text:
Lentis/Medication Overload

Introduction
Medication overloading is the use of multiple medications for which the harm to the patient outweighs the benefit. There is no strict cutoff for when the number of medications becomes harmful, but the greater the number of medications a person is taking, the greater their likelihood of experiencing harm, including serious adverse drug events. This term is very similar to, a scientific term describing the condition of taking multiple medications. Usually, the threshold for is five or more medications, although the cutoff varies because there is not a single agreed-upon definition. Every day, 750 older people living in the United States (age 65 and older) are hospitalized due to serious side effects from one or more medications. Over the last decade, older people sought medical treatment or visited the emergency room more than 35 million times for adverse drug events, and there were more than 2 million hospital admissions for serious adverse drug events. Older adults are hospitalized for adverse drug events at a greater rate than the general population is hospitalized for opioids. The problem of medication overload has remained hidden largely because the practice of excessive prescribing is deeply embedded in American health care.

Start of Regulated Medication (1820’s - 1940’s)
Over the past 200 years, therapeutics have grown and changed. In 1820, eleven doctors set up the and recorded the first list of standard drugs. In 1848, the Drug Importation Act was passed by Congress requiring U.S. customs service inspections to help stop entry of tainted or low-quality drugs from overseas. In 1905, the began a voluntary program of drug approval, drug companies must show the drug will treat what it is claimed to. On June 30th in 1906, with the passage of the Pure Food and Drugs Act, an early form of the is created. Later in 1938, amendments were passed to the Pure Food and Drug Act that brought the abuse of non-narcotic medicines under the responsibility of the FDA.

Mid-Century Development (1950’s - 1970’s)
After WWII there was an amazing development of new medicines: tranquilizers, new amphetamines, barbiturates, and opioids. The national marketing of these medicines increased their use. This post-war era brings with it affluence, social change and mass use of medicines and drugs. The predecessors to the modern Drug Enforcement Administration and other government and private organizations begin setting up education programs to stem the tide of abuse and addiction. Later, the is enacted as a United States federal law requiring the pharmaceutical industry to maintain physical security and strict record-keeping for certain types of medicines. Controlled substances would be divided into five schedules (or classes) based on their potential for abuse, accepted medical use, and accepted safety under medical supervision. Then in 1972, the OTC Drug Review was conducted as a means to review the safety and efficacy of OTC ingredients, doses, formulations, and labeling used in medicines available to consumers without a prescription.

The Modern Day Pharmacy (1980’s - Present)
In the 1980s the problems posed by drugs continue to escalate. The is passed to help coordinate the U.S. Government’s efforts to control drug abuse and medicine diversion. A position is created in the White House – the Director of National Drug Control Policy often called the “”. In 1989, the FDA issued guidelines asking drug makers to determine if a drug is likely to have usefulness in elderly people and to include elderly people in studies when applicable. In 1999, an update to the previous law for Patient Package Inserts requires the drug companies to subscribe to a standard and easy to read format for all drug Facts Labels on OTC products. A year later in 2000, the rise of the Internet creates a growing problem as people are going to illegitimate websites to fill orders for medications without a prescription. The DEA sets up special units to monitor and shut down such illegal “pharmacies”. The Drug Safety Board is formed in 2005 to advise the FDA on drug safety issues and to work with the FDA to share safety information with health professionals and patients. Today, more than four in ten older adults take five or more prescription medications a day, an increase of 300 percent over the past two decades. Nearly 20 percent take ten drugs or more. When over-the-counter medications and supplements are included, the number of older people taking five or more drugs rises to 67 percent. More than ever the drug problem is rising.

Causes of Medication Overload
No single cause explains the dramatic rise in the number of medications older people are taking. Rather, a broad array of forces is at work, with four overarching aspects of our health care system contributing to this epidemic.

Culture
The culture of prescribing has convinced patients and clinicians that there is a “pill for every ill. Taking a lot of medications can be seen as the norm in today's society. Massive pharmaceutical companies directly market to consumers, the U.S. is among two countries, the other being New Zealand, that allows this to happen. The big pharma companies not only push consumers to buy their products but also put pressure on doctors to prescribe their drugs.

Lack of Ability
Clinicians and patients lacking critical information and skills needed to appraise the evidence and make informed decisions regarding medications. Doctors are being trained to treat symptoms and in doing so this can lead to a cascade of prescriptions and ultimately an overload. Each illness is treated separately, often tacking on another pill to the patient's daily intake.

Fragmented Systems
The fragmented health care system contributes to this problem, with its multiplicity of health care professionals in a variety of settings, leading to more — and more inappropriate — prescribing. It can be hard for doctors to coordinate with each other regarding the patient's history taking medicines. The information is not properly shared amongst all, and this can lead to incompatible drug mixing.

Lack of Regulation
The only regulation relevant to this issue is the FDA's drug labeling guidelines, requiring labels on consumer products to include product identify, business identity, and product contents. This was meant to serve as a means to increase awareness of drugs' uses and side effects. However, low health literacy rates, especially among the elderly, mean that the labels do little to enlighten users about their situations. Current regulations do combat the over-use of drugs but as part of an addiction issue. Over-use of drugs due to addiction is fundamentally different than the over-use of drugs due to polypharmacy. A drug is craved, requested, prescribed, and obtained due to an individual's want to continue using. In polypharmacy, a doctor prescribes medication to combat specific symptoms resulting in the unintended consequence of a snowball of medication due to side-effects of the prescribed medication.

Current Means to Combat the Problem
The medication overload afflicting millions of older adults is a complex problem, with many causes and agents and no easy fix. A combination of a holistic, multi-pronged set of policies, regulations, and payment models, as well as changes in both the training and practice habits of health care professionals, have been seen to combat the trend of polypharmacy. A comprehensive set of solutions includes interventions to help prevent excessive prescribing as well as interventions to promote judicious discontinuation of medications that are inappropriate, potentially harmful, or no longer necessary. Interventions address the three main drivers described previously: the culture of prescribing, information and knowledge gaps, and our fragmented health care system.

Changing the Culture of Prescribing
Several campaigns have been launched to address the risks associated with the intake of multiple medications concurrently. The campaigns aim to bring awareness to patients about these risks and encourage conversations with their healthcare providers about reducing the number of medications taken. The EMPOWER campaign conducted by researchers of the University of Montreal mailed informational pamphlets to older patients in hopes to reduce inappropriate benzodiazepine prescription doses. After 6 months, the campaign reduced benzodiazepine use in patients aged 65 years older by 27 percent in comparison to a control group. However patient education is only one part of medication overloading intervention. Shared decision making is the idea healthcare providers get to know patient goals and values, so both parties can decide on the best treatment plan. Good shared decision making is dependent on the patient's knowledge of their current condition, and treatment risks and options. Thus, patient-provider communication skills are vital in this process. Ming Tai-Seale, a professor from the University of California San Diego, asserts "patient-provider communication and shared decision making are essential for primary care delivery and are vital contributors to patient experience and health outcomes."

Informing and Increasing Knowledge
There is little regulation and guidelines for deprescribing and medication checkups. Deprescribing is defined as "the planned and supervised process of dose reduction or stopping of medication that might be causing harm, or no longer be of benefit." There are disease guidelines that address how to add drugs to a prescription, but little mention when or how to stop them. Bruyère Research Institute has developed evidence-based deprescribing guidelines. Each of their guidelines contains an infographic, patient pamphlet, and a decision algorithm illustrating the best way to deprescribe a medication. Along with guidelines and regulations, a few Universities and health accrediting bodies are attempting to address medication overloading in their curriculums. For example, "the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, includes prescription risks and deprescribing in the curriculum for first-year-medical students and second-year pharmacy doctoral students."

Creating Centralized Care
Health care delivery such as integrated health systems and team-based models of care are becoming more common and play an integral part in deprescribing. Integrated health systems can increase care coordination and communication among the different parts of a patient's healthcare. Kaiser Permanente (KP) health system "integrates hospitals, physicians, and health insurance under the same systemwide EMR and global budget." The integration of these 3 systems allows clinicians to access the same records and communicate better with patients. Coordination is also improved among clinicians to decide on the best treatment. Improved communication can reduce medication overload by ensuring excess medications are not prescribed.

Participants
It is the interaction between participants that keep up a negative cycle of repetition that sees the number of prescriptions grow. This web of interactions pushes each group to seek out medication for every symptom. It is important for people to realize the pressures behind decisions, and whether those decisions are ultimately beneficial.

Doctors
Doctors are the ones who prescribe medication. However, many doctors such as Dr. Caleb Alexander realize the issue: "A cardiologist puts someone on good, evidence-based medications for his heart... an endocrinologist does the same for his bones... pretty soon, you have an 82-year-old man who’s on 14 medications.” According to Dr. Dima Qato, even though doctors are ware of patients taking many drugs, they might still prescribe additional medication because they are "not paying attention to the interactions and safety of multiple medications," leading to "a major health concern." Once doctors do know of the issue, few oppose de-prescribing.   Many times, doctors are not aware of their patients taking drugs or supplements. A study by JAMA Internal Medicine noted that at least 42% of patients did not tell their doctors of their most commonly used supplements or other drugs. This usually happened because the patient didn't feel the doctor needed to know, and the doctor hadn't asked. Doctors receive pressure from multiple fronts to continue prescribing. Some patients think that there is a medication for every illness and pressure doctors. Drug companies also give incentives to hospitals and clinics to prescribe.

