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User:Bbyrudown?/sandbox

Scenario
During a routine fertility visit you are asked to examine 2 calves (one steer and one heifer, approximately 150 kg) which have been down for several days. Both animals are bright and alert, eating and defecating. Both were unable to stand and had been down for several days. The steer had significant swelling of both hind limbs. The amount of swelling made it impossible to palpate the bones of the limbs or flex and extend the legs. The heifer calf had crepitus palpable in one hind leg.

You have a full schedule of visits today, so you elect to collect blood and have asked the farm manager for farm records including ration fed to calves and any recent changes. Blood work on the steer reveals the following findings:

The calves are fed the following diet: 1.5kg Barley grain 1.5kg DDG (dried distiller’s grain) Unknown amount of Oaten Hay (you estimate the maximum must be 1.5kg, as this comes to a total feed intake of 3% of bodyweight (2.8% of bodyweight as DM). 50g of RT50 (specifications are not supplied, but you are informed by the client this is a trace element (not macromineral) and monensin additive. You discover components of RT50 to be Co, Cu, I, Mn, Se, Zn, vit. A, B, E (from the students summary doc)

The client has been feeding his calves this ration for 6 months having changed from using a traditional calf rearer pellet on the basis that the new ration is less expensive. The calves are in an outside paddock with minimal grass present and rely solely on the ration to meet nutritional and energy demands Chemistry Results are as follows

Questions

1. What are your differential diagnoses for recumbent weaner stock based on this presentation and clinical history?

Clinical findings Interpretation Down / recumbent for several days Metabolic Hypocalcemia: Lack of calcium in the diet Low Ca intake Low Vit D intake Low dietary Mg 9cofactor by PTH messengers) Acid:base (dec pH= inc PTH activity) High phosphorous in diet= dec renal phosphorylation of 25-dihydroxyvitamin D (Vit D required absorption of Ca++ from gut) Older age Breed: Jerseys more susceptible in regards to lactating cows Inc dietary fat Hypophosphatemia Bright-eyed downer Chronic P deficiency= chronic rickettsia & osteomalacia in calves Acute P deficiency= metabolic disorder Hypocalcemia → PTH increases → phosphorous losses from kidneys and salivary glands -ve energy balance Increase glucose demand by tissues Decrease DMI (decrease diet palatability, increase anionic salt, increased fibre content) Hypomg (also leading to hypoCa) GI absorption inhibited by high dietary K or protein and low sodium Demands on tissue requirements and renal excretion Infectious causes Botulism No: not flaccid paralysis Tetanus No: the absence of rigidity and spasms & not generalized (only bilateral in one and unilateral in the other) Bovine ephemeral fever (3d sickness) No: no evidence of fever, not 3d since down for 7d, CSx & environment don’t match Downer cows Neuropathies: femoral nn., sciatic nn. Ischaemic myonecrosis: CK and AST elevated, usually affects hamstring m. group (AST less sensitive indicator of compartment syndrome.- Secondary? MSK injury Joint luxation Fractures: Inc risk with inadequate dietary Ca++/ Ca:P ration or Cu deficiency (Cu component for collagen production → suppressed osteoblastic activity → osteoporosis → fractures)/ nutritional sec hyperPT/ prolonged feeding of DCAD diet (to milkers)

Steer - Bilateral hind limb swelling (impalpable bones or unable to flex/extend) (due to fractures & haematomas) Fractures: Inc risk with inadequate dietary Ca++/ Ca:P ration or Cu deficiency (Cu component for collagen production → suppressed osteoblastic activity → osteoporosis → fractures)/ nutritional sec hyperPT/ prolonged feeding of DCAD diet (to milkers) Hematomas Traumatic (from fractures) Vascular defect Swelling: Inflammation Protein loss (dec intake, increase a loss from GIT/renal)

Heifer - Unilateral HL crepitus OA- pseudocrepitus Tenosynovitis Spondylitis (spine and large joints) Joint luxation - pseudocrepitus Fracture (where close to the femoral head) Pathognomic Bony crepitus - gritting sensation transmitted to the palpating fingers by the contact of the broken bone ends on each other.

Elevated CK Rhabdomyolysis

Tentative diagnosis: Pathological fracture associated with nutritional metabolic bone disease (prolonged dietary imbalance ⇒ low dietary P and Ca +/- VitD, Mg)

2. What about the diet, physical examination, post mortem findings and clinical pathology allows you formulate a tentative diagnosis for this cracking case. Including additional testing or parameters to evaluate to reach a definitive diagnosis.

Diet

1.5kg Barley grain:

1.5kg DDG (Dried Distiller’s Grain)

Unknown amount of Oaten Hay (you estimate the maximum must be 1.5kg, as this comes to a total feed intake of 3% of bodyweight (2.8% of bodyweight as DM). ((is oat hay the same as oaten hay??)) Oat hay:

50g of RT50 (specifications are not supplied, but you are informed by the client this is a trace element (not macromineral) and monensin additive. Components of RT50 to be Co, Cu, I, Mn, Se, Zn, vit. A, B, E

Physical Examination BAR Eating, defecating Unable to stand (down for several days → downer cow) Steer: significant swelling of both hindlimbs Impossible to palpate bones or flex/extend the legs Heifer: crepitus in one hindlimb

Post-mortem Findings

Fractured vertebrae, with hemorrhage in spinal cord

Comminuted fracture of the femur Clinical Pathology Normal AST Mild increase in CK → Skeletal muscle disease/damage, HypoT, autoimmune disease, exertional disorders

PCV + TPP normal Fibrinogen normal

3. What are your recommendations to treat current cases and to prevent further cases from occurring. Include the aetiology of the disease process and advice to the client. We need to take the food and perform a ration analysis Once the analysis is performed we need to reformulate the ration and supplements to meet the nutritional requirements

Mild metabolic acidosis induced by diets with negative DCAB > increased production of vitamin D3 per unit of increase of PTH (due to upregulation) > target tissues are more sensitive to PTH and 1,25(OH)2D3 > increased calcium mobilisation from bone → E.g. Diet treated with HCl drops urine + blood pH à more mobilisation (and excretion) of Ca Fractures: Inc risk with inadequate dietary Ca++/ Ca:P ratio or Cu deficiency (Cu component for collagen production → suppressed osteoblastic activity → osteoporosis → fractures)/ nutritional sec hyperPT/ prolonged feeding of DCAD diet (to milkers)

Aetiology of disease has been written in varsha/rav section

PTH Mechanism -       Increase plasma calcium -       Regulates bone calcium mobilisation when there is a decline in blood Ca through increase osteoclastic activity (mobilises Ca from bone) -       Enhances renal tubular reabsorption of Ca -        Stimulates hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D by the kidney to form 1,25(OH)2D3 (activates vitamin D in within the kidney) -       High dietary phosphorus inhibits renal activation of VitD -       Vitamin D regulate the production of calcium transport proteins within GIT and enterocytes -       Factors affecting PTH secretion -       Hypomagnesemia –  risk of hypoCa -       This can blunt the effects of hypocalcaemia response -       Low calcium diets – -       Low Ca >  PTH receptor receptiveness > PTH secretion > osteoclastic bone resorption > renal production of 1,25(OH)2D3 > increases bone Ca efflux > intestines are ready to absorb Ca efficiently should it become available

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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User:Modori1973

2024

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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar5/History

This week's topic is History!

