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Internal Medicine/Acidosis and Alkalosis

Acid-Base Homeostasis
The body keeps the pH of systemic arterial blood in the range of 7.35 to 7.45 through a combination of extracellular and intracellular chemical buffering, along with regulatory mechanisms involving the respiratory and renal systems. The central nervous system (CNS) and respiratory system control arterial CO2 levels (Paco2), while the kidneys manage plasma bicarbonate levels. This regulation maintains the arterial pH by either excreting or retaining acids or bases. The interaction between the metabolic and respiratory factors responsible for systemic pH regulation is described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

Under normal conditions, CO2 production and elimination are balanced, maintaining a steady-state Paco2 at approximately 40 mmHg. Hypoventilation results in hypercapnia (high Paco2), while hyperventilation leads to hypocapnia (low Paco2). However, the production and elimination of CO2 are regulated primarily by neural respiratory factors and are not directly controlled by the rate of CO2 production. Hypercapnia typically occurs due to hypoventilation rather than an increase in CO2 production. Any significant deviation in Paco2 levels usually reflects alterations in neural respiratory control or compensatory changes in response to primary changes in plasma bicarbonate levels.

Diagnosing Common Types of Acid-Base Disorders
The most frequently encountered clinical acid-base disturbances include metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis, each occurring individually. Recognizing these basic acid-base disorders necessitates an understanding of the limits of physiological compensation for a primary disturbance.

 * Simple Acid-Base Disorders: Primary changes in Paco2 (respiratory disturbances) trigger compensatory metabolic responses (alterations in [HCO3-]), and primary metabolic disturbances result in predictable compensatory respiratory responses (changes in Paco2). These compensatory responses tend to bring the pH closer to, but not exactly to, the normal range. An exception is chronic respiratory alkalosis, which, if prolonged, may return the pH to the normal range. In metabolic acidosis resulting from increased endogenous acid production, such as ketoacidosis or lactic acidosis, the extracellular fluid's [HCO3-] decreases, lowering the extracellular pH. This stimulates medullary chemoreceptors, increasing ventilation and restoring the [HCO3-] to Paco2 ratio and pH towards, though typically not reaching, normal levels. The degree of respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis can be estimated using the Winter's equation: Paco2 = (1.5 × [HCO3-]) + 8 ± 2.
 * Mixed Acid-Base Disorders: Mixed acid-base disorders, where independently coexisting disorders occur, are often seen in critically ill patients and can lead to severe pH imbalances. The diagnosis of mixed acid-base disorders involves considering the anion gap (AG), which is calculated as AG = Na+ - (Cl- + HCO3-). The AG is an essential indicator, with an average normal value of approximately 10 mmol/L, used to assess the presence of high-AG metabolic acidosis, which may result from the accumulation of various non-chloride-containing acids. The presence of an elevated AG denotes metabolic acidosis, even when [HCO3-] or pH appears normal. Correcting the AG is essential if hypoalbuminemia is present by adding 2.5 mmol/L for each g/dL of albumin below the normal value of 4.5 g/dL.
 * Examples of Mixed Acid-Base Disorders: Various scenarios can lead to mixed acid-base disorders, such as high-AG metabolic acidosis with concomitant respiratory disorders or metabolic disturbances. Additionally, there are instances of metabolic alkalosis combined with respiratory acidosis or alkalosis. Detection of mixed high-AG acidosis or metabolic alkalosis is crucial when evaluating complex cases, as it requires assessing the interplay between AG and HCO3-.

Approach to Diagnosing Acid-Base Disorders
Diagnosing acid-base disorders follows a systematic approach involving several steps. These include simultaneously obtaining arterial blood gas (ABG) and electrolyte measurements, ensuring the accuracy of [HCO3-] on both ABG and electrolyte panels, evaluating the AG, understanding the various causes of high-AG acidosis, and estimating the compensatory responses based on specific relationships between Paco2 and [HCO3-] detailed in a table.

When assessing acid-base disorders, special attention should be given to the anion gap (AG). Calculated as AG = Na+ - (Cl- + HCO3-), the AG measures the unmeasured anions present in plasma and is typically within the range of 6-12 mmol/L. A high AG most often indicates the accumulation of non-chloride-containing acids, but it can be caused by other factors like changes in unmeasured cations, exogenous cations, or alterations in plasma anion albumin concentration. Correcting the AG is necessary when hypoalbuminemia is present, with 2.5 mmol/L added for each g/dL of albumin below the normal value of 4.5 g/dL. Understanding the AG helps identify high-AG acidosis, which results from various conditions involving the buildup of different acid types, such as inorganic, organic, exogenous, or unidentified anions. Even if [HCO3-] or pH is within the normal range, a high AG can signify the presence of metabolic acidosis. Comparing the decline in [HCO3-] (ΔHCO3-: 25 - patient's [HCO3-]) with the increase in AG (ΔAG: patient's AG - 10) is a useful approach when dealing with high-AG metabolic acidosis, especially when pH and [HCO3-] appear normal.

Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic acidosis is a complex acid-base disturbance characterized by an abnormal decrease in the pH of the blood and body fluids. It can manifest in various forms, with the two primary classifications being High Anion Gap Acidosis (HAGA) and Non-Anion Gap Acidosis (NAGA).

Causes of High Anion Gap Acidosis
High Anion Gap Acidosis (HAGA) encompasses a broad spectrum of conditions, each with distinct pathophysiological mechanisms:

 * Lactic Acidosis: This subtype is classified into two major types: Type A and Type B. Type A results from inadequate tissue oxygenation, such as during severe shock or hypoxia, while Type B arises from non-hypoxic causes, often secondary to medications, toxins, systemic diseases, or inborn errors of metabolism.
 * Ketoacidosis: Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) and Alcoholic Ketoacidosis (AKA) are classic examples. DKA typically occurs in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, marked by hyperglycemia and ketone production. AKA develops in chronic alcoholics, where alcohol metabolism disrupts the balance of acids and bases.
 * Toxin Ingestion: Ethylene Glycol (EG) and Methanol intoxication stand out as notable culprits. These toxic alcohols are metabolized to glycolate and formaldehyde, respectively, generating an accumulation of organic acids that drive metabolic acidosis.
 * Renal Failure: Kidney dysfunction, particularly acute renal failure, hinders acid excretion, leading to the accumulation of acidic substances in the bloodstream.
 * Sepsis: Severe infections, such as sepsis, can precipitate Lactic Acidosis Type A. Inflammatory processes and septic shock impair tissue perfusion, causing cells to shift towards anaerobic metabolism, yielding lactic acid as a byproduct.

Lactic acidosis is a crucial component of HAGA, characterized by elevated blood lactate levels and metabolic acidosis. Further details include:

 * Type A Lactic Acidosis: Occurring due to tissue hypoxia, Type A lactic acidosis emerges when tissues experience oxygen deprivation, prompting anaerobic glycolysis. This type is primarily associated with conditions like severe shock, cardiac arrest, and sepsis.
 * Type B Lactic Acidosis: Type B encompasses a diverse array of causes unrelated to tissue hypoxia. Medications (e.g., metformin), toxins, malignancies, and certain systemic diseases can all precipitate Type B lactic acidosis.
 * Treatment: Addressing the underlying cause remains the cornerstone of lactic acidosis management. In cases of severe acidosis, sodium bicarbonate may be administered cautiously, as its efficacy remains debated.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA), a classic example of HAGA, predominantly occurs in individuals with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus:

 * Elevated Glucose Levels: DKA is often heralded by markedly elevated blood glucose concentrations, driven by insulin deficiency and excessive counterregulatory hormone release.
 * Ketone Production: Insufficient insulin leads to unrestrained lipolysis, resulting in an abundance of ketones, such as acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate, leading to metabolic acidosis.
 * Treatment: Managing DKA necessitates a multifaceted approach involving insulin administration, fluid resuscitation, correction of electrolyte imbalances (particularly potassium), and addressing underlying precipitating factors like infections.

Alcoholic Ketoacidosis (AKA) is a form of high anion gap metabolic acidosis occurring in chronic alcoholics:

 * Inadequate Food Intake: AKA is often tied to malnutrition, with alcoholics experiencing poor dietary intake leading to depletion of glycogen stores and a switch to fatty acid oxidation.
 * Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalance: Chronic alcohol use can lead to dehydration and electrolyte derangements, such as hypokalemia, contributing to AKA.
 * Treatment: Management centers around fluid repletion, thiamine supplementation to prevent Wernicke's encephalopathy, glucose administration to prevent hypoglycemia, and addressing any concomitant electrolyte imbalances.

Other causes:

 * Ethylene glycol (EG) and methanol ingestion can result in high anion gap acidosis, often necessitating rapid identification and intervention:
 * Suspicion and Diagnosis: A critical aspect is recognizing the combination of an elevated anion gap and osmolar gap, serving as an early indication of EG or methanol intoxication.
 * Metabolites and Acidosis: The toxic alcohols and their metabolites, including glycolate and formaldehyde, contribute to the elevated anion gap and acidosis.
 * Treatment: Immediate intervention involves intravenous fluids, administration of thiamine and pyridoxine, fomepizole or ethanol therapy, and hemodialysis when specific criteria, such as severe acidosis or end-organ damage, are met.

 * Propylene Glycol: Propylene glycol, used as a vehicle in intravenous medications, can accumulate in critically ill patients, leading to high-gap acidosis. Early recognition involves discontinuing the implicated infusion and considering fomepizole therapy.
 * Isopropyl Alcohol: Ingested isopropyl alcohol can be rapidly absorbed, leading to potentially fatal outcomes even with small quantities. Treatment includes supportive care, fluid resuscitation, and hemodialysis for severe cases with hemodynamic instability.

 * Pyroglutamic Acidosis: Pyroglutamic acidosis is relatively uncommon and can occur in the setting of acetaminophen overdose or in malnourished or critically ill patients receiving acetaminophen. It is associated with the accumulation of 5-oxoproline (pyroglutamic acid).
 * Metabolic Acidosis in CKD: As chronic kidney disease (CKD) progresses, metabolic acidosis transitions from hyperchloremic acidosis in moderate CKD (stage 3) to high anion gap acidosis in advanced CKD (stages 4 and 5). This shift arises due to impaired filtration and reabsorption of organic anions by dysfunctional nephrons, leading to a net retention of acid in the body.
 * Treatment: Managing metabolic acidosis in CKD is essential for preserving bone health, mitigating muscle wasting, and slowing the progression of kidney dysfunction. Oral alkali replacement, often with sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate, is the primary intervention.

