text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2024/Henan Railway Network

1 Introduction
The first railway in China was born in 1825, and laid by the UK. Since then, China's railway network began to form gradually. A railway network includes interconnected railway trunk lines, branch lines, contact lines, stations, and hubs. It is built to meet the needs of passenger and freight transportation under certain historical conditions within a certain spatial scope. The essential feature of this technology is to improve passenger accessibility to more places through efficient railway systems. Henan Province is one of the vital transportation hubs in China, so the railway network in Henan Province has been developing rapidly. Therefore, the biggest advantage of the Henan railway network is that it is located in the center of mainland China and has convenient transportation links. Its main market includes both passenger and freight transport, as passengers or goods from all over the country are often transited here. This study focuses on the life-cycle of the Henan railway network from 1979 to 2022, which shows a life-cycle including the phase of birthing, growth, and maturity.

2.1 Context
Before the year of 1978, there were many questions about the Chinese railway network. For example, it was difficult for people to buy a railway ticket. Most people never had the chance to travel far away from their hometown. At that time, people who had to travel for a long distance usually preferred coaches, because they were cheaper and more accessible. However, the coaches were too slow and uncomfortable. And this kind of vehicle easily went wrong during a long-distance trip. Thanks to the layout of the reform and opening-up policy, China started to attach more importance to the development of the railway network. A series of policies had been formulated to promote the improvement of the railway network in Henan Province.

2.2 Invention
Invention is always a long-term path. Generally, to complete a railway system, people should figure out the source of power, routes, and how to manage different railway lines. In terms of power, the rails were pulled by horses at first. Later, steam engines were used to improve the efficiency of railways. In the invention of the railway, various shapes of tracks were also essential. As for the second shift from the initial technology to the predominant technology, the technology of electric engines was invented, replacing the status of steam engines after the year 1871. Then in 1899, a high-speed railway was born in Prussia, which further promoted the development of railways.

3.1 Early Market Development
In 1978, the main market of Henan Railway was freight. Because Henan is located in the plains of central China, it is not only suitable for railway construction but also convenient for transporting goods to various parts of China. For example, the Longhai Railway is one of the most famous freight lines in Henan, running through the east, central, and western parts of China. By 1997, Henan witnessed the born of its first high-speed railway, which greatly improved the transportation function of Henan's railway network. Passenger transport has gradually become another mainstream market, bringing new vitality to the development of the Henan railway network. Meanwhile, the Freight market remains booming. The opening of the Zhengzhou-Europe International Railway has increased Henan's global reputation and opened up a broader market for its railway freight. Today, Henan railway network development ranks among the best in China.

3.2 The Role of Policy
After the reform and opening up, China Railway organized a series of construction campaigns, and the scale and quality of the road network continued to improve. In the 1980s, railway construction was accelerated by implementing the three ‘campaigns’ of ‘battle against Daqin in the north, attack Hengguang in the south, and capture East China in the middle’; in the 1990s, China implemented the ‘forced attack on Beijing-Kowloon and Lanxin, rapid attack on Baozhong and Houyue’ Then the government will focus on East China and Southwest China, complete the supporting facilities of Daqin, and concentrate its efforts on building several large-capacity trunk lines. Most of these plans passed through Henan Province. In the meantime, the government of Henan also carried out policies to renovate existing lines and increase major railway speed. Most of the various policies during this period were innovative and greatly promoted the development of the Henan railway network. However, in the early years of these policies, people invested too much energy in railways and other industries. They were somewhat unable to do so after 1989, and it became difficult to buy railway tickets. Therefore, the passenger volume in the period thereafter has declined.

4 Growth Phase
From 1979 to 1989, driven by the above policies, the passenger volume of the Henan railway network increased significantly. In 1979 there were only 4,513,000 passengers who travelled to Henan or transformed there, but by 1988 the number of passengers had reached 6,141,000.

Then for a few years, the curve remains flat. In 1997, the first high-speed railway landed in Henan Province and its railway network began a mode of rapid development. Entering the 21st century, China has developed rapidly in all aspects. The social economy and people's living standards continue to grow. Therefore, more and more people have time and money to travel, which further improves the utilization of the railway network.

5 Maturity Phase
From 2012 to 2019, the Henan railway network grew in a fast way, towards its maturity phase of the life-cycle. Unfortunately, when the COVID-19 epidemic broke out in 2020, the government introduced a strict lockdown policy. For the next 3 years, the development of the network was negative. This will have a huge impact on the transportation model that is about to enter its mature stage. However, as the lockdown policy was unwinding, the Henan railway network will be back to its growth soon.

On 20 June 2022, the Puyang-Zhengzhou section of the Jinan-Zhengzhou High-speed Railway, the Zhengzhou-Chongqing High-speed Railway, and the Zhengzhou Airport Station jointly opened for operation, marking the completion of the "Mi"-shaped high-speed rail network (which leads to eight directions) in Henan Province with Zhengzhou as the core. So far, the operating mileage of railways in Henan Province has reached 6,716 kilometers, of which the mileage of high-speed railways with a speed of 350 kilometers per hour has reached 1,924 kilometers, ranking first in the country.

6 Quantitative Analysis
This study collects the number of passengers on the Henan railway network from 1979 to 2022. All statistics are from the National Bureau of Statistics of China. To analyze the data, Use it to estimate a three-parameter logistic function as follows:

S(t)=S_max/(1+exp[-b(t-t_i )])

Where: S(t) is the status measure (passengers), t is time (in years),

t_i is the inflection time (year in which 1/2S_max is achieved), S_max is the saturation status level, b is a coefficient to be estimated.

Then, use a single variable linear regression to simply estimate the coefficients c and b in a model of the form:

Y=bX+c

Where:

Y=ln[Passengers/(S_max-Passengers)],

X=Year.

Table 1 shows all data and Chart 1 shows the s-curve of this mode. Both were at the end of this case study. After many calculations, the results are as follows:

S_max=35000

b=0.03489

r^2=0.61835

t_i=2041.69

The life-cycle of the Henan railway network has experienced the birthing phase and the growth phase as the high-speed railway is still under development, so the railway network will stay in its growth phase for years. According to the chart, the forecast is accurate. For the function of the Chinese transportation hub, the number of passengers on the Henan railway network has grown faster than forecast since 2003. However, from the year 2020, the data dropped significantly on account of the COVID-19 pandemic. This year, thanks to the end of lockdown policies, the number of passengers is expected to rise.


text:
User talk:Ruoyu Wu (ruwu0135)

Welcome!
Welcome, Ruoyu Wu (ruwu0135)!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 06:03, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Ruoyu Wu (ruwu0135)


text:
User talk:41.116.31.105

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 07:49, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:41.116.31.105


text:
User talk:197.136.156.40

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 08:15, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:197.136.156.40


text: Talk:LGBT Young Adult Literature/First Love


text:
User talk:41.116.230.57

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 08:36, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:41.116.230.57


text: Vegan and vegetarian phrases/Esperanto

title: Vegan and vegetarian phrases/Esperanto


text:
User:Misjonarze

Aplikacja mobilna Asheville Yacht Club Michał Kędziora Uber Eats for Merchant Square Seller Club Festival Ticket Trip

title: User:Misjonarze


text:
User:BallardB

I am an engineer from the UK,

My expertise is in:

 * Aerospace Engineering
 * Matlab/Simulink
 * Control Engineering
 * Systems Engineering
 * State Space Modelling

Please keep messages civil as I will not respond to offensive messages.

Have a Great Day!

Brandon

Current Contributions on Wikibooks
Suggestion for AI generated Media (Watermarked) - Contributed on 05/03/2024

title: User:BallardB


text:
User:Roflqwopter

I am me. I like books.

title: User:Roflqwopter


text:
User:Mazimil/sandbox

Welcome to Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection that anyone can edit. books with pages.  Browse Bookshelves Computing Engineering Humanities Languages Mathematics Miscellaneous Recreational activities Science Social sciences Standard curricula Wikijunior All subjects

Featured books • Wikijunior • Cookbook • Browse books • Help • Forum • Using Wikibooks  Today's Featured Content

title: User:Mazimil/sandbox


text:
User:Ottawahitech/WB: Yahoo Groups vs wikiland

WB: Yahoo Groups vs wikiland

COMMON

content: volunteer provided

admin tools: supplied through software provided by owner

admin tools: allow for different levels of control

DIFFERENT

number of online-jurisdictions: YG had lots more groups than wikiland wikis (100s of thousands vs circa 1000 )

ownership: public corporation vs non-profit foundation
 * public corporation
 * administered by a board of directors who represent 	shareholders
 * non-profit foundation
 * administered by a board of directors who represent community of users

website administration:
 * YG: volunteer Owners and group managers for each YG
 * wikiland: local admins for each wiki (volunteers) + global admins for the website (volunteers+paid staff)

administrators appointed by:
 * YG Owners (a volunteer who started / promoted / built up the Group and appointed Group Managers)
 * wikiland:
 * a local wiki community of users
 * global : the community of users of all of wikiland

YG history late 1990s

wikiland history early 2000


text:
Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Metro Flood Diversion (MN/ND)

This page is a case study on the Metro Flood Diversion Project in Fargo, North Dakota and Moorhead, Minnesota, created by Abigail Dodson, Ameera Ali, and Shareef Ibrahim. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathan Gifford.

