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Clipper Tutorial: a Guide to Open Source Clipper(s)/Web Applications

=What Is a Web Application?=

A web application is an application which shows its output in a browser ("client") and which interacts with data which are managed by another program, a "web server", which is usually executed on another computer (when we test it we may have both the client and the server on the same machine).

Websites like Google, Yahoo! Mail, Facebook, Twitter, Amazon, and also CMS platforms (such as WordPress, Joomla, Drupal) and online games like "Might & Magic", "Forge of Empires" or "Seafight" all provide web applications.

In their oldest form, web applications were CGI scripts, and Harbour provides a class to use this protocol (see https://github.com/harbour/core/blob/master/contrib/hbtip/cgi.prg) and an example showing how to employ a class to (https://github.com/harbour/core/blob/master/tests/html.prg).

http://www.harbour-project.com.br/samples/testcgi.html and see the side box at http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/harbour.html

The first six chapters of a book describing CGI programming can be downloaded from http://www.cgi101.com/book/, and a straightforward description of the thing can be read at http://www.whizkidtech.redprince.net/cgi-bin/tutorial.

There is a tentative for providing FastCGI in Harbour, see https://github.com/hernad/harbour-fastcgi.

CGI, however, is old and obsolete and the reasons are explained here: https://www.perl.com/article/perl-and-cgi/#why-not-to-use-cgi. This page is in the Perl website, as CGI and Perl have been strongly (even if improperly) associated.

The web server Apache contains needs mod_cgi or mod_perl to run CGI scripts, likewise we can use mod_harbour from https://github.com/FiveTechSoft/mod_harbour.

blog live demo: https://harbour.fourtech.es/modharbour_samples/blog/index.prg and its Full source code: https://github.com/FiveTechSoft/mod_harbour/tree/master/samples/blog

https://github.com/JoseluisSanchez/MVC_Harbour

An alternative to using Apache is downloading DBFree from http://www.dbfree.org/home.msp?XY=11421849

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: User:そらたこ

title: User:そらたこ


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Ceramic

What is ceramic ?
Ceramics is clay that is modeled, dried, and fired, usually with a glaze or finish, into a vessel or decorative object. Clay is a natural product dug from the earth, which has decomposed from rock within the earth's crust for millions of years. Decomposition occurs when water erodes the rock, breaks it down, and deposits them.

Ceramic wares must be fired to a temperature high enough to mature the clay, meaning that the high temperature hardens the piece to enable it to hold water. An integral part of this firing is the addition of liquid glaze (it may be painted on or dipped in the glaze) to the surface of the unfired pot, which changes the chemical composition and fuses to the surface of the fired pot. Then, the pottery is called vitreous, meaning it can hold water.

List
All the items have ceramics as their primary materials

title: Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Ceramic


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Wood

Wood are very versatile materials as the wood can be processed to different forms of wood to make products:

Paper
Other kinds of paper

title: Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Wood


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Chemical

Our daily items are consists of chemicals. Here are the items that are primarily made mostly or partially out of chemicals

title: Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Chemical


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User:Aman rodgers

mordern physics

title: User:Aman rodgers


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User talk:Aman rodgers

physics
APPLICATIONS FOR ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE drinking straw. Force pump. Lift pump. Aman rodgers (discuss • contribs) 07:33, 24 August 2019 (UTC)

Lift pump works on two principles. The upward stroke and down stroke. Aman rodgers (discuss • contribs) 07:35, 24 August 2019 (UTC)

Drinking straw is done using a straw and a bottle containing water when one sucks air in the straw the pressure inside reduces leading increase of the pressure in the bottle hence rise of the liquid inside. Aman rodgers (discuss • contribs) 07:42, 24 August 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aman rodgers


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Chemical/Paint

What materials do we need ?
Paint consists of pigments, solvents, resins, and various additives. The pigments is what gives the paint its colour; solvents make it easier to stick to the media (paper) applied ; resins help it dry faster; and additives serve many purposes such as fillers to anti-fungicidal agents.

What is the step by step process?

 * Step 1: Pigment is premixed with resin (a wetting agent that assists in moistening the pigment),one or more solvents, and additives to form paste.
 * Step 2: The paste mixtures are processed in a high-speed dispersion tank. There, the premixed paste is subjected to high-speed agitation by a circular, toothed blade attached to a rotating shaft. This process blends the pigment into the solvent.
 * Step 3: The paste must now be thinned (using roll mill) to produce the paint.
 * Step 4: The finished paint product is then pumped into the canning room and canned.


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Chemical/Shampoo

What do we need to make this thing?
Shampoo formulations consists of water, detergents, foam boosters, thickeners, conditioning agents, preservatives, modifiers, and special additives.

Water: Typically it makes up about 70-80% of the entire formula. Deionized water, which is specially treated to remove various particles and ions, is used in shampoos.

Detergents: It is also known as sufactants, are the cleansing ingredients in shampoos. Sufactants are surface active ingredients, meaning they can interact with a surface. The chemical nature of a sufactant allows it to surround and trap oily materials from surfaces.

Foam boosters: These materials, called alkanolamides, help increase the amount of foam and the size of the bubbles.

Thickeners: It is used to increase the viscosity.

Conditioning agents: The materials are also added to shampoos to offset the sometimes harsh effect of surfactants on hair and fabrics. improve its feel, softness, and hair comb-ability, while reducing static charge.

Modifiers: There are a few type of modifier such as opacifiers are added to make the shampoo opaque and give it a pearly look. Acids or bases such as citric acid or sodium hydroxide are added to adjust the pH of a shampoo so the detergents will provide optimal cleaning.

Special additives: Fragrance oils and dyes are added to increase fragance of shampoo. Natural materials such as botanical extracts, natural oils, proteins, and vitamins all impart special qualities and help sell shampoos. Some additives are included to address the problem of dandruff.

What is the step by step process?

 * Step 1: Raw materials, which are typically provided in large drums are poured into the batch tank and thoroughly mixed. Depending on the formula, these batches can be heated and cooled as necessary to help the raw materials combine more quickly.

 * Step 2: At the start of the filling line, empty bottles are put in a large bin called a hopper. Here, the bottles are physically manipulated until they are correctly oriented and standing upright. They are then moved along a conveyor belt to the filling line, which holds the shampoo.

 * Step 3: The filling line is made up of a series of piston filling heads that are calibrated to deliver exactly the correct amount of shampoo into the bottles.

 * Step 4: The bottles move to the capping machine. Much like the bin that holds the empty bottles, the caps are also put in a hopper and then correctly aligned. As the bottles move by the caps are put on and twisted tight.