Non-Anion Gap Acidosis
Non-Anion Gap Acidosis (NAGA) presents unique challenges, with several potential etiologies:

 * Gastrointestinal Bicarbonate Loss: Conditions like diarrhea, external pancreatic or small-bowel drainage, and surgical procedures like ureterosigmoidostomy can result in excessive bicarbonate loss from the gastrointestinal tract.
 * Renal Acidosis: NAGA can occur due to various renal causes, such as proximal renal tubular acidosis (RTA) or distal RTA. Proximal RTA (Type 2) is often associated with glycosuria, aminoaciduria, and phosphaturia (Fanconi syndrome), while distal RTA (Type 1) is marked by hypokalemia and nephrocalcinosis.
 * Drug-Induced Hyperkalemia: Medications like potassium-sparing diuretics, trimethoprim, pentamidine, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, calcineurin inhibitors, and heparin can elevate potassium levels and lead to NAGA.

Treatment of Non-Anion Gap Acidosis
In cases of non-Anion Gap (AG) acidosis resulting from bicarbonate loss through the gastrointestinal tract, the administration of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) can be carried out either intravenously or orally. The choice between these routes depends on the severity of the acidosis and concurrent volume depletion. However, addressing proximal renal tubular acidosis (RTA), particularly Type 2, can pose a significant treatment challenge. This is because administering oral alkali exacerbates the excretion of bicarbonate and potassium through the urine.

In instances of proximal RTA (Type 2), it is often necessary to supplement potassium. A suitable approach is to prescribe an oral solution containing sodium and potassium citrate, with each 5 mL of the solution consisting of citric acid (334 mg), sodium citrate (500 mg), and potassium citrate (550 mg). Commercial products like Virtrate or Cytra-3 serve this purpose.

On the other hand, when dealing with classical distal RTA (Type 1), the correction of hypokalemia takes precedence. Once this has been achieved, alkali therapy should commence. Two effective options are sodium citrate (Shohl's solution) or sodium bicarbonate tablets (each containing 650 mg of sodium bicarbonate, equivalent to 7.8 milliequivalents of bicarbonate). These treatments aim to correct and maintain the serum bicarbonate concentration within the range of 24 to 26 milliequivalents per liter (meq/L).

Patients with Type 1 RTA often respond well to chronic alkali therapy. This intervention carries several benefits, including a reduction in the frequency of nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), improvements in bone density, the restoration of normal growth patterns in children, and the preservation of kidney function in both adults and pediatric patients.

However, in the case of Type 4 RTA, a dual therapeutic approach is necessary. It involves correcting the metabolic acidosis using the same strategies applied in classical distal renal tubular acidosis (Type 1 RTA). Simultaneously, attention must be given to rectifying hyperkalemia or elevated plasma potassium levels. Achieving normokalemia, or normal potassium levels in the blood, enhances the excretion of net acid in the urine, leading to significant improvement in the metabolic acidosis.

Management of Type 4 RTA may include the chronic administration of oral sodium polystyrene sulfonate, usually in the form of 15 grams of powder prepared as an oral solution. This treatment is typically administered once daily, 2 to 3 times per week, and it's worth noting that the preparation excludes sorbitol due to palatability concerns, as patient compliance can be challenging.

As an alternative, the non-absorbed calcium-potassium cation exchange polymer, patiromer, can be considered for patients with Type 4 RTA and concurrent hyperkalemia. This option is preferred due to its better taste. It's supplied as 8.4-gram packets of powder for suspension, with dosing adjusted at weekly intervals based on the plasma potassium levels. The maximum daily dose should not exceed 25.2 grams.

Additionally, dietary adjustments are vital, and patients should consume a low-potassium diet, avoiding potassium-rich foods or supplements, including salt substitutes. All medications that retain potassium should be discontinued, and, if necessary, a loop diuretic may be prescribed to aid in potassium excretion.

In cases where isolated hypoaldosteronism is confirmed, patients may require fludrocortisone therapy. However, the specific dose can vary depending on the underlying cause of the hormone deficiency. It's crucial to approach fludrocortisone administration cautiously, particularly in patients with edema and hypertension, as it has the potential to worsen these conditions. When prescribed, it is often administered in combination with furosemide to mitigate possible aggravation of these symptoms.

Metablolic Alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis is characterized by an elevated arterial pH, an increase in the serum bicarbonate concentration ([HCO3-]), and a rise in Paco2 due to compensatory alveolar hypoventilation (as shown in Table 55-1). This condition is often accompanied by hypochloremia and hypokalemia. The elevation in arterial pH serves as a diagnostic indicator, as respiratory acidosis is characterized by decreased pH, despite both conditions having elevated Paco2 levels. Furthermore, metabolic alkalosis can frequently co-occur with other acid-base disorders, including respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, or metabolic acidosis.

Metabolic Alkalosis: Etiology and Pathogenesis
Metabolic alkalosis results from either a net gain of bicarbonate ([HCO3-]) or the loss of nonvolatile acid, typically hydrochloric acid (HCl) through processes like vomiting. During vomiting, when HCl is lost from the stomach, the small bowel fails to initiate HCO3- secretion, causing an accumulation of HCO3- in the extracellular fluid. This phase is referred to as the "generation stage" of metabolic alkalosis since the loss of acid triggers alkalosis. Once vomiting ceases, the "maintenance stage" begins, as secondary factors prevent the kidneys from appropriately excreting HCO3-.

Maintenance of metabolic alkalosis signifies a kidney failure to eliminate excess HCO3- from the extracellular compartment. The kidneys retain the surplus alkali rather than excreting it when:

 * 1) Volume deficiency, chloride deficiency, and potassium deficiency occur concurrently with reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR), resulting in low urine chloride levels.
 * 2) Hypokalemia is present due to autonomous hyperaldosteronism, leading to normal urine chloride levels.

In the first scenario, saline-responsive metabolic alkalosis can be corrected by restoring extracellular fluid volume (ECFV) through intravenous administration of sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl). Conversely, in the latter situation, treatment may involve pharmacologic or surgical interventions rather than saline administration, as it is considered saline-unresponsive metabolic alkalosis.

Metabolic Alkalosis: Differential Diagnosis
To determine the cause of metabolic alkalosis, various factors need to be assessed, including the ECFV status, blood pressure in both recumbent and upright positions (to detect orthostasis), serum potassium concentration ([K+]), urine chloride concentration ([Cl–]), and, in some cases, the renin-aldosterone system. For example, the presence of chronic hypertension and chronic hypokalemia in a patient with alkalosis may suggest mineralocorticoid excess or the use of diuretics. If plasma renin activity is low, and urine chloride levels exceed 20 milliequivalents per liter (meq/L) in a patient not taking diuretics, primary mineralocorticoid excess may be indicated. In cases where hypokalemia and alkalosis coexist in a normotensive, non-edematous patient, possible causes include Bartter's or Gitelman's syndrome, magnesium deficiency, vomiting, alkali ingestion, or diuretic usage. Here, the measurement of urine electrolytes (particularly urine chloride) and screening for diuretics are advisable. If urine is alkaline with elevated [Na+]u (urine sodium), [K+]u (urine potassium), and low [Cl–]u, the diagnosis often points to vomiting (either overt or surreptitious) or alkali ingestion. However, if the urine is relatively acidic with low concentrations of Na+, K+, and Cl–, possibilities include prior vomiting, the posthypercapnic state, or previous diuretic use. If sodium, potassium, and chloride concentrations in the urine are not reduced, one should consider magnesium deficiency, Bartter's or Gitelman's syndrome, or current diuretic ingestion. Bartter's syndrome can be distinguished from Gitelman's syndrome by the presence of hypocalciuria in the latter disorder.

Metabolic Alkalosis Associated with ECFV Contraction, K+ Depletion, and Secondary Hyperreninemic Hyperaldosteronism
Metabolic Alkalosis: Alkali Administration

Chronic alkali administration to individuals with normal renal function typically does not result in alkalosis. However, in patients with concurrent hemodynamic disturbances linked to effective ECFV depletion (e.g., heart failure), alkalosis can develop due to a reduced capacity to excrete HCO3- or an increased reabsorption of HCO3-. Such patients may receive sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) orally or intravenously, intravenous citrate loads (from whole blood transfusions or therapeutic apheresis), or antacids combined with cation-exchange resins like aluminum hydroxide and sodium polystyrene sulfonate. Interestingly, nursing home residents who receive enteral tube feedings are at a higher risk of developing metabolic alkalosis compared to those on regular diets.

Gastrointestinal Origin: Metabolic alkalosis can arise from gastrointestinal losses of hydrogen ions (H+) during vomiting or gastric aspiration. This simultaneous loss of H+ leads to the addition of HCO3- into the extracellular fluid. During active vomiting, the filtered load of bicarbonate reaching the kidneys increases acutely, surpassing the proximal tubule's capacity for HCO3- absorption. Consequently, excessive HCO3- reaches the distal nephron, where the ability to reabsorb HCO3- is limited, resulting in the excretion of alkaline urine, which stimulates potassium secretion. Once vomiting subsides, the persistent volume, potassium, and chloride depletion promote HCO3- reabsorption, maintaining the alkalosis. Correcting the contracted ECFV with NaCl and addressing potassium deficits with KCl resolves the acid-base disorder by restoring the kidney's capacity to excrete excess bicarbonate.

Renal Origin: Diuretics, such as thiazides and loop diuretics like furosemide, bumetanide, and torsemide, increase salt excretion and acutely decrease the ECFV without altering the total body bicarbonate content. The serum bicarbonate concentration ([HCO3-]) rises because the reduced ECFV effectively "contracts" around the plasma [HCO3-] (resulting in contraction alkalosis). Chronic diuretic administration tends to induce alkalosis by increasing distal salt delivery, which stimulates both potassium (K+) and hydrogen ion (H+) secretion. The maintenance of this alkalosis is supported by continued ECFV contraction, secondary hyperaldosteronism, K+ deficiency, and the direct impact of diuretic use (as long as diuretics are administered). To reverse the alkalosis, discontinuing diuretics and administering isotonic saline to correct the ECFV deficit are necessary.

Solute Losing Disorders: Bartter's Syndrome and Gitelman's Syndrome: These conditions can result in metabolic alkalosis.

