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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Types of Content/Texts

36. Is the format of an exhibition protectable? Who is the rights holder?
An exhibition can be considered creative and therefore an intellectual creation, to be protected and with moral and economic rights, whenever originality can be found in its relevant elements. However, the creator of the exhibition, the curator, must have made creative contributions to the projects, giving to it a different personal character rather than have it as a simple exhibition of objects. The idea of the exhibition is not the protected element: the way in which such idea is expressed could be protected. On a general level, the curator-co author is the rights holder of the relative rights, it being understood that it is advisable to rule specifically the issue of the rights in the agreement between the exhibiting entity and the curator.

37. Who is the rights holder of content done by employees, freelance, and consultants?
As a general principle, the ownership of content created depends on the kind of agreement between the commissioning party and employee/consultant/freelance (see question #7 of the Definitions).

38. Is the descriptive content of the visiting tour of an exhibition protectable by law?
The descriptive content of the tour of an exhibition may be protected by law if creative, original and new.

39. Protection of the content of an exhibition catalogue: is the author's right granted to the editing company or the author?
An exhibition catalogue is a collective work, which requires the intervention of several people who provide different contributions (photos, written texts, critical essays, etc.). Therefore, different subjects are identified, holders of different rights, such as the authors of each contribution, the person who organizes the work, the publisher who is entitled to the rights of economic use of the collective work, unless parties have agreed in a different way. The moral rights referred to the single contributions remain with respective authors, the right of economic use of the work generally belongs to the publisher, unless otherwise agreed.

40. When and is it possible to digitize the catalogue of an exhibition?
Among the activities delegated to the cultural heritage institutions, we find also communication to the public, the educational purpose, protection and conservation. The exceptions and limitations to author’s rights allow uses of the material protected by author’s right law which are intended in favour of the superior interest in information, knowledge, research, dissemination and conservation. Many of those exceptions are in favour of cultural heritage institutions, i.e. archives, museums, etc., precisely in order to allow them to perform their tasks. The digitization of works, for example, is part of these but in some cases it resulted in conflict with the author's right law, in particular, with respect to digital copies of content which is in collections and the digitization and dissemination of such content.

At the European level, many member states have established specific rules, also with regard to the change of size (for preservation purposes) or in order to prevent deterioration, but for some commentators such activity can be referred only to entities which are not for profit (as provided by art. 5(2)(c) Directive 2001/29 EC Infosoc, which refers to the reproduction made by not for profit libraries, museums, archives).

Art. 6 of Directive 2019/EU provides the exception that allows cultural heritage institutions to make copies of any works or other subject matters that are permanently in their collections, in any format or medium for purposes of preservation and to the extent necessary for such preservation. The European rule aims to allow cultural heritage institutions to preserve and enhance the assets of their collection also through the use of digitization processes.

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41. For the reproduction of artworks in a catalogue and for its digitization, is it necessary to obtain the authorisation of the rights holder?
At the international level, the need to be able to exhibit and promote artworks, for example as part of their collection, is widely recognized among the exceptions and limitations provided for by the copyright laws of the European countries, also in line with the provisions of Directive 2001/29/EC, art. 5 (3)(j) which allows Member States to provide exceptions and limitations in order to advertise a public exhibition or sale of artistic works, to the extent necessary to promote the event, excluding any other commercial use, and therefore to include works in catalogues. As to digitization, we refer to the previous explanation of the exception for the preservation of the cultural heritage provided by art. 6 of Directive 2019/790 EU.

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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Types of Content/Databases

42. What is a database?
Database means a collection of independent works, data or other materials arranged in a systematic or methodical way and individually accessible by electronic or other means. An archival inventory, the catalog of a library or of a museum collection are instances of database.

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43. When is a database protected by copyright?
Databases which, by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents, are original (i.e. constitute the author's own intellectual creation) are protected by copyright. It is important to note that this protection relates to the selection and arrangement, i.e. to the structure of the database, and does not extend to its content which may be unprotected (e.g. a database of public domain works) or protected (a database of recent in-copyright photographs).

44. What is the Sui Generis Database right?
Independently from the above, when the making of a database that complies with the above definition, shows that there has been a substantial investment in either the obtaining, verification or presentation of the contents, the maker of the database (usually defined as the person who bears the financial risk) enjoys a right to prevent extraction and/or re-utilization of the whole or of a substantial part of the contents of that database. It is important to note that investments in the creation of data do not qualify for SGDR (Sui Generis Database right) protection. This could sound counter-intuitive at first sight, but try to think that this is a Database directive which tries to encourage the creation of new databases from existing data, not a directive that wants to encourage the creation of new data. Mere facts and data are excluded from the ambit of protection of copyright and, their creation, from SGDR as this could have anticompetitive ad anti freedom of expression effects. These two forms of protection (copyright and sui generis, or SGDR) are independent, meaning that there can be databases only protected by copyright, only protected by SGDR, protected by both or neither depending on the situation. The SGDR lasts for 15 years and can be renewed if the makers show that there has been an additional substantial investment (e.g. in updating the database).

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45. Is there a copyright on databases produced by a cultural institution?
Yes, the databases produced by a cultural institution, both public and private, can be protected both from the point of view of copyright and sui generis right if the aforementioned conditions are met. However, art. 1(6) of the new PSI Open Data Directive (2019/1024) clarifies that public sector bodies should not use the Sui Generis Database right in a way that would interfere with the principle of reuse as defined in that directive. The directive must be transposed into Italian Law by June 2021.

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:MJK749

Present.

title: User:MJK749


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Types of Content/Open Data

46. What is open data?
Open Data (OD) is data accessible to everyone, can be freely used, reused and redistributed by anyone, subject to the conditions set out in the license under which they are distributed, including attribution and different sharing restrictions.

According to the Open Knowledge Foundation definition: “A piece of content or data is open if anyone is free to use, reuse, and redistribute it – subject only, at most, to the requirement to attribute and share-alike.”

The key features of openness are:
 * Availability and access
 * Reuse and redistribution
 * Universal participation

"Linked Open Data (LOD) is Linked Data which is released under an open license, which does not impede its reuse for free"

- Tim Berners-Lee

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47. Which is the difference between data and metadata?
Data are single pieces of information that describe a specific object (e.g. “Édouard Manet, The Spring, 1881”).

Metadata is a series of information about the data that is intended to describe its content, structure and context (for example “author”, “title”, “year”, ...).

There are several metadata systems, or sets of information such as the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, which represents a standard for exchanging information. Different metadata features lead to different types:
 * Management administrative (used for the management and administration of information resources, e.g. MAG or METS);
 * Descriptives (from MARC to Dublin Core);
 * Structural;
 * Conservation (including migration);
 * Technical (behavior of metadata and functioning of systems);
 * Use (related to the level and type of use of the user).

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48. Where do I publish my open data?
There are several web portals (regional, national, international) where it is possible to publish Open Data. Some are managed by public institutions (e.g. Europeana) and others by non-profit foundations (e.g.Wikimedia Foundation). There are also Open Data repositories (Internet Archive, Github, Zenodo) and Open Access data journal. Open Data can also be published on the institute's website in an open format.

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49. In what formats do I publish my open data?
Open data must be published in an open format, in a non-proprietary format that guarantees reading by any program and does not present any legal restrictions on its use. The most common open formats for publishing data are:
 * XML
 * CSV
 * JSON
 * GeoJSON
 * KML
 * GML
 * ODT
 * ODS
 * ODP
 * RDF
 * PNG
 * SVG

50. What license does apply to open data?
A license is a legal instrument that conveys a right, accompanied by a promise, by the grantor, not to sue the beneficiary, should this right be exercised; it is a kind of authorization to do something or use an asset that otherwise, without a license, would not be permitted by law. In the context of property rights rules, a license is a unilateral permission to use someone else's property. The same is true for intangible assets. It is not enough to apply a license in order to make a resource "open", but the resource must be "open" in terms of real and effective interoperability, avoiding the use of licenses only as something fashionable. There are closed licenses and open licenses. Licenses must be applied by the rights holder and are applicable to protected material. Broadly speaking, the types of open licenses are divided into:
 * Creative Commons (CC);
 * Open Government License (OGL);
 * Open Data Commons (ODC);
 * Public Domain (PD).

The CC0 1.0 dedication to public domain, no copyright, is a tool with which the owner of the rights declares that it is not necessary to attribute the work to its author as the author has waived all their rights (also moral rights, where the legislation permits it) and allows the user to modify, share the work also for commercial purposes. Using CC0 has the effect of placing a work into the public domain worldwide.