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Food

All the items listed here are food based:

title: Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Food


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Food/M&M Candy

Products
M&Ms are a hard-coated candy with its prominent "m" stamp on the candy

What do we need to make this thing?
M&Ms have two main components, hardened liquid chocolate and the hard candy shell.

Liquid chocolate comes from a blend of whole milk, cocoa butter, sugar, and chocolate liquor, among other ingredients.

Candy shell is made from a blend of sugar and corn syrup.

What is the step by step process?
Step by step (Preferable in bullet point list)
 * Step 1: Whole milk, cocoa butter, sugar, and chocolate liquor, amongst other ingredients are blended together in a giant tank.
 * Step 2: The liquid chocolate is poured into tiny moulds to create the chocolate centers of the candy.
 * Step 3: After the candies are formed, they are "tumbled" to make the chocolate center smooth and rounded. Then they are allowed to harden.
 * Step 4: During panning, the chocolates are rotated in large containers as liquid candy made of sugar and corn syrup is sprayed onto them. The coats are sprayed on rotating chocolates at timed intervals. These intervals allow each coat to dry. Each coat leaves an even layer, a shell, of dry candy substance. The chocolate centers receive several coatings to ensure a uniform, complete coat on every piece.
 * Step 5: The color is added to a finishing syrup and applied as the final coat. Finally, the liquid candy dries into the hardened shell.
 * Step 6: The single-colored batches are combined into the mixtures of red, yellow, blue, green, brown, and orange. They are then transported to the machine that stamps the "m" on the shells.


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Food/Hot Dog

Products
Hot dogs are known by many different names including frankfurters, franks, red hots, and wieners.

What do we need to make this thing?
Hot dogs are primarily made of meat, salt, curing solutions, flavouring and extenders.

Meat type that is most often used is pork, other types may be used such as beef, chicken or turkey.

Salt is used to make the meat easier to work with, improve flavor, and inhibit bacterial growth.

Curing solution have some components such as water that functions including helping create the necessary meat emulsion and adding to the meat's juiciness. Sodium nitrite is included in the curing solution to retard the development of rancidity and stabilize the meat color. Sugar and corn syrup are used to give hot dogs a sweeter taste.

Flavouring are used to enhance taste of the hotdog and usually includes pepper, nutmeg, ginger, cumin, and dill.

Extenders are non-meat ingredients (usually are from non-fat milk, cereal, soy protein and whole milk) that increase the number of hot dogs that can be made from a set amount of meat and improve the nutritive value.

What is the step by step process?
Step by step (Preferable in bullet point list)
 * Step 1: The production of hot dogs begins with the preparation of meat. After it passes inspection, the incoming meat is chop into small pieces and placed in a stainless steel mixing container. The container is equipped with high-speed choppers, which can reduce the size of the meat pieces even further. The other raw materials including the curing ingredients, salt and flavorings are blended in this container until batter is produced.
 * Step 2: The meat batter is pumped into an automatic linker machine. In this machine, batter is put into tube-shaped, cellulose casings .These casing are then twisted at precise points to produce a long linked strand of equally sized hot dogs. Most casing are natural casings, which remain on and are eaten along with the hot dog.
 * Step 3: The linked hot dog strands are then conveyed to a large smokehouse. Here, they are thoroughly smoked under controlled conditions. The cooking times vary depending on the recipe however, typically it takes about an hour.


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Wikijunior:How Things Are Made/Food/Bread

Products
Bread is a food that are usually made by bakers.

What do we need to make this thing?
Bread is made with three basic ingredients: Grain, water, and bakers' yeast.

Grains are composed of three parts: bran (the hard outer layer), germ (the reproductive component), and endosperm (the soft inner core).

To make wholemeal bread, all parts are ground together to make whole wheat and rye breads.

To make white bread, the bran and the germ must be removed. Since bran and germ contain much of the nutrients in grain, the white flour is often "enriched" with vitamins and minerals.

Water and yeast are mixed with the flour to make dough.

Yeast is actually a tiny organism which feeds off the sugars in the grain, and emits carbon dioxide. The growth of the yeast produces gas bubbles, which leaven the bread.

Depending on type of bread, additional ingredients such as salt, fat, sugar, honey, raisins and nuts are also added in to the receipe.

What is the step by step process?

 * Step 1: The sifted flour is poured into an industrial mixer. Temperature-controlled water is piped into the mixer. A pre-measured amount of yeast is added.
 * Step 2: The mixer is essentially an enclosed drum that rotates at speeds between 35 to 75 revolutions per minute. Inside the drum, mechanical arms knead the dough to the desired consistency in a matter of seconds.
 * Step 3: The breads are allowed to ferment naturally. In this instance, the dough is placed in covered metal bowls and stored in a temperature-controlled room until it rises.
 * Step 4: After the dough has fermented, it is loaded into a divider with rotating blades that cut the dough into pre-determined weights.
 * Step 5: A conveyer belt then moves the pieces of dough to a molding machine. The molding machine shapes the dough into balls and drops them onto a layered conveyer belt that is enclosed in a warm, humid cabinet called a "prover." The dough moves slowly through the prover so that it may "rest," and so that the gas reproduction may progress to inflate the bread more.
 * Step 6: When the dough emerges from the prover, it is conveyed to a second molding machine which re-shapes the dough into loaves and drops them into pans.
 * Step 7: From the prover, the pans enter a tunnel oven. The temperature and speed are carefully adjusted so that when the loaves emerge from the tunnel, they are completely baked and partially cooled.
 * Step 8: The bread are loaded on the cooling tower to cool down the bread and moved on to slicing machine
 * Step 9: Vertical serrated blades move up and down at great speeds, slicing the bread into constant sized pieces.
 * Step 10: Metal plates hold the slices together while picking up each loaf and passing it to the wrapping machine. Pre-printed plastic bags are mechanically slipped over each loaf. Lastly the bread bag are tied using Kwik-Lock to ensure the freshness


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents

This is a critique of the article: Ruggero C, Petrie T, Sheinbein S, Greenleaf C, Martin S. Cardiorespiratory Fitness May Help in Protecting Against Depression Among Middle School Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2015;57(1):60-65.

What is the background to this research?

 * Depression levels among American middle school adolescents are growing, with a reported 15.9% of females and 7.7% of males with symptoms of depression . Depression has a major negative impact on school performance, with subsequent education and occupational opportunity negatively impacted . Depression symptoms include low self-esteem, impaired ability to concentrate, social withdrawal and decreased sense of worth, which may cause low cognitive performance and a decreased willingness to learn.
 * Research into benefits of physical activity and relationship to depression is substantial, whereas cardiorespiratory fitness relationship to depression is scarce.
 * Previous studies have only measured physical activity which can change from week to week, whereas measurement of cardiorespiratory fitness allows a long term view of physical activity . This article claims to be the first to assess cardiorespiratory fitness to depression levels from one school year to the next. Thus, measuring a more accurate level of cardiorespiratory fitness, allowing a more in-depth study of how cardiorespiratory fitness and depression levels are related.

