, as well as similar ideas presented by Dawin and Lavoisier, state that new idea's do not come to dominate by converting the proponants of the theories it is overturning but by their death and the next generation learning the ideas as given. This is likely to be a result of the power imbalance between the young and old in the universities as it takes a long time to climb to the top of these institutions as older people including scientists are generally less reseptive to new ideas. Research into age discrimination within academia also provides evidence for the presence of power dynamics in academic progression; implying that age and 'time surved' plays large part in decisions regarding promotion as well as competance and experience. This is an example of institutional power, younger people are simply not considered for higher positions in departements due to the observation that most of those with the skills for these positions are older. Overall the issue of idea's and individuals making their way up the academic ladder is a intersection of institutional power and individual's unconcious biases against idea's that they are unfamiliar with.

Gender Issues
In the united states only 20% of physics degrees and PHDs are earned by Women, and similar figures are reflected around the world. The lack of representation of multiple issues of power as well as sex differences in traits. The power issues between genders in physics departments mostly constist of preconceptional biases perpatrated by physics being primerily dominated by men and overrepresented in textbooks and other physics. This is one cause that contributes to most women not considering a career in physics from an early age.

Other power issues contributing to fewer women reaching higher positions in physics include difficulty fitting into a male dominated workplace and the decision making processes affecting career progression. Some factors that contribute to this are; men being likely more to overestimate their skills and women being more likely to underestimate, women being more to feel excluded from making connections across and up the hierachy and expectations of female steriotypes playing out in microagressions and the decision making process. These create an intersectional power imbalance between men and women in physics leading to an inneficient hierachy which is likely to hamper scientific progress by excluding potentially innovative women.

However, it is unlikely that power imbalances and descriminatory biases within physics account for all of the gender discrepancy in the discipline. One factor that explains part of the underrepresentation of women in physics is differences in interests and priorities between men and women. Especially that women are, on average, more likely than men to prioritise 'balance and relationships' over material success and have a considerable statistical tendancy towards an interest in people (in the broadest sence refering to arts, humanities, care, etcetera) in contrast to the male tendancy towards interest in things (again in a very broad sense; STEM, data, construction, etcetera). Some more possible factor is the female bias towards verbal intelligence as opposed to the male average tending towards spacial intelligence and maternity (especially in the high status and income positions that require a long and constant career path to reach).

Some argue that the difference is due to the width of the male general intelligence distribution increasing the male to female ratio at the extremes. However, measuring mean gender differences is extremely difficult due to the huge overlap in distrabution and the time and energy required on the part of the respondants to collect good psychometric data and many of the studies contradict oneanother.

Conclusion
Generational issues of power in physics and other sciences may well hamper scientific progress. Gender issues of power represent a portion of the reasons for the underepresentation of women in physics but it is unlikely that by eliminating the power issues the outcome would be equal representation due to the statistical differences in interests and traits.

It remains unclear in the literature how the power issues can be adressed as a whole. However, there is evidence that diversity cognative learning and reactions training had small but significant and lasting effects in combating unconcious biases. It is also suggested that increasing the representation of women in physics related content would increase the number of women enroling in physics courses. This is likely to increase the number progressing onto PHD level and academic posts, diluting the male dominated culture and increasing the likelyhood of innovation by a greater proportion of humanities best minds working in the field of study.

title: User:Oliveoilandgarlic/sandbox


text:
User:Pelz234

TWO IN ONE:Oven and Fried Chips

A great saver

Yummy and tasty

Here's how to make Baked Potato chips and Fried potato chips

Ingredients

* 5 Potatoes

* salt

* oil(depending what method)

Method 1:Baked potatoes

First peel your potatoes

Then cut them out into small pieces

Finally get a tray apply butter and mix in some oil and salt together,keep it in the stove 160°and keep it in the oven and till they get a little brown

Method 2 :Fried chips

Take some oil put it in a pan

Peel your potatoes

Then cut them into small pieces

Wait till the oil has heated up

Then add your chips

And stir them

until they look eatable

Have fun making your own chips

Bye 😁😁

title: User:Pelz234


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User talk:EDG 543

Welcome, EDG 543!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 15:50, 20 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I will keep that in mind. EDG 543 (discuss • contribs) 17:01, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

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User talk:Frenchman2

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User talk:Triple zero one

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User talk:Hplover101

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User talk:YouShouldNeverHaveLetMeBegin

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User talk:XxXdiehardbascloverXxX

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title: User talk:XxXdiehardbascloverXxX


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User talk:June1965parias

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title: User talk:June1965parias


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User talk:Fantomasque

Welcome, Fantomasque!

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title: User talk:Fantomasque


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User talk:LIFE WITH STEPHANIE

Welcome, LIFE WITH STEPHANIE!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 16:33, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Hi
Hu LIFE WITH STEPHANIE (discuss • contribs) 13:16, 21 October 2020 (UTC)

🧑 LIFE WITH STEPHANIE (discuss • contribs) 13:16, 21 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:LIFE WITH STEPHANIE


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User talk:Camjo09

Welcome, Camjo09!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 16:34, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

Evidence in Theology
In your sentence discussing how extrabiblical evidence can be used to complement scriptural evidence, do you think it might be helpful to add that historical and archaological evidence can also contradict or undermine claims and narratives within religous scriptures? Or perhaps to change the example of claims that these can help to justify, simply because I am not sure there are instances where archaological or historical evidence have been used to justify the claim that 'God speaks only truth', simply because it is not within their disciplinary boundaries to examine those claims. What do you think? I hope my idea makes sense. Xrcaatnp (discuss • contribs) 12:06, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

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User talk:Sugarfreejazz1

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User talk:Turtle down

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User talk:Majb324

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User talk:Saucesoja

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Wikijunior talk:Asia/Afghanistan

 * Put new text under old text. [ Click here to start a new topic].
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Update
This chapter should be updated to reflect current conditions. --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 15:57, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the heads up. I'd love to get to it but in the meantime I've added an update template for readers. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 16:02, 31 October 2021 (UTC)

 * No problem! I went ahead and made some minor adjustments to get it current. --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 18:48, 1 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Asia/Afghanistan


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User talk:Buttface34

Warning
—Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 16:50, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Buttface34


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Wikijunior:Asia/Introduction

{| align="center" width="100%" | width="50%" bgcolor="#eeffee" style="border:1px solid #99ff99;padding:1em;padding-top:0.5em;" valign="top" |

Introduction
Asia is the largest and most populous continent on planet Earth, with over 4.3 billion people and an area of 17,212,000 sqmi. The continent of Asia is east of Europe and northeast of Africa. The world's oldest civilizations are in Asia, in countries like India and China. Asia and Europe together form one big continent called Eurasia. Asia is home to a majority of the human population (60% of humans live in Asia) and compromises 30% of the Earth's land area. Around the 1400s-1600s, many European explorers tried to find a safe trade route to India. A very well-known explorer who successfully explored Asia was Marco Polo. Asia is bordered in the east by the Pacific Ocean, in the south by the Indian Ocean and the Southern Ocean, to the north by the Arctic Ocean, and to the west by Europe and North Africa.
 * }

title: Wikijunior:Asia/Introduction