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User:PanosKratimenos/sandbox/BASC001/2020-21/Thursday11-12/Power

== Power of the West ==

Power in International Relations
Power is one of the most important and hard-to-define concepts in social sciences. In International relations (IR), power is normally defined as the ability of a state to pursue its interests under external pressures and impose its own will on other states and groups. Economic power, resources, military power, global image and influence contribute to a country’s power.

According to one of the foundational theories of liberalism, nations and international organizations are labelled as the primary actors in international politics. Power, therefore, lies within not only the nation’s military, but also in the set of bureaucracies that comprise the nation as a whole, and in the liberties of these international organisations. For example, modern colonialism as well as Western propaganda are heavily influential methods of domination that do not require direct exertion of power in the military sense. Moreover, international organisations such as the United Nations are accredited with enough power to intervene during moments of injustice, however, that is highly contested.

Conversely, the second foundational theory of realism states that nations are the only relevant actors in international politics, and international organisations do not hold the same influence or power, for reasons such as not having its own military etc. Realists assert that power, thus, lies mostly within a nation’s military along with its economy. The international system is seen as a constant struggle for power between countries that are all striving to maximise their national interest. It also precludes a ‘balance of power’ theory that suggest that states act together by forming flexible alliances in order to prevent any one state from becoming the global hegemon or too powerful.

The critical theory of constructivism, however, asserts that the concept of power itself is socially constructed. Constructivists believe that the determining factors of a country’s foreign policy, as described by liberalism and realism, maximisation of national interest and power politics, are not objective factors. The fact that nations and their actors/leaders believe that these are the main drivers of foreign politics makes them act in such a way that they have to manage their nation’s national interest and power politics. Therefore, a nation’s actions depend on its leader’s interpretation of power. For example, liberals believe in intervening in other countries to help improve their societies and stop human rights violations (like USA’s war on Afghanistan in 2003) and realists believe in protectionist policies that only focus on their country and not others (like Trump’s withdrawing of troops from Afghanistan in 2019).

Another critical theory, Marxism, theorised by Karl Marx, contends that power lies with the one who owns the means of production in the territory. He believed that the people of a nation either belonged to the bourgeoisie (owned the means of production) or the proletariat (supply labour and skill). Marx argued that this dichotomous classification of masses explained the capitalist nature of economic societies in modern history and had been used by the bourgeoisie in an attempt to justify imperialism and colonialism as a means of expanding capitalism.

Soft Power
There is a distinction between soft and hard power of states, ability to spread own values, ideas, control over creation and decisions of international institutions, as opposed to military strength and economic pressure. Soft power is believed to be gaining popularity in IR as more constraints to use of hard power appear. The nature of soft power implies that it takes time for it to have an impact but its effects are more long term.

The so called West, western developed countries, is frequently noted to be using soft power, intentionally and unintendedly, to influence the rest of the world for various reasons. Some claim that peace-making, education, economic development, respect of human rights, spread of democracy, humanitarian aid and empowerment of disadvantaged groups worldwide are the final aims, while others believe that these states and individuals can have selfish motives in addition to these aims, such as their own security or wealth. The latter claim tends to be supported by the IR idea of states seeking power and international dominance and definitions of capitalism and market economy in which firms, similarly to states, aim to maximise profit and increase market control and dominance, even if that happens at the expense of others.

In development studies, foreign aid is considered as a helpful and sometimes necessary first step for developing economies to develop their own power, economically, industrially and socially. However, it can also be considered an imperialist strategy of developed countries and large organisations, which serves them more than the developing countries. For example in the 20th century, after decolonisation and during the opposition of capitalism and socialism, western aid to newly formed countries was seen as a way to ensure they would accept similar values and ideas and develop as part of capitalist system, eventually becoming sources of cheap labour and raw materials that might enhance the power and prosperity of developed countries. That system functions best in peacetime when democracies are believed to be less likely to start wars with each other. Consequently, support of the democratisation of countries and of the empowerment and education of their citizens can be seen as an attempt by western countries to preserve their own power and security.