Where is the research from?

 * The study was conducted in northern Texas, with 197 male and 240 female participants tested in grade six and then grade seven of state-run schools, grade six mean age was 11.55 years.
 * All authors of the study bar Shelly Sheinbein (M.S) have a PHD in Psychology or Kinesiology, with previous experience in field-based work and research work. Thus, the authors are experienced and reliable in this field of testing.
 * The study was linked to and funded by Northern Texas and Wisconsin University with fitness testing partnered with a state-mandated assessment. Conflict of interest and bias is unlikely due to these universities having no commercial or financial gain from the results of this study.
 * This research could be easily replicated in Australian schools, allowing data of cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Australian middle school adolescents.

What kind of research was this?

 * This was a longitudinal cross-sectional study, with participants measured twice over a one-year period. No intervention was implemented. Due to only 2 measurements taken over the year period, this is a weak form of evidence.
 * The study relied on both self-reported and fitness data. The self-report data can lend itself to problems with reliability and validity with data accuracy relying on the cognitive bias of students. Fitness data testing is of higher reliability and validity with a set test directly replicated for the measurement.

What did the research involve?
Subjects completed a 20 item self-reported questionnaire using the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for Children. This created a 0 to 60 depression score scale with questions referring to mood, feeling and sleep patterns. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated using three indicators, the first a PACER test, where students completed laps of a set distance in a specific time for each lap with the maximum laps of the test being 100. The other indicators were obtained through a physical self-description questionnaire with questions asking specifically about their endurance, how far they can run without stopping and strength, how strong they thought they were. Scores for the questionnaire ranged from zero to six. Body composition was tested using BMI which was converted into a percentile based on age and gender. Weight was measured by the teacher to the nearest 0.1 lb. The methodology of this study is limited due to the self-report questionnaire bias. As the study relied on the student's self-reported questionnaire, thus, leading to a possible bias to themselves. Students may perceive themselves to have higher/lower endurance or stronger/weaker than they actually are. Self-report bias is well known to be unreliable with the whole study relying on how accurate the student’s self-rate themselves. Cardiorespiratory fitness measurement using the PACER test is a basic measurement indicator, which was easily replicated the following year of testing. Researches completed the testing on exactly the same week of school over both years, providing an exact one-year snapshot with the time of year, season and school load the same over both tests. The use of a longitudinal study created a higher degree of accuracy, with less variability compared to a cross-sectional study, but a limitation of the study is only two measurements over the year. . Other limitations of the study included the self-report bias, a single geographically school district, a study length of only one year, and no random assignment. These limitations lead to a higher number of ethnic group individuals, being Hispanics, with all students tested in a state-run school, thus only testing a certain economic class of students.

What were the basic results?

 * The study found that higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels in the sixth grade were associated with significantly less depression by the seventh grade in girls. There was the same association with boys but at a nonsufficient statistical level. In girls’ higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with leaner body composition and less depression, with a finding that body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness levels strongly predicting depression levels the following year. The same was found in boys but at a lesser extent.
 * I believe there was some over-emphasises in the implications of their findings, due to the self report bias and results only found in girls. The researches did provide all data and conceded the low significant value of the boy’s data. Findings were stated as a small but significant protective effect in girls, which agrees with the data provided by the tests.

What conclusions can we take from this research?

 * The study concluded that cardiorespiratory fitness levels were associated with depression levels. I agree with this conclusion but I believe this study can only be used as a guide, due to the unreliability of the self-report questionnaire, selected population group, and with only two testing periods. Cardiorespiratory fitness was shown to be associated with depression levels.
 * Further research with a higher, mix of race and social-economic status population groups over a longer period of time would yield a more reliable data set. I believe the conclusion from this study is correct, providing a starting point for further research into this area.
 * These findings coincide with other research studies into exercise levels that all found fitness and exercise to have a positively effect on depression levels. Many studies have found a link between physical fitness and improved depression levels, especially evident in female populations

Practical advice
This research article provides practical advice for the general population, specifically middle school adolescents on cardiorespiratory fitness and the impact on depression levels.
 * Increased cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with a positive impact on depression levels and result in a leaner body composition, especially in females. This advice can positively impact school-aged children by promoting a healthier lifestyle, encouraging them to be more physically active and to participate in cardiorespiratory focused activities. These findings have the added benefit of directly correlating to leaner body composition one year later, which can be a high-pressure issue in school-aged children, especially females.
 * All readers undertake the ESSA pre-exercise screening tool before any moderate to vigorous exercise is undertaken.
 * Middle school adolescents should be getting at least the recommended daily activity level of 60min or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity if cleared by the pre-exercise screening tool. This will support a healthy body and mind relationship, with lower depression levels.

 * This research provides a starting point for further research to build on.

Further information/resources
These organisations provide advice and support for individuals struggling with depression.
 * Black Dog Institue
 * Beyond Blue Foundation
 * Kids Helpline
 * Health Direct Fitness
 * The Department of Health fitness guide


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults

This article is a critical analyses of the paper "Relation of Cardiovascular Fitness and Physical Activity to Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Children and Adults" (James S. Fallis, 1998)

What is the background to this research?

 * CVD: Cardiovascular disease is a condition that involves the narrowing or blocking of blood vessels that could possibly lead to chest pain, heart attack or even a stroke. CVD is the leading cause of death and disease in Australia, with approximately 43,477 in 2017. CVD is one of Australia's largest health problems despite the recent improvements over the past few decades, it is one of the largest burdens on the economy that Australia faces. Research into physical activity reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality and increases longevity. There has been research that CVD can be avoided or delayed by the changes of diet and lifestyle. Heart attacks, stoke and other cardiovascular related diseases kill or seriously affect a large majority of the Australian population.

Where is the research from?

 * This research article was published in the American Journal of Epidemiology, one of a peer-reviewed journals for opinions and methodological development in the field of epidemiological research.
 * James F. Sallis is a distinguished professor, family, medicine and public health at the University of California, San Diego and Director of Active Living Research. Dr. Sallis is an author of over 500 scientific publications, co-author of several books, on the editorial boards of several journals and one of the worlds most cited authors in the social sciences. His current focus with the implantation of his research to inform policy and environmental changes that will increase physical activity and reduce childhood obesity.

What kind of research was this?