51. Can raw data be subject to copyright?
The single data as such does not have sufficient “creativity” to guarantee the emergence of a copyright on it. In fact, the general principle of non-protectability of the data itself is in force pursuant to the law on copyright. However, according to existing European regulations, there may be a copyright on the whole of the data produced, in cases in which such data complex is published for the first time ever or innovations are introduced, in the content or in the form of correlation of data, such as to justify protection of the unpublished work performed (see also section “Databases”).

52. What are FAIR data?
“FAIR data” means open data produced in the context of university and / or scientific research and made available to the public, according to the so-called “FAIR principles”, namely:
 * Findability: data must be easily traceable in their entirety;
 * Accessibility: data must be freely accessible by all in their entirety;
 * Interoperability: data must be published in formats and with exchange protocols that allow the widest possible reuse, possibly open source;
 * Reusability: data must be published under a license that allows for the widest possible reuse.

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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/Podcast and Webinar

58. What is a podcast?
It is a recorded or live streamed audio, which can be archived, listened to or distributed via the Internet. It is a sort of web radio broadcast.

59. What is a webinar?
It is a recorded and / or broadcast seminar, even live, via the Internet.

60. What is a live or streaming podcast or webinar?
The podcast or webinar can be recorded and broadcast live on the Internet.

61. Can I freely create a podcast or webinar for the cultural institution for which I collaborate or work or do I have to agree with the management methods, contents and topic, the editorial line?
The podcast or webinar involves a series of preliminary activities to protect copyright. For example, gathering of a written waiver on the originality of the content disseminated by the speakers or interviewees, the specification of whether the speaker or interviewee speaks in a personal capacity or on behalf of the cultural institution. Therefore, careful verification of these aspects is required. It is then required by the legislation that regulates the activities of the cultural institution, or in any case it is appropriate and useful, to verify the prior consent of the director to the registration and broadcast of a podcast or webinar.

62. If I record a podcast or live or streamed webinar with other attendees, do I need to get their consent to broadcast?
The recording and archiving of audio or video content, in addition to raising questions regarding the treatment of personal data, requires the prior written consent of the participants. Written consent must be sought for any possibility of downloading the video by the participants in the event in future. The use of a video, for webinar or video lesson, in a streaming platform must be different from the use of video downloaded by anyone from the same platform. This relates to the permissions that the individual user has on the platform, but first of all from the permissions that participants grant authorizing the streaming but not the download of the video file.

63. In what form (written or oral) shall the consent obtained?
A written form is always recommended.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Types of Content/Audio Content

53. Which economic rights are involved when synchronizing images and music?
The synchronization, that is the combination of music and images, is a form of elaboration of the work, through which the musical work is associated with other forms of expression, giving life to a new work. If this work has the characteristics requested by the law to receive protection, it can be identified as a derivative work. The elaboration/modification is one of the exclusive economic rights that the author can decide to transfer or grant in use, but it is also relevant in relation to the moral right of integrity, which allows the author to oppose any modification of the work that could damage his honor and reputation. The process of synchronization itself also presupposes the reproduction of the work.

54. To which rights holders shall authorisations be requested to?
Concerning the audio content, authorizations must be requested to the holder of copyright and related rights. In the first case, the authorization has to be requested to the authors of the work, or the publishers, if they are present. In relation to the latter, instead, the authorization has to be requested to the phonographic producer who has normally acquired the performing artists' rights by previous agreement.

55. Can I use music works under CC licenses? Which ones?
The musical works released under Creative Commons licenses are works that the author intended to share openly with the public. The terms and conditions of use are strictly related to the type of Creative Commons license under which the work has been released (for example, if the license contains the NC clause, the work may only be used for non-commercial purposes, or in case of ND clause the work may not be used for the creation and distribution of derivative works). Therefore, works released under a Creative Commons license and/or tool can be used, but always according to the conditions and modalities provided in the license/tool itself. In the case of NC clause, it’s always possible to conclude an additional agreement with the rights holder for commercial exploitation (CCplus).

56. Which rights are involved in an audio file?
First of all, an audio file qualified as a musical work is protected by Copyright law if it can be considered an original work as defined by Copyright law itself. In this case, the author has moral and economic rights related to this file. Therefore, the economic rights involved depend on the type of use, and the way of use is strictly related to the rights-holder will. At the same time, the audio file, intended as a sound recording, is protected by related rights and the artists and producers are entitled to those rights.

57. Is it necessary to ask for author’s consent when using all or part of a song, theme song, jingle or other audio or video content?
Yes, the partial or complete use of any video or musical work is subject to the authorization of the author and/or publisher. If, moreover, the work is fixed on an audio and/or video support (physical and/or digital) it’s necessary to ask the phonogram and/or videogram producer for authorization.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/Sharing

== 64. Can I freely upload on the web site of the cultural institution for which I work the digital sources (like photographs, videos, images, sounds, drawings, memes, gifs, writings, symbols, logos) found on the Internet or through social media or through other digital channels? == Domestic and European Union legislation for the protection of copyright requires the mention of the author and / or digital source, which is intended to be shared on the Internet. In the case the content is without source or mention of the author, it is necessary to search the source and / or author as far as possible, using the best efforts.

65. How should I mention the source?
The source is usually mentioned according to the request of the author or the site or the media from which it was taken. Otherwise, it is advisable to identify the subject or source, place and date of issue, and the related digital source, for example by reporting the link to the Internet site with the date of consultation of the site.

66. If the author is not identifiable or does not respond to the request for consent?
If, despite all best efforts, no response is given to the request of consent or the author is not identifiable, it is better to share or to mention that searches were carried out (through request of consent) with no results.

67. When is it possible to apply the law on orphan works?
The European Directive on orphan works, which entered into force in 2012, provides for a number of cases in which the orphan work can be used by cultural heritage institutions. The legislation provides that a 'diligent search' (a thorough search to identify and / or locate the author of the copyrighted material or other rights holders) is required to establish orphan work status within the former Member State publication, for this purpose by consulting a public online database, which contains information on orphan works, including: the results of searches for rights holders; the use of orphan works by organizations; changes in the status of the orphan work used. In this way, research organizations and rights holders will be able to easily find information on the identification and use of orphan works. Organizations affected by the EU Directive may use an orphan work only for the achievement of objectives related to their mission of public interest: making the orphan work available to the public; acts of reproduction, for the purposes of digitization, making available, indexing, cataloging, conservation or restoration. Organizations may generate revenues in the course of such uses, for the sole purpose of covering the costs related to digitizing orphan works and making them available to the public. The declaration of "orphan work" then allows individual Member States to place a limitation on the right of reproduction and making it available to the public in favor of institutions for the protection of cultural heritage. Works considered as orphans in one EU country have the same status in all other EU countries. In the event that the holder of the rights of what is considered an orphan work claims these rights, the Directive provides for the possibility of ending the status of orphan work and to pay fair compensation. If it is a non-EU publication, search must be done on their sources. After carrying out diligent search on the online public database, you need to wait for 90 days before you can digitize and publish the work online. But the author could always be entitled to appear and request for the withdrawal of all or part of the work or exercise their rights.

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68. When is it possible to apply the discipline of out-of-commerce works?
A recent European Directive (Directive 2019/790/EU) provides mechanisms for the collective management of rights of use or, failing that, a real exception to exclusive rights to allow that, under certain conditions, the works out-of-commerce can be reused by public institutions for the protection of the cultural heritage that hold them, from libraries to archives and museums. Such Directive introduces a new licensing mechanism for out-of-commerce works. This will make it much easier for cultural heritage institutions, such as archives and museums, to obtain the necessary licenses to disclose the cultural heritage in their collections to the public online and across borders. This system makes it much easier for cultural heritage institutions to obtain licenses by negotiating with collective management organizations representing the relevant right holders. The new rules also provide for a new mandatory exception to copyright for cases where there is no collective management organization representing the right holders in a certain sector, for which cultural heritage institutions have no counterpart to negotiate with to obtain licenses. This so-called "fallback" exception allows cultural heritage institutions to make out-of-commerce works available on non-commercial websites.

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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/Websites

69. What is a website?
It is a set of pages written in computer language that host texts, images, videos, data or other means of interaction (e.g. chat, forum), disseminated through standard protocols and identified by a domain (see below).

70. What is a blog or video blog?
Personal page operated on the Internet, hosted by a domain. It is a specific type of website characterized by the chronological “diary” form: it might be commented by readers, host videos, images, etc. If the content of the blog is mostly video, it is also called video-blog.

