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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6/Power

Power in Poetry
Poetry is often seen as an art, a literary form to express one’s feelings or write about the beauty of the world. It is, as Edgar Allan Poe said, “a rhythmical creation of beauty”. However, throughout history, poetry has been used as a mean of power, to denunciate injustice and political oppression. For instance, poetry has been used to denounce colonialism, violence against minorities and religious conflicts.

First, poetry has long been used to denounce colonialism, its violence and its injustice. For example, Aimé Césaire uses rhythm and violent images as a mean of power in the affirmation of the black culture. This is indeed a use of power as images such as “whip” and “sore” as well as “frigates” associated with a rhythm reminding of the African culture creates a statement on his view of colonialism, and uses it as a mean of affirming his identity and fighting back the oppression and the grief engraved in his culture. Hence, power in poetry has been used to denounce and condone colonialism.

In “How we could have lived or died this way”, Martin Espada makes use of a range of imagery such as the imagery of hands or graphic violence to convey the conflict between the minorities represented as a unique character and the rest of the society represented as the oppressor. He narrates the arrest of black and Hispanic minorities to condone police brutality and injustice towards minorities. Strong vocabulary such as “barehanded” represents their vulnerability against the oppressing society, the repetition of the word “suffocate” reinforces this idea of lack of freedom and makes the reader feel that stifling impression. Hence, poetry is also a tool of fighting oppression.

Lastly, poets have used poetry to denounce religious conflict whether in Ireland with Seamus Heaney or back in the 16th century with Agrippa d’Aubigné denouncing the war between the catholics and the protestants in France. Again, violent images and rhetorical devices are used to denounce the absurd violence. Here too, it can be seen that poetry as a discipline is not so much of an art but rather a powerful tool in fighting oppression, war, and misery.

Screen Theory and Power in Filmmaking
Screen theory (also known as psychoanalytic film theory) is a collection of ideas in France and Britain in 1970s and 1980s on how to interpret movies and how movies “work” on people. Its main argument - the idea that the film creates a new reality for the viewer, in which the angle and perspective of the camera have power over the spectator thereby giving the latter a new sense of self and identity over the moving frame.

Screen theory denies the essence of a movie as being the direct mirror of the real physical and mental existence. The general opinion is that movies do not have any literal objective meaning of one’s reality, although, movies still keep a realistic (psychological) effect on its spectators. And thus filmmakers are those who have the power during a movie’s screen-time to create a lasting subjective effect on the spectator (and then it is not the spectator who has the power to give a meaning to the spectacle, as it was understood previously).

In his paper, Noël Carroll (1985) went into further depth and explained what makes popular ("Hollywood-style") movies powerful is not the type of the medium (a moving image), but rather the adaptation of this type to the wider necessities of its audience. An adaptation is as powerful as is its creator. Whilst being exposed to a movie, the spectator is automatically engaged with different manifestations of the filmmakers vision of the world where both human and nonhuman “agents” live - and so the filmmaker has the power to construct feelings of belonging for the spectator, and this all will leave a lasting effect. Noël Carroll (1985) also names 3 elements which allow movies to exercise their dominance over the viewer, them being - a romantically suggestive narration, a successful illustrative representation and a fluid, shifting framing.

The debate on filmmaking and its power actualises a significant question – whether it is important at all to discuss how power dynamics are created and exercised in the cinema. Carroll’s (1985) paper suggests that by analysing what makes a movies adaptation powerful (thereby awarding filmmaker with power dominance) allows to make further conclusions in other disciplines on how these power dynamics can connect different kinds of spectators, no matter what race, culture or educational situation they represent.

Communication Studies: the Power of Social Media
In the modern world of the twenty-first century, social media has arisen as one of the most influential aspects of our society. Although its appearance was made just twenty years ago, it has shaped the way we communicate and interact today, and taken up a monumental role in our lives. This called for the making of a new kind of discipline, meant to adapt to our new norms. In addition to already existing communication degrees, other courses such as social media and communication studies, digital marketing and communication, and media studies have developed in universities across the globe in the past ten years.

It is important to discuss the power role of these technological developments and the impact they've had in the way people see things, receive information, and how their way of interacting with each other has advanced. For example, the 2016 American elections Trump vs. Clinton is a strong example of the power of social media. The effect of Donald Trump’s tweets on the social media base Twitter was considerable: influencing masses and the perpetual spread of lies. Additionally, the Cambridge Analytica case and its collaboration with Facebook to obtain personal data and thus alter voting patterns in the 2016 US presidential election shows the power held by social media, to the extent to which it was able to influence democratic political events. Although news has already been called the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Estate#:~:text=The%20term%20Fourth%20Estate%20or,wields%20significant%20indirect%20social%20influence. “fourth estate” or “fourth power”] to democracy, social media has amplified this. As it takes up a bigger and ever growing role in our society, its power in terms of influence and utility increases.

Although means of communication such as television, radio, and newspaper have always influenced and informed people, nothing can be compared to how rapidly the news spread in social media, as well as the fact that anyone and everyone can post what they want. There is a lack of editing and revision, therefore impacting the quality and truthfulness of information.

The Power of Social Media during the COVID-19 pandemic
The most recent example we can find today is how social media affect the behaviour of people during the COVID-19 pandemic? Indeed, social media has an impact on people’s behaviour, and this for many different reasons. First, social media are not regulated, and during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is a critical time for people, data show that fake news has exploded. Furthermore, according to Lon Safko, a tech industry consultant, who wrote The Social Media Bible: "Social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter make it easier to propagate fake news and conspiracy theories easier than ever". On the second hand, people tend to watch social media in order to get informed instead of looking at the mainstream media. Ultimately, people who get wrong information on media such as a so-called link between COVID-19 and the 5G, or the government hiding the death tolls, are more likely to not follow the governance guidelines and thus will put people’s lives in danger. And according to a research lead by King’s College, 60 per cent of the people who said that COVID-19 symptoms and 5G are linked, got the information on Youtube.

The Power of Art: Paintings
Art is “the making of objects, images, music, etc. that are beautiful or that express feelings”. There is evidence of art from as early as 40 000 years ago, but the exact moment art emerged as an activity isn’t identifiable. People use art as a tool of expression and creation, it represents a means of catharsis for those who practice it as well as for those who experience it. Hence, when revisiting art products throughout history, one shouldn’t be surprised of the impact such creations have had on their contemporary audience.

To add, some art critics suggest that paintings can function as mediators between the observer and the world of politics. More specifically, paintings are transcending objects that have the power to convey the status-quo of politics of a specific time, meaning they have the ability to define an alternate state of the political situation through the painter’s subjectivity. However, Pettegree (2019) argues, that art, although being a powerful expression in itself, in the past, was inevitably affected by politics, and always was somewhat of political essence. Other critics suggest that paintings have the power of constructing a certain model of self, and especially find and put this “self” in a historical context. Jian (2020) mentions the power of paintings in China – i.e., he states that artworks of Cai Liang had the power to enhance one’s feeling of belonging to a country during the atrocities happening in the wartime.

Leonardo Da Vinci’s (1452-1519) drawing of a fetus inside a dissected womb (“Studies of the Fetus in the Womb”-1511) was highly influential within anatomy studies. He managed to depict the position of the fetus and some of the extra-fetal structures with almost photographic accuracy. This drawing refuted the theory that the womb was divided into multiple chambers and veraciously portrayed its infrastructure. Hence, he forever changed the principles of developmental biology during his time.