 * This study was conducted in the form of a Case-Control Study, in which the participants were interviewed to rule out people with pre-existing cardiovascular disease or a very high risk of having cardiovascular related diseases or symptoms. High risk people were people referred to as having a systolic blood pressure above 95mmHg.
 * A Case-control study is where the study begins with no intervention in mind and the participants are only required to be tested once and not multiple times. The people are chosen with the case in mind and maybe interviewed, or chosen purely through checking their medical records . After the results are taken, they compare the outcome with the odds of having a disease. Throughout the research it is important to keep in mind that they are not measuring people with cardiovascular disease, and to consider the people that would have cardiovascular disease and the effect of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity.

What did the research involve?

 * The study involved 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children and 142 female children. These were families and children from the fifth and sixth grade and was free from the risk of Cardiovascular disease or at high risk. The high-risk participants were defined as having a diastolic blood pressure greater than 95mmHg. Each of the families consisted of 1 adult and 1 child who contributed to different house hold activities.
 * The testing of the participants was conducted over a week long period. A physical activity recall was used over several days. There was 43 adults and children that were reinterviewed from the overall 558 participants on the same day but by different interviewers. To test the participants cardiovascular fitness, the participants were required to cycle on a cycle ergometer at a VO2 submaximal workload. The test involved a modified Astrand Rhyming protocol of gradually increasing workloads throughout the test. The test was terminated when the adults reached 70% of their predicted maximal heart rate whereas the test was terminated when the children reached 85 % of their predicated maximal heart rate. The participants maximal heart rate was determined before commencing physical activity. Throughout the duration of the study the participants energy expenditure was estimated through the different tests and their physical activity recall. Throughout the study the participants blood lipids were collected after a 12 hours fasting to determine their triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol levels and low density lipoprotein cholesterol was calculated by an equation. Heart rate was assessed by palpation for one minute. Finally, body mass was assessed with weight without shoes on scales and height using a height stadiometer. Data was analysed and the Pearson correlation and partial correlation procedures were used to a assess the data.

What were the basic results?

 * The aim of the study was to determine if regular physical activity will reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality and increase the longevity.
 * The results have shown that for male adults, energy expenditure did not correlate with any risk factors. Whereas for the female adults, the energy expenditure was significantly correlated with body mass index.
 * The result in the children was similar to what was found in the adults. For both male and female children fitness was significantly correlated with all risk factors, refer to table 1.

Energy expenditure was correlated with none of the risk factors which included blood pressure, high density lipoproteins and body mass index in male children and only HDL/LDL in female children.

Relations between cardiovascular fitness, physical activity and cardiovascular disease (Table 1)

* The numbers displayed in the table are a Pearson correlation that was calculated and adjusted for.

What conclusions can we take from this research?

 * Previous research in cardiovascular fitness, physical activity and selected coronary heart disease risk factors in adults has shown that there is a relationship between cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular fitness but not a relationship to physical activity. In this study there was a relationship between cardiovascular fitness and cardiovascular disease risk factors. It has been shown that the risk factors and variables have been displayed with previous studies in ‘Association between coronary heart disease risk factors and physical fitness in healthy adult women’ and ‘ relationship of physical characteristics an life habits to treadmill exercise capacity'.
 * Throughout the research it has found a relationship between that the higher the cardiovascular fitness the lower the risk of developing cardiovascular like symptoms for example heart attack, chest pain or stroke.

Practical advice

 * As supported by other research, resistance-based training may reduce cardiovascular disease. Prescribed and supervised resistance training enhances muscular strength and endurance, functional capacity and independence and quality of life while reducing disability in people with cardiovascular disease.
 * What is resistance training?
 * With cardiovascular disease prevalence becoming high it is recommended that you seek medical advice from a general practitioner before starting cardiovascular related resistance training. It is recommended that once a general practitioner has recommended resistance training the patient should seek advice from an exercise physiologist. It is also recommended that throughout the training prescribed that it is supervised from a medical professional. Due to the increasing prevalence of cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular condition such as stoke and heart disease there has been a lot of research money and time poured into the research that has been recently achieved into cardiovascular medical devices, cardiovascular neuroscience and cardiovascular-protective signaling and drug discovery through the heart research institute.

Further information/resources

 * Heart Foundation can provide some information about what is cardiovascular disease and how this can be prevented and managed.
 * Heart Research Australia can help by identifying risk factors that are increasing the risk of a cardiovascular disease.
 * Department of Health shows different ways that someone can become more physically active and different types of management and treatment methods.
 * Australian Cardiovascular Disease Risk Calculator indicated who is at risk of a cardiovascular disease and when they should be assessed.
 * Physical Activity with Cardiovascular Disease identifies why it is important to be physically active, different types of exercise, who should participant in the physical activity and what types of assistance are available for people.


text:
Brief History of Europe

Also available on a single page, which should be printable if needed.

title: Brief History of Europe


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Brief History of Europe/Early Middle Ages

The Early Middle Ages was Circa 500–1000 AD; it is sometimes referred to as the Dark Ages, as there was a relative scarcity of literary and cultural output in Western Europe.

Peoples of the Early Middle Ages

The peoples of the Early Middle Ages included Indo-European peoples, but also some peoples who were not Indo-European, such as Turkic and Uralic peoples. Indo-Europeans can be divided into Germanic peoples, and Indo-Europeans who were not Germanic such as Greco-Romans, Celts, and Slavs.

Germanic peoples
Germanic peoples can be divided into West, East and North:

West Germanic peoples included:

 * Anglo-Saxons, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes; they inhabited Jutland and northern Europe, and founded Anglo-Saxon England (c. 500–1066).
 * Franks, that spread across Europe from the north, to form Francia/Carolingian Empire (from 481, divided in 843).
 * Lombards, who inhabited the Kingdom of the Lombards (568–774), which covered much of the Italian Peninsula.
 * Suebi, who inhabited the Iberian Kingdom of the Suebi (409–585).
 * Frisii, who inhabited the Frisian Kingdom (c. 600–734) near the North Sea.

Other West Germanic peoples included: Chatti/Hessians (who inhabited Hesse in Roman times); Alemanni (who inhabited Alamannia/Swabia); Bavarii (who inhabited Bavaria); and Thuringii (who inhabited Thuringia).

East Germanic peoples included, most importantly, Vandals, Goths, and Burgundians:

 * Vandals (an East Germanic people) spread across Western Europe, Iberia, Carthage, and across the Mediterranean Sea to Rome; the Vandal Kingdom (435–534) included North Africa and Carthage; Corsica; Sardinia; Sicily. Eventually fell to the Byzantines.