History of Medicine
- ancient paradigm: belief and patient mindset/'disposition of soul' played a role just as (or even more so) important in health than one's physical condition Medicine, as an autonomous practice (which does not mean that it is radically separated from the dominant religion), develops in what is commonly called “open societies”, that is, societies whose structures are subject to change and in which collective life is paced by debate and conflict. These are, in general, communities where contact with the outside world, particularly in the form of trade, tends to become widespread. In this way, a favourable climate is created for research through the confrontation of ideas. The fate of the free individual appears, at least in part, as a guarantee of the common future, human health and a significant increase in life expectancy. To become a science, he had to be able to rely on other sciences and techniques which are all his younger ones and whose applications were indispensable for the identification and treatment of pathological conditions. Thus, if the knowledge of the cell involved the discovery and preliminary development of the microscope by the physicists.

Medicine in Ancient Egypt (Greta)
1.General information about ancient Egyptian medicine

Ancient Egypt was a civilization that lasted from 3300 to 525 B.C.E. Some of the earliest records of medical care come from ancient Egypt. Egyptian medicine served as a source for Greek and Roman civilizations, as even Hippocrates (the "father of medicine") acknowledged its contribution to the advancement of Greek medicine.

2. Pharmacology/Nutrition

The ancient Egyptians amply discovered the medicinal properties of plant life around them. They used ingredients such as honey or pomegranate juice for different medical purposes and even experimented with animal faeces and metals as treatments. The most important pharmacological legacy of the Egyptians is the Ebers Papyrus, in which there are over 800 remedies; ranging from ointments, wrappings and oral medications (such as pills and mouth rinses) to inhalation. They were also at least partially aware of the importance of diet, both in balance and moderation. Owing to Egypt's great endowment of fertile land, food production was never a major issue, although, no matter how bountiful the land, paupers and starvation still existed. 3.Practices

Egyptians were aware of basic human anatomy. For example, in the classic mummification process, mummifiers knew how to insert a long hook through a nostril, breaking the thin bone of the braincase and removing the brain. The oldest metal surgical tools were also discovered in Egypt. Magic was also a really important element of the healing process. Evil gods and demons were thought to be responsible for many ailments, so often the treatments involved a supernatural element, such as beginning treatments with an appeal to the gods. Doctors believed that spirits blocked channels in the body and that this affected the way the body worked. They looked for ways to unblock these channels. They used a combination of prayer and natural — or non-spiritual — remedies. Amulets, in general, were very popular.

(Sources: main "ancient Egyptian medicine" Wikipedia page and MedicalNewsToday)

Medicine in Ancient Greece (Stasi)
- general 'Ancient Greek Medicine' wikipedia page used as primary source

- threshold concept - the 4 humours: sanguine (blood), choleric (yellow bile), phlegmatic (phlegm), melancholic (black bile); any disease is related to a lack/excess of their respective substances; for astrological and other links, see 'Four Temperament Ensemble' in TVTropes (unchecked sources); for wiki page, see 'Humorism'

- recognition of the role circumstances play - location, sex, social class, diet, previous trauma, etc.

- early on - diseases viewed as divine punishment and good health - as a blessing;

- implemented Egyptian substances

- aesclepia - temples that functioned as healing centres (Aesclepius); patients drugged into sleep, may receive instructions for healing or answers from the gods about healing; may be operated on while asleep; dreams were interpreted;

- Hippocratic corpus - first heavily biological approach

- Aristotle argues for empirically derived rules

NB! Galen, one of the greatest 'doctors' of antiquity, was Greek, but he made contributions in Rome, so I'm leaving him for Patrick to cover if he wants to.

Medicine in Ancient Rome (Patrick)
Medicine in Ancient Rome can be seen as a direct progression from Greece - particularily in the practical application of Greek theories.

Public Health
This is especially true in the case of advancements in effective public health, such as:
 * The construction of Aquaducts to bring fresh water from outside of the cities and so avoid the re-use of polluted water. (Though the discovery of Germ Theory would only follow Louis Pasteur's Swan Neck Flask experiment in the 1860's)
 * The construction of large sewer systems to then remove the water that was dirty.
 * More sophisticated hospitals allowing new surgical procedures for soldiers. (Whilst Rome advanced public health, these changes were mostly kept to those with wealth or who served in the Roman Army.)

Influence of Galen
Aelius Galenus [Galen] was a greek physician who spent the majority of his career in the Roman Empire.
 * Galen discovered that the arteries were the vessels that carry blood around the body. However, he did not discover the circulation of the blood by the heart. (This was Ibn al-Nafis in 1242. Discovered the pulmonary circulation of blood, disproving Galen's own original theory.)
 * Galen also investigated the role of nerves in breathing. During a demonstration, he sliced a pig's laryngeal nerve, accidentally, finding that the pig's screaching immediately stopped.

Whilst Galen is widely celebrated as a key Roman physician, his work is limited heavily by his inability to dissect human cadavers (around since 150BC). He instead had to rely on the dissections of dogs and monkeys. Galen's discoveries were prevolent for centuries after his death following the Fall of Rome in 376 to invasion. This left much of the surrounding area with little governance and so saw a rapid decline in the public health commonplace within Roman cities. However, the Islamic world saw many medical advancements following the fall of Rome. Andreas Versalius was one of the first western physicians to discredit Galen's work and saw much criticism for doing so (now able to dissect human cadavers).

Medicine in the Middle Ages (Viky)

 * Average life expectancy in the 1350s was 30-35 years.
 * Medical practices and general medical knowledge regressed after the fall of Rome.
 * Treatments mostly consisted of herbal remedies, bleeding (bloodletting or leeches) and purging, or practices based on supernatural ideas. While herbal cures may have been successful, they were often paired with more drastic measures, such as the ones previously mentioned. Additionally, doctors would use strong smells to cover up the foul air, drain pus, heat or cool patients through, for example, hot or cold baths, apply trepannation (the practice of drilling a hole in the patient's skull to relieve pressure). On the supernatural side, praying or self-punishments were also popular forms of treatments.
 * Due to dissection of corpses being banned, there was very little medical advance and doctors could not be sure of the causes of diseases; Galen's theory of the four humours was still prevalent. Oftentimes, supernatural entities, like demons or the wrath of God, as well as minorities, such as Jewish populations or women, were blamed for outbreaks of diseases.
 * There is proof, however, that there were efforts to introduce more hygiene through food inspections, the development of clean water supplies and sewage disposals (gong farmers). Cities would also be quarantined, especially with the beginning of leprosy outbreaks and some hospitals were established. First aid was also somewhat advanced, as wine was found to be a mild antiseptic, and painkillers like opium were developed.

Sources: BBC and Encyclopedia Britannica

Early Cultures

 * celestial objects associated with gods and spirits
 * first astronomers were priests, who believed in connection between the divine and sky→astrology
 * Stonehenge: astrological alignments with religious and social purposes
 * Calendars were set after moon and sum cycle, importance to agriculture
 * common modern calendar is based on roman calendar which originally was a lunar calendar, Julius Caesar then updated the calendar in 46 BCE, proposed by Greek astronomer Callipus

(Sun and moon cycle as schema???)