Patients/Consumers
In 2000, half of adults in the U.S. were taking at least one prescription drug; by 2012, that number had grown to nearly 60 percent. Not only are more people taking prescription drugs, but they are also taking a greater number of drugs. The drastic rise in these prescriptions has negatively affected the health of those that consume them, cases of delirium, falls, and death have risen. For older adults, taking 6 to 9 medications is associated with a 59 percent greater chance of death compared to taking no medications. Taking 10 or more medications is associated with a 96 percent greater chance of death. Patients can be divided into two categories. Some patients believe that doctors are withholding medication and seek out additional treatment. This group many times is influenced by pharmaceutical companies advertising their products as hugely beneficial. Many patients, however, are starting to become frustrated with polypharmacy. According to Carla Moore, “each time she returned with a new health complaint, including a side effect from a drug she was taking, she says her doctor wrote a new prescription.” Many patients know that there is a problem, but they do not know who to talk to.

Drug Companies
Drug companies seek out profit. Though they are regulated by the government, being a big industry with billions of dollars means there is a high incentive to keep pushing products. "The pharmaceutical industry plays too large of a role in influencing care practitioners and policy guidelines, and thus an overemphasis on medications" exist. The United States is also one of the few countries where drug companies are allowed to market to consumers and patients directly. This directly affects the amount of medication prescribed because patients who ask for specific medications are much more likely to have something prescribed as those who simply wait for a doctor's diagnosis. Drug companies also apply the largest pressure on doctors to prescribe, by giving incentives to clinics and hospitals. There seems to be no end in sight.

Conclusion
If nothing is done to change current practices, medication overload can lead to the premature deaths of at least 150,000 older people in the U.S. over the next decade. Strong, coordinated, and immediate action between different sectors in the healthcare industry is needed to stem the tide of this epidemic. Unseen relationship of pressures have pushed the healthcare industry to cultivate a culture of overprescribing medications. As a result, a trend of increased number of different medications have been increasing. Cooperation among the pharmaceutical industry, healthcare providers, and patients, is needed to effectively deprescribe as "a pill for every ill" treatment model is not optimal - as Abraham Verghese said, "treat the patient not the CT scan." Further analysis of countries experiencing similar problems and how they are overcoming this issue is needed to examine better ways to battle overload medication.

title: Lentis/Medication Overload


text:
User:Cjr7uf/sandbox

Introduction
Medication Overload: The use of multiple medications for which the harm to the patient outweighs the benefit. There is no strict cutoff for when the number of medications becomes harmful, but the greater number of medications a person is taking, the greater their likelihood of experiencing harm, including serious adverse drug events. Every day, 750 older people living in the United States (age 65 and older) are hospitalized due to serious side effects from one or more medications. Over the last decade, older people sought medical treatment or visited the emergency room more than 35 million times for adverse drug events, and there were more than 2 million hospital admissions for serious adverse drug events. Older adults are hospitalized for adverse drug events at a greater rate than the general population is hospitalized for opioids. In the past decade, prescribing multiple medications to individual patients (called “polypharmacy” in the scientific literature) has reached epidemic proportions. More than four in ten older adults take five or more prescription medications a day, an increase of 300 percent over the past two decades. Nearly 20 percent take ten drugs or more. When over-the-counter medications and supplements are included, the number of older people taking five or more drugs rises to 67 percent. (Lown, 2019)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Cjr7uf/sandbox


text:
ICT4 Elderly/Secure Transactions

Contents of the module
 * Protecting devices;
 * Protecting personal data;
 * Protecting health, wealth and well-being.

Learning objectives
 * Present the topic of secure transactions in each sections of the four previous modules;
 * Participants will be able to recognise internet scams;
 * Participant will be able to manage with personal information through safety protocols;
 * Participant will be able to secure personal data and information.

Learning outcomes
 * Participants are able to establish secure transactions in every unit throughout four previous competence areas;
 * Participant will understand how to avoid internet scams;
 * Participants will know safety protocols for managing personal information;
 * Participants will know how to secure personal information.

Learning scenario
 * Videos;
 * Interactive demonstrations.

Evaluation
 * Participants will have to recognize internet scams or false offers;
 * Participants will have to show how to successfully secure personal information.

Following this module learners will:

 * Participants are able to establish secure transactions in every unit throughout four  previous competence areas;
 * Participant will understand how to avoid internet scams;
 * Participants will know safety protocols for managing personal information;
 * Participants will know how to secure personal information.

Introduction
In each piloting country, partners will be responsible for the organization of training lesson plans. Here below you can find a script to follow in order to conduct the training lessons. Please fill this document for each module. Each module should be between 1 and 2 hours long (depending on the complexity of the module and amount of information needed). The goal is to have the 19 modules (between 19h and 30h) described in this document with all the activities each lesson will have. Overall description This curriculum aims at training adult trainers in developing courses where they coach their audience (students/trainee...) to take actively part in their learning process.

Learning Concept Document

Competence area and Module	Security and privacy Module 1: Secure transactions during every unit Title of the training	Secure transactions during every unit Introduction of the training	Internet safety or online safety or cyber safety means (1) trying to be safe on the internet and (2) is the knowledge of maximizing the user's personal safety and security risks to private information and property associated with using the internet, and the self-protection from computer crime in general.

As the number of internet users continues to grow worldwide, internets, governments and organizations have expressed concerns about the safety of children using the Internet. Safer Internet Day is celebrated worldwide in February to raise awareness about internet safety.

Information security Sensitive information such as personal information and identity, passwords are often associated with personal property (for example, bank accounts) and privacy and may present security concerns if leaked. Unauthorized access and usage of private information may result in consequence such as identity theft, as well as theft of property. Common causes of information security breaches include:

Safety protocol

 * Encrypt your data
 * Backup your data
 * The cloud provides a viable backup option
 * Anti-malware protection is a must
 * Make your old computers' hard drives unreadable
 * Install operating system updates
 * Automate your software updates

Phishing

Phishing is a type of scam where the scammers disguise as a trustworthy source in attempt to obtain private information such as passwords, and credit card information, etc. through the internet. These fake websites are often designed to look identical to their legitimate counterparts to avoid suspicion from the user.

Internet scams

Internet scams are schemes that deceive the user in various ways in attempt to take advantage of them. Internet scams often aim to cheat the victim of personal property directly rather than personal information through false promises, confidence tricks and more.

Malware

Malware, particularly spyware, is malicious software disguised as software designed to collect and transmit private information, such as password, without the user's consent or knowledge. They are often distributed through e-mail, software and files from unofficial locations. Malware is one of the most prevalent security concerns as often it is impossible to determine whether a file is infected, despite the source of the file.

Personal safety

The growth of the internet gave rise to many important services accessible to anyone with a connection. One of these important services is digital communication. While this service allowed communication with others through the internet, this also allowed the communication with malicious users. While malicious users often use the internet for personal gain, this may not be limited to financial/material gain. This is especially a concern to parents and children, as children are often targets of these malicious users. Common threats to personal safety include: phishing, internet scams, malware, cyberstalking, cyberbullying, online predations and sextortion.

Cyberstalking

Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, group, or organization. It may include false accusations, defamation, slander and libel. It may also include monitoring, identity theft, threats, vandalism, solicitation for sex, or gathering information that may be used to threaten, embarrass or harass.

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is the use of electronic means such as instant messaging, social media, e-mail and other forms of online communication with the intent to abuse, intimidate, or overpower an individual or group.

Online predation

Online predation is the act of engaging an underage minor into inappropriate sexual relationships through the internet. Online predators may attempt to initiate and seduce minors into relationships through the use of chat rooms or internet forums.

Obscene/offensive content

Various websites on the internet contain material that some deem offensive, distasteful or explicit, which may often be not of the user's liking. Such websites may include internet, shock sites, hate speech or otherwise inflammatory content. Such content may manifest in many ways, such as pop-up ads and unsuspecting links.

Sextortion

Sextortion, especially via the use of webcams, is a concern, especially for those who use webcams for flirting and cybersex. Often this involves a cybercriminal posing as someone else - such as an attractive person - initiating communication of a sexual nature with the victim. The victim is then persuaded to undress in front of a webcam, and may also be persuaded to engage in sexual behaviour, such as masturbation. The video is recorded by the cybercriminal, who then reveals their true intent and demands money or other services (such as more explicit images of the victim, in cases of online predation), threatening to publicly release the video and send it to family members and friends of the victim if they do not comply.

Keywords
Internet safety, Information security, Phishing, Internet scams, Malware, Personal safety, Cyberstalking,  Cyberbullying, Online predation, Obscene/offensive content, Sextortion.

Subject/Field
In the introductory part, the lecturer will start the lecture by asking the  question what does it mean to be Internet safe? This question will open up a debate which will eventually address the main topic of this lecture -  Internet security.

At the beginning of the lecture, the lecturer will describe the term internet security, personal data security,  information security, internet abuse, internet scams. Even though Internet usage is fun and instructive, we must be alert to the potential for exposure  to abuse while using the Internet. Personal and data security must be paramount, otherwise we may be exposed to various forms of extortion. During the lecture, participants will be presented with how to protect their personal  information and other information that could expose our identity to abuse. It is very important that the participants, with the knowledge gained in the  lecture, can detect potential Internet frauds and thus be able to protect  themselves in advance.

Task - Each participant will have to search for an Internet scam and present it to other participants. It is important for each participant to become aware of as many types and forms of fraud as  possible while using the Internet.

Task – Each participant will have to present one form of possible internet safety protocol (password security,  etc.)

Finally, time will be devoted to a joint debate where participants can raise thoughts, questions, concerns about the  topic being discussed.