Colonialism and Imperialism
Colonialism and imperialism are often used synonymously, making it difficult to analyse each concept individually. Therefore, their separate definitions must first be established. Colonialism can be defined as a “practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another.” Specifically, this practice entails populations being transferred to new regions, that is people of the coloniser country living as permanent citizens in the colonies, while still maintaining their political and cultural values as before. Imperialism involves “political and economic control over a dependent territory.” It focuses on the means by which a country exerts power over another (be it through sovereignty, colonial settlement or indirect systems of control).

Colonialism is an evolving concept which exists over periods of time and places. However, Marxist scholars have identified a vital distinction: colonialism before the sixteenth century was pre-capitalist in nature, where the colonisation of a country depended on the strength of its military and tactical strategies of the ruler, and after the sixteenth century, termed as ‘modern colonialism,’ colonial empires were built alongside the capitalist systems in Western Europe. Not only did modern colonisers extract resources and wealth from its colonies (like pre-capitalist colonisers), but also attempted to restructure their economic systems in a way that created a parasitic relationship, where most of the colonies’ GDPs (Gross Domestic Product) relied on the exports made to the coloniser countries, making them wholly dependent on them for survival. This created an economic imbalance that worked as a mechanism of growth for capitalism and industrialisation in Europe.

One of the explanations for the rise of European colonialism is the advancement in navigational technology and science. As this gave them power in terms of capital resources and scientific knowledge, European colonisers exploited these advancements by sailing to remote places (under the guise of global interconnectivity), establishing ties with nations and moving large numbers of their citizens to these places. As travel became easier and less costly, political control and sovereignty could now be maintained regardless of geographical location.

The relationship between colonialism and capitalism is best summarised by the world systems theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974. This theory suggests that countries are divided into 3 categories – core, semi-periphery and periphery. The international system is a stable system of relations between the core and periphery states, in that periphery states have lower income and a lesser skilled labor force that therefore depends on exporting labour and natural resources to the core states. This flow was bidirectional – while human capital, in the form of slaves, along with raw materials were exported for secondary stages of production in the core states, the colonies provided a lucrative market for these manufactured European goods. For example, raw cotton was exported from India to Britain to manufacture clothes then sold in India markets, causing India's own cloth production to deteriorate. From this perspective, direct military or political control is no longer required for this level of economic exploitation as no matter the direction the capital or resources travelled, only the coloniser country profited. In other words, this is a representation of capitalism on a macro stage.

In the nineteenth century, when the European empire was at its largest, liberal thought was emerging. Although liberal thinkers defended the concepts of universal equality and self-governance, they continued to endorse imperialism and colonialism. The logic they used to support this thinking was the ‘civilising mission’ – Europeans had a moral responsibility to “civilise” other societies, which required temporary political and economic dependence in order to help colonies become capable enough govern themselves and establish liberal institutions. This was derived from a principal historical theory of societal development; that all societies undergo multiple stages of development before becoming civilised – “from hunting, to herding, to farming and to commerce, a developmental process that simultaneously tracked a cultural arc from “savagery,” through “barbarism,” to “civilisation”.” Concepts of “civilisation, savagery and barbarism” were especially pervasive in the writings in progressive thinkers such as Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill.

Consequences of Western Imperialism and Colonialism
Consequently, it was widely thought that only societies that were capitalist in nature had the relevant abilities to establish institutions of self-government. This logic rationalised foreign imperialism by asserting that civilised states were merely acting in the interests of their colonies by governing them. By extension, imperialism was viewed as a “paternalistic practice of government that exports “civilisation”” instead of a form of political and economic hegemony.

