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User:TimRJordan/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 4/Evidence

False balance
False balance is a type of media bias that occurs when the arguments of two opposing sides in a debate are presented by journalists as equally valid, despite there being significantly stronger evidence in support of one side. Whereas the most commonly discussed types of media bias, such as coverage bias, gatekeeping bias, and statement bias, arise when journalists neglect the journalistic norm of balance, false balance may actually occur when journalists attempt to adhere to the norm, with the intention to avoid bias. False balance is especially common in science journalism where evidence is rarely balanced between two opposing opinions, which means journalists will have to exaggerate the amount or validity of evidence for one side, or omit evidence from the other, in order to present an issue as balanced, which contributes to misinformation.

Whilst journalists could contribute to false balance subconsciously, they could also be motivated by their own interest to, as argued by the historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway in Merchants of Doubt, give false balance to the minority view in order to "keep the controversy alive" in sensational issues such as climate change. As media is the American public’s main source for scientific news and information today, this false balance in scientific media coverage, climate change especially, creates a significant discrepancy between the scientific consensus and the public perceptions.

False balance in climate change coverage
An example of false balance in media is in the coverage of climate change. Several studies published in peer-reviewed journals show that 97-98 per cent of actively publishing climate scientists hold the view that human activities are the main cause of the past century’s global warming, and after the American Association of Petroleum Geologists dropped their dissent in 2007, there are also no longer any national and international bodies maintaining a formal opinion of dissent towards this view.

Despite such overwhelming scientific consensus on the causes of climate change and strength of evidence in support of it, studies of media content on climate change in America, Europe, and Asia have all found that the views of climate change sceptics are given disproportionate voice in the debate, misleadingly portraying the issue as one of scientific controversy with balanced evidence on both sides. A survey of 636 articles from top newspapers (the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, and the Wall Street Journal) in the United States between 1988 and 2002 found that the coverage was almost evenly split between the scientific consensus view and the small group climate change sceptics.

False balance in COVID-19 pandemic coverage
False balance is also an element of the reporting on the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, as news outlets have had to quickly reassign journalists with little to no medical, or even scientific, background to cover the news. Christina Pazzanese, a staff writer for the Harvard Gazette, argued that these journalists lack the scientific knowledge to view evidence critically, which causes them to resort to traditional journalistic norms, such as the norm of balance, but "[i]n doing so, they lift up outlier and inaccurate counterarguments and hypotheses, unnecessarily muddying the water." , and end up spreading misinformation.

Evidence in Social anthropology
The studies in the discipline of social anthropologists are firstly grounded on ethnographic fieldworks, which imply developing intimate understanding of social and cultural phenomena from the perspective of the research participants, through a long-time experience in their local context. Those fieldworks are considered as primary evidence in social anthropological studies, since they directly gather discussions between the local people and the ethnographer. The importance of these immersive experiences is clearly emphasized by many anthropologists, notably by L. Abu-Lughod in her study about Bedouin people, in order to fully understand another culture.

Ethnographic knowledge is used to produce anthropological knowledge. Indeed, anthropological researches correspond to the analysis and interpretation of the anthropologist’s ethnographic fieldwork and its comparison to other concepts. Social anthropological texts in this way constitute qualitative secondary evidence, as future works in this discipline could be based on them or be compared with them.

Nevertheless, ethnographic evidence is considered neutral and objective compared to anthropological productions since the intersectionality of the author, his intellectual, social and political positionality inevitably shapes the analysis he makes. This concept acts as a mediation between the reality and the written account the author produces. Although several fieldworks occur within the same community, the same local context, they can lead to different analysis. Anthropologists’ identity background surely influences their ethnographic experience and consequently their interpretation of it as explained R.Rosaldo in 1989 in Culture and Truth.

Even if anthropology has been re-thought through accepting the subjective aspect in it, anthropological texts can remain evidence if the author’s positionality is not ignored. Hence, evidence in social anthropology raise the notion of reflexivity, which questioned the possibility of an impartial study when our own epistemologies are involved.

Evidence in Aggression
The most widely used definition of aggression is 'any act that harms another individual who is motivated to avoid such harm'. Importantly, aggression refers to behaviour that is intended to hurt another living being, physically or verbally, and this can be direct or indirect. Evidence in aggression consists mostly of correlational studies and laboratory studies.

Genetic Factors
MAOA-L is a variant of the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene which causes low MAOA activity and has been linked to increased levels of aggression. The MAOA gene governs the production of the MAOA enzyme which deconstructs neurotransmitters to be reused. Evidence of this correlation includes a study of an extremely violent Dutch family, convicted of rape and attempted murder, which found unusually low MAOA activity in their brains.

Isolating genetic factors has been a challenge for researchers. The difficulty lies within separating genetic and environmental factors. Frazzetto et al. provide evidence for the interaction between these factors - within his sample, only participants who had experienced significant trauma in early life demonstrated a correlation between MAOA-L activity and high levels of aggression. This gene-environment (GxE) interaction is often referred to as diathesis-stress.

As there is no standardisation when measuring aggression, researchers use a range of methods including self-reports, teacher and parent reports, and direct observations. This can prove problematic when results differ based on the method used. In a meta-analysis of 51 twin and adoption studies by Rhee and Waldman, genetic factors were found to have a greater effect on aggression in studies that used self-reports rather than teacher or parent reports.

The social learning theory
Bandura observed that aggression can be learnt directly, through operant conditioning, and indirectly, through observational learning. He describes vicarious reinforcement - a child is reinforced to behave aggressively if they see it work effectively for their models i.e. aggressive behaviour results in desirable consequences. Bandura's famous Bobo doll study supports this hypothesis. In his study, children individually watched an adult model behaving aggressively towards a 'Bobo doll'. To create frustration, the participants weren't allowed to play with other toys between their observation time and their time with the 'Bobo doll'. Results show the children mirrored the aggressive behaviour they had seen earlier, without being provoked. In another group of children observing a non-aggressive model, hardly any aggressive behaviour was shown towards the 'Bobo doll'.

Cultural differences mean that in certain cultures, like !Kung San in the Kalahari desert, social norms don't permit aggression so aggressive behaviour isn't reinforced directly or indirectly. Without the presence of a model, children still displayed aggressive behaviour. This perhaps suggests there is an instinctive element to aggression that a biological approach might better explain or that the social learning theory can only be applied to western cultures as the theory would struggle to interpret this specific finding.

The effects of computer games
Evidence for the effects of computer games on aggression includes laboratory experiments, correlational studies and longitudinal studies. Anderson et al. completed a meta-analysis of this evidence and found a correlation between exposure to violent computer games and aggressive behaviour. These results were present in both sexes and across individualist and collectivist cultures.

A correlation, however, is not causation i.e. exposure to violent computer games and aggressive behaviour can be closely associated but this doesn't mean that one causes the other, nor does it indicate the direction of causality. It is also possible that a third variable, a confounder, is responsible for aggressive behaviour which a correlation doesn't consider as it only studies two variables.

Evidence in Urban Planning
Urban planning is an interdisciplinary field of study which can involve ideas and methods from a diverse range of disciplines, such as engineering, architecture, environmental studies, political science, economics, social sciences, law, health, history and more. Its main objective is to improve quality of life by planning out the infrastructure in urban, suburban or rural areas. When making a planning decision, such as choosing the location of a bus stop, an urban planner will consider its effects on education, inequality, public health, access to culture, pollution, and will try to make the decision which has the most positive effects on these issues.

Epistemological problems
However, the diversity within urban planning creates epistemological problems. Since the methods of gathering evidence are so varied, ranging from surveys and interviews to scientific experiments or measures, the evidence can be of both quantitative or qualitative nature, which makes it difficult for scholars to agree on what constitutes valid evidence. For instance, certain scholars called ‘New Humanists’ such as Friedmann or Goldstein subscribe to the Frankfurt School’s theory on science, which stipulates that the scientific method is used by the upper class to further control the population. They, therefore, disregard all empirical and quantitative evidence, and "emphasize personal knowledge, communication and dialogue as a way of solving society’s problems", according to Marc Los. Other theorists such as Simon (1969) defend a ‘rational paradigm’ of planning, which presents the planner as a problem-solver, proposing several mathematical models to solve an issue. In this case, the planner is not even considered responsible for determining the issue or engaging with it, just solving it.

Moral issues
These epistemological problems, in turn, create moral issues. Planning theories directly influence planners, who can directly or indirectly influence policies and have drastic effects on populations. Disagreements in the way that planners evaluate the possible consequences of policies or assess the success of implemented measures can lead to harmful measures being taken. According to Jose Richard Aviles, planners can have a ‘technocratic’ bias, which leads them to undermine personal experience when searching for evidence in planning and apply policies which go against the will and the interests of a community. To remedy this, Aviles suggests planners make use of concepts borrowed from social work. Marc Los also believes that Urban planning should make use of concepts from other disciplines, notably History of Science and Design Theory, to create an ‘epistemology of planning’ which would bring together the different theories and give more unity to the academic world of planning.