 * Goths (an East Germanic people) included Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Visigoths spread across the Balkan Peninsula, Italy, Rome, southern France; the Visigothic Kingdom (418–c. 720) included much of Iberia and southern France. Eventually fell to Islam, Asturias and Francia. Ostrogoths spread across Europe to Rome to form the Ostrogothic Kingdom (493–553), of Italy and the west Balkans, after the murder of Odoacer. Eventually fell to the Byzantines and the Avar Khaganate.
 * Burgundians (an East Germanic people) formed the Kingdom of the Burgundians/Burgundy (411–534), before falling to the Franks.

Other East Germanic peoples and territories included: Gepids (and the Kingdom of the Gepids); and Rugii (and Rugiland).

North Germanic peoples included: Danes, Swedes, Geats, Gutes and Norsemen.
 * Danes: inhabited the province of Scania, now in southern Sweden; they moved to the Jutland peninsula (modern-day Denmark), and would migrate from there as Vikings.
 * Geats (Götar) and Swedes (Svear) were from the north of Scania; Gutes (Gutar) inhabited the island of Gotland. They would gave rise to modern Swedes. The Geats may have given rise to the Goths, but this is uncertain.
 * Norsemen, or Norwegians, inhabited the petty kingdoms of Norway, and would migrate from there as Vikings.

Other Indo-European peoples
Indo-European speaking peoples, other than Germanic peoples, included:

 * Celts were widespread across Europe:
 * Celtic Britons inhabited England and Wales, and also Brittany.
 * Gaels (also know as Scoti) inhabited Ireland, and later Scotland.
 * Gauls, of Gaul (present-day France).
 * Celtiberians, of Iberia (present-day Spain and Portugal).
 * Galatians, of ancient Anatolia (present-day Turkey).
 * Picts, who may have been Celtic, inhabited Scotland.
 * Greco-Romans ruled the Byzantine Empire, and spoke Ancient Greek (a Hellenic language) and Latin (an Italic language).
 * Slavs: could be divided into North Slavs (which includes East and West Slavs); and South Slavs.
 * West Slavs would settle in Eastern Europe areas south of the Baltic Sea.
 * East Slavs would settle in areas that correspond to present-day Belarus, central and northern Ukraine, and parts of western Russia.
 * South Slavs would settle in the Balkans.
 * Balts, lived near the Baltic Sea, and are related to Slavs. Peoples included the Lithuanians, Latvians, and Old Prussians.
 * Iranians: included the Eastern Iranian  Alans and Pashtuns (ethnic Afghans); in the Middle East there were the Western Iranian Persians and Kurds.

Celtic Britons in Britain were conquered by the Romans, but the Roman garrison was abandoned in 410 AD. This paved the way for Anglo-Saxon invasions from the east. Britons held out against Anglo-Saxons in Wales and Dumnonia (South West England). Britons had started to emigrate to Brittany towards the end of the 4th century. Related languages of the Britons are Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish, and Breton.

Early Slavic kingdoms included Samo's Empire (631–658) and Carantania (658–828).

Other peoples
Apart from the Indo-European speakers, Europe included:

 * Turkic peoples: early Turkic peoples included Khazars and Bulgars; they may have included Huns. Also see the section Turkic migration.
 * Uralic peoples included:
 * Magyars (of the Principality of Hungary).
 * Sami (of northern Scandinavia).
 * Finns (of Finland).
 * Related to the Finns were the Livonians (Latgalians) and Estonians.
 * Pannonian Avars (of uncertain affiliation) would form the Avar Khaganate in the 6th century, before falling to the Bulgars.
 * Afroasiatic peoples: Berbers (of North Africa) and Arabs (of Arabia) would latter press north into Iberia, and would be known as Moors.

Turkic migration and Viking Age
Migrations of other peoples continued after the Migration Period (c. 375 to 538 AD), which had seen movements particularly in Germanic peoples and Huns.

Turkic migration

Turkic migration was between the between the 6th and 11th centuries. There was an expansion of Turkic tribes over Asia and Eastern Europe. The earlier Huns may have been Turkic.

The first Turkic empire was the Göktürk Khaganate (552–603); also called the First Turkic Khaganate, it stretched across Asia from from Manchuria to the Black Sea. Although short-lived, it was followed by a succession of Turkic khaganates and khanates in Asia and eastern Europe. Examples include the Second Turkic Khaganate, Uyghur Khaganate, Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate, Kara-Khanid Khanate, Khazar Khaganate, Türgesh Khaganatem, Kipchak Khanate, Cumania (or Cuman–Kipchak confederation), and Pecheneg Khanates.

Some early Turkic peoples spoke Oghur languages:

 * Bulgars, who founded Old Great Bulgaria (632–668), which gave rise to the First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018) and Volga Bulgaria (7th century–1240s).
 * Khazars, who founded the Khazar Khaganate (c. 650–969) north and east of the Black Sea.

Turks (from the Oghuz branch of languages) and Tatars (mainly from the Kipchak branch of languages) were also prominent. Starting in the late eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia (present-day Turkey), eventually creating a Turkish majority there.

Today Turkic peoples are mainly represented by Turks, Azerbaijanis, and Turkmen (from the Oghuz branch); Uzbeks and Uyghurs (from the Karluk branch); and Kazakhs and Tatars (from the Kipchak branch).

Viking Age

Viking Age (793–1066): began with the raid on Lindisfarne (793). Vikings were migrating North Germanic peoples, which included Danes, Swedes, and Norsemen (Norwegians); although Vikings are sometimes called "Norseman", as the term "víkingr" was applied only to plunderers, rather than traders and settlers.

From their homelands in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, they settled in the British Isles and Ireland, Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Normandy, the Baltic coast, eastern Europe, and Vinland (probably Newfoundland). They founded the Kingdom of the Isles (Isle of Man, the Hebrides, and the islands of the Firth of Clyde), the Earldom of Orkney, Scandinavian York, Danelaw (now England to the east), the Kingdom of Dublin, and the Duchy of Normandy. The Varangians (also known as Rus' ) were Viking Swedes that traveled along the Volga and Dnieper rivers, and may have founded Kievan Rus', an early Russian federation, as the Rus' people.

Vikings would give rise to Normans, descendants of Vikings who settled in Normandy, and would conquer England and south Italy in the High Middle Ages. Their descendants would also give rise to Norse-Gaels, Faroese, and Icelanders.

Other peoples
Of the Germanic tribes, Franks would become the dominant Germanic tribe on mainland Europe by the end of the eighth century, outside of Scandinavia.