While analysing the British rule in India that lasted nearly 90 years, Marx believed that colonialism was in fact a “progressive force” that modernised a primitive, backward feudalistic society. Even though he disagreed with the unnecessary sufferings, death and destruction at the hands of the East India Company, he believed that this was the only way to “civilise” the “barbaric” nature of Indian village communities that he claimed were laden with degradation, poverty, feudal discrimination and stagnation before the arrival of the British. Although their methods were wrong, Marx asserted that it was necessary to restructure the patriarchal systems of living, as it was a stepping stone towards industrialisation and regeneration of a capitalist economic system in India.

Moreover, this was due to rejection of the concept of cultural pluralism. This means that in territories that conducted cultural activities and practices different from the European way of life or thinking, they appeared primitive, unreasonable and thus needed to be changed instead of recognised and respected. And thus, because they had the resources and power to make this change, Western countries colonised and spread their ideals and cultures. This is one of the reasons why colonialism affected their colonies in ways other than economically – they pervaded every aspect of civilian life and attempted to change it. By using power as a strategy/language, the cultures of the colonisers soon became the cultures of the colonised. Karl Kauntsky, a philosopher, journalist and Marxist from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries who suggested that “imperialism is a relatively permanent relationship structuring the interactions between two types of countries.” In other words, the dynamics between core and periphery states, or the colonisers and the colonies, will continue to exist even when the colonisers are not exerting direct influence.

Anthropology
Anthropology is a discipline that on one hand searches for human diversity and on the other, investigates what humans have in common. This underlying tension leads to descriptions such as ‘the most humanistic of the sciences and the most scientific of the humanities.’ There are different branches within anthropology, but particularly in social and cultural anthropology, the power of the West is notable.

Anthropological Research
The power of the West is most noticeable when one considers the traditional relationship between anthropology and the indigenous people. As Anthropologist Linda Smith clearly argues, ‘the term research is inextricably link with European imperialism and colonialism.’ This could be due to the fact that the origins of the discipline lies in America and Britain but whilst carrying out research, the methodologies that certain anthropologists apply cause discomfort and disrespect to the indigenous people. An Anthropologist was ‘often called upon to provide information and advice to the West in its efforts to manipulate and control the non-Western world’, which in turn became involved in a process of colonisation. An example of this could be the Yanomami people.

The Yanomami people
The Falling Sky is a book written by Kopenawa (alongside Bruce Albert) to illustrate the Western colonisation on the Yanomami people. The Yanomami people live in the Brazilian Amazon. Kopenawa, who is part of the Yanomami, shares his personal experience as a local to express the importance of respecting native rights and preserving their culture. He expresses his fear when the West first approaches their land and adopting their understandings on them – for example, insisting of giving them names and calling them by their names, which to the Yanomami people is considered as insulting a person to call their name in front of them. Moreover, in chapter 10, Kopenawa expresses his rage in the Westerners proclaiming to have discovered this land in the Brazilian Amazon. He claims that the same lie continues today as the westerners have ‘claimed it was empty to take over’ but in fact, ‘this land was never empty in the past and it is no more empty today!’ This demonstrates that the West has portrayed the land as part of their possession and claimed that they have discovered it. This causes huge discomfort to the local people and more importantly, it alerts to the question of how powerful the West are in producing knowledge.

Evaluating the power of the West in producing knowledge
Westerners have often been the pioneers in providing knowledge in different fields and especially in Anthropology there has always been a constant phenomenon of the West and the rest. However, from the example of the Yanomami people it is worth contemplating on the power the West has in producing knowledge and why that is the case. Perhaps, as Smith suggests, the researches belief in the ideology that they are the ‘natural representatives' of the indigenous people 'when they work in their communities.' By adopting such a perspective whilst carrying out research is dangerous as it could alter the credibility of the knowledge that is produced. It is therefore worth noticing the power the West has not only in research but also in producing knowledge that is available to a wider audience and to what extent this knowledge is true.