Material required

 * Personal computer (Smartphone or tablet connected to the Internet)
 * Internet connection
 * Beamer
 * Paper and pens
 * Flipchart
 * Speakers

The purpose of the session will be:

 * to provide an introduction to establish secure transactions in every unit throughout
 * to facilitate safety protocols to manage personal information
 * to discover how to avoid internet scams
 * to motivate to secure personal information

Introduction
In the introductory part, the lecturer will start the lecture by asking the question what does it mean to be Internet safe? This question will open up a debate which will eventually address the main topic  of this lecture - Internet security.

Lecture
At the beginning of the lecture, the lecturer will describe the term internet security, personal data security, information  security, internet abuse, internet scams. Even though Internet usage is fun and instructive, we must be alert to the potential for exposure to abuse  while using the Internet. Personal and data security must be paramount, otherwise we may be exposed to various forms of extortion. During the lecture, participants will be presented with how to protect their personal  information and other information that could expose our identity to abuse. It is very important that the participants, with the knowledge gained in the  lecture, can detect potential Internet frauds and thus be able to protect  themselves in advance.

Exercices
Everyone opens his/her laptop

Task - Each participant will have to search for an Internet scam and present it to other participants. It is important for each participant to become aware of as many types and forms of fraud as  possible while using the Internet.

Task – Each participant will have to present one form of possible internet safety protocol (password security, etc.)

Debate
Finally, time will be devoted to a joint debate where participants can raise thoughts, questions, concerns about the topic being  discussed.

Homework
Watch video and comment.

 * 10 Online Scams You Might Get Fooled By!

Debriefing
To wrap up the session, the trainer will facilitate a debriefing moment where  participants are encouraged to express their questions, doubts, ideas and  feelings toward the topics discussed.

Evaluation
Participants will answer a small questionnaire to evaluate the form and the content of the  session.

Overall duration of the session
1 hour and 25 min

title: ICT4 Elderly/Secure Transactions


text:
Lentis/News Echo Chambers

An Echo Chamber is a metaphorical description of a situation in which beliefs and values are amplified or reinforced through repetition and validation from others inside a closed system. The term is based off of an acoustic echo chamber, a room where sounds reverberate in a hollow enclosure. A News Echo Chamber is created when people choose to receive news only from sources they already trust. Trusted sources may be friends, family, particular websites, or particular television channels. When visiting an echo chamber, people only find information that reinforces their existing views, which is an unintentional example of confirmation bias.

Causes
Echo chambers are created with a few key factors: Isolation from opposing viewpoints, binary worldview, distrust in other views, and confirmation bias. “Echo chambers isolate their members, not by cutting off their lines of communication to the world, but by changing whom they trust.” Once users are isolated from opposing viewpoints, they may enter a feedback loop where their opinions are repeatedly confirmed. Because of this, they may prefer to seek out individuals with similar values and become less likely to trust important decisions of people whose values differ from their own.

One of the main causes of News Echo Chambers is the Internet’s facilitation of alternative news sites. Many of these sites specifically tell their audience what they want to hear, regardless of journalistic ethics. With these sites, factual accuracy cannot be taken for granted. Despite many claims being able to be debunked with a quick search, users of such sites are encouraged that any news outlet sporting an opposing viewpoint is fake or unreliable. Many news outlets claim “fake news” on reputable sites while touting the accuracy of their own, leading to confusion as to which outlets are reliable. This leads to users only trusting news from news outlets that already match what they believe.

Echo Chambers in Social Media
Echo chambers can exist anywhere, with social media sites being especially vulnerable. Many users find a majority of their news stemming from shared posts on social media. When like-minded people are surrounded by one another, they are more likely to share articles agreeing with their viewpoints and are less likely to challenge false rumors about opposing viewpoints. This can create a feedback loop where you only see similar articles online. Seeing these repeated viewpoints can "trick our brains into thinking that this is the reality." Due to the nature of online news outlets and social media, content filtering algorithms decide which content users see. The mixture of a user’s tendency to group with like-minded people along with content filtering algorithms creates a system where one can easily fall into an echo chamber.

Reddit
, a popular social media forum, naturally separates content through their user created communities called subreddits. Users choose which subreddits to follow, and can post, upvote, and view content from each of them. Communities such as r/LateStageCapitalism and r/The_Donald create isolated environments through their subreddit rules that can lead to distrust of other viewpoints. Both subreddits allow only positive discussion of each ideology, and ban users who mention any contrary beliefs. Reddit user Jelvinjs7 states, “Reddit is only an echo chamber if people choose a user experience that makes it an echo chamber.” Users on Reddit are largely anonymous to the community,"making it particularly easy to dismiss other’s views, creating a more hostile environment for debate." However, this is not always the case. Several communities, such as r/ChangeMyView, have been created solely to discuss opposing viewpoints. Users may seek out these communities to reevaluate their own viewpoints.

Facebook
Shared content on is often shared by friends of a user. Many users only add friends who are like-minded to themselves, resulting in content that doesn't break out of the user's comfort zones. Users are also more likely to believe content that confirms their beliefs, even if the content was deliberately satirical. Because more time spent on Facebook results in more revenue, Facebook incentivizes users to stay on their site as long as possible. “Everything on your Facebook feed is curated and presented to you by an algorithm seeking to maximise your engagement by only showing you things that it thinks you will like and respond to.” And because a user is more likely to click on the links that support their viewpoints regardless of truth, unaware users may continue to see content tailored to their beliefs resulting in a skewed worldview.

Youtube
YouTube’s algorithm constantly adapts to recommend the videos it thinks is most likely to get users to stay on the site. Because they make money from ad revenue, Youtube wants to keep users on their site for as long as possible. As one Youtube user states, “all I get are videos that I’ve already watched, or channels that I already clicked 20 times...” Many users feel similarly too, that the suggestions are repetitive. This can have the unintended consequence of creating echo chambers of content, especially with political or news channels. If the algorithm notices a user watching a video affiliated with a political party, it will recommend more and more videos from that party because it thinks they are more likely to be clicked on.

Real-World Implications of Echo Chambers
Anti-Vaccination groups are an example of an echo chamber that has gained tremendous popularity in recent years. The spread of disinformation about vaccines has caused a resurgence of measles, a disease that was eliminated in the United States in 2002. In 2019, the United States is in the middle of the largest measles outbreak since 1992. In addition, the Anti-Vaccination movement is responsible for many state-by-state initiatives to allow parents to opt-out of mandatory vaccination. Such ideas are propagated inside of communities like closed Facebook groups and forums that quash any ideas that don’t align with the group.

Another example of echo chambers having real world consequences are the Climate-Change Deniers. Climate-change denial has been found to be linked closely with political conservatism, with 95% of liberal Democrats, 88% of moderate/conservative Democrats and 68% of liberal/moderate Republicans, but only 40% of conservative Republicans believe in global warming. Because the belief in global warming is tied so closely to political belief, it lends itself to be a topic that forms echo chambers on the internet. Feldman, Myers, Hmielowski, and Leiserowitz found in 2014 that partisan media sources do influence individuals’ beliefs about global warming. “Specifically, the use of conservative media sources such as Fox News and Rush Limbaugh is associated with the belief that global warming is not happening and greater opposition to climate policies, whereas use of non-conservative media such as network TV news, CNN, MSNBC, and NPR is associated with the belief that climate change is happening and greater policy support.”

Conclusions
In the age of the Internet, information has become increasingly available. Online news outlets’ goals of gaining viewers will naturally lead to users viewing polarizing content. With vast amounts of information available to us, users must actively choose to break the boundaries of their content viewing. Political clusters in the U.S. are becoming more polarized. Future research could be done investigating echo chambers’ roles in determining political outcomes, or their role in key issues such as the anti-vaccination movement or climate-change denial.

title: Lentis/News Echo Chambers


text:
Python book of magic/08.Functions

Contents |  Previous  |  Next

=Functions= You have learnt about loops which make work more easy for you. But wait, there are other staff's in python that can make coding more easy for you. One of those are functions. Functions have names used to identify them much like variable.

Functions are the same as box with a name(label). The name of the box can be anything. But this box is not just a box, it could have bombs, food or anything useful or useless. Things inside the box can be used for different purpose such as bomb, can be used in war or in mining.

Functions have a name followed by parenthesis used to identify them. The importance and role of the functions depends on the information and variables inside them and how they work together. Importance of functions is to prevent us from repeating doing the same thing. So functions allow us to reuse, extend, recycle the code we have written. You don't need to type the same thing whole day. So let take short example.

Example 01

Output

I know you're asking yourself what def mean, if it is a function or not. The word is a keyword(they tell python what your code represent and starts with small letter). The word mean define which in full I can say 'define a function', every time you create a function you need to type def at the beginning followed by function name. The function name is followed by parenthesis with optional parameters. The colons are used for indentation(you are forced to put a colon)

In the example we created a function which calculate the area of rectangle. I can tell you that its dam easy to create a function. Where are things inside the function? if you look at second and third lines you will realise that they have moved to the left by few spaces(this is called indentation). All code indented after the function belong to that function. result= x*y, return result belongs to area function but a=29 does not. This is because it is not indented/ found in the right-side of the function.

The values in parentheses are parameters that the function accepts. Any value put in position of x in the function will be assigned on x while the same occurs on y.

The statement result= x*y takes the product of x and y and assign it to variable called result. The second line contain keyword return which shows values stored like how print works. a=29 is just assigning 29 to variable a (note that the statement is not part of the function).

The last line calls the area functions. Calling means letting interpreter read your instructions and following them.

Two values are passed to x and y. x is assigned 5 and y assigned 4. Then x and y are multiplied and their products are stored inside result. result is passed to return which would show the value of result to main program(remember return work like printt). Try putting different values for x and y and see the output. This will save you a lot of time.