“The Black Square” (1915) by Kazimir Malevich also represents an art product which revolutionised people’s perception. The painting is of a simple black square in the centre of a white canvas. It sparked controversy as it seemed almost absurd to exhibit such an oddly simple piece of art amongst works of high complexity and an accurate representation of reality. However, Malevich’s purpose was precisely to escape the ordinary approach and disentangle art from its generally assigned role to mimic reality. He wanted to create an artwork which refers to nothing but itself and exists in a “non-objective world”. After its display in The Last Futurist Exhibition 0.10 in 1915, the perception around what is art generally changed.

Furthermore, art can be used as a strong political tool. Images are often created to make symbols, which allows art to be part of large power plays like propaganda for example, the influence of masses through biased information, used to promote a certain political point of view. During Nazi Germany and the URSS, the promotion of totalitarian ideologies was made through the making of posters, post cards, and cartoons. The use of art at this time was therefore critical as it helped the spread of fear and falsity throughout entire nations and even the world. In a lesser extreme of patriotism, the United States has also used posters to promote war effort. The “I want you for the US Army” and the “We can do it” posters helped spread the need for young Americans to join WWI, as the way the posters were drawn in a manner to make people feel heroic and proud for joining the army.

In addition, caricatures of political leaders have always been a means of criticism. The publishing of certain images through newspapers delivered to the masses helped influence many opinions and got certain people’s perspectives on different political leaders out in the open. These kinds of drawings are still used today, where you can find political leaders drawn in a grotesque manner and exaggerated features, in the goal to ridicule the targeted person or create a satirical image.

Art, as an object or as a message, has the power to change the flow of perception through its accurate depictions, boldness or the ideology behind it. Nevertheless, art has consistently shown us that there are no limits to human expression.

The power of English in scientific research
With 80-90% of all natural science research papers published in English, the language is recognised as the lingua franca of the scientific world. This includes papers published in countries in which English is neither the most commonly spoken language nor the native tongue.

Publications for international consumption used to be predominantly Latin, but with Latin dying out and the growing dominance of universities in the US and the UK, English became the accepted scholarly language by the late 20th century. Prestigious scientific journals and common peer review/publication sites such as Scopus or Web of Science favour and present English papers over non-English papers ; English papers are also shown to have a significantly higher number of citations.

English has a disproportionate power in the world of scientific research because, for many reasons, it is not the most accessible language. In 2015, 22.2% of the world’s scientific researcher population is based in the EU, and the second densest region is China with 19.1%. Although widely spoken, English is not the most common native language in the EU: it is German, followed by French. In China, the most commonly spoken language is Chinese. The countries with the highest density of researchers are Israel, Denmark, and Sweden, where the native languages spoken are Hebrew, Danish, and Swedish respectively. These statistics show that despite institutional pressure to publish in English to receive recognition, it is not the native language of many scientific researchers.

Translation is not always a feasible solution for scientists. A project may not have sufficient funds to have research translated, limiting scientific contributions from poorer institutes, foreign institutes, and institutes based in countries there is minimal government funding for their research. Translation also requires the scholar to be proficient in difficult scientific vocabulary in not one but two languages, or for a translator to understand the difficult content. There may be terms that exist in one vernacular but not the other, making a perfect translation impossible.

Publishing exclusively in English creates an uneven distribution of knowledge globally. Since scientific language is often complicated, it is unlikely the average person can read scientific papers in a language other than their mother tongue. The most common native languages worldwide are Chinese, followed by Spanish. While English speakers are able to benefit from a worldwide pooling of knowledge, this research is not accessible by a greater majority of the world’s population.

Power in Anthropology: How did Belgian colonization change the development of Rwandan society?
Colonization and control seeking from the western countries changed the development of societies and cultures in many colonized countries, such as Rwanda. The colonization of Rwanda by Germany and then Belgium led to a huge internal conflict between two communities, the Tutsi and the Hutu, which led to the death of 800 000 people and is known today as the Rwandan genocide. Prior to the colonization, Rwanda was a peaceful country where Hutu and Tutsi lived together, spoke the same language and had the same religion. The only difference between Tutsi and Hutu was that the Tutsi were usually herdsmen and Hutu usually farmers. Also, they could move from one group to an other. Some historians said that if they had more than 10 cattle, Hutu could become Tutsi. When Belgium gained control of the territory of Rwanda in 1924, they favoured the Tutsi, the minority over the Hutu, in order to control the country, and make it as profitable as possible for them. They notably used the Social Darwinism theory, and the "science race", by "studying" morphological traits (nose, height, skull...) and concluded that Tutsi were scientifically superior because they had more Europeans traits, and thus were more able to survive. . They decided to educate them and put them in more important administrative places, which aggravated the separation between the two communities and lead to the feeling that the Hutu were powered by the minority, the Tutsi. Later, when the first ID cards were brought by the Belgians, these categories appeared in the first Rwandan ID cards as "ethnicity". However, under the United Nations pressure, the Belgians colonists saw that it was inevitable to end the colonization and that the majority (i.e. the Hutu) would start revolting. They also feared the rise of communism and socialism. They, therefore, started to take the side of the Hutu and argued for a more democratic organization. They organized an election, and the Hutu won since they were the majority. By then, some activists started to become either pro-Hutu and pro-Tutsi. At this time, "the political struggle in Rwanda was never really a quest for equality; the issue was only who would dominate the ethnically bipolar state" said Jean-Paul Gourevitch in 1998. To conclude, the Belgian, used the “Divide et impera” strategy by using power as indirect coercion to convince people that they were from different ethnicities and therefore divide them in order to gain power and control, which completely changed the fate of the Rwandan and their country.

The power of the American Dream ideology on societal beliefs
Power can be defined as having the capability to influence and to pursue acts of control over situations and people. Ideologies can play a role in the development and rise of power as well as in the preservation of existing power. It is therefore argued that ideologies are used by powerful figures or members of society to justify and maintain their social status and positions of power.

James Truslow Adams was the first to present the idea of the American dream, presenting a prosperous America in which each upcoming generation would live an improved life and where under any circumstances if you work hard enough, you will reach success. Surveys and tests were conducted to test the credibility of the American dream by US citizens and the majority concluded that they believed that in in order to succeed in the United States, behaviour and hard work are essential and the most important factors to achieve this. What the ideology fails to consider is the idea of success not be solely relied on individual actions as it focuses the attainment success on hard work. This ignores factors such as inequalities both economic and social. Although these inequalities arguably partly arise as consequences of the American dream ideal, they are a paradox to what the idea of the dream is supposed to represent.

This shows how attention from inequalities can be stirred by the power of the American dream ideology by placing focus on individualistic factors such as hard work and ignoring societal disadvantages such as racial, income or wealth inequalities. It could be argued that this is a way to shift focus on the advantages held by society's elites and as stated above, to maintain their social status unchallenged by the disadvantaged in society. By creating an ideology that supports the individualistic idea of hard work being the determining factor of success, it could be argued that those who are disadvantaged are more likely to blame their failure in achieving success on their lack of effort rather than on societal structures.