Prehistoric Europe

 * due to fair amount of astronomical artefacts found throughout Europe it’s assumed that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had sophisticated knowledge of astronomy; e.g.: Warren Field Calendar found in Scotland in 2004, as oldest known calendar (8000 BC)

India

 * Astronomy used for creating Calendars by Indus Valley Civilisation (3000 BC)
 * Vedanga Jyotisha: oldest Indian astronomical text, about motions of sun and mood for rituals (astrology)
 * in his main work, published 499, Aryabhata suggested a planetary system, where the earth was spinning on its axis and calculated many astronomical constants correctly
 * During the Shunga empire (187- 78 BC) astronomy was further developed in India
 * Buddhist university of Nalanda offered courses in Astronomy

Egypt

 * already 3000 BCE Egyptians used the 365-day calendar
 * observation of stars was crucial for calculating annual flooding of the Nile
 * in Roman Egypt Claudius Ptomely (90-186 CE) wrote the Almagest, one of the most influential books at the time about the motions of stars and planetary paths
 * once again: astronomy as way of fixing religious dates

Medieval Middle East (9-11th century)
With Greek, Indian and Persian astronomy being translated into Arabic, the Persian and Arabic world began to make major contributions to the discipline, particularly in the area of observational astronomy, concerned with recording data about the observable universe. The first astronomical observations in the Muslim world where recorded in the Zij star catalogues, which list stars according to position, brightness, colour and properties such as their spectral type. These schemata noted in the Zij star catalogues were essential in the categorisation of observations based on common elements and characteristics and were used by astronomers in western Europe to interpret and predict the world.

During the 10th century additions to the Zij Star Catalogues where made by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), whose work included the first descriptions and illustrations of the Andromeda Galaxy, informally known as "A Little Cloud", which is a dwarf galaxy near the Milky Way. Other contributions include the observation of the brightest supernova (SN 1006) in recorded history, by Ali ibn Ridwan In 1006. Furthermore, Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi used an observatory built near Tehran in Iran to observe the time where the sun reaches its highest position in the sky, also known as Sun–meridian transit time, which is a threshold concept that allowed him to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. His observation that recorded measurements by earlier (Indian, then Greek) astronomers had found higher values for this angle, providing a possible source of evidence that the axial tilt is decreasing as opposed to being constant.

Also, the complication of many tables allowed Omar Khayyám to amend colanders used, which became closer to the Gregorian calendar presently used, demonstrating the evolution of the discipline. One major contribution was the correction of previous data, which is fundamental in resolving the Ptolemaic model, also referred to as the geocentric model, which details the Earth as the centre of the universe, with the moon, sun and other planers orbiting in cycles. This was important in creating the foundation of the heliocentric model of the universe, a threshold concept, whereby the earth rotated around the sun. There was also a clear separation made by many Arab Astronomers between natural philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics) and astronomy leading to the development of an astronomical physics. This is a clear example of a paradigm shift in the discipline, where it was previously used in a religious context, with information derived from religious texts, and instead, using empirical data and evidence, it gained practical applications of predicting the earth's movements and tracking time accurately.

Medieval Western Europe (5-15th century)
The western world experienced difficulties with disease and famine, affecting the intellectual production of the continent, which meant the development of the astronomical discipline was thwarted. Nevertheless, Western astronomers used the works produced in the Middle East to master the knowledge of Greek astronomy.

Astronomy was used by English Monks to calculate the date of Easter, and thus remained an important element of education of the clergy, demonstrating the disciplines ongoing applications in religion was still prominent in Western Europe, a key difference from the paradigm shift in the Arab world. Another distinct difference, was that the Western religious bodies rejected the Ptolemaic model proposed in the Arab astronomical texts, as they fundamentally contradicted the teachings of the Bible. However, during this time, Nicole Oresme, a 14th century bishop, argued that a rotating earth is a simpler explanation than that of Ptolemy, using the principle of Relative Motion to defend the Corpernican model. However, he still chose to accept the geocentric model, stating "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved".

Nevertheless, astronomy began to undergo the paradigm shift in Western Europe during the renaissance period also known as the Copernican revolution, pioneered by Nicolaus Copernicus, who suggested the model of a heliocentric system (a threshold concept), whereby the sun was the body with which the Earth and planets revolved around. His work: De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium was published in 1543, the theory became the foundation of work by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton who both are famous for championing this theory, allowing it to become the accepted contemporary model of the solar system.

This was controversial as Copernican astronomy seemed to contradict God’s word, as certain passages in the Bible insinuated that the Sun moves and the Earth stands still. Thus the Bible seemed to support the Ptolemaic picture of the Universe, and explains why there was rejection by most astronomers with a religious background, and why there was mass controversy surrounding the introduction of the heliocentric model into the mainstream.

Overall, it is clear that both the Middle Eastern and Western European astronomers began to used scientific methods that produced empirical evidence used to reveal 'truth' in the discipline. This paradigm shift, caused by the introduction of threshold concepts such as Heliocentrism and sub-meridian time allowed the discipline to evolve into modern astronomical physics as opposed to natural philosophy, with increasing applications of the discipline from dating of religious events, to medicine (many programming languages used for astronomical investigation) have made image processing in diagnosing easier), and even the energy sector, affecting all aspects of modern life.

Modern astronomy
·      In 1814, Joseph Von Fraunhofer discovery of spectrum lines in the sun begun the process of inventing the modern spectroscope.

·      The lines were also significant in the development of the study of quantum physics now.

·      Further investigation in the sun followed, with experiments that showed that both hydrogen

·      and helium were found in the sun.

·      The discipline not only advanced in its research but it started to give roles to women

·      some played parts in important discoveries, although they received little or no recognition.

20th century

Other discipline outside astronomy aided further discovery, for example:

Photography allowed more detail to be seen:

''Such as the fact the sun was part of a galaxy of 10 billion stars and Edwin Hubble’s discovery of other galaxies, like  Andromeda nebula,  settled a long running debate in the discipline. Hubble also tracked the movement of the galaxies, which showed that the galaxies were expanding. Advances in Spectroscopy, saw the discovery of the milky way.''

Physics study of invisble light, like radio waves and microwaves helped develop branches of the discipline, using these forms of light to aid further exploration, such as radio astronomy.

Astronomy itself also aided discoveries in other disciplines: helping with the modelling of the big bang.

21st century

Astronomy, in the 21st century has had much more of a focus on the possibility of extra-terrestrial life, particularly focusing on Mars.

references:Hoskin, Michael. The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9

Literature
The representation of trauma for characters or personas in various forms of literature is often expressed through literary devices or through the structure that pieces have. These often mimic the feelings of the characters in order to give an accurate portrayal of their turmoil.

 * 1) The Bluest Eye, Toni Morrison

In this novel set in the early 1940s, Pecola, a young black girl, is trying to adhere to the white society which rejects her while simultaneously rejecting her black community. The latter inevitably ends up doing the same. What is vividly expressed is the indoctrination of white values through the "Dick and Jane" primer. This preface to the novel is an extract of a children's book describing the ideal nuclear family, however, it is repeated 3 times. The first time normally, the second without punctuation, the third without spaces between words. There is a mimicking of the drilling of the same values which is shown as making less and less sense to the black community. Moreover, small extracts from this primer are used at the start of various chapter in order to illustrate the divide between communities, the duality of the society of the time. In this sense, structure and literary devices illustrate the trauma of various characters or communities as a whole.

