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User:Ed Ardizzone/sandbox

The Development of Dance as an Academic Discipline
Dance was seen as a primarily physical discipline up until the late 20th century, as although the first introduction of dance as a college major took place in the University of Wisconsin in 1926, at this point it was still considered part of 'physical education' and was taught mainly to women, perpetuating the typical gendered view of it as a discipline. In the 1980s however, it started to form an additional pathway into academia.

In 1982, at the summer conference of the National Association of Teachers and Lecturers in Further and Higher Education (NATFHE), Betty Redfern presented her paper, 'Philosophical aesthetics and the study of dance as an academic discipline', in response to the increase in dance activity within the education system. The following year dance was examined for the first time in British state schools at GCSE level (then known as Ordinary Level), with emphasis on the academic sides of the discipline such as composition, appreciation and history alongside the aspect of performance- then later in 1986, dance was expanded to examination at Advanced Level. Syllabuses were created to reflect the natural overlap between dance and the social, political and environmental issues which are often explored by choreographers, composers, designers and other roles within dance production.

At this time, the first academic dance courses in higher education were also being created. One of main proponents of this was Kurt Petermann, who in the First National Ballet Conference in East Germany in 1977, advocated for the importance of the study of dance as a discipline within the academy. 1986 also saw students admitted onto the first academic course in dance studies in Germany at the College of Performing Arts in Leipzig, alongside the creation of similar courses in the UK and USA.

Psychology: Validity of Evidence in Psychological Research
There is a fine line in psychological research between following the ethical guidelines of the British Psychological Society (BPS) and maintaining the highest level of validity possible, as often these two necessities can counteract each other. For example, guidelines express the need for fully informed consent from participants in a psychological investigation, however this can often cause participants to show demand characteristics, and behave differently towards the situation to how they normally would , calling into question the validity of any evidence collected, as it may not be an accurate representation of human behaviour.

There are two types of evidence within psychology, in the forms of primary and secondary data. The validity of these can be called into question in different ways; for example, primary data, collected by the psychologist for their specific investigation, can have a lower level of validity due to the methodological constraints of getting informed consent. This can be avoided through the use of deception, and whilst this is also technically not advised in the BPS guidelines, psychologists can deem it necessary on grounds that it may be the only way to carry out their research. Using deception can call validity into question again, as it can be argued that experimenters are not necessarily measuring what they intend to measure if they have to act through the guise of measuring something else - however through peer review processes and appropriate experimental design, often the benefits of the research outweigh the costs and so the evidence can be viewed has having high validity.

The validity of evidence from secondary data is often questionable as more often than not, the data being used has not been collected for the sole purpose of the investigation, and is being reinterpreted from its original study that had a different aim. Whilst this can be a positive as it highlights the interdisciplinary nature of psychology, allowing collaboration which a range of other disciplines such as economics and geography, and also has often already been through statistical analysis meaning its significance is already known , it also introduces a subjectivity towards the data and once again raises the question whether the experimenters are measuring what they intend to measure, especially considering they are not doing the actual data collection themselves.

Truth in Psychology: Contrast of Approaches
Truth plays a valuable role in modern psychology, with its ability to justify the many varying areas of psychological research, particularly considering psychology's status as a more recently developed and ever-changing discipline. This means however that the majority of key psychological studies and breakthroughs have taken place over the past century, and the discipline has had little time to become refined, experiencing a multitude of paradigm shifts and constituting of various conflicting approaches, making the concept of truth within psychology difficult to incorporate into practice.

For example, the age old 'nature vs nurture' debate. The conflict between the Biological approach of viewing human behaviour as hereditary or having a biological aetiology and the Behaviourist approach and Social Learning Theory, which view all human behaviour as a result of humans reacting to their environment. These two very different explanations of the same behaviour make it difficult to determine 'truth' within the discipline, especially in cases like the murder of James Bulger, wherein there was huge public debate over whether the perpetrators must have been 'born evil' to commit such unforgivable acts at a young age or they were re-enacting scenes from the film 'Child's play 3' which had been at Jon Venables' house. So when psychology plays a role in criminal conviction, as it did here determining the length of sentencing and methods of rehabilitation for Venables and Thompson, truth is integral to the process- and when there are such different versions of it, it is hard to provide.

Power in Psychology: Gender Inequality within Mental Illness Diagnosis
Gender imbalance is pervasive within psychological academia, with 46% of all male psychology faculty being professors in 2013/14, compared to just 28% of female psychology faculty according to the American Psychological Association. There is debate over the reasons for this disparity, with evidence to suggest at least partial responsibility from women's choice, as seemingly women are more likely to pursue clinical work over research positions. Yet research has also shown constant subtle forms of sexism towards women's research in psychological academia, with them winning less research funding and research covering topics deemed to be 'more female' (sexual violence, reproductive experiences) being evaluated more harshly in peer review processes. However, there is no debate over the fact that this imbalance creates a reality in which mental illness in women is often misdiagnosed or goes completely undetected, due to the overwhelmingly male perspective in diagnostic research, particularly in personality and developmental disorders. Therefore, women are subjected to indirect coercion via an institutionalised bias towards men within mental illness diagnosis.

Using autism as an example, historically it was thought that the disorder simply affected more men than women as early researchers were all male and simply disregarded the female experience- this lead to an underrepresentation and systematic exclusion of women in studies causing a distinct lack of information and an inability to diagnose women on the autistic spectrum. More recent, inclusive research has shown characteristics of autism in women as differing to the classic characteristics in men, for example, more neurotypical special interests (eg. boybands rather than bus timetables) and less conspicuous repetitive behaviour. These differences ensure that women have to present characteristics of a much higher severity than men in order to be diagnosed, placing unfair requirements on women's symptoms and often preventing them from getting the help they need.

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Sociology
Sociology, according to Wikipedia, “refers to social behaviour, society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life.” Originally, sociology solely existed rooted in other disciplines such as history and philosophy, however as its relevance to society became increasingly apparent, it was recognised as an individual discipline.

Emergence from within other disciplines
The complex relationship between the individual and their society has been a topic of interest long before sociology was recognised as its own discipline. Aristotle, who is most commonly known as a philosopher, has been said to have been the founder of sociological thought, in his attempts to systematically gather and rationalise knowledge about humans in society. Centuries later, a Chinese historian named Ma Tua-Lin wrote an encyclopedia titled General Study of Literary Remains, in which he recognises the key role that social dynamics play in historical development. Shortly after, Ibn Khaldun, who many consider the first sociologist, expanded on this soon-to-be discipline, building the foundation for modern sociology.

Becoming its own discipline
Although sociological concepts and thought existed long before this, the term “sociology” was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès. This distinction set it apart from the disciplines that it was once rooted in, catalysing its path to becoming the complex, huge field that it is today. In a similar way to how it emerged from compatibility to other disciplines, it is commonly used to further understand problems from an interdisciplinary lens. For example in the sub-field of social psychology, where scientific methods are used to “understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.”

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User:SteRos7/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar 2/Evidence

Evidence in Science
Science is continuously considered to be a highly objective field of study. This reputation comes from the fact that the majority of scientific evidence is quantitative and supported by the critically acclaimed Scientific Method. Evidence is often viewed in relation to Popper’s theory, whereby evidence cannot prove a scientific theory because there may be further information and evidence to be discovered which could disprove that same theory. Few concentrate on the social issues of evidence in Science.

One of these such issues arises in the study of genetics. Each individual will approach genetic evidence from their varied backgrounds and with their own pre-existing values, and intentions. These un-consious biases will then be used to form their own, often polarising, opinions on the given information. This is called motivated reasoning.