Contents |  Previous  |  Next

title: Python book of magic/08.Functions


text:
User:Rochni/sandbox/Introduction

= Types of Liver Disease =

Also known as hepatic disease. Liver disease is defined as chronic if it lasts over six months.

 * Hepatitis: inflammation of the liver
 * Viral hepatitis
 * Fatty liver disease (hepatic steatosis)
 * Alcoholic liver disease
 * Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

= Epidemiology =

Prevalence

 * General population :
 * Liver fibrosis: 0.7% to 25.7%
 * Advanced liver fibrosis: 0.9-2.0%
 * Cirrhosis: 0.1-1.7%
 * NASH, hazardous alcohol use or T2D subset :
 * Advanced liver fibrosis: 0-27.9%
 * Cirrhosis: 2.4-4.0%

Mortality

 * Worldwide:
 * Cirrhosis and chronic liver disease: 2% in 2015 (up 10.3% from 2005)

= Current Areas of Interest =

Stratifying Risk
Determining the degree to which someone is at risk of developing liver disease is of clear clinical importance. Currently, liver disease is often tested for using invasive methods, an obvious disadvantage of which is patient discomfort. As a result, these tests are often avoided until symptoms are already starting to show; 50% of cirrhosis diagnoses are only made once the patient has already been hospitalised for a decompensating liver event. They additionally often have poor sensitivity and specificity. Non-invasive test are thus preferable when available, and often identify liver disease which abnormal liver function tests have overlooked. These make it possible to identify disease - and the risk of disease - the general population.

Non-Invasive Tests for Liver Disease
Note that the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) has published guidelines for clinical use of non-invasive tests.

 * Transient elastography
 * FibroTest
 * AST to ALT ratio
 * APRI
 * BARD
 * FIB4
 * NAFLD fibrosis score
 * Hyaluronic acid (aka hyaluronan)
 * BAAT
 * ELF score
 * Southampton traffic light test

Invasive Tests for Liver Disease

 * Liver biochemistry panels (aka liver function tests)
 * Histology
 * Serum concentration of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
 * 59% of patients with NAFLD have normal ALT

= Further Reading =

Review Articles

 * Harris, Rebecca, David J Harman, Timothy R Card, Guruprasad P Aithal, and Indra Neil Guha. 2017. “Prevalence of clinically significant liver disease within the general population, as defined by non-invasive markers of liver fibrosis: a systematic review.” Lancet Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2 (4): 288–97

= Bibliography =

title: User:Rochni/sandbox/Introduction


text:
User talk:202.142.115.186

For the quotient limit if |M|=1 then the proof not valid.

title: User talk:202.142.115.186


text:
Python book of magic/06.If

Contents |  Previous  |  Next

=if statement= You have already came across the word if heavily used in English. If you read this book from the beginning, you may have came across this short word. if work the same as (if) in English.

For example

If I complete high school, I am going to university.

We have If as used in english, after it there is a condition(underlined). This condition is the one that will determine whether the learner will go to university or not.

Suppose the learner was unable to complete high school. The learner will not go to university. Imagine the sentence without if,the sentence will be meaningless. This is how useful if is in python.

Most time is spent creating conditions which would involve logic expressions and some operators.

if statement definition

Statements are those things run when the condition is met. The collon is used for indentation purposes (remember python is indented language)

Conditions
Like I said conditions are created using logics( like probality in Mathematics ) and expressions( used in Mathematics to compare LHS with RHS ). Even if you never been in math class, you will still find it easy to learn them.

Expressions
Expressionns are used for comparing two things. Maybe comparing two variables, numbers or anything in python. Their output will either be True or False. If output is True the condition will be run. Some of operators used are. == - check if Left Hand Side(LHS) is equal to RHS. =! - check if LHS in not equak to RHS <  - checks if LHS is less than RHS >  - do oposite of (<) <= - check if LHS is less than or equal to       RHS >= - opposes ( <= )

Example 01

Output let chage the value of a Output So why correct not printed on screen. Remeber, condition is not completed. Because the value of a is not the same as value of b. But what if you wan't to do something even when condition is not completed.

This is when we have to use another statement called else.

Example 02 Output

Code under else will ongly be run if condition in if statement is not completed. What if I want to have many if statements to increase chances that my code will be run.

Example 03

Output

You are not limited to doing simple things like printing text on screen. You can define functions, create variables, solve problems involving numbers or make anything that python can do.

Logic
Logics are ways of including or excluding events that are occuring or will occur. Event can be anything that occurs e.g death, winning match or adding numbers.

Some logic works are A and B - include both event A or B  - include either A or B not A    - A not included not B   - B not include I know you wont understand what thise things above mean. Let use True and False instead of A and B.

Example 04(and) Output

The first line checks if A and B are true. If both of them are true. It returns true or else False. Our output is false, because A and B are not both of them True.

The second line checks if B and B are True. If they are, it return True or else false. The output is False, as both B and B are false.

The third line checks if A and A are True. True is returned when both A and A are True or False if one or both of them is False. The output is True, as both A and A are true.

Example 05(or)

Output

In or, if one of the ouput(A or B) is True then True is returned. Study the example below to get more information.

Example 06(not)

Output

The not changes True to False and False to True. Look at line 1 and 2 to observe this. Line 2 is bit harder, due to combination of not and and. First you need to get the output of A and B which is True. Then apply not by changing the output which is True to opposite of it which is False.

For you to create a strong condition you need to combine logic gates and expressions into one working tool. What I think you have realised is that, the outputs of both expressions and logics are both True or False. Instead of passing A and B into logics we can use expressions.

Example 07

Output

Ohh, why did it run else statement while kevin is inside the Num list? be aware that and was used in the condition. It means that if kevin is inside Num list and if a is equal to marry, then condition will be met as the output of the condition will be True. ( Remember conditions should return either True or False). If the output of condition is False then the condition is not met, resulting in statements under if not run.

Get used to logics and expressions, they will be useful when creation Graphical User interface sometimes called gooey (GUI).

Contents |  Previous  |  Next

title: Python book of magic/06.If


text:
User talk:FockeWulf FW 190

Welcome, FockeWulf FW 190!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. JackPotte (discuss • contribs) 20:36, 6 November 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:FockeWulf FW 190


text: Wildlife Gardening/MOS/Ecosystem

title: Wildlife Gardening/MOS/Ecosystem


text:
Lentis/Disease Prevention in the First World War

Introduction
World War 1 was the first major war where combat killed more soldiers than disease. In the years before the war, advancements in medicine as well as military practices made this possible. This chapter will focus on these advancements and the systems they were implemented into.

Vaccines
The use of disease prevention techniques were used for years prior to World War 1. The U.S. military specifically sought out and valued the effects of vaccines. By the start of World War 1, a typhoid vaccine had been developed, and the U.S. army made it compulsory for all soldiers. The French army didn't have an operational vaccine program until the middle of the war, and the British army usually only vaccinated soldiers deployed in tropical areas.

In 19th century Great Britain an anti-vaccination movement began and drew traction. After passing regulations in 1840 and 1853, members of this movement lobbied for reduction in requirements in 1898. This pressure of anti-vaccination interests is thought to have had an impact on the lack of compulsory vaccinations for soldiers fighting in mainland Europe.

Germ Theory
Germ theory states that disease is spread through physical living pathogens that spread in a variety of ways.

During the U.S. Civil War, the commonly accepted theories included miasma theory and contagion theory. Miasma theory claimed that disease was spread through bad air or miasma. Contagion theory said that disease was spread by touch from an infected individual. Under these theories, armies wouldn't take precautions against practices like placing latrines where they can seep into drinking water supplies. Contemporary theories wouldn't connect problems like the possibility of contaminated water with illness in soldiers.

Germ Theory had been discussed for thousands of years prior to World War I, with many discoveries and scientists help legitimize and promote it. Some of the notable scientists and their experiments include:
 * Louis Pasteur, known for his swan neck flask pasteurization experiment. These involved showing a flask of broth with a swan neck would not grow bacteria like a standard vertical neck would. Pasteur concluded that the bacteria could not reach the broth in the swan neck, while they could easily fall into the vertical neck.
 * Robert Koch, known for his anthrax experiments and his postulates. Koch inoculated mice with blood from animals infected with anthrax and saw how that caused anthrax in the recipient. Also, Koch proposed 4 postulates to link the bacteria to the disease.
 * 1) The bacteria must be present in sick individuals and not in healthy ones.
 * 2) The bacteria needs to be grown in culture, separate from a host
 * 3) The lab grown bacteria must cause the disease when introduced to a healthy individual
 * 4) The disease from the inoculated individual must match that from other sick individuals.
 * John Snow, known for his connection of cholera to an infected well. In 1854, there was an outbreak of cholera in a suburb near London. John Snow observed how it clustered around a specific well, where a vast majority of the cases could be traced back to the individual drinking from that pump.

As more people came to support Germ Theory, it enabled more effective and health practices across the board. The other components of this chapter were enabled by the progress of Germ Theory.

Antiseptics
Improved mortally rates can be contributed to the use of antiseptics. Used first in 1867, antiseptics are used to kill bacteria and disinfect wounds. Before the introduction of antiseptics a small would could prove fatal by infection. Known antiseptics however were not enough to combat Clostridium perfringens, a bacteria found in the trenches. Henry Dakin was able to create an antiseptic from sodium hypochlorite with help from Alexis Carrol, patenting the Carrel-Dakin Method. . This method saved countless lives during the war.