The Role of Evidence in Archaeology
The discipline of archaeology can be defined as the retrieval and study of qualitative and primary evidence to understand human activity and its history. The archaeological practice relies on evidence, and the interpretation of it is a central challenge to the discipline as evidence is often retrieved only long after it was first created. The task relies on the archaeologist who has to analyse the data to validate or revoke his or someone else’s thesis. For this interpretation to be as objective as possible is one of the key stakes of archaeology. Disagreement about how the process should be carried out has formed two distinct movements within archaeology, processual and postprocessual. Processual archaeology is defined by its trust in a scientific method to analyse and interpret data, whereas postprocessual archaeology views the archaeologist as inevitably biased and unable to achieve complete objectiveness, and emphasises the reliance on theoretical discussions and criteria when studying evidence. .

The ambiguity of evidence in archaeology has prompted scholars to acknowledge the inability of evidence to prove or demonstrate any aspect of the human’s past and way of living on its own, and stress the importance of interpretation in giving meaning to evidence. The status of evidence is only given to artefacts and ecofacts through the work and analyses of archeologists. .

Nevertheless, studying artefacts without a method can lead to extreme interpretations, which is illustrated by pseudoarchaeology, also known as alternative archaeology. By refuting scientific analysis, pseudo archaeologists can give evidence completely different meanings. Therefore, the status of evidence and its meaning must be carefully apprehended in archaeology.

The flexibility of evidence in advertising
Advertising is a means of marketing communication which is both practised and studied. The implementation of evidence as a persuasive technique is a major foundation of advertising. Evidence can come in many forms such as statistics, interviews and research data and is often used to connote an aspect of credibility and objectivity. However, it is evident through time that so-called empirical evidence can be utilised with a bias to present products in particular- and sometimes deceptive- ways.

Cigarettes
Although now commonly known as carcinogenic and dangerous, corporate denial and propaganda generated a healthy presentation of tobacco cigarettes which was alarmingly successful up until the 1950s/1960s, causing a global lung cancer epidemic. Smoking culture became highly popularised throughout the early 20th century through glamorisation in the media and cheap manufacturing. However, in the 1930s, health concerns around cigarettes began to gain traction in the public eye and tobacco companies were proactive in their response by capitalising on the unwavering trust the public put into doctors. These companies began to feature doctors (or actors playing them) in their advertising alongside research that conflicted these rising health worries.

The American Tobacco Company pioneered this trend in the 1920s. Their cigarette brand Lucky Strike put out an advertisement featuring a physician next to the phrase “20, 679 physicians say ‘Luckies are less irritating’”. ‘20, 679 physicians’ flourished into a catchphrase of sorts within their advertising in the following years and saw extreme success. Rj Reynolds’s “More Doctors” campaign is also one of the most notable, they referred to a ‘nationwide campaign’ and claimed that “More doctors smoke Camels than any other brand”. RJ Reynolds even established a Medical Relations division so they could cite real evidence on their posters. In the mid-1930s, tobacco advertising saw a shift again, some companies continued to argue their cigarettes were healthier in comparison, but now other companies began to claim that their cigarettes weren’t unhealthy at all. Additionally, physicians were targeted themselves in adverts which argued that if patients were going to keep smoking, they should at least be prescribed healthier brands. These types of advertisements were featured in many established medical journals such as the [Journal] of the American Medical Association.

However, by the mid-1950s more and more scientific research was proving links between cancer and tobacco smoking, leading to a decline in doctor-based adverts. By 1964 the Surgeon General Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health reported that smoking tobacco was significantly linked to diseases such as chronic bronchitis and lung cancer and by 1967 public health risk notifications were compulsory on packaging.

Advertising has changed significantly since the 1950s and many of these changes can be attributed to the presentation of evidence in smoking advertising.

The Role of Evidence in Analysis of Media Bias
Media bias is ‘a portrayal of reality that is significantly and systematically distorted’, for example, in partisan media, the favouring of one party over another. This raises a number of theoretical, methodological and political questions.

Perceptions of Media Bias
Three common sense perceptions of media bias include ‘The Liberal Media’, in which the media is left-leaning, ‘Pluralism and Citizen Empowerment in the News’, claiming that media include a diversity of sources, governmental and nongovernmental, where ‘consumer demand drives creation of content’, and finally, ‘The Bad News Bias,’ which asserts that journalists overemphasise negativity, working to reinforce official agendas.

A more social scientific understanding of media bias is derived from assessing competing theories. Anthony Di’Maggio outlines two main theories, the first being the ‘Pro-Government Bias Theory.’ This claims that media is moulded to the views of political officialdom, through source and power indexing. The other, ‘Pro-Business, Hegemonic Bias Theory’ has its roots in Marxism, and states that ‘media corporations promote upper-class business interests at the expense of democratic deliberation.’ Thus, corporate ownership of media induces censorship of corporate criticism.

Such bias can work through different mechanisms. According to Groeling, media bias can be broadly be categorized into selection bias (in which the choices of what events or information to cover is skewed) and presentation bias (in which the content of covered stories is skewed).

Challenges and Methods of Measuring Media Bias
Groeling identifies two major issues facing researchers attempting to measure media bias. The first is the ‘Problem of the Unobserved Population’, which describes a pool of potential stories that were not selected for coverage and which observers are unaware of. Scholars have attempted to overcome this challenge by making assumptions about the composition of that unobserved population. For example, Niven used equivalent cases where political leaders have engaged in comparable behaviour, such as party switching, to study partisan media bias. This equivalent behaviour should theoretically produce even coverage, so differences in coverage can be reasoned with partisanship and media bias. This strategy also highlights another factor hampering the metrics of media bias - the challenge of establishing a baseline to ‘define parameters for fair coverage.’ Another approach is to control for structural factors. Schiffer, in 2006, considered controls for candidate quality, national conditions, market forces and editorial endorsements by the newspapers. This eliminated the statistical impact of the partisanship on amount of coverage received by candidates. Another method to address the issue is to compare coverage across other news organisations, or, finally, to attempt to create the unobserved population. Here, researchers narrow research to a certain event in which the researcher is able to view all potential news stories, and compare this with those covered.

The second major difficulty facing researchers in this field is ‘The Subjectivity Problem’: Differing perceptions of story content by human coders undermines reliability in conducting content analysis. Cognitive biases such as confirmation/disconfirmation biases, selective perception, anchoring, attention bias and the clustering illusion will affect evaluations. The most common attempt to overcome this issue is through modelling of the news outlet’s behaviour against an exemplar. For example, Gentzkow and Shapiro gathered a dataset ‘of all phrases used by members of Congress in the 2005 Congressional Record, and identified those that are used much more frequently by one party than another.’ They then compared these results with analysis of a news outlet’s language to determine its congruence to that of either a Republican or Democrat.

One of the most common methods for quantitatively measuring media bias is content analysis. Researchers define an analysis hypothesis and gather the relevant body of news data, which is then systematically annotated by coders. The frequency of specific words or phrases, the number of articles published on a certain event, and the size and placement of a story is determined. This can be done according to a codebook of rules – ‘deductive content analysis’ – or coders can read texts without instructions, known as ‘inductive content analysis.’ The deductive form tends to produce more statistically sound conclusions, provided the coding rules allow for accurate measurement of the variables in question. Finally, this evidence is used to accept or reject the hypothesis.

Comparatively, a qualitative analysis attempts capture subtle forms of media bias that require human interpretation. This requires manual effort and expertise, limiting the scope of social scientific study of media bias, but is at the same time a necessary element of developing coding rules, meaning there is a qualitative underpinning even for quantitative methods.

The Role of Technology in Media Bias
The emergence of ‘big data’ with the advancement of digital technology has paved the way for opportunities of media bias through event and source selection, as journalists must filter through increasingly large pools of available evidence and sources. The study of media bias metrics has historically been placed within the social sciences and communication studies, but is increasingly being adapted to computer and data science, with algorithms and AI allowing researchers to analyse larger datasets and visual biases such as facial expressions. In this way, technology has both amplified the issue of media bias, and is now being used as a tool for its analysis and measurement.

Manipulating Evidence: "Fake News" and Mail-in Voter Fraud in the US Political System
The recent discourse surrounding the handling and regulation of given evidence within political science and digital media argues that the boundaries between fraud committed by voters, and by governing officials have been blurred by the media. Allegations of fraud can generate a “Rashomon effect” which is defined as the infamous capricious nature of an observer’s account. Acknowledging the evidence that exposes the truth is useful if it can refute or verify the opposition’s proof. Due to the Rashomon effect, opinions can often be affected by fiction instead of fact.

Fraud can be committed by a singular voter or by a larger interested party, but these two diverse types of fraud are still contained under the same labels of vote, voter and election fraud. The terms “absentee vote” and “mail-in vote” have been a source of great debate because some believe the “absentee vote” specifically denotes voters that are out of the state. Until there are distinctive fraudulent categories and offenders, the meaning is void and potentially propagates misinformation.