One such example is the Oxford Lausanne Collateral Hominid Project which investigated, what they believed to be, organic remains of Yeti’s and other hominid species. In the peer-reviewed scientific paper published by the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ 36 of 57 hair and teeth samples underwent DNA testing, with mitochondrial DNA being extracted from 30 of the samples. Despite the fact that the majority of samples had originated from common animals (e.g. cows, horses, etc), the researchers managed to identify two samples that matched the mtDNA of Pleistocene polar bears which went extinct over 40,000 years ago. The journal claimed that these two DNA sequences have a '100% match with DNA recovered from a Pleistocene fossil more than 40 000 BP of U. maritimus (polar bear) but not to modern examples of the species'. From the evidence they had gathered, they had come to the following conclusion, without providing an example of the DNA of the Pleistocene fossil or explaining the divergence between the ancient and modern examples of the species. Thus, evidence in science is highly malleable and easy to ‘frame’ – where information is casted in a certain way to influence the opinion of the public. By omitting select information, evidence becomes vulnerable to manipulation, creating the issue of biased scientific fallacies. This is demonstrated through the Hominid project as shortly after a study carried out by the Natural History Museum of Denmark refuted the claim quoted above and argued that the two hairs have a DNA sequence match with ‘Geobank accession no. GU573490 which belongs to a modern U. maritimus individual from Diomede, Little Diomede Island, Alaska'. Though the Hominid Project researchers eventually admitted their error, the project demonstrated the way in which evidence can be significantly impacted by what the researcher or the reader wants to believe. Rather than finding the argument in the evidence, researchers may try to find the evidence for the argument and manipulate it where needed. Thus, evidence in science and genetics is not as factual as one may assume – instead it is vulnerable to issues of motivated reasoning, manipulation, and framing.

Quantitative evidence and Craniometry
Scientific research is traditionally recognised as a wholly objective practice, often based on retrieving accurate and reliable quantitative evidence and then using this evidence to affirm or refute a hypothesis. The use of quantitative data as evidence seems to immediately suggest neutrality. However, even with correct experimental procedure, ‘science is rooted in creative interpretation’. An example of biased evidence in a scientific discipline is in past research in craniometry (the practice of measuring the human skull). Craniometry is particularly relevant because one would assume the study of metrics to be a neutral pursuit, but close analysis highlights how the field was particularly affected by the incorrect use of evidence.

In 1906, Robert Bennett Bean published an article comparing the brains of white and black people through his measurement of the size of the corpus callosum (a large bundle of nerve fibres located below the cerebral cortex; important for communication between the left and right cerebral hemispheres). The data he presented showed a clear trend toward a larger corpus callosum in white people. Bean used these apparent findings in his data to affirm his already established racist beliefs about white superiority. An analysis from Stephen Jay Gould’s ‘Measuring Heads’ highlights flaws in Bean’s evidence: ‘Bean says nothing about the size of the brain itself, the favoured criterion of classical craniometry’. This displays how the selective use of quantitative evidence can skew objectivity. Franklin P. Mall, an american pathologist, saw issue with the clarity of the trend in Bean’s data. He repeated the experiment, attempting to eliminate bias in the methodology e.g. not labelling which were white and black brains before measurement. This alternative method unsurprisingly produced different results. It is important to note that the sample was different but did include 18 brains from Beans original study.

Further commentary by Gould also underlines the importance of the cultural context in determining the way that science is viewed. He puts it well, stating: ‘shall we believe that science is different today simply because we share the cultural context of most practicing scientists and mistake its influence for objective truth?’ This quotation is cause for reflection because it exemplifies the influence of social norms on the way that scientific research is recieved. In the 20th century, there was already a present faith in Bean's theories which meant that his evidence was trusted, despite being objectively weak.

Introduction
The process of prescribing Pharmaceuticals is a complex and difficult to manage process, easily influenced by a multitude of biases. There are several strands that collide in the prescription process. Firstly, the information received by the consumer, through advertising and other sources. Secondly the experiments and trials through which the drugs are produced, the efficacy, risks and benefits assessed, and uses determined. And thirdly, the experience, training, and expertise of the doctors.

Consumer information
The advertising of prescription medication is a highly contentious issue. In the United Kingdom direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) of prescription medication is outlawed. However, since late 1997 DTCA of prescription medication has been leniently regulated in the United States. Between 1996 and 2004 there was a 500% increase in DTCA spending for drug promotion. This spending appears to be highly effective, in 2019 80% of the money spent on prescription and over the counter drugs went to branded products rather than their generic counterparts.

Some studies support the use of DTCA, citing the fear that if consumers do not know about the drugs then they may not get the treatments they need. However, according to an article published in Sage Journals, 75% of doctors take issue with the quality of information contained in the DTCA of medical products. Studies have found that much of the information easily availiable to consumers through advertising and search engines is emotive or anecdotal as well as often misrepresentative of the risk benefit relationship and frequently failing to mention alternative treatments and medications.

Drug assessment process
It takes an average of twelve years and in excess of a billion dollars in the USA to take a drug from the lab to the general public. There are five main stages in the drug development process that have to be successfully completed in sequence. The animal testing phase (pre-clinical research) tests drug toxicity and identifies key information about dosage before moving to human trials. In vivo experimentation is also used to investigate a drugs long term affects using animals with a short life-span (often mice). After animal testing, research moves to clinical trials which consist of phased testing on incrementally larger human cohorts. The drugs are monitored for dosage, safety and efficacy before being released to the general public.

There are some interesting issues emerging from the use of mice for gathering data on drug toxicity and side effects. In comparison to humans and their wild counterparts, laboratory mice have been shown to have excessively long telomeres. This endows them with unrepresentative abilities to recover from bodily and cellular damage. This is one example of how evidence could be misrepresentative in drug testing. Another is implied by a review of studies analysing the dollars per quality assessed life year (QALY) gained. Large variations were found in the median reported cost-effectiveness dependent on the source of funding for the study. Industry-funded studies weighed in at $6000 per QALY, less than half the median value reported by non-industry funded analyses.

Faults such as these in drug assessment can have detrimental effects. In the year 1997-1998 five drugs prescribed to 19.8 million patients were withdrawn from the market due to concern over their side effects. In the case of the diet drug fen-phen, a study found that 30% of people taking the drug had developed specific heart problems only present in 1% of the wider population. Faults in the assessment process aside, the sheer quantity of research into the affects of pharmaceuticles presents an arguably larger problem for the prescription process.

Prescription process
Doctors make difficult decisions when medicating patients, caught between their care for the patient's wellbeing and potential sanctions or lawsuits for under or over-prescription. Several interview based studis of prescription decision making processes found that decisions were affected more by the doctors and their peers anecdotal or qualititive experience, and patients requests than the doctors training or research, it was also found that the doctors often simplified options and risk benefit analysis so as not to overwhelm their patients.

Evidence based prescribing is the use of clinical studies and research by doctors to make decisions in prescription, this is a possible solution to the web of less reliable influences that affect the medication prescribed to patients. However, there is critisism of this method, that physicians lack the time required to explore the vast quantity of information availiable to assess the merits of medications and Kahneman argues that intuitive thinking is an important part of complex decision making, especially under time constraints.

Conclusion
The evidence used to assess pharmaceutical prescription is, on the side of the consumer overly simplified and often misrepresentative, and in the scientific literature overwhelming and sometimes conflicting leading to anecdotal, social and qualitative influences largely taking precedence. Movements to address this have been partially successful. However, with time constraints on consultations and doctors and the complexity, quantity and variability of scientific and empirical evidence available limited progress has been made improving the process, even with the implementation of computer systems to aid decision making. With more time for consultations, better organised clinical records and computer systems, and better regulation on the information supplied to consumers, it may be possible to move towards a more empirically based and scientific process for medicating patients. However, it is against interests of the pharmaceutical industry for these changes to be made, as the premium they can charge for new and or branded drugs is a large source of income.

Evidence in Neurology
Neurology gathers biology and medicine to deal with disorders of the nervous system. The nervous system is composed of the central, peripheral and vegetative system, which provide functions such as sleep, consciousness, language, behavior, memory… The complexity of the brain makes its study complicated and that’s why neurology takes into consideration many different types of approaches to try to converge towards a result.

The study of the brain began with an anatomical approach, based on material evidences. Vesalius did many dissections in the Renaissance and for him everything he taught or learned had to come from direct observations. These dissections made it possible to obtain drawings of the different parts of the brain The microscope will then be used to visualize neurons and their arrangements.

The development of neurology also took place through direct contact with the patient and his experience. In the 19th century, Paul Broca observed that two patients who had lost their voice after an accident had a posterior inferior frontal gyrus brain injury. These cases implied that brain functions were localized. Studies to link brain anatomy and patient behaviors and conditions began to emerge.