 * 1) Acquainted With The Night, Robert Frost

In one of his many poems dealing with mental health issues, Frost portrays the speaker of this poem as a man who is progressively detaching himself from society. Through the repetition of "I have been one acquainted with the night" the reader can understand a distance from human contact and a closeness to darkness or what could be considered depression, as the night is interpreted as an extended metaphor of the condition.As such, the poem ends and opens with that quote, demonstrating a cyclical aspect or what could be interpreted as a downwards spiral. With every stanza the speaker is seen distancing himself from different aspects of human life. For example, "he passed by the watchman on his beat" demonstrate his incapacity to make contact with the only other human he sees. Moreover, "on luminary clock against the sky proclaimed the time was neither wrong nor right" demonstrates not only a the divide between the speaker and human concepts such as time, but a profound indifference to them. Once more, through another form of literature, literary devices and structure attempt to give accurate portrayals of trauma and suffering in order to help the reader understand the feelings of various characters and the effects of various conditions.

''' Looking at Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) from a neuroscientific point of view. ' Neuroimaging has revealed that the brain of a PTSD patient differs to that of a healthy patient.''

Effects on the Hippocampus

Patients suffering from PTSD reveal significant shrinking of the hippocampus in the brain. However, the hippocampus plays a particular role in the brain. It replays memories according to external stimuli, it also allows the patient to differentiate past and present. This implies that alteration of the hippocampus affects the patient's memories, hence flashbacks that many patients that have undergone trauma witness, and their inability to understand that they are in fact, safe.

Therefore, victims of PTSD have traumatic flashbacks when in an environment that has remotely similar elements to that of their trauma. These flashbacks lead to a bodily flight or fight response, even though one is not necessary.

Effects on the Ventromedial Prefrontal cortex

This region of the brain receives emotional signals from the amygdala, and, in a healthy patient, triggers the appropriate response. However, in a PTSD patient, this part of the brain is altered and the individual will have extreme reactions of fear, anger or stress to certain situations.

Effects on the amygdala

This part of the brain is responsible for our emotional responses and for the feeling of fear. Therefore, if the two regions of the brain, the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, that are responsible for regulating the excitation levels of the amygdala that triggers a fear response are deregulated, this is translated through symptoms of PTSD.

Pharmacological Treatment of PTSD

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is an anxiety disorder that might cause symptoms such as depression, anxiety, insomnia due to recurring nightmares as well as many other symptoms. In addition to psychological treatments, medications are also commonly used to aid in managing a patient's symptoms.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) such as sertraline and paroxetine work by increasing serotinin, a neurotransmitter, in the brain. For example, in a clinical trial using paroxetine on war veterans, the “PTSD rate in our sample was reduced from 100% to 64% after treatment.” This can be explained by analysing the mechanism of the drug. Paroxetine works by forcing serotonin to remain in the synaptic gap, allowing serotonin to send more electrical information to the surrounding neurons and stimulate nerve cells in the brain which supposedly act as a mood booster. Due to the effectiveness of SSRIs, they are often given as a first-line treatment to patients who suffer from mild to severe depression.

However, drugs are not always needed to cure depression. In a double-blind trial, PTSD patients showed a placebo response rate of up to 62% despite placebos not containing any active substances. This neuroscientific approach known as the placebo effect provides an insight into the complexity of the mechanisms in brain, showing the psychological effects of drugs. Although placebos are currently only being used in clinical trials, there is a need to attain knowledge of its mechanisms of action as well as other non-specific factors in different disease models that could potentially contribute to medical research in the future.

Philosophy
In Ancient Greece, there were no psychiatrists but philosophers claimed to be psyche iatros which means 'doctors of the soul'. They were expected to help other citizens reach a certain mental stability through their teachings, and therefore philosophy started to be seen as a form of therapy.

Both the stoïcs and epicureans wanted to and taught how to reach ataraxia, a state of tranquillity of the mind. However, this philosophical therapy was only really a way to relieve fears and worries, it didn't provide any actual treatment for mental disorders and trauma.

Plato distinguished madness to illnesses from madness due to character, giving a certain legitimacy to mental disorders. On the other hand, Aristotle recognizes the existence of 'mad' people in the city but he claims that they should be ignored and that they don't fit in his idea of humanity.

Therefore, ancient philosophy helped the citizens reach a state of peace within themselves but it couldn't be considered helpful in treating what we consider mental disorders.

Nowadays, philosophy is closely linked to psychiatry as most of the research in the latter admit certain philosophical concepts such as rationality, perception of reality, the link between the body and the mind, to be true and serves as a way to answer ethical questions regarding mental health.


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar5

Welcome to the sandbox for Approaches to Knowledge seminar group 5, which meets on Thursdays 9-10.

Below are links to pages on the issues that we will be covering in the first half of term.

History

Truth

Evidence

Power

Power in Atonement - WikiBook draft

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Issue 2 - Truth

/Group 1 Medicine/

/Truth in the Media/

/Truth in Propaganda/


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User:LBird BASc/sandbox/ATK/Seminar5/Evidence

Issues 3 - Evidence

Evidence in (Western) Philosophy

 * evidence as in what philosophy considers such PLUS the 'philosophy of evidence/science' (epistemology; Plato's 'Meno')

Broadly speaking, empiricism may be defined as the notion that all of our knowledge is based on sensory perception; anything further is a consequence of analysis and testing of said perception. Conversely, rationalism is the idea that there is knowledge that can (and may only be) gained by means outside of what our senses can detect, namely through reason. Notable proponets of the former include Locke, Hume, and Berkeley; of the latter - Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz.

The conflict between the two arises on several points, of which it is useful to distinguish three - first, on what 'warrants' we impose to differentiate a justified true proposition from anything else, second - on how knowledge is acquired, and third, what the limits of our knowledge are.

An empiricist would argue that, for any given X, if we cannot base our knowledge on what we may physically detect then we cannot know anything about it; justification, therefore, is achieved by finding physical evidence to support any proposition we may make, and this is how knowledge is acquired, and our limits are what the limits of our senses are.

A rationalist, on the other hand, may argue for the existence of innate (a.k.a. a priori) knowledge, concepts, or true intuitive belief (also conceived in such a case as 'knowledge'). They may further say that any such knowledge is superior to anything we could learn by relying on our senses. The boundaries of what we can know are therefore much wider than with empiricism.

 * Logical Positivism (and the fall of verificationism)
 * as affected by different phenomenological/metaphysical conceptions (Wittgenstein, Hegel); /relates to rationalism & empiricism/

Introduction
This section will look at the use of evidence when understanding class stratification in Britain from many disciplinary perspectives to understand why the structure has arisen, and the future of this hierarchical system. Class can be defined as "a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status". An important distinction must be made between class and status groups. The former is concerned with economic interests, such as ownership of land and capital compared to dependence on wages, while the latter is based upon occupational status, cultural position, or family reputation. This section is predominately concerned with the former, and will use an interdisciplinary approach of analysis.

Economics
Economics uses quantitative and empirical evidence to understand social stratification based on occupation, income and wealth.

Karl Marx’s Social Theory Of Class distinguishes societies by their mode of production, with each engendering their own hierarchical class system. Marx described that each will contain one class who control the production process with the other providing labour services in production. However, according to Marx, not only did the dominant class control production of goods and services in the economy, but also ideas, establishing a political doctrine that reinforced their control over society over generations through the political system. Marxism argues that objectivity, which is defended in the natural sciences and positivism, doesn't fully represent reality, as when you employ the methodologies used in the natural sciences to that of the social sphere, reality is captured in a static form.