Despite criticism of the American Dream in widespread media that raises awareness of the harm that the ideology creates, such as in American canonical literature, it persists. One reason is that the documents on which the country of America was founded - the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution - back up the idea that no one has advantages over a fellow citizen. The Declaration of Independence (US 1776) states that “all men have created equal” and the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution dictates that American citizens should be equally protected by the law, and cannot be unjustly denied of “life, liberty, or property”. The idea of basic equality as an intrinsic part of being American contributes to the idea that hard work is one of the only ways to rise above others.

Ideologies can have control over people’s views, as explored above within the ideology of The American Dream which holds control over people’s perception of success and social structure. This demonstrates how ideologies may hold power over peoples believes which can consequently lead to a misinterpretation of reality, shown in The American dream ideology by overlooking the factors of societal inequalities and disadvantages in achieving success.

The psychological power of the American Dream
American Dream is responsible for a distinct branched of an American-individualism, which gave rise to positive psychology. Positive psychology has officially become a new domain of psychology in 1998 thanks to Martin Seligman activity in the American Psychological Association. Bases of positive psychology are: positive individual experience, character traits and positive institutions. Positive psychology reflects what is understood as 'American Dream' - it promotes personal development, promotion and fulfilment through individual effort. It shapes the perception of an individual of both, psychological and social world. Its attachment to individualism undermines the significance of societal and cultural institutions within society. It is often argued to be asocial, ignoring ethnicity, gender, class or power relations.

Power in museology
Museums can be seen as a central legitimate institution for knowledge and power diffusion directed to a wide audience from education to academics or anyone visiting. They hold a knowledge that is interlinked with power. This idea is mainly based on Michel Foucault’s view of knowledge power and their inseparable dynamic (power produces knowledge just like knowledge fuels power). This view strongly influenced the perception and study of museums in previous years. Therefore, power is deeply intertwined with the way we create exhibitions - also known as museology- and this power lies in the museum’s dispersion of governmental, societal and economical contractions.

Indeed, power in museums can be found through the way they can shape a general long-lasting mindset in a society through temporary exhibitions or collections. In other words, museums are able to leave an imprint on any visitor which will eventually linger and influence his political, economic and cultural views. Ideologies are then relayed by museums through their exhibitions. The narratives and displays used in museology to present artefacts is a form of didactic power in the way that they are able to give a universal meaning and explanation to them. More specifically, the displays are usually in accordance with the dominant ideology and social constructions. Museology is a tool to shape and construct people’s identity accordingly to the popular social constructions. Therefore, museums are the ideal setting for a nation to impose a certain point of view or authority in events or culture which highlights their power.

It would be worth noting that museums are also a site of controversial debates in their definition of popular knowledge. These debates underline the museums’ important power as there would be no debate if they did not have any influential power in culture. In short, museums have a political stance and power as the display and presentation of a culture is never neutral and always includes a political view. Museology conveys and fuels a certain power which influences the audience in many ways.

Power in the Modern Media Sphere
Media is defined as the means of transmission of massive information. Media includes tabloids, television, as well as newspaper, magazines, or even cinema. It appeared with the need to communicate and the lack of information felt by the population. Even though it was ubiquitous before, this phenomenon really developed during World War II, with propaganda especially.

Evolving in parallel of new technologies, the media power gain has been exponential. Power can be emphasized as the capacity to influence and impact people and events. And as a result, the effects of power can be beneficial as well as destructive. Indeed, as media was born, its aim was to inform people of the worldwide situation and with the development of and the internet and tabloids, information became even more accessible. We also attend the importance of media during the current global pandemic as it informs us of the latest governmental guidance and all countries around the world.

In addition to that, with media, propaganda and censorship, was born freedom of expression , which is a fundamental human right and includes the freedom of opinion. Unfortunately, it is not applied all around the world, especially in dictatures and other non-democratic policies, which causes geopolitical tensions about the lack of information communicated by governments as we can see with the current genocide happening in China, and the lack of knowledge the international community has about it; or even North Korea with strict control over communication by the government. But freedom of expression in the media also creates important conflicts, especially of cultural and religious nature as we have seen with the terrorist attacks in Paris in January 2015 which happened following the publishment of a caricature of Muhammed.

The development of instant media also helped improve security with for example terrorist attacks, protests movements or even environmental events like fires or hurricanes, it allows populations to avoid risk zones.

Moreover, as said previously, media can also be dangerous, by communicating hateful contents or inciting people, especially with social media, to have dangerous behaviors. For instance, some challenges on social media went viral but turned out to be also very dangerous. Social media also have an important impact on young people especially, my communicating beauty ideals and criteria, which might force people to mistreat themselves in order to be in those criteria. Those superficial ideals communicated by fashion trends and relayed by media, also revealed social misconduct as online harassment and bullying.

As a result, media is an amazing benefit from technological progress, but happens to be as well a very dangerous place if not controlled and regulated, or taken too seriously.

Power in Scientific Research and Policy Making
In contemporary scientific research, any research activities carried out will require funding and resources, but there are often constraints that exist, which lead to competition for economic resources, as well as for human resources and the attention of the public. Therefore, there often needs to be a “rationale” or argument for why particular scientific research should warrant spending. This brings into question the “usefulness of science”, and why some research is deemed important whilst others are deemed not useful. According to the British Chemist and Nobel Prize laureate, Harold Kroto, there are many theories, but only a few that are true. There are “scientific” theories which are considered to be “true” or “facts” if we have used experiments to see that they work and we understand why. There are also theories which are “un-scientific” because they did not yield the same experimental results. However, it takes time and resources to experimentally test theories, and therefore it must be decided which paths should be pursued and which paths should be left. The question then arises, of who should make these decisions, along with the issue of the practical impact of scientific knowledge, and how it can be applied in different settings, such as policy making.

Power in scientific policy
In making scientific policy, policymakers may make use of only the partial and incomplete knowledge which is available to them. Whether this is by accident or by strategic design, Grundmann and Stehr state that policies are “never based on a comprehensive knowledge base.” It is possible, therefore, for politicians to choose the research results which best support their political interests, especially where there is an “excess of objectivity”; when there is a large amount of varying research findings, as these can be used to support a wide range of policies. Furthermore, in some situations there is already a policy consensus before research is even carried out; the research only legitimises the predefined policy. Scientific research then does not provide the information needed to guide policy, but instead can prevent policy from being formulated, if one research finding cancels out another. Krasner presented the view of “ideas as hooks”, suggesting that ideas only serve to emphasise what already exists, and legitimise existing policies. However, in some situations, new knowledge can also be formed in the light of scientific research, which can destabilise policy in a particular field, or change interests and opinions.

In making policies relating to scientific research, technical experts are also consulted in addition to the available scientific evidence. A distinction can be made between scientific research and expertise: whilst scientific research (conclusions published in a paper or data stored on a computer) is unlikely to influence policy itself, experts can be employed to use the information, and apply it to different contexts to influence policy. How this information is applied, and which information is chosen, could vary depending on the expertise, and therefore the power lies with those who can be trusted to use scientific research to provide the expert opinion.

Scientific misconduct and fraud
Scientific misconduct or fraud is a "violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behaviour in scientific research", with fraud being further defined as involving an intentional and deliberate action, whilst misconduct may not.