Anesthesia
By the time of the war, anesthetics had improved to the point where doctors could perform longer operations. This allowed more complex procedures to be completed, saving more lives through surgery. The most common forms of anesthesia were chloroform, nitrous oxide, and ether. A mask with gauze containing the drug were placed over the patient's face. Application methods vary but most patients were unconscious in less than 5 minutes.

X-Ray
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays in 1895. Imaging devices were limited to hospitals so soldiers needed to be evacuated to be treated. In 1914 Marie Curie invented a car that contained x-ray equipment. This car could be taken to the front where doctors could use the x-ray equipment in their field stations.

Civil War Practices
A major cause of death during wartime before to World War I was primarily due to post-operative wound infections. During the Civil War from 1861 to 1865, prior to the development of concepts such as Germ Theory and Antiseptics, there were many misconceptions on proper wound healing. For instance, during post-operative care, causes of infection such as laudable and malignant pus were often ignored and treated as signs of proper healing. Laudable pus is thick and cream colored and is known to be associated with Staphylococcal infection. Malignant pus is thin and bloody and is known to be associated with Streptococcal infection. As a result of this infection, a type of necrotizing fasciitis known as hospital gangrene was a prominent disease in wartime locations. In order to prevent death due to infection, amputations were common. During the civil war, three out of four battlefield surgeries performed were amputations; out of approximately 175,000 extremity wounds, 30,000 underwent amputation. One common course of treatment for infection treatment was to dissect dead tissue away, treat with bromide (whose effectiveness was unknown at the time), and pack the wound with bromide soaked dressings.

Spanish American War Medical Practices
The Spanish American Was was one of the first wars containing a mild implementation of antiseptic treatment. Taking place in 1898, this was marked one of the first uses of Lister's antiseptic method in wound care. During treatment of wounds, antiseptic dressings were used, operating rooms were disinfected, instruments were metal and sterilized, and surgeons made sure to wash their hands prior to surgical procedures. While gloves and masks were not yet used during surgery, other antiseptic techniques helped reduce the rate of infection among soldiers undergoing surgery. Another contributing factor to the reduction of the mortality rate during wars was due to a better understanding of septic shock and its treatment. For instance, the Spanish American war marked one of the first instances where shock as a result of hemorrhage was known to be treated with fluid resuscitation. This resulted in fewer cases in which amputation was used to eradicate disease, decreasing the occurrence of this procedure during wartime.

World War I Medical Practices
During World War I, medical procedure thoroughly implemented antiseptic and disinfection treatment techniques due to the knowledge of topics such as Germ Theory and antiseptics. As WWI mainly consisted of trench warfare, the amount of bacteria that was present to infect wounds significantly increased. However, wound treatment had improved greatly during this war. US surgeons adopted the procedure of debridement, or the removal of damaged tissue, and delayed primary wound closure to ensure that an infection was not present before closure was attempted. This procedure basically eliminated the need for amputation to prevent infection from spreading. Another procedure that was implemented was wound irrigation using sodium hypochlorite and boric acid, known as Dakin's solution. This procedure thoroughly disinfected the wound site, thus making sure that closure of the wound site was only attempted after almost all sources of infection were removed from the wound site.

Systematic Treatment
While the concept of triage wasn't invented in World War 1, it became much more prevalent in the world of military healthcare. The allied forces in particular set up a structure of medical stations to optimize their effect.

The first layer of this structure was composed of Regimental Aid Posts. These would be embedded in the trench network, fairly close to the front lines. These had little capabilities, normally just cleaning/closing wounds. For any severe injury or disease the patient would be sent back a layer to the Advanced Dressing Station.

Advanced Dressing Stations were typically in the back of the trenches, close enough to be carried from the field care stations on a stretcher. These stations had ability to do some small surgeries as well as hold patients for a few hours. Capacity was relatively low, so if patients needed more care they could be sent back another layer in the chain.

The Field Hospitals were located a fair distance from the trenches usually needing an ambulance to access. These hospitals would have the level of care seen in top civilian hospitals with operating rooms, machinery, and labs for diagnosing patients.

One layer back would be the Evacuation Hospital. This layer wouldn't be a substantial increase in capability from the general hospitals, mostly just an increase in capacity. U.S. soldiers who were not fit to return to combat would also be sent here to wait for a boat back home.

The trench warfare of World War 1 caused armies to be more stationary, which made it easier to put in the system detailed above. Additionally, as the automobile grew in popularity some ambulances changed from horse-drawn to motorized.


text:
User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence/Evidence in Christianity

Religions statistics
Statistics divide population into groups of which religion they belong to. Thus, there is a plethora of data of each country's, region's or continent's religiousness. And the first most popular that has the biggest amount of believers is Christianity (34% of population), then goes Islam with 1.8 billion followers (or 24.1%) and in the third place people do not consider themselves to be religious, so they are atheists (16%). However, the statistics that consider people to be part of some religion often are arguable.

Christianity statistics
Only analyzing the statistics of Christianity in Europe (which is considered to be a quarter of all Christian community ) we face controversies of who is considered to be a christian. For instance, people who were baptized in the childhood by their parents choice and afterwards had never been in a church in some countries are statistically considered to belong to Christian community. This is an issue of interpretation, because usually data does not show if ones are practicing their religion, how often do they go to church, do they follow the main principles or have a basic knowledge about their belief. Therefore, numbers can even be influenced by how someone is questioned. As an example The Humanist Society of Scotland made a poll where they asked people in Scotland ‘What religion, religious denomination or body do you belong to?’. 42% of adults responded ‘None’. However to the question ‘Are you religious?’ 56% of the same sample answered ‘No’. This is not the only example of inconvenience just by forming a question. In a survey conducted in England and Wales by YouGov in 2011, citizens were asked ‘What is your religion?’, 61% of surveyed people responded to be religious (53.48% to be Christians), meanwhile while two fifths of surveyed people's answer was ‘No religion’. The following question was again ‘Are you religious?’, but this time only 29% responded that they were. Focusing on Christians in this survey half of the people did not believe that Jesus Christ was a real human. Also, from the same surveyed people 63% had not been in a church in the past year. Therefore, the statistics that show how people are divided into different religious groups could be very misleading and should be taken with a grain of salt.


text: Wildlife Gardening/Ecosystem/Allegheny-Cumberland Dry Oak Forest and Woodland


text:
User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence/Human Rights violations: Argentina's Dirty War

Historical Context

 * Following the death of President Juan Perón, a period of political instability swept Argentina from 1976 to 1983.
 * On March 24, 1976, a military junta seized power, leading the way for the 'dirty war'.
 * The aim of the military was to eradicate left-wing opponents. It did so by clandestinely deporting, executing and torturing thousands of so-called 'subversive' civilians.
 * In the wane of the dictatorship, the junta made sure to grant an 'amnesty' for all events connected to the 'dirty war'. This amnesty took the form of immunity laws that would prevent military leaders from being convicted for their atrocious acts.

If the current official number of disappeared is 8960, relatives estimate numbers hover between 20 000 and 30 000. The publication of classified information would take this number to 22 000 between 1975 and 1978.

Reconstructing history
Much of the knowledge of the events comes from testimonials of the survivors themselves. The potential rebels would be abducted and sent to detention centers.

Torture was a common way of obtaining information, no distinction was made between children and adults.

Another lead in the reconstruction of events was the confessions by members of military themselves, such as former navy captain Adolfo Scilingo who admitted to taking part in the hideous practice of pushing live political dissidents out of airplanes :  ''They [the prisoners] were informed that they were going to be transferred to the south and would be given a vaccination for that reason. They were given a vaccination - I mean a dose of something to knock them out, a sedative. It made them drowsy.[...] Then they were put on a truck, a green truck with a canopy. We went to the military airport [...] Then the subversives were carried out like zombies and loaded onto the airplane. (21-22)''

''In their unconscious state, the prisoners were stripped, and when the commander of the airplane gave the order, which happened according to where the plane was, the hatch was opened and they were thrown out, naked, one by one. That's the story. A gruesome story, but true, and no one can deny it. (49)''

[Page references from the 1996 New Press edition] The goal of minimizing the extermination plan fomented by the Argentinian military dictatorship

Rise of negationism in media, followed by government officials, and now in public policies.

Scientific evidence: Forensic Archeology to solve mysteries of the Dirty War
By using science to solve the mysteries of Argentina's 'Dirty War', the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, a non-profit, NGO based in Buenos Aires, has helped many lift the veil of mystery and secrecy concerning the fate of their missing relatives.

The EAAF uses 'forensic anthropology and other disciplines like archaeology, ballistics and radiology to locate, identify and ultimately, reunite, family members with the skeletal remains of their loved ones'.


text:
Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Sample chapter

This is a sample chapter for Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20. The purpose is to explain how chapters will link to the main page of the Wikibook.

When you are ready, you can link your chapter to the book in the same way as this chapter is linked. That is to say that under the relevant issue (History, Truth, Evidence or Power), you should type in the title of your chapter. You can then link that title using the 'link' icon and typing in your title in this format: Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20/Title of chapter.

When you publish your changes, the title of your chapter will be red. Click on it and you can start editing your chapter.

If you've linked it correctly, a reader should be able to head back to the main page of the Wikibook using the link at the top of the page (see the link at the top of this page, for example). If there is no link, you haven't linked up your chapter correctly.

Note that, after the first letter (which is automatically capitalised), Wikimedia is case-specific. If you haven't managed to link your chapter correctly, it may be because you haven't capitalised the 'i' at the beginning of 'interdisciplinarity' (or you may have spelt 'interdisciplinarity' incorrectly).