Other prominent migrations and expansions included:

 * Pannonian Avars would form the Avar Khaganate (567–after 822) in the Carpathian Basin.
 * Magyar tribes, also called the Hungarian clans, migrated west, and conquered the Carpathian Basin starting in the late ninth century to create the Principality of Hungary.
 * Arabs and Berbers would become prominent with Islamic expansion from the seventh century, and would be commonly referred to as Saracens and Moors.
 * Slavs, by the seventh century, would begin to create Slavic states, beginning with Samo's Empire (631–658).

During the High Middle Ages, the Mongols, would sweep across Asia, and influence the development of Russia and the Middle East.

Ostrogoths, Vandals, Byzantines, and Lombards

With the fall of Rome, Odoacer's Kingdom Of Italy (476-493) was established, which included some surrounding territory. It was conquered by Theodoric the Great, who was:

 * King of the Ostrogoths (475–526).
 * King of Italy (493–526), with the Ostrogothic Kingdom including Italy and neighboring areas.
 * King of the Visigoths (511–526), with the Visigothic Kingdom including much of Iberia and what would become southern France.

Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily became part of the Vandal Kingdom (435–534), along with some of North Africa and Carthage.

Both the Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms were conquered by the Byzantine Empire under Justinian I (527–565), after the Gothic War (535–554) and the Vandalic War (533–534); and Italy and surrounding islands became part of the Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty (518–602).

Starting in the 6th century, much of Italy was eventually conquered by Lombards (a West Germanic people) from the Byzantine Empire. The Kingdom of the Lombards was at its greatest extent around 749–756, and could be divided into Langobardia Major and Langobardia Minor:

 * Langobardia Major, which was the northern Lombards, which included (i) Neustria (in the north-west, later called Lombardy); (ii) Austria (in the north-east, later called the March of Verona); and (iii) Tuscia (south of Neustria, later called Tuscany).
 * Langobardia Minor, which was the central and southern Lombards; this included the Duchy of Spoleto and the Duchy of Benevento.
 * The rest of Italy was Byzantine territories, and included some of central and southern Italy (including Rome), Sicily, and Sardinia.

Northern and central Italy
The Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne (of Francia) conquered the Lombard Kingdom by 774, which covered much of Italy; but the Principality of Benevento (a Lombard former duchy) maintained de facto independence for nearly 300 years, although it was divided after 849. Venice remained unconquered, the Papal States were under the rule of the pope, and the Byzantine Empire maintained territories in the south.

From the 9th century onward, northern and central Italy could be divided into the Kingdom of Italy, Papal States, and Republic of Venice:

 * Kingdom of Italy (of the Holy Roman Empire) in northern and central Italy. It was claimed by the Holy Roman Empire, but with time its power would wane. Italian city-states within it would start to assert de facto independence, or come under the influence of European dynasties; they would include Milan, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Lucca, Cremona, Siena, Città di Castello, Perugia, and others; and see Venice below.
 * Papal States, which were provided with a legal basis with the Donation of Pepin in 756, which conferred upon the pope various territories. This was by Pepin the Short, the first Carolingian King of the Franks. Its status with the Kingdom of Italy is disputed.
 * Republic of Venice was officially recognized as Byzantine territory in 814, but would become a powerful and independent city-state and empire.

Southern Italy and Sicily
In the 9th century, Moors captured Sicily from the Byzantines, to form the Muslim Emirate of Sicily (831–1091).

Normans would conquer southern Italy and Sicily between 999 and 1139. Roger II of Sicily, who was King of Sicily (1130–1154) and King of Africa (1148–1154), consolidated the Norman kingdoms into one, which covered Sicily, southern Italy, and some north Africa.

The Norman Kingdom of Sicily fell in 1194 to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and House of Hohenstaufen. Later on it would fall to the Capetian House of Anjou (1266); but in 1282, King Charles I of Sicily was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon. Charles, however, maintained his possessions in southern Italy.

The Kingdom of Sicily would officially split into two with the Treaty of Villeneuve (1372):

 * Kingdom of Naples, officially the Kingdom of Sicily, continued in southern Italy, under the House of Anjou. Its unofficial name was its capital city.
 * Kingdom of Sicily, officially the Kingdom of Trinacria (an ancient name for Sicily), continued on the island of Sicily under the Crown of Aragon and House of Barcelona.

Naples and Sicily would later become reunited under the Crown of Aragon in 1443; but they would remain separately administered, only combined as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1816. In 1469, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Infanta Isabella of Castile (Queen of Castile and León in 1474); it was a dynastic union, and the dawn of the Kingdom of Spain.

Francia and the Carolingian Empire

Francia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks and Frankish Empire, grew from 481 onward into a mighty empire, which was known from 800 as the Carolingian Empire. The Franks were united by Clovis I (who ruled c. 481–511). Clovis was a member of the Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings, between 450 and 751.

The Battle of Tours (732) in Aquitaine, where the Franks defeated the Umayyad Caliphate, helped to establish Frankish dominance. Charles Martel commanded the Franks at Tours, and established the Carolingian dynasty of Frankish kings.

Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor
Charlemagne (Charles I, the Great) was King of Francia 768–814; King of the Lombards 774–814; and Holy Roman Emperor 800–814. Charlemagne expanded the kingdom into Bavaria/Carinthia, and Lombard, Saxon and Spanish March territories. Francia by 800 covered much of the former Western Roman Empire, with most of Western and Central Europe; but not including Iberia, Britain, Jutland, Brittany, southern Italy, Venice and the Papal States.

On Christmas Day in 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in the Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The office of Holy Roman Emperor, as it became known as, was a revival of the Roman Emperor in the west. Charlemagne's empire from 800 is sometimes called the Holy Roman Empire, but it is more often called the Carolingian Empire, named after the Carolingian dynasty. It was distinct from the later Holy Roman Empire of 962–1806, which was centered on East Francia.

Origins of France and the Holy Roman Empire
Charlemagne was succeeded as Holy Roman Emperor by his son Louis the Pious (813–840). On the death of Louis, civil war erupted (840–43), followed by the Treaty of Verdun; Francia was then divided among the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious:

 * West Francia, first ruled by Charles the Bald (who later became Holy Roman Emperor and King of Italy). West Francia is considered to be the Kingdom of France with the rule of the Capetian dynasty (987 onward).
 * East Francia, first ruled by Louis the German. East Francia would later form the nucleus of the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) founded by Otto the Great.
 * Middle Francia, ruled by Lothair I (who was Holy Roman Emperor). It was a short lived state of territory between West and East Francia.

With the death of Lothair I and the Treaty of Prüm (855), the sons of Lothair I divided Middle Francia into: (i) Lotharingia, which would later became Lorraine and Upper Burgundy, ruled by Lothair II; (ii) Provence, also known as Lower Burgundy, ruled by Charles of Provence; (iii) Italy, the northern peninsula, ruled by Louis II of Italy.