In scientific research, not all misconduct behaviours are labelled as fraud, suggesting that some types of misrepresentation of bias are acceptable. The narrow definition of fraud can be seen to benefit certain groups more than others ; since some situations are characterised as fraud whilst others are not, the social definition being utilised is the one that is convenient to those in power in science. This can relate to the sponsors of scientific research or to the community itself, and Brian Martin presents the idea of a "political scientific elite" - a relatively small number of scientists and bureaucrats who make decisions about research. They have a dominant influence on the priorities within science, working with others in similar positions within government and industry, but are also interested in maintaining the autonomy of science.

Power in Politics
In social sciences, power is understood as the ability of an individual to influence others. This includes both their beliefs and behaviours. Legitimate power that can be held by an individual or a group in politics is called authority. It is a form of identification of political legitimacy, which supports an individual right to hold the power of government. The means of exercising could be through both, compliance or obedience.

Five bases Theory of power
There are multiple theories of power within politics. One of them is French and Raven's bases of power developed by social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, which produced a schema to identify and judge how the power to a specific relationship. According to this theory, there are five bases of power, which are described as coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, and expert. Later on, Raven has added sixth base: informational power. The main goal of Coercive power is compliance and it is achieved by a means of threat of force by various means. Reward power, on the other hand, is based on one's ability to offer or withdraw a desirable reward of any form. This may include social, emotional, spiritual or material rewards. Legitimate power describes the power of individual justified by their position within the social structure - a position of authority in the hierarchy. It relies on an individual's compliance based on its obligation. Referent power is based on charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder, that attracts loyalty. A person under power wants to identify with the power holder and strives to gain their acceptance. Expert power is is usually very specific and applies to an area of expertise, as it is based on individual's knowledge, experience and skills, supported by one's reputation and credentials certifying expertise. Finally, the informational power describes the ability of an individual to influence a flow of information. The theory has been extended since by addition of further bases - in particular by Gareth Morgan in the book 'Images of Organization' (1986).

Gender inequality in Political Power
Political participation of an individual is explained by their social position, which is affected by the level of education, gender or age. Inequality in political representation also negatively influences equality in political involvement.

In 2019 only 24.3 per cent of national parliamentarians were women. There are strong variations in those numbers across regions - In Nordic countries it is 42.5 per cent, in America 30.6 per cent and in Europe excluding Nordic countries, 27.2 per cent. The average percentage of women in parliaments is lower in sub-Saharan Africa, with 23.9 per cent, Asia, with 19.8 per cent or Arab states with 19 per cent. In January 2019 20.7 per cent of government ministers positions were held by women, with the most common ministry being Social Affairs.

Representation of women in politics improves the political decision-making process. Women in political representation often focus on battling gender equality issues, such as gender-based discrimination, gender-equality laws or childcare. Inclusion of women in political power has shown to make a difference. A casual relationship has been found between the participation of women in municipal councils and childcare coverage in Norway. Women-led councils in India are found to have 62 per more projects focused on drinking water than those that were led by men.


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User talk:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC001/2020-21/Thursday11-12/Power

Whatsapp Group Chat
This group has been coordinating work on sandbox assignment in a Whatsapp group chat. The main points were duplicated on the discussion pages, but the majority of communication behind this research was happening in the chat.--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 16:49, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Note
Hello! I'd just like to point out that my most of my sources for the Western Propaganda or Not: Uyghur Concentration Camps are referencing news outlets which therefore makes them not credible as they are more or less very biased. However, I believe that the premise of the controversy is that there is currently barely a distinction between what is true fact and what is false currently. Rather I just wanted to highlight the claims and takes on both sides of the argument, before noting the information bias in the final subsection of "Power of Western Media". Do you all think this is fine? Or should I add to the disclaimer that the sources are biased as to ensure readers of this section will be critical of the sources I referenced? --Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 16:55, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * I think it's fine as you are looking at several different sources and different perspectives. --Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 17:00, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

General Updates
Hi everyone! I just completed my session on the Western influence in Anthropology, feel free to have a read and let me know if there's anything you thing I could add! Or let me know if if you want to do some collaborative work! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello! I think your content and structure is very organised and concise! So I'd like to adopt the same sort of structure as you if you don't mind. Great work! Also I've made some grammatical corrections to your entry, and while doing so, I found myself not really understanding the sentence (where the 6th reference is at the end of) — perhaps it is unfinished? Let me know if it's just me though! -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 13:44, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you so much for spotting that out! I missed out some words when I transferred the content from a word document. Thank you for proof reading it as well and making some changes! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 14:10, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! I've read the power of the West section and I got an idea. I think I can write an introduction to it from the point of view of International relations. It would briefly outline the International Relations theories perspective on why the countries of the west seek power and in what ways they gain it.--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 15:36, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello! That sounds great! I think it will tie in well with the other subsections in the West especially. -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 06:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi Usernamee anonymous. I would like to add some more information to your introduction. Won't be touching anything you wrote, just elaborating and writing about liberalism and realism a bit. Hope you don't mind! --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 12:44, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! I didn't publish my entire section yet, I've got a lot in a word document, and wanted to publish that today. But I think I didn't go into liberalism and realism much, so hopefully it won't clash.--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 14:29, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Perfect. My plan is to only focus on liberalism, realism, marxism and maybe constructivism - very briefly, just their versions of power and its definition. --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 16:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! I just added my contribution to the introduction to Power in IR. Have a read and hopefully I did not overlap too much! --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 15:10, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! I've added some subheadings to Money sections so it's easier to navigate through and read. Hopefully that's okay with you Citrus48 and that the subheadings make sense. Feel free to change them if you'd like! -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 06:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * I wanted to add that I added hyperlinks to some words as well just to make things clear and easier to relate! Hope that helps. -Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 13:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! And I edited repeated citations for one of the sources, I hope it is OK--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 16:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! Thank you so much! I have slightly edited the subheading to fit the context, and the hyperlinks are a really helpful resource! - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 16:46, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello! I've finished my section on Western Propaganda. Throughout my research and writing it, I took on a more descriptive approach because I felt there was a lot of context to be set before I can really explain more about the power of Western propaganda and all of that. So if any of you are interested, please do expand on the implications of the power of Western media (especially in the last paragraph). Also, as some of these articles that I've cited are quite graphic with their images: would it be appropriate to add a disclaimer in the beginning of my section to warn the reader? -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 06:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hey! I've added some hyperlinks to the keywords in your section - hope that they are appropriate to add, if not feel free to delete them. I think your section is very interesting and sparks me to think about Power between the East and the West!! I think it is probably best to add a disclaimer just in case the readers do want to explore things further. On a separate note, I guess when you add images of propaganda posters maybe add a few instead of just one so to get a variety of examples and I think some of the ones from this website are open resources so copyright wouldn't be an issue. Hope it helps! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 13:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Thank you for the hyperlinks and the image resource! -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 08:17, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hey! I was quite interested about the case study you explained for Western media! I was researching in the context of media and found that there were more such instances, such as how biases in Western media influence media coverage in Africa, and I have included a few paragraphs of content as well to the section! Please do read through it and feel free to edit or morph it so that the entire structure can be understood best! - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 23:43, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi all! I know I am a bit late but just added my contribution (Power and colonialism). Let me know if you have any suggestions for improvements. Thanks!--Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 12:44, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hey, no it's not very late - all is good!! I had a read and it looks good, I added some sub-headings and hyperlinks to keywords as I thought it would be easier to read and understand. Let me know if that is alright with you! - Shaunice34 (discuss • contribs) 14:47, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Shaunice34, thank you so much! I was actually confused about which subheadings to put so this really helped. Its all good! --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 16:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! The section is really good! I read your contribution and just thought that it may be possible to split the big subsection of "colonialism and imperialism" into two: "colonialism and imperialism" made of paragraphs 1, 3, 5 and "colonialism and capitalism" made of paragraphs 2 and 4. Just a suggestion, I may be wrong--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 18:57, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * As discussed before, I organised my information and paragraphs in a chronological order according to time - first the definitions, types, explaining colonial capitalism and then talking about its critiques. Hope it makes sense now. --Feminist06 (discuss • contribs) 15:12, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi Feminist06! I moved your section about Power and Western Colonialism to the top of the page as we've agreed.--Usernamee anonymous (discuss • contribs) 09:17, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi Citrus48! I saw your concerns about your other sections not flowing with your new section "Biases and Perceptions by the Western Media". In terms of flow from the previous section, I personally feel that it reads completely fine as it is separated by a different subsection heading! However I understand your worries about the transition from the Uyghur case study. I think f you are concerned with it, a suggestion may be to alter your introduction to remove your explicit stating of exploring the power of the west in media through the Uyghur case study, or to adjust it to incorporate the new examples you added (even something such as "and other examples in history"). Personally I also think that the heading "Biases and Perceptions by the Western Media" could maybe be changed to be more specific to the content in the section. For example Examining Past Biases/Propaganda by the Western Media. I added 'examining' because you offer interesting perspectives and approaches (such as psychological influences), though it is definitely not necessary. Also, I feel like the phrase "perceptions by western media" is a bit strange - I feel like "in" or "of" instead of "by" would be used more often, but if you feel it's right please leave it as you prefer as I don't know your thoughts and reasonings! What do you think? I'd love to hear your thoughts! - I am very blind (discuss • contribs) 04:38, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! Just thought I should first clarify that the "Power in Western Media" subsection was written by me and was meant to be a conclusion regarding Uyghur camps that was meant to redirect all the information and context set to the issue of power. Second, I agree that perhaps that section could use another paragraph that concludes the power of Western media in the context of the Africa case study that Citrus48 wrote about. This could additionally be moved towards the end of the 1.5 Western Imperialist Propaganda in Contemporary Media section for better flow. I also think that instead of Biases and Perceptions by the Western Media, it could be named Western Media's Biases/Portrayal of Africa (something of that sort) as it seems to primarily relate to the case studies of Western media's perception of Africa. Hope that makes sense! What do you guys think? -- Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 05:40, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Oh I deeply apologise. I completely didn't register that fact! Thank you for reminding me. I think that specification about Africa is also a good idea! However I also just realised that Citrus48's section is about historical examples rather than contemporary media which is the name of the big section. Would it be better to remove that in the name of the subsection? -- I am very blind (discuss • contribs) 11:04, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * No worries! Yes, I think you're right here. I'll remove the word from the subsection heading then, thank you! --Kerocringe09 (discuss • contribs) 14:36, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hey! Thank you for the suggestion! I'll change the subheading so it can be understood better! - Citrus48 (discuss • contribs) 16:51, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello all! I have made some minor changes to some of the existing sections (with the hope of improving clarity and readability) and added my section on the power of money in politicsCakeordeath123 (discuss • contribs) 14:56, 17 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: User talk:116.206.0.0/16