Don't worry if you need to retitle or move your chapter - both these things are possible. Also, do not worry if you have set up a separate page for your chapter - this can be moved so it sits within the Wikibook. If you need help doing these things, talk to your seminar-leader.


title: User:Procode200


text:
User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Power/Power and Research on Endometriosis

In general, “research on women's health is... neglected and it’s more difficult to find funding." . A particular example of a disease that only biological women suffer from is endometriosis. It's a condition where endometrial tissue is present outside the ovary, leading to high levels of pain and sometimes infertility. It affects a fairly large proportion of women, and the women it does affect, it affects greatly. Despite the fact that it has such an impact on women's lives, research is lacking, partly for reasons related to power.

Background
10%-15% of women are affected by endometriosis. In numbers of women, that means 89 million women worldwide are suffering from the disease. Diagnosing the disease is difficult and the methods used are invasive. The disease can also take between 7-10 years to diagnose, partly because of the methods used and partly due to a general ignorance among doctors. Doctors have not been educated on the symptoms of endometriosis, the normal levels of pain for menstruation and the fact that women of all ages can suffer from endometriosis, not only middle-aged women.

The lack of research is partly due to the complicated nature of the disease (for example, animal testing is not possible as there are few animals that menstruate ), and partly because it affects "only" women. The fact that it only affects women is reflected in the amount of funding allocated to research, which is no proportionate to its effect on women's lives. The lack of education, on the other hand, is mainly a power issue. The choice has been made to not include the information necessary in the doctors' educations, or not place enough emphasis on it, leading to doctors with insufficient knowledge about menstruations and conditions related to it.

Current Research
As a result of feminism increased influence on medical research, there has been a slight shift of power and therefore an increase in research on diseases like endometriosis. Some results of that research include:

 * A new pain medication which stops the production of estrogen. However, this has the side-effects equivalent to menopause (regardless of age)
 * New methods for treating endometriosis:
 * Using iPS (induced pluripotent stem cells) to create healthy uterine cells and replacing the unhealthy ones with these. More research is required to determine if it will work and to identify potential side-effects.
 * Supplying sufferers with the gene Let-7b, since this gene is suppressed when suffering from endometriosis. This also needs more research to determine if it would be a viable option for humans.


text:
LMIs in Control/KYP Lemma

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)\\ x(0)&=x_0 \end{align}$$

The Data
A List of inputs needed for the problem to be well-defined.

The Optimization Problem
A description of the Problem to be solved, if appropriate.

The LMI: Title
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{Find} \; X:&\\ \begin{bmatrix} X\end{bmatrix}&>0\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^T X+XA\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Interpretation of the results of the LMI

Implementation
A link to CodeOcean or other online implementation of the LMI

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs

title: LMIs in Control/KYP Lemma


text:
LMIs in Control/Tools

 * /Basic Matrix Theory/
 * /Notion of Matrix Positivity/
 * /Schur Complement/
 * /Elimination of Variables/
 * /Maximum Singular Value of a Complex Matrix/
 * /Minimum Singular Value of a Complex Matrix/
 * /Structured Singular Value/
 * /Eigenvalue Problem/

title: LMIs in Control/Tools


text:
LMIs in Control/Tools/Schur Complement

WIP, Description in progress

An important tool for proving many LMI theorems is the Schur Compliment. It is frequently used as a method of LMI linearization.

The Schur Compliment
Consider the matricies $$Q$$, $$M$$, and $$R$$ where $$Q$$ and $$M$$ are self-adjoint. Then the following statements are equivalent:
 * $$Q>0$$ and $$M-RQ^{-1}R^*>0$$ both hold.
 * $$M>0$$ and $$Q-R^*M^{-1}R>0$$ both hold.
 * $$\begin{bmatrix} M & R \\

R^* & Q\end{bmatrix} > 0 $$ is satisfied.

More concisely:
 * $$\begin{bmatrix} M & R \\ R^* & Q\end{bmatrix} > 0 \iff \begin{bmatrix} M & 0 \\ 0 & Q-R^*M^{-1}R\end{bmatrix} > 0 \iff \begin{bmatrix} M-RQ^{-1}R^* & 0 \\ 0 & Q\end{bmatrix} > 0

$$

WIP, additional references to be added

title: LMIs in Control/Tools/Schur Complement


text:
LMIs in Control/Tools/Notion of Matrix Positivity

WIP, Description to be added

Notation of Positivity
A symmetric matrix $$A\in\R^{n\times n}$$ is defined to be:

positive semidefinite, $$(A\ge 0)$$, if $$x^TAx\ge 0 $$ for all $$x\in\R^n, x\neq \mathbf{0} $$.

positive definite, $$(A>0)$$, if $$x^TAx> 0 $$ for all $$x\in\R^n, x\neq \mathbf{0} $$.

negative semidefinite, $$(-A\ge 0)$$.

negative definite, $$(-A>0)$$.

indefinite if $$A$$ is neither positive semidefinite nor negative semidefinite.

Properties of Positive Matricies

 * For any matrix $$M$$, $$M^TM>0$$.
 * Positive definite matricies are invertible and the inverse is also positive definite.
 * A positive definite matrix $$A>0$$ has a square root, $$A^{1/2}>0$$, such that $$A^{1/2}A^{1/2}=A$$.
 * For a positive definite matrix $$A>0$$ and invertible $$M$$, $$M^TAM>0$$.
 * If $$A>0$$ and $$M>0$$, then $$A+M>0$$.
 * If $$A>0$$ then $$\mu A>0$$ for any scalar $$\mu>0$$.

WIP, additional references to be added


text:
LMIs in Control/Tools/Basic Matrix Theory

Basic Matrix Notation
Consider the complex matrix $$A\in \C^{n\times m} $$.
 * $$ A=\begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & \dots & a_{1m} \\

\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ a_{n1} & \dots & a_{nm}\end{bmatrix} \in \C^{n\times m} $$

Transpose of a Matrix

The transpose of $$A$$, denoted as $$A^{T}$$ or $$A'$$ is:
 * $$ A^T=\begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & \dots & a_{n1} \\

\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ a_{1m} & \dots & a_{nm}\end{bmatrix} \in \C^{m\times n}. $$

Adjoint of a Matrix

The adjoint or hermitian conjugate of $$A$$, denoted as $$A^{*}$$ is:
 * $$ A^*=\begin{bmatrix} a_{11}^* & \dots & a_{n1} ^*\\

\vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ a_{1m}^* & \dots & a_{nm}^*\end{bmatrix} \in \C^{m\times n}. $$ Where $$a_{nm}^*$$ is the complex conjugate of matrix element $$a_{nm}$$.

Notice that for a real matrix $$A\in\R^{n\times m}$$, $$A^*=A^T$$.

Important Properties of Matricies
Hermitian, Self-Adjoint, and Symmetric Matricies

A square matrix $$A\in \C^{n\times n} $$ is called Hermitian or self-adjoint if $$A=A^*$$.

If $$A\in \R^{n\times n} $$ is Hermitian then it is called symmetric.

Unitary Matricies

A square matrix $$A\in \C^{n\times n} $$ is called unitary if $$A^*=A^{-1}$$ or $$A^*A=I$$.

WIP, additional references to be added


text:
User:Asalimil/sandbox

This is a Template for Creating An LMI Page

title: User:Asalimil/sandbox


text:
User:Amirsalimi89/sandbox

This is a test for using wikibook for LMI class

title: User:Amirsalimi89/sandbox


text:
LMi for Minimizing Eigenvalues of a Matrix

The System

\begin{align} A(x) = A_{0}+A_{1}x_{1}+ ... + A_{n}x_{n} \end{align}$$

Note that $$ \begin{align} A_{i}, \quad i=1, 2, ..., n \end{align}$$ are symmetric matrices.

The Data

\begin{align} A_{0}, A_{1}, ..., A_{n} \quad \text{are given matrices.} \end{align}$$

The Optimization Problem
Find

$$\begin{align} x = [x_{1} \quad x_{2} ... x_{n}] \end{align}$$

to minimize,

$$\begin{align} J(x) = \lambda_{max}(A(x)) \end{align}$$

According to Lemma 1.1 in [1] page 10, the following statements are equivalent

$$\begin{align} \lambda_{max}(A(x)) \leq t \iff A(x)-tI \leq 0 \end{align}$$

The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{min} \; \quad t:&\\ \text{s.t.} \quad \begin{bmatrix} A(x)-tI \end{bmatrix}& \leq 0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
$$\begin{align} x_{i}, \quad i =1, 2, ... , n \quad \text{and} \quad t > 0 \end{align}$$ are parameters to be optimized

Implementation
A link to Matlab codes for this problem in the Github repository:

https://github.com/asalimil/LMI-for-Minimizing-the-Maximum-Eigenvalue-of-Matrix/blob/master/README.md

Related LMIs
LMI for Matrix Norm Minimization

LMI for Schur Stabilization


text:
LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations

The information in this chapter is referenced from: "Guaranteed Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations via Nuclear Norm Minimization" by Benjamin Recht, Maryam Fazel, and Pablo A. Parrilo, published in SIAM Review 2010, Volume 52, Issue 3, pages 471-501.

Contents

 * /Rank minimization problem: general form/

 * /Minimum-Order Linear System Realization via minimizing the rank of the Hankel matrix/

 * /Low-Rank Matrix Completion/

 * /Low-Dimensional Euclidean Embedding Problem /

 * /Nuclear Norm Minimization/

 * /Nuclear Norm Minimization/

 * /Low-Rank Parametrization/


text:
LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations/Rank minimization problem: general form

WIP

The information on this page is referenced from: "Guaranteed Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations via Nuclear Norm Minimization" by Benjamin Recht, Maryam Fazel, and Pablo A. Parrilo, published in SIAM Review 2010, Volume 52, Issue 3, pages 471-501.