Summary
The 1997 Red River Flood in the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area caused extensive damage, displacing thousands and damaging schools, businesses, government offices, and homes. In response, the Metro Flood Diversion Project was initiated as a pivotal infrastructure initiative to mitigate flooding risks in the region, spanning from Fargo, North Dakota, to Moorhead, Minnesota. Its primary goal was to address the historical flooding issues caused by the overflow of the Red River during snow melt or heavy rainfall. The Metro Flood Diversion Project comprises essential components, including a diversion channel, control structures, levees, embankments, environmental considerations, and community engagement and funding. A central feature of the project is the diversion channel, designed to redirect excess water from the Red River during flood events, thus bypassing the metropolitan area. This project represents a collaborative effort between two states to protect the Fargo-Moorhead region from the devastating effects of flooding and enhance the resilience of local communities against future weather catastrophes. This project marks the first Public-Private Partnership (P3) venture undertaken by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, representing a nationwide initiative for the split-delivery model. It is North America's leading P3 water management endeavor, setting a precedent for collaborative infrastructure development. The project also represents a groundbreaking green finance initiative for climate change adaptation in the United States, exemplifying innovative approaches to environmental resilience.

Timeline of Events
1997: Major flooding occurred after Blizzard Hannah. The Red River rose to a high of 44.83 feet and caused over $6.4 billion of damage (after inflation) to Grand Forks, North Dakota and East Grand Forks, Minnesota.

1998 - 2007: The Fargo and Moorhead communities recover from the effects of the Red River Flood. The local governments use buy-out programs to manage properties in high flood areas. Businesses like the Alerus Center and the Ralph Engelstad Arena reopen. A commercial office complex center is built.

2008: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers conducts a feasibility study for a flood diversion project.

2009: The Red River floods.

2010: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers publishes the Draft Feasibility Report and Environmental Impact Statement. Two diversion projects were proposed from this study: One in North Dakota and one in Minnesota.

2011: The Red River floods.

2014: The Metro Flood Diversion Project was authorized for construction by the Water Resources Reform and Development Act.

2016:

 * The Minnesota Department of Natural resources denies the permit required for a flood diversion project in the state.
 * The Metro Flood Diversion Authority (MFDA) is formed.
 * The Joint Powers Agreement between North Dakota and Minnesota is created.

2022: The Metro Flood Diversion Project was started. 2027: Expected completion of the Project.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers spearheads a unique Public-Private Partnership (P3) model, collaborating with the private sector to efficiently address the Midwest's flood risks. This partnership brings expertise and funding and ensures the construction of levees, flood walls, and essential infrastructure.

Public Private Partnership
A Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is a collaborative effort between government entities and private sector organizations to develop, finance, and manage public infrastructure or services. In the metro flood diversion project context, PPPs played a significant role in leveraging private sector expertise, resources, and innovation to address the region's flood risks effectively. By partnering with private entities, the project gained access to additional funding sources, accelerated project timelines, and enhanced technical capabilities. PPPs also facilitate sharing of risks and responsibilities between the public and private sectors, ensuring greater accountability and efficiency in project delivery. Moreover, PPPs enabled the metro flood diversion project to harness innovative financing mechanisms and management strategies, ultimately enhancing the project's resilience and sustainability in mitigating flood hazards for the Fargo-Moorhead community.

Metro Flood Diversion Authority (MFDA)
the Metro Flood Diversion Authority (MFDA), formed in 2016, selected the Red River Valley Alliance to design, build, finance, operate, and maintain a 30-mile-long diversion channel crucial for managing floodwaters around the two cities. The MFDA is tasked with ensuring safe and timely construction, land acquisition, and environmental permit compliance, while the Corps oversees the Southern Embankment and Associated Infrastructure construction.

=== Red River Valley Alliance === The Red River Valley Alliance includes members with responsibilities associated with the Diversion Project.

Guarantors
Responsible for the project's design, construction, financing, operation, and maintenance for 30 years post-construction:

 * Acconia S.A.
 * Shikun & Binui Ltd.
 * North American Energy Partners Inc.

Leaders

 * Acconia S.A.
 * Shikun & Binui Ltd.
 * North American Energy Partners Inc.
 * Red River Constructors

Expertise Contributors

 * Red River Valley Alliance Design
 * Hatch Associates Consultants Inc., and COWI North America Inc.

Subcontractors

 * Amec Foster Wheeler
 * Wenck Associates Inc.

Joint Powers Agreement
The Joint Powers Agreement (JPA) in the metro flood diversion project allows North Dakota and Minnesota to work together in the Fargo-Moorhead area to reach a common goal: reduce flooding and protect communities. This agreement helps both states work together smoothly by setting clear rules for decision-making and resource sharing. It also simplifies handling legal and regulatory matters across state lines, saving time and effort. By working together, North Dakota and Minnesota can address shared challenges more effectively, ensuring better community protection against flooding. The Joint Powers Agreement further solidifies stakeholder collaboration, aiming to deliver permanent, reliable flood protection by 2027.

Metro Flood Diversion Project Details
The Metro Flood Diversion Project has two main parts: a 30-mile-long channel to redirect surplus storm water flow around the metropolitan area and temporarily store it on vacant land (acquired by flowage easements) and the in-town levee project to modify 13 levees and 27 storm water lift stations. In addition, a 20-mile-long embankment, 19 highway bridges, three railroad bridges, three gated structures, and two aqueduct structures are being constructed.

Stormwater Diversion Channel
The Red River Valley Alliance is responsible for delivering the stormwater diversion channel for this project. The channel is 30 miles long and includes diversion outlets and aqueducts along the Sheyenne and Maple Rivers. In addition, there will be fourteen drainage inlets, three railroad crossings, two pairs of interstate crossings, and twelve county road crossings.

Southern Embankment
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for delivering the Southern Embankment portion of this project. The Southern Embankment is 22 miles long and has three gated control structures: the Diversion Inlet Structure, the Wild Rice River Structure, and the Red River Structure. Each structure will have a radial arm that allows gates to raise and lower for water control during the project. This portion of the Metro Flood Diversion Project also includes the I-29 Bridge crossing, 4-mile grade raise, and county and township road crossings.

Mitigation Projects
The Metro Flood Diversion Authority and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers will collaborate with local governments to accomplish various mitigation projects, with the USACE not directly involved in their delivery. The upstream mitigation efforts will focus on safeguarding or relocating property structures and cemeteries, which will be acquired through flowage easements facilitated by the MFDA. Additionally, levees will be constructed in Oxbow-Hickson-Bakke and Christine, North Dakota, and Wolverton, Minnesota. Drain 27 in Oxbow, North Dakota, will be enhanced to protect a wetland area, while stream restoration will be carried out on the Lower Otter Trail River.

Cost, Financing Sources, and Funding
The Metro Flood Diversion Project incurred a total expenditure of $3.2 billion, with allocations as follows: $989 million for the construction of the channel under the Public-Private Partnership, $703 million allocated to the southern embankment project overseen by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, $502 million designated for Lands and Impacted Property Mitigation, $266 million directed towards in-town levees, $250 million attributed to non-construction costs, and $44 million set for other mitigation construction endeavors.

Various avenues of financing were utilized to support this extensive project. Notably, $273 million in Private Activity Bonds, including Tax-exempt Green Bonds, were secured through institutions such as Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, Mikko Securities Indonesia, and Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation. MetLife Investment Management contributed $197 million through Private Placement funds, while the Water Infrastructure Finance Innovation Act loans facilitated $643 million in Revolving Credit. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act provided an additional $437 million. Furthermore, communities demonstrated their commitment by voting to augment long-term sales taxes, ensuring sustained funding through a multi-generational Public-Private Partnership (P3) payment structure.

Funding for the project came from federal, state, and local P3 channels. A substantial portion, amounting to $1 billion, was procured through voter-approved sales taxes extended until 2084, adhering to the P3 model. The State of Minnesota contributed $86 million, while the State of North Dakota allocated $870 million. At the federal level, a Project Partnership Agreement (PPA) signed in 2016 secured $750 million towards the endeavor. Technical Issues

Land Acquisition
Land acquisition is critical to securing the space required to implement flood mitigation measures such as levees, channels, and infrastructure. The process consists of acquiring pieces of property from owners within the project area through negotiation, purchase agreements, and, when necessary, eminent domain. Land acquisition is undertaken to ensure adequate space for construction of flood protection and water flow management structures, which reduce flood risks and safeguard communities in the Fargo-Moorhead region. The MFDA uses the following steps to acquire land for the project:

 * 1) A U.S. Army Corps of Engineers design engineer flags land that is must be acquired for the project and notifies the MFDA director of lands and compliance and lands program manager.
 * 2) The MFDA Finance Committee reviews the property rights request and the project budget.
 * 3) Once approved, the MFDA Finance Committee issues a Land Acquisition Directive to The Cass County Joint Water Resource District (CCJWRD) in North Dakota or the Moorhead Clay County Joint Powers Authority (MCCJPA) in Minnesota.
 * 4) Land agents contact the land owners to develop a contract. The contract could be for either a flowage easement or a total property acquisition.

Flowage Easements
Landowners receive payment from the MFDA for the right to periodically store floodwater on the landowner's property. The entities associated with the Metro Flood Diversion Authority (MFDA) will be responsible for acquiring flowage easements. The Cass County Joint Water Resource District (CCJWRD) will oversee the acquisition process in North Dakota. In Minnesota, the acquisition of easements will be managed by either the City of Moorhead, Clay County, or the Moorhead-Clay County Joint Powers Authority (MCCJPA).