US President Trump has claimed that “mail-in” voting is open to abuse. There have been 1300 confirmed fraudulent voting cases according to the Heritage Election Fraud Database. However, other interested parties argue against this. Although voter fraud was rare prior to the November 2016 elections, this did not make Trump’s claim vacuous. However, the issue with his claim was the lack of primary evidence, his term “widespread voter fraud” infers that fraud is viral across the country instead of specific people. In a 2017 study by the Brennan Center of Justice states the rate of mail-in voter fraud is between 0.0003% and 0.0025%. Although this evidence suggests that voter fraud is an anomaly, Trump is assuring the public that voting is a rigged system. This creates a disconnection between Trump’s “adaptable fiction” and the validity of democracy. In addition to undermining the democratic system, the fear and misperception surrounding Coronavirus has exacerbated potential mail-in validity questions in 2020.

In an epoch, where misinformation is so readily available through social media, allegations and propaganda over democratic voting systems will continue. The public cannot be sure of evidence provided due to the ever-changing narratives surrounding issues such as mail-in voter fraud.

What is Experimental Philosophy?
Experimental Philosophy is a relatively new area of philosophical inquiry that originated from the idea of fusing philosophy to the experimental rigor of social sciences. It is characterised by its interdisciplinary approach and use of empirical data as its main source of evidence. It is therefore distinguished from the traditional philosophical methodology which revolves around creation of arguments that are based on a priori justifications.

Methodology and Focus of the Studies
By taking advantage of the rigor of quantitative research, experimental philosophers conduct studies aimed at understanding the intuitions of ordinary people. The empirical data is usually gathered through a series of surveys or interviews, which then form a basis for the conceptual analysis of the imposed philosophical questions.

Much of the research in experimental philosophy focuses on presenting the evidence for defectiveness and unreliability of traditional philosophical methodology. For example, a 2013 research by Cameron and a 2014 research by Buckwalter & Stich show that intuitions are in a great degree subjective to gender, ethnicity and incidental emotions, and therefore should not  be regarded a valid method for addressing philosophical problems.

Other projects in experimental philosophy are aimed to make progress in the field of epistemology. Some researchers such as Gerken, Leslie or Greene focused on assessing  which intuitions are reliable and appropriate in particular domains of philosophy.

Criticisms
The development of experimental philosophy raised some serious disputes among the philosophers. Some of them questioned whether an interdisciplinary approach and research based on empirical data is the right path for the philosophy and if it is any helpful in solving its problems. Cappelen and Deutsch clearly expressed their concerns about the results of experimental studies on intuitions. They disputed their relevance and advocated traditional methodology which, as they argued, is driven by logical arguments rather than intuitions.

In addition to that, in a series of studies published in 2012, Hamid Seyedsayamdost pointed out that much of the results produced by experimental philosophers do not meet the reproducibility principle. This discovery was then independently confirmed by other researchers which has consequently put the future of the experimental philosophy in question.

From qualitative to quantitative data
Cell Biology was founded on electron micrographs, which seemed to be the type of primary evidence that should explain almost everything in a single image. With technological progress, microscopes have not only become more advanced and automated but also digital – greatly increasing the amount of data available. Consequently, the role of intuition and assumptions made by the scientist about mainly qualitative image data was replaced by the need for more quantitative proof.

Stephen Royle, the author of The Digital Cell argues that what comes out of microscopes should be treated as data, rather than images. The need to automate the process for analysing images quantitatively stems from the quest for objectivity and unbiased and reproducible results, which are central to the scientific process.

Role of databases
Massive databases, such as BioNumbers, which consists of key numbers in molecular and cell biology, have been created to further quick access to precise data. In the past, the lack of the possibility to search through the numerical evidence slowed progress and contributed to molecular biology being less quantitative than it probably should have been.

However, the amount of data available does not imply the links between various sets are easily made. This data can serve as evidence only when the ideas are organised and linked. One of the initiatives that seek to provide a more integrated view of interaction networks in Homo sapiens, but not limited to, is ConsensusPathDB.

What is evidence-based policy?
Evidence-based policy is about helping policy makers make astute and insightful decisions regarding public policies and regulations. It is based on the objective analysis of quality research on a given topic. The practice of evidence-based policy making is aimed at reducing policy failures due to any potential gaps between actual conditions and constitutional expectations.

Accessing evidence
Surprisingly, numerous decision-makers neither rely on academic research nor on internal expertise. Instead, they depend on direct advice from a selected group of field experts as well as easy-to-read sources that are accessed primarily from the internet. This means they prefer simple and convenient access to evidence as compared to ones that are more detailed and complex.

Types of evidence
Evidence can be both qualitative and quantitative. Governments use illustrative studies and large-scale analysis and surveys to fine-tune their decisions, as well as case studies to better understand specific cases that are relevant to decisions in policy making. Furthermore, decision-makers prefer the presentation of evidence to be formatted in bullet points, even though this may prevent an in-depth analysis.

Subjectivity in policy making
Even though information accessed by decision-makers generally maintains good standards of evidence and objectivity, drawn conclusions are still often subjective. Decision-makers may select studies and content that they can use to fit and match their argument. To better justify their decisions, policy makers even happen to educe different conclusions from that of the research they had recourse to. Furthermore, unconscious biases can play a role in the interpretation of evidence to better make it suit one’s original opinion on an issue. This may favour a business as usual type of approach and inhibits innovation in terms of policy making.


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User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC001/2020-21/Thursday11-12/Evidence

Whatsapp Group Chat
This group has been coordinating work on sandbox assignment in a Whatsapp group chat. The main points were duplicated on the discussion pages, but the majority of communication behind this research was happening in the chat.--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 16:52, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Things to be sorted out (follow up from meeting on MS Teams (3rd Nov)
Hi guys, this is a summary of things we need to deal with the Truth page after our discussion on MS Teams.

 * 1. Completion of forensic science
 * 2. Subheadings for marketing and advertisement
 * 3. Completion of research methods under psychology
 * 4. Referencing - make sure they are in proper Vancouver format instead of links, proper format for repeated references
 * 5. Change the overall sequence of the content in the page to make more related topics follow from each other, the suggested outline will be as follow:
 * Marketing
 * Sustainability
 * Advertising
 * Translation
 * Psychology
 * Forensic Science
 * Interdisciplinary Examination
 * Strengths and Weaknesses

Let me know if I have missed out anything and hope this helps! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 12:25, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi guys, I changed my repeated referencing and also changed the overall sequence of the content in the page! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 20:19, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! Here are some of the situations we thought we can look at for this assignment A case where: Feel free to add to these! --Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 14:10, 22 October 2020 (UTC)
 * A change in approach to evidence modified the discipline. ( For example a shift from solely quantitative evidence to recognition of importance of qualitative evidence)
 * Different approaches to collection and assessment of evidence led to a conflict between disciplines
 * The ways in which disciplines applied and understood the same evidence ( a document/ historic fact, etc.) were different

Hello! In my opinion, and this is just a suggestion so feel free to say no, we just put a section in the beginning of the page detailing the different approaches/perspectives we are going to use while examining the issue of Evidence. I feel it would clarify our direction to the markers! Something like this was not necessary in History as all of us decided on a basic structure of research and presentation. But the issue of Evidence is multifaceted and can be looked at from multiple perspectives in the same discipline, so it would be better to clarify which perspectives specifically we will be using and why. Tell me what you all think about this. --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 04:15, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! That's a great idea! I think that can be done once all the major sections have been added so that all the perspectives can be mentioned. --Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 19:53, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I've added a short introduction with a definition and a few general points about evidence. I've read the other contributions on the page and I think it connects to them, but if anyone thinks that it misses out on a certain aspect of evidence you wrote about, please feel free to edit it! I've also moved the section about Strengths and Limitations of Evidence to the top of the page, as it looks like a broad overview of the evidence in different subjects.--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 09:43, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi I read the introduction and I think it nicely summaries the key aspects we will be covering in the page - thank you for that! I added a hyperlink to the word 'evidence' and also tweaked a sentence or two, just to give it a more 'wrapped up' and balanced feeling. Hope that's okay with you, if not you can delete it. - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 15:00, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you! That looks good--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 15:30, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

General Updates
Hey! I just added the heading 'strengths and weaknesses of evidence' on the page, I'm planning to evaluate the role of evidence in gaining knowledge, will let you guys know when I completed it! -- Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 22:40, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello, I would like to suggest an edit to the vocabulary in the section of 'strengths and weaknesses'. I recommend that we discuss evidence in terms of 'strengths and limitations' instead as we could also further include certain improvements which may be possible, perhaps through an interdisciplinary approach towards gaining and analyzing evidence. What are your thoughts? - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 22:41, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Yes, I agree with what you say and changing it would be better, the word 'weaknesses' seems a bit too harsh as well. Thank you for suggesting this!-Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 11:13, 25 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Just an update that i have now completed this so feel free to give it a read and let me know if you want to add anything! -- Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 19:44, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