Today, neurology continues to evolve based on different sources : medical ones (EEG, MRI, Tomography…), cognitive and psychological testing (eg. for Alzheimer’s ), in-depth laboratory study… At the level of scientific evidence, the American Academy of Neurology has categorized them into classes considering the different fields (therapeutic, diagnostic, prognostic, screening…) from a class I (the most reliable one) to class IV. The different classes are based on the number of evidence and their quality (established by high-level studies of evidence, statistics…)

New techniques are used based on medical data (‘’clinical registries, electronic health records, biometric data, patient-reported data, the internet, medical imaging, biomarker data, prospective cohort studies, and large clinical trial’’ )to try to make a diagnosis as objective and fast as possible : it is Computer aided diagnosis (CAD). These new forms of source lead to many questions and debates because a misuse or a computer problem can have serious consequences. Moreover, it may raise the question of the role of the doctor as well as the loss of individuality for the patient.

Introduction
Consciousness is an interdisciplinary mystery that has baffled philosophers, psychologists, neuroscientists, biologists etc. for as long as we can remember. Philosopher Thomas Nagel wrote an extremely influential paper titled “What Is it Like to Be a Bat?”, which explores the issues surrounding consciousness, including the limitations of objective research, the “phenomenological features” of subjective experience, and the meaning associated with our individual identity. In the paper, he famously states that “an organism has conscious mental states if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism—something it is like for the organism” : an interesting concept to explore, as it involves many different forms of evidence. As David G Myers said “everything psychological is simultaneously biological”, however, many may feel offended at the thought of objectifying something as personal as consciousness.

Objective Evidence
Objective evidence for consciousness is collected from scientific experiments, for example, neuroimaging, that has become increasingly advanced in recent years. Two prominent forms of neuroimaging are structural imaging, which allows us to explore the structure of the brain, and functional imaging, which allows us to examine the electromagnetic or metabolic activity in correlation to specific mental functions in different brain areas. Functional neuroimaging (fMRI), has notably been used to compare patients in altered and normal states of consciousness to infer “readiness and potential to sustain awareness”, two key features of consciousness. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been frequently associated with consciousness. It acts as a response space, involved in higher cognitive tasks such as distributing attention, working memory, and maintaining abstract rules. This evidence, amidst much more, has led many scientists to the conclusion that consciousness is merely a “user illusion”, given rise by exclusively biological processes.

Subjective Evidence
Subjective evidence for consciousness lies mostly in the undeniable fact that we feel separate from the physical biology of our bodies. Benjamin Libet states that considerable evidence exists to affirm that “an intimate and lawful relationship exists between neural processes and conscious experience. But even a complete knowledge of the observable neural processes in the brain of another individual would not in itself tell us what that subject is experiencing or feeling.” Therefore, the study of consciousness relies on the “subject’s introspective report of experience”. Although this report may be done under strict laboratory conditions, a personal account of experience can never be objective, complicating the possibility of a solely objective explanation for consciousness.

Conclusion
Consciousness is a complex topic to tackle. On one hand, we have scientific evidence that points us towards the idea of consciousness being a necessary illusion for society to function, however on the other hand, we have a deep rooted feeling of autonomy, and a fierce sense of self. This clash between objective and subjective evidence, between simplicity and emotion, make it a sensitive, but fascinating area of research.

Introduction
Dreams have been the subject of numerous studies for generations. They are as much the passion of the greatest researchers as they are of simple people like all of us for curiosity. Finding evidence in dreams is hard because it concerns the unconscious of the brain system. However, different disciplines have found different approaches to study and interpret them.

Primary and secondary evidence
There are two types of evidence: the primary and the secondary.

The primary evidence forms the basis of all research on dreams because they all must include the testimonies of people who dream. Primary evidence is key in interpreting dreams. Interpreting dreams has been the work of many philosophers and psychologists. Sigmund Freud, for example, at the beginning of the 20th century who provides empirical evidence to the study through observation and experiences on his patients. One of the most famous technique he used was called “free association”. He encouraged his patients to link small parts of their dreams to real events or people of their lives. Thanks to all the results he got from them, he could better understand what he was particularly interested in, the unconscious of the brain system. The papers and researches he published are considered secondary evidences because they are the conclusions he drew from his research and experiences on the subject.

Furthermore, primary evidence could also be found thanks to the scientific study of dreams called oneirology that looks at the quantitative process of dreams. This discipline originated at the beginning of the 19th century but has really taken off since 1952 when the regular cycles were discovered by Nathaniel Kleitman and his students. In 1953, the discovery of the REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement) accelerated laboratory dream research. They discovered that it is in this sleep phase that we dream the most because the muscle tone in the human’s body is particularly low. Thanks to the use of EEG and other modern techniques of brain imaging, oneirology provides evidences that could be linked to neurologic studies. Indeed, the images obtained help understand the different parts of the brain system which is a key part of neurosciences.

Moreover, between 1965 and 1980, quantitative studies of non-lab dream reports have shown recurring patterns in the dreams of very different people. These quantitative studies are really important and relevant because as many researchers have insisted on, we can’t only build a study on verbal reports like Freud did. When someone describes their dream, it is the memory they have of it and not the experience they had while dreaming. Their description could be influenced by a lot of factors and he may forget important parts of the dream.

Conclusion
Finding evidence for studying dreams is a non-ending process of new discoveries in different disciplines. The neurological evidences show the activation and deactivation of different parts of the brain during the sleep to understand how dreams work while the oral evidences help build an interpretation of them.

Evidence in Sociology
A discipline regroups a collection of multiple types of evidence that coexist and are linked with each other. As a matter of fact, evidence can be seen through multiple forms, that can be considered as primary and secondary. Primary evidence is an original source that can be a manuscript or a journal, and secondary evidence   comes from secondary sources, that can be an indirect recording of events. The type of evidence can vary depending on the discipline and the fieldwork, and within primary and secondary evidence exist quantitative and qualitative approaches, that shape the way in which we see what a discipline is based on. Qualitative evidence is defined as something that can’t be measured and is usually found within a humanitarian field, whereas something quantitative is linked with numbers and measuring. Generally, qualitative research is considered more subjective, and quantitative more objective.

If we take sociology as an example we can identify multiple types of evidence that can be used to support research or a cause. As a matter of fact, some proof can be more effective than others, and in that sense, having a combination of evidence is essential to construct a good study. For example, anecdotal evidence can be weak, because of its secondary and insufficient character as it is usually based on a person’s capacity to tell a story and therefore can’t fully support a claim. On the other side, strong evidence can be based on a person’s ability to convey detailed observations and examinations, and knowing the way in which this information was acquired strengthens its plausible nature and is known as testimonial evidence. Moreover, in sociology it is important to have a database of evidence known as statistical evidence, that can be seen in the form of experiments and analysis of data which strongly supports an argument as it is based on primary proof that can’t be disputed. Lastly, comparing and contrasting the evidence we have, with original facts from researchers can permit us to understand the evolution of social and economical concepts through a different lens and therefore can extend our knowledge on a specific matter, this is known as analogical evidence.

Introduction
Forensic evidence is used in court to investigate the suspects of crimes. It includes the use of scientific methods to support legal cases. Therefore, it introduces an interdisciplinary approach to law practices. It emphasizes how only through the use of interdisciplinarity, complex world problems can be solved. Forensic evidence is used in the investigation of sexual assaults. It requires a holistic approach, combining biological, documentary, and psychological pieces of evidence.

Biological Evidence
Biological evidence can prove whether a sexual assault took place. It is crucial and used to define the identity of the offenders. It is based on quantitative data and the scientific method. This type of evidence is commonly obtained with the use of the Sexual Assault Kit (SAK) by Sexual Assault Nurse Examiners. Moreover, a toxicology report is a useful tool to help define alcohol consumption or drug intake by the victim. If the loss of consciousness is present, toxicologic testing can prove a lack of consent and thus support the rape accusations. DNA evidence is considered the most reliable out of all forms of forensic evidence. That emphasizes how the development of science can support human lives and has an active application in law. Sperm and epithelial cells need to be investigated to determine the genetic profiles of the victim and the offender.

One of the limitations of biological evidence is that DNA should be collected within 72 hours after the sexual assault. The collection and investigation of DNA samples are demanding and time-consuming. Moreover, the investigators need to carefully identify the collected evidence. Any error caused by a human or the scientific method can have an impact on the result of the case. Furthermore, DNA testing is less reliable when an offender uses masks, gloves or condoms. These items limit the presence of the rapist's DNA on the victim's body. .

Documentary Evidence
Biological evidence is often supported by documentary evidence. The scene of the crime should be protected and carefully investigated. Surface areas and various objects can be later transported to the laboratory, tested, and used as biological evidence. The documentary evidence can help investigate if the sexual act was consensual or not.