71. Who rules the Internet and Domain Name System (DNS)?
At a global level, no one natural person, company, organization or government runs and rules the Internet. Each State or inter-States treaty is setting and enforcing its own policies, rules and regulations.

On the pure technical-IT level, there is a set of technical rules developed and applied by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), a non-profit organization, under US law, responsible for the management and coordination of the domain name system (so-called DNS, Domain Name System), to ensure that each address is unique and that users are able to find valid (IP, Internet Protocol) addresses. ICANN is organized according to the plural participatory model (so called multi-stakeholder), to which the public and private sectors contribute. At domestic or European Union level, there are different laws governing access, use and disputes on the subject matter.

72. Does copyright also apply to the Internet?
Yes. The Internet is not a free zone. The digital world is regulated by international (e.g. multilateral treaties, agreements between States), European and State legislation on the subject matter.

73. What basic rules do I have to follow to publish on my site?
The rule of due diligence requires those who intend to disseminate content via Internet, and therefore also through a site, to verify the domestic, European and international legislation applicable, for example, to the cultural sector. For example, carrying out the copyright, the expiry of such rights, if there is any license and the type of license. To this generic rule, the cultural institution, owner of the site, may foresee further provisions for the visitors and users of the site. These specific rules can be provided in the so-called terms and conditions of the site or, if the site offers products or services for sale in the so-called general conditions of contract. If the user-buyer of products or services is an individual (consumer), the more rigorous consumer protection legislation (so-called “B2C”) will be applied; if the user-buyer of products or services is a business, the general rules on contract will be applied (so-called “B2B”).


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/Domain Name

74. What is an Internet Protocol (IP) address? What is a domain name? What is a Domain Name System (DNS)?
The IP address identifies unique devices connected to the Internet according to the Internet Protocol standard.

The domain name is a sequence of letters and/or numbers combined by the registrant in a human-readable way for Internet users. It is unique, meaning that it is assigned to one entity only based on the “first come, first served” principle.

The Domain Name System (DNS) is used for the conversion of domain names (e.g. icom.museum) into Internet Protocol (IP) (e.g. 81.201.190.51) and vice versa.

75. Is the registry or domain registrant data public?
The registry is freely accessible but the registrant's data are protected and hidden in compliance with European legislation on data protection. To access this information, a reasoned request shall be sent to the registry (not to the reseller of the domains, called maintainers or registrars), which grants the use and assigns the ownership of the domain.

76. Who can register a domain?
There are some restrictions (e.g. subjective, geographical) applied by each Registry to free registration. If the word chosen as domain name is a dictionary name, not corresponding to a registered intellectual property right (e.g. trademark, domain name, trade name, display) or other prior rights, it can be registered by anyone.

77. Before the registration of a domain name do I have to or may I check if the domain name I intend to register is identical or confusingly similar with a third party’s prior rights?
There is no legal obligation but it is advisable to search in public and/or private databases to verify the existence of third party’s prior intellectual property rights.

78. May I request a third party to register the domain name used by me?
Yes, I can but it is advisable that the third party provides a written declaration with which he or she recognizes you as the owner of the registered domain.

79. Which is the applicable law to my domain?
The law of the country of residence or domicile of the registrant and the assignment rules of the domains of each registries (e.g. .org, .museum, .art).

80. Which is the best domain name for my cultural activity?
You are free to register the domain you deem most suitable. A national geographic domain (e.g. .it, .fr, .es) or a generic domain that expresses the cultural or non-profit nature and scope (e.g. .museum, .art, .org) of the entity using the domain.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/App

81. What is an App?
It is a software application dedicated to mobile devices (e.g. smartphone, tablet) providing functionalities\, images, sounds and interaction functionalities.

82. Which is the applicable law to an App?
The general terms and conditions of the App itself apply, which provide the applicable law. Usually, it is the domestic law of the company that owns the App and therefore it could be a different law from that of the user. If the user is a consumer, according to European legislation, European law applies to the latter and the more favorable one, if any, of the Member State of citizenship or residence or domicile of the consumer.

83. How to protect the name and content of an App?
The name can be protected by registering it as a trademark or trade name. The content is protected by European Union and domestic copyright law.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/Social Network

84. What is social media or a social network?
It is a website providing IT services or technologies and other tools widespread on the Internet, which allows users to set up a virtual social network in which to share and exchange texts, images, video and audio, interacting with each other.

85. What is the difference between a Page, Profile and Group?
Overall, Pages are electronic places where individuals or organizations can publish and interact with users or visitors. To have an institutional page it is necessary to have a personal profile as a user of social media, which is a digital space in which the owner can share texts, images, videos, indicating the nature of the owner of the page itself (e.g. cultural institution, public figure) and other information. Also to create a Group, it is necessary to have a personal Profile to which different roles can be associated, e.g. as an administrator or moderator: the Group allows you to dedicate the sharing of texts, images, videos, to specific topics of common interest to the members or invited.

86. What rules should I respect for posting or for a live streaming in my social networks?
Each social media or social network has specific and different rules, to which are added the general rules provided for by domestic and European Union law. It is always advisable to check the terms and conditions of the social media or network, before posting or going live streaming.

87. Who is the author of the uploaded or shared content?
The author is and remains the person who creates or the licensee of the contents. Those who publish are presumed to have received the author's consent to publish or share. Sometimes this consent is implicit if the author of the Page, Profile or Group has authorized the sharing of the contents, accepting such tool in the section of the social media or network dedicated to privacy management.

88. What precautions should be taken before publication?
Check that the "share" tool exists and, as a precaution, consent to sharing via private message or in the "comments" function may be requested.

== 89. May I freely share or exchange, download, upload or re-use, copy, modify, publish contents (photographs, videos, images, sounds, drawings, meme, writings, symbols, logos) disseminated on social media or should I verify if they are protected by copyright? == It is allowed only if the author and/or the platform allows it. It is always advisable to ask the author or obtain prior written consent, even if by informal way (e.g. via e-mail or message).


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Web Tools/Instant Messaging

90. What is instant messaging (chat)? What is an instant messaging channel?
It is an interactive interpersonal electronic communication service via mobile phone, tablet or personal computer, connected to the Internet, with which it is possible to exchange in real time with other connected users texts (e.g. news, surveys), images, audio, video, money, also usable in the form of groups or in the form of newsletters.

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91. What rules apply to instant messaging?
The rules are those provided both by domestic (of the user's country of residence or domicile) and European Union legislation on electronic communications, and by the contractual ones different for each provider written in the general terms and conditions of the service.

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92. May I freely open an instant messaging channel for the cultural institution I work for or do I have to agree with it on methods, contents and topics?
Before opening an instant messaging channel, you need to check if your employment or consulting contract allows it. If so, but as often happens a contract is generic, it is advisable to agree with the cultural institution (employer or client) methods, contents and topics.

== 93. May I freely share, forward, download, edit content (photographs, images, sounds, voice message, music, videos, drawings, photomontages, memes, writings, symbols, logos) received or do I have to ask the author or sender for their consent? == Before sharing content of any kind, it is advisable to first check if there is a copyright and who is the author, then if the author has consented to free sharing and therefore circulation or if he/she agrees, under what terms and conditions (e.g. mention of photo copyright, so-called credit).

94. In what form (written or oral) must this consent be obtained?
It is advisable to receive the consent of the copyright holder in writing without any particular formalities (e.g. also via email). The oral form does not allow those who use the contents to prove that they have received their consent, in the event of a dispute, and can always be revoked orally and therefore always without being able to prove that they have received the revocation itself.

95. May I freely upload content found on the Internet or from third parties without first asking for consent?
It is allowed if consent has been obtained from the copyright owner or on the basis of standard licenses such as those of Creative Commons. It is not allowed to upload or download works, however, without the consent of the rights holders, as very often happens on "file sharing" platforms and peer-to-peer sharing. For reproductions of this type it is not allowed to invoke the application of the exception of the "private copy" (e.g. the copy made for personal non-profit purposes), since this exception is reserved for those who have acquired the original or have had access the work legitimately, or with the authorization or license of the rights holders. The type of technology used or the fact that only parts of the work are reproduced is irrelevant, as these parts themselves are also protected by copyright. In this regard, the principles of the GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) must also be kept in mind, which however is beyond the scope of the work carried out here.