Hi! I just noticed that information about the Cotton case was put under the title "An interdisciplinary examination into evidence" while the heading "Evidence in Forensic Science" was left empty. I just wanted to confirm whether this was an honest mistake or intentional? Because the case described would fit much better under the forensic science heading rather than the present one. Let me know what you guys think! --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 04:12, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hey there! I am doing the forensic science section while the Cotton case is Citrus48's section! We actually discussed whether it should be a collaboration but after reading up on the case and reading Citrus48's section on the case it seems like the evaluation of evidence is more psychology or law centered. As of now I don't feel it really should be in the forensic science section as it branches into too many areas, however we are in close contact and discussing collaboration! Thank you and we will keep this in mind! -- I am very blind (discuss • contribs) 13:54, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello! I propose that once we have uploaded the major part of the content into each section, we could further look into whether we should integrate the two under one heading, and we could discuss which way helps the page become the most comprehensive for a reader as well. - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 01:21, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi I am very blind! The way you introduced the evidence in forensic science was very well put, the content flowed while reading. I was quite interested in the reliability of the evidence and preventive measures to ensure reliability. I have added information to the evidence in forensic science with a the section for preventive measures and a section for reliability of the people that handle the evidence. Please do read through it and edit or morph it that best helps with the flow of the section! Thank you. -Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 11:36, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! I've added a heading and sub-headings about translated documents because I'd love to talk about how they are used in different disciplines as evidence, and how it has affected the discipline in the transferring of knowledge and such (will touch on both its ups and downs). Having read some of the content already on here, I'm inspired to add some case studies to further accentuate my points. Anyways, I will make sure to update you guys once I've added some bits to the section! Also do let me know if you want to collaborate with me on it at any point because there are some other disciplines that I think would be pretty interesting to delve into with regards to its use of translated documents. -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 07:22, 27 October 2020 (UTC)
 * I am quite interested in this and would be happy to do some collaborative work on this! What disciplines are you thinking specifically? -- Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 19:46, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Apologies for the late reply! Replying to your comment must have slipped my mind. Since my original post, I've since changed the structure of the section: instead of focusing on disciplines, I've rather focused on the use of translation in evidence in general, bringing up some examples (or case studies) within disciplines in which its limitations and strengths as evidence are highlighted. While researching into it, I was afraid of talking too much about how (mis)translation has led to dramatic events and turmoil; I just wanted to avoid describing those events rather than evaluating how translation is used in evidence (particularly under the old 'Effects on History" subsection). But thanks to the verbal discussion I had with you and Feminist06 recently, I've gained more confidence in my research and decided to be a bit more general in my writing, so thanks for that!

 * I still have yet to add some bits about religious studies and law into the 'limitations' subsection, but I'm still thinking about it. Initially, I wanted to focus on the effect of using translation in evidence on religious studies, history and law and their practices. I came across machine translations which combined translation and technology which I thought I might be quite interesting to dabble into, perhaps. Though following the change in the structure of the section, it may not be suitable to add subsection on a specific discipline but I definitely do not mind it if you think it would be! Anything you're quite interested in writing about regarding translation in evidence yourself? (P.S. Do feel free to add onto what I've already written on the section!) -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 20:10, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you so much for your update and sorry that it took me a while to get back to you! I might do a bit of research and see if I find anything interesting to add with regards to translation. (I'll let you know as soon as possible!) - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 19:12, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! I read through the limitations section in the translation of evidence section and felt like the section could also include the limitation of the translation of idioms. I have added it to the page, please do read through it and share your thoughts. Thank you. - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 23:56, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hey! I just read your section about the limitations of translation in idioms and I think it is really interesting! Especially talking about unconscious bias reminds me of the research I looked into about confirmation bias. - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 12:43, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi Shaunice34! I was reading your bit on strengths and limitations of evidence, which I found quite fascinating. I think another concept that you can explore, and one that we have discussed verbally in depth, is cognitive dissonance. I found literature for you to review and see if its worth adding. 1. https://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ztSKhudXJCYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=cognitive+dissonance&ots=EHRQyQkeBQ&sig=1fd7ksbXkSMlcRoYnrtSMap5Exo#v=onepage&q=cognitive%20dissonance&f=false - a book that will explain the theory of cognitive dissonance 2. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24936719 - about cognitive dissonance, as a theory and series of experiments 3. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1831534 - a real life example of how the theory of cognitive dissonance can be applied to economic models when modelling or predicting consumer behaviour 4. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00049536208255449 - a study on cigarette smokers and their cognitive dissonance regarding lung cancer (and vice versa) I found these really insightful, and hope you do too. Good luck! --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 22:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much for these recommendations! I had a read and they are indeed interesting concepts I will probably be adding some of this into my section later on today! Thank you for these!! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 12:43, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi I just added the part on cognitive dissonance, maybe you could have a read and let me know if it makes sense. If you have time maybe you could add the part on economics as I don't really have any economic modelling background and didn't want to misinterpret the source... Let me know what you think! -Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 14:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi, just sectioned off your paragraphs for better readability. Glad my resources help. I don't have background in economics modelling either - but, in my opinion, what you have written so far is great and sufficient to explain cognitive bias. --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 14:59, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello Feminist06, I read through the evidence in psychology section and have added another component to it to enhance understanding of the ethical framework behind the evidence collected and reported in psychological research. Please do check it out and feel free to edit or morph it accordingly to help a reader best understand the information. Thank you! - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 11:22, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi Citrus48! Thank you so much for your contribution. It was exactly what I was looking for. I did make some edits today, but they were mostly grammatical. Some were regarding the conciseness of information - but nothing major. Thanks again!

 * Hi Feminist06, I'm glad the content aligned accordingly. Thank you for the grammatical corrections, it helps the flow of the text become more easy to read. Thank you. I'd like to recommend reincluding the content, perhaps paraphrased if it is too much content, about the verifiability and reliability of evidence, because while it is not explicitly talking about psychology, it talks about the evidence in psychology as it is an explicit analysis of the ethics and focuses on the main topic of the page: evidence. It would help a reader understand the reliability of evidence in an experimental psychological context and how it is based on an ethical framework that aims to be as objective as possible, even though objectivity itself is a social construction. Please do let me know your thoughts on this inclusion. Thank you. - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 17:20, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Great point! Must have removed it by mistake. I'll add it back now :) --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 10:27, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Discussion about Formatting, Structure and Referencing
Also, I loved the structure of the market research section - would love to replicate it for my section on psychology! good job guys! --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 09:03, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

Question about Credibility of Source
Hello! So I've added my introduction to the translated documents section. In that section, you can see that I've highlighted that I need to input a reference for the latin word translatio. I've actually gotten this information from [https://www.kwintessential.co.uk/blog/general-interesttranslation/the-history-of-translation#:~:text=It%20is%20known%20that%20translation,was%20translated%20into%20Asian%20languages.&text=In%20later%20periods%2C%20Ancient%20Greek,developed%20literary%20works%20for%20entertainment. this website], but I'm quite skeptical about how credible of a source it is and whether I should use it or try to look for an alternative source that includes that same information. From my brief search of the source website, it seems to be a translation service agency called 'Kwintessential'. According to the information on their website, they are a 15-year old company with some accreditations that work with leading brands, offering professional services in translation and interpretation. Do you guys think this source is credible enough to be used as a reference? Personally, I am on the fence about it. Let me know what you guys think! -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 07:35, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I was on the fence originally but seeing that they are a company that has been offering professional translation service for over a decade and in collaboration with large brands, I believe that that makes their claims on translations pretty credible. However, if you believe it is not enough, I am sure you can find an academic source on it, though I personally am unsure what the best type of source would be for translations. Hope it works out! -- I am very blind (discuss • contribs) 13:59, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * I agree with what is being said above and i had a look at different articles and books on this topic. I happen to come across this chapter on jstor and thought it might be useful for you to have a read to see if it is helpful in any way (this is the link) Hope it helps! --Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 19:43, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Sorry for the late reply — but thank you! I'll definitely give that a read. Also thank you guys for your input, I've added the reference now as it seems that we all seem to agree that it is a credible source. -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 19:49, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

Suggestions and Comments
I had a read on everyone's contribution so far and they all look really good! One suggestion I have for the 'An Interdisciplinary Examination into Evidence' session: maybe you could try to add subheadings for it? That will help the reader with following your case study! -- Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 13:00, 29 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! Thank you for the suggestion! I will definitely add subheadings as I agree that it will help with the structure and make the text more readable. Thank you. - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 00:47, 30 October 2020 (UTC)

Hello! For whoever is doing Evidence in Advertising and Evidence in Sustainability, I just want to suggest the use of sub-headings. They help break up long pieces of text, improve user navigation and look more organised! The content is amazing, but if some relevant sub-headings could be added, it would elevate your presentation. --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 19:13, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: User:NinjaZamurai/sandbox

title: User:NinjaZamurai/sandbox


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User talk:Vranuq

Welcome, Vranuq!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 17:36, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vranuq


text:
User talk:Borabora18

Welcome, Borabora18!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 17:36, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Borabora18


text:
User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Evidence/Evidence in law

Evidence in law
Evidence in law is defined by: “any of the material items or assertions of fact that may be submitted to a competent tribunal as a means of ascertaining the truth of any alleged matter of fact under investigation before it.” The aim of evidence is to assist the judge to reach a decision in the court case.