Non-Reabsorbable Anions and Magnesium Deficiency: The administration of significant quantities of penicillin derivatives, such as carbenicillin or ticarcillin, introduces non-reabsorbable anions into the distal tubule. This raises the transepithelial potential difference in the collecting tubule, subsequently enhancing H+ and K+ secretion. Magnesium (Mg2+) deficiency can occur with chronic use of thiazide diuretics, alcoholism, malnutrition, or in cases of Gitelman's syndrome. Mg2+ deficiency intensifies hypokalemic alkalosis by promoting distal acidification through renin stimulation, thus enhancing aldosterone secretion.

Potassium Depletion: Chronic potassium (K+) deficiency resulting from extreme dietary K+ insufficiency, diuretic usage, or alcohol abuse can initiate metabolic alkalosis by increasing urinary net acid excretion. Hypokalemia directly upregulates the generation of ammonium (NH4+) in the kidneys (ammoniagenesis). Furthermore, chronic K+ deficiency enhances the H+, K+-ATPases in the distal tubule and collecting duct, increasing K+ reabsorption and H+ secretion simultaneously. Alkalosis linked to severe K+ deficiency does not respond well to salt administration but is corrected by addressing the K+ deficiency. Often, potassium depletion occurs alongside magnesium deficiency in malnourished alcoholics.

After Treatment of Lactic Acidosis or Ketoacidosis: When an underlying trigger for lactic acid or ketoacid generation is corrected, such as volume restoration for shock or severe volume depletion or insulin therapy, the lactate or ketones are metabolized to produce an equivalent amount of HCO3-. The addition of exogenous HCO3- sources can exacerbate this, leading to a surplus of HCO3- ("rebound alkalosis").

Posthypercapnia: Prolonged carbon dioxide (CO2) retention in chronic respiratory acidosis enhances renal HCO3- absorption and the generation of new HCO3- (increased net acid excretion). Metabolic alkalosis arises from the sustained elevation in [HCO3-] when the elevated Paco2 returns abruptly toward normal.

Metabolic Alkalosis Associated with ECFV Expansion, Hypertension, and Mineralocorticoid Excess
Increased aldosterone levels can result from autonomous primary adrenal overproduction or secondary aldosterone release due to renal overproduction of renin. Mineralocorticoid excess enhances net acid excretion and may lead to metabolic alkalosis, typically exacerbated by accompanying K+ deficiency. Salt retention and hypertension are attributed to the upregulation of the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) in the collecting tubule in response to aldosterone. Kaliuresis persists due to mineralocorticoid excess and ENaC stimulation, which raises transepithelial voltage, facilitating K+ excretion. Prolonged K+ deficiency may lead to polydipsia and polyuria.

Liddle's Syndrome: Liddle's syndrome results from a rare inherited gain-of-function mutation in genes that regulate the ENaC in the collecting duct. This monogenic form of hypertension is marked by volume expansion, which subsequently suppresses aldosterone production. Patients typically present with hypertension, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis. Symptoms associated with metabolic alkalosis include mental confusion, obtundation, a predisposition to seizures, paresthesias, muscular cramping, tetany, aggravation of arrhythmias, and hypoxemia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Hypokalemia and hypophosphatemia may also be present.

Treatment of Metabolic Alkalosis
The primary goal of therapy is to address the underlying stimulus for HCO3- generation. Correcting the primary causes, such as primary aldosteronism or Cushing's syndrome, can reverse hypokalemia and alkalosis. Factors contributing to the inappropriate increase in HCO3- reabsorption, such as ECFV contraction or K+ deficiency, should also be eliminated. K+ deficits should always be corrected. If ECFV contraction is present, isotonic saline is recommended to reverse the alkalosis. In cases where congestive heart failure or similar conditions prevent saline infusion, acetazolamide (125-250 mg IV), a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, may be administered to accelerate renal HCO3- loss in patients with adequate renal function. However, acetazolamide may cause urinary K+ losses and subsequent hypokalemia, which should be addressed. Dilute hydrochloric acid IV (0.1 N HCl) has been proposed for extreme cases of metabolic alkalosis but is associated with hemolysis and must be infused slowly into a central vein. This preparation is generally not readily available and must be prepared in the pharmacy, making its use inadvisable due to the potential for serious errors or harm. In Liddle's syndrome, therapy should include a potassium-sparing diuretic (amiloride or triamterene) to inhibit ENaC and correct both hypertension and hypokalemia.

Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis occurs due to severe pulmonary disease, respiratory muscle fatigue, or ventilatory control abnormalities. It is characterized by an increase in Paco2 (carbon dioxide levels) and a decrease in pH. In acute respiratory acidosis, there is a compensatory increase in bicarbonate (HCO3-) levels, while in chronic respiratory acidosis, the kidneys adapt to increase HCO3- levels further. The clinical symptoms vary depending on the severity and duration of respiratory acidosis, underlying diseases, and the presence of hypoxemia. Rapidly rising Paco2 can cause anxiety, dyspnea, confusion, and even coma, while chronic hypercapnia can lead to sleep disturbances, memory loss, and other neurological symptoms.

Various factors, including drugs, injuries, or diseases, can depress the respiratory center and lead to respiratory acidosis. Chronic respiratory acidosis can result from obstructive lung diseases or restrictive disorders involving the chest wall and lungs. Diagnosis involves measuring Paco2 and arterial pH, along with a detailed medical history and physical examination. Additional pulmonary function tests can help identify underlying lung disease, while investigations for nonpulmonary causes include drug history, hematocrit measurement, and assessment of upper airway, chest wall, pleura, and neuromuscular function.

Treatment depends on the severity and onset of respiratory acidosis. Acute respiratory acidosis requires simultaneous management of the underlying cause and restoration of adequate alveolar ventilation, which may involve tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. Care must be taken when administering oxygen to avoid worsening acidosis. Chronic respiratory acidosis aims to improve lung function, and gradual reduction of elevated Paco2 levels may be necessary. It is essential to address the primary condition contributing to respiratory acidosis.

Respiratory alkalosis occurs when alveolar hyperventilation lowers Paco2 and increases the HCO3-/ Paco2 ratio, resulting in increased pH. This can happen due to various causes, such as hyperventilation syndrome, certain drugs, diseases, or metabolic conditions. The symptoms of respiratory alkalosis depend on its duration and severity, ranging from dizziness and confusion to cardiovascular effects. Chronic respiratory alkalosis is commonly seen in critically ill patients and often requires addressing the underlying disease. Diagnosis involves measuring arterial pH and Paco2 levels, and treatment focuses on managing the underlying disorder, such as psychological stress in the case of hyperventilation syndrome.

In summary, respiratory acidosis and alkalosis result from disturbances in the body's acid-base balance due to respiratory factors. Their clinical presentation and management depend on the underlying causes and the severity of the condition, with treatment primarily directed at addressing the root cause of the imbalance.


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Talk:Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Mississippi River Locks and Dams

The Reason for this page
This page is part of a project for GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University. The project has just begun so there will be more information added as we complete our research! Here is a link to some other case studies done in the past so you can get an idea of what we are building here. Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook Gabriella Wade (discuss • contribs) 17:11, 7 September 2023 (UTC)


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Cookbook:Passover Hazelnut Loaf Cake

This Passover hazelnut loaf cake is kosher for Passover and tastes like Nutella without the chocolate!

Ingredients

 * 5 eggs, separated
 * ½ lb shelled blanched hazelnuts
 * 1 scant cup white granulated sugar

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat the oven to 350 °F (180 °C).
 * 2) Grind the hazelnuts to in a food processor until fine. You should have about 3½ cups.
 * 3) Whip sugar and egg yolks until light yellow.
 * 4) Whip the whites until soft peaks form.
 * 5) Fold the ground nuts and the egg whites into the egg yolk mixture.
 * 6) Pour into a shallow wide-brimmed oven-safe dish.
 * 7) Bake for 30 minutes until the surface is golden brown.

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Quantum Chemistry/Example 33

1.1 Wave Function[edit | edit source]
Wave is a verb meaning "to move back and forth". Oscillations happen when a build-up of an opposing force, such water waves, springs, or pendulums, counteracts displacements in either direction. The reason it's called a "wave" function is because it satisfies a wave equation, known as the Schrödinger equation. This equation describes how the wave function evolves over time, much like how classical wave equations describe the propagation of waves in classical physics. So, the term "wave function" reflects both the wave-like behavior of quantum entities and the mathematical form of the function, which satisfies a wave equation. The Schrödinger equation is also 2nd order; for free electron, it has the same oscillatory “wave” solution and is given by;

$$\frac{\ d^2\Psi(x)}{dx^2} = - \frac{\ 2mE}{\hbar^2} * \Psi(x)$$

1.2 Free Electron[edit | edit source]
An electron is said to be free if it can move along the x-axis in any direction without any force acting on it (i.e., 𝒱 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = −∞, ∞ ). It is not bound by an external force, or equivalently not in a region where its potential energy varies. In quantum mechanics, it indicates that the particle is in a region of uniform potential, which is often set to zero in the area of interest because any point in space can have an arbitrary potential set to zero.

The wave function of a free electron is typically represented as a plane wave, which is a solution to the Schrödinger equation. The Schrödinger equation is a fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes with time. The wave function of a free electron can be written as:

$$\psi(x,t) = A * e^(i(kx-wt))$$

where:

-  is the wave function, which depends on position x and time t,

-  is the amplitude of the wave,

- k is the wave number, which is related to the momentum of the electron,

-  is the angular frequency, which is related to the energy of the electron,

-  is the imaginary unit.