96. What if the author is not identifiable or does not respond to the request for consent?
In both cases, it does not mean that the protected work or content is free to use, nor that the deadline required by law for the author or his/her heirs to claim copyright or economically exploit such work or content or the work has expired, or the content is not creative. Before using, sharing or publishing this work and/or content, it is therefore advisable to consult free public databases to identify legal creative content or the ownership of third party rights on the Internet: for example, the European portal Agorateka, divided into six sections constantly updated (e-books, films, video games, specialized publishing, TV and music) or websites of the Italian Patent and Trademark Office (UIBM) and the European Intellectual Property Office (EUIPO). If, despite all efforts, the authors are not identifiable or the author does not respond to the request for consent, it is advisable to mention the author and the source. If, despite the mention of the author and source, you receive a request to take down the content, it is advisable to make a copy of the page containing the mention of the author and source, and take down, as requested by the author or the heirs or the licensees, such work or content.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Licenses and Reuse/Data and Licenses

97. What is a copyright license?
A copyright license is a contract which grants certain rights to use a work or other protected materials. In fact, in the license agreement, the rights of use are not transferred, but the licensor remains the owner, as opposed to what happens in an assignment agreement. There are several models of open licensing that confer use permissions to all users interested in exploiting the licensed content. Examples of open licenses are:
 * Creative Commons (CC);
 * Open Government License (OGL);
 * Open Data Commons (ODC);
 * Italian Open Data License (IODL).

The different types of information (code, content, data) require different types of licenses. For example, there are licenses designed for content that can be protected by Copyright law, such as Creative Commons licenses, or specific licenses for the software (GNU licenses). It is not enough to apply for a license in order to make a resource "", but the latter must be "open" in terms of real and effective interoperability. In addition, Cultural Heritage Institution can use RightsStatements.org as “labels” that provide a set of 12 standardized rights statements that can be used to communicate the copyright and reuse status of digital objects to the public (see above section).

 * References:

98. Which are Creative Commons licenses?
Creative Commons (CC) licenses are the most popular open copyright licenses that allow rights holders to grant a set of permissions to the public for sharing and reusing works.

With regard to the licenses of the CC Creative Commons family, six licenses are identified, generated by as many possible combinations of four clauses, starting from the most open to the most restrictive, where the more the license is restrictive, the more reusability is reduced:
 * 1) Attribution - Attribution only (CC BY);
 * 2) Attribution - Share alike (CC BY-SA);
 * 3) Attribution - No derivative works (CC BY-ND);
 * 4) Attribution - Non-commercial (CC BY-NC);
 * 5) Attribution - Non-commercial - Share alike (CC BY-NC-SA);
 * 6) Attribution - Non-commercial - No derivative works (CC BY-NC-ND).

The BY clause, which requires attribution and the type of CC license used, is mandatory for all six CC licenses.

99. Which Creative Commons licenses and tools are compatible with open access?
The definition of “open” is provided by the Open Knowledge Foundation (OKFN): “A piece of data or content is open if anyone is free to use, reuse, and redistribute it – subject only, at most, to the requirement to attribute and/or share-alike.”

For cultural heritage, when we refer to open access, we mean content and material released under tools and licenses compatible with the Open Definition provided by OKFN.

Creative Commons licenses compatible with open access are:
 * CC BY, which allows you to share, reproduce and modify a work, even for commercial purposes, with the constraint of attribution of authorship and the license with the work was shared;
 * CC BY-SA, which allows the work to be shared, reproduced and modified even for commercial purposes, with the restriction of attribution and provides for the obligation to release the derivative work with the same license with which the original work was published;
 * CC0 dedication to Public Domain, on the other hand, allows you to release in the public domain around the world a work of which you own the rights. The release into the public domain (by the will of the copyright holder before the expiry of the legal term of protection or of the entitled persons, i.e. the heirs at the time of the expiry of this term) allows to share, reproduce and modify the work, also for commercial purposes, without any restrictions;
 * CC Public Domain Mark (PDM), which is a tool that indicates that a work is not or no longer under copyright protection.

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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Licenses and Reuse/Images of Cultural Goods in Public Domain

100. Which are the main legal limits to the reuse and dissemination of images of cultural goods?
The reuse and dissemination of images of cultural goods is bound to the compliance with privacy principles concerning personal data (for example, recent documents which are kept in archives), and with reference to such reuse and dissemination we recall the European ruling (UE 2016/679) and the copyright provisions aimed to protect creativity. For this reason, at an international level, the cultural institutions rule the online use of digital images and maintain their rights on the mere reproductions of original works, including those in public domain. However, such possibility will be partially modified by recent DSM directive, which excludes copyright protection for faithful reproductions of visual art works in public domain.

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101. Can cultural institutions protect images of visual artworks in the public domain?
It is highly recommended to cultural institutions to not apply any kind of protection to limit the access and reuse of digital reproductions of visual artworks in the public domain. What is in the public domain should stay in the public domain. Even thought, some cultural institutes still limit the reuse of the digital reproductions published online using watermarks or low-resolution quality or, if high resolution is allowed, the download is not, this practice is discouraged even by the European Commission: “The use of intrusive watermarks or other visual protection measures on copies of public domain material as a sign of ownership or provenance should be avoided”.

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102. Where and how can I find high resolution images of cultural heritage goods to reuse in an illustrated volume?
It is possible to download images of artworks released with open licenses or in public domain on museums, archives and libraries’ websites. In these cases, the reproductions are published and made downloadable at high resolution precisely in order to promote the free reuse of them for any purpose, including commercial ones. Wikimedia, Flickr and Europeana share images free to use according to the Commons tool/license used.

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103. Is it advisable to apply Creative Commons licenses to works in the public domain?
No. Creative Commons licenses cannot be applied to works in the public domain, as they require the existence of author’s rights/copyright in the works. Some cultural institutions have been claiming related rights on the reproductions of works in the public domain (where the legislation permits it) and wrongly released digital copies of works in the public domain using Creative Commons licenses. The EU directive on copyright in the DSM (art. 14) excludes, however, the possibility to rely on copyright neither on related rights to non-original photography of visual artwork in the public domain.

104. How can reproductions of works in the public domain be labelled?
After the implementation of art. 14 of Directive (EU) 2019/790 on copyright and related rights in the Digital Single Market, we encourage Cultural Institutions to adopt the tool of Public Domain Mark (PDM) for the faithful reproductions of visual art works in public domain worldwide, or CC0 dedication to when there are concerns that the reproductions are subject to copyright in some territory and the Cultural Institution was the rights holder. In case of original reproduction of visual art works in the public domain, we ask Cultural Institutions to adopt CC0. At last, in the case where Cultural Institutions are not the right holders of the original reproduction of visual art works in public domain, we strongly recommend them to promote the adoption of CC0.

RightsStatements.org provides a set of standardized rights statements that can be used to communicate the copyright and re-use status of digital objects to the public. Those statements are supported by major aggregation platforms such as the Digital Public Library of America and Europeana. The rights statements have been designed with both human users and machine users (such as search engines) in mind and make use of semantic web technology and they are compatible with open licenses and public domain tools provided by Creative Commons.

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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Licenses and Reuse/Open Access and License

105. Which museums have adopted open licenses or public domain for reproductions of their collections?
Museums, libraries and archives all over the world adopt open access policies. The Open GLAM survey open access research work (D. McCarthy and A. Wallace) provides an extensive and constantly updated list of Institutions adopting open licenses or public domain: more than 900 cultural institutions have adopted open policies so far. Some of these institutions are the most famous and visited in the world as the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Smithsonian, Paris Musées, Rijksmuseum. In Italy, the BEIC Foundation of Milan, the Egyptian Museum of Turin. In Spain the Spanish National Library (BNE) opened the digital collections (30 million images) in public domain in November 2020. In addition to the examples indicated above, open licenses are an important opportunity also for smaller institutions. Open access is rapidly evolving both in terms of the number of institutions that adopt it, and for the number of reproductions that are progressively published.

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106. Which copyright licenses are adopted in Open Access policies?
Online collections provide information on single photographic reproductions of artworks that are released under Creative Commons licenses and tools, in the public domain or with copyright restrictions. The use of specific wording on the single page allows you to differentiate the approach and to provide precise information to the published photographic reproductions. Cultural institutions that are activating open access policies in their catalogs or online collections for the release of works use various approaches: Rijksmuseum and Paris Musées use CC0, Metropolitan Museum of Art alternates two options (CC0 and Public Domain Mark); the open license CC BY is adopted by Egyptian Museum of Turin; while we find the CC BY-SA (or compatible licenses CC BY and CC0) when the reproductions have been published in the Wikimedia platforms such as e.g. Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons or Wikidata. Some museums such as the British Museum release under a more restrictive license CC BY-NC-SA which does not allow commercial use licenses and is not compatible with open access. In the online collection of the Cleveland Museum the reproductions are released with CC0 or under copyright. Similarly, Lacma (Los Angeles Museum of Art) allows the unrestricted use of reproductions limited to some works (identified as "Public Domain High Resolution Image Available"), excluding others. The Art Institute of Chicago uses the CC0 license, highlighting – also in the Terms of Use – that the user is responsible for requesting and obtaining authorization from third parties, if necessary for the use of the images. The Indianapolis Museum of Art allows the use of only some images of assets in the public domain, and their use without restrictions and conditions, specifying the interesting request to receive a free copy of the publication made with the images used. Therefore the museum online platforms do not have a single formulation, but a specification is affixed to each photographic reproduction.