Property Acquisitions
Project engineers identify land parcels that the Fargo-Moorhead area will impact, and appraisals are scheduled for each parcel based on construction timelines. Appraisals are reported to Cass County Joint Water Resource District (CCJWRD) in North Dakota or the Moorhead-Clay County Joint Powers Authority (MCCJPA) in Minnesota. Based on the appraisal, an offer to purchase is made and serves as a basis for negotiations between land agents and landowners. After an agreement, a closing date is set where updated property rights are established, and the landowner is paid.

Crop Damage Programs
The MFDA offers comprehensive crop coverage insurance, ensuring that landowners will be protected in the event of flooding caused by the MFDA's activities. Under this coverage, landowners can claim compensation equivalent to the producer's yield multiplied by the crop insurance price. It is important to note that if a landowner receives payment from a federal crop insurance policy for a crop loss claim, it will be accounted for before the MFDA's supplemental crop loss program provides additional compensation. Even if federal crop insurance ceases, the MFDA remains bound by its obligations outlined in the Settlement Agreement, guaranteeing continued support to affected landowners.

Environmental Considerations
The Metro Flood Diversion Project is supported by environmental policies that minimize its ecological footprint and ensure sustainable development. These policies contain a variety of measures designed to protect and enhance biodiversity, water quality, and natural habitats within the project area. Environmental impact assessments evaluate potential effects on wildlife, wetlands, and other sensitive ecosystems, guiding the project's design and implementation to mitigate adverse impacts. Additionally, the project incorporates green infrastructure elements such as vegetative buffers, wetland and stream restoration, and erosion control measures to protect the floodplains and improve overall environmental resilience. The project adheres to strict regulatory requirements and mitigation protocols, ensuring compliance with federal, state, and local environmental laws and standards. By prioritizing environmental stewardship and conservation, the Metro Flood Diversion Project aims to balance flood risk reduction and ecological sustainability, safeguarding human communities and the natural environment for future generations.

Narrative of the Case
Following the 1997 Red River Flood in the Fargo-Moorhead region, it became evident that decisive action was necessary to mitigate the threat of future flood events. As data analysts and scientists linked the floods to global climate change, it undersCorpsd the potential recurrence of similar catastrophic events. While addressing atmospheric impacts to curb climate change remains a priority, the States of North Dakota and Minnesota face limitations in altering natural processes such as snowfall, melting, and subsequent flooding during the spring thaw. The topography of the region also poses challenges, limiting extensive modifications. In response to these constraints, the Metro Flood Diversion Project emerges as a proactive solution to effectively manage flood risks and protect the Fargo-Moorhead area from recurring threats.

The necessity of the Metro Flood Diversion Project had widespread community support, notably as residents of the Fargo-Moorhead area voted to increase taxes until 2084 to contribute to its funding. This endorsement reflected the community's recognition of the project's critical importance in mitigating the devastating impacts of events like the 1997 flood, which imposed significant financial losses on the region and increased insurance rates. This grassroots initiative propelled the issue to higher levels of government, fostering collaboration between local, state, and federal entities. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers played a vital role at the state and federal levels, leveraging its expertise and resources to support the project's development and implementation. Through this multi-tiered collaboration, the Metro Flood Diversion Project emerged as a unified response to the pressing need for comprehensive flood protection, underscoring the effectiveness of intergovernmental cooperation in addressing complex regional challenges.

Lessons Learned / Key Takeaways
The 1997 Red River flood emphasized the significance of infrastructure resilience and the collaboration between state and federal government entities, local governments, and private engineering firms. Rainfall patterns in the midwest continued to increase after 1997; flooding in the midwest was inevitable due to the flat terrain and the northward flow to Canada. In addition, proper satellite data and rain gauges needed to be in place to predict and monitor rainfall intensity and distribution accurately. This combination of factors led to community stakeholders and the government utilizing various flood mitigation techniques to mitigate the effects of future flood events as best as possible.

The project progress was initially slow but gained momentum after the establishment of the Metro Flood Diversion Authority (MFDA). The MFDA brought together representatives from Fargo, Moorhead, and surrounding municipalities to coordinate efforts for flood mitigation and resilience. This unified approach ensured that diverse stakeholders worked together towards common goals, streamlining decision-making processes and enhancing overall project effectiveness. By establishing the MFDA, stakeholders from different political and administrative entities could align their efforts, resources, and priorities to address shared flood risks comprehensively.

Discussion Questions
1.) How does the metro flood diversion project reflect broader trends in urban planning and infrastructure development, particularly in the context of climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies?

2.) What is the role of government agencies and stakeholders in planning and executing the metro flood diversion project?

3.) What are the potential controversies surrounding the metro flood diversion project? Discuss concerns about property rights, environmental justice, and alternative flood mitigation approaches.

4.) What are the potential ethical concerns related to the metro flood diversion project, and why are they of concern? Are there competing societal interests in resource allocation and decision-making processes?

5.) North Dakota and Minnesota have been able to work together on this project to reach a common goal. Do you think Maryland and Virginia could ever do the same pertaining to bridges connecting the two states over the Potomac River?


text: Category:Chia recipes

title: Category:Chia recipes


text:
AQA A-Level Physics/Particles and Anti-particles/Conserving and illustrating interactions

Fundamental rules of particle conservation
4 Things must always be conserved in a particle interaction;

Charge, Baryon Number, Lepton number & Mass/Energy.

The first three are the ones which will most commonly come up in exam questions or be expected when asked to determine if an interaction could occur.

There is also 1 thing which is almost always conserved, being Strangeness.

Conservation of Charge, Baryon Number & Lepton Number
Conservation of these factors is calculated using the values of these given in the formula book. For an interaction to occur, charge must be completely equal on both sides of the 'equation'.

It is important to note that the data given in the formula booklet regards quarks, so you must have knowledge of how quarks come together to form hadrons to answer these questions.

Conservation of Mass/Energy
These conservations are mainly studied in the mechanics section, however, it is important to know that these will also come up in the 'Radiation' subtopic in particles. In the context of Particles and Radiation, the mass of a particle is equal to its energy at rest. This, and its applications will come up in the Radiation subtopic.

Conservation of strangeness
Strangeness must be conserved in all interactions, except for weak interactions.

A weak interaction can be easily noticed in a few ways;

Weak interactions can change the flavour of quarks and leptons, while other interactions cannot.

In weak interactions, strangeness can vary by 1 either positively or negatively. So, for example, if there is a strangeness of 1 on one side, in a weak interaction, this can become either 0, or 1. It can also stay the same.

Feynman Diagrams
to be finished

In the Exam
To be finished


text:
Cocos Malay travel phrasebook/Esperanto

 * EN: Below is a Cocos Malay phrasebook for Bikol speakers.
 * EO: Malsupre estas Kokosa Malaja frazlibro por Esperantistoj.

title: Cocos Malay travel phrasebook/Esperanto


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Chavacano

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Chavacano and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Chavacano alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 700,000 native speakers; 1.2 million as a second language.

Where is this language spoken?
Chavacano is a group of Spanish-based creole language varieties spoken in the Philippines. The variety spoken in Zamboanga City, located in the southern Philippine island group of Mindanao, has the highest concentration of speakers. Other currently existing varieties are found in Cavite City and Ternate, located in the Cavite province on the island of Luzon. Chavacano is the only Spanish-based creole in Asia.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Chavacano


text:
User talk:121.242.232.206

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 10:12, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:121.242.232.206


text:
User talk:Parksansalon

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 10:18, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Parksansalon


text:
User talk:Soft2i's

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 11:23, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Soft2i's


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2024/Sydney On-Demand Bus Network

What is an on-demand bus?
On-demand bus series are a form of public transport which are not on dedicated routes, rather they pick the passenger up from a selected location (either home or another convenient location) and takes them to their destination. The objective of these on-demand services is to help facilitate local trips (<5 kilometers) and connect to larger transportation hubs where passengers can extend their journeys. As such, on-demand services can be thought of as a form of 'micro'-transit providing a similar utility to that of a taxi.

Building Blocks
There are many aspects of different technology which have influenced and led to the implementation of on demand public transport. The most significant influential technologies which have contributed to on-demand buses include:

 * Buses (Automobile technology) - provides the ability to travel.
 * Real time information (internet of things/telecommunication) – ability to track the bus in real time and see aspects like arrival times and journey time.
 * Bookings/payment technology (networks) – ability to book a service to your location and pay via an online transactions or opal card (electronic payment)
 * Ride hailing – has inspired on-demand services significantly. The introduction of services such as Uber highlighted the value and desire of having more flexible options when it comes to travel.