Minority Rights
In the 1960s to 70s, the issue of prejudice and discrimination towards minorities gained rapid global momentum. Many countries reached a formal consensus on the issues of discrimination and minority protection, and protection from discrimination suddenly became a “world right”. John D. Skrentny, professor of sociology, names this period of rapid growth of nondiscrimination rights the “Minority Rights Revolution”, which he explores from an American-focused perspective in his book The Minority Rights Revolution. Establishment of minority rights is one of the democratic approaches to handling an ethnically diverse population (as opposed to non-democratic methods such as “genocide, assimilation, or population control” that have been practiced up till the 1970s in America ). At first glance, the purpose of minority rights is simple: to protect those who are members of a minority groups and prevent erasure of minority cultures. It appears to be a positive movement, demonstrating the power of the West in empowering disadvantaged groups within their communities.

Problems of the Effectiveness of Minority Rights
Though good in concept, the efficacy of minority rights quickly become questionable when examined closely. Minority rights are the protection of rights for minorities, but it has been noted by many that an integral problem is the lack of a definition of what actually constitutes as a minority group. Some experts even claim that there is an apparent avoidance towards providing a clear definition of minority “wherever possible”. This begs the question: What is a minority? Perhaps it is something that seems obvious, the classification “minority” often strikes a certain image in our minds - for example, in late twentieth century America, the paradigmatic minority were African Americans, perhaps true even today in many western countries - however, ambiguity becomes very problematic when present in legal instruments as it raises questions of who is entitled to these rights. as these dubieties often return the power of decision making onto the state and the majority group. The perpetuation of power imbalance between minority and majority due to these shortcomings can be demonstrated through French Sociologist Collette Guillaumin’s approach to the definitions of these groups: “Membership of a majority is based on the latitude to deny that one belongs to a minority. It is conceived as a freedom in the definition of oneself, a freedom which is never granted to members of minorities and which they are not in a position to give to themselves.”

Besides the confusion around the target of which these rights are applied to, the rights itself are often articulated in a vague manner. Below are excerpts the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities by the Council of Europe.

 * ''Article 4
 * ''1. The Parties undertake to guarantee to persons belonging to national minorities the right of equality before the law and of equal protection of the law. In this respect, any discrimination based on belonging to a national minority shall be prohibited.
 * ''2. The Parties undertake to adopt, where necessary, adequate measures in order to promote, in all areas of economic, social, political and cultural life, full and effective equality between persons belonging to a national minority and those belonging to the majority. In this respect, they shall take due account of the specific conditions of the persons belonging to national minorities.

 * ''Article 6
 * ''1. The Parties shall encourage a spirit of tolerance and intercultural dialogue and take effective measures to promote mutual respect and understanding and co-operation among all persons living on their territory, irrespective of those persons' ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious identity, in particular in the fields of education, culture and the media.

 * ''Article 14
 * 2. In areas inhabited by persons belonging to national minorities traditionally or in substantial numbers, if there is sufficient demand, the Parties shall endeavour to ensure, as far as possible and within the framework of their education systems, that persons belonging to those minorities have adequate opportunities for being taught the minority language or for receiving instruction in this language.

At first, it seems uncontroversial. Yet when considered in a more pragmatic sense, what do phrases such as “where necessary”, “substantial numbers”, “sufficient demand”, “as far as possible”, “effective” or “adequate measures” truly mean? Questions arise of who decides what is necessary or substantial and what is the measure of adequacy or effectiveness.

Apart from the vague terms of measure, many descriptions of the actual rights themselves are difficult to fully conceptualize. Such as “encourage a spirit of tolerance” or even “full and effective equality”. Though many in the modern world demand equality for all persons, the truth is that there is no consensus on the definition of “equality”; different individuals who believe in equality also can have vastly conflicting opinion on the methods to step towards equality. The ambiguity in which minority rights have been articulated provides states with a “great margin of appreciation” in the implementation of these laws, making it difficult to contest or question the state’s efforts in upholding these conventions. Furthermore, the monitoring of state compliance is largely reported by the state itself, further demonstrating how the power of deciding the terms of minority rights are ultimately held by the majority who are already in power.