107. What motivates institution's Open Access policy?
Many museums publish Open Access policies on their sites, and state the reasons: «Open access is a milestone for the Smithsonian in our efforts to reach, educate and inspire audiences», said Lonnie G. Bunch III, Smithsonian Secretary. Europeana, the largest European platform for publishing photographic reproductions with «Millions of cultural heritage items from around 4,000 institutions across Europe» gives many reasons, both in the mission and in the Strategic Document 2020-25: «We make it easier for people to use cultural heritage for education, research, creation and recreation. Our work contributes to an open, knowledgeable and creative society [...] Europeana will enable cultural heritage institutions to transcend cultural and national borders and place their collections in the European context – to be part of the story of Europe».

The Cleveland Museum video presentation Cleveland Museum of Art unleashes major digital change: ‘Open Access’ explains the tools and possibilities for reuse they have made available, and ends with the inspirational phrase «for the benefit of all the people, forever». The National Gallery of Art in Washington refers to its mission of being at the service of the United States through an activity aimed at preserving, collecting, exhibiting and increasing the understanding of works of art according to the best museum and educational standards. The open access policy «is a natural extension of this mission. [...] The Gallery believes that increased access to high quality images of its works of art fuels knowledge, scholarship, and innovation, inspiring users that continually transform the way we see and understand the world of art».

The National Gallery of Denmark SMK focuses on active involvement: «A cultural user not satisfied with being a passive spectator to culture. This cultural user wants to be an active participant and to use culture in his or her own life. And the conclusion is clear: Far more – including those who don’t use the physical museum – use the collections when they can actively select, re-use, remix, and share artworks». The Spanish National Library (BNE) intention is «to promote the reuse of images and to put the digital collections at the service of a confined society, and a cultural and publishing industry with its very limited resources, and to promote the expansion of knowledge».

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108. May we track how content is downloaded and reused?
There are several monitoring tools that can be used to monitor how much of a given content is viewed or downloaded, such as Web Analytics tools and APIs. However, there is still not a good toolset to track content reuse. The Cleveland Museum shares access and download data (Measuring Impact) in real time both from its website and from platforms such as the Wikimedia Dashboard: «It’s exciting to see the exponential effects that Open Access has had on the reach of the museum’s collection!»

Using similar tools such as Live Virtual Dashboards it is possible to monitor trends and access to single artworks. Another example: Cassandra Tool created by Wikimedia Switzerland analyzes how GLAM contents concerning the monuments of the Canton of Zurich are used: which monument interests most, and how many user accesses it has. The Smithsonian has a dedicated page, Open Access Remix, with a list of remix projects to «thanks to our Launch Collaborators, including artists, innovators, educators, technologists, and students, who developed these inspiring examples of what is possible with Smithsonian Open Access».

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109. What are the advantages of adopting Open Access?
Two publications provide relevant information on the benefits and challenges. Effie Kapsalis in The Impact of Open Access on Galleries, Libraries, Museums, & Archives highlights that: «With over a decade of GLAM open access, several trends and insights have emerged for these organizations: While open access may cause a loss in rights and reproduction revenue in limited cases, it can also lead to significant new opportunities in fundraising and brand licensing; Open access results in cost savings associated with rights and reproduction management overhead; Open access allows organizations to realign staff with more mission-critical activities, resulting in more efficient and less costly image management and digitization functions; By furthering research, educational and creative activities, open access also advances the missions of these institutions; Open access significantly increases use and awareness of an institution’s collections; Open access creates a strengthened and more relevant brand.»

Other benefits and challenges are highlighted in the presentation of the Declaration on Open Access to Cultural Heritage at Europeana 2020, by Claudio Ruiz, Andrea Wallace, Evelin Heidel: «Benefits: Goodwill and recognition; Enhanced mission and relevance to 21st century audiences; Increased staff efficiency and better mission alignment; Integration into external interfaces, like Wikimedia Commons; Increased research and new knowledge around collections; Inclusion in Open Educational Resources (OER); Fostering reuse and remix culture. Challenges: Funding, losing revenues and changes in business models: Liability and risk aversion; Bad resolution copies and selling copies of public domain works; Misuse of public domain works; Wrong, messy or inaccurate metadata or information.»

There are many studies in progress and even individual museums are analyzing the results: for example, according to a study on the Rijksmuseum collections, the use of open licenses has increased the sale of images.

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text:
User talk:Mr Baron von Fenton the Guide Dogs Trust charity runner

Creating a page, logging out to nominate it for deletion, then logging in to create it again is vandalism and a waste of time for the administrators here. If you intend to contribute rather than just irritate people, then I will consider unblocking you. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 16:53, 2 March 2021 (UTC)
 * It's an LTA. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 17:01, 2 March 2021 (UTC)
 * , certainly smelt like one. Thanks. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 17:10, 2 March 2021 (UTC)
 * I suggest revoking TPA or even glocking. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 17:11, 2 March 2021 (UTC)
 * , just doing the global stuff. Thanks. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 17:14, 2 March 2021 (UTC)


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Problems and Solutions/Infringements

110. What is a copyright infringement?
A copyright infringement occurs when a work protected by Copyright law is used without the authorization of the rights holder and the activity does not fall within an exception or limitation to copyright provided for by law. When the infringement involves not only the economic rights but also the moral right of authorship..

111. What sanctions are provided for in case of copyright infringement?
The sanctions applicable in case of copyright infringement vary depending on the type and gravity of the violation and may be civil, criminal and, in some cases, administrative (as in Italy).

112. How is the damage related to the copyright infringement estimated?
The rights holder, in case of use of his work without authorization, can act against the user to obtain compensation for damages (loss of profit and emerging damage). In order to quantify the damage, it’s possible to refer to the compensation that the author uses to claim for the same type of use in a similar context. However, this rule can only be considered as a guideline and should be adapted to the specific situation.

113. If a Cultural Institution Director decides to share images under open licenses, does he/she run the risk of causing financial losses?
Financial losses occur when the public administration, e.g. public cultural institutions suffer damage, such as loss of assets, money or not achieving economic increases, due to the conduct of a person who is a member of the administrative apparatus (as an employee, officer, etc.). In theory, if the director of a public Institution decides to release images of public cultural heritage with open licenses, and therefore to authorize the use of such reproductions without the payment of any fee, he may incur the hypothesis of financial losses for failure to achieve economic increases. It is clear, however, that the damage, in order to be refundable, must be proven in practice and in this case there is already a lot of evidence of the fact that the income from the fee required for the use of cultural heritage images is much lower than the costs for the granting of authorizations and, on the contrary, that the spread of the reproduction can generate advantages also in economic terms.

114. Is it possible to settle a dispute by using the Code of Conduct to which my museum complies?
Code of Ethics is a self-regulatory code that identifies standards of conduct, guiding the professional performance of the museum and its staff. Using the Code for the resolution of a dispute can be possible only if that dispute concerns the above-mentioned standards. When the dispute is about the violation of Copyright laws the Code of Ethics cannot be used as referent text, since in this case neither the rights holder nor the user subscribed the Code and therefore they are not required to comply with its rules. Copyright law must be referred to.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Problems and Solutions/Contracts and Consents

115. Should cultural institutions operate with contractual models? Why?
Cultural institutions should operate using contractual models in order to specifically govern the different aspects of their relationships with authors, artists, photographers, curators, licensee, donors, collectors, sponsors, publishers, etc. The multiple roles of counterparts of cultural institutions and the complexity of the issues that the institutions have to define in order to have a profitable relationship with third parties, require the availability of a formal contractual model in order to reach a specific regulation to protect the rights of the contractual parties.It is also important to make use of models to be able to identify, among other things, which rights are assigned, to give transparency to the relationship established between the parties, and also to comply with certain obligations required in any case, by legislation (when written form is required by law). Lastly, it is advisable to operate with contractual models in which various aspects of copyright issues examined in this work are addressed.