Sydney Bus Network
Sydney's bus network has steadily developed throughout Sydney's history. Through this historic period, what constitutes a 'bus' has changed and developed over time. The following phases have been observed for the technology:

 * Birthing Phase - The early implementation of a what we call today a bus, was a horse drawn carriage. The capacity of carriages differed in size, but generally did cater to more than 15 people. During this initial phase, the bus had strong completion with the streetcar and trolley bus alternatives. As such during the period between 1900 - 1920, patronage on buses remained quite stagnate with no overall growth.
 * Growing Phase - The growth phase can be categorised by the implementation of motorised buses. The bus, which was once the slower and more prohibited alternative could now move much faster in more degrees of freedom then their streetcar/trolley bus competition. This motorisation was also followed by the increased paving of roads throughout Sydney, to meet the demand of private vehicles which saw a significant increase during this period. Patronage saw a significant jump in the recorded passenger volumes, going from 6.4 million annual passengers in 1920 to 50.5 million annual passengers in 1930, or a 790 per cent increase in overall patronage volume. The growing phase of the bus system continued for another 40-years, where patronage would finally reach its market saturation at 324 million annual passengers.
 * Mature Phase / Decline Phase - Since the 1970s, annual patronage has remained steady hovering between 260 - 300 million annual passengers. While the patronage has not significantly dropped it should be noted that the population of Sydney has more then doubled since the 1970. Therefore, in relative terms the patronage of buses has significantly declined. While the bus network has decreased in annual patronage, the extent of the network and provision of services has increased. Sydney for much of the 1900s was a much more centrally located place, with a majority of the population located in the urban core. It was private vehicle as well as urban planning reform which saw people move outwards, which saw a further uptick in vehicle use.

On-demand (2017 - current) ￼
On-demand bus services are relatively new to Sydney with pilot programs beginning as early as November 2017. To date, there have been a total of 12 on-demand bus programs, with five still active as of 2023. Most of these services have been congregated in 'suburban' locations, localities such as The Ponds, Edmondson Park, Carlingford, and Northern beaches. As on-demand services primary role is to provide micro-mobility, providing the general public a public transport option for local trips, it has not seen much success in its implementation in more metropolitan areas. Inner West is an exception to this as the pilot program has been running since 2018 with continued patronage. This is partly due to inner West being a large Local Government Area with much of it not serviced by either heavy or light rail and a higher portion of residents not owning cars, thus providing the potential for an on-demand service to capture a portion of the market.

On-Demand Bus Service Lifecycle
Transport systems, like all other technological inventions, can be categorised within a lifecycle stage. The three key stages within a transport Technolgies life cycle are:

 * 1) Birthing Phase
 * 2) Growth Phase
 * 3) Mature Phase

It is to be noted that while the above is seen as the general rule across technologies, it does not apply to all technologies. Certain technologies do not progress past the birthing phase as they are never adopted, while some technologies fluctuate between growth and maturing phase going through multiple irritations of the lifecycle. In the context of transportation technologies, the lifecycle stage can be classified via the assessment of various factors including number of users, extent of the transport network and accessibility via that transportation technology.

Data Collection
The assessment of Sydney's on-demand bus network has utilised transit patronage data spanning a period between January 2018 to the end of 2023. The following data has been provided by Transport for New South Wales (TfNSW), which details the number of passengers who barded'/alighted the bus service, excluding cancelations and no-shows. Patronage data covers all reportable services to date.

Quantitative Assessment
Recorded patronage data was used to make a quantitative assessment of the life cycle of the technology via the application of a logistic function:

$$S_t = {Smax\over1+exp(-b(t-t_o))}$$

The purpose of this function is to create a S-curve to represent the three key phases in within a transport technologies lifecycle, where:

$$ = Status measure (patronage volumes) $$ = Saturation status level (maximum market share) $$  = Time (in years) $$ = Midpoint (infliction point) $$ = Coefficient (b is estimated through a simple linear regression model)
 * $$S_t
 * $$Smax
 * $$t
 * $$t_o
 * $$-b

Estimating S-max
While the technology of buses is well established with networks operating throughout Sydney's modern history, the introduction of on-demand buses is relatively new with services official recorded services popping up around 2017. As a result of the technology being in its infancy, in order to assess its lifecycle, a number of educated assumptions will need to be made in order to capture an approximate maximum market share (S-max) for the technology.

To calculate S-max, the following assumptions have been made:

 * 1) Extension of services - at market saturation it is assumed that every Local Government Area will have at a minimum of one service. Larger LGA's such has Hawkesbury, Penrith, and Canterbury - Bankstown will have multiple services.
 * 2) Mode Shift - It is expected that a number of existing bus users and taxi/car hailing services switch to on-demand bus services. On-demand services are in a great position to compete with taxi and car hailing services for pre-planned trips, as they provide a similar service for a fraction of the cost. Where on-demand services are limited are for spontaneous trips or trips which need to be made urgently. Similarly, on-demand patronage has recovered better proportionally to regular bus services, indicating that there are less bus trips being made when compared to on-demand services.
 * 3) Population - It is expected that Sydney's total population grows.
 * 4) Suburbanisation - While Sydney has plans for densification it is assumed that Sydney continues to grow outwards, creating suburbs such as Marsden Park and Jordan Springs. As these areas are difficult to support by rail and bus patronage may not be economical for frequent bus routes, on-demand services are particularly convenient to service such areas. Target demographic groups within these areas include elderly, tertiary students, users with mobility issues, and in general the population which does not drive.

A base trip rate has been calculated for the different urban environments. The trip rate has been calculated by using patronage data and the existing population (Trip Rate = service patronage / population of service area) The trip rate assuming an uptick of demand as people move from regular buses services and taxi/car hailing services: 2036 population has been taken as the future population scenario as it is expected that by 2036 every LGA has an on-demand service running. 2036 populations are based on future projections data taken from the Department for Planning and Environment (DPEs) Travel Zone Projections 2022. On demand patronage for each urban environment category has been calculated by the following:

On demand Patronage = Trip rate * 2036 population

Results
Based off the quantitative methodology, the following forecasted values were produced:

Assessment Critique
As the R-squared value equaled 0.283, the model is not considered a statistically accurate representation. The low R-squared value is as a result of:

 * Sample Size - There was only 6 years of patronage data available for on-demand buses as they are a new service.
 * Variance - 2 data points, years 2020 and 2021, were significantly impacted by covid which introduced a significant decrease in patronage. This variance does not match up with the upward projection of patronage and thus has had an impact on decreasing the reliability of the model.

Furthermore, another issue regarding the model was the estimation of S-max. While the methodology was built of educated assumptions and projections, the market size for on-demand buses is difficult to estimate. In the future the following could be done for a better estimation of S-max:

 * A better disaggregation of metropolitan core / suburbs classification
 * A case-study on the introduction of on-demand buses and to what effect have they caused mode shifts
 * A review of taxi/car hailing trips to better understand their utilisation and whether these trips could be converted to on-demand bus trips

It should be noted that as the technology is in its infancy (early life stage of a technology), it's expected that there will be a lot of unknowns surrounding the technology and its development.


text:
User talk:Rahmic

Welcome!
Welcome, Rahmic!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 11:50, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rahmic


text:
User:KonstantinaG07/huggle.yaml.js

--- enable: true version: "3.4.12 build: 4100 3.4.11" report-summary: "Reporting $1" confirm-multiple: false confirm-talk: true confirm-self-revert: true confirm-whitelist: true revert-on-multiple-edits: true automatically-resolve-conflicts: true software-rollback: false enforce-months-as-headers: true history-load: true on-next: 1 delete-edits-after-revert: true skip-to-last-edit: false preferred-provider: 2 remove-oldest-queue-edits: false truncate-edits: false talkpage-freshness: 20 remove-after-trusted-edit: true retrieve-founder: false display-title: false check-tp: true manual-warning: false summary-mode: false automatic-reports: false han-html: false han-display-user-talk: true han-display-bots: false han-display-user: true watchlist: "preferences" automatically-group: false queue-id: "default" page-empty-queue: "" enable-max-score: false max-score: 0 enable-min-score: false min-score: 0 automatic-refresh: true automatically-watchlist-warned-users: false shortcut-hash: "" show-warning-if-not-on-last-revision: true number-dropdown-menu-items: true insert-edits-of-rolled-user-to-queue: true confirm-on-recent-warning: true recent-warning-time-span: 120 confirm-warning-on-very-old-edits: true skip-warning-on-confirm: true queues:
 * 1) // This is a configuration of huggle, do not change it unless you know what you are doing.
 * 1) // Last version of huggle that wrote into this configuration file (sanity check)
 * 1) // This option will change the behaviour of automatic resolution, be careful
 * 1) // Get original creator of every page so that you can G7 instead of reverting the page
 * 1) // Periodically check if you received new messages and display a notification box if you get them
 * 1) // HAN
 * 1) // Whether edits made by same user should be grouped up together in page
 * 1) // Location of page (wiki page name, for example WP:Huggle) that should be displayed when you hit next and queue is empty. Leave empty for default page.
 * 1) // If true you will not warn users who received a warning recently
 * 1) // If warning was sent less than N seconds ago it's considered too recent
 * 1) // If true, the options above will not generate confirmation, but instead will be silently accepted (warning will not be sent)

title: User:KonstantinaG07/huggle.yaml.js


text:
User:Insnesnakos

welcome to my user page

title: User:Insnesnakos


text:
Talk:A History of Japan: From Mythology to Nationhood/Japan Today

Ogatsu Hospital
I just happened to watch A Hospital Once Stood by the Sea: 12 Years since the Tsunami a documentary in English that tells the story of patients and staff members of Ogatsu hospital in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, who perished in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The hospital was destroyed. Since none of this seems to be documented on the English Wikipedia (I think?) I thought I would add a note about it here, if it is appropriate? Ottawahitech (discuss • contribs) 16:12, 6 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Sewing/Hand sewing

For big projects such as sheets or clothing, sewing the fabric is done with a sewing machine, but for smaller/more precise projects, and parts that go on bigger projects, hand sewing is more practical, and finer details can be done. Examples of situations where hand sewing is a better option is for mending and closing seams, and doing decorative stitches, and when using very thin or thick fabric that a sewing machine needle can't go through.