These are examples of some of the types of evidence in law: demonstrative, real and testimonial. Demonstrative evidence directly demonstrates a fact, for example a testimony given by a witness. Real evidence is evidence used in the case and also presented in court. These are commonly physical objects. Testimonial evidence is either a written or spoken statement given by a witness. There are also rules that this evidence must follow. The evidence must be: admissible, authentic, complete, reliable and believable.

Evidence can also be described as either direct or circumstantial. Direct evidence is evidence that can directly prove or disprove a fact. Often this includes eyewitnesses or dated documents. Circumstantial evidence is the opposite, where a fact is not directly disproven and requires more information to be proven.

Exclusion of evidence
Under certain circumstances, evidence may be excluded from court. Often this has something to do with how the evidence was obtained. The jury must then look at these circumstances (perhaps where the evidence was obtained illegally or unfairly) and make a decision of whether the evidence should be admitted. However, this applies only to prosecution evidence.

Hearsay is a testimony provided from a witness, outside of court to provide the truth. Hearsay is also not admissible unless a rule states otherwise. However, the FRE (Federal Rules of Evidence) includes a number of exceptions to allow hearsay evidence in court.

False evidence
Tampering or falsification of evidence is illegal. The crime of tampering with evidence includes destroying, concealing or altering evidence that could otherwise be used in the case with the aim of affecting the outcome. This also includes tampering with witnesses. False information is either obtained or created with the same aim of affecting the outcome of the court case.


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User:Ponotoc2/My book

this is a sample page

title: User:Ponotoc2/My book


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User talk:Ponotoc2

Welcome, Ponotoc2!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 02:09, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

User:Ponotoc2/My book
I've moved your page into your userspace, so you may work on it peacefully without any intrusions. Thanks. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 02:09, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ponotoc2


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User talk:CalciumTetraoxide

Welcome!
Welcome, CalciumTetraoxide!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. —Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 02:11, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

Chinese History
Hi. I noticed you'd renamed the main page of this book, but left behind all the modules of the book (and the book category, which I how I noticed: the book category raised a flag because it was no longer in-sync with a book). For renaming a whole book it's likely best to ask for help from an admin, as admins have tools for conveniently moving all the pages of a book; I moved the rest of the book to catch up with the main-page move you'd made.

Adopting a book is a familiar activity on Wikibooks; I've done it myself, a couple of times. Did you take measures to ensure, first, that you weren't going to be stepping on the toes of someone with an interest in the book? --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 19:05, 29 December 2020 (UTC)

 * I'm sorry if I caused too much trouble. I'm relatively new here and am not very used to the rules in this community. I'll try asking help for an admin and learning more to adapt to this environment. CalciumTetraoxide (discuss • contribs) 00:29, 1 January 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:CalciumTetraoxide


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User:TheREAPER MPLS

User

title: User:TheREAPER MPLS


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History of video games/Platforms/FM Towns Marty

History
In February of 1993 Fujistu released the FM Towns Marty in Japan.

The FM Towns Marty cost 98,000 yen at launch, and a 1994 revision cost 66,000 yen.

The Car Marty was briefly released in April 1994, acting as an in car entertainment setup and adding a GPS for car navigation, before it was discontinued in 1995 after failing to sell well.

Compute
The FM Towns Marty uses a 32 bit AMD 386SX x86 architecture processor clocked at 16 megahertz.

The FM Towns Marty has 2 megabytes of RAM.

Storage
The FM Towns Marty had a single speed CD-ROM drive, as well as a 3.5" floppy drive. This was an unusual combination for a console, but it does make sense given the roots of this console in a home computer line.

Notable games
The FM Towns Marty is backwards compatible with FM Towns games.


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History of video games/Platforms/Amiga CD32

History
The Amiga CD32 was preceded by the unsuccessful Commodore CDTV.

The Amiga CD32 was launched in 1993. The CD32 sold decently at launch. The CD32 was met with cautious optimism and skepticism of a future for the system by some reviewers at launch.

The system was unable to be launched in the USA due to a legal issue, which further reduced the ability of the CD32 to gain a significant marketshare.

The production of the Amiga CD32 was cut short in April 1994 when Commodore went bankrupt.

Compute
The Amiga CD32 is based on the Amiga 1200, and uses a Motorola 68020 CPU and 2 megabytes of RAM. The CPU is clocked at 14.18 megahertz in PAL regions, and 14.32 megahertz in NTSC regions.


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 5/Evidence

= Evidence =

Economical Evidence of Chinese influence on European affairs
China has great ambitions for its future: Xi Jinping announced, during the 19th Communist Party Congress in October 2017, that China will be the new hegemonic global power by 2049. Examining economical evidence helps us notice that China is indeed present in European affairs.

From a purely quantitative evidential point of view, Chinese investments in Europe have been increasing for the past two decades and concern a variety of sectors such as infrastructure, airports, agricultural domains as well as soccer clubs. In 2016, these investments rose to 36 billion Euros. Most of these Chinese investments originated from private companies which only seek profit, meaning that it is harmless to the European Union and even contributes to boost markets inside the EU. Nevertheless, investments are also used by the People’s Republic of China, as Chinese companies are affiliated to the Chinese government, and allow them to buy political leverage.

The most famous example, Greece, illustrates this qualitative evidential proof. While the European Union was imposing austerity measures which Greece was struggling to follow, China massively invested into the country, gaining favourable diplomatic relations. Evidence indicates that one of the largest Chinese investment was the COSCO investment, which resulted in the purchase of 51% of the Piraeus Port Authority for 280,5 million in 2008. This project aimed to secure a transport corridor to connect directly China to Central Europe and followed China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Reducing the cost of transportation of goods and intensifying its presence in the EU market are indeed two principles which drive the “Workshop of the World”. This investment in Greece has helped China on a political level as Greece stopped unified statements from the EU condemning China’s human right record in June 2017. These actions have had effective consequences on the EU’s stance on an international scale, as such statements made at the UN gave the EU a position of a non-defender of Human Rights and Democratic Values. This example illustrates how closely related quantitative and qualitative evidence, as China uses its economic muscles (highlighted by the quantitative evidence) on European countries which has proven to help them on a political level, as evidenced by qualitative information.

In this context, evidence from a discipline-economics and politics-helps to draw our attention on pressing issues and support leaders’ decisions when it comes to imposing measures to restrain or punish other countries, other organisations.

The next interesting event would be European countries’ response to the growing Chinese presence on European soil. Based on the evidence it has collected, should the European Union block foreign influence? Or should it rather be less defensive and reinforce its own project based on openness and unity?

Evidence in economic decision models
“What happens in the economy depends on what millions of people do, and how their decisions affect the behaviour of others. It would be impossible to understand the economy by describing every detail of how they act and interact. “(The Core Team, 2017, p.49). Models are used in economy “to see more by looking less”. Indeed, economic decision models help us better understand people’ economic attitudes and therefore, seem to lead to wiser decisions.

Nowadays, many organizations or institutions, such as trade unions or central banks, use economic models to make policies that will affect the lives of many. To have confidence in a model, organizations need “to see whether it is consistent with evidence”. “(The Core Team, 2017, p.51) After all, organizations don’t always make decisions based on rational principles. “Even a single organizational decision can be subject to heterogeneous interpretations depending on the model used in an analysis. » (Kuwashima,2014,p.1)

As written in International Trade Theory : The Evidence, “The intellectual power of the model lies in its simplicity, but this same simplicity causes great difficulties when one tries to translate the theory into predictions that might be worth exploring in real datasets.” ( Leamer, E. E., & Levinsohn, J., 1995, p.1344). That’s why, it is important to know when using an economic model, which factors are privileged and which ones are missing. Evidence in economic decision models is framed by a social aspect. A model as a simplified description of reality, is a subjective choice of priorities. What economics chose to measure or highlight in a certain model is a specific view of the world.

Moreover, “An inappropriate model structure may lead to unreliable model results “ (Cooper NJ,2007, p.1279 ) as a result the specific assumptions relating to model structure must be verified with different data. In order to verify a model, we need to compare model outputs with different data sources and different assumptions.

Evidence in Postcolonial Studies
Post-colonialism is the critical study of colonialism and imperialism, and explores the impact it has on today’s societies and structures.

In the UK, there are very few universities who offer Postcolonial Studies as a postgraduate degree, namely SOAS, Edinburgh , Leeds , and Kent of which SOAS is the only one to offer it outside of the English department. With post-colonialism, it’s essential to consider the perspective of the sources used. Their sources mainly consist of world literature, from African literature to Middle Eastern literature to New Zealand literature. Some of them use other forms of evidence to explore where colonialism can be seen to have an impact, such as film and politics.

However, it’s clear that some historical evidence of colonisation has been lost, forgotten, or rewritten over time. One example is how depictions of the Algerian war in French film and media have changed the narrative of the event. In subsequent French musicals and films following their failure at the Algerian War, there are references that allude to the war but never specifically mention Algeria; if it is mentioned, the characters representing Algeria are often portrayed as the aggressors. Therefore it’s important to recognise the limitations some sources have as evidence of colonialism.