By the time of the Treaty of Meerssen (870), Charles of Provence and Lothair II had both died, and Francia had become:

 * West Francia, which contained parts of Lotharingia, and some of Provence; ruled by Charles the Bald at that time.
 * East Francia, which contained most of Lotharingia; ruled by Louis the German at that time.
 * Italy, the northern peninsula, which had expanded to include most of Provence; ruled by Louis II of Italy at that time.

With the Treaty of Ribemont (880), some Lotharingia territory was returned to East Francia from West Francia. Francia was reunited briefly, between 884–887, under Charles III (the Fat), Emperor between 881–888; after that it then divided again. Charles was the last of the Carolingian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors, with the exception of the disputed Holy Roman Emperor Arnulph (896–899).

Europe from 814
After the death of Charlemagne (814), Europe during the Early Middle Ages included the following states:

 * British Isles: Alfred the Great, the Anglo-Saxon King of the West Saxons, defeated the Great Heathen Army of the Danish King Guthrum at the Battle of Edington (878) to become first unified King of the Anglo-Saxons. The House of Wessex, which included Alfred, would eventually conquer all of England from the Danes under Æthelstan (c. 927). But there were also Danish kings after this, including Cnut the Great, who reigned over England 1016–1035, as well as Denmark and Norway, as the North Sea Empire. Other tribes of the British Isles included the Welsh and West Welsh (who were Celtic Britons); the Picts; and the Celtic Gaels/Scoti.

 * Scandinavia and to the east: Scandinavia was inhabited by North Germanic peoples, with Danes (in Jutland and Scania), Swedes, Geats, and Gutes. In the Unification of Norway (860s–1020s), the Norwegian Norsemen unified from the petty kingdoms of Norway. Lands of Finns (a Uralic people) lay to the east.

 * Western and Central Europe: Was dominated by Francia (with West Germanic Franks), which remained undivided until 840. Brittany was inhabited by Celtic Britons.

 * Slavic states and Balts: Included Bohemia, with West-Slavic Bohemians, the ancestors of Czechs. Great Moravia (833–c. 907) was a short lived state of the West-Slavic Moravians. Kievan Rus' principalities (882–1240) would form from East Slavic peoples, Finns and Vikings. Serbia (with South-Slavic Serbs) existed as a state between 8th century up to 1371, and then fell to the Ottomans. The Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102) of South-Slavic Croats, developed from the earlier Duchy, and would enter personal union with Hungary in 1102. Carantania (658–828) was a South-Slavic state. The Bulgarian Empire was partly South Slavic. Balts lived near the Baltic Sea, and may have ruled the territory of the Aesti (Esthland or Estonia).

 * First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018): The earlier Old Great Bulgaria (632–668) was established by Bulgars (a Turkic people); after defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Ongal (680), the First Bulgarian Empire was established as a Bulgar-Slavic, and later Bulgarian, state. After defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Achelous (917) it achieved hegemony over much of the Balkans, before falling to the Byzantine Empire. Much later on in the High Middle Ages, the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396) was established after uprisings, which eventually fell to the Ottomans.

 * Carpathian Basin: In the Carpathian Basin (or Pannonian Basin), Pannonian Avars would form the Avar Khaganate (567–after 822). After being conquered by East Francia and the First Bulgarian Empire, the Magyars (a Uralic people) would establish the Principality of Hungary (895–1301), which later became a kingdom.

 * Iberian Peninsula: Included the Islamic Emirate of Córdoba in southern Iberia (which later became a caliphate). In the north was the Christian Kingdom of Asturias (718–924, named after the Celtic Astures), which would later transition to the Kingdom of León (910–1230). A few years later, the Christian Kingdom of Pamplona (later called the Kingdom of Navarre) would be founded; this is traditionally dated to 824.

 * Italian Peninsula: Francia dominated the northern peninsula, and had hegemony over the Papal States. The Republic of Venice (697–1797) was within the Byzantine sphere of influence. In southern Italy, Benevento (571–1077) was ruled by the Lombards, with the Byzantine Empire to the south of Benevento. Later on, the Moors would conquer Sicily from the Byzantines, and the Normans would then conquer Sicily and southern Italy.

 * Byzantine Empire and to the east: The Byzantine Empire ruled the southern Balkans and Anatolia. East of the Byzantines was ruled by the Abbasid Caliphate. Khazars (a Turkic people) and Magyars ruled Europe north of the Black Sea.

Reconquista, and unification of Spain
Note: this section spans the entire Middle Ages.

The Umayyad conquest of Hispania (711–788) was the capture of Iberia by the Umayyad Caliphate from the Visigoths, who by 624 had gained control of all of Iberia. Hispania was the Roman name for Iberia, which is now Spain and Portugal. The Islamic dominions of Iberia were known as al-Andalus; they were ruled by Muslim Arabs and Berbers known as Moors. The Emirate of Córdoba (756–939) was a splinter state ruled by the Umayyads, after al-Andalus separated from the Abbasid Caliphate. Córdoba would later became a caliphate (939–1031), before splitting into many independent states, called taifas.

The Reconquista was the reconquest of Iberia by Christians, began after the Battle of Covadonga (either 718 or 722), where the Visigoth Pelagius of Asturias defeated the Moors, and the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was founded after it.

The Franks were successful in early battles against the Moors; at the Battle of Tours (732), also known as the Battle of Poitiers, the Frankish leader Charles Martel defeated the Umayyad Caliphate. The battle helped to establish the foundations of the Carolingian Empire, and Frankish domination of western Europe. Established by Charlemagne in 795, the Hispanic Marches was military buffer between the Frankish empire and al-Andalus.

Almanzor, the powerful chancellor of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba between 978 and 1002, waged many campaigns against the northern Christian kingdoms.

Asturias, León, and Galicia
Alfonso III of Asturias (866–910) who ruled the Kingdom of Asturias, would consolidate power and have numerous victories over Islamic and Christian opponents. It is assumed that the old Asturian kingdom was divided between the three sons of Alfonso III of Asturias, into the kingdoms of León, Asturias and Galicia. The Kingdom of León was so named as the capital was shifted from the city of Oviedo to the city of León in 910.

The Kingdom of León would unite with the Kingdom of Asturias in 924, with Asturias becoming the Principality of Asturias. The Kingdom of León would at times be in personal union with the Kingdom of Galicia, eventually merging into the Crown of Castile (1230–1715).