Systems are very often represented by matrices. The rank of a matrix offers some very useful information about the system it represents. For instance: a state space representation of a system is controllable if its state matrix is full rank.

In some circumstances, finding a simpler model of a system is useful. For example; finding a lower-degree statistical model for a random process, discovering a low-order realization of a linear state space system model, and a finding lower order controllers for certain systems. In some circumstances, this reduction of order can be achieved by minimizing the rank of the appropriate matrix.

The System
This problem is solvable only in certain circumstances. In general however, if the set of all models that can be used to describe the system and that satisfy the desired constraints is a convex set, $$\mathcal{C}$$, then the system $$\mathcal{X}$$ may be suitable for the LMI's application.

One specific case that is solvable is the case where the nuclear norm (the sum of the singular values of the matrix) is minimized over a set of feasible models or designs that are affine in the matrix variable $$\mathcal{X}$$. All cases discussed in the pages of this chapter fall into this category.

The Data
The inputs for this LMI are the linear map $$\mathcal{A} : \mathcal{R}^{m*n} to \mathcal{R}^{p} $$ required to be affine in the matrix variable $$\mathcal{X} \in \mathcal{R}^{m * n}$$ and the vector $$\mathcal{b} \in \mathcal{R}^{p}$$.

The LMI: General Form of the Rank Minimization Problem

\begin{align} \text{minimize} \; \text{rank} X &\\ \text{subject to} \; \mathcal{A}(X) = b &\\ \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
The result of this LMI is the guaranteed minimum rank representation of the system described by $$\mathcal{X}$$.

Implementation

 * - A downloadable matlab code implementation of this LMI using YALMIP.

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs


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LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations/Minimum-Order Linear System Realization via minimizing the rank of the Hankel matrix

WIP

This is a Template for Creating An LMI Page

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)\\ x(0)&=x_0 \end{align}$$

The Data
A List of inputs needed for the problem to be well-defined.

The Optimization Problem
A description of the Problem to be solved, if appropriate.

The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{Find} \; X:&\\ \begin{bmatrix} X\end{bmatrix}&>0\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^T X+XA\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Interpretation of the results of the LMI

Implementation
A link to CodeOcean or other online implementation of the LMI

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs


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LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations/Low-Rank Matrix Completion

WIP

This is a Template for Creating An LMI Page

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)\\ x(0)&=x_0 \end{align}$$

The Data
A List of inputs needed for the problem to be well-defined.

The Optimization Problem
A description of the Problem to be solved, if appropriate.

The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{Find} \; X:&\\ \begin{bmatrix} X\end{bmatrix}&>0\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^T X+XA\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Interpretation of the results of the LMI

Implementation
A link to CodeOcean or other online implementation of the LMI

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs


text:
LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations/Low-Dimensional Euclidean Embedding Problem

WIP

This is a Template for Creating An LMI Page

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)\\ x(0)&=x_0 \end{align}$$

The Data
A List of inputs needed for the problem to be well-defined.

The Optimization Problem
A description of the Problem to be solved, if appropriate.

The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{Find} \; X:&\\ \begin{bmatrix} X\end{bmatrix}&>0\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^T X+XA\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Interpretation of the results of the LMI

Implementation
A link to CodeOcean or other online implementation of the LMI

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs


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LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations/Nuclear Norm Minimization

WIP

This is a Template for Creating An LMI Page

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)\\ x(0)&=x_0 \end{align}$$

The Data
A List of inputs needed for the problem to be well-defined.

The Optimization Problem
A description of the Problem to be solved, if appropriate.

The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{Find} \; X:&\\ \begin{bmatrix} X\end{bmatrix}&>0\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^T X+XA\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Interpretation of the results of the LMI

Implementation
A link to CodeOcean or other online implementation of the LMI

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs


text:
LMIs in Control/Minimum-Rank Solutions of Linear Matrix Equations/Low-Rank Parametrization

WIP

This is a Template for Creating An LMI Page

The System

\begin{align} \dot x(t)&=Ax(t)\\ x(0)&=x_0 \end{align}$$

The Data
A List of inputs needed for the problem to be well-defined.

The Optimization Problem
A description of the Problem to be solved, if appropriate.

The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality
Title and mathematical description of the LMI formulation.

\begin{align} \text{Find} \; X:&\\ \begin{bmatrix} X\end{bmatrix}&>0\\ \begin{bmatrix} A^T X+XA\end{bmatrix}&<0 \end{align}$$

Conclusion:
Interpretation of the results of the LMI

Implementation
A link to CodeOcean or other online implementation of the LMI

Related LMIs
Links to other closely-related LMIs


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User:Luantm

Từ trang này có thể dẫn đến các bài viết khác của tôi

X86_Disassembly/Microsoft_Windows

title: User:Luantm


text:
Mathematics with Python and Ruby/Complex numbers in Python

A Complex number is denoted by letter Z. Let a complex number be Z = a + ib where a is real number and b is imiganiry number.


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar6/Evidence/Evidence in Physics

Experimental Evidence
The historically typical model for supplying evidence for a theory in physics is known as the Scientific Method. Its first use is often credited to Aristotle "because of his refined analysis of logical implications contained in demonstrative discourse" .This method essentially consists of an observation or a phenomena physical universe, a hypothesis of what the observer would expect to happen, a method of isolating said phenomena and testing the effects of it and then a rigorous comparison to the original model to determine if this model is supported by the evidence.

Summary of the Scientific Method

 * 1) Formulation of a question in relation to a physical property of the universe: eg. Why do objects fall towards the ground?
 * 2) Based on observation and often the evidence previously collected by other physicists form a hypothesis: eg. From Newton's Laws of Motion the acceleration required to move an object from rest must derive from a force (Newton's second law is Force=mass x acceleration). Perhaps this force comes from a Gravitational pull from the Earth?
 * 3) You need to then form a theory of the logical consequences of the hypothesis. This is often demonstrated mathematically in order to get a quantitive value of how accurately the evidence supports the hypothesis. Eg. If the effects of air resistance and other forces can be negated, then one can work out a value of the exact time an object will take to fall a certain distance.
 * 4) A prediction is then needed to compare to the results of the experiment. Eg. Work out how long the time to fall would be.
 * 5) Testing is then required in the form of an experiment. To do this you need to conduct an experiment in such a way that other real world effects do not impact the results of the experiment, so it is necessary to isolate the individual effect or effects you are testing. Eg. Because the effect of air resistance on a falling object would result in an inaccurate value of the time taken to fall, you could negate the effect by conducting the experiment in a vacuum.
 * 6) Quantitive Analysis is then required to determine if the results from the experiment do in fact support or or disagree with the calculated prediction. It is imperative to calculate the extent of uncertainty of your experiment to see if the results are significantly close to the expected value to suggest with a high degree of probability whether your results are accurate in their conclusions or not. Eg. if you were timing the fall time by hand and were only accurate to the nearest second, it might be possible that even if your results are as expected the uncertainty is significantly high to render your results inconclusive.

To What Extent is the Scientific Method Empiricist? (The rudiments of Philosophy of Science)
This method is an attempt to get as close as is possible to an empirical form of evidence to the theory and get a quantitive value of what degree the hypothesis is supported by the evidence. From the method though it is clear that this method is not totally quantitative due to the qualitative final conclusion. The conclusion of how the raw data relates to the prediction is always influenced by human opinion even if it is only the estimations of uncertainty in an otherwise qualitative method. In the experiment itself, due to the experiments being recorded by somewhat fallible equipment and human senses and judgement not being perfect it is logically impossible to get a perfect set of data. From both of these it is clear that totally empirical forms of evidence do not exist and although this is acknowledged by the use of uncertainties it is nonetheless important. Clearly this is very important when talking about scientific proofs, particularly in the media because there is often misconception in the meaning of scientific evidence.

When the Scientific Method is used successfully, it is also only demonstrating that the hypothesis matches the results in the single set of circumstances measured. When the hypothesis is deemed 'true' it is only through the logic of induction that it can be extended to the entire hypothesis. This means that it seems logically improbable that if it worked in this case, then it would not work in a similar one, but that is subtly different from the Hypothesis being true.

It is also essentially impossible to test a theory in isolation but I will explore a more obvious example of this when talking about Quantum Physics.

Quantum Physics
Without going into much detail there is a simple example from 'modern physics' to show a case where the Scientific Method of finding experimental data to support a hypothesis is totally impossible and physics must resort to a qualitative method of analysis most akin to Philosophy to explain it as determinism breaks down. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to know the position or the momentum of a particle beyond a certain degree of accuracy.

$$\Delta x\Delta p=\hbar/2$$

In this equation x denotes the position, p denotes the momentum and $$\hbar$$ denotes planck's constant (roughly 6.63x10-34) divided by 2π. It is important to mention that $$\hbar$$/2 is a positive constant.

What this means for Physics is: in some cases (it is only really observable in results when the size of particles being observed are tiny, for example an electron) determinism totally doesn't work and you can't set an experiment, knowing the starting position and predicting the results. It is totally impossible to isolate certain properties of the particle in an experiment so the typical scientific method doesn't always work in the conventional sense.

There is also a Quantum effect observed in the Double Slit Experiment where particles such as electrons appear to behave like a wave by diffracting and interfering (properties of waves not particles), but when observing which slit the electrons pass through, they behave like particles. It is actually impossible to observe what causes this effect, as observing the experiment changes the result. This, for obvious reasons is difficult to explain using a purely scientific method of analysis, even though there is an essentially irrefutable amount of evidence, showing this effect occurs.