2.1 Derive the wave function of a free electron[edit | edit source]
Time-independent Schrödinger wave equation is given by;

$$\widehat{H}\Psi = E \psi$$

$$(\hat{\Tau} + \widehat{V}) \psi = E \psi$$

Next define the Hamiltonian,

$$\widehat{H} = \widehat{T} + \widehat{V}$$

Substitute the potential energy operator

$$\widehat{V} = V(x) = 0$$ (free electron)

and the kinetic energy operator

$$\widehat{T} =   $$ $$\frac{-\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\ d^2}{dx^2}$$

$$(\hat{\Tau} + \widehat{V}) \psi = E * \psi$$

To obtain the Schrödinger equation for a free particle, rearrange the differential equation; isolate 2nd derivative on LHS

$$- \frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\frac{\ d^2\Psi(x)}{dx^2} = E\Psi(x)$$

and make the substitution

$$k^2 = \frac{2mE}{\hbar^2}$$

Since  is the kinetic energy,

$$\Epsilon = \frac{p^ 2}{2m}$$

p and the wave vector k are related, p = $$\hbar$$k

we also could recognize that $$\frac{2mE}{\hbar^2}$$ is just $$k^2$$as shown in this equation

$$ \frac{2mE}{\hbar^2} = (\frac{2m}{\hbar^2}) (\frac{p^2}{2m}) $$

$$ = (\frac{2m}{\hbar^2}) (\frac{\hbar^2 k^2}{2m}) $$

$$ = k^2 $$

after rearranging and substitution of result from equation, the result is

$$ (\frac{d^2}{d x^2} + k ) \psi(x) =    $$ $$  0   $$

This linear second-order differential equation can be solved by separating into two factors, and each is set equal to 0.$$ (\frac{d^2} {d x^2} + k^2)     $$$$  \psi(x)    $$$$  =    $$ $$  (\frac{d } {d x } + ik)     $$ $$  (\frac{d } {d x } - ik)     $$$$  \psi(x)    $$$$  =    $$$$  0   $$Equation is true if either

$$ (\frac{d } {d x } + ik)     $$$$  \psi(x)    $$$$  =    $$$$  0   $$

$$ (\frac{d } {d x } - ik)     $$$$  \psi(x)    $$$$  =    $$$$  0   $$

By concurrently rearranging and denoting the two equations and their solutions with a + and a - sign, the result is

$$ \frac{d \psi_\pm (x) }{\psi_\pm (x)}     $$ $$  =    $$ $$  \pm     $$ $$  ik      $$ $$  dx     $$

which translates to

$$ l n     $$ $$  {\psi_\pm (x)}     $$ $$  =    $$ $$  \pm     $$ $$  ikx      $$ $$  +  $$$$  {C_\pm (x)}     $$

and finally

$$ {\psi_\pm (x)}     $$$$  =    $$ $$  A_\pm      $$$$  e^i     $$$$  ^k     $$$$  ^x     $$

Any function that satisfies the requirements of wave functions and is a solution to this differential equation is a valid wave function for this system.

Reference[edit | edit source]

 * 1) Libretexts. (2022, April 21). 5.1: The Free Particle. Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Book_Quantum_States_of_Atoms_and_Molecules_(Zielinksi_et_al)/_Translational_States/_The_Free_Particle
 * 2) Anderson, J.M. Introduction to Quantum Chemistry, 1969, W.A. Benjamin, Inc, pg.81-91.

title: Quantum Chemistry/Example 33


text:
Quantum Chemistry/Example 34

Calculate the wavenumber corresponding to the transition of a hydrogen atom from the n=2 ℓ =1 mℓ =-1 state to the n=2 ℓ =1 mℓ =1 state in a 1 T magnetic field.

Answer
First, the equation for energy of a hydrogen atom under a magnetic field is needed. The energy of a hydrogen atom under a magnetic field can be expressed as follows:

$$E=-\frac{m_e e^4}{8 \varepsilon_0 h^2 n^2} + \beta_B m_l B_z$$

Where E is the energy in joules, me is the mass of the electron in kg, e is the charge of electron in Coulomb “C”, ε0 is vacuum permittivity in F/m, h is Planck’s constant in J·s, and n is the principal quantum number. In the other half of the equation, which considers the magnetic quantum number, Bz is the magnetic field in Tesla “T”, ml is the magnetic quantum number, and βB is Bohr magneton in J/T, and it is calculated using the following equation:

$$\beta_B = \frac{|e|\cdot\hbar}{2 m_e} = \frac{|1.6022\times10^{-19} C|\cdot1.0546\times10^{-34}J\cdot s}{2(9.1094\times10^{-31}kg)} =9.2740\times10^{-24} J/T$$

Therefore, using the equation mentioned for the energy of a hydrogen atom, the energy of the transition, which is the difference in energy “∆E”, can be described as follows:

$$\Delta E = E_{upper}-E_{lower} = (-\frac{m_e e^4}{8 \varepsilon_0 h^2 n_{upper}^2} + \beta_B m_{l, upper} B_z) -(-\frac{m_e e^4}{8 \varepsilon_0 h^2 n_{lower}^2} + \beta_B m_{l,lower} B_z) $$

If we go back to the question we can notice that there is no change in the quantum number “n” as “n=2” in both states. Also, if we look at the first term of the energy equation, we can see that it all consists of constants except the quantum number “n”. Thus, since “n” is the same for both states, both terms can get cancelled. Therefore, the equation becomes:

$$\Delta E = \beta_B m_{l, upper} B_z- \beta_B m_{l,lower} B_z $$

Thus, after substituting:

$$\Delta E = \beta_B m_{l, upper} B_z- \beta_B m_{l,lower} B_z = \beta_B B_z (m_{l,upper} - m_{l,lower}) = 9.27\times10^{-24}J \cdot T^{-1} (1T) [1-(-1)] = 9.27\times10^{-24}J \cdot T^{-1} (1T)(2) = 1.85\times10^{-23}J $$

Then, we can convert the energy to wavenumber:

$$E=hc \tilde{\nu} \Longrightarrow \tilde{\nu} = \frac{ E }{hc} = \frac{1.85\times10^{-23}J}{6.626\times10^{-34}Js(3.00 \times10^{8}m/s)} = 93.3m^{-1} = 0.933cm^{-1}

$$

This value is reasonable as the difference between energies/wavenumbers of transitions is usually small. The instrument that was used for the transition in the question is electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, which is a famous type of spectroscopy that measure the absorption of the EM radiation, but it does it using magnetic filed, and it does apply that magnetic field on the unpaired electrons. EPR spectroscopy specifically measures the absorption of microwave radiation, which is approximately in the the range of ~0.1-10.0cm-1. Thus, the answer does make sense.

title: Quantum Chemistry/Example 34


text:
Quantum Chemistry/Example 35

Determine the effective nuclear charge for H- in the 1s2 state

title: Quantum Chemistry/Example 35


text:
AI Art Generation Handbook/ControlNet/Canny

Canny in this context meant  Canny Edge Detection  algorithm which is kind of popular edge detection used in computer vision.

To use Canny mode, you need to ensure you have downloaded Canny models from here  and search for the following Canny pre-trained ControlNet models.

Workflow:

First of all, we need to have a base image to work with. Such as picture of this geisha playing shamisen.

Then, you can think of a similar picture such as a rockstar playing guitar.

We shall use prompt : "Photo of a rockstar playing heavy metal music with electric guitar,  kneeling on the stage"

Each of the effect are displayed below

Note: All of the settings are the same as per default unless mentioned otherwise.

Control Weight
Control Weight controls the amount of influence that the reference image has on the generated image. A higher Control Weight will result in a more similar image, while a lower Control Weight will result in a more original image.

Preprocessing Resolution
Pre-Processing Resolution setting in Stable Diffusion ControlNet controls the resolution of the image that is used to train the model. A higher Pre-Processing Resolution will make the model more accurate, but it will also require more computation. Note: If you are using a reference image with a lot of detail, you may need to use a higher Pre-Processing Resolution to capture all of the detail in the generated image. If you are limited by computation, you should use a lower Pre-Processing Resolution.


text:
User:Nurshod1996

Egypt is one of the countries that is full of ancient heritage in every field and became a fundamental step for the old civilization of humankind. Nowadays, Egypt is well known for its mosques, and one of the best countries for having Islamic knowledge. History There is no exact date when education started in Egypt, but according to historians, it began approximately 4000-5,000 years ago. At that time Egyptians were learning subjects that we are learning nowadays, for example, astronomy, math, physics, health care, and so on. Even the education system was similar to the modern education system, both in style and curriculum. Archeological evidence and images depict that there were classrooms for students, and in some classrooms, there were desks as well. They were able to make a calendar based on the movement of the sun and moon. Only boys were allowed to attend schools, girls were taught at home by their mothers. Formal education began at the age of 7. Several subjects were taught which were similar to modern education, like, maths, sport, writing, reading and other social subjects. However, children from the lower class rarely attend to education due to the high cost, family background, and limited spaces for schools. Evolution of education in Egypt After the reign of pharaohs, the educational evolution in Egypt has been influenced by several political developments. Initially, Ottomans established a European-style system in the early 19th century. Under the British occupation, the education system changed drastically, and focused on mainly public schools, The British tried to refashion and rematch to British education system. During the year of the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser, education was one of the main purposes of the modernizing system. In the 1950s, he announced a free education for all citizens, starting with schools and later extending this to include higher education. The Egyptian curriculum became a bright example, and greatly influenced other Arab education systems, and soon it showed its result that other Arabic countries hired Egyptian teachers. Nasser also offered guarantees that all university graduates would be able to find employment in the public sector, a promise that contributed to a rapid increase in university enrolment rates in the following decades. There was also a private education system that dates back to President Anwar Sadat’s ‘Open Door’ policies of the 1970s. Education system in modern Egypt Now, Egypt has the better education system in the Middle East and North Africa, despite it has gone through some revolution in the past decade. Education system in Egypt divided into 3 stages: 1.Pre-school (Nursery) 2.School Education (Pre Higher Education): Ministry of Education holds an authority on this stage. 3.Higher Education: Ministry of Higher education holds an authority on this stage.

School system:

Government Schools:

There are normally two types of government schools, one is Arabic language school and the second one is experimental language school which uses English, and adds French or German as a second foreign language in preparatory education. It is similar to Uzbekistan education system, slightly different. One is Uzbek language school, other is Russian language school.

Private Schools: There are 4 types of Private schools: 	Ordinary School: Their curriculum is similar to that of government schools in Egypt, but they are slightly different in terms of giving proper attention to every student. 	Language Schools: They teach most of the curriculum in English and also add French or German as a secondary language. They provide better facilities to students as compare to other schools. That is why their fees are quite on the higher side. 	Religious schools: They are basically religiously oriented school as Azhar or Catholic schools. 	International’s schools: They are those schools which offer curriculum of different countries like that of American, British or French System and the degrees offered by them are certified from Ministry of Education.

Bachelors in Egypt

Students can enroll for various bachelors programs in Egypt universities. The time period is typically, four to six years. Medical degree is given to the student in Egypt with six academic years along with one year of practical work. On completion of General Secondary Certificate of Education, students can enroll in bachelors program. The eligibility criteria for every bachelors program is 70 percent in secondary grade.