It is important to remember that at the European level, art. 7 of Directive 2019/790 governs the relationship between exceptions to copyright and contracts, and provides that some of the new exceptions and limitations to copyright (such as, for example, pursuant to Article 6, the possibility of making copies of works of others for conservation purposes, in any format) cannot be excluded by contract. Any contractual clause contrary to the European provision providing exceptions would be considered unenforceable. Member states must therefore provide the legal framework to ensure that the right of the cultural heritage institutions to preserve works is not affected by contractual clauses.

 * Reference:

116. Are models of purchase agreements available?
There are some models of agreements, which are not standard however, in the sense that some entities, cultural institutions carry on their activity with their drafts or following some guidelines provided by, for example, by associations/entities both at a national and international level.

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117. What consents are necessary to organise a contemporary art exhibition?
In general, in order to organise an exhibition of contemporary art, it is necessary to obtain a prior consent to:
 * 1) use the images of the displayed artworks in any kind of material for communication/advertisement/commercial purposes;
 * 2) use the music, videos, images along the exhibition or elsewhere, for example on the social platforms;
 * 3) use the images on the website of the cultural entity;
 * 4) use the possible photos, video shootings of the public of specific events.

In some cases, it will be necessary to ask for the prior authorisation from the rightsholder at the entity which manages the rights.

118. How does one draft a consent/grant of use rights?
The consent should specify in detail the uses of the artwork/image for which the consent is requested, the timing, the place or digital location for such use, the privacy issue, the withdrawal clause. The authorization granted is effective only within the limits for which it has been granted (ie. consent to use the image on a specific kind of publication does not allow the publication on a different tool).

== 119. Which consent is necessary to grant the compliance of the copyright’s owner in the event of donations and deposit in archives and libraries of documents protected by author’s rights (such as drawing, projects, photographs, poems, etc)? == In the event of donations, deposits in archives and libraries, of documents protected by author’s rights it is advisable to ask to the donor/depositor a representation whereby he declares to have all rights related to the donated/deposited goods, in particular the right to use and the authorisation to make reproductions, and to specify that such rights and grants are transferred to the receiving party (donor/depositor shall have the right to transfer such rights).


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Problems and Solutions/Legal Notices

120. Have you put legal notices on the web site?
The web site of the cultural entity should have, on the first screen, at the footer, the legal notices which include the privacy policy (and this because, for example, the website gathers data on the users), the indications related to content’s copyright and to the website in general (and possible limit to its use, for example, the applicable licenses), the so-called Terms of Use of the website and of its content.

121. Are you explaining to the viewers what they can do with the content?
The content of the legal notices is intended to govern, for the part that is relevant in this work, some of the aspects related to the use of the content on line. In particular, it is advisable to use Terms of Use which specify the ownership of the trademarks, logos, content online, images in general, video used for virtual tours, possible licenses governing contents, the indication of possible rights reserved to the entity, rights on possible content uploaded by users (for example, images uploaded by visitors of the cultural entity website).

122. Which are the recommendations for the creation of a website of the cultural entity (Terms of Use)?
It is advisable to include Terms of Use which are simple and clear, in two languages, and which allow the viewer of the website and the user of its content to understand whether it is possible to use the content and within which limits. If there is also the possibility to purchase online, you’ll need to have conditions of purchase; a disclaimer of liability, limitations to warranties related to content, consent, applicable law, jurisdiction clauses.


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Author's Right, Copyright and Free Licenses for Culture on the Web/Problems and Solutions/Exceptions

123. Are there exceptions to copyright for Cultural Institutions in the Directive 2019/790 EU?
Yes. Directive 2019/790 EU provides a series of mandatory exceptions, overturning the previous rulings which had been adopted through Directive 2001/29/CEE which identified a series of exceptions which were general and not mandatory.

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124. Are the exceptions applied to digital copies of works protected by law?
Yes. Directive 2019/790/EU provides a number of mandatory exceptions, overturning the previous system introduced by Directive 2001/29/EC which identified a number of general exceptions that Member States may provide for (except for the temporary acts of reproduction, which are transient or incidental and an integral and essential part of a technological process and whose sole purpose is to enable a) a transmission in a network between third parties by an intermediary, or b) a lawful use of a work or other subject-matter to be made, and which have no independent economic significance. In fact in these cases, those acts that have to be exempted from the reproduction right provided for in Article 2).

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125. What are the exceptions provided by the Directive 2019/790 EU?
Directive 2019/790/EU provides a number of exceptions:
 * 1) for reproductions and extractions of lawfully accessible works and other subject matter for the purposes of text and data mining (art. 4);
 * 2) in order to allow the digital use of works and other subject matter for the sole purpose of illustration for teaching, to the extent justified by the non-commercial purpose to be achieved (art. 5);
 * 3) in order to allow cultural heritage institutions to make copies of any works or other subject matter that are permanently in their collections, in any format or medium, for purposes of preservation of such works or other subject matter and to the extent necessary for such preservation (art.6);
 * 4) in order to allow collective management organisation, in accordance with its mandates from rights holders, may conclude a non-exclusive licence for non-commercial purposes with a cultural heritage institution for the reproduction, distribution, communication to the public or making available to the public of out-of-commerce works or other subject matter that are permanently in the collection of the institution, irrespective of whether all rights holders covered by the licence have mandated the collective management organisation (art. 8).

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126. What is meant by freedom of panorama?
The freedom of panorama is an exception to copyright that allows anyone to make photographic reproductions of everything that is visible from the public street. In some Countries, freedom of panorama allows reproductions of only goods in the public domain, while in other cases it allows the reproduction of all goods visible from the public street regardless of whether or not they are under copyright protection. In this sense, Article 5, section 3, letter h, of Directive 2001/29/EC provides the possibility of Member States having exceptions or limitations when using works, such as works of architecture or sculpture, created to be placed permanently in public places, but does not require such a rule.

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127. Which countries allow freedom of panorama?
The implementation of the freedom of panorama varies a lot as, according to the different legal systems, the incidence and limits change. There are, in fact, countries where the freedom of panorama is allowed only for non-commercial purposes (for example, Romania), countries where it concerns only buildings and not works of art (for example, Finland) and countries where it is provided in a strong and complete form (for example, Germany).

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text:
User:Fatiheart

My name is fatiheart I love reading making friends and succeeding in life

title: User:Fatiheart


text:
History of video games/List of Abbreviations

#

 * 1v1 - One versus one. For one player to fight another player.
 * 1337 - Leet or Elite. Shorthand speak in common use by gamers during the 2000's.

A

 * AAA - Triple A. A game made with a large studio with a large budget.
 * ACG - Refers to the subculture Anime, Comic, and Games.
 * AI - Artificial Intelligence. Often shorthand to refer to a computer player.
 * API - Application Programming Interface
 * APM - Actions per minute. Used by competitive gamers.
 * APU - AMD processors known as Accelerated Processor Units. Combines CPU and GPU on a die.
 * AV - Audio Visual. Typically used to refer to signal cables or display equipment.

B

 * BBC - British Broadcasting Cooperation.
 * BD - Short for Blu-ray Disc. A standard for optical disks mainly used for films and console video games.

C

 * C128 - Short for Commodore 128.
 * C128D - Short for Commodore 128D, a North America-only version of the computer.
 * C16 - Short for Commodore 16.
 * C64 - Short for Commodore 64.
 * C64C - Short for Commodore 64C.
 * C64GS - Short for Commodore 64 Games System.
 * CBM - Commodore Business Machines, now known as "Commodore International".
 * CIB - Complete in Box, term used by collectors.
 * CD - Short for CD-ROM optical disk technology.
 * CISC - Complex Instruction Set Computer.
 * Co-op - Cooperative elements, typically in multiplayer games. Used in terms like Couch Co-op to refer to local multiplayer.
 * CPU - Central Processing Unit
 * CRT - Cathode-ray tube. Common display used before the 2000's for TV sets, computer displays and arcade machines.
 * CV - ColecoVision

D

 * DPS - Damage per Second. Also refers to a player role where attacking with a high damage per second is desired (To the point of letting other players handle healing, and taking damage to focus on increasing DPS).
 * DVD - An optical disk. Abbreviation is disputed, but usually identified as "Digital Versatile Disc".