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Lentis/Atomic Age Optimism: 1930s - 1960s

Introduction
The discovery of nuclear fission in 1934 sparked an explosion of interest in the capabilities of nuclear technology. From the 1930s to the 1960s, many of the defining moments of the Atomic Age revolved around the tragedies of nuclear weapon use and the nuclear arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union. However, optimism during Atomic Age also led to the development of many peaceful civilian applications for nuclear technology.

History
Physicist Enrico Fermi discovered nuclear fission in 1934 when he bombarded uranium with neutrons. Shortly thereafter, interest in fission nuclear reactions exploded amongst the scientific community, and universities across the US and Europe began further research. Nuclear research focused primarily on the development of defense weapons in the years just prior to and during World War II. The threat of WWII and Germany winning the race to develop nuclear weapons persuaded many of the early nuclear scientists to push for weapon development in the United States. Physicists Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner met with Albert Einstein and drafted a letter to President Roosevelt urging a rapid buildup of research in nuclear processes, and the acquisition of a stockpile of Uranium. The letter was delivered in October 1939, and Roosevelt appointed an Advisory Committee on Uranium which received modest funding, and began to acquire uranium and graphite, a moderator of neutron velocity, for the fabrication of a pile. However, harassing nuclear energy domestically remained of great importance to many in the scientific community. On December 2, 1942, a group of scientists led by Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago successfully created the first self-sustaining nuclear reaction; an important scientific breakthrough for the harassing of nuclear power for electricity production.

The Manhattan Project
Domestic research and development of atomic weapons during WWII was done under the code name Manhattan Project. This government run research project relied on the expertise of many of the early nuclear scientists of the 1930s. In 1939, Enrico Fermi explained the status of fission investigations to naval and army officers, and civilian scientists from the Naval Research Laboratory. As oppose to developing a weapon, the Navy expressed interest in developing a potential power source. Naval officials believed the creation of an engine that did not require oxygen would allow submarines to remain underwater for indefinite periods.

The Atomic Energy Commission
After WWII, The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was created by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 to control nuclear energy development and explore peaceful uses of nuclear energy. The AEC oversaw the shipments of wartime radioisotopes to scientists and physicians in order to evaluate thyroid function, diagnose medical disorders, and irradiate tumors. Both researchers and politicians in the United States lauded radioisotopes publicly for their potential use in curing diseases, particularly cancer. By mid-1947, the AEC had 96 unfilled foreign requests for radioisotopes, of which 73 were for medical research and therapy. Overall, between the fall of 1947 to the end of 1948, the AEC sent out 356 shipments of radioisotopes to various laboratories and treatment centers around the world. The AEC also authorized and oversaw the construction of the first nuclear reactor in Idaho called Experimental Breeder Reactor #1. Reactions to the reactor's construction were optimistic, with an article from the Wall Street Journal published in November of 1949 stating the experiment, "...could lead to few atomic power plants within a decade" and "...atom power plants will compete with oil, coal and water power where these fuels are extremely costly". Experimental Breeder #1 became the first reactor to generate electricity from nuclear energy in December of 1951.

Atomic City
As the new decade started there was a clear optimism regarding both militant and non-militant uses of nuclear technology. Cold War tension and fear of the spread of communism by the Soviet Union still posed a threat to the United States and therefore nuclear testing continued. At this point the arms race had moved beyond fission bombs, such as the ones which devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and was centered around the creation of a thermonuclear weapon, or hydrogen bomb (18). The new weapon was significantly more powerful than its predecessor, the fission bombs used in WWII yielded an explosion of 15-20 kilotons of TNT while the thermonuclear weapon was to yield 10,000 kilotons of TNT. Fear of this power was present worldwide. However, during the 1950s in America a fetishization of this innovation was seen as people were enamored by the raw power of the technology. The Nevada Test Site, located just north of Las Vegas, became a tourist attraction for visitors to stay at nearby hotels and casinos and witness the awesome spectacle of intense light in the distance (19). Coined “Atomic City” the attraction brought in so many tourist nearby casinos hosted themed “dawn parties” to watch the tests and nuclear themed cocktails (20). Unfortunately, the fetishization of nuclear power caused the dangerous fallout from these tests to be underestimated. Although originally estimated to be low risk, unprecedented spread of radiation especially due to unpredicted weather patterns posed a real threat to tourists and nearby residents.

Eisenhower's Atoms-for-Peace
The 50s also marked a strong movement towards peaceful uses of nuclear energy. On December 8, 1953 President Dwight Eisenhower spoke before the United Nations unveiling his Atoms-for-Peace proposal (21). With a sufficient supply of uranium for US military purposes, Eisenhower decided it was time to promote and pursue the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Part of the program was to reorient research funding for electricity generation. This effort wanted to expand on prior work such as the first nuclear reactor, Experimental Breeder reactor (EBR-1), which started up in 1951 producing albeit a trivial amount of power (6). Medical uses of nuclear technology was also explored. Isotopes were primarily used in diagnostic imaging procedures (22). Unfortunately, similar to the events of Atomic City tourism, the operational hazards of using these radioactive materials was underestimated and posed potential danger to both medical professionals and their patients. Optimism over the potential uses of radioactive isotopes spread to commercial uses as well. One far fetched proposal that never came to fruition was the use of nuclear energy in cars. One concept of the atomic car was the Ford Nucleon designed in 1958 (23). An interesting design, this project never made it to a full size concept as the lead shielding which would have been needed to protect passengers from radiation was not a plausible idea.

Commercial Nuclear Power
The 1960s saw the beginnings of viable commercial nuclear power. In 1960, the first boiling water reactor, Dresden-1, was developed by General Electric and the first pressurized water reactor, Yankee Rowe, was developed by Westinghouse. Both types of reactors saw major improvement throughout the decade, and by 1970, such reactors could generate power output comparable to coal plants. Though nuclear energy was first considered too expensive to be viable for commercial power, improvements in efficiency presented nuclear energy as a potentially viable future option. Despite reliable output, there were early safety concerns regarding nuclear reactors. Throughout the 1960s, there were three nuclear accidents in the United States, resulting in four fatalities. These accidents deterred faith in nuclear energy energy. As reactors grew in size, new safety questions arose and created fear of a severe reactor accident that could release dangerous amounts of radiation into the environment. These safety concerns led to a decline in reactor production in the 1970s and marked the end of the atomic optimism for commercial nuclear energy of the 1960s.

Fear of Global War
In 1957, the United States government started Operation Plowshare, a project involving 27 controlled nuclear explosions to displace land. The chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission announced that the Plowshares project was intended to "highlight the peaceful applications of nuclear explosive devices and thereby create a climate of world opinion that is more favorable to weapons development and tests". Throughout the 1960s, there were many negative effects of Operation Plowshare, including blighted land, radiation, and contaminated water. These effects coupled with a cost of $700 million led to the termination of the project in 1977 due to public perception.

In 1961, the federal government started the community fallout shelter program. President Kennedy advised the use of fallout shelters by citizens in the September 1961 issue of Life magazine. This resulted in a cultural phenomenon called shelter mania, where fallout shelters were found fashionable; however, the craze was short lived as it ended in 1963 due to bad public perception of sales techniques and efficacy.

The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred from October 16 to October 28, 1962, marking the closest the world has ever come to nuclear war. Fidel Castro requested nuclear missiles from the Soviet Union in response to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and Nikita Khrushchev agreed. A United States spy plane found the nuclear weapons facilities in Cuba and President Kennedy responded with a naval blockade of the island. Intense negotiations in the following days between the United States and the Soviet Union resulted in the removal of the Cuban missiles and the naval blockade. The event sparked fear in the United States citizens and marked the peak of the Cold War.

Two important treaties regarding nuclear weapons were signed by the United States in the 1960s. The Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963 eliminated all nuclear detonation testing that did not occur underground. This slowed the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the nuclear arms race. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 outlined a basis for international space law, and prohibited weapons of mass destruction in space.

Lessons and Recommendations for Further Work
(18) Pappas, S. (2017, September 22). Hydrogen Bomb vs. Atomic Bomb: What’s the Difference? | Live Science. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from https://www.livescience.com/53280-hydrogen-bomb-vs-atomic-bomb.html

(19) Nevada Test Site. Atomic Heritage Foundation website: https://www.atomicheritage.org/location/nevada-test-site

(20) Atomic Tourism in Nevada | American Experience | PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/atomic-tourism-nevada/

(21) Buck, A. (1983, July). A History of the Atomic Energy Commission. https://www.energy.gov/management/downloads/history-atomic-energy-commission

(22) Drozdovitch, V., Brill, A. B., Mettler, F. A., Beckner, W. M., Goldsmith, S. J., Gross, M. D., … Simon, S. L. (2014). NUCLEAR MEDICINE PRACTICES IN THE 1950s THROUGH THE mid-1970s AND OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION DOSES TO TECHNOLOGISTS FROM DIAGNOSTIC RADIOISOTOPE PROCEDURES. Health Physics, 107(4), 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1097/HP.0000000000000107

(23) Marquis, E. (2014, July 17). Nuclear-powered concept cars from the Atomic Age. Retrieved December 10, 2019, from Autoblog website: https://www.autoblog.com/2014/07/17/nuclear-powered-atomic-age-classic-cars/


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Talk:Lentis/Atomic Age Optimism: 1930s - 1960s

Because this is a broad topic, we should probably limit our research to "Atomic Age Optimism" in the US alone.

- I didnt reload my page from last night before i started editing, so it removed Jason's edits. I'll put them back in using the previous versions now.