Masters in Egypt After bachelors, students can enroll for master’s degree in Egypt universities. The time period is typically two to five years. The eligibility criteria for every master’s program are 50-60 percent in graduation. Masters generally comprises of research and training along with thesis work. Doctorate in Egypt Students with successful completion of master’s degree from accredited universities can enroll for doctorate in any recognized Egypt universities. The Phd or Doctorate comprises of advanced research and thesis work. The time period is typically three years. Academic Year In Egypt, academic year starts at second or third week of September. The first term approximately lasts for 15 weeks and end in Mid January. Then there are mid- term vacations for one month. Then second term starts with mid February and lasts for 15 weeks i.e., mid June followed by summer vacation for three months.

Conclusion

Education in Egypt has gone through many challenges and periods so far. Even though, reputation of it leveled down a bit, it is still being noticed with its remarkable and unique systems in the world. Every year, thousand of students visit to Egypt for studying, especially for learning Islamic knowledge. Uzbekistan send hundreds of students to Egypt too. Education system is almost similar in both countries, apparently, Egypt started the revolution in education much more earlier than Uzbekistan. Nowadays, Uzbekistan is going in the same way. In addition, as majority of Uzbek are muslim, it would be great to work collaborately to organize Islam universities and schools. There is Islam University in Tashkent and also several mosques, but it is not enough. And also, it has limited space for access.

title: User:Nurshod1996


text:
Terve, Jonathan!/Kapitul 4

Kapitules – Kapitul 3 – Kapitul 4 – Kapitul 5

Kapitul kvar (kapitul 4)

Kud e Jonathan? Siste el in Vien? Ne, el siste in otri vil. El siste in Bistrica. Kvod e Bistrica? Il e vil in Romenia. Ted starte di viat in Romenia.

Jonathan skribe in sui dagbuk: "Di primi de maj me esed in Munik. Di drugi de maj me esed in Vien. Tun me esed in Budapešt. Budapešt esed beli. Ma me ne haved tajm in Budapešt. Me vided di strada in Budapešt. In Budapešt me denked: tud ende di west, i tud starte di ost. Budapešt e diferensli."

El denke en fjuka mer o Budapešt. El denke: "Me e person ki vente od England, od London. Me parle engli, bo di persones in England parle engli. Ma in Budapešt me ne parled kon di persones in engli; me parled in germani. Mei germani nie beni, ma di persones in Budapešt ne parle engli. Nos parled in germani. Il e interesenti ke di persones in Budapešt parle germani."

Ted Jonathan denke o sui viat. El denke: "Me esed in di muzeo in London. In di muzeo esed bukes o cetri land. Me lekted di bukes. In di muzeo esed pismos o cetri land. Me vided di pismos. Di bukes i di pismos dikted ke di cetri land e ferni, ma interesenti. In di cetri land e multi persones, multi diferensli persones."

Ted Jonathan cetrodenke o sui viat. El denke: "Jer me esed in Kluž. Me eded in Kluž. Di nim del nutritment esed "paprika hendl". Il e muj beni, di nutritment in Kluž. Di hotel esed beni, ma me ne dormed benim. Ma di land e muj beli! In di tren me vided multi vilietes i multi slotes. Vil e mer grandi kuj hotel, i mer beli kuj hotel! Vilietes e minder grandi kuj viles, ma zi e beli, i hoteles e minder grandi kuj slotes."

Jonathan cetroskribe in sui dagbuk: "Bistrica e interesenti plas. Bistrica e oldi plas, mer oldi kuj otri plases. Ka mei hotel in Bistrica e oldi, mer oldi kuj otri hoteles. In di hotel me dikted mei nim: "Me e Jonathan Harker" i zi dikted me: "Benventen in di hotel." In di hotel me vided pismo pro me. Ted me ve lekte mei pismo."

Jonathan lekte sui pismo. Il dikte:

"Mei frend. – Benventen. Dorme benim. Me e in Bukovina, prosim vente do Bukovina. Esed di viat od London beni? Mei land e muj beli. Benventen in mei land.

Vui frend, DRACULA."

Jonathan lekte sui pismo i denke o sui frend Graf Dracula. Ki e el? El ne vise. Ma sui frend e interesenti. Jonathan e felisi, i denke o sui frend. Tun el dorme.

title: Terve, Jonathan!/Kapitul 4


text: Category:Fermented food recipes

title: Category:Fermented food recipes


text: Category:Grapefruit recipes

title: Category:Grapefruit recipes


text: Category:Documentation see also templates


text:
User talk:Sir Beluga

Novial
Hi, how are you? I saw that you have translated some chapters of Salute, Jonathan! to Novial and I was wondering whether you could help revive the Novial Wikipedia. There is already one person writing there. Caro de Segeda (discuss • contribs) 09:22, 10 September 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sir Beluga


text:
User:DilrukhUngarova

= Educational Developments in the UK = Contents

 * 1) Why The UK Education is The Best?

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Education system in the UK

1.2 Higher Education

1.3 Funding details

2. Objective Overview of The Chapter

2.1 After reading this chapter, the learner will

2.2 Multinational Students

3. Types of Scholarships

4. Challenges in The UK Education

5. References

Introduction
The four main foundations of the United Kingdom's schooling system are preschool, high school, additional schooling, and university. At the young age six to the year of fifteen, kids living in the UK are motivated by statute to finish elementary and high school. The constitutional privilege of families to teach the kids however they see appropriate is a tradition of specialized educational institutions. Elementary schools or not specific universal schools  colleges in areas with formal schools are often known to as secondary schools) are two options for public educational institutions. With respect to savings, large schools are divided into public schools, various educational institutions, any remaining public schools, and other categories. Public schools, including the majority of faith-based campuses and educational institutions, are guaranteed pedagogical independence.

Education system in the UK
In the United Kingdom, the educational phase is likewise split into parts defined listed below:

1st  Phase : 5 to 7 years old

Second phase: 7 to 11 years old

Third phase: 11 to 14 years old

14–16 years

Kids will finish these parts 1 and 2 in their elementary schools before proceeding to high school to finish  3 and 4 parts.

Participants get assessed at the completion of every phase. Whenever students reach the mandatory age, they take their secondary school exam which is the most essential examination. Students who have completed elementary school given the choice of pursuing studying and possibly choosing a new  job.

Examination of the school system in the United Kingdom falls into five groups:

Elementary schooling in Britain starts at the tender stage six and continues until the year of twelve, comprising major stages the first and second of the UK school system. Visit the British Council's site for further information about preschool.

Pupils aged 11 to 16 will join secondary school for key years three and four, and will begin their road towards GCSEs - learn more about secondary school in the U.K. and what it includes. Both primary and secondary schools are obliged in the United Kingdom; education after the completion of 17 is optional.The school system in Britain is similarly separated into some parts," as is the case in the United States.

Instruction that is elective

Students who have completed secondary school may keep their education by pursuing higher education GNVQs, BTECs, or various equivalent degrees. Adolescents in the UK who additionally plan to enter an institution of higher learning have to complete additional coursework.

Colleges and universities

The latter is maybe a particularly important section on the page that explains additional information regarding England's university system and the manner in which it works for foreign learners. The majority of international learners are going to start the UK university system right away  completing their native nations' equivalent to the UK's "expanding study."

Higher Education
Because of its reputation for superior higher education, the United Kingdom attracts foreign students which make large economic and social commitments to the institution. In the UK, there are great resources for both instruction and study in higher education. Higher education schools in the UK offer top-notch amenities, making significant investments in everything from bookstores to data centers and science labs to cinemas, songs, and recreation. While many higher education courses are provided in colleges and other specialized schools like art and industrial institutions, universities still account for almost all of undergraduate educated instruction in Britain.

In the UK, college enrollment starts at the tender year of eighteen Students with elementary school credits from the UK or overseas, Equivalent-levels, a Foreign Baccalaureate, or a comparable credential. Numerous high-quality programs are offered by UK schools of higher learning, and they result in degrees that are regarded and valued by businesses and academic institutions across the world. There are several different academic certifications available in the UK.

Qualifications in Higher Education

Educational Qualifications

Higher education institutions in the United Kingdom provide 2 year degrees, such as the Higher National Diploma or the Graduate Certificate of Advanced Study.

Undergraduate degree There are three-year degree programs accessible that lead to a bachelor's in education, a bachelor's in artistic endeavors, or  a bachelor's in science and engineering.

The starting point  for degrees: Several institutions of higher educational institutions provide distinctive foundation courses, commonly referred to as "Year 0" applications, aimed towards students who want to pursue specific areas, including STEM fields, but do not meet the standards for entrance.

Post-graduate degrees include, for instance, graduate degrees. Masters of Arts might take between one and four years to complete. The most common graduate diploma in the world is the the MBA program, or Master of Entrepreneurship, and the UK provides the majority of these graduates.

Phd or the Study of Philosophy This most prestigious academic degree typically requires between two and four academic years to accomplish. Most candidates for the doctoral degree acquire a graduate degree or, more frequently, a highly excellent undergraduate education.

Funding details
The English educational financing structure is complicated, and it has been through a variety of alterations in the past few years, with additional improvements to student finance on the horizon.

Nowadays, money are distributed to expand academic institutions from various places based on the sort of courses they offer and the ages of those who attend. This is additionally substantial money accessible for institution property improvements.

This report gives context for the economic stability of the educational industry, its latest transfer in the general education field. It also explains the various financing schemes and explores current financial releases and statistics.

In addition educational institutions employ capital funding to repair, update, or extend their properties, infrastructure, and resources. During in the years 2022 and 2024-25, the fall Cost and Financial Report 2021 pledged £2.8 billions of dollars in capital investment throughout the further learning industry. This covers all additional educational facilities in England, such as institutions and approved organizations, sixth-form colleges, Institutes of Technologies, and T Level suppliers.

After reading this chapter, the learner will

 * Learn Educational Developmentin The UK
 * Comprehend Higer Education Systems
 * Analyse Financial terms of the Education in the UK

 * Learn Features of Successful Educational Development

Multinational Students
We are aware of the UK's rising recognition among foreign students, who commonly decide to continue their education at any or all of the several esteemed universities there. Because of its highly renowned universities, diversified historical surroundings, and qualified educators, England is the pinnacle of intellectual excellence.The UK just reached its objective of 60,000 overseas. Also If you wanr to be a part of that students you can apply to the Universities, at first you should have ti fill the requirements of your chosen Institution.