Then, moving away from semantics, comes the shortcomings of minority rights as a whole. Minority interests are almost always far more complex than what is willing to be addressed by minority rights. The determination of the interests of minorities is merely through a projection of idealised conceptions of the state’s own goals rather than coming from minorities themselves. Minority rights also group many minorities, all of which have varied cultures and goals, into one entity and making drastic assumptions and overgeneralisations about them as a whole and therefore ultimately being unable to truly address the concerns and needs of minority groups.

Western Imperialist Propaganda in Media
Disclaimer: Some of the articles referenced may have graphic images. Please view them at your own discretion.

Media
‘Media’ is a term often used in a multiplicity of different disciplines including life sciences, art, computing and more. However, in this day and age, the word is arguably used most prevalently in the field of communication as technological advancements enhance the need for a discipline as such. The power of the West in mainstream media is not entirely conspicuous, but surely heavily present. This will be examined through a case study of modern Western propaganda: the Uyghur concentration camps.

History of Propaganda
‘Propaganda’ is biased information that is presented to the public with the aim of influencing a party into executing specific actions. This mechanism holds the power of strategic persuasion (often through language) which can also ultimately lead to indirect coercion. Historically, the word dates back to as early as the 15th century. Since then, the context in which the word is utilised has shifted over the centuries where it was primarily used in a religious context, and then in the 18th and 19th century a military context and now more contemporarily in a political context. In most global History education systems, it is most famously studied in a military context where propaganda machines and campaigns populated (such as during the World Wars I and II). As the society becomes more digitised, propaganda takes on a more modern form and has advanced to be quite subtle in nature, and can therefore be quite difficult to spot (compared to propaganda posters found in the 18th and 19th centuries).

Modern Western Propaganda in Digital Media
As of lately, social media is a platform that various activists engage with to raise awareness about silenced or crucial issues. This is done very effectively as it is able to alert others globally and almost with just a few taps on the screen. However, that advantage can also be manipulated into spreading sensationalised misinformation, even at the viewer’s own discretion. Many avid social media users and even researchers and international bodies attest to the emergence of an ‘infodemic’. Infomedic is the digital plague of mis- and disinformation and the term has been used within the context of the Covid-19 pandemic and the fake news surrounding it. Another infodemic that exists simultaneously is the potential disinformation about Uyghur concentration camps in Xinjiang.

About Uyghurs
The Uyghurs are mostly of Muslim Turkic ethnicity and are culturally associated with Central Asia. They are populated around the world from China to Uzbekistan to Kyrgyzstan to Kazakhstan to Turkey to Australia and more. Their relationship with Xinjiang in China is historically rooted and dates back to as far as the 9th century. '''

Western Media’s Take
There has been a flood of articles about the Uyghur concentration camps that have been spreading across the internet. A number of news outlets are accusing China of allegedly subjecting over one million Uyghurs of Xinjiang to severe torture, violence and punishments in these concentration camps. . According to many news outlets, this is done because the Chinese government is said to be rooted with religious oppression coupled with their desire to control the population numbers. Some of the more popular articles on that matter include: graphic images (claiming to have been taken in the camps themselves) and some testimonies from Chinese Uyghurs. Their alleged acts of China against the Uyghur people include but are not limited to: forced sterilisation, forced feeding of pork and alcohol, rape, demolition of mosques and etc. These articles have also reached mainstream media and social media where this perspective proliferates among the general public. Many social media postings claim that it is a ‘cultural genocide’ in which the death count has surpassed the Holocaust (see: #UyghurGenocide on Twitter). Those articles and postings have gained great traction recently through mainly social media sharing — so much so that the viewers coming across a flood of them are bound to believe it without hesitance and share them almost absent-mindedly. This has resulted in the demonisation of China in the international community (especially on the internet), calling them ‘monstrous’.