Common utensils for hand sewing:
 * Needles
 * Pins
 * Sewing thread
 * Thimbles
 * Thread scissors
 * Measuring tape

Additional utensils
 * Thread ripper
 * Needle threading tool
 * Scissors
 * Pincushion/ Box for pins (for holding pins and needles)
 * Chalk/Pencil (for marking up fabric, usually washes off with water)
 * Embroidery thread

A new hand sewing project begins by the maker deciding what they want to make, using the materials they have. Common items sewn by hand are small bags, coasters, and decorative bows.

Patterns are commonly used in hand sewing. Patterns are like a 2D net that when sewn together at the right places, turn 3D and can be used. Patterns have markings to show where to cut, where to sew, where to fold, and where to pin the fabric together. Patterns can be found online and some are free and others are paid. Be careful when buying the paid ones online because they could be scams. Patterns can be downloaded and printed onto paper, cut out and placed onto fabric, and traced. Now you have the pattern on fabric.

title: Sewing/Hand sewing


text:
Isometric Pixel Art/Other Shapes

Now that you've shaded a cube, you can make other shapes (cones, rectangles, spheres) and shade them too.

Cones Star the cone by drawing a flat-ish oval shape on the ground. Give the oval a center of one, and use the center to make the point of the cone. Connect the outermost sides of the oval to the point, and there's your cone. To shade it, use your four colors and the sun, add spots where the light is brightest.

Rectangles

Similar to cubes, just lengthen one side and shade it according to the sun's position. In the example, I added two colors on the same face of the rectangle that is facing the side, to give some depth as to where the sun is.

Spheres

For this, I drew a circle, then the sun, and shaded it by using lighter colors for the area closer to the sun. The example is shaded in a circular shape to give off that 3D look, and show it's a sphere.

title: Isometric Pixel Art/Other Shapes


text:
User:The Master of Hedgehogs/timeless.css

.skin-timeless #mw-header-hack { display: none; }


text:
User:The Master of Hedgehogs/timeless.js

// When the user scrolls the page, execute myFunction window.onscroll = function {myFunction};

// Get the header var headerContainer = document.getElementById("mw-header-container");

var header = document.getElementById("mw-header");

// Get the offset position of the navbar var sticky = headerContainer.offsetTop;

// Add the sticky class to the header when you reach its scroll position. Remove "sticky" when you leave the scroll position function myFunction { if (window.pageYOffset > sticky) { // headerContainer.removeChild(header); headerContainer.style.display = "None"; } else { headerContainer.style.display = ""; } }


text:
Cookbook talk:Mixing

Missing content in certain sections
Some sections are empty. That, or Timeless addon Scrollless broke it. The Master of Hedgehogs (discuss • contribs) 19:21, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Checked in Vector 2010, seems like some sections are empty. The Master of Hedgehogs (discuss • contribs) 19:22, 6 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Hi @The Master of Hedgehogs! Yes, some sections are empty. I am currently improving the cookbook, and I added these sections as placeholders for when I get around to them. You are welcome to start adding to them if you want. Cheers —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:04, 7 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Okay, thank you! The Master of Hedgehogs (discuss • contribs) 13:17, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Mixing


text:
Isometric Pixel Art/Car

Now that you've gotten some more experience, you can make a car! In this case, it's a Land Rover, as it's the only car I could find that was boxy and was facing the right way. We'll start by drawing the cubes for the base of the car. Instead of being by 2s, I'll be using 3s, as it fits the slope of the car better.

title: Isometric Pixel Art/Car


text:
User talk:2600:6C60:5DF0:DF0:5513:EDAB:1F22:7DDB

You cannot edit for 3 days due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

--Xania   talk 02:51, 7 March 2024 (UTC)


text: Category:Chicken breast recipes

title: Category:Chicken breast recipes


text: Category:Chicken liver recipes

title: Category:Chicken liver recipes


text: Category:Chicken thigh recipes

title: Category:Chicken thigh recipes


text: Category:Ground chicken recipes

title: Category:Ground chicken recipes


text: Category:Chicken gizzard recipes

title: Category:Chicken gizzard recipes


text:
Talk:A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program/AS2024

What questions do you all think they are going to ask us?
Hello respected students of AQA AS/A-Level Computer Science, I am wondering if anyone knows any possible questions that may be asked during the exam for section C. That would be very helpful for us. 89.211.222.44 (discuss) 06:12, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

 * I don't really know but would like to know if anoyone has an idea 94.203.175.230 (discuss) 06:33, 15 April 2024 (UTC)


text:
User talk:KonstantinaG07

Welcome!
Welcome, KonstantinaG07!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 07:40, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:KonstantinaG07


text:
Transportation Deployment Casebook/2024/High Speed Rail China

Introduction of High-Speed Rail China High Speed Rail (HSR) is a train network that consists of trains that travel at speeds consisting of 350km/hr. The main difference between high-speed rail and normal freight rail besides the model of train is that high speed railway networks cannot have tight turns or significant changes in elevation [1]. In 2007 China introduced high speed rail services and later in 2008 China unveiled its first high speed rail track, connecting Beijing to Tianjin. Initially in 2008 there was only 1000 km worth of operational high speed rail lines in China. Since 2008 China has rapidly expanded its high-speed rail network, it reported that currently the network is 45,000 km at the end of 2023 with more new lines to be added to the network. Currently there are three types of high-speed rail trains in China: C Class for intercity travel, D Class second fastest type of train and the G Class the fastest train used for long distance journeys.

Innovation of High-Speed Rail

The introduction of High-Speed Rail was first introduced in Japan in 1964 and was known as the Shinkansen also commonly referred to as the bullet train. High speed rail was different to conventional rail as high-speed rail trains could travel almost twice as fast as the conventional trains at the time. The main technological difference that separated high speed rail from the traditional rail was high speed rail had to be run on specific tracks, the design of the tracks had fever curves than the typical tracks to reduce the chance of derailment. Another key difference was that the Shinkansen had specific gauges that were different for standard trains [2]. High speed rail would bring together and integrate technology from rail and modern-day electrical systems to create an efficient and fast running train that meets the demands of modern consumers. China would take these initial blueprints from the original high speed rail line in Japan and expand on it during the development of HSR in China. Specifically, for HSR in China there were four technological improvements that helped to further enhance operation speed of the railway system in China. The four improvements are related to the railway line, control system, traction power supply and the EMU (electrical moving unit). As technology advances and safety concerns arise, construction of track became a focus, specifically strength, stiffness, durability, settlement after construction and geometric dimensions [3]. The EMU is an important component of high-speed trains, high speed trains in China re-innovated this by altering such components of the trains such as aluminium body, high-speed bogie, traction converter and braking system. These alterations have allowed its models of trains to achieve operations speed of 350 km/hr. Control system is used to control and regulate the speed of the train stops at stations. This process runs through an advanced control network. Traction power supply system is responsible for the safety and reliability of electrical processes.

Effects of the introduction of High-Speed Rail in China The introduction of High-Speed Rail in China as it allowed for more efficient and faster travel across China with the main target market being Chinese people and tourist. In addition, the introduction of more lines has allowed greater accessibility to multiple cities in China, while also transforming the way people travel across China. Since the introduction of high-speed rail in China alongside its rapid expansion, it was found that there was a decrease of 28.7% in the number of passenger flights and a reduction of 31.8% of aviation passengers. The environmental benefits of these reductions in air travel means that there will be a reduction in air traffic emissions, it was found that between 2012 to 2015 there was a net saving of 1.76 million tons of carbon dioxide [3]. In addition, HSR has also increased economic development of regions and economic growth, this is because HSR has increased the population mobility in China meaning more quicker and frequency travel to different regions.

Mode of Transport Before the Introduction High Speed Rail in China Before the introduction of high-speed rail and high-speed rail lines in 2008, people would use traditional trains such as stream trains and electric trains to travel across China. In addition, cars and buses were also used and are favoured for shorter trips, while commercial flights are favoured for longer trips. Although the railway network was extensive due to the early development of railway in the late 19th century, the main disadvantages of these trains where they are uncomfortable, overcrowded, and slow, with a traveling speed of 49 km/hr-120 km/hr in the 1994. As more modern trains were introduced, a fast speed rail of 200 km/hr was added to the network [4]. These additions to the network did not do much to address the current disadvantages of the old network. Another form of travel around China was domestic commercial flights also known as civil aviation. This mode was mainly used for longer journeys of travel. The main issues with this mode of transport are that the flights are usually slow due to security reasons and are considered often more unreliable. Furthermore, another disadvantage of flights is that they have a lower frequency than High Speed Rail and the price of tickets are higher than train tickets. In addition, cars and buses also are also another mode of transport. The main disadvantages of this mode of travel are that it is slower than high speed rail due to speed limits and unpredictable traffic. Specifically for buses they are often considered uncomfortable and are more prone to reliability issues compared to HSR. Also, multiple switching between buses for longer routes is also a major disadvantage. Since the introduction of high-speed rail in China, studies have shown that there has been a reduction in occupation rates in buses where HSR lines exist and reduction in domestic air travel of 27.9% [5].This can be attributed to the evolution of the HSR network as more routes have been added to the system and the Chinese consumer has been given more reason to choose HSR over the prior existing forms of transport available.