Types of Scholarships
Scholarships, grants, and fellowships are economic prizes aimed to assist students in meeting their educational expenses. They might be granted for a variety of motives which are frequently determined by the sort of association that bestows the scholarships. Scholarships are offered for a variety of reasons by various organizations.Scholarships are sums of cash awarded for accomplishments, both academic or recreational. Grants can be provided for accomplishment, particular condition, or monetary needs. Awards are often allocated for financial necessity. High School Scholarships: Many institutions provide grants to students who earn certain marks in their A'levels in order to motivate higher-roling students to attend their university. They are not all requesting A*AA; some are requesting ABB or less.

Artistic Scholarships: If you have musical skill and would want to take part while in university, there are scholarships available for vocal and technical performers.

Unique Characteristics: Grants depending on your specific needs, for example how you operate, when you go to college, what your family members do for a living whether you were raised,. Also The UK Educational Departments offers other types of Scholarships like, Sporting Achievement, Industry Scholarships and Marketing led Scholarships, also Charitable Purposes.

Challenges in The UK Education

 * 1) What did you learn about Educational Development of The UK?
 * 2) Was this information valuable for you?
 * 3) What are the characteristics of Successfull Educational Development?
 * 4) Did you get new insights through reading?

title: User:DilrukhUngarova


text:
User:Poiuytrewq0099

Test Aziz
Aziz brinimalar blablabla

Test Nigora
Nigora blablabla

title: User:Poiuytrewq0099


text:
User talk:2402:7500:4E6:59A:E481:8C53:A9F1:789B

Citing sources
Hello! You have been rapidly creating many pages on health/biological topics that do not cite any sources. Because this is health-related information, I believe it is very important to cite reputable sources. Could you wait to add new pages until you have properly sourced the pages you have added? Cheers —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 15:46, 10 September 2023 (UTC)


text:
User:Timeschooll

BANTU EDUCATION ACT

BANTU EDUCATION is the education that act on 1953 for black child only that learned about animals. The education separated black child from white that wanted white to develop more about learning than blacks. The act choose blacks to do their Afrikaans language that is tough to them to know.

title: User:Timeschooll


text:
User talk:Timeschooll

Answers about apartheid laws

title: User talk:Timeschooll


text:
Cookbook:Garlic Croutons II

Ingredients

 * 1 cup ½-inches bread cubes from good-quality French or Italian loaf
 * 2 tablespoons olive oil
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * ⅛ teaspoon garlic powder

Procedure

 * 1) Warm an 8-inch skillet over low heat while preparing bread. A minute before you are ready to cook, turn heat up to medium.
 * 2) Toss bread in a bowl with oil, salt, and garlic powder.
 * 3) Cook, stirring often, until crisp and golden brown (about 7 minutes).
 * 4) Use as a garnish for soups and salads.

title: Cookbook:Garlic Croutons II


text:
Cookbook:Garlic Croutons III

Ingredients

 * 1 stale loaf Italian bread, cut into 2-inch (5 cm) cubes
 * ¼ cup (about 50 ml) olive oil
 * 2 tsp garlic powder
 * ½ tsp salt
 * ½ tsp black pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Place cubes on a greased baking sheet and bake at 400°F (200°C) until thoroughly dried.
 * 2) Heat olive oil in a skillet over medium heat. Add seasonings and combine with oil. Add bread cubes and toss to coat.
 * 3) Cook until crisp. Remove and set aside until needed.

title: Cookbook:Garlic Croutons III


text:
Cookbook:Ham Sauce (Historic)

Ingredients

 * 28 g (1 oz) ham
 * 3 dessert spoons Musca or sweet port
 * 1 teaspoon vinegar
 * Basil
 * Spice

Procedure

 * 1) Cut up ham, and pound it in a mortar.
 * 2) Add the port or Musca, vinegar, a little dried basil, and a pinch of spice.
 * 3) Bring mixture to a boil, then pass through a sieve and warm it up in a bain-marie.
 * 4) Serve with roast meats.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If you cannot get a sweet wine, add half a teaspoonful of sugar. Australian Muscat is a good wine to use.

title: Cookbook:Ham Sauce (Historic)


text:
Cookbook:Palatschinken with Sweetened Fruit

Crepes

 * ½ cup (120 ml) flour
 * 1 egg
 * 1 tsp granulated sugar
 * 3 tbsp melted butter
 * ⅔ cup (160 ml) milk
 * 1 pinch of salt

Filling

 * 2 cups (480 ml) chopped fruit or whole berries of your choice
 * 2 tsp vanilla extract
 * ½ cup (120 ml) granulated sugar
 * 1 tbsp lemon juice
 * 4 tbsp orange juice

Garnish

 * Powdered sugar
 * Cinnamon

Crepes

 * 1) Mix all ingredients together in a large mixing bowl to make a batter.
 * 2) Strain the batter to get rid of any lumps, then chill in the refrigerator for 2 hours.
 * 3) Brush a 12 inch (30 cm) frying pan with butter. Ladle batter onto pan as if making crepes, leaving space for spreading.
 * 4) Cook for 1 minute on each side.

Filling

 * 1) Combine orange juice, lemon juice, sugar, and vanilla extract in medium saucepan. Bring to boil and add fruit.
 * 2) Put 2 tbsp fruit mixture on each pancake, and fold over to enclose the filling.
 * 3) Sprinkle with powdered sugar and cinnamon.


text:
Cookbook:Rice Modak (Coconut Pastries) I

For making rice flour modak, the procedure is the same for making the filling of coconut and jaggery. However, rice flour is used in the dough instead of wheat flour. They are not fried, but steamed.

Dough

 * 2 cups rice flour
 * 2½ cups water
 * 1 tbsp butter
 * Salt

Filling

 * 1 cup fresh grated coconut
 * 1 cup jaggery
 * 2 tbsp raisins
 * 2 tbsp cashew nuts, chopped
 * 1 tsp cardamom, powdered
 * Ghee

Procedure

 * 1) Make the filling, following the same method as the wheat flour modak.
 * 2) Heat 2 cups of the water in a large pot/vessel and then add salt and butter.
 * 3) As the water starts boiling, add rice flour to the water. Lower heat. Mix well. The mixture should be a smooth paste; there should be no lumps. If mixture is becoming too dry then add the remaining ½ cup water. Keep heating on low heat until rice flour is cooked.
 * 4) Cover the mixture with a lid and remove from the heat. Let it cook in its own steam.
 * 5) While it is still warm rub some ghee on your palms and take a small portion of the dough. Make a ball out  of it. With your thumb shape the ball into a cup. Put 2 teaspoons of the filling and close the ends in a manner to get the shape of a fresh fig.
 * 6) Make 10 modaks and place them in a colander or steamer basket greased with ghee. Place the modak in such a way that they do not touch one another in the colander.
 * 7) Place the colander in a steamer and steam the modaks for 10 minutes.
 * 8) Dribble with a teaspoon of ghee, and serve hot.


text:
Cookbook:Rice Modak (Coconut Pastries) II

Filling

 * 2 cup shredded fresh coconut
 * 1 cup jaggery
 * 1 teaspoon roasted poppy seeds
 * 1 teaspoon rice flour
 * 3–4 cardamom pods

Dough

 * 1 cup water
 * 1 cup rice flour
 * 1 teaspoon ghee
 * ½ teaspoon oil
 * 1 pinch of salt

Filling

 * 1) Combine the coconut and jaggery. Cook over medium heat, stirring continuously until properly mixed. Do not overcook—the mixture should be brown not black.
 * 2) Stir cardamom, roasted poppy seeds, and rice flour into the mix. Cook for some time.
 * 3) Remove from the heat and allow it to cool.

Dough

 * 1) Boil the water. Add ghee, salt, and oil. Immediately add rice flour and stir well.
 * 2) Cover for some time. Remove the lid and stir and cover again for a minute.
 * 3) Remove from heat, and transfer the mixture to a flat plate. Knead it properly while hot to make a soft pliable dough. The dough should be neither too sticky nor too dry.

Assembly

 * 1) Divide the dough into small balls, or 'C-Rag' as it is more commonly referred to.
 * 2) Roll each ball into a 1.5 inch diameter circle. Hold it in one hand and make a small bowl of it. Put some coconut filling into the dough. Dip thumb and index finger in the oil and make 5–6 small pinches side by side on the edges of the bowl. Bring them together, join to form a peak. It should look like a head of garlic. Prepare all the other modaks like this.
 * 3) Spread a damp cloth onto a flat round steamer basket and arrange all the modaks onto it. Place the basket in a steamer and cover. Steam for about 15 minutes. Use a large saucepan or pressure cooker if you don't have a steamer—do not put the whistle if you use the pressure cooker.
 * 4) Serve warm with the clarified butter.


text:
Kittypet's Guide To Warrior Cats/Characters/SkyClan

Skystar: Skystar was the first leader of SkyClan.

Micah: Micah was SkyClan's first medicine cat.

Cloudstar: Cloudstar was the leader of SkyClan when they got driven out of the forest.

Spiderstar: Spiderstar was the last leader of ancient SkyClan.

Leafstar: Leafstar is the first leader of modern SkyClan.

Echosong: Echosong is the first medice cat of modern SkyClan.


text:
User:Niagara16

= Title : African education system =

= What is the traditional African education system ? = In traditional Africa, education was done through apprenticeship, where young people would learn a trade or profession by memory, without formal schooling. When children reach a certain age, they would learn a specific skill from people in their community. The young people in the community would learn different skills along with the community's social customs. Some of the skills that were taught included making medicine from plants, carving wood, farming, and etc. Conventional African instruction includes older individuals in the community sharing their knowledge and values with the younger generation through storytelling. In the past, young people in Africa learned by working with experienced adults. They had to remember and learn a specific trade or profession, which was a more informal way of education. Once the children reach a certain age, they would be taught by the members of their community in a specific skill or profession. The young people in the community will learn different skills in addition to the community's social customs. Some of the skills that were taught include making natural medicine, carving wood, gardening, and more. Traditional African education also includes storytelling from the older members of the community who would share their knowledge and beliefs with the younger generation.