Psychological Evidence
The psychological approach uses qualitative methods and takes into consideration the mental wellbeing of the victims. Sexual assault is a traumatic experience, and the investigation can be emotionally demanding for the aggrieved. Prosecutors acknowledge that victims may feel ashamed or embarrassed and thus conceal parts of the sexual assault. Medical interviews are useful tools to determine the type of sexual assault and the victim’s perspective. Moreover, witness trials are used to obtain additional evidence.

Limitations and Strengths
For many years, the Criminal Justice community has been dependent on DNA and biological evidence in proving sexual assault cases. However, the need for DNA to be tested so soon after the assault, and the increasing ways in which rapists are avoiding leaving their DNA, has meant that more reliance must be placed on documentary and psychological evidence. Toxicology reports, digital forensics (e.g. text messages, emails, etc.) and pattern evidence (e.g. handwriting, tire marks, etc.) are all examples of non-DNA evidence that can prove crucial in a sexual assault investigation. The limitation of these types of evidence is that they can only suggest a potential outcome and most prosecutors will refuse to carry forward a case without substantial biological evidence. .

Conclusion
The use of forensic evidence requires biological, documentary, and psychological approaches. Moreover, this interdisciplinarity needs to be applied in the investigation of victims, offenders, and the scene of the crime. The sum of all this evidence is used to determine whether the victim's accusations are true and the sexual act was not consensual. Interdisciplinarity allows us to alter the investigation for a specific case. It is essential to acknowledge that every case of a sexual assault is unique and requires a different set of evidence.

Introduction
Law can be defined as the system of rules of a particular country, group, or area of activity. Of course, law doesn’t have the same rules depending on where you are, but it always relies on the notion of justice. This term of justice is quite interesting for our subject because it is supposed to be based on evidences. In fact, evidences are the most important element that compose law and justice. This omnipresence has created over the year a controversial debate about different types of evidences.

Admissible evidences in lawsuits
Focusing on lawsuits, producing factual evidence is the best way for a party to establish proof. For the Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, three categories compose this type of evidences that can be defined as “objects of sensory evidence”. We talk about oral evidence, documentary evidence, and real evidence. Oral evidence refers to a testimony while a documentary evidence is a document presented to the court and finally real evidences are everything other than a document like a knife or a gun.

Controversial evidences in lawsuits
Now that we have talked about un-rejectable evidences and the importance of factual proof, we can focus on the other side which represents evidences that are less likely to be admissible because they are less sufficient. In fact, other standards of proof raise controversial debate. For example, when we talk about the new theory about mathematical probabilities. The many paradoxes raised by a probability approach based on mathematical theories made these evidences difficult to be admissible. We can say that the evidence needs to be tangible, relevant and reliable in order to be admissible by the judge.

Conclusion
To conclude, we can say that law is about bringing justice, but justice needs evidences to be fair and partial. It is also for this reason that evidences are in the middle of an important debate on which one are admissible.

Evidence in Cartography
Evidence can be defined as the available body of facts indicating whether a hypothesis or proposition is true or false. For every different type of evidence (observation, calculations, statements) we need to verify the validity of the facts that support it. The methods to verify the truthfulness of the facts varies between disciplines. For example, in history, when someone uses a historian’s work as evidence, we need to verify his past works, their objectivity and reliability (hence the importance of referencing) - While in a scientific experiment, we intend to analyze the independent, dependent and control variables to confirm the results. However, there are many cases in the past where the evidence could not be verified and was refuted decades or centuries later. This is the case for cartography, the long historical process of creating valid maps of the earth.

The first maps appeared thousands of years before the creation of satellites in 1957, and we can therefore ask ourselves what evidence did cartographers use to defend their versions of maps? The first attempt of accurately mapping the earth, was made in the second century A.D by Claudius Ptolemy ; however, because it was impossible to travel around the world in his era, his evidence for mapping consisted of documents detailing the locations of towns and tales of travelers. Furthermore, some cartographers added decorative figures to the maps the hide its “emptiness” caused by the lack of information. Even though nowadays we would analyze the source of the documents and the reliability of the tales Ptolemy based his work on, the ancient Greeks did not have enough knowledge to refute or validate the map. We can therefore see an example where evidence used in a work could not be proved or countered until centuries later, showing the importance of finding reliable quantitative and qualitative evidence. It is thanks to inventions such as the Global Positioning System in 1973 that allowed cartography to become a purely factual discipline as the evidence was based on mathematical calculations. Before the arrival of the GPS, cartographers could not refute the works from previous centuries as they did not have the necessary tools to create totally reliable maps either.

Evidence in Film Studies and Criticism
The concept of evidence in film studies can be seen as a grey area as films entail both subjective and objective aspects, meaning purely quantifying them (as film rankings do) can be open to controversy. Quantifying qualitative data like this means that you lose the personal emotional response someone can have with the film as each viewing can be seen as an individual subjective experience

Objective Film Analysis
As well as the issue of quantifying one's emotional response to a film, there comes the matter of the politics of a film contradicting the films aesthetics. Can a film critic put aside their personal political views and opinions in order to objectively review the aesthetics of a film? And does a film have to align with the moral philosophies of the critic to be deemed as good? It's because of these questions that complete objective film criticism is unattainable, for similar reasons as to why completely quantifying qualitative evidence is also unrealistic and has its loses. .

The role of the Film Critic
Although in a perfect world being able to objectively analyse and criticise films seems idealistic, the role of the film critic is not to give an unemotional, objective response but to draw on their personal 'professional' knowledge and experiences, and supply evidence for their viewpoint; essentially providing quantitive evidence for their qualitative response. This evidence could be in relation to plot; themes and tone; acting; cinematography; production design; score; direction; editing etc. . A successful film analysis will aid the audience to understand the more subtle nuances in a film that they may have previously missed, whilst giving their own take on it, exemplifying the importance of film criticism for the viewing experience as a whole


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Emergence of biology and chemistry as scientific disciplines
Before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, those who observed and studied the natural world were natural philosophers, who used philosophical thinking to understand their observations of the world. Pre-Socratic philosophers, such as Anaximenes of Miletus and Democritus, realised that there were natural causes to the phenomena they observed, rather than attributing these phenomena to the action of gods.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, a number of changes led to a shift in medieval natural philosophy, from the invention of the microscope and the telescope, to the Protestant Reformation, which not only challenged the Catholic Church but also Aristotelian thought, which persisted as the main school of thought during this time. Aristotle’s idea of the universe was challenged by Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the universe, Kepler’s elliptical orbit, and Galileo’s use of the telescope to provide “visual evidence”. These events can be included as playing a part in the Scientific Revolution, as well as the development of experimental science and the use of scientific method, leading to the emergence of natural sciences.

The establishment of scientific societies and journals further set apart this era of science from that of the Middle Ages. The scientific societies aimed to produce new scientific knowledge instead of preserving the previous knowledge. The first of these societies, was the Academy of the Lynxes (Accademia dei Lincei) in Italy, where the members had scheduled meetings to share their work and ideas, followed by the Royal Society of London, which was established in 1660. In 1665, the secretary of the Royal Society of London, Henry Oldenburg published what is described as the “first recognisable” scientific journal, the Philosophical Transactions.

Natural sciences can now be divided into two main branches: life sciences (biology) and physical sciences (to include physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science). Chemistry, although one of the physical sciences, can be seen to bridge the gap between the biological and the physical, as a central science.

In terms of modern scientific disciplines, however, biology and chemistry have become distinct branches of science, each encompassing a number of sub-disciplines, despite their common ancestry in the natural sciences. In the 17th century, Robert Boyle is credited to have made a distinction between chemistry and its protoscience, alchemy in his book The Sceptical Chymist. What set apart chemistry from alchemy, was that chemists made use of scientific method. The word chemistry, is also derived from alchemy, which has been traced to have both Greek and Arabic origins, to mean “cast together” and “Egyptian art” or "black art", respectively. The definition of chemistry has continued to evolve with the discipline, and modern chemistry can now be defined as the study of the “composition, structure, and properties of substances and with the transformations that they undergo." Before the development of biology as a separate field, the study of animals and plants came under natural history and natural philosophy. Similarly, early ideas that are still prevalent in modern chemistry came from natural philosophers such as Aristotle. In the 19th century, biology became a separate entity following vast advancements in the study of the subject such as the development of the microscope and cell theory. Biology as a modern scientific discipline is described as the study of “life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.”