Primary, anecdotal evidence is particularly used in post-colonialism. Ruth Skilbeck describes how the assimilation policies that were introduced when Australia became a federation in 1901 has caused significant psychological trauma in her family. In particular, she talks about the “Stolen Generations” of Australia - children who were taken from their families to be put up for adoption or raised as wards of the state. This was carried out from 1909-1969 so its impact is very current and will most likely still have an effect on generations to come.

The influence of colonialism has also been investigated in the economic sector, particularly as a factor of income inequality. Naturally, research on this has been through quantitative methods. Patricia Jones presents the idea that ex-colonies who had governors who were paid better have higher quality institutions today, which would explain why they perform better economically now.

Evidence in Physics
Both qualitative and quantitative evidence can be employed when one considers disciplines within the Natural Sciences. Due to the scientific method and peer review, scientific theories are constantly being revised and revisited. This has been demonstrated through multiple developments within the Natural Sciences, and are usually facilitated by technological advancement.

When one considers evidence in Physics, there are a range of theories that have since been superseded due to the emergence of new evidence. Inna Vishik, a Doctor of Applied Physics & Physics, who received her Doctorate degree from Stanford University, describes science as "a framework for interpreting, systematising, and predicting nature based on empirical observations", rather than a subject founded in "absolute truths". This statement has been supported in the world of science severally. For example, before the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1887, many physicists believed that light waves required a medium in order to move across any given space. This medium was given the name "luminiferous ether". In 1820, physicist, Thomas Young conducted an experiment in which he was able to conclude that light is composed of waves, this led him to assume that just as sound waves require air as a medium to travel through, light waves require luminiferous ether. Young proposed that the existence of the luminiferous ether was "undeniably proved by the phenomena of electricity", although he was uncertain of the nature of their relation. In order to provide evidence for their relationship, Young carried out a series of experiments in which he calculated how much light would refract when a liquid was under electrical influence. Despite his efforts to generate quantitative evidence, Young's theory of luminiferous ether, amongst others, was later debunked by Edward Morley and Albert Michelson when they adopted his theory in an attempt to measure the velocity of the Earth. The results of their experiment disproved Young's theory, thus, leading all theories of luminiferous ether to be discarded of.

By conducting this experiment, Michelson and Morley were able to present new evidence suggesting the non-existence of luminiferous ether. This is merely one example which is suggestive of the evolutionary nature of physics, but more generally, the Natural Sciences, due to the acquisition of new evidence, and thus, new knowledge. It is important to recognise the flexible nature of evidence within the Natural Sciences, as it allows scholars within various scientific disciplines challenge evidence presented to them and respond with contrasting perspectives. Nevertheless, evidence provided may not always be conflicting, but rather, complementary, thus enhancing knowledge within the discipline.

Gathering Anthropological Evidence Through Ethnography
Anthropological research emerged at the beginning of the 19th century, to a great extent out of the desire to study and collect evidence about unknown people in distant locations, during the period of European colonialism. Initially, this was done through ‘armchair anthropology’, which relied on (often racist and ethnocentric) secondary sources, such as exploration journals, written by travellers, traders and missionaries.

In the early 20th century, Bronislaw Malinowski established the qualitative research method of ethnographic fieldwork, specifically ‘participant observation’, as a significant method of gathering primary evidence within anthropology. His work ‘Argonauts of the Western Pacific’ in 1922 became “the hallmark and quintessential model of fieldwork for almost half a century” due to his, at that time unusually long, fieldwork of 2 years in the Trobriand islands, as well as his active participation with the natives, achieved through learning the language (instead of relying on a translator) and taking detailed fieldnotes to document beliefs, behaviours, and social organization.

Following his example of collecting ethnographic evidence, later fieldworkers also developed relationships with the locals in order to encourage natural flowing and intimate communication in the form of informal interviews, and gain empirical knowledge though first-hand observation and experiential participation in the social activities of a community.

The norm for conducting ethnography is typically one year of fieldwork, although this is often determined by personal and budgetary constraints, which consequently impact the ability of anthropologists to learn the local language and fully immerse themselves in the culture they are studying. However, nowadays many anthropologists conduct their studies within their own society, thus avoiding such issues when gathering evidence.

Evidence in Sociology
The discipline of sociology, being a social science, can produce evidence under many different forms. While some research resembles that of natural sciences, others would borrow researching styles used in humanities. Indeed, some evidence can be quantitative, coming under the form of numbers, statistics and tests. This kind of positivist methodology prones the idea of a 'right' and 'wrong' answer to a question or hypothesis. On the other hand, some social phenomena can't be quantified, which leads to the other type of research which is qualitative. This kind of evidence comes under the form of words, as it is the interpretation or formulation of concepts and thoughts. This kind of evidence includes interviews, reviews, field research or surveys for example.

Sociology being low-consensus discipline, sociologists don't all agree and follow one another on issues such as research and evidence. This has led to a historical divide between two major schools of thought: the Chicago school and the Columbia school. The first school of thought, birthed at the University of Chicago, is far more bent on qualitative research, and particularly, the use of case studies. However, this type of research should not be considered less scientific, on one hand because the Chicago School relies heavily on data analysis, and also because it was created specifically to counter the subjective 'arm-chair' sociology which dominated at the time. The Columbia School, which also came around during the first half of the 20th century, based its research a lot more on quantitative and empirical data such as statistics. It also focused much more on the biological and genetic causes of human behaviour, making it overall closer to natural science. This train of thought only lasted until 1927, but serves to illustrate the significant range of evidence and research methods among the social sciences.

However, if for better half of the 20th century, sociology used more qualitative evidence, recent years have seen the rise of science-based research. This is due to the fact that funding from government agencies is preferably given to 'evidence-based' research. The positivist vision, of a fact being either right of wrong, seems more appealing to most outside parties searching for reliability and validity in studies, which is why the theoretical side of sociology is sometimes undermined. One of the research methods which is largely used as a result of this is Randomized Controlled Trials, or RTCs, which are often used to test performance, and are therefore essential to a capitalist world. It is interesting to realise that financial resources and models affect evidence and research in academic fields.

Evidence in Documentary Filmmaking
A documentary is a factual display of information derived based on situations experienced in real life. This is usually in film form. These tend to be a comprisal of a range of research methods; they tend to use mixed methods using a range of ethnographies, interviews and statistics. As well as this, ethnographers may present their findings in documentary form, and much research is made accessible to the public through this method. For example, Sally Denehy, Dr Alison MacDonald and Lasse Johannson published their documentary, funded by University College London, on PRU units and social exclusion in high schools on YouTube which made their findings accessible to anyone. Thus, documentaries are a way of presenting evidence. The kind of data and the methods used to collect it can be diverse and is largely determined by the discipline that is presenting it., though the validity of the information presented in documentary films are sometimes questioned.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data in Documentaries
Qualitative research is often used in documentaries as they are largely based on experience, as stated in the definition, and qualitative data focuses on rich information. Ethnography is a common way of collecting this, especially when presenting anthropological research as the aforementioned research did. Observation is commonly used in documentary filmmaking as one of the primary methods of collecting research, as people can be watched in order to understand evidence and the subject of their documentary. A famous example of documentary films that use observation is the Planet Earth series, narrated by David Attenborough, which observes animals in their natural habitats and attempts to explain and understand their behaviours from this evidence. Additionally, interviews are used in order to gain first hand qualitative data about knowledge and opinions, and to supplement the information gathered by observation in ethnography style research. Furthermore, documentaries will also use archival, literature and focus groups. Quantitative data is less commonly used, but documentaries use facts to back up and generalise their statements, applying their research from the group they studied to a bigger sample and highlighting its relevance. A lot of documentaries will use this statistical evidence at the beginning of their documentary in order to introduce their topic, such as Stacey Dooley's BBC3 documentary 'On the Psych Ward' which illustrates how qualitative data is used in the preface and introduction of documentaries.

Problems with Evidence Presented in Documentaries
There is sometimes doubt to the validity of the evidence presented in documentaries. There are websites and blogs dedicated to critiquing documentaries as they are generally assumed to be completely factual by viewers and this may not always be the case. According to William Rothman, the prevailing view in the 1970s was that regular entertainment films were just as fictional as documentary films, suggesting that there is a lack of valid evidence in documentaries. As briefly referred to, documentaries are taken as factual devices, suggesting that they contain completely objective truths. Despite this, they are subjective and are often subject to simplification, the documentary maker's own biases and film construction. They often encourage a view about something. This suggests that evidence used in documentary filmmaking is not completely valid nor reliable.

Evidence in Architecture
The practice of architecture has been adapted in response to innovations across time. The architecture was during the 19th century influenced by engineering, and it was associated with chemistry and physics during the 20th century. Thus, the 21st century introduces architecture in the age of biology with a main biological evidence: the built environment affects humans mentally and physically.