Early Market Development

The primary market during the development of High-Speed Rail in China was identified to be Chinese passengers, specifically road and airport users due to increasing passenger demand for this, but also with a goal to impact passenger transportation patterns. Functional enhancement and functional discoveries of HSR with the introduction of additional new lines changed the transportation market. At the early stages of the HSR being introduced in China ridership was low, as people had not fully adopted HSR, current modes such as cars, buses and planes were still favoured. In 2011, China made policy changes to the operation of the High-Speed Rail. These changes were made after the Wenzhou collision in July 2011, where two trains collided on a viaduct and derailed killing 40 passengers and injuring 200. This incident impacted the public confidence in high rail and later in August the Chinese government would act by introducing railway deceleration policy which lowered the operational speed of High-Speed Rail trains from 350km/hr to 300km/hr [6]. Furthermore, with public confidence at a low and a lower-than-expected ridership due to high ticket prices, In August 2011, to help generate greater ridership numbers of ticket prices were lowered by about 5%. In 2012 the Chinese government reinvested in high-speed rail. This investment increased the budget of spending which led to the expansion of high-speed rail and reaffirming the Chinese government's commitment to high-speed rail. The introduction of these new lines allowed for greater accessibility between cities in China, as new lines were introduced public perception of HSR changed as it was cheaper than flying, quick reliable travel time and high frequency of departures. As HSR ridership increased, a shift in the transportation market occurred as more people switched to using HSR. Research found as more people switched to using HSR other modes of transport have been impacted, influencing the transport market. An example of this can be seen in the Ningbo-Hangzhou as occupancy rates of buses decreased by 25.89% and Beijing and Tianjin decreased 48.2% after the opening of the line. As ridership numbers of HSR increased in 2017 fares for certain lines of HSR were raised by 10-50% [7].

Policies in the birthing phase

Various policies were deployed and introduced by the Chinese government to achieve the goals set out for the High-Speed Rail network. The main policies implemented can be broken down into four main themes which are technology development, financial support, HSR engineering projects and safety systems with technology development and engineering projects as the high priority focus for the Chinese government. During the early stages of developments since HSR is a technology-intensive industry, early policies focused on the design of technology and introduction. Policies such as Provisional Regulations for Design of Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway was issued in 2004, as technology advanced later the China High Speed Train Independent Innovation Joint Action Plan was launched in 2008 [8]. These policies would later help develop other standards and specifications such as the Code for Design of High-Speed Railway 2014 helping ensure. Furthermore, early policies focused on reforming the railway market, such as ownership separation of the railway operations and railway infrastructure proposed in 1998 with railway operation reforms being imposed in 2003 [8]. At this stage the Chinese government had several financial funding policies such as tax incentives and subsidies to help stimulate the development of the HSR. These policies would later help set policies relating to the improvement of investment and financing of HSR. Regarding HSR engineering many policies were implemented by the Chinese government revolving around construction and operation of HSR projects. The early stages of the policies focused on railway infrastructure with strong emphasis on network planning, bridges, and platform design [8]. Later as technology began to grow the focus shifted towards HSR equipment. As more HSR rail projects were being undertaken, policies would later shift to project management. These policies would help to establish the importance of improving transport services within the High-Speed Rail network. The Chinese government closely monitors the safety system of High-Speed Rail. During the whole development of the HSR safety was a primary focus for policies. At the start of development HSR safety focused mainly on transportation safety and would later shift to emergency systems. These early policies would help to develop regulations such as Regulation on the Administration of Railway Safety. These four key areas of policy are the building blocks that would help develop further policies and regulations to help improve the high-speed rail network. By formulating policies related to investment, financing, taxation, and price the government encourages participation in market activities. Current policy making HSR is mainly market-oriented with a primary focus on the development of HSR. Most of China’s success in HSR can be attributed to the policies supported by the Chinese government.

Mature Phase

HSR in China begins to enter its mature phase in 2019 as ridership data can be seen to have begun to decrease and would follow the same trend in the subsequent years. This trend can be attributed many factors such as more competitive prices for commercial air travel to compete with the demands of high-speed rail, but the main driving force can be attributed to COVID-19 pandemic which saw a reduction in public transport usage due to growing health concerns and eventual lockdown and travel restrictions which greater impacted the ridership numbers. To contract and restimulate the HSR network, China has decided to further expand its network widening the market as well as to complete with other markets the HSR has improved operating plan timetable and increased the capacity of trains. The HSR network is also developing new train that can achieve speed of 620 km/hr [6] and further developing high speed rail technology.

Reinventing High Speed Rail in China HSR in China is pretty flawless as it is efficient and reliable with high frequency of service, reinventing High Speed Rail apart from the addition of more lines would be lowering prices of tickets as further research found that people from lower income households do not use HSR as much compared to middle to high income household, improving accessibility to all social economic classes would go far in positive change that will meet the needs of consumers. In addition, the integration of cleaner and renewable sources of energy into the system to power the network will greatly benefit China, since there is currently an environmental problem.

Quantitative Analysis of High-Speed Rail in China A quantitative analysis of High-Speed Rail in China was performed using the ridership data from 2008 to 2021. The life cycle of mode can be visualized and modelled using the S-curve inputting annual ridership data which can be used to determine the birthing, growth, and maturity phases. The data used to generate the curve was from Statista and an estimate was made. S(t) = Smax/[1+exp(-b(t-ti)] Where: •	S(t) is the status measure, (Annual Ridership) •	 t is time (Years) •	 ti is the inflection time (year in which 1/2 Smax is reached), •	 Smax is saturation status level to be estimated. •	b is a coefficient to be estimated. Single linear regression was used to find coefficients to find the estimation of passengers. Specific coefficients c and b from the equation below:

Y = bX + c

Different values of K (maximum saturation) were used to determine the maximum value of R^2 closet to 1.0. To achieve this single variable linear regression was used for each year and every year with different K value.

Results and Discussion

Table 1: Annual actual data compared to predicted data

Figure 1: S-Curve of HSR China

From the results shown in Figure 1, the maximum saturation of passengers 2.5 billon passengers and that the half saturation can be observed in 2016. The predicted ridership line in comparison to the actual ridership is fairly accurate in the initial stages, but as the mode continues to grow both the passengers and predicted passengers greatly differ as the actual data is significantly greater than the predicted data. Hence the model is not completely accurate as it doesn’t correct predict the lifecycle. The reason for this could be that the expansion of additional lines were finished quicker or ahead of schedule which expanded the market for HSR, this could be a reason for why the ridership data is different from the predicted. From the graph it can be assumed that the birthing phase is from 2008-2010 is there is very slight increases in ridership. The graph shown in figure 1 also indicates significant increases in ridership in the period of 2011-2018 which signals the growth phase. From 2019 onwards can be considered the maturity phase as ridership takes a drastic decline in ridership, however this data is not completely accurate and illustrates the life cycle of HSR in China as external factors such as the COVID 19 pandemic has influenced ridership numbers.

References

1.	High Speed Rail Construction: How is it different? (2023) R&S Track, Inc. Available at: https://rstrackinc.com/high-speed-rail-track-construction/ (Accessed: 01 March 2024).

2.	Elite (2023) High Speed Rail Construction: How is it different?, R&S Track, Inc. Available at: https://rstrackinc.com/high-speed-rail-track-construction/ (Accessed: 07 March 2024).

3.	Lu, C. (2019) ‘A discussion on technologies for improving the operational speed of high-speed railway networks’, Transportation Safety and Environment, 1(1), pp. 22–36. doi:10.1093/tse/tdz003.

4.	LHuillier, R.C. (2019) The evolution of China’s High Speed Rail Network, Welcome To China. Available at: https://welcometochina.com.au/the-evolution-of-high-speed-rail-in-china-7726.html (Accessed: 07 March 2024).

5.	Chen, Z. (2017) ‘Impacts of high-speed rail on domestic air transportation in China’, Journal of Transport Geography, 62, pp. 184–196. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.04.002.

6.	Jones, B. (2022) The evolution of China’s incredible high-speed rail network, CNN. Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/china-high-speed-rail-cmd/index.html (Accessed: 07 March 2024).

7.	(No date a) The development of high-speed rail in China. Available at: https://transition-china.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/20220621_HSR-Study-English-Final.pdf (Accessed: 07 March 2024).

8.	Li, H. et al. (2021) ‘Policy Analysis for high-speed rail in China: Evolution, evaluation, and expectation’, Transport Policy, 106, pp. 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.03.019.

9.	Zhang, W. (2024) China: Length of High Speed Rail Operation Network 2023, Statista. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1120063/china-length-of-high-speed-rail-operation-network/ (Accessed: 07 March 2024).

10.	Yuan, Z., Dong, C. and Ou, X. (2023) ‘The substitution effect of high-speed rail on civil aviation in China’, Energy, 263, p. 125913. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2022.125913. 11.	Zhang, W. (2024b) China: Passenger transport volume of highspeed rail 2021, Statista. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1120071/china-passenger-transport-volume-of-highspeed-rail/ (Accessed: 01 March 2024).


text:
User talk:Bennett Chung

Welcome!
Welcome, Bennett Chung!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 12:48, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bennett Chung


text:
Czech/Nouns/Case/Instrumental

=Instrumental Case in Czech (7th)=

Instrumental case is used to mark the instrument, after some prepositions (such as s "with") or with some verbs.