However, Isaac D. Balbus criticised the binary two-class model of society used by Marx, with one assumed to be the super-ordinate class and the other, a subordinate class. It is this dichotomy where owners and producers are binary opposites in their function which contrasts with modern analysis of "synthetic gradation scheme" of class stratification. Class is defined as the relative share of socially valuable attributes such as income, prestige and lifestyle.

Also, subsequent theories, such as that of German Sociologist Max Weber, critically analyse the necessity of class in development of the political structure of a country, arguing that nationalism and religion were more significant influences. In contrast to Marx, he limited the definition of class to income.

Biology
Evidence collected is based on positivism and statistical analysis, which is concerned with linking social class to genetics.

American psychologist Richard Herrnstein argues that there is a correlation between heritability of traits and social class. His methodology and subsequent analysis of evidence highlighted that individuals have a natural tendency to organise themselves into classes due to genetic differences, and then these class differences are perpetuated in succeeding generations. Herrnstein and Murray argue that intelligence as opposed to parental socioeconomic status, is a better predictor of an individual's class outcome. Their study used empirical data whereby IQ scores of participants in the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test were measured, and then participants were evaluated on socioeconomic outcomes. A correlation was found between higher IQ's and incomes and other factors, suggesting it could be a determinant of class.

However, this work was highly controversial due to criticism of the methodology and collection of empirical data. For example, in the book 'Inequality by Design', different weightings were given to IQ scores in determining poverty, and it was found IQ's importance was exaggerated by as much as 61% for white participants and 74% for black participants.

As “biology is not destiny”, biological analysis provides a limited explanation of class, as traits inherited in families may result from environmental influences that differ by social class rather than genetics alone, alluding to the nature versus nurture debate. This is because genetic determinants of intelligence interact with the environment so cannot be analysed and isolation to explain the complex social hierarchy. Thus, there is a need to utilise a holistic view, using elements of social analysis based on Interpretivism, such as Marx and his successor's provide, combined with evidence drawn from scientific disciplines based on positivism. These disciplines are based on different epistemology that ultimately provide a more inclusive analysis of reality.

Anthropology
Anthropological analysis is subjective and focuses on class as a means of identity, such as in Britain. For example, studies show that, despite a decline in the size of the working class over the long-term, those identifying themselves as working class have remained stable since 1983. The 2013 study revealed that 47%of those in jobs classified as managerial and professional consider themselves 'working class', even though economically, they may be more inline with income attributed to the 'middle class'. This suggests that there is a difference between being 'working class' depending on definitions set by social scientists, which tends to focus on occupation, compared to being working class as defined by people themselves. This may be because social background and educational qualifications, irrespective of occupation, affect someones perception of themselves as 'working-class'.

Evaluation
Economics is criticised as disregarding qualitative and theoretical evidence, while primarily utilising quantitative empirical data. Furthermore, biological methodology fails to prove causal relationships, instead focusing on correlation, whose importance is overemphasised, as show in Herrnstein's work. Had the analysis included anthropological perspectives, the environmental influences could have been considered alongside biological predeterminers. Anthropology uses both empirical and theoretical evidence, providing a holistic approach.

Interdisciplinary scholars and methodologies are required to overcome the disconnection between disciplines and their epistemological to obtain a comprehensive understanding of social class and it's determinants.

Evidence in History

 * Historical evidence is divided into two groups: primary sources and secondary sources.
 * Primary sources are documents made during the time period in question. They often consist of witness reports and diary entries or letters created at or around a certain historic event.
 * Secondary sources are mostly articles and writings based on the analysis of primary sources, such as contemporary articles about historic events, or even textbooks.
 * While typically sources are thought of as being written or drawn form of documentation, historical evidence includes anything that remains from the past. This can also be buildings, various objects, such as weaponry, or day to day artifacts like tickets or kitchenware, etc.
 * It is, however, rarely possible to fully determine the reliability of historic sources, especially primary sources. Evidence in history is therefore classified in degrees of reliability. There are several ways of establishing reliability in historical analysis :
 * 1) Origin: This concerns the source or author and whether it can be trusted or not. This depends on temporal and academic background of the author, but also the type of source that is discussed.
 * 2) Perspective: Is the author in any way biased, for example due to his nationality or social position?
 * 3) Context: This means when the source was created in relation to the event it is tackling.
 * 4) Audience: The author might be trying to influence or convince a certain audience, or the document was created for a speicifc group of people only.
 * 5) Motive: What was the authors goal of the creation of the source?

Law of Evidence
evidence covers the burden of proof, admissibility, relevance, weight, and sufficiency of what should be admitted into the record of a legal proceeding There are four types of evidence: al evidence, demonstrative, documentary, and testimony Emmanuel Kant tries to point was is evidence on the principles of natural theology. The law of evidence supervises what can be presented in court. This understanding can be better defined and improved upon as follows: "the law of evidence governs the use of testimony during several periods and at different cultural times, problems concerning evidence have been resolved by widely different procedures. Since the means of purchasing evidence are clearly variable and delimited, they can result only in a sense of probability and not in an absolute truth in the philosophical sense.

Evidence in Criminal Cases
There are four broad types of legal evidence 1)	Real evidence- (objects, such as a weapon)  2)	Demonstrative- (models/graphs/objects that help clarify what happened)  3)	Documentary (a letter, blog post or other form of document)  4)	Testimonial (witness testimony) 5) Genetic (DNA) can also be included as an additionally form of evidence

Burdens of proof - Unlike in a civil court course, in a criminal court the prosecution must use the evidence to prove the accused guilty ‘beyond reasonable doubt’. In other courts there, is ‘judicial notice’, which is when a statement doesn’t have to be backed up by evidence as it is common sense/well known but in a criminal cause, judicial notice are allowed to be rebutted with evidence.

Terms related to evidence - Direct evidence- directly proves/disproves a fact- e.g eye witness testimony

Circumstantial evidence- not direct evidence, requires inference to prove/disprove a fact

Hearsay- normally deemed inadmissible (not relevant), it is out of court statements, therefore not said under oath. Or statements about what someone else said or wrote.

Witnesses- At the centre of a criminal trial, is the evidence given by the witnesses. They provide a testimony in court, were they talk about their own experience (eye-witness testimony) The witness statement/ evidence they give in court should be fact not opinion, if it is opinion it is normally inadmissible at trail. Expectations to this rule -identification of a person or object -speed of vehicle -value of an item -evidence of someone’s physical condition -expert evidence- e.g impressions, facial mapping, medical evidence, DNA

Reliability of witness evidence

-eyewitness testimony Is the main form of evidence in 20% or more cases. However inaccurate testimonies had caused 75% of false convictions.

Anxiety/stress

In stressful situations, studies shown that memory of the event is not affected and sometimes even better, details of it can be reconciled months later- (study by Yuille and Catchshall(1986). Although there are studies done that contradict these findings, such as Johnson and Scott, this was not done with as real-life situation and broke numerous ethical guidelines. Reconstructive Memory Psychologists have found that the memory is not a store of exactly what happened, but we extract and organize information to make most sense out of it. We use ‘schemas’ (units of knowledge that are what we are familiar with) to organise memories and process/predict events. Therefore schemas distort unfamiliar events, so that they fit into are existing knowledge and conform to our own personal beliefs.  (see studies from Barlett and then Allport & Postman (1947)) This means that eye-witness testimonies may be based on memories that are not truly what happened, but the witness individual reconstruction of the event.