Evidence-based practice in interdisciplinary healthcare
Evidence-based practice

Evidence-based practice in medicine focuses on using the best research evidence that is available, along with considering clinical expertise as well as the individual patient, in delivering patient care The term evidence-based medicine was first introduced in 1991 and is defined as “the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients”. The term evidence-based medicine then evolved into evidence-based practice, in order to emphasise the need to make use of medical evidence in actual clinical practice. In 2005, the “Sicily statement on evidence-based practice” was published which defined evidence-based practice as requiring that “decisions about health care are based on the best available, current, valid and relevant evidence. These decisions should be made by those receiving care, informed by the tact and explicit knowledge of those providing care, within the context of available resources.

Interdisciplinary healthcare

Interdisciplinary teams in healthcare are those comprising of a range of healthcare professionals and non-professionals from different backgrounds, working together to deliver high quality patient care. In complex patient problems, multiple disciplines are required to share information with each other, and studies show that when teams of people from different disciplines work together, they can provide better patient care outcomes. Interdisciplinary approaches in healthcare can lead to more effective services and improved problem-solving capability.

It has been suggested that we can bring together the existing knowledge from management and health, to better understand how to collaborate between professions. In business management it is known that as the number of people in the team increase, more specialised teams need to be created to make efficient use of skills and people. Each team is then led by a different manage who is focused on their own team rather than the organisation as a whole. This leads to issues involving “duplication of effort, lack of synergy and missed opportunities.” There is the idea of a “silo”, or a department, in which information is freely shared within that silo, but not with others. This means that different departments will make decisions based only on the information that is available to them, which may not provide the complete picture. Healthcare professionals often find themselves working in “uniprofessional silos”, which means that sharing information between professions is difficult.

Conflict in generation and use of evidence

In using an interdisciplinary approach, there is often conflict in how evidence is used in different disciplines, to generate guidelines for the best evidence-based practice and how these guidelines are adopted.

The Institute of Medicine emphasises the need for evidence, and for this information to be used to provide guidance on how to translate evidence into practice, how best to deliver interdisciplinary education, as well as to guide practice itself. Evidence in healthcare can be provided by evidence synthesisers, such as the Cochrane Collaboration who use a number of research studies to generate systematic reviews. Information from systematic reviews can then be used, for example, by the US Preventive Services Task force, in preventive services and to develop guidelines, however, they do not focus on interdisciplinary evidence.

The Council for Training in Evidence-Based Behavioral Practice (EBBP) was set up to support collaboration across health disciplines, and includes experts from medicine, nursing psychology, social work, public health and library sciences. The inclusion of both scientists and non-scientists adds the dimension of being trans-disciplinary. The EBBP model was developed after a review of existing evidence-based models from different disciplines. It includes primary researchers who provide the evidence in the first place; people who conduct systematic reviews to synthesise evidence for practice; and people who use the systematic reviews to make recommendations; stating that clinical decisions need to be made based on the best available evidence.

Truth in Geography
Geography has been well-established as a discipline since the 19th century, when it began to be taught as a discipline in universities throughout Europe. It is now taught as part of the curriculum in secondary education across the world and the importance of studying geography at this level is widely recognised. However there continues to be disagreement surrounding the precise content that should be taught, as well as the method of teaching in geography.

Regarding the content to be taught, Hirsch presents the idea of “core” knowledge – the knowledge that is required in order for us to achieve “cultural literacy”, in which people from different cultural groups are able to come together to discuss common issues. In terms of teaching, it is important to look at the epistemology of geography and consider how different epistemological approaches can impact learning. Racine and Bailly emphasised that “the need for an epistemological base is central to geography.” Different approaches to knowledge and truth can lead to different ways of thinking and learning in geography. In the study of a discipline there is a responsibility to truth, and this can be compromised if there is a lack of clarity over the meaning of "truth", or the scientific method with which it is produced.

“Logical positivism” is the term used to describe the epistemology of geography. The term arose from the Vienna Circle, a group of social scientists and philosophers who believed that they could make use of the scientific method that already existed in the traditional sciences and apply it to social issues and behaviour. Positivism suggests that social research should be centred around facts and truths which can be observed, and that the collection of data should be done through common methods of observations and theories to be tested. Absolutism can be defined in reference to positivism, as the idea that there is knowledge and truth that is “external and universal”. However there is often criticism from the humanist and structuralist perspective, that this kind of objective truth does not include the consideration of the lived human experience and therefore cannot offer the same level of human understanding that is needed in geography. Morrill states the need to improve education in both physical and human geography, as well as in other disciplines, to combat the humanist and structuralist critiques. For example, improving on mathematical literacy can help to understand the limitations of statistical models and the consequences of poor research design.

In contrast, relativism or social constructivism, uses the idea that knowledge and truth are "constructed" and "relative". Social realism has been presented as an alternative to both; as a sociological approach which recognises the objective, external character of knowledge, but at the same time does not take this externality for granted. It recognises the social and historical factors involved and "reconciles the objectivity of knowledge with its sociality." Isnard agreed that geographical space is a social product, and wished to provide a geographical viewpoint which is both scientific and social, describing the meaning of "social" as the "survival of our species through management of its space."

Power in Scientific Research and Policy Making
Contemporary scientific research requires funding, but there are economic constraints on this funding, which leads to competition for economic resources, as well as human resources and the attention of the public. Therefore, there often needs to be a “rationale” or argument for why particular scientific research should warrant spending. Since the beginning of the scientific revolution, people have discussed the practical impact of knowledge on social, political, technical and economic matters. This brings into question the “usefulness of science”, and why some research is deemed important whilst others are deemed not useful.

According to the British Chemist and Nobel Prize laureate, Harold Kroto, there are many theories, but only a few that are true. There are “scientific” theories which are considered to be “true” or “facts” if we have used to experiments to see that they work and we understand why. There are also theories which are “un-scientific” because they did not yield the same experimental results.

Scientific policy
Policymakers may make use of only the partial and incomplete knowledge which is available to them. Whether this is by accident or by strategic design, Grundmann and Stehr suggest that policies are “never based on a comprehensive knowledge base.” Pielke and Sarewitz have argued that it is possible for politicians to choose the research results which best support their political interests, especially where there is an “excess of objectivity”; when there is a large amount of varying research findings, as these can be used to support a wide range of policies. This is emphasised by Collingridge and Reeve who stated that there are situations where there is already a policy consensus before research is even carried out; the research only legitimises the predefined policy. Scientific research then does not provide the information needed to guide policy, but instead can policy being formulated, if one research finding cancels out another. Krasner presented the view of “ideas as hooks”, suggesting that ideas only serve to emphasise what already exists, and legitimise existing policies. However, new knowledge can be formed in the light of scientific research, and this can destabilise policy in a particular field, or change interests and opinions.

Although technical experts are also consulted when making policies, a distinction can be made between scientific research and expertise. Whilst scientific research itself is unlikely to influence policy, experts can be employed to use the information, and apply it to different contexts to influence policy. How this information is applied, and which information is applied, could vary depending on the expertise, and therefore the power lies with those who can trusted to use scientific research to provide the expert opinion.

Scientific misconduct and fraud
Scientific misconduct or fraud is a "violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behaviour in scientific research".

In scientific research, however, not all misconduct behaviours are labelled as fraud, suggesting that some types of misrepresentation of bias are acceptable. The narrow definition of fraud can be seen to benefit certain groups more than others ; since some situations are characterised as fraud whilst others are not, the social definition being utilised is the one that is convenient to those in power in science. This can relate to the sponsors of scientific research or to the community itself, and Brian Martin presents the idea of a "political scientific elite" - a relatively small number of scientists and bureaucrats who make decisions about research. They have a dominant influence on the priorities within science, working with others in similar positions within government and industry, but are also interested in maintaining the autonomy of science.

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History of video games/Platforms/PlayStation 5

Development

The PlayStation 5 followed the older PlayStation 4.

Supply logistics for NAND and DRAM were a key concern to Sony in early February 2020, though they were reportedly more worried more about competition with 5G smartphone manufactures then the still not yet widespread coronavirus outbreaks.

"The ease in which they are able to get code running on PlayStation 5 is way beyond any experience they've had on any other PlayStation platform."

When the cooling system was being designed, smoke from dry ice was pumped through a transparent casing to observe it's effects on temperature.