Declension

 * Group 1:
 * M: nouns whose nom/sg end in a consonant without haček (doktor/hrad)
 * F: nouns ending in -a
 * N: nouns ending in -o
 * Group 2 (soft ending):
 * M: nouns ending in a consonant with haček, -e,/ě -c, -j, -tel
 * Group 3:
 * M: nouns whose nom/sg end in -a
 * F: nouns ending in -st
 * N: nouns ending in -í

Used a a tool or means of transport

 * Jeli jsme autem  – We went by car
 * Jedli nožem  – They ate with a knife

After certain verbs

 * Stal jsem se studentem  – I became a student

Prepositions

 * s – with (e.g. s tebou  – with you)
 * mluvím s doktorem  – I talk with my doctor
 * za – behind, beyond, after (place), in/after (time);
 * stát za rohem  – to stand behind the corner\
 * kdo za tím je? – who's behind (it)?/what's the meritum?
 * za horizontem  – beyond the horizon
 * před – in front of (place); before; ago; from; against
 * přímo před tebou  – right in front of you
 * před mnoha lety  – many years ago
 * uniknout před pronásledovateli  – to escape from pursuers
 * varovat před ním  – to warn against him)
 * pod – under(neath), below (place)
 * pod stolem spí pes – a dog is sleeping under the table
 * nad – over, above (place)
 * mezi – between, among (place)
 * mezi póly  – between poles
 * mezi kuřaty  – among chicken

title: Czech/Nouns/Case/Instrumental


text: Category:Whole chicken recipes

title: Category:Whole chicken recipes


text: Wikibooks talk:Autoreviewed users

title: Wikibooks talk:Autoreviewed users


text:
User talk:2600:6C60:5DF0:DF0:D451:5FCB:E517:AC0E

You cannot edit for 1 week due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

--Xania   talk 05:42, 8 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
User talk:NitinLawrence

Your page Nitin Lawrence has been deleted. This is Wikibooks, not Wikipedia. See Using Wikibooks for more information.--Xania   talk 05:56, 8 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:NitinLawrence


text:
User talk:202.164.60.6

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 08:50, 8 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.164.60.6


text:
User talk:49.43.32.113

March 2024
MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 13:33, 8 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:49.43.32.113


text:
IB/Group 4/Computer Science/Computer Organisation/The Information Layer

What is positional notation ?
Numbers are written using positional notation. The rightmost digit represents its value multiplied by the base of the zeroth power. The digit to the left of that one represents its value multiplied by the base to the first power. The next digit represents its value multiplied by the base to the second power. The next digit represents its value multiplied by the base to the third power, and so on. One is usually familiar with positional notation even if they are not aware. One is instinctively inclined to utilise this method to calculate the number of ones in 943:

A more formal way of defining positional notation is to say that the value is represented as a polynomial in the base of a number system. But what is a polynomial? A polynomial is a sum of two or more algebraic terms, each of which consists of a constant multiplied by one or more variables raised to a non-negative integral power. When defining positional notation, the variable is the base of the number system. Thus 943 is represented as a polynomial as follows, with $$x$$ acting as the base:

To express this idea formally, a number in the base-$$R$$ number system has $$n$$ digits, it is represented as follows, where $$d_i$$ represents the digit in the $$i$$th position in the number:

Look complicated? Take a concrete example of 63578 in the base 10. Here $$n$$ is 5 (the number has exactly 5 digits), and $$R$$ is 10 (the base). The formula states that the fifth digit (the last digit on the left) is multiplied by the base to the fourth power; the fourth digit is multiplied by the base to the third power, and so on:

In the previous calculation, one assumed that the number base is 10. This is a logical assumption because the generic number system is base 10. However, there is no reason why the number 943 could not represent a value in base 13. In order to distinguish between these values, the general notation of $$k_{R}$$ is utilised in order to represent a number $$k$$ in base $$R$$. Therefore, $$943_{10}$$ is a number found in the base 10 system. In order to turn turn $$943_{13}$$ into $$k_{10}$$ one simply uses the previous calculation:

Therefore, 943 in base 13 is equal to 1576 in base 10, or $$943_{13} = 1576_{10}$$. One must keep in mind that these two numbers have an equivalent value. That is, both represent the same number of "things." If one bag contains $$943_{13}$$ beans and a second bag contains $$1576_{10}$$ beans, then both bags contain the exact same number of beans. The number systems just allow one to represent the value in various ways.

Note that in base 10, the rightmost digit is the "ones" position. In base 13, the rightmost digit is also the "ones" position. In fact, this is true for any base, because anything raised to the power of zero is one.

Why would anyone want to represent values in base 13? It is not done very often, granted, but it is sometimes helpful to understand how it works. For example, a computing technique called hashing takes numbers and scrambles them, and one way to scramble numbers is to interpret them in a different base.

Other bases, such as base 2 (binary), are particularly important in computer processing. It is also helpful to be familiar with number systems that are powers of 2, such as base 8 (octal), and base 16 (hexadecimal).

What is binary ?
The term binary refers to any encoding in which there are two possible values. In computer science they refer to the electronic values 0 and 1 (see figure below). Booleans values are binary. In computers we use binary instead of the decimal system as they offer a much simpler and efficient way to perform calculations through electronics than they would with a decimal system. This can be explored in the following sections regarding binary gates.

Interpretation of voltages to binary by the computer. Given that we are in a system where the max voltage is 5 Volts, then input current in an electrical wire is interpreted as a logical 0 by a transistor if the voltage is between 0 volts and 0.8 volts. On the other hand if the voltage is between 2 volts and 5 volts then the transistor interprets the input signal as a logical 1 (right diagram). It is important to note that there is a non-usable area of voltage that does not correspond to either a logical 0 or 1. This non-usable area is particularly useful since voltage always slightly fluctuates, having this grey zone allows us to better identify electrical signals (0 and 1) from each other. Similar voltage conversions from volts to binary digits also exist for output signals from transistors.¹

The base of a number system specifies the number of digits used in the system. The digits always begin with 0 and continue through one less than the base. For example, there are 2 digits in base 2: 0 and 1. There are 8 digits in base 8: 0 through to 7. There are 10 digits in base 10: 0 through 9. The base also determines what the positions of digits mean. When one adds 1 to the last digit in the number system, one has to carry the digit position to the left.

What is a bit ?
A bit is the smallest unit of data that a computer can process and store. It can either store a 1 or a 0 and represents on/off, true/false, yes/no.

What is a byte ?
1 byte is a unit of data that consists of/stores 8 bits. 1 byte represents 28 distinct values.

How do I convert a decimal number to a binary number ?
If we want to convert a decimal number to a binary number we will also use our previous conversion table.

For example let's convert decimal number 56:

 * First we look at the biggest binary power that can entirely fit in 56. This is 32 = 25. It is not 64 because 56 does not fit entirely into 64.
 * Then we take the remainder of 56 - 32 = 24. We check which is the biggest binary power that can entirely fit into 24. This is 16 = 24.
 * Then we take the remainder of 24 - 16 = 8. We check which is the biggest binary power that can entirely fit into 24. This is 8 = 23.
 * Finally 8 - 8 = 0 so we have reached the end.

Now we mark the powers of two that we used for our calculus as a binary 1 and the other powers as 0. We get 00111000

How do I convert a binary number to a decimal number ?
To convert a binary number into decimal, we just need to sum all powers of 2 that have a 1 in the binary digit.

First off, we must count the number of digits in the Binary Number and correlate them with the powers of 2, starting from $$2^{0}$$ up to $$2^{8}$$.

For each digit in binary we must take multiply the number by the corresponding exponent of 2. For example:

Take the binary number 1011. Following the previous rule of positional number we achieve the following table: Now following the same logic, but just written differently, if we convert the following byte into decimal: 10011100 We only add the columns where the binary digit is equal to 1.

Finally, we add each number up and this is the number converted from binary.

So 10011100 = 128 + 16 + 8 + 4 = 156

How many possible numbers can I store in a byte ?
A byte is 8 bits, which means that the amount of values that can be stored in a byte of data is 28 = 256.

How many possible numbers can I store in a an n-bit number ?

Since there are n possible bits that each can take two possible values (1 or 0), we can store $$2^n$$ possible numbers in a n-bit number.

In a byte this means we can store 28 = 256 different numbers.

What is the biggest number I can get in a an n-bit number ?

Since there are n possible bits that each can take two possible values (1 or 0), the biggest number that we can get is 2n -1. Indeed the smallest number that we can get is a 0 hence the -1 in the formula.

In a byte this means the biggest number we can get is 28 -1 = 255, being 11111111, and the smallest number is 0 being 0000000.

Exercises - Binary representation of numbers
1. What is the decimal representation of 1001 ?

23 + 20 = 8 + 1 = 9

2. What is the decimal representation of 01000101 ?

26 + 22+ 20 = 64 + 4 + 1 = 69

3. What is the binary representation of 42 ?

42 - 32 = 10 with 32 = 25

10 - 8 = 2 with 8 = 23

2 - 2 = 0 with 2 = 21

Hence the binary representation: 00101010

4. What is the binary representation of 129 ?

129 - 128 = 1 with 128 = 27

1 - 1 = 0 with 1 = 20Hence the binary representation: 01000001

5. How many different integers can I represent in 2 bytes ?

2 bytes are 16 bits (2 x 8bits), hence 216 = 65536 different numbers can be represented in 2 bytes

6. What is the biggest number I can represent in 2 bytes ?

2 bytes are 16 bits (2 x 8bits), hence 216 -1 = 65535 is the biggest number that can be represented in 2 bytes.