Navarre/Pamplona, Castile, and Aragon
The Kingdom of Navarre (824–1841), earlier known as the Kingdom of Pamplona, was a northern Basque-based kingdom. Basques speak the Basque language, a language isolate which is closely related to the Aquitanian language spoken by Aquitani. They gained independence from the Emirate of Córdoba. Navarre was ruled by the House of Jiménez 905 to 1234, until acquired by the counts of Champagne in 1234.

Sancho III of Pamplona was King of Pamplona (or Navarre) 1004–1035. He ruled:

 * Kingdom of Pamplona, and County of Aragon, by inheritance; Aragon had earlier been under Frankish rule.
 * Counties of Castile, Álava, and Monzón by marriage (1011); Castile had earlier been part of the Kingdom of León.
 * Counties of Sobrarbe (1015), Ribagorza (1018) and Cea (1030).
 * Kingdom of León, by conquest, taking its eponymous capital city in 1034. Bermudo III of León took refuge in Galicia.

Sancho III was also suzerain of the French Duchy of Gascony, and the County of Barcelona. Ferdinand I of León (King of León 1037–1065) was the son of Sancho III, and the first king to be crowned Emperor of Spain (1056).

The upshot of Sancho III's conquests, and dominance of Christian Iberia, was the creation of two new kingdoms:

 * Kingdom of Aragon, created in 1035 from the county, for Ramiro I of Aragon, son of Sancho III.
 * Kingdom of Castile, created in 1065 from the county, for Sancho II of Castile and León, son of Ferdinand I of León.

The Kingdom of León (which included the Principality of Asturias) and the Kingdom of Galicia would continue, but would eventually unite with the Kingdom of Castile as the Crown of Castile (1230–1715). The Kingdom of Navarre would later be partially annexed by the Crown of Castile in 1512. The Kingdom of Aragon would become the Crown of Aragon in 1162, with the union of Catalonia.

Al-Andalus, and Portugal
During the High Middle Ages, al-Andalus (that is, Islamic Iberia) rulers would include the Almoravid dynasty (1040–1147), and Almohad Caliphate (1121–1269). At other times they would be divided into taifas, which were independent Islamic principalities ruled by emirs.

In 1128, with the Battle of São Mamede, the County of Portugal (1093–1139) achieved independence from the Kingdom of León, and then became the Kingdom of Portugal (1139–1910). Portugal would remain independent of Spain, except for the period of the Iberian Union (1580-1640).

Catalonia, and the Crown of Aragon
After Barcelona was conquered by the Moors, the city was retaken by Franks in 801, led by Louis the Pious. During the 10th century, the counts of Barcelona became progressively independent of the Franks, and acquired other Catalan counties. In 988 Borrell II, Count of Barcelona, refused to recognize the new dynasty of the Frankish king Hugh Capet; from that point on, the counts of Barcelona often referred to themselves as princeps (prince).

In 1150 Petronilla of Aragon married Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona. This would create the dynastic union of the Kingdom of Aragon and County of Barcelona, as the Crown of Aragon. The Crown of Aragon became a personal union with their son Alfonso II of Aragon, King of Aragon (1164–1196) and Count of Barcelona (1162–1196). The County of Barcelona (which included many Catalan counties) would then become known as the Principality of Catalonia, within the Crown of Aragon.

James I the Conqueror (King of Aragon 1213–1276) would expand the crown from Aragon and Catalonia:

 * Kingdom of Valencia. El Cid (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar) had taken Valencia with a Christian and Moorish army, and become Prince of Valencia (1094–1099); it would be fought over by Muslims and Christians, before being conquered by Aragon in 1238.
 * Kingdom of Majorca, a realm of the Balearic Islands and on the east coast of Spain, was founded in 1231 after conquest from Moors, and united with the Crown of Aragon in 1258.

James I was also Lord of Montpellier; Montpellier would be sold to the French in 1344. The Crown of Aragon would later include Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples (southern Italy), and other European lands.

Crown of Castile, and Ferdinand III of Castile
The Crown of Castile (1230–1715) developed from the kingdoms of Castile and León; during the 11th and 12th centuries, they would be in personal union at times.

St. Ferdinand III of Castile was the son of Alfonso IX of León and Berenguela of Castile, and became king of Castile and Toledo (1217–1252), and king of León (including Asturias) and Galicia (1230–1252). Toledo had been earlier been Christianized with the capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI of León (1085).

In addition to Castile, Toledo, León (including Asturias), and Galicia, Ferdinand III would conquer Islamic territories which became Christian kingdoms:

 * Kingdom of Córdoba, with the Siege of Córdoba (1236).
 * Kingdom of Jaén, with the Siege of Jaén (1245–1246).
 * Kingdom of Seville, with the Siege of Seville (1247–1248).

In 1238 the Emirate of Granada became a tributary vassal to Castile. With the conquest of Murcia (1243), the Taifa of Murcia became a vassal of Castle. Later on the Crown of Castile would obtain:

 * Kingdom of Murcia, after the Mudéjar revolt (1264–1266), and reconquest by Castile (1265–1266).
 * Lordship of Biscay (1379).
 * Kingdom of Granada (1492).
 * Upper Navarre (1512).

Outside of Iberia, the crown would obtain a great overseas empire in the New World and other places. Córdoba, Jaén, Seville, and Granada would be known as the Four Kingdoms of Andalusia.

Ferdinand and Isabella, and the end of the Reconquista
By 1400 only the Emirate of Granada remained Islamic; Christian Iberia could be divided into:

 * Crown of Castile
 * Crown of Aragon
 * Kingdom of Portugal
 * Kingdom of Navarre

King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile were later called the Catholic Monarchs; they were both from the House of Trastámara, and their marriage in 1469 and later ascensions to their thrones, marked the de facto unification of Spain (as Aragon and Castile). In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella launched the Spanish Inquisition primarily to identify heretics, especially among the conversos, those who converted to Catholicism from Judaism. Tomás de Torquemada was the first Grand Inquisitor between 1483 and 1498.

Ferdinand and Isabella completed the Reconquista with a victorious war against the Emirate of Granada (1482–1492). After the Reconquista, the Alhambra Decree (1492) led to the expulsion of Jews from Spain, although Jews who converted to Christianity escaped expulsion. It was followed by forced conversions and expulsions of Muslims; even some moriscos (i.e. Muslims who had converted to Christianity) experienced expulsion between 1609 and 1614. In 1512 Upper Navarre (to the south) was annexed to the Crown of Castile; Lower Navarre (to the north) then entered personal union with France when Henry III of Navarre became Henry IV of France in 1589.

In 1519 the crowns of Aragon and Castile would enter personal union with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; from then onward they remained in personal union. During and after the War of the Spanish Succession, the Nueva Planta decrees (1707–1716) unified Aragon and Castile into the crown of Spain.