Launch
Two consoles were announced for launch in November of 2020, a $399.99 Digital Edition without an optical drive, and a $499.99 full console with an Ultra HD Blu-Ray drive. At those prices, the PlayStation 5 hardware was sold at a loss. By August 4th, 2021 the PlayStation 5 with an optical drive was no longer sold at a loss, though the cheaper digital edition continued to be sold at a slight loss.

Supplies of consoles were expected to be short on launch day, with only a units that had been preordered being available for pick up. By the end of 2020 4.5 million consoles had been sold. By late January 2021 supplies of the console were still inadequate due in part to issues with scalpers purchasing as much as 10% of all PlayStation 5 consoles sold, but mostly due to severe supply and logistical constraints.

During the Japanese launch retailers to took unusual precautions to meet high demand.

Afterlaunch
In December of 2020 the image of the PS5 on the Wikipedia page garnered some attention due to the inclusion of curtains in the background.

By early 2021 the lack of color variations for the PlayStation 5 created a small market for 3rd party replacement plates in other styles.

A PlayStation 5 VR headset was announced on February 23rd, 2021 with a slated 2022 release date.

By July 2021 10 million PlayStation 5 consoles had been sold.

In September 2021 it was announced that expanded support for free cross gen upgrades for first party games would be discontinued.

In early November 2021, two separate groups announced flaws in the security of the PlayStation 5, potentially allowing for a vibrant homebrew scene to emerge.

Compute
The PS5 uses an 8 core, 16 thread AMD Ryzen Zen 2 CPU clocked at up to 3.5 gigahertz. The AMD based GPU is capable of Ray-Tracing and has a variable frequency, typically clocked at 2.23 gigahertz with a performance of 10.3 teraflops.

The PS5 has 16 gigabytes of GDDR6 RAM with 448GB/s bandwidth.

Storage
A 825GB Solid State Drive is used in the PS5, with 5.5GB/s bandwidth during reads. An M.2 expansion bay exists for upgradable storage. Sony manufactured aftermarket storage drives.

An UltraHD Blu Ray drive is included on some systems, with a maximum disk capacity of 100GB.

Software
The PlayStation 5 includes a web browser which is not meant to be user accessible.

Cooling
The heatsink used on the Playstation 5 is very large. Liquid Metal is used as a thermal compound. Different fans were used in some consoles.

A change to a smaller heatsink was controversial, but ultimately appeared to either not to signficantly affect performance or to slightly improve it.

In 2020 Sony announced that the 120mm PS5 cooling fan was controllable by software, and would be updated for optimal performance.

Controller
The DualSense controller contains adaptive variable triggers for force feedback.

The DualSense controller is coated with a microtexture composed of 40,000 PlayStation symbols.

Drift is a common issue with the DualSense controller due to a possible defect.

The Dualsense controller sports updatable firmware. By late December 2020 Sony released an official driver for the controller on Linux.

Other
The system uses an HDMI 2.1 port.

Optional accessories
The PlayStation 5 HD camera records 1080p video using dual internal wide angle cameras. The camera is integrated with an adjustable position stand.

The PlayStation 5 media remote includes a microphone and is powered by two AA batteries.

Astro's Playroom
Pre-downloaded game included on all launch era PlayStation 5 consoles.

Read more about Astro's Playroom on Wikipedia.

Demon's Souls
2020 remake of the original.

Read more about Demon's Souls on Wikipedia.

Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart
Read more about Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart on Wikipedia.

Returnal
Read more about Returnal on Wikipedia.

Destruction AllStars
Read more about Destruction AllStars on Wikipedia.

Ghostwire: Tokyo
Read more about Ghostwire: Tokyo on Wikipedia.

Final Fantasy XVI
Read more about Final Fantasy XVI on Wikipedia.

Spider Man 2
Read more about Spider-Man 2 on Wikipedia.

External Resources

 * PlayStation website


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Introduction and origins
Political Science, called also politology, is a social science focused on analysing political power, its allocation and transfer in decision making, the roles and systems of governance. Although it heavenly draws on different social sciences, political science is distinguished from them due to its focus on power. The contemporary discipline is broad, and it is interested in all the societal, cultural and psychological factors influencing actions of government and power bodies. Politology has some overlaps with the field of political philosophy, and historically they weren't always distinguished. Subfields of political science include international relations, public policy, public administration, comparative politics, political methodology and political economy. Like all sciences, political science includes empirical investigation drawing from methods originating in psychology, social research and cognitive neuroscience.

Interest in the subject matter of political science traces back to ancient times. One of the first recorded analysis of political power is by Aristotle (384–322 BC). Due to his attempt to introduce empirical observation in the study of politics, by many he is perceived as the founder of political science. Some of the other ancient influences include Confucius (551–479 BC) in China, and Kautilya (flourished 300 BC) in India and historic writing by Ibn Khaldūn (1332–1406) in North Africa.

Emerging of the discipline
Term “political science” has existed and been noted throughout 1800, however it didn’t describe a specific discipline. Johnson has put it "politics was not viewed as a distinctive mode of action or even as a clearly defined structural feature of social life: it was continuous with moral conduct and social regulation". It is in 19th century when the creation of university departments and specialised chairs marked the beginning of political science as university discipline. Rapid growth of natural sciences during that time contributed to creation a new social science. In 1903 and 1906 respectively American Political Science Association and the American Political Science Review were founded. In 1872 in France the first school of political science has been established - the École Libre des Sciences Politiques (now the Institut d’Études Politiques). In 1895 London School of Economics and Political Science has formed and the first chair of politics was created at the University of Oxford in 1912. Political science has been a part of curricula in law, economics or philosophy in American universities, but became a distinct taught discipline in 1880 with established a school of political science at Columbia University, New York City. By 1920 most of major universities had departamentu named either politics, government or political science.

History and politics
Political science has been often taught alongside different academic disciplines and single honours politics degrees are less common. For many years history and political science were united disciplines in American colleges and universities. History and politics are still frequently taught together. Joint Honours degree can be found at multiple universities, such as Oxford University or Cambridge University. . Existing critique for such practises is that history is an Important but no longer exlusive analytical technique within political science and politology itself cannot be successfully subsumed by the discipline of history.

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History of video games/Platforms/Xbox Series

Development
Rumors of Project Scarlett began to surface in June of 2018, which predicted a console launch in 2020. On December 12, 2019 the design for the Xbox Series X was revealed in a video which features recordings of philosopher Alan Watts.

In September of 2020 just prior to launch, Microsoft purchases Zenimax Media which gives them ownership of a number of Bethesda and iD software game franchises including Doom, Quake, Wolfenstein, Fallout, and The Elder Scrolls. This acquisition was done to bolster the Game Pass program.

Early Reactions
The name of the system lead to widespread confusion and a number of jokes, including by internal social media. The English abbreviation and the Japanese pronunciation of the Xbox Series X both contained innuendos, leading to additional mockery.

Many internet commentators noting the design of the Series X resembles a refrigerator. In response, in late October 2020 a special edition six foot tall refrigerator themed after the Xbox Series X was revealed.

Launch
Two consoles were announced for launch on November 10th, 2020, the $299 digital only Series S, and the $499 Series X. Within a day the Xbox Series X and Series X broke first day sales records for Xbox consoles. Supply issues would continue to plague the console through January 2021.

On January 22nd, 2021 Microsoft announced a price increase for Xbox Live for the first time in nearly a decade. Facing a large backlash, Microsoft reversed their decision to increase the price by January 23rd, 2021, though they did continue to make free to play games not require a subscription for online play.

In early 2021 Microsoft improved it's accessibility program for the Xbox Series, helping game developers confirm their games are playable by those with handicaps.

From launch to the release of a March 2021 patch, controllers for the system had issues maintaining connections with the console. An official wireless headset was also released in March 2021.

In 2021 a promotion with Krispy Kreme in the UK and Ireland was announced, creating an Xbox themed doughnut for the 20th anniversary of Xbox.

The Xbox Series line did notably better in Japan then the prior Xbox One line.

Expansion
Xbox has lost the console wars, and its rivals are positioned to continue to dominate, including by leveraging exclusive content.

Compute
The Xbox Series X uses an 7 nanometer process 8 core AMD Zen 2 CPU clocked at 3.8 gigahertz with simultaneous multithreading off or 3.6 gigahertz with simultaneous multithreading on. The AMD RDNA based GPU has 52 compute units clocked at 1.825 gigahertz with a performance of 12 teraflops.