What is Hexadecimal ?
How are digits represented in bases higher than 10? In bases higher than 10, the digits above the integer 9 will be represented as symbols. All digits are written in the following conversion table.

Hexadecimal is a numbering system that uses 16 possible digits. Its primary attraction is its ability to represent very high numbers with fewer digits that in binary or in the decimal system.

How do I convert a decimal number to a hexadecimal number ?
The method is following:

 * Apply a floor division to the decimal number by 16. Write down the remainder starting from the left side.
 * Continue applying floor division by 16 to the previous result of the floor division until you reach 0. Keep writing down the remainders.
 * Convert the remainders, from last one to first one, to hexadecimal using the table to the right.
 * You have your hexadecimal number !

For example if we want to convert the decimal number 2545 to hexadecimal:

 * We apply floor division: 2545 // 16 = 159, The remainder of that division is 2545 % 16 = 1
 * We apply floor division to our previous result: 159 // 16 = 9, The remainder of that division is 159 % 16 = 15
 * We apply floor division to our previous result: 9 // 16 = 0, The remainder of that division is 9 % 16 = 9.
 * We reached 0 so we stop dividing.
 * We convert our remainders: 9 → 9, 15 → F, 1 → 1
 * So our hexadecimal number is: 9F1

How do I convert a hexadecimal number to a decimal number ?
This conversion is a bit simpler as we can use positional notation to convert our number. Indeed, we just need to multiply each hexadecimal digit by its corresponding power of 16.

For example, if we want to convert the hexadecimal number ABC to a decimal number we multiply $$C$$ by $$16^0$$ as there are 12 ones in the number, $$B$$ by $$16^1$$ as there are 11 sixteens, and $$A$$ by $$16^2$$ as there are 10 two-hundred-fifty-sixes.

How do I convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number?
To convert a binary number to a hexadecimal number, start by making sure the length of your binary number is a multiple of 4. If not, add 0s to the front of the number until it is a multiple of 4.

Next, split the binary number into groups of 4 digits.

Then, for each group of 4 digits, turn the binary number into a single number, by converting each digit in the 4-digit values to the corresponding power of 2:

(The thousands becomes 8, the hundreds becomes 4, the tens becomes 2, and the units becomes 1. However, if the binary value at a place is a 0, then it stays a zero.)

For instance, the binary value 1111 becomes 8421, while 0101 becomes 0401

Then, add up the digits. 8421 becomes 8+4+2+1 = 15, while 0401 becomes 4+1 = 5.

Finally, convert that value to hexadecimal. If the value is from 0 to 9, it stays that value in hexadecimal. If it is 10 or higher, it changes to the corresponding alphabet letter: 10 is A, 11 is B, et cætera.

For example if we want to convert the binary number: 1011111011

 * Our number has only 10 bits so we add two 0s to the left side: 001011111011
 * We divide our number in groups of 4 bits: 0010 1111 1011
 * We turn each group into a single number: 0+0+2+0 =  2,  8+4+2+1 =   15, 8+0+2+1 =   11
 * We convert the single number to hexadecimal numbers: 2 → 2, 15 → F, 11 → B
 * Our hexadecimal number is 2FB

What is Octal ?
Not needed for the exams Octal is a numbering system in base 8, meaning only digits from 0 to 7 exist in this notation.

For example, one can calculate the decimal equivalent of 754 in octal (base 8) − simply put, finding $$754_{8} = k_{10}$$. As before, it is the case of expanding the number in its polynomial form and adding up the numbers:

What is ASCII?
ASCII stands for American Standard Code Information Interchange. It was a 7-bit code, later changed to 8-bit, that had the purpose of setting a number to a letter and other foreign symbols which would allow for the interchanging of information between computers in a single country or using the same language. The total number of letters and symbols stored in ASCII was 128. Countries would input their own letters and symbols instead of English.

However, there was one major drawback, the fact that ASCII only held symbols with English letters, computers from around the world could not successfully interchange information and data with each other.

This drawback led to the creation of the larger database of letters and symbols, Unicode which allows all languages to store their letters in Unicode.

What is Unicode ?
Though ASCII was the industry standard for a very long time, it simply did not have enough characters and symbols to cover the fast internationalisation of the world. The initial solution was to have a different organisation system per country, however if a person in Japan were to send a email with Japanese characters to someone in the UK it would be an incomprehensible mess. The solution was Unicode. Unicode now build on a 16-24 bit systems instead of ASCII's 8 bit system and is able to cover 149,813 different characters, which is enough to cover every single character in every single language that exists.

As of 2024, a total of 161 scripts are included in the latest version of Unicode (covering alphabets, abugidas and syllabaries), although there are still scripts that are not yet encoded, particularly those mainly used in historical, liturgical, and academic contexts. Further additions of characters to the already encoded scripts, as well as symbols, in particular for mathematics and music (in the form of notes and rhythmic symbols), also occur.

What is UTF-8 ?
UTF-8 is a way of translating between Unicode characters and binary text. This is done by storing each Unicode character in the form of up to four one-byte binary strings. Each binary string is created by converting the code point of the Unicode character (letters and numbers that form an index) into a set of binary strings, where each string represents one character in the code point.

For example, the character "A", is represented as `"U+0041" (where "41" is the code point), which is encoded to "01000001" (which is 41 in hexadecimal).

How can I represent characters from different languages in a text?
The best way to represent characters from different languages is to use Unicode. ASCII is inconvenient for different languages as it was designed specifically for English, and does not contain any non-English characters. Meanwhile, Unicode has Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters, the Cyrillic and Arabic alphabets, as well as any other symbol from a wide variety of languages.

How are floats represented/stored ?
Section to go more in-depth on the content. Floats are typically represented in 4 bytes. Out of these 32 bits: 1 bit is used for the sign of the number, 8 bits are used for the exponent and 23 bits are used for the floating point of the number. It is a way of storing numbers in scientific notation.

Putting the values into mathematical terms, it is calculated by ±A*$$10^{-B}$$. The sign is represented by the blue area, A is given by the red area and B is given by the green area.

It is interesting to note that if we want to represent negative and positive numbers (whole numbers or decimal) we need to use one bit for storing the sign. If we only store positive numbers we don't need to keep that sign bit.

How is sound represented/stored ?
After sound has been recorded with a microphone, which converts sound waves into a digital signal, computers use a technique called sampling. The computer samples the sound by taking measurements of the amplitude of the sound signal at regular intervals, often 44.1 kHz (or 44,100 times per second), which are then saved as numbers in binary format.

How are colors represented/stored ?
Colors we see on the computer screens today are represented by binary numbers of 24 bits.

As we know, all colors originate from the 3 primary colors red, blue, and green. Depending on how much of the 3 colors we mix, we are able to achieve many different colors. Therefore, the computer only analyses the 3 primary colors and how much they are used when being mixed. This system is called an RGB representation.

In the total of 24 bits, we divide it into 3 sets of bits for the 3 different primary numbers: 8 bits are for blue, 8 bits are for green, and 8 bits are for red.

Let's first take an example of the color red. In the color red, the corresponding RGB value is: R - 255 (most amount of color we can use), G - 0 (using none of this color), B - 0 (using none of this color).

Therefore, in the 8 bits, the number 255 in base 10 can be transformed into base 2 in 8 bits, which is in this case 11111111. Hence the color red in binary of 24 bits would be 111111110000000000000000. This case applies for both green (000000001111111100000000) and blue (000000000000000011111111).

To summarize, here are the steps:

- divide the 24 bits into 3 sets of 8 bits to represent the colors red, green, and blue

- find the RGB representation of the color in base 10

- transform each the RGB values that are in base 10 to base 2

- combine the 3 sets of 8 bits and here we have the final binary representation of a color

Generally, 24 bits are sufficient to depict realistic colors (photo-realistic). However, even more bits can be used such as 32 bits or 48 bits to illustrate even more realistic colors.


text:
Punjabi/Dictionary/ਤ

ਤੋਤਾ - Parrot

ਤਲਿਆਂ - Fry

ਤਰਖ਼ਾਣ - Carpenter

ਤੱਕੜੀ - Scale

ਤੇਰਾਂ - 13

ਤੇਰਾ - Tera

ਤਿੱਖਾ - Sharp

ਤਿੰਨ - 3

ਤੱਤਾ - Hot

ਤੱਕਣਾ - Watch

ਤਲਵਾਰ - Sword

ਤਾਰੀਖ਼ - Date

ਤੋਲਣਾ - Weight

ਤਾੜੀਆਂ - Clapping

ਤਾਰ - Wire

title: Punjabi/Dictionary/ਤ


text:
Punjabi/Dictionary/ਦ

ਦਫ਼ਤਰ - Office

ਦਸਤਾਰ - Turban

ਦਿਮਾਗ - Brain

ਦਿੱਲੀ - City

ਦੁਕਾਨ - Shop

ਦੁਨੀਆ - World

ਦੋਸਤੀ - Friends

ਦੱਸਣਾ - Tell

ਦਸੰਬਰ - Month

ਦਾਲਾਂ - Pulses

ਦਸ਼ਾ - Direction

ਦਹੀਂ - Curd

ਦੰਦ - Teeth

ਦੀਵਾ - Lamp

title: Punjabi/Dictionary/ਦ


text:
Punjabi/Dictionary/ਧ

ਧੰਨਵਾਦ - Thank you

ਧਾਗਾ - Thread

title: Punjabi/Dictionary/ਧ