Counter arguments Against Western Media’s Take
However, there are many speculations suggesting that Western media is making most of these accusations up. China has admitted to opening re-education camps, however they say that they are used to counter the extremist indoctrination. These detention centres in Xinjiang became more relevant during the mid- and late-1900s. This was because during those times, “religious extremism made further inroads into Xinjiang [...] soon blended with terrorism to stir up social unrest in the region, seriously undermining local stability and security” which was further exacerbated by the rise of the Al-Qaeda. These extremist groups claimed to want to “unite under the moon-and-star banner” in the ‘name of Islam’, but were only “deceitfully used people's ethnic identity and religious belief” to harness power over the region, and then the world. Back then, many of the Uyghur people were indoctrinated and brainwashed with religious fanaticism, separatism and terrorism in the name of ‘Jihad’ (holy war) which led to a rise in a violence in the region, which is said to have been curbed nowadays due to the re-education centres.

It is said that they are doing this to propel the yellow peril propaganda and foster public and united hatred against China as they are seen as a political ‘threat’ to the West (especially the United States). This is said to be done as a means to justify waging a war and imposing sanctions against China. The reason for targeting Xinjiang is because of its geographical, historical and economic significance to China — with their rich natural resources and diverse ethnic groups inhabiting the region. If sanctions are to be held against them, this will cause China to halt their Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) that invests in support trade between over 70 countries in Asia. Many have also criticised the source of these “credible reports” written to the United Nations (UN) and the “Xinjiang experts” reporting on this matter. The “chilling stories” of some Uyghurs that describe their own horrific experience at a concentration camp are also being criticised. Some sources argue that these specific people are almost always the same seven to eight individuals are testifying and propagating the Western bias. Other testimonies reported in Chinese sources say that: Uyghurs claim to have been “saved” by the Chinese government through vocational training at these re-education centres. There are many other non-Western articles that contest the Western media’s portrayal of the re-education centres and of China in general. In fact, there has been praise directed at the Chinese government for these re-education camps. According to some sources, the poverty rate in Xinjiang has decreased from 6.1% in 2018 to 1.2% in 2019 (which surpasses UN’s goal of poverty eradication by 2030); and the people of Xinjiang including the Uyghurs are said to be prospering economically and socially.

Power of Western Media
These particular claims and articles debunking false claims of the camps are being shot down and rejected by the Western media, despite there being substantial evidence against Western media’s claims. Ultimately, this demonstrates the power that Western media holds over non-Western reports and how deeply influential they are in the global community and mainstream media. With social media, these power-hungry entities can often take advantage of the herd mentality that is embedded within the online community, enabling further spread of mis- and disinformation. As younger generations are born into a digitalised society, they are more susceptible to believing headlines no matter how false or true which plays a role in the fuelling of media's power. Many non-Western news outlets report and claim that Western media is becoming "increasingly ideological" — by boldly manipulating the truth and propelling a false narrative that fits their own set of values and beliefs, overshadowing others that contradict them. Arguably, it is not done in much of a clandestine manner because the Western media are well-aware of their dominant position within the discipline and industry of media.

Furthermore, it shows how sensationalist language as a strategic form of power is very notable and can cause the viewer to immediately attach negative connotations to something without further thought. In the context of Uyghur concentration camps, this is seen with the popular phrase of “Uyghur Muslims in concentration camps”. Despite China lawfully labelling them “re-education centres”, many Western headlines would often opt for the former due to the word choice being more dramatic, appealing to the reader’s pathos and giving the article more shock value. This gives journalists incentive to stray from being objective in their news reports. Although the Western hegemony in media is undeniably present, it is crucial that the public are critical of every source presented to them to ensure they are not indoctrinated by any form of bias. Doing so will allow the power dynamics within the media between the West and the non-West to be more balanced, and enable the people to reach closer to the truth of the situation.

Western Media's Biases and Portrayal of Africa
In the 1970s, from two decades of independence, Africa was in a state of economic underdevelopment. Theorists explained this phenomena with the theory of dependency which posits that underdeveloped countries are dependent on developed countries to export resources from the underdeveloped country through trade, and the development of the underdeveloped country is dependent on the growth of the country it relies on exports. This situation was perceived as a 'crisis’ in Africa by the West.