The Series X has 16 gigabytes of GDDR6 RAM, with 10 gigabytes having a 560GB/s bandwidth and 6 gigabytes having a 336GB/s bandwidth.

Hardware
The Series X uses an internal custom 1 terabyte non-volatile memory express (NVMe) solid state drive. Storage is expandable. The Series X has a Ultra HD Blu Ray Drive for external storage, as well as a storage expansion slot.

The Series X internals are very modular for a console, and have significant amounts of cooling. A large 130 millimeter fan is used for cooling, in conjunction with a copper vapor chamber. Some have speculated the use of significant cooling by Microsoft is an attempt to not repeat the widespread reliability issues caused by inadequate cooling on previous consoles such as the Xbox 360.

The system uses an HDMI 2.1 port.

Compute
The Xbox Series S uses an 7 nanometer process 8 core AMD Zen 2 CPU clocked at 3.6 gigahertz with simultaneous multithreading off or 3.4 gigahertz with simultaneous multithreading on. The AMD RDNA based GPU has 20 compute units clocked at 1.565 gigahertz with a performance of 4 teraflops.

The Series S has 10 gigabytes of GDDR6 RAM, with 8 gigabytes having a 224GB/s bandwidth and 2 gigabytes having a 56GB/s bandwidth.

Hardware
The Series S uses a custom internal 512 gigabyte non-volatile memory express (NVMe) solid state drive. Internal storage is expandable through a slot, though the console lacks a optical drive.

A small illustration of a Spartan helmet from the Halo series is located on the Series S internal power supply unit casing - A hardware easter egg.

Dev Kit
The official Xbox Series X developer kit casing is very similar to the project scorpio Dev Kit made in the lead up to the Xbox One X, though there are differences. Prior to launch, developers of UWP apps were advised to simply use a Xbox One X and then validate on Xbox Series X or Series S hardware when they became available. The Series X developer kit featured enhanced memory with a 320 bit bus capable of higher speeds at 560 gigabytes a second, and having a larger amount, sporting 40 gigabytes of GDDR6 VRAM. This memory was contained in 20 Samsung K4ZAF325BM-HC14 chips containing 2 gigabytes of VRAM each. The Series X dev kit also included a 10 gigabit Ethernet port, a built in display and extra buttons.

Standard Xbox Series Consoles can be used for development through a development mode. In January 2022 restrictions began being implemented to stop homebrew and emulation.

Software
The Xbox Series X and Series S both support universal windows platform (UWP) applications, with no significant changes from the proceeding Xbox One X console for backwards compatibility reasons.

Halo Infinite
On July 29th, 2021 a limited public beta of the multiplayer was launched. As a result of an accidental inclusion, a number of plot details of the game were leaked early.

Read more about Halo Infinite on Wikipedia.

Hi-Fi Rush
Read more about Hi-Fi Rush on Wikipedia.

Redfall
Read more about Redfall on Wikipedia.

External Resources

 * Xbox - Official website.


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'''

Power in Nursing: The Impact of Gender Roles in Nursing
'''

Modern nursing appeared in 19th century Germany, with Theodor Fliedner (1800–1864) organizing deaconesses in Germany-where young women from small villages and lower classes moved from around Germany to Kaiserswerth to be trained in nursing care - and Britain, with Florence Nightingale(1820-1910): known as the founder of modern nursing and as a social reformer in the medical field. Although the action of caring for the ill was already in practice sine circa 1–500 AD, when religious organizations were the care providers, nursing became a certified profession only in the 19th century.

'''How Gender Roles impacted early Nursing? ''' The roles that women were taking as care-takers or housewives shaped how they were perceived in society. In the late Middle Ages, words of the semantic domain of "mother" and of "woman" were associated with caring meanings It was a sensible implication, provided the conceptions the society had in those times, that since women carry tasks such as delivering babies, they must also be able to care for them and for others.

Wet-nursing was a common practice before infant formulas were invented in 1865. Women were breastfeeding abandoned or orphan children and children whose mothers could not breastfeed them, sometimes for money, thus encouraging the reasoning behind's women's image as the care-taker of a family.

Nuns are another example of women whom it was expected from to be able to care for the poor and ill, they were viewed as charitable practitioners and were highly esteemed in the society. Before nursing became officially a profession, in the Civil War, the term 'nurse' could be, as well, misconstrued. Since there were no nursing schools yet, nor official nursing credentials, a 'nurse' could have been the wife of a soldier on the battlefield. The nurses that volunteered on the battlefield were usually professionally inexperienced; their experience came from caring for their loved ones.

'''The Age of Modern Nursing '''

Multiple practice schools for nurses opened in the late 19th century, most notably, Florence Nightingale's school of Nursing and Midwifery at St. Thomas' Hospital in London, which opened in 1860. Although, at first, nursing as a discipline was criticized because of its lack of theoretical rigor and its emphasis on practice and caring, a committee for the study of nursing education, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, encouraged in the Goldmark Report(1923), that nursing schools should be more academical and become a discipline at universities(that students no longer provide free services for their practices) The majority of male nurses from the early 20th century worked in mental hospitals(psychiatric hospitals) and received very little training; they were perceived as less qualified and of lower status than female nurses, thus establishing a gender stereotype within modern nursing: men worked in mental nursing, women worked in general nursing. Many schools even rejected male students for they could have seduced or upset the female students. In the UK, after World War II, when the Ministry of Health saw those male and female nurses can work together(nurses had to work together regardless of gender due to a shortage in the number of nurses available) the employment of male nurses in both mental and general nursing increased. The ministry arranged a one-year training course for men leaving military services and offered male nurses full-time jobs by the NHS. By 1960, men were allowed to become members of the Royal College of Nursing and there was a gradual rise in the number of male nurses.

'''How Past Gender Roles in Nursing impact our Society today? '''

Despite more men being associated with nursing jobs today, the gender divide remains uneven with 11.2% of nurses and health care workers employed by the NHS being men, in 2015. The term [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwife#:~:text=A%20midwife%20is%20a%20health,who%20are%20physicians%20(doctors). midwife] is used to this day, although there are male nurses who have this profession as well as women. The slang job titles being attributed to males in nursing positions such as, murse(a male nurse) or [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/midhusband#:~:text=Noun,of%20midwife%3A%20A%20male%20midwife. midhusband](male midwife), continue to show that to this day, gender roles imprinted in the early basis of the nursing discipline carry on to this day. As of 2016, a study by Health Education England shows that children feel more at ease having a woman as their nurse and that they perceive females as nurses and males as doctors.

In 2019 roughly 16,000 students graduate from UK nursing schools, both men and women, according to the Royal College of Nursing ; despite a shortfall in the number of students that graduate each year, and the misconceptions of gender roles from the past that follow the profession, today people realize the importance of nurses and nursing students in society due to the deadly 2020 pandemic : COVID-19.

'''

The Controversy regarding Truth in Theology
'''

Theology is the study of the divine; of religious faith, practice, and experience. The term derives from the Greek theologia (θεολογία): theos (Θεός, 'god') and logia (λογία, 'utterances, sayings, oracles'). Religion plays a major role in society: there are roughly 10.000 different religions worldwide, which include Christianity, Buddhism, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism#:~:text=Hinduism%20is%20an%20Indian%20religion,global%20population%2C%20known%20as%20Hindus. Hinduism], Islam, Judaism, and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism#:~:text=Atheism%20is%20in%20the%20broadest,that%20there%20are%20no%20deities. Atheism]. Despite theology's prevalence in history and social evolution, scientist often view this field of study deprecatingly, due to its lack of vigor and evidence in claims; that being said, theology's truth does not lie in evidence, but faith.

'''Truth in Theology and Faith '''

Theology uses mainly constructive truth in its studies since it is rooted in tradition and social evolution, perception. Despite the emphasis on perception, the use of reason and logic is discouraged in theological studies; in Christianity, logic, and reason can interfere with the biblical truth, distorting its ground beliefs, allowing the misinterpretation of prophecies and values.

'''The Questions in Truth '''

One lingering question in theology is the relation between God and time. While the Greeks viewed God as a "static perfection inhabiting eternity, detached from the flux of the world", modern theological perceptions-process theology-view God as evolving within time. Because of the theological materials'(such as the bible) open-to-interpretation factor, questions arise about the validity of the information presented in them.