In 1983, the scientist Roger S. Ulrich was the first to introduce the term EBD (evidence-based design) while studying the impact of a recovery environment on post-surgical patients. He observed that patients with natural-view through their window took fewer analgesic doses and recovered better than those with a brick-wall view. In 1993, the centre for Health Design was formed to improve the quality of healthcare facilities and defined EBD as an environment-design made on scientific evidence to obtain the best patient outcomes. EBD is today used for designing schools, office spaces, hotels, restaurants, museums, prisons, and even residences.

EBD originates from EBM (Evidence-based medicine) and works with a systemic approach through scientific rigour. It transforms with a methodological and qualitative approach, an intuition-based architectural practice into an evidence-based one. Dr. John Zeisel introduced EBD as a psychologic method-process applicable to general architectural research to understand how people respond to a design before the construction of the building.

In 1984, researchers Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson from UCL created a tool based on rational thinking to analyse complex spatial relationships: the space syntax measures. Based on interactivity measures, space’s openness, and interaction spontaneity, it showed significant changes in offices with new patterns of behavior related to the layout of workspaces. The consistent scientific results found the hypothesis that in spaces, a general level of visibility makes staff interact more with each other and become more productive.

Evidence in Statistics
With the emergence of social media and our constant exposure to new information, statistics have gained an important role in filtering false and correct statements on the internet. In 2008, the University of California, San Diego, published a report showing that the average American consumes 33.80 Gigabytes of information per day. Hence, it is essential for information to be based on evidence. Statistics has sets of rules, rooted in a mathematical proof, to assess the truthfulness of the data, that we encounter constantly. Those rules, however, can be disregarded by individuals who in this process create false or misleading information. This issue is addressed in How to lie with statistics by Darrell Huff, published in 1954. Although the book was released over 65 years ago it discusses common misconceptions about statistics, that are even more relevant nowadays, with the increased amount of information we are encountering. One major finding he reveals is that correlation and causation are very different and not to be confused.

In research, qualitative and quantitative data make up the evidence base for the conclusions of the research and therefore need to qualify for such an important role. Statistics provide debated conventions to determine if the research can be used or not. These conventions concern statistical power and sampling size. The general requirement for research to be used is 80% statistical power, from which sampling sizes can be drawn. Some researches argue that there should not be one threshold that decides the validity of experiments, as this leads to an important amount of research being rejected due to lacking statistical power. Others defend that such a defined threshold is essential for research to be used safely. This debate shows how, even though statistics provide mathematical formulas to evaluate the likelihood of an experiment to be misleading, it does not offer an immediate response to whether findings can be used as evidence or not. Humans are the ones who decide this.

Introduction
The evidence-based practice is a scientific method of acquiring knowledge that requires experimental testing and expertise, as well as individual’s preferences. It is used to measure concepts throughout disciplines such as physics, medicine, education, economics and more.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, happiness can be described as a non-long-lasting moment whereby someone feels pleasure and contentment. Happiness covers a wide range of interrelated concepts including among others well-being, hope, optimism, and life satisfaction. Its contrary, unhappiness, the sentiment of being sad or not being happy, can be measured through the lack of each of those concepts. Back in 1930, Bertrand Russell spotted eight drivers of unhappiness (meaningless, competition, boredom, fatigue, envy, guilt and shame, persecution mania and fear of public opinion) in The Conquest of Happiness, to which we could add illness, death of loved ones, poverty, and depression. Having said that, this paper is primary dedicated to approach evidence in unhappiness from an interdisciplinary perspective, as it is covering many notions from different disciplines including statistics, economics, psychology, sociology, and psychiatry.

Measuring Unhappiness through the lack of well-being
''A concept is always broader than any of its proposed measures. Any suggested measure for any concept cannot fully capture the richness, the breadth and the depth of the concept itself.'' - Selim Jahan

The Oxford English Dictionary defines well-being as the “state of being or doing well in life; happy, healthy, or prosperous condition; moral or physical welfare (of a person or community)”. Well-being is qualitative and subjective. However, it can be measured quantitatively thanks to statistics and economics in order to evaluate a population’s happiness or unhappiness.

Measuring Unhappiness through well-being metrics and polling data - statistics tools
In ''Happiness for All? Unequal Hopes and Lives in Pursuit of the American Dream'' published in 2017, the author Carol Graham from the Brookings Institution and the University of Maryland writes about the different levels of happiness across rich and poor citizens in the United States of America. Based upon the Gallup World Poll and the Gallup Healthways surveys, the author mixes sociological, psychological and economic data available on people in order to explain unhappiness in the United States. With questions on people’s perception about their standard of living, such as “Please compare your life to the best possible life you can imagine on a ladder from 0 to 10” or “How satisfied do you think you will be with your life in 5 years?” as well as the use of demographic data (age, race, educational level…) and economic conditions, Carol Graham asserts that unhappiness can be explained among other drivers by the decrease of confidence related to social mobility, and the reduction of life satisfaction “by living in an area with hight income inequality”. Moreover, she says, as it is commonly agreed, that income plays a part in happiness and unhappiness and influences people’s beliefs, optimism, and hopes for the future and, it is less intuitive, that black Americans are more optimist than white Americans.

Measuring Unhappiness through the Human Development Index (HDI) - economics
Back in 1990, the Professor Amartya Kumar Sen and the Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq developed the Human Development Index (HDI), an economic indicator measuring human development through three components: health (long and healthy life), education (acquiring knowledge), and income (having access to resources needed for a decent standard of living). The purpose of this index was measuring and comparing well-being in different countries, as those economists believe that well-being go further than the level of an individual’s income. We measure HDI between the extremes 0 and 1. The closer a country’s HDI is to 1, the higher is its human development (and vice versa). These two examples show that unhappiness is not limited to the lack of income and, although this is a significant driver, psychological, sociological, clinical and ethnic drivers also play a significant role.

Measuring Unhappiness through a psychological, psychiatric and neuroscientific approach on depression
Depression is one of the many sources of unhappiness. It is a complex disorder, as even today, scientists don’t know for sure its drivers. As Huda Akil, a member of the Hope for Depression Research Foundation and professor of neurosciences and psychiatry at the University of Michigan, “A complex problem like depression is much larger than one scientist or lab can handle". On top of a neuroscientific and psychiatric approaches, Carrie Steckl proposes to include health and emotional conditions, but also social, spiritual, vocational, and environmental conditions in order to unravel the causes of depression. We guess that such interdisciplinary approach could also be useful when looking at other sources of unhappiness such as poverty and social downgrading.

Measuring unhappiness through a sociology perspective
Suicide is a famous book written by the French sociologist Emile Durkheim in 1897 in which he claimed that capitalism is the driver of suicide’s increase and can explain the level of unhappiness. Indeed, he asserted that at his time, even if it is still relevant today as capitalism is ubiquitous and widespread over the world, capitalism made people become richer but also raised the pressure on the individuals. Indeed, he explained that the rise of individualism, rather than collectivism in traditional societies, have increased the sentiment of failure as people started to make their own choices without asking permission to their families and class they were born into. Consequently, it was their luck or their fault, if they succeed or failed. Durkheim estimated that there was an excessive hope, as people saw in capitalism the opportunity to become rich and independent, but not the possibility to be disappointed. As people started to make their own choices, capitalism emphasized freedom and removed some duty of behavior related to family and living in a community. Hence, people didn’t share a lot in common anymore and lost interest in one another activities and plans. The importance of religion in our life, with on the opposite the rise of atheism, as well as family values, have both weakened and triggered a decline in the sentiment of belonging that they used to offer. Therefore, sociological aspects are deeply rooted to unhappiness, as Durkheim asserted.

Conclusion
Unhappiness is a complex notion that has multiple drivers. Therefore, evidence in unhappiness can benefit from an interdisciplinary approach, as disciplines don’t measure unhappiness through the same variable. There is not only one way to estimate unhappiness: some disciplines use quantitative evidence, as we saw in statistics and economics, and others prefer qualitative evidence, as we saw in psychology and sociology.

The Start of Evidence in Maths
Maths as a discipline is first and foremost, the base to almost every disciplines evidence, as it provides a quantitative base to any conclusion. Evidence in maths, is usually seen as 'proof', which is expected to be a stronger claim in the mathematical category of evidence, as the Greek mathematicians used the term evidence only associated with mathematics when it has been proven through many evidential systems.

Maths has its origin of evidence way back in 3000 B.C. when the ancient Sumerians developed the first written evidence of maths based on the system of metrology which was created in the early beginnings of their civilisation. The explosion and its split into different evidential parts of maths, began in Mesopotamia, as the evidence of the Sumerians was taken accountable and developed into arithmetic, geometry and algebra which find there evidence in the sexagesimal number system. Maths was always seen as a high class of evidence, as the systems of arithmetic, geometry and algebra, weren't only contributed by its origin, however, China, Egypt and Central America were proving the evidence of maths as we know it today.

However, until modern times, the evidence in maths took different paths, as 7 major schools divided their thoughts about mathematical evidence and approaches. Most of the mathematicians were finding their evidence to their concepts in theorems while others were trying to construct their evidence for their own good. The division although ended soon, as the Pythagorean School took the lead and was contributing to the start of calculus, where more evidence was found towards the field of calculus and the evidence for constructive and proven evidence became clearer. Calculus finally added the evidence to the field of mathematics, that there are two types of mathematicians, pure mathematicians who prove, and therefore show the theorems in the real world and applied mathematicians who construct theories. Calculus shows the evidence that both types are needed to reach the best possible outcome.