title: User talk:116.206.0.0/16


text:
User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Power/Power in Psychology

Interpretation of 'Power' in Psychology
Within Psychology, 'power' could be defined as "one’s capacity to alter another person’s condition or state of mind by providing or withholding resources—such as food, money, knowledge, and affection—or administering punishments, such as physical harm, job termination, or social ostracism." This definition is utilised when describing how humans interact with one another (how one individual may have the power to influence/affect another individual), '"relationships, contexts and cultures."

An example of power within psychology is when the topic of domestic, psychological or physical abuse is analysed, where this abuse may be due to an unequal distribution of power within a relationship.

Power structures within Psychology
This section will describe the possible inequalities within this discipline as well as how the knowledge within this discipline may have the power to affect others producing certain implications.

Gender inequality within Psychology
A report from the "Committee on Women in Psychology (CWP)" illustrated how although women outnumber men within Psychology (when looking at the figures of women that are working in the field or associated with education), women are still trying to gain "equity" in "money, status and power" when comparing to their "male colleagues". It has also been found that there is a significant wage gap between men and women within Psychology. As women enter the workforce they experience greater debt as well as lower salaries compared to males entering the industry. Data from the 'National Science Foundation' in 2010 found that women experience an average $20,000 pay gap in starting salaries. Additonally, a common phenomenon that could be witnessed within this discipline is that it may take women a much greater time to "achieve tenure than men" and although women outnumber men "women are still underrepresented as associate professors, full professors and institutional leaders".

Diversity in the Psychology workforce
The 'American Psychological Association' found that in 2015, 86% of the workforce in psychology was white, "5% Asian, 5% Hispanic, 4% black/African American and 1% were multiracial" or from various other ethnic groups, thus demonstrating how the psychology workforce may lack diversity. This lack of diversity can have a negative effect on the way minorities deal with their psychological issues; many view psychologists as older white males and also believe that psychological treatments are tailored towards white people, which deters many minorities from visiting a psychologist to treat their illness. This bias in the mental health system adds to the other problems minorities are confronted with such as discrimination and prejudice, which can exacerbate mental health issues. However, it has been found that the workforce is becoming more and more diverse "as more racial/ethnic minorities enter the workforce" and that 34% of "early career psychologists" came from "racial/ethnic minorities".

Knowledge as power in Psychology
It could be argued that since most psychological experiments are held within the west, only a particular small and unrepresentative sample of individuals is being studied. This could be due to financial pressures within the industry where conducting psychological experiments within other parts of the world are too costly. However, the implications of this are that when these conclusions (from experiments of a specific group of people) are used in other parts of the world they may produce adverse side effects where the knowledge that is used may do more harm than good as other aspects such as culture may be ignored.

WEIRD (wealthy, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic) people are the most often the individuals in which psychology experiments are carried out. This means that only a small and unrepresentative sample is obtained by scientists and in order to get their work published, researchers may be forced to generalise and universalise. In Rwanda, post- genocide or in Sri Lanka [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_the_2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_on_Sri_Lanka#:~:text=Sri%20Lanka%20was%20one%20of,east%20coasts%20were%20worst%20hit. post-tsunami] where sufferers had what was labelled as PTSD were forced into one on one therapy sessions instead of handling their grief within their community- this is an example of imposing western coping strategies that may have worked on WEIRD people living in an individualistic society onto theirs, when their ways of coping were based on the union of the community they were within. The implications of this being that "without cultural understanding" western clinical treatment can do "more harm than good". Knowledge can be seen as a form of power as it has been used to "alter" one's "condition or state of mind".


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User:HMaloigne/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 15/Power

Power Politics Theories
In international relations, theories that center around power, known as power politics theories, are central to understanding the reasons for which a state goes to war. Quantitative methods, namely quantitative conflict studies, use empirical means to explain and describe power politics theories. However, this approach is often criticized as being less useful when war involves non-state actors. Power transition theory attempts to address this by involving non-state actors in war studies. Waltz claims that power politics exists when the international order is anarchic and involves the survival of states.