'''Evolution in Theology '''

Queer Theology emerged in the late 20th century and it emphasizes the rudimentary interpretation of passages from the bible and the importance of evolution in theology along with societal evolution. Although Queer Theology does not disregard the fact that homosexual acts were looked down upon in the bible, it is believed that this interpretation was a matter of social beliefs that reflected the times the Old and New Testament were written in (165 BC, first century AD), rather than actual religious beliefs. Despite that, sociologists found traces of queer stories in the bible that were not condemned, only brushed off, such as in the Epistle to the Romans where Paul visits 'unusual households' not led by married men. . Because of society's constant evolution and theology's ground materials for practice and study, such as the bible, being unclear and left open-to-interpretation, the truth in theology lies in beliefs rather than logic and evidence.

'''

The Use of Evidence in Journalism & its Fight for Relevance in the Digital Age
'''

Journalism has continuously been in a perpetual state of evolution because of technological advancements. It is perceived that with the emergence of a new information-sharing platform, another one dies; therefore, the debate regarding journalism's future has been grim since the upheaval of social media. It is believed that journalists fears' are inclined towards how to attract new audiences and how to stay relevant in the new media era.

'''Forms of Data Journalism Uses in the New Media Era '''

Journalists use both quantitative and qualitative data in their writings. Multiple data gathering methods have been used since the beginning of newspapers, in the late 1400s' Europe, such as eyewitness observation, the interview. Recently, technological advancements expanded the options journalists have in collecting data-photography, videos, online interviews-making it easier to find evidence, both quantitative and qualitative in backing up stories. The type of evidence used depends on the tone of an article(politically and health-related coverages require quantitative evidence, empirical data, to stay relevant), while other articles stand out through their story, stemming from qualitative data.

'''How the New Media Era influences Journalism's Practice of Displaying Evidence? '''

Journalism goes through a popularity fight, with all other media platforms, since being earnest and providing useful pieces of information is no longer required for staying relevant. The audience's availability puts pressure on how journalists structure articles because people are prone to consume media based on how easily they can access it, rather than based on their personal preferences. Since sensational headlines catch the readers' attention easily and fact-checking news information is becoming increasingly hard with the numerous online media content available, there has been a great rise in 'Fake Media'. 'Fake Media' manages to be successfully spread to a wide audience through 'relevance' algorithms which are based on popularity (the more popular a topic is, regardless of its truth value, the more it is displayed on social media). That being said, 'Breaking News' stories could become easily viral, regardless of their content (their truth value), therefore journalism can stay relevant in the digital age while providing true information to its readers.

'''

History of Disciplines: The Short-Lived Paradigm Shift between Historical and New Musicology
''' Musicology is the field of study and research of music, which differs from composition or performance. While the first forms of musical instruments date about 400—100 BCE (Before the Common Era) and music has been studied, since its discovery, throughout centuries, the term of Musicology was first coined only in 1863, as Musikalische Wissenschaft (German for Science of Music), by Friedrich Chrysander.

While music genres have evolved constantly,(50s Rock and Roll evolved into the 60s Psychedelic Rock, 70s Disco evolved into 80s Synth Pop and, today, Electronic Dance Music (EDM) is rooted in the 90s Hip Hop), musicology's evolution remained constant until the mid-80s when professionals realized how the field of study became gradually interdisciplinary, cultural and ideological.

Musicologist first approach was to analyze music historically- in the words of the German musicologist, Heinrich Besseler, from 1931- "What modernity failed to offer was sought and found in history". In the late 70s until the early 90s, there was a great difference between the music analyzed at higher institutions and the music people listened to daily, such as rock music or popular music. Perceiving all forms of music as social constructs, including [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music#:~:text=Classical%20music%20is%20art%20music,(religious)%20and%20secular%20music.&text=The%20central%20norms%20of%20this,as%20the%20common%2Dpractice%20period. classical music], implied that music had to be seen both from a cultural and social point of view. Therefore, the novelty of interdisciplinary in a field that has remained faithful to its roots led to a paradigm shift in Musicology, which resulted in the birth of two subdisciplines: New Musicology and Old/Historical Musicology.

Although the discrepancy between subdisciplines was short-lived, since many musicologists started adopting an interdisciplinary approach to analyzing musical pieces afterwards, the short-lived paradigm shift had a long-lasting impact on how musicologists approach their work-no longer disregarding new music, in favor of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music#:~:text=Classical%20music%20is%20art%20music,(religious)%20and%20secular%20music. classical]-and cast light on the importance of evolution in maintaining the relevance of a well-established discipline.

title: User:JupiterJoyner/sandbox


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User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 12/History

History of Psychosurgery
Hi! I think we are supposed to contribute to other people's work here. I was just thinking that maybe some references should be added to the section on the history of Psychosurgery. Basc0024 (discuss • contribs) 21:05, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! A suggestion for the article on the history of psychosurgery would be to perhaps change the title. Although the question "Does psychosurgery's history guarantee it no future?" is very valid and interesting it is only really the last part of the article that brings this up. It also gives the reader a subjective starting point as they are already from the beginning questioning the future of the discipline. Maybe it's just a personal preference but I would perhaps change the title to something more "neutral" and instead highlight the existing question in the paragraph that discusses the nature of psychosurgery today.

I agree, in Wiki training, it was said that titles should be relatively short and simple, with no questions or other phrases that may suggestive for a reader.

Thanks guys! I fixed the references now,and I'll fix the titles. YouShouldNeverHaveLetMeBegin (discuss • contribs) 23:14, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

History of International Relations
Hello! I wanted to add a little bit to The History of International Relations so I figured I'd post it here so the author could see it first. I'm still not quite sure of Wiki etiquette yet. It's just an addition about what IR as a degree covers in more recent years.

More recently, International Relations as a discipline has come to encompass a wider breadth of topics beyond conflict and warfare, including environmental issues, cultural representation, and trade negotiations. As individuals and businesses of different nationalities mix across borders around the world, these subjects have grown in importance because they affect each other and the various interactions between countries.

Dyinghouseplant (discuss • contribs) 01:55, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi Dyinghouseplant! This topic was indeed missing in my contribution and I was working on it. However, thank you for your reference! it was really helpful and interesting to read.

Uclqrdi (discuss • contribs) 16:27, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Uclqrdi

Ah, I didn't realize that at the time. Just read your article and it looks great! Dyinghouseplant (discuss • contribs) 13:16, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Haha, no worries! Happy you like it!

Uclqrdi (discuss • contribs) 16:04, 10 November 2020 (UTC)Uclqrdi

History of Ecology
Hi, I would like to add a suggestion for the article on the history of ecology. I found this book chapter about historical ecology that I found very interesting and I thought you might want to have a look. It's basically defining the historical ecology as a discipline that studies the past and the future of the human-environment relationship. So they are looking at the relations of ecology and the ecosystems with humans. The chapter in the books talks about how interdisciplinary this discipline or subject is because they need to have an insight on geography, sociology, biology or even politics. This field of research was first brought after the Second World War and especially by the French historical Annales School in the 1920s. They are also talking about the difficulty of this discipline as each case is different from the other and I thought it was very interesting. I added something on your article if you don't mind.

[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea1887 Crumley, Carole L. "Historical Ecology." The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2018. 1-5. Web.]

--Uclqesm

History of Anatomy
Hi, I just wanted to add a section to History of Anatomy regarding Leonardo Da Vinci and thought I would add it here.

Leonardo Da Vinci also contributed to the discipline of anatomy with his drawings and annotations of the human body, however much of Da Vinci’s work went unpublished for years. Due to Da Vinci’s own interdisciplinary talents, being an artist, sculptor and engineer, his drawings and dissections were also performed extremely skilfully, also having described coronary sinuses almost 200 years before they were officially named.

Reference is : Jones R. Leonardo da Vinci: anatomist. Br J Gen Pract. 2012;62(599):319. doi:10.3399/bjgp12X649241

- ATKuser035 Thank you so much i'll add it to my work!

-hplover101

History of Medical Physics
To the person who wrote about it, hi !! I read your article and quickly made a link between our two works because we both work on disciplines that emerged from two existing ones (Biochemistry and Medical Physics) that is why I just wanted to let you the date on which the word "medical physics" was first used because for me, it is a real indicator of the founding of a discipline. According to my source (https://www.physicamedica.com/article/S1120-1797(14)00048-9/pdf), this word was first used in English in 1847 ! Hope I helped ! Basc0024 (discuss • contribs)