Throughout the years, from the 16th to the 19th century, missionaries, merchants and colonizers from the West distributed information about the state of ‘crisis’ that they perceived. As technology and global communication advanced, the distribution of biased perceptive information occurred through mediums such as the newspaper, television and internet. As the West colonized Africa in the process of exporting the resources, the theory of dependency highlights that Africa was ‘dependent’ on the West, and this resulted in people dividing the nations as the one country had the power of affecting another country’s development. This strategic relationship between two nations to further develop the economy through trade began to construct perspectives and subjectivities that the West’s system and culture was better.

These current subjectivities arise from the past relationship of the perceieved nation in power, and the underdeveloped nation’s dependency in the form of colonization and slave trade. While this was a subjective perception collectively thought of as a nation as a whole, such perceptions can 'permeate’ into an individual's mind, whether consciously or unconsciously. When individuals such as journalists or academics spread information, they act as a medium of further spreading biased perspectives of superiority. The individual may or may not have visited Africa or experienced its culture and system, yet a congruence bias causes individuals to over rely on existing cognitions and perspectives they hold on Africa such as the existence of dependency and slavery in the past, and tend to neglect alternative information such as development.

Western reports of news which may indicate that occurrences in Africa are ‘irrational’ are often a result of ignorance by a lack of contextual and historical analysis. This further reinforces perceptive subjectivities as a result of a confirmation bias, where individuals such as journalists have the tendency to seek for information that supports pre-existing cognitions and beliefs, hence neglecting other information such as a historical context as an explanation for a conflict in Africa. The medium sharing the information is subject to confirmation bias and does not communicate an unbiased view of the existing conditions or conduct appropriate examinations of the context.

Furthermore, the internal priorities of news outlets vary the resources they are willing to use for different issues which consequently varies the media coverage. In 1994, there was the Rwandan conflict which was a genocide that occurred in Rwanda. There was less awareness of the incidents that signalled the conflict because there was less media coverage due to priorities. Two tribes, Batutsi and Bahutus, had constant rivalry which became violent and cost people their lives, but there was no media coverage on this. On the 6th of April in 1994, the plane carrying both the Rwandan and Burundian presidents was shot and both presidents were killed and this was the breaking point which led the two tribes to slaughter each other. Around the same time, Nelson Mandela’s inauguration was to take place, and the UN withdrew the military troops from Somali due to soldiers and citizens losing their lives over the Somali Crisis. The news outlets prioritized the news of Nelson Mandela’s inauguration and the UN’s withdrawal from Somali that there were very few journalists in Rwanda to collect information and report it. The Western media’s perspective of what was more important news due to their subjectivities led to less resources being used to understand the context of the Rwandan conflict to its roots, thus less media coverage. Afterwards, there was media coverage about the conflict, but it did not include information about the context building towards the incident because they did not have the information from prioritizing different news. Instead, the cholera epidemic in Africa brought attention to the news, furthermore sharing a biased focus on the representation of Africa as a nation to the public. The information being spread itself is limited, consequently making the public retain limited knowledge about Africa. This is a result of constructed subjectivities and biases from the perception of power by the Western media which strengthens their nation's ability to use power as a strategy to further continue the existing international power structures of dominance.

Power of Money through Economies and Nations
Money is a socially developed construct of power. It is completely human-made and is classified as valuable. Through an economic understanding, money is the medium in which humans exchange goods or services, and is a unit of account as different goods and services are measured in their value in one currency. Through a sociological understanding, money claims one's value within the society through classifying their ‘status and social privilege’. Through a psychological understanding, money is an entity which provides ‘physical and psychological security’ and this manifests as money is the key necessity to promote human well-being and sustain human welfare. Through a political understanding, money is an advantage and promotes the ability to influence the public and provides a political authority. Through a military science understanding, money is the foundation of developing defence strategies and arms to strengthen the military of a nation. Money is able to convert into different forms of social power as it has the ability to exchange into different needs. It can be exchanged for military support, fame, security, services, and so on. Money is a tool that gives an individual or a nation the power to protect itself. Having possession of the power from money provides the privilege to choose, enforce and influence.