Weapon Focus

If a weapon is present during a crime, it has been found that the witness focuses less on the surrounding details such as the person holding it. (Loftus et al (1987) and other studies)

Memory conformity

There are mixed opinions among psychologist of the impact of witness collaboration on the reliability of evidence. A number of studies in the early 2000s (Wright et al, Gabbert et al, Roediger et al, Meade and Roediger) That showed that witness discussion decreased reliability, for example one study found 71% of witness reported seeing items that were never connected to the event. This is thought to occur because people want to conform to others views and therefore adopt each others errors. Some people are more likely to conform, have a higher level of ‘suggestibility’ than others. However recent research shows there are some benefits to witness collaboration (Vredeveldt et al, 2016,2017). In collaborative interviews, on many occasions witnesses, were seen to remember more than individually and were more likely to correct each other errors rather than adopt. Despite this current research, there have been a much larger number of studies that suggest witness collaboration affects the reliability of evidence, therefore in most criminal cases witnesses are separated and cannot speak with each other.

Genetic Fingerprinting as Evidence
Genetic fingerprinting is a source of empirical data that is often used as concrete evidence. Whilst it may produce quantitative data with a high rate of success, the context with which it is presented can alter the results to a form of skewed evidence. Genetic fingerprinting utilises the process of Gel Electrophoresis where the VNTRs (Variable Number Tandem Repeats) of DNA samples are compared in order to find matches in the gene sequence. VNTRs are a short sections of the genome which are repeated various times and differ in all humans with only identical twins sharing the exact same VNTRs. The process of Gel Electrophoresis often relies on the Polymerase Chain Reaction (a form of in vitro DNA replication) in order to produce a sufficient volume of DNA to be tested without spoiling a finite sample (such as in a forensic scenario). When placed in a buffered gel alongside the sample, the sections of DNA will be repelled by a positive current. The scale of this displacement is relative to the VNTRs of the sample. Samples that travel as far as the original DNA section can be deemed as having equal VNTRs and so as potential DNA matches.

Primary Uses of Genetic Fingerprinting:
 * 1) Criminal cases (especially sexual assault cases)
 * 2) Maternity or Paternity Testing
 * 3) Medical Research (to locate specific genes)

Whilst Genetic Fingerprinting is successful in matching DNA samples it cannot be seen as an infallible form of evidence. The process of the Polymerase Chain Ceaction and Gel Electrophoresis themselves can never be immune to faults. Also whilst the DNA of a suspect may match that of a sample, that is not to say that the empirical data has isolated that suspect as the criminal or target of the investigation. There is also the lack of such empirical data in distorting the presentation of a case. For example, DNA samples from blood can only be used in this method if they originate in white blood cells. If the investigation can find no appropriate sample, this process may be achievable which may act against the investigation in the long term as they lack, what is seen in contemporary society, as crucial, empirical evidence.

Research Paradigms
A research paradigm is defined as: “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood and addressed” (Kuhn, 1962). The most common paradigms include positivists, constructivists, and pragmatists.

Firstly, positivism is a philosophical system, whereby quantitative methodology is applied to obtain evidence through observations, mathematical proofs, and experiments. 1 They believe in an objective truth and that there is one reality2. Typically, positivists reject metaphysics, and instead aim to use knowledge gained to describe natural phenomena around us3.

On the other hand, constructivists or interpretivists apply more qualitative methods to understand different interpretations of an event, based on dynamic and varied cultural and social perspectives. Reality is thought to be constructed by society 4 and thus there is no single truth.

Pragmatists argue reality is dynamic and be constantly reinterpreted and thus using mixed methods are encouraged to practically solve research questions. Essentially, pragmatists believe truth can be found using research methods that focus on what will work best.5

Evidence in Religion
This topic has been a huge focus in the discipline of Philosophy of Religion in the last years. The two main positions opposing each other in this debate are evidentialism and reformed epistemology. The former one argues that religious belief can only be practiced if evidence exists, while the latter does not see a need for evidence and sometimes even sees that need as impious. Another issue here is the question of what can be seen as evidence: only relics, or experiences as well? Every investigation in this field is highly dependant on the beliefs of the person investigating and outcomes will therefore vary a lot. But even the authenticity of relics often has to be doubted: in his book „Relics of the christ“ Joe Nickel concludes that there are no relics that can be seen as evidence for Jesus’ existence. Many relics, among them the Shroud of Turin, often seen as „the holiest relic in christianity“, have proven to be not real. In medieval times relics were consciously made resulting in a huge amount of fake relics today, even though relics had to have label to prove their authenticity since 1543. But the ones proven to be real, such as body remains of saints, items used by them or fragments of the cross can be used to understand ways in which relics helped to maintain religious beliefs among civilisation.

Evidence in Astrology
One of the key debates around astrology is whether this discipline has any scientific merit, whether it can be reliable in any way. The problem at the heart of this debate is that the ambiguous nature of this discipline make it difficult to define and criticise.

Indeed, a statistical test on the reliability of astrology to predict the future was conducted in order to lift some of the ambiguity surrounding this discipline. The results came back with a weak validation for astrologies reliability as only a "marginal" percentage of the birth charts were properly assimilated to the correct person. This showing evidence against the discipline.

However, while there is no concrete evidence that solidifies astrology as a credible source, there is no undeniable evidence that says that it isn't. Indeed, as is stated in this article, astrologists are allowed to make prediction which may inevitably be true or may eventually be false. The discipline as a whole is not completely "falsifiable" due to the fact that the predictions may be accurate. As such, the inability to deny the power of astrology counts as evidence to support its credibility as a discipline.

Lastly, astrologies status is helped by its popularity within mainly European and North American countries. Indeed, in an article discussing various social studies on astrology found that many people used astrology as they could either not distinguish it from a scientific e or merely used it for fun. Indeed, this accounts for astrology being credible as a discipline as on the one hand it cannot be disqualified, however, it can also be taken as a joke by the very same people who use it.

As such, there is as much evidence proving astrology's validity as there is taking away from it, making evidence an issue in this case.

Evidence in Psychology
Psychology has existed since about 500 B.C. with philosophy but it didn't rely on any form of experimentation or evidence. It is only in the late 1800s that it can be considered a scientific discipline with Wilheim Wundt developing the first psychology lab in 1879 to try and find scientific methods to understand behaviour. Since then, psychology has adopted an empirical approach to evidence and tries to infer explanations to human behaviour.

Psychology follows methodologism in the way that it values statistical and experimental methods over more abstract and theoritical approaches. Furthermore, psychology and more specifically behavioural psychology relies on a positivist research philosophy as it tries to explain human behaviour in general, often dismissing individual factors, which means it favors quantitative methods and observations. To observe human behaviour, psychology often uses biology to analyse how the body reacts to a situation by looking at heart rate or blood pressure.

The French myth of resistentialism
After the Second World War, the French possessed a need to forget the nazi occupation. This manifested in 'epurations' which consisted of shaming and assaulting any one who had anything to do with the foreign forces. Almost immediately an idea of the French having resisted through the entire occupation was propagated through the then fragile country. However, how strong were the French in resisting the foreign enemy? Equally, how accurate is the idea of the French having put on a strong facade?