= South African school system. = In South Africa we endeavor for utilitarian schools in spite of the challenging settings and the numerous guarantees and desire that got to be met. The South African instruction framework is administered by a national Office of Essential Instruction which comprises of nine common divisions. The national circle is primarily concerned with arrangement making and the setting of norms and guidelines on characterized issues, whereas the common circle needs to give school instruction.

Decentralization of administration to the school level within the frame of school overseeing bodies was a courageous move but may have contributed to extending the crevice between the wealthy and destitute. Principals are presently anticipated to be able to cultivate staff improvement, parent inclusion and community back and learner In South Africa, we try to have practical schools even though the conditions are difficult and there are many requirements that need to be fulfilled. The South African education system is controlled by a national Office of Basic Education made up of nine regional departments. The national group focuses on making arrangements and rules for specific issues, while the local group focuses on providing education for schools. Giving more control and decision-making power to individual schools was a brave decision, but it might have made the gap between rich and poor students even bigger. Principals are expected to do more than just manage their schools. They are also supposed to help teachers improve, involve parents and the community, and support student development..

= Top 3 African countries with the best education system. = Some countries in Africa were placed among the top 140 countries with the best education systems according to the World Education Forum, which considers their ability to develop skills. Besides looking at the general skill level of the workers and the education level of each country, other factors that were considered include things like research, how well people can use digital technology, the quality of academic buildings, and how good people are at thinking critically and creatively.

Seychelles
This is a tiny island and one of the smallest countries in terms of land size. Even though it is a small place, about 95,000 people live there. This means that educators can easily travel around the country. Seychelles is the only African country that has achieved the goal of "education for all" set by UNESCO. Currently, Seychelles is at the top of the list for African countries with the best education system.

According to the World Economic Forum, the country's education is given a score of 69. 3 It is the only African country that is considered one of the top 50 education systems worldwide. In 2016, UNESCO said that the Seychelles government used 11. 72% of its total money on education.

Tunisia
Tunisia is a well-educated country in Africa and is ranked second among Arab countries. It is also ranked 71st globally in education, with a score of 61. 4 The government of Tunisia and some private people have worked together to make the country's education system better. As a result, the country is ranked 49th for how long students can expect to stay in school and 51st for the number of students per teacher in primary education.

The Tunisian government is using its money from oil to improve the education system. They have built good universities and colleges in order to become one of the top countries in education.

Mauritius
Education in Mauritius started when the British ruled the country. After becoming free, they kept following the same methods as the British and it has influenced a lot of the country till now. Mauritius is a place with lots of rivers and surrounded by the Pacific Ocean. It is popular for tourists and also has educational opportunities. The country is believed to have 84. 4% of people who can read and write, and it is ranked as the third-best in the list. Mauritius is ranked as the third best country in Africa for education, earning a score of 61. It is ranked 74th in the world education system and is ranked 40th for staff training and 47th for vocational training quality globally.

= Advantages of African education system that we may bring it in our education system. =

 * Being on time: The students will need to know what time each class starts and when they can take a break. This schedule is set from the start. The students follow it to be on time and be disciplined. Kids talk and play with their friends in school, and this makes them grow as people. They learn how to give and take with others and treat them well. Extracurricular activities: These activities allow students to show their secret skills to others. This helps them get recognized for their skills and succeed in their life. The students can talk directly to their teachers. They can ask questions and get more information about things they are unsure about.No doubt, indigenous education taught both boys and girls about the physical, social, and spiritual aspects of their world. It also prepared them for jobs. Children were taught useful skills that helped them become productive and helpful to both themselves and society. I talked about the good things about education in Africa and told them about how it works in Uzbekistan. I liked how everyone plays an important part in the education system in Uzbekistan, and I appreciated that they focus on both physical and mental growth at the same time.

= Some problems with education in Africa = I believe that, education is something everyone should have access to and that it is the responsibility of the public to make sure it happens. However, there are still many children in developing African countries who do not have this right. I think it's a big problem and African governments need to do something to alleviate this problem.

= Conclusion. = To sum up, I analyzed the ancient African education system and the knowledge contained in it written in this Wikibook and I made comments about the education system of the top 3 countries. The methods of punctuality, social interactions, extracurricular activities and face to face interactions in the African education system made a great impression on me, and I think that their positive aspects should be brought to the education system of Uzbekistan. Most importantly, in African education, students realize that they are a part of society and this vast world, and learn not only mental skills but also they acquire physical skills.

= References. = 1. A decade of Research on School Principals

Authors: Helene Arlestig, Christopher Day.

Editor: Olof Johansson( cases from 24 countries)

2. homework.study.com (African traditional education)

3. Article. Top 10 countries in Africa by Liberal- December 21,2021

4. Higgs, P. 2003. African philosophy and the transformation of educational discourse in  Africa.

Journal of Education 30:1 22.

5. You tube vedio about africa from Khinvert.tv channel

6. Education in Africa: What Are We Learning?

Author: David K.Evans and Amina Mendez Acosta.

Journal of African Economies,2020 1-42 ( article)

title: User:Niagara16


text:
User:Strils

Sazom Hopsin

title: User:Strils


text:
Indonesian Education System

Introduction
Every nation strives to achieve the position of having an excellent educational system. The country will create a large number of clever people to aid in its progress if it invests in its educational system. Here is the education in Indonesia, a nation that is engaged in the aforementioned dispute. The Indonesian Education System is a diverse and complex framework that provides education and training from early childhood to higher education. It plays a crucial role in the development and growth of Indonesia, which is the largest archipelago in the world with a diverse cultural landscape.

Key Components:

 * 1) Early Childhood Education (PAUD): The education system begins with early childhood education, which is designed to prepare young children for primary school.
 * 2) Primary Education (SD/MI): Primary education in Indonesia is compulsory and typically spans six years. Students start primary school around the age of six.
 * 3) Secondary Education (SMP/MTs and SMA/SMK/MA): After completing primary education, students enter secondary education. This stage includes lower-secondary schools (SMP/MTs) and upper-secondary schools (SMA/SMK/MA). SMA focuses on general education, while SMK provides vocational education.
 * 4) Higher Education: Indonesia has a diverse higher education system, including universities, institutes, colleges, and academies. Some of the most prestigious universities in the country include the University of Indonesia and Gadjah Mada University.
 * 5) Vocational and Technical Education: Vocational education and training (SMK) play a significant role in preparing students for specific careers, such as in fields like engineering, hospitality, and agriculture.

Curriculum: The curriculum in Indonesian schools is primarily based on the national curriculum, but regional variations exist. Students are taught a range of subjects, including Bahasa Indonesia (the national language), mathematics, sciences, and social studies.

Challenges: The Indonesian education system faces challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, disparities in access to education between urban and rural areas, and the need for improvements in teacher quality and educational infrastructure.

Language of Instruction: The language of instruction in most Indonesian schools is Bahasa Indonesia, but regional languages and English are also taught.

Government Initiatives: The Indonesian government has implemented various initiatives to improve education quality and access, including curriculum reforms and efforts to increase teacher professionalism.

Cultural and Regional Diversity: The vast cultural and regional diversity in Indonesia plays a significant role in shaping the education system, with some regions having unique educational practices and challenges.

Overall, the Indonesian Education System is a dynamic and evolving framework that reflects the nation's commitment to providing education and training opportunities to its diverse population while addressing the challenges of access and quality.

Education System in Indonesia
As per the guidelines of the Indonesian educational system, a minimum of 12 years is considered the optimal duration for students to receive education.

The responsibility for the administration of education in Indonesia is divided between two government entities: the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs. All Indonesian citizens are obligated to complete twelve years of mandatory education, comprising six years of primary school and three years of middle school. Additionally, the Ministry of Religious Affairs oversees schools affiliated with Islamic, Christian, and Buddhist faiths. Education in Indonesia While some institutions do admit students as young as six, the standard age for enrolling in elementary school is seven. Before this, it's a voluntary option for children to attend preschool or kindergarten for several years to prepare for formal education.

After finishing primary school, students continue their education in junior high school, where they encounter additional subjects to broaden their knowledge base. This phase in Indonesia also introduces students to extracurricular activities and organizational involvement, fostering skill development and personal interests.

Educational institutions in Indonesia are categorized as either public or private. Some private schools identify as "national plus schools," signifying that their curricula exceed the Ministry of Education's requirements. This often includes English as the primary language of instruction or the adoption of an international curriculum in place of the national one. Indonesia boasts a substantial educational infrastructure, comprising over 26,000 high schools, 40,000 junior-secondary schools, and 170,000 elementary schools. Approximately 84% of these institutions fall under the purview of the Ministry of Education and Culture, with the remaining 16% being overseen by the Ministry of Religious Affairs.

Era of Islamic Monarchies
The convergence of Islamic and Hindu-Buddhist influences marks Indonesia's transition towards an Islamic monarchy. During this period, a novel form of Islamic educational institution, known as "pondok pesantren," emerged and saw the establishment of numerous such institutions. Much like Karsyan, these pesantrens were typically situated away from the bustling urban centers.

Dutch Colonial Period
In the period of Dutch colonization, basic education was introduced to Indonesia by the Dutch. The social and economic status of the colony's residents played a decisive role in shaping the different segments of the Dutch educational system, with the most prestigious institutions reserved for the European population.

Japanese Colonial Rule
During the period of Japanese colonial rule in World War II, the operations of the Dutch educational system were consolidated into a single entity that ran in parallel with the Japanese educational system. As part of an effort to establish the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere of Influence, the Japanese occupation had a detrimental impact on Indonesian education. Schools were refocused on teaching anti-Western military and physical exercises, along with Japanese history and culture. Students were required to salute the Emperor and raise the Japanese flag each morning. While the Japanese regime aimed to reduce educational disparities, by 1945, enrollment had plummeted by 90% in secondary education and by 30% in primary education.

Early education
Early Childhood Education in Indonesia, known as PAUD (Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini), oversees the preschool phase, which encompasses "Taman Bermain" (playgroup) and "Taman Kanak-Kanak" (kindergarten, often abbreviated as TK). The direct oversight and responsibility for PAUD are vested in the Directorate of Early Age Education Development (Direktorat Pengembangan Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini).