E

 * EEPROM - Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory - Storage technology used by some early game cartridges.
 * EXP - Experience Points

F

 * FDD - Floppy disk drive.
 * FLOPS - Floating Point Operations Per Second, a common benchmark of processing speed.
 * FMV - Full Motion Video. Often used in the 1990's when a game featured prerecorded video. FMV game refers to a game that primarily or exclusively uses prerecorded videos for graphics.
 * FPGA - Field Programmable Gate Array. A popular technology used by some clone consoles for accurate replication of original hardware.
 * FPS - Multiple meanings. Short for Frames per Second. Also may refer to the First Person Shooter game genre.

G

 * GB - Multiple meanings. Short for Game Boy when discussing consoles. Short for Great Britain when discussing releases.
 * GBP - Short for Game Boy Pocket.
 * GBC - Short for Game Boy Color.
 * GBA - Short for Game Boy Advance.
 * GD-ROM - Short for Gigabyte Disc Read only memory - a disk format used by Sega in the late 1990's and early 2000's.
 * GG - Multiple meanings. Short for Game Gear when discussing consoles. Short for Good Game in casual chat.
 * GPU - Graphics Processing Unit
 * GPGPU - General Purpose GPU
 * G&W - Game and Watch

H

 * HDD - Hard Disk Drive
 * HP - Multiple meanings. Short for Health Points. May also refer to Hewlett Packard, a computer and calculator manufacturer.

I

 * IBM - International Business Machines. One of the most notable computer manufacturers since the 1930s, inventor of the PC standard in the early 1980s.
 * III - Indie games with scope or funding comparable to AAA games.
 * IV - Multiple meanings. Short for Intellivision. Also the roman numeral for 4.

J

 * JP - Short for Japan when discussing releases.

K

 * K - Kilo. Metric unit for thousand. Often seen as Kilobyte, Kilobit, etc.
 * KB - Keyboard.
 * KD - Kill Death ratio, especially in competitive multiplayer games. Generally a high KD is seen as the sign of a skilled player.

L

 * Lag - Slang for latency, especially in online gaming.
 * LCD - Liquid Crystal Display - A common display type since the inception of handheld game consoles. Became nearly universal in general displays after the 2000's.
 * LED - Light Emitting Diode - Commonly used as indicator lights on consoles, and rarely as discrete parts of a large console display.
 * LIN - Short for Linux, an operating system kernel.
 * LOL - Multiple meanings. Often refers to laugh out loud. May also refer to the game League of Legends.
 * LoZ - Short for the Legend of Zelda, either the first game or the series in general.
 * LP - Let's Play. A genre of writing or video which discusses a playthrough of a game.

M

 * Mac - Short for Macintosh, a computer line launched by Apple in 1984.
 * MAC - Short for "media access control", a type of unique address for computer networks.
 * MIPS - Two separate meanings. Short for either Millions of Instructions per Second, or the MIPS processor architecture.
 * MMORPG - Massively Multiplayer Online Roleplaying Game
 * MOBA - Multiplayer Online Battle Arena
 * Mobo - Motherboard
 * MS - Informal acronym for Microsoft.
 * MUD - Multi User Dungeon. The smaller precursor to MMORPG.
 * MV - Microvision

N

 * N3DS - Short for Nintendo 3DS.
 * N2DS - Short for Nintendo 2DS.
 * N64 - Short for Nintendo 64.
 * NA - Short for North America when discussing releases.
 * NDS - Short for Nintendo DS.
 * NDSi, Short for Nintendo DSi.
 * NES - Short for Nintendo Entertainment System
 * NIN - Short for Nintendo.
 * NG - Short for NEO•GEO.
 * NPC - Non Player Character
 * NS - Short for Nintendo Switch.
 * NSO - Nintendo Switch Online
 * NX - Early codename for Nintendo Switch.

O

 * OLED - Organic Light Emitting Diode. A common display type in the 2010's and on.
 * OS - Multiple meanings. Can refer to Operating System or Open Source.
 * OOT - Short for The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

P

 * PC - Multiple meanings. Personal computer, especially a computer compatible with the IBM Personal Computer (model 5150) or a computer running Microsoft Windows. Also can be used to refer to a Player Character.
 * PC-88 - Short for NEC PC-8800 series computers.
 * PCB - Printed Circuit Board
 * PPE - Multiple meanings. Refers to a computational unit in the PS3 Cell Processor or the Xbox 360 Xenon Processor. Refers to Personal Protective Equipment, which some gaming brands sold during the COVID-19 pandemic.
 * PPU - Picture Processing Unit, A GPU of sorts used on some early Nintendo consoles.
 * PS - Short for PlayStation in general, may refer to PS1 specifically.
 * PS1 - Short for PlayStation 1
 * PS2 - Short for PlayStation 2
 * PS3 - Short for PlayStation 3
 * PS4 - Short for PlayStation 4
 * PS5 - Short for PlayStation 5
 * PSN - Short for PlayStation Network.
 * PSP - Short for PlayStation Portable.
 * PSX - Codename for PlayStation 1. Also a Japan-only model of PlayStation 2.
 * PUBG - Short for PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds.

Q

 * QPU - Quantum Positioning Unit, used by the Super Mario 64 speedrunning community.

R

 * RISC - Reduced Instruction Set Architecture.
 * RAM - Random Access Memory.
 * ROM - Read Only Memory. Also slang for an amateur digital copy of a physical game.
 * RPG - Multiple meanings. Generally refers to Role Playing Game. In FPS games, refers to the real life weapon - Rocket Propelled Grenade.
 * ARPG - Action Role Playing Game
 * CRPG - Computer Role Playing Game - Often western in origin
 * JRPG - Japanese Role Playing Game
 * TRPG - Tactical Role Playing Game
 * WRPG - Western Role Playing Game
 * RSX - Reality Synthesizer. The GPU used on the PlayStation 3.
 * RTS - Real Time Strategy. A genre of game.

S

 * SMB - Super Mario Bros..
 * SMS - Short for Sega Master System.
 * SNES - Short for Super Nintendo Entertainment System.
 * SPE - Synergetic Processing Element, used by the PlayStation 3 Cell CPU.
 * SSD - Solid State Drive.

T

 * TBS - Turn Based Strategy. A genre of game.
 * TF - Team Fortress.
 * TFC - Team Fortress Classic.
 * TF2 - Team Fortress 2.

U

 * UMD - Universal Media Disc, a portable optical disk format used by Sony.

V

 * VC - Multiple meanings. Short for Venture Capital. Short for Nintendo's Virtual Console.
 * VCS - Atari Video Computer System, original name of console CX-2600, later renamed "Atari 2600". Also the name of an Atari console launched in 2020.
 * VCR - Short for "video cassette recorder", a device used to play and record on VHS tapes or, occasionally, also other video tapes.
 * VHS - Video Home System, the most common video tape standard, also used for some very low cost video game consoles.
 * VMS - Visual Memory System - Handheld game system/Sega Dreamcast Memory Card in Japan and Europe.
 * VMU - Visual Memory Unit - Handheld game system/Dreamcast Memory Card in North America.
 * VR - Virtual Reality

W

 * WAD - Short for "Where's All the Data?", default format for Doom package files, in which mods are usually distributed.
 * WIN - Short for Windows, an operating system.
 * Wolf3D - Short for Wolfenstein 3D, after the game's main executable in PC versions.
 * WOW - World of Warcraft.

X

 * x86 - Commonly-used processor architecture designed by Intel, and used by AMD, VIA, and others. The "x" stands for a variable digit.
 * x86-64 - Commonly-used extension of the x86 standard, designed by AMD, and used by Intel.
 * XB - Informal acronym for Xbox.
 * XBL - Xbox Live
 * XBLA - Xbox Live Arcade.

Y

 * Y2K - Year 2000. A feared collapse of global computing technology due to poor coding practices on the eve of the millennium.

Z

 * Z80 - Short for Zilog Z80 processor.


text:
German/Grammar/Noun gender

Noun gender
We've covered pronouns, but have been putting off covering nouns themselves, so it's time to remedy that. It's a complex topic so we'll be splitting it up into multiple sections; verbs are an even more complex topic and we are by no means done with them. The difference between gender as used in English and as used in German has already been covered in the section on personal pronouns, so in this section we'll concentrate on a few rules to help determine the gender of certain nouns.

Noun gender and pluralization are among the most frustrating aspects of German for learners. There are thousands of nouns and not only does one have to learn the meaning of the word itself, but also this ancillary data if you want to use the word correctly. This exists in English as well, but for a limited number of "irregulars" which are relatively easy to master. But in German the "irregulars" seem to outnumber the "regulars", a fact which takes while to adjust to.