Types of Power
In international relations, power can be considered as hard or soft.

Hard power in international relations involves the achievement of a goal through forceful means. Hard power is measured using a range of factors such as the size of military, area, natural resources, and the comparative economy of a particular state.

Contrarily, as the term suggests, soft power in international relations involves influencing other states through non-coercive means. This may include cultural values, political values, and moral values, as well as institutions. One of the main criticisms of soft power is that it is very subjective and difficult to measure. Another criticism is that the institutions used to reinforce soft power are often lacking in authority. Furthermore, institutions, such as those in the USA, tend to be uncoordinated in their approach, on the other hand, hard power can be easily quantified. Having said this, soft power is becoming increasingly important in a more globalised world and many international relations scholars believe its influence is set to increase.

Game Theory
Game theory relates to the discipline of economics as it involves the analysis of economic agents and how their degree of rationality affects their decision-making. It inextricably links mathematics and economics in order to make such an analysis of behaviour. Nonetheless, this key concept may haveve useful applications in various other disciplines. Game theory relates to power primarily due to the two branches of game theory which exist: cooperative and noncooperative games. These concepts revolve around competition and, therefore, whether the power lies in one of the economic agent's favour. This distribution of power is critical in producing an outcome favourable to that particular economic agent. Hence, these concepts utilise power as a type of strategy. The issue of power relates primarily to the economic agent’s preferences and motivations. However, it is not always easy to determine an individual’s motivations as they are fluid, but power is key as it a key determinant of decision making.

Power becomes an issue as there are multiple ways to play such as simultaneously or subsequently, allowing the power dynamic to shift in one’s favour. Asymmetric information would destabilise any power equilibrium in favour of one economic agent, but this may be reduced by aims such as altruism due to social preferences ensuring a fair split. Playing a dominant strategy would cause the power to lie in that players favour as a result of their aims to benefit themselves The extent that notorious games such as the prisoner’s dilemma would be affected by the issue of power dependent upon the individual's preferences possibly resulting in a Nash equilibrium or an alternative outcome.

Collaboration and the power of knowledge produced
In disciplines which utilise the scientific method, knowledge power is understood as the ability to confirm the researchers' experimental hypotheses in scientific investigations (which may lead to the production of further knowledge), and answer questions of interest in the world. Collaborative knowledge production allows academics to increase the power of the knowledge produced, particularly in such disciplines as psychology. In his analysis, Paul Thagard recorded that 75% of all research in the Cognitive Psychology Journal was the result of a collaborative effort, indicating the power of knowledge which may arise out of group investigations in comparison to independent research. Collaborative knowledge may be more powerful in psychology, as its production uses distributed cognition- a manner in which knowledge offloads between a collection of individuals who substantiate new information in their interactions- in the pursuit of knowledge. This may give rise to powerful interdisciplinary theories, seen in the creation of Prospect Theory, in Psychology. The theory explains the irrationality and judgement errors which occur as individuals make decisions, based on perceived prospective gains or potential losses. The concepts may apply both to everyday life and economic settings. The theory posits that, when presented with information in decision-making, individuals focus on the minor possibilities of loss, which they aim to avert, rather than maximising gains (loss aversion).

Prospect Theory is a highly influential and powerful theory in both economic and social psychology. It was the product of a collaboration between Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, two individuals with distinct academic backgrounds and approaches to psychological research. Tversky was an optimistic mathematical psychologist who relied on models to explain decision-making processes. On the other hand, Kahneman was a conscientious, neurotic psychologist whose research centred around vision. In research, the duo's contrasting personalities and methodologies increased the power of the knowledge produced. For example, Michael Lewis comments that Kahneman often pointed out possible flaws in their work, which were proactively addressed by Tversky. The power in the resulting theory increased due to these distinct approaches towards psychological research, enabling them to communicate, inspire and learn from one another. The researchers found a common language in their work, which helped them to create a powerful theory in economic and social psychology. The creation of Prospect Theory highlights the importance of using collaboration to produce powerful knowledge that could not have otherwise been produced solely by an individual.

Power in Medicine
The possession of power by institutions and those who make up these institutions dictates what becomes knowledge. This is commonly referred to as “power-knowledge”. The term coined by Foucault can then be applied when discussing the production of medical knowledge by scientific/ medicinal institutions. Institutions hold power as the knowledge they create can affect individuals which contributes to the marginalisation of different groups of people. The theory plays a part in the social construction of medicine and the medicalisation of bodies and the experiences of individuals suffering from disease. The normalisation of medical issues and diseases is a form of power-knowledge and has adverse effects on the approaches to diseases and furthermore the individual’s experience, which filters the knowledge produced about and for the disease. An example of how institutional power can influence the production of medical knowledge is that of breast cancer in women. The lack of contextualisation of the histories on the individual's experience has lead to the marginalisation of women in their experiences of breast cancer, as until now the 'normal' and the 'deviant' have been ingrained in the formation of knowledge in medicine. Institutions that produced knowledge in order to understand this disease contained positions primarily obtained by men. Scientific institutions lead research with the understanding that empiricism meant objective which negated the individual experience. As this continued, the predominantly white male populous of these institutions did not see medicine as something that required contextualisation for understanding. Women with breast cancer were no longer individuals but became objects of study, taking away their individuality and removing their own relationships with the disease. The medicalisation of bodies demonstrates the power of institutions on the individual, the body, and the collective group (women who experience breast cancer). This positionality of men caused a predetermined idea of normality which in turn created a specific knowledge framework, confining the individual experiences of women as they became stigmatised whilst their bodies became altered by medical experiences.

Power in Media
The notion of power in media can play a key role in establishing the patterns of access to the mass media: who will be interviewed, who will be featured and quoted and in news reports, and whose opinions will have an impact on the general public. Through access to the mass media, dominant groups also may have access to and partial control over the public. The shaping of one's reality or perception is based on three elements including experienced reality, symbolic reality, and socially constructed reality. Individuals make assumptions on the world based on what their media tells them. The media is a hegemonic form of power that maintains its significance, not by physical imposition of force, but rather through developing and elaborating on a particular point of view, system, idealogy, which eventually is incorporated into everyday practices of the general public.

Socially constructed reality
The values we hold, the beliefs we gather and the decisions we make are based on our assumptions, our experiences and the education we have received. Social construct allows us to rely on mass media for the current news and facts about what is crucial and what we should be aware of. We trust the media as an authority for news, information, education and entertainment. Hence, thanks to this established emotional response (trust) towards media, the society is more susceptible to its suggestions and implications.

Experienced reality
Experienced reality is that reality which is achieved through senses and intuition. It underlies all of our cognitive efforts. Because direct experience is mainly sensory, automatic and constant, we pay less attention to it than the reality we have to work at to construct. Experiences reality initiates the idea that modern society needs to see in order to believe - big media conglomerates use this notion to create cultural bias towards our experiences.

Symbolic reality
Symbols are prominently used to exercise a sort of power due to their importance in the society - it's a universal language understood by a particular group of people. Every society has evolved a unique system of symbols that reflects a specific cultural logic, and every symbolism functions to communicate in a much subtler way than conventional language. Due to symbolism's social and cultural prominence and universality, it is often used by media to channel their take on a discussed matter.