Parents typically introduce their children to the educational journey at age 2 by enrolling them in "Taman Bermain." Subsequently, at the age of 4, children proceed to "Taman Kanak-Kanak." These are informally referred to as "kelas nol kecil" (small zero grade) and "kelas nol besar" (large zero grade), respectively. Most TKs divide their classrooms into two groups labeled A and B. While not compulsory, the primary objective of this level of education is to prepare children for their formal elementary school education. It's worth noting that a significant 99.35% of Indonesia's 49,000 kindergartens are privately operated. During their time in kindergarten, students typically spend one year each in "Class A" and "Class B" before progressing to higher levels.

Public primary and secondary education
In Indonesia, a compulsory education period of 12 years is established. Students are obliged to be present at school from 07:30 a.m. (sometimes as early as 06:25 a.m. in certain schools) to 15:30 p.m., for five days per week (although some schools still observe six school days per week). Students have the option of attending either state-operated, non-denominational public schools overseen by the Ministry of National Education (Kemdiknas) or private or semi-private religious institutions, often Islamic, which are supervised and funded by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Schools also provide extracurricular activities encompassing sports, the arts, and religious studies, allowing students to select their preferred activities. Notably, even though only 15% of the school-age population in Indonesia attends religious schools, a significant 86.1% of the country's population is registered as Muslim.

Islamic Schools
In Indonesia, there exist primarily three distinct categories of Islamic educational institutions: pesantren, madrasah, and sekolah islam. Pesantrens vary widely in size, ranging from relatively large establishments with numerous teachers and hundreds of students to much smaller ones with just a few instructors and learners. Pesantrens are typically governed by hereditary kiais, who oversee the school's operations and wield religious authority.

Madrasahs differ in their ideological foundations and the extent to which they integrate secular and religious subjects into their curriculum. Sekolah Islam, on the other hand, incorporates its own Islamic curriculum alongside the secular curriculum administered by the Ministry of Education and Culture.

Conclusion / Aspects to be implemented in Uzbekistan's education system
There are aspects within the Indonesian education system that students and the broader community can take pride in: https://flip.id/en/blog/education-in-indonesia

 * 1) Affordable Tuition Fees  The Indonesian government ensures that tuition costs are reasonable, and in certain cases, even free, especially in public schools. This is made possible by allocating a substantial portion of the national budget, up to 20%, exclusively for educational purposes. Consequently, the government provides significant financial support to students, amounting to hundreds of trillions of rupiahs.
 * 2) Transparent Education System  Indonesia's education system is characterized by openness and transparency, allowing parents to easily monitor their children's classroom performance. This open-book approach permits students to study not only within school but also at home, with the involvement and guidance of their parents, to enhance their overall skills and knowledge.
 * 3) Expert-Designed Curricula  Educational curricula are meticulously crafted by experts to ensure quality and relevance. Furthermore, experienced professionals who possess a deep understanding of the educational landscape are also involved in this process. As a result, since 2013, Indonesian educators and experts have been collaborating to develop comprehensive educational curricula.
 * 4) Streamlined Student Admissions  Some schools in the past garnered considerable popularity among students, leading to fierce competition for admission, even if students had to travel long distances. Unfortunately, this could disadvantage those students who lived nearby but didn't meet the stringent admission requirements. Fortunately, a recent reform in Indonesia's education system has introduced a more inclusive admissions policy. This policy now allows students to enroll based on their age and place of residence, ensuring that every student has equitable access to the education they deserve without unnecessary obstacles.

Reference List / Sources for further readings
Education in Indonesia: Is It Good or Does It Need to be Improved? (09/15/2023). Flip.id. https://flip.id/en/blog/education-in-indonesia

 * 1) Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology (Kemdikbud RISTEK):
 * 2) * Website Link: Kemdikbud RISTEK. (Accessed [09/15/2023]) Available at: https://www.kemdikbud.go.id/.
 * 3) UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring Report - Indonesia Country Report:
 * 4) * UNESCO. "Education for All Global Monitoring Report - Indonesia Country Report." UNESCO (Accessed [09/15/2023]). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263493
 * 5) World Bank - Indonesia Education Overview:
 * 6) * World Bank. "Indonesia Overview." World Bank. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/968281574095251918/pdf/Overview.pdf
 * 7) Education in Indonesia - Wikipedia:
 * 8) * Wikipedia. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). "Education in Indonesia." Wikipedia. Available at: en.wikipedia/wiki/Education_in_Indonesia.
 * 9) The Jakarta Post - Education Section:
 * 10) * The Jakarta Post. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). "Education Section." The Jakarta Post. https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/04/04/transnational-education-an-opportunity-for-indonesias-future.html
 * 11) Indonesia Investments - Education Sector:
 * 12) * Indonesia Investments. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). "Education Sector." Indonesia Investments. http://www.gbgindonesia.com/en/education/sector/investing_in_education.php
 * 13) Indonesia Expat - Education Section:
 * 14) * Indonesia Expat. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). "Education Section." Indonesia Expat. https://indonesiaexpat.id/education/
 * 15) Asian Development Bank (ADB) - Education in Indonesia:
 * 16) * Asian Development Bank. "Education in Indonesia." Asian Development Bank. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). https://www.adb.org/publications/reviews-national-policies-education-indonesia-rising-challenge
 * 17) EducationUSA Indonesia:
 * 18) * EducationUSA. (Accessed [09/15/2023]). "Indonesia." EducationUSA Indonesia. https://www.educationusa.or.id/.

Review Questions:

 * 1) Which two Ministries are in charge or education in Indonesia?
 * 2) How many sectors are there in Indonesian education system?
 * 3) How many years of education are mandated in Indonesia?
 * 4) How many types of Islamic schools are there in Indonesia?
 * 5) What are the main advantages of education system in Indonesia?

title: Indonesian Education System


text:
Sylheti

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 * /Cover/
 * Introduction — About this wikibook
 * /Study methods/
 * /Contributor's Guide/
 * /Authors/ — Contributors to this book

Lesson plans

 * Practical Lessons
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Reading and writing

 * /Reading practice/
 * /Pronunciation/
 * /Writing practice/
 * /Alphabet/
 * /Numbers/
 * style="border: 1px solid #8B2500; background-color: #FAF4E6; margin: .2em; padding: .5em; width: 50%; vertical-align: top" |

Sylheti culture

 * /Literature and Poetry/
 * /Folklore/
 * /Festival/, /Dress/ and /Cuisine/
 * /Proverbs/
 * /Ballads/
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General Structure Way of Grammar

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 * /Verbs/
 * /Pronouns/
 * /Adjectives/
 * Cases

Verbal Terminations

 * Past
 * Present
 * Future

Persons

 * First
 * Second
 * Third

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Vocabulary

 * Academic subjects
 * Animals
 * Banking
 * Body parts
 * Colours
 * Computing
 * Clothes and accessories
 * Countries of the World
 * Directions
 * Family and people
 * Food and drink
 * Health
 * Numbers
 * Time and dates
 * Weather and seasons

Appendices

 * Useful external links
 * Glossary of wiki terms
 * References and recommended reading
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title: Sylheti


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title: Sylheti/Cover


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title: Category:Book:Sylheti


text:
Sylheti/Introduction

Sylheti Language is an Indo-Aryan language, part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages group. Sylheti is primarily spoken by the Sylheti people of Bangladesh, India, and the United Kingdom. According to the Joshua Project, 30 different People Groups speak Sylheti as their Primary Language and estimated a total of 13,980,000 global speakers. This Wikibook is an introductory book on the Sylheti language and its speakers.

title: Sylheti/Introduction


text:
Sylheti/Contributor's Guide

This page aims to help potential contributors better understand the principles behind the current work and give ideas for how best to add new material.

title: Sylheti/Contributor's Guide


text:
Sylheti/Study methods

Like any language, mastering Sylheti requires self-discipline. Establish a dedicated study schedule with allocated time, set realistic goals. While immersion in a native-speaking environment and having a personal tutor are ideal, self-study can be highly rewarding on its own.

title: Sylheti/Study methods


text:
Sylheti/Practical Lessons

Lesson Plan
Sylheti Syllabus.

Lesson Structure
Each lesson should have the following sections specified:
 * 1) Lesson: Lesson name.
 * 2) Function: One or more functions, appropriate to the stage of learning, chosen from the Syllabus.
 * 3) Topic: A topic, appropriate to the stage of learning, chosen from the Syllabus.
 * 4) Vocabulary: Number of new words covered in the lesson, chosen from the Syllabus.
 * 5) Grammar: One or more grammar topics covered in lesson, chosen from the Syllabus.

title: Sylheti/Practical Lessons


text: Sylheti/Printable version

title: Sylheti/Printable version


text:
Sylheti/Alphabet

The Sylheti Alphabet has 5 vowels, 5 Vowel diacritics, 28 consonants.

Attribution

 * Formation, Pronunciation guide
 * Sylheti Nagri Alphabet by SOAS Sylheti Project (University of London associates), available under CC0

title: Sylheti/Alphabet


text: Sylheti/Reading practice

title: Sylheti/Reading practice


text: Sylheti/Pronunciation

title: Sylheti/Pronunciation


text: Sylheti/Writing practice

title: Sylheti/Writing practice


text: Sylheti/Numbers

title: Sylheti/Numbers


text:
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Sylheti/Festival

Sylheti festivals are an integral part of the rich cultural heritage of the East Asia and the Sylheti diaspora around the world. This Wikibook page aims to explore and document the various festivals celebrated in the Sylheti culture, their significance, traditions, and how they are observed.

title: Sylheti/Festival


text: Sylheti/Cuisine

title: Sylheti/Cuisine


text:
Sylheti/Dress

Hindu Attire
Sylheti-Hindus, belong to the Vaishnava order of Hinduism. Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism, and it centers on the worship of Lord Vishnu, one of the principal deities in the Hindu pantheon. Followers of Vaishnavism, known as Vaishnavas, believe in the supreme importance of devotion (bhakti) towards Lord Vishnu as a means to attain spiritual liberation and salvation.Vaishnavas emphasize various forms of worship, including prayer, meditation, chanting of sacred mantras, and engaging in acts of selfless service (seva). They also embrace the belief in reincarnation and karma, which influence one's future births based on their actions in this life. Key texts like the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana provide essential philosophical and spiritual teachings that guide Vaishnavas in their quest for spiritual enlightenment.Sylheti-Hindus, as followers of Vaishnavism, adhere to these principles while also incorporating their unique cultural and regional traditions into their religious practices. This syncretic blend of spirituality and heritage reflects the rich diversity within Hinduism and the resilience of religious traditions over time.

title: Sylheti/Dress