What to look for in a gender rule
To reiterate what was said in the section on personal pronouns, many rules for determining gender have been formulated, but few of them are actually useful for the learner. For the time and effort you put into memorizing a single such rule, you can just learn by rote the genders of some common words which may be more useful to you in everyday life.

Two things to consider before taking the time to learn such a rule are its applicability and its consistency. For a rule to be applicable it must hold for a number of common words. For example there's a rule that a brand of car is masculine. But unless you're particularly interested in cars and talk about them with your friends, or you work in the automobile industry, you're unlikely to use this rule very often. Here, consistency refers to the lack of exceptions, so if a rule has a long list of exceptions, keeping in mind that these must be memorized for the rule to be useful, its value as a rule is questionable. Mark Twain complained of the typical grammatical rule in German, "... that there are more exceptions to the rule than instances of it." This is hyperbole but it's a valid criticism. If, on the other hand, you are unlikely to come across the exceptions in everyday language then perhaps they shouldn't be given much weight.

So, in this section we'll only cover a few of what we think are the most useful rules in terms of applicability and consistency.

Terminology
It will be necessary to distinguish between the ending of a word, the letters that happen to appear at the end, and a suffix, a combination of letters that have meaning in themselves and are added to another word to create a new word. For example "bed" and "red" both have the ending "-ed", but "-ed" is not a suffix in these words because "b-" and "r-" are not words in themselves. But "-ed" is a suffix, forming the past tense, in the words "lived", "dressed" and "jumped".

The most useful rules
So, here are what we think are the most useful rules for figuring out gender.

Natural gender
As has been mentioned before, German grammatical gender often does not agree with English natural gender. There are cases where it does though and it's worthwhile to remember them. For adult humans, use the natural gender; this applies to:
 * Family members Bruder, m ("brother"); Schwester, f ("sister"); Mutter, f ("mother"); Vater, m ("father")
 * Random people Mann, m ("man"); Frau, f ("woman")
 * People having certain occupations Lehrer, m ("male teacher"); Lehrerin, f ("female teacher"); Arzt, m ("male doctor"); Ärztin, f ("female doctor")
 * Note that German adds the feminine suffix -in for females so the gender is built into the word.

An exception is Geschwister, n, ("sibling") but this is rarely used in the singular. Another exception is Weib, n, ("woman"), but in Modern German this term can be considered insulting and Frau is preferred in most circumstances.

Also, gender specific names of animals have the gender you would expect. For example Kuh, f ("[female] cow"). The names of immature animals are usually neuter however, for example Lamm, n, ("lamb"). This holds for immature humans as well: Kind, n ("child").

Compounds
As mentioned in an earlier section, German is very fond of combining words together to form new words, sometimes on the fly. When the resulting word is a noun then the gender matches the gender of the second word, which will also be a noun. For example:
 * Zeit, f ("time") produces Freizeit, f ("free time")
 * Hof, m ("yard") produces Bahnhof, m ("train station", literally "transport yard")
 * Schrank, m ("cabinet") produces Kühlschrank, m ("refridgerator", literally "cool cabinet")
 * Garten, m ("garden") produces Kindergarten, m ("kindergarten", literally "child garden")

This rule is very consistent and the main worry is that what looks like a compound is actually an independent word. We'll call this the "Right Hand Rules" law because it applies to inflections of many types, and as an homage to the "Right-hand Rule" used in physics. It means that the part that come last, on the right, rules the inflection of the whole word.

Suffixes
German uses suffixes frequently to form nouns from other types of words. These suffixes have specific genders and all the words formed from a given suffix will have the same gender. When applied correctly, in other words when you don't confuse an ending with a suffix, this is a very consistent rule. You can think about this as part II of the Right Hand Rules law.
 * Diminutive suffixes are neuter; the most commonly used is -chen. For example
 * Mädchen, n ("girl"), Brötchen, n ("bread roll"), Hähnchen, n ("chicken") are all neuter.
 * It might seem that Kuchen, m ("pastry") is an exception, but the -chen ending is just that in this case; there is no ku- word it's being added to. (A clue is that the -ch- is pronounced differently in Kuchen.)
 * Another diminutive suffixes is -lein as in Fräulein, n ("young woman").

 * Words with the suffix -ung are feminine. This is similar to "-tion" in English, commonly used to turn verbs into nouns.
 * Einladung ("Invitation"), from einladen ("to invite"); Lösung ("solution"), from lösen ("to loosen, to disolve")
 * Note that Dung, m ("fertilizer") is not an instance of the -ung suffix and is, in fact, masculine.

 * A less frequently seen suffix that's still worthy of note is -heit/keit. These are really the same suffix with the choice between -h- and -k- depending on the preceding letter. It is used to turn adjectives into nouns and is roughly equivalent to "-ness" or "-ity" in English. The resulting noun is always feminine, for example Möglichkeit, f ("possibility") from möglich ("possible").

 * As mentioned above, the suffix -in is added to a noun representing a male human to represent his female counterpart. For example
 * Freund, m ("(male) friend", "boyfriend")/Freundin, f ("(female) friend", "girlfriend")
 * Gott, m ("god")/Göttin, f ("goddess")
 * Soldat, m ("(male) soldier")/Soldatin, f ("(female) soldier")

 * The suffix -er, masculine, and its feminine version -erin mean about the same thing as the "-er" suffix in English. They're used to tell you what someone or something does and to tell you where someone is from. When applied to people, the -er is used for males and -erin for females.
 * Empfänger/Empfängerin, m/f ("receiver") from empfangen ("to receive")
 * Fahrer/Fahrerin, m/f ("driver") from fahren ("to drive")
 * Kugelschreiber, m ("ballpoint pen") from Kugel ("ball, sphere") and Schreiber, m ("writer"), in turn from schreiben ("to write")

The -e ending
Most nouns ending in -e are feminine. For example
 * Ecke ("corner"); Frage ("question"); Schule ("school"); Sonne ("sun")

This is a widely applicable rule, but there are exceptions so be wary of it. Exceptions include the -ee ending
 * Kaffee, m ("coffee")
 * Tee, m ("tea")
 * See, m ("lake")

There are some random exceptions as well
 * Auge, n ("eye")
 * Ende, n ("end")
 * Gebäude, n ("building")
 * Name, m ("name")

The word See has another meaning, "sea", which is feminine, making it a member of a small collection of nouns that have different genders depending on the exact meaning.

The -o ending and imported words
Words that end in "-o" tend to be neuter. This has marginal applicability and has exceptions as well, so learning it is probably optional. For example Auto ("car"), Foto ("photo"), and Kino ("movie theater") are all neuter. But Disco ("disco") is feminine. In general, words borrowed from other languages are either neuter or inherit the gender they had in the source language. The problem with applying this is that German has borrowed from many languages over the years, and unless you're familiar with the source language, and know that that is the language in question since it's not always clear, this won't help you. Also, German generally prefers to use its own native roots rather than borrow words directly, so there are a fewer borrowed words in German than in, say, English.

The remaining words
Unfortunately, while these rules do cover a good number of nouns, they do not cover a majority of them, and these must be memorized by rote. The best time to do this is when you're learning the word in the first place. If you're absolutely stumped and are forced to guess, then go with masculine; not a majority, but certainly a plurality of nouns are masculine, so it's the best bet if there is no other information.

title: German/Grammar/Noun gender


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title: Template:WIP


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User talk:Sannita (WMIT)

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Deleting sandbox
There is no need to request deletion of your sandbox every time you are done with it. Keeping it empty is enough. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 12:59, 3 March 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sannita (WMIT)


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User talk:פֿינצטערניש

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, פֿינצטערניש!

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You do not need technical skills to contribute. You can easily change most books. Please introduce yourself, and let us know what interests you.

If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our Wikimedia Orientation should quickly get you started. (Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)

  Getting help   Made a mistake?   Goodies, tips and tricks
 * Read the Using Wikibooks book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our help pages for more information.
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 * You can restore a previously saved version.
 * Pages should follow the  naming convention.
 * Need to rename a page? Use the move tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for help).
 * To request a page be deleted, add to the top of the page.
 * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the deletion policy, and check the deletion log to find out why. Also check the RFD archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at WB:RFU, or ask the administrator who deleted the page.
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HI I know you've been here a while, but you have never been welcomed, so here it is. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 10:20, 3 March 2021 (UTC)

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Talk:Perspectives in Digital Literacy/Digital Cult

Hammons, Skyler. "Arkansas Singles Adapt Dating Habits to Pandemic Conditions." UWIRE Text, Feb.14, 2021.