These two main ides can be seen through various sources published throughout the second half of the 20th century.

Issues 3 - Evidence

Evidence in (Western) Philosophy

 * evidence as in what philosophy considers such PLUS the 'philosophy of evidence/science' (epistemology; Plato's 'Meno')

Broadly speaking, empiricism may be defined as the notion that all of our knowledge is based on sensory perception; anything further is a consequence of analysis and testing of said perception. Conversely, rationalism is the idea that there is knowledge that can (and may only be) gained by means outside of what our senses can detect, namely through reason. Notable proponets of the former include Locke, Hume, and Berkeley; of the latter - Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz.

The conflict between the two arises on several points, of which it is useful to distinguish three - first, on what 'warrants' we impose to differentiate a justified true proposition from anything else, second - on how knowledge is acquired, and third, what the limits of our knowledge are.

An empiricist would argue that, for any given X, if we cannot base our knowledge on what we may physically detect then we cannot know anything about it; justification, therefore, is achieved by finding physical evidence to support any proposition we may make, and this is how knowledge is acquired, and our limits are what the limits of our senses are.

A rationalist, on the other hand, may argue for the existence of innate (a.k.a. a priori) knowledge, concepts, or true intuitive belief (also conceived in such a case as 'knowledge'). They may further say that any such knowledge is superior to anything we could learn by relying on our senses. The boundaries of what we can know are therefore much wider than with empiricism.

 * Logical Positivism (and the fall of verificationism)
 * as affected by different phenomenological/metaphysical conceptions (Wittgenstein, Hegel); /relates to rationalism & empiricism/

Evidence in History

 * Historical evidence is divided into two groups: primary sources and secondary sources.
 * Primary sources are documents made during the time period in question. They often consist of witness reports and diary entries or letters created at or around a certain historic event.
 * Secondary sources are mostly articles and writings based on the analysis of primary sources, such as contemporary articles about historic events, or even textbooks.
 * While typically sources are thought of as being written or drawn form of documentation, historical evidence includes anything that remains from the past. This can also be buildings, various objects, such as weaponry, or day to day artifacts like tickets or kitchenware, etc.
 * It is, however, rarely possible to fully determine the reliability of historic sources, especially primary sources. Evidence in history is therefore classified in degrees of reliability. There are several ways of establishing reliability in historical analysis :
 * 1) Origin: This concerns the source or author and whether it can be trusted or not. This depends on temporal and academic background of the author, but also the type of source that is discussed.
 * 2) Perspective: Is the author in any way biased, for example due to his nationality or social position?
 * 3) Context: This means when the source was created in relation to the event it is tackling.
 * 4) Audience: The author might be trying to influence or convince a certain audience, or the document was created for a speicifc group of people only.
 * 5) Motive: What was the authors goal of the creation of the source?

Introduction
The source of life has been a part of academic debates since centuries. Many argue for the existence of some higher power; many however believe in a scientific explanation when it comes to the question of creation and evolution. These paragraphs are going to present a multi-perspective approach for types of evidence supporting the latter explanation. Evolution is mostly defined as the change in inheritable characteristics over the course of multiple generations, which are the expression of genes passed down from the previous generations. Evolution can be influenced by multiple different factors such as mutation or natural selection due to outside factors, which in the end constitute biodiversity. Evidence for evolution comes from many different areas of biology, such as anatomy, molecular biology or biogeography. One of the most influential works discussing evolution is Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" (1859) which details the evolutionary history of biological development, has since been widely debated across a range of disciplines. Some schools still deny the existence of evolution or regard it as a hypothetical case that needs to be supported by more evidence.

Fossils
Fossils have been one of the first credible sources of evidence for biological evolution, as they portray a systematic change in the development of certain species. The very first accounts of paleontological discoveries date back to as early as 500 BC, but British geologist and engineer named William Smith pioneered modern European science in 1799, with his reported findings of layered fossils visibly showing the chronological evolution of the given species. This encounter aided him in creating the first geological map of Great Britain and his findings also provided a foundation for the works of Charles Darwin.

Comparative anatomy
The area of science dealing with the question of a possible common descent is comparative anatomy. This field studies the evolvement of anatomical structures throughout time and aims to discover the main similarities and differences. The two most important concepts of comparative anatomy are homologous and analogous structures. Homologous structures describe a given similarity which is present due to common descent and may be used for a similar function, whereas analogous structures depict a given similarity which is only due to similar function but does not indicate common descent. An example of a homologous construction would be the ancestral tetrapod structure of the forelimb, which is shared between humans, bats and even whales, despite their drastically different living environments. On the other hand, an example of the analogous structure would be the wings of birds and butterflies, as even though they serve the same function, they cannot be traced back to a common anatomical ancestor. This distinction proves that certain species can, in fact, be traced back to common descent in spite of their different paths of development.

Adaptive radiation
One of the most well-known cases of adaptive radiation has been the study of "Darwin's finches", which described the transformation of the birds' beaks as a result of the adaptation to a new environment. The approximate 15 types of finches on the island of Galapagos all originate from the same one type of bird that spread and evolved during the years. This discovery played a crucial role in understanding the ability of animals to adapt to new circumstances.

Evaluation
Although some reject the existence of an evolutionary process, most of the biological, paleontological and historical evidence supports the scientific explanation behind the creation and development of life. However, it would be hard to deny that certain questions are still left unanswered when it comes to biological evolution.

Evidence in Criminal Cases
There are four broad types of legal evidence 1)	Real evidence- (objects, such as a weapon)  2)	Demonstrative- (models/graphs/objects that help clarify what happened)  3)	Documentary (a letter, blog post or other form of document)  4)	Testimonial (witness testimony) 5) Genetic (DNA) can also be included as an additionally form of evidence

Burdens of proof - Unlike in a civil court course, in a criminal court the prosecution must use the evidence to prove the accused guilty ‘beyond reasonable doubt’. In other courts there, is ‘judicial notice’, which is when a statement doesn’t have to be backed up by evidence as it is common sense/well known but in a criminal cause, judicial notice are allowed to be rebutted with evidence.

Terms related to evidence - Direct evidence- directly proves/disproves a fact- e.g eye witness testimony

Circumstantial evidence- not direct evidence, requires inference to prove/disprove a fact

Hearsay- normally deemed inadmissible (not relevant), it is out of court statements, therefore not said under oath. Or statements about what someone else said or wrote.

Witnesses- At the centre of a criminal trial, is the evidence given by the witnesses. They provide a testimony in court, were they talk about their own experience (eye-witness testimony) The witness statement/ evidence they give in court should be fact not opinion, if it is opinion it is normally inadmissible at trail. Expectations to this rule -identification of a person or object -speed of vehicle -value of an item -evidence of someone’s physical condition -expert evidence- e.g impressions, facial mapping, medical evidence, DNA

Reliability of witness evidence

-eyewitness testimony Is the main form of evidence in 20% or more cases. However inaccurate testimonies had caused 75% of false convictions.

Anxiety/stress

In stressful situations, studies shown that memory of the event is not affected and sometimes even better, details of it can be reconciled months later- (study by Yuille and Catchshall(1986). Although there are studies done that contradict these findings, such as Johnson and Scott, this was not done with real-life situation and broke numerous ethical guidelines. Reconstructive Memory Psychologists have found that the memory is not a store of exactly what happened, but we extract and organize information to make sense out of it. We use ‘schemas’ (units of knowledge that are what we are familiar with) to organise memories and process and predict events. Therefore schemas distort unfamiliar events, so that they fit into are existing knowledge and conform to our own personal beliefs. (see studies from Barlett and then Allport & Postman (1947)) This means that eye-witness testimonies may be based on memories that are not truly what happened, but the witness's individual reconstruction of the event.