Case study: Guinean forest history
Studies on the history of the vegetation in Kissigoudou, West Guinea (savanna patched with forest islands), expose radically diverse conclusions that inspire very different policies.

The degraded forest "narrative"
Many observations conducted in the colonial period and during the first Republic that followed it assumed that the landscape used to be covered in trees and got recently degraded due to local people behaviour (farming, fire pratices) and population growth. They state that the loss of traditional practices and changes in behaviour such as commercialisation in the rural milieu strongly impacted the state of forests. Another factor in the loss of forest cover is said to be a rapid population growth, which encouraged villagers to exploit more land. These assumptions, which mainly blame population land use, were followed by policies that regulate local practices: delimitation of areas to be farmed, regulation of fires through prohibitions and practices such as early burning, plantation of trees in savanna areas... and many other measures that weakened villagers' control over resources. We then see the power of social scientists and how their observations can shape policies.

The "counternarrative"
Another view of the evolution of Kissigidou's vegetation is that the landscape never had more trees in the past, may even be more tree dense today, and that the past locals generations enriched the vegetation by planting trees around their settlments. This side of the story qualifies the previously mentionned point of view as a "narratives" -stories that seem obvious and justify development action- that "once dissected from the reality they seek to construct, (...) reveal instead how the applied social sciences can be used to lend weight to popular Western perceptions about African society and environment." Searchers on this side criticize past social scientists for idealizing a harmonious, better past, that neglects observations in different times that prove otherwise, and argue that today's practices are degrading, which results in repressive policies. They also argue taht more population means more people to control fires and can help densify forests, and they advocate for more inclusive policies that support local practices.


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User talk:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/Truth/Truth in psychology

I found it interesting how you discussed some of the biases that can be found in Psychology, I also discussed confirmation bias in some of my posts. I think it would be useful to look into the implications of these biases and how they may affect knowledge/truths within particular disciplines.


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User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ Power

I'd be really grateful if anyone can help me find sources for the introduction part or build on it! I'll come back to the citation part later. LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 16:10, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

I'm just editing some citations that weren't Vancouver style (I think I've found the original sources for most of them but please check just in case!) Ed Ardizzone (discuss • contribs) 16:26, 9 November 2020 (UTC)
 * thank you!! appreciate it LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 01:27, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

For citation 35 'Sources of power in education, Stanford University', the original post says it is an excerpt from a book- should the citation be from that website or from the original book, seeing as it is word for word?Ed Ardizzone (discuss • contribs) 16:33, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

For whoever wrote power in IR - would you mind if I edited the subheadings under Nye's notion of power into bullet points? For everyone else - do you think this formatting would make it easier to read/digest? LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 01:26, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Also I'd like to add a brief explanation for the introduction part and this is what I have
 * There are four major forms of power:
 * Power as Direct Coercion: when power can be directly utilised to control someone's behaviour (e.g. police)
 * Power as Indirect Coercion: when power is institutionalised or unconscious biases
 * Power as Strategy/Language: the power of diction, such as association of "childcare" with "women"
 * Power as Multiple Strategies: when multiple forms of power interact, such as gender, race or class.

I'm not sure if it's a good idea to list specific examples but that really helped me understand the concept. Can someone help me fill in the gaps/give their opinion before we post it? LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 01:38, 10 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I think examples are good! what about the concept of glass ceiling/glass cliff for women in the workplace as an example for indirect coercion? not sure how well known that is though, finding it hard to find specific examples other than the one I wrote my contribution about! Ed Ardizzone (discuss • contribs) 11:07, 10 November 2020 (UTC)
 * thank you!! i just posted it but in case you think the wording isn't specific/accurate enough and want to change it please do! LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 11:57, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

To whoever wrote the paragraph on law: I think it might be worth mentioning in the example of Black incarceration as a continuation of slavery, the words 'institutionalised power' - or whatever variation on them you like - to demonstrate the power that exists structurally to maintain racism in America (what I mean is basically that it's more effective to use those words explicitly to describe the kind of power it is alongside the example, rather than just implicitly in the example). Wildharvestvalley5 (discuss • contribs) 16:13, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Contribution t-on the paragraph Gender Inequality within Mental Illness Diagnosis
I found this research paper https://search.proquest.com/docview/2337913147?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true that questions wether British Psychiatrists are racist. Maybe a sentence could be added at the end of the paragraph to make a parallel between gender and racial discriminations. For example, that Black people are overdiagnosed with Schizophrenia in the US, or are unjustly considered more violent patients because of racial stereotypes.


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3D Printing

Introduction
This book seeks to offer a general introduction to 3D Printing technology, and explores the underlining technologies, usage, and applications of this technology.

Readers need not have any prior experience with 3D printing or prototyping to use this book. It may also serve as a handy reference for those familiar with 3D printing.

Contents

 * History of 3D Printing
 * /Printer Types/
 * /Printer Specs/
 * /Materials/
 * /Models/
 * /Slicing Software/
 * /Color Printing/
 * /Post Processing/
 * /Maintenance/
 * /Applications/

Meta

 * /Development/

Related Wikibooks

 * Plastics Molding & Manufacturing
 * Hobbyist CNC Machining
 * PolarPrinter

title: 3D Printing


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3D Printing/Materials

Plastics
FFF 3D printers typically accept a filament of a certain diameter.

Some FFF 3D printers are modified to use pellets for ease of using recycled material.

PLA
PLA is a common 3D printing material. It's inexpensive and easy to use, making it a good choice as a starter material for beginners, and a general material for more advanced operators.

Compared to using ABS, a typical FFF printer using PLA should emit less particles.

ABS
ABS is cheap and strong but needs the right environment to print well.

Compared to using PLA, a typical FFF printer using ABS should emit more particles. Ventilation should be used when printing ABS.

HIPS
HIPS is a good starting material due to its ease of use and because it is not expensive.

PETG
PETG prints are externally similar to ABS prints despite their different chemical makeup. PETG is less volatile than ABS, remaining stable under a wider range of printing environments.

PETG can't be directly printed on a glass bed. An intermediate material like tape must be used.

Nylon
Nylon 3D prints are known for being somewhat flexible and durable.

Nylon can also be dyed to produce different color materials.

Nylon can be temperamental and difficult to work with.

Flexible
Flexible filaments are expensive to buy and temperamental to use, but gives prints unique properties, allowing them to deform slightly. These filaments tend to jam, and are best used on direct drive printers.

PVA
PVA is water soluble, so PVA material melts in water while leaving the primary plastic intact. This makes it ideal for support material when used in a dual extruder or a multi material printer, since supports can be dissolved instead of manually removed.

Composite Materials
Composite materials mix a printable material with a material that typically can't be printed, giving it unique properties, as well as unique challenges.

Composite Examples

 * Magnetic Iron PLA - Can attract strong magnets and rust.
 * Conductive PLA - Prints are electrically conductive and can carry small currents for simple electronics or to enable parts to trigger touchscreens.

Resins
SLA printers use liquid resin, instead of filaments.

These resins can usually be colored with dye.

Exotic Materials
3D printers geared towards directly printing in exotic materials exist.

It is often a better idea to try 3D printing a mold in a conventional material and then using that mold to make the end product.