Evidence in form of Theorems
The first mathematical theorem which consisted of the same evidence until today, started with the idea of the Thales Theorem which was evidential discovered by Thales of Miletus. The basis to the evidence in maths began with Greek philosophers such as, Miletus and Pythagoras who was another Greek mathematician and philosopher, who discovered the Pythagoras theorem as the second theorem in maths with evidence behind it theory, which is still valid and applicable today. A famous example where maths and especially the evidence in maths through the use of the Pythagoras is applicable is the discipline of architecture to measure the height of buildings and the length of walls, as this was firstly discovered in ancient Egypt to build pyramids. These two theorems together worked on solution, therefore, evidence on how many types of mathematic evidence have to come together to create and prove the bedrock of any disciplines assumptions throughout mathematic proven evidence.

Evidence in Cryptozoology
The term Cryptozoology is derived from the Greek words “Kryptos” (Kρυπτος), “Zoon” (Zον) and “Logòs” (Λόγος), meaning “the study of hidden animals”. The field was promoted as a subdiscipline of Zoology by the International Society of Cryptozoology (ISC), but the lack of empirical evidence to confirm the existence of such animals has limited it to its classification as a pseudoscience by the academic community. Nevertheless, cryptozoologists carry out research based on indirect knowledge. As soon as there is information on a presumed unidentified animal, researchers examine the supposed geographical location of the animal through multiple aspects: its history, archaeology, folklore and mythology. If there was a sighting, cryptozoologists apply the methodology of Forensic Science: witness statements and circumstantial evidence (footprints, hair tufts, pictures, recordings, etc) will be collected, analysed and screened to provide a zoological explanation. Cryptozoology is widely criticised for its reliance on eyewitness accounts as their primary source of evidence, arguing that it is inherently unreliable and thus does not constitute as valid data. Despite this, local knowledge has proven to be instrumental in the discovery of “new” animal species. For instance, Zoologist Marc von Roosmalen was told about sightings of differently coloured monkeys by locals of the Amazon, which led to the eventual discovery of five New World Monkey species, Callibella humilis, Callithrix manicorensis, Callithrix acariensis, Callicebus bernhardi, and Callicebus stephennashi.

Additionally, critics attack cryptozoologists for taking literal interpretations of local mythology and folklore. Researchers defend their methods explaining that real, rare animals are often distorted to become mythological creatures through a history of textual and oral tradition. Furthermore, they assert that zoological discovery would progress much quicker if they applied the interdisciplinary approach of cryptozoologists, instead of rejecting circumstantial evidence to fit the traditional scientific method. In 9th century Chinese and Japanese folklore, the mo (貘) or Baku was an a “mythological chimera with trunk of an elephant, eyes of a rhinoceros, the tail of a cow, and feet like a tiger” that was only de-mythicised to be the Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) much later in the 19th century.


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History of video games/Platforms/Watara Supervision

History
Not to be confused with the earlier, but unrelated Bandai Super Vision 8000.

The Watara Supervision launched in 1992 at a cost of $49.95. Despite product placement on Nickelodeon shows, the system did not sell well. Hartung also made a version of the Supervision.

Compute
The Watara Supervision used a Western Design Center (WDC) 65C02 8 bit CPU clocked at four megahertz.

The Watara Supervision has eight kilobytes of RAM.

Hardware
The screen of the Watara Supervision has a resolution of 160 by 160 pixels, a size of 61 by 61 millimeters and could display four shades of grey. The screen of the Watara Supervision is described as low quality. A display cable allowed the Watara Supervision to use a television instead.

The Watara Supervision has a communications port.

The system is powered by four AA batteries.

Notable games
68 games were released for the Watara Supervision.

External Resources

 * Video Game Kraken - Supervision by Watara page.


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History of video games/Platforms/Mega Duck

History
Made in Hong Kong, the Mega Duck was released in 1993.

A toy laptop version of the Mega Duck was released, containing both a normal keyboard and a music keyboard, a mouse, and a printer predating the GameBoy Printer.

Compute
These Mega Duck is powered by an 8-bit MOS Z80 CPU clocked at 4.19 megahertz. This was a common choice at the time, and is similar to the CPU used in the original Game Boy.

The console has 16 kilobytes of RAM.

Hardware
The console has a four shade monochrome LCD with a resolution of 160 by 144 pixels.

The console has a six pin link port for connecting to another console over a link cable.

The console is powered either by four AA batteries or a 6V DC from an AC adapter.


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History of video games/Platforms/Super A'Can

History
The console was developed by the Taiwanese company FunTech.

The Super A'Can was released on October 25th, 1995 only in Taiwan. The system did not sell well, cost it's maker Funtech 6 million dollars, and unsold units were scrapped for parts.

Technology
The Super A'Can used a 16 bit Motorola 68000 as its primary processor clocked at 10.6 megahertz. Some sources list an 8 bit Motorola 6502 as a secondary processor clocked at 3.58 megahertz, though a discrete official Motorola version of this chip is absent from the board, meaning it is integrated in another chip if present.

The Super A'Can has 64 kilobytes of RAM and 128 kilobytes of video RAM.

The system sports a dedicated support chips that were manufactured by UMC, including the UM6618 graphics chip, and the UM6619 audio chip.

The Super A'Can outputs 16 track PCM audio in stereo.

Console
The Super A'Can is a boxy grey console featuring both angular and smooth arching accents. Cartridges are loaded from the top of the device, which also features a power toggle, an eject button, and a reset button. The front of the console has two controller ports, which appear to be D-Sub 9 ports, similar to those used on the Atari 2600 and the Sega Mega Drive / Sega Genesis. Appropriately, on the port side of the console there is an expansion port. The console rear features vents, as well as IO including red, white, and yellow coded RCA jacks for high quality video output, an RF port for lower quality video output to older or lower end televisions, and a power input jack.

Controller
The official wired controllers sport a design similar to the controllers used by the Super Famicom / Super Nintendo Entertainment System, but with more curves. The controller sports a somewhat unique light purple direction pad on the left side, with a inner shield that does not quite reach the outer edges of the primary directions. The primary face buttons are on the right side of the controller are arranged in a diamond pattern, and include a red "Y" button on the top, a yellow "B" button on the right, a blue "A" button on the bottom, and a green "X" button on the left of the controller. The center of the controller features two oblong grey buttons, select on the left, and start on the right. The console logo and text "A'Can" are embossed on the upper center of the controller, just over where the cable connects on the back. The back of the controller features light purple L & R buttons, lightly labeled in the same color on the button itself, rather then in white next to the button as on the rest of the controller. On the bottom of the controller there is a turbo switch, as well as 6 screw holes screw holes. The back of the controller also features slight angles near the end, likely intended to offer an ergonomic grip.

Notable games
12 games exist for the Super A'Can.

1995

 * Sango Fighter


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History of video games/Platforms/Sega Pico

History
The Sega Pico was initially released in June of 1993.

The Sega Pico was released in the USA in 1994.

In 1995 the Sega Pri Fun printer was released for the Pico and Saturn.

The Pico sold poorly in North America, but was better received elsewhere with 3.4 million consoles sold by 2005.

On August 5th, 2005 the Advanced Pico Beena was released in Japan.

Technology
Aside from lacking a Z80 processor and a Yamaha sound chip, and adding a DMA chip for audio, the Pico has similar specifications to the Mega Drive or Genesis.

The pen uses a microswitch to detect presses.

Special Editions

 * Sega Pico Pikachu Edition

Notable games (Storyware)
For more listings see the List of Sega Pico games on Wikipedia.

2002

 * Pokémon: Catch the Numbers!

2003

 * Pokémon Advanced Generation: I've Begun Hiragana and Katakana!

2004

 * Pokémon Advanced Generation: Pico for Everyone Pokémon Loud Battle!

External Resources

 * Game Medium - Advanced Pico Beena page.


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History of video games/Platforms/LaserActive

History
The Pioneer LaserActive was a LaserDisk based multimedia entertainment device with game console capabilities that was released on August 20th, 1993 at a cost of $970. Unlike most multimedia platforms at the time, the LaserActive primarily played games released for other systems through PAC expansion modules, which contained a LaserActive compatible version of that console.

The Sega PAC add on was released in 1993 for $600 and allowed the LaserActive to play Genesis games.

Another PAC was released to play NEC CD-ROM2 games. However it was not compatible with the Arcade Card Pro.

Technology
Not much information is known about the technology used by the Pioneer LaserActive itself, with most accounts focusing on the capabilities of individual PACs, which are themselves very close in capabilities to the systems they are based on.

Games
31 games were released for the LaserActive. Games for the LaserActive are not region locked.

External Resources

 * Nicole Express - Article describing the LaserActive in detail.
 * Video Game Console Library - LaserActive page with in depth information.