Weapon Focus

If a weapon is present during a crime, it has been found that the witness focuses less on the surrounding details such as the person holding it. (Loftus et al (1987) and other studies)

Memory conformity

There are mixed opinions among psychologist of the impact of witness collaboration on the reliability of evidence. A number of studies in the early 2000s (Wright et al, Gabbert et al, Roediger et al, Meade and Roediger) showed that witness discussion decreased reliability. For example one study found 71% of witness reported seeing items that were never connected to the event. This is thought to occur because people want to conform to others views and therefore adopt each others errors. Furthermore, some people are more likely to conform and have a higher level of ‘suggestibility’ than others. However recent research shows there are some benefits to witness collaboration (Vredeveldt et al, 2016,2017). In collaborative interviews, on many occasions, witnesses were seen to remember more than individually and were more likely to correct each other errors rather than adopt. Despite this current research, there have been much larger studies that suggest witness collaboration affects the reliability of evidence, therefore in most criminal cases witnesses are separated and cannot speak with each other.

Genetic Fingerprinting as Evidence
Source of empirical data that is used as concrete evidence. Whilst it may produce quantitative data with a high rate of success, the context with which it is presented can alter the results to a form of skewed evidence. Genetic fingerprinting utilizes the process of Gel Electrophoresis where the VNTRs (Variable Number Tandem Repeats) of DNA samples are compared in order to find matches in the gene sequence. VNTRs are a short sections of the genome which are repeated various times and differ in all humans with only identical twins sharing the exact same VNTRs. The process of Gel Electrophoresis often relies on the Polymerase Chain Reaction (a form of in vitro DNA replication) in order to produce a sufficient volume of DNA to be tested without spoiling a finite sample (such as in a forensic scenario). When placed in a buffered gel alongside the sample, the sections of DNA will be repelled by a positive current. The scale of this displacement is relative to the VNTRs of the sample. Samples that travel as far as the original DNA section can be deemed as having equal VNTRs and so as potential DNA matches.

Primary Uses of Genetic Fingerprinting:
 * 1) Criminal cases (especially sexual assault cases)
 * 2) Maternity or Paternity Testing
 * 3) Medical Research (to locate specific genes)

Whilst Genetic Fingerprinting is successful in matching DNA samples it cannot be seen as an infallible form of evidence. The process of the polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis themselves can never be immune to faults. Also whilst the DNA of a suspect may match that of a sample, that is not to say that the empirical data has isolated that suspect as the criminal or target of the investigation. There is also the lack of such empirical data in disorting the presentation of a case. For example, DNA samples from blood can only be used in this method if they originate in white blood cells. If the investigation can find no appropriate sample, this process may be achievable which may act against the investigation in the long term as they lack, what is seen in contemporary society, as crucial, empirical evidence.

Research Paradigms
A research paradigm is defined as: “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared between scientists about how problems should be understood and addressed” (Kuhn, 1962). The most common paradigms include positivists, constructivists, and pragmatists.

Firstly, positivism is a philosophical system, whereby quantitative methodology is applied to obtain evidence through observations, mathematical proofs, and experiments. 1 They believe in an objective truth and that there is one reality2. Typically, positivists reject metaphysics, and instead aim to use knowledge gained to describe natural phenomena around us3.

On the other hand, constructivists or interpretivists apply more qualitative methods to understand different interpretations of an event, based on dynamic and varied cultural and social perspectives. Reality is thought to be constructed by society 4 and thus there is no single truth.

Pragmatists argue reality is dynamic and be constantly reinterpreted and thus using mixed methods are encouraged to practically solve research questions. Essentially, pragmatists believe truth can be found using research methods that focus on what will work best.5

Evidence in Religion
This topic has been a huge focus in the discipline of Philosophy of Religion in the last years. The two main positions opposing each other in this debate are evidentialism and reformed epistemology. The former one argues that religious belief can only be practiced if evidence exists, while the latter does not see a need for evidence and sometimes even sees that need as impious. Another issue here is the question of what can be seen as evidence: only relics, or experiences as well? Every investigation in this field is highly dependant on the beliefs of the person investigating and outcomes will therefore vary a lot. But even the authenticity of relics often has to be doubted: in his book „Relics of the christ“ Joe Nickel concludes that there are no relics that can be seen as evidence for Jesus’ existence. Many relics, among them the Shroud of Turin, often seen as „the holiest relic in christianity“, have proven to be not real. In medieval times relics were consciously made resulting in a huge amount of fake relics today, even though relics had to have label to prove their authenticity since 1543. But the ones proven to be real, such as body remains of saints, items used by them or fragments of the cross can be used to understand ways in which relics helped to maintain religious beliefs among civilisation.

Evidence in Psychology
Psychology has existed since about 500 B.C. with philosophy but it didn't rely on any form of experimentation or evidence. It is only in the late 1800s that it can be considered a scientific discipline with Wilheim Wundt developing the first psychology lab in 1879 to try and find scientific methods to understand behaviour. Since then, psychology has adopted an empirical approach to evidence and tries to infer explanations to human behaviour.

Psychology follows methodologism in the way that it values statistical and experimental methods over more abstract and theoritical approaches. Furthermore, psychology and more specifically behavioural psychology relies on a positivist research philosophy as it tries to explain human behaviour in general, often dismissing individual factors, which means it favors quantitative methods and observations. To observe human behaviour, psychology often uses biology to analyse how the body reacts to a situation by looking at heart rate or blood pressure.

Evidence in the American Moonlanding
Multiple statistics reveal a considerable amount of scepticism from the general public pertaining to the reality of the American Moonlanding. A 2001 Fox News poll stated that 20% of Americans didn't believe in the moonlanding. A YouGov poll revealed further scepticism from the British amongst the reality of the Moonlandings

Yet such statistics reveal scepticism but give no indication as to whether or not the moonlanding actually happened.

The evidence in support of the reality of the moonlandings includes physical evidence: 382kg of moon rock. There is also photographic evidence from the Nasa Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Furthermore, believing that the moonlandings are fake would imply that they had been faked through the use of special effects, yet judging from the quality of effects of films at the time, one could question how NASA could have made such a realistic shooting.

Subscribers to the conspiracy have argued that the United States was so intent on winning the 'Space Race' that they would have faked the moonlanding in order to triumph against the USSR. Yet there is evidence that the Soviet Union was listening in to the US moonlanding operation and would have been able to expose them, had the achievement been a hoax.

What appeared to be videographic evidence proving that the mission was a hoax took form as a confession video featuring Stanley Kubrick that ultimately claimed responsability for filming the moonlandings. Yet it was soon after confirmed that while the man in the video, posing as Kubrick, resembled him quite closely, they were in fact two different people.

Finally, there is mathematical evidence that supports the truth in the moonlandings. Dr David Grimes (a physicist at Oxford University) shared a formula that would determine the time after which the hoax should have been uncovered, had it been a hoax. According to the amount of people involved in the moonlanding, it would have taken approximately four years for the conspiracy to be uncovered.