3D printing food in particular has unique challenges, as the food must be printed in a way that avoids contamination and is safe to eat.

 * Food
 * Chocolate
 * Pizza Ingredients (Dough, Sauce and Cheese)
 * Metal
 * Sandstone

Material Storage
When possible FFF filaments should be kept in a drybox to avoid contamination of material from humidity and dust. If this is impractical, a dust filter can also be used on the filament feed.

title: 3D Printing/Materials


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3D Printing/Printer Types

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)
FFF printers operate by melting material from an extruder to produce a 3D object.

FFF printers are known for being easier to use than other printing technologies, partly due to requiring less safety equipment for operation. Cartesian FFF 3D printers work by moving an extruder along an X, Y, and Z, axis.

On Stratasys 3D printers the name FDM is used for the same technique.

Stereolithography (SLA)
SLA printers use light to solidify a special liquid.

Unlike an FFF printer, SLA printers build time is based on height and not the number of prints or object complexity, so the entire x and y build area can be used for prints with no impact on printing time. Unlike FFF printers, SLA printers typically print upside down, though this has little tangible effect on the final print. SLA printers can be difficult to operate.

Selective laser sintering (SLS)
SLS works by fuzing powders together with a laser to create 3D objects.

Uniquely, SLS printers requires no dedicated support structures for complex geometries.

title: 3D Printing/Printer Types


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3D Printing/Post Processing

General Post Processing Techniques
Sanding is commonly used on 3D prints to smooth prints or remove small imperfections.

Acrylic paint, model paint, nail polish, markers, and spray paint are common ways to add color to a print.

Salt annealing and plaster annealing can give parts a unique finish, and alter strength properties of a print. Annealing techniques may be effective to improve prints with slight warping.

Process Specific Techniques
Post Processing is mandatory for most SLA prints, as extra resin must be removed and desired resin must be hardened.

Prints made with ABS plastic can be smoothed with careful application of an acetone vapor.

title: 3D Printing/Post Processing


text:
User:JACCruz9397648

Hi there! :) My name is Melodee, I'm a student studying Occupational Therapy from Roux-Miroir, Belgium.

title: User:JACCruz9397648


text: Category:Book:3D Printing

title: Category:Book:3D Printing


text: Category:Book:Samoan

title: Category:Book:Samoan


text: Category:Book:Tongan

title: Category:Book:Tongan


text:
3D Printing/Slicing Software

Slicers
A slicer converts a 3D model of an object into layers that a 3D printer can understand.

Many slicers include convenience features. A common example includes printer and material presets. Some FFF slicers include uncommon features that help with complex geometry and print reliability.

SLA slicers produce different support structures from FFF slicers.

Infill
Infill determines the amount of material on the inside of a print.

A number of creative infill patterns can be used for different purposes, such as 3D infills and gradient infills.

GCode
Many 3D printers use GCode for instructions on operation. However not all generated GCode is the same.

There are a number of software packages oriented around GCode. Some software analyses GCode and provides helpful information about a print. GCode post processors can improve print speed and quality. Non-planar GCode can also improve 3D printing results.

Layer height
Some slicers support variable layer height, allowing for the printer to slow down on detail heavy areas for better quality, and speed up printing for less detailed areas.

Pausing
Some slicers allow prints to be paused to allow operators to swap materials partway through, or to add things like magnets to the internals of the print.

title: 3D Printing/Slicing Software


text: Category:Book:Database Design

title: Category:Book:Database Design


text: Category:Book:Commutative Ring Theory

title: Category:Book:Commutative Ring Theory


text: Category talk:Book:Tongan

title: Category talk:Book:Tongan


text:
Talk:Tongan

CONVERSATIONAL TONGAN: A Study of Contractions in Spoken Tongan © (Manisela Fifita Sitake, Utah, April 2019)
This is the first book ever written about the spoken language of the Kingdom of Tonga in the South Pacific. The current Tongan language resources focus on the formal language, disregarding the spoken dialect. Sitakem (discuss • contribs) 06:40, 18 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tongan


text: Talk:Samoan

title: Talk:Samoan


text: Talk:Tongan/Adjectives

title: Talk:Tongan/Adjectives


text: Talk:Tongan/Greeting

title: Talk:Tongan/Greeting


text: Talk:Tongan/Vocabulary

title: Talk:Tongan/Vocabulary


text: Talk:Samoan/Adjectives

title: Talk:Samoan/Adjectives


text: Talk:Samoan/Phrases

title: Talk:Samoan/Phrases


text: Talk:Samoan/Verbs

title: Talk:Samoan/Verbs


text: Talk:Samoan/Sentences

title: Talk:Samoan/Sentences


text: Talk:Samoan/Vocabulary

title: Talk:Samoan/Vocabulary


text:
3D Printing/Printer Specs

Introduction
You may have read about how 3D printers can do amazing things in the news, like print houses, cars, or human organs. While these things are possible, they depend on both the technology used by the 3D printer and the skill of the operator. As of 2020 most consumer 3D printers top out at printing high quality plastics at up to a quarter of a meter cubed on the high end.

With that said, there are a number of factors in a 3D printer that can make printing easier, faster, and more enjoyable. Furthermore as a technology seeing slow but steady continued advancement, capabilities of printers continue to improve over time. With the open nature of many printers, those with a deep understanding of the field can push printers beyond their expected capabilities and achieve superior results.

Enclosures & Structure
A heated enclosure can assist the printing of certain materials.

Safety benefits
3D printers with enclosures typically reduce the amount of particles exposed to the operator. Enclosures also help reduce the chance of accidental contact with moving or hot parts.

Computer
3D printers use a built in computer to precisely control internal printer operation. The board containing the computer will determine things like a printer's ability to connect to a network, expansion headers, and what firmware can be run on the printer.

3D printer microcontrollers are typically either simple and reliable 8-bit microcontrollers, or more capable and complex 32 bit ones. A more capable controller used with software that leverages it's features can allow the 3D printer to handle more of it's tasks independently of a host computer, as well as potentially operate the 3D printer faster while achieving greater print quality.

Drivers
Many 3D printer controller boards include built in drivers, though some use external drivers. High quality drivers can improve motor operation to be more efficient and thus reduce printer noise.

Motors
Most 3D printers use stepper motors for to move parts with percision.

Rarely, servo motors are used in special 3D printers to allow feedback to control systems. However their high cost, increased complexity, and reduced reliability makes stepper motors the typical choice for most 3D printers.

Print head
The nozzle used has an impact on print resolution.

Some nozzles are made out of exotic materials like ruby to enhance their durability.

Bed
Magnetic plates, flexible beds, and Bed coatings can make them easier to print with, but also require special care to keep them working well.

Autoleveling
Some 3D printers can probe the print bed prior to printing and autolevel it. This makes setup simpler, and much less tedious.

Heated Bed
A heated bed is handy for reducing part warping, a common problem when printing on an unheated bed.

Filament sensor
Filament sensors are used to allow the printer to detect jams, empty filament spools, and other quality control features.

Camera
When used with specialized software, a dedicated camera can create intriguing time lapses of prints.

title: 3D Printing/Printer Specs


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title: Category:Book:Group Theory


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text: Category:Book:OpenVOGEL

title: Category:Book:OpenVOGEL


text: Category:Book:Visual Studio

title: Category:Book:Visual Studio