Money is a ‘social organization’ that has established its power through the conventions of its use through identifying varying values of different amounts of money. Money is institutionalized through the privilege of its ownership in the forms of banks to store money, taxes to redistribute money, issuing of money, minting coins and accounting money usage. As society grew, it became more complex as it developed components of society including, but not limited to finance, governance, education, medical care, transport, communication, production and trade. The control and possibility of these systems are collectively through the nation’s wealth which is achieved through money, and in turn of investing this money into different systems, the nation becomes more powerful as the investment returns with an increase in money, improving the economy, and strengthening the nation’s services.

Power of Money in a Patriarchal Society and in Social Status
The formation of a patriarchal society wherein men predominantly hold the power in a society developed as the concept that a male breadwinner is able to sufficiently support his family. By the 1910s, a male breadwinner that earned money to support the household became the ideal norm, even if it was not the existing reality at the time. Families at a high social status were able to be supported through a single person, the husband, earning money, yet families of middle and low social status would not have been able to sustain if there was only one person earning money. Instead, children of the family, whether male or female, would work to earn money, but the wife was designated the role of a ‘homemaker’ and it was perceived as ‘disgracing’ the husband and violating his authority if the wife would work. While families had the need of more people earning within the family, they rarely sought for the wife to work because of the ideal developed by the high social status people. The power that people in a high social status got from being able to sustain themselves with sufficient money earned by one person formed a social authority towards the system and they were able to influence norms on the society. Even if families needed a working wife, due to the power of the high status individuals with sufficient money, other families in the society became conditioned to follow their ideals and norms. Overall in the society, the families earning sufficient money had the power to influence, and individually specific to a family, the male breadwinner had the power to make decisions as the head of the family due to being the one that earned the money to support the family.

Power of Money in Workplaces
Abuse of power in a workplace, according to a study by Joseph Grenny and David Maxfield, has been experienced by 96% of the participants in the study in various forms. Specific to the form of abuse of power as indirect institutionalized coercion, people in authority, that are at a higher position in the hierarchy of a workplace and earn more money, can abuse their power through creating a system and environment with the impression that their subordinates must not retaliate as it will in consequence worsen their situation. This hierarchy developed on the ultimate difference of money earned can develop a structure of organizational chaos. Power abusers display that disregarding any abuse will be better for the victim that is relatively powerless. The abuser does not present the choice that it is acceptable for the victim to retaliate, and only presents the choice that they must bear any abuse. Furthermore, the study found that 20% of the participants that acted against the abuse, and defied the authoritative figure faced a loss of more that 7 hours of working time in week which consequently results in lost wages. The consequence of defying a superior that earns more money, is that ultimately, the victim loses money. The dynamic of money in this system enforces that people holding more money hold the power.

Power of Money in Crime
Individuals or organizations that commit low level crimes such as petty theft, driving violations, are sentenced with fines in the majority of the cases. Furthermore, in serious crimes, individuals or organizations can be sentenced with a period of time in prison along with a fine, and in a very high level crimes, as of 2015 in the UK, the sentence can include an unlimited fine. As a result of one’s actions, the court has the power as an authoritative body and can make individuals face the consequences of their actions through facing a punishment whether the individual wants to experience it or not. The court has the power of direct coercion to sentence a punishment, and one of the most common forms of punishment include fines. It is apparent through this system that paying an amount of money for violating a law is an effective punishment. This punishment enforces defendants in one aspect to not violate the law or conduct illegal behaviour again as they would prefer to avoid the loss of more of their money. The quantity of the fines are relative to the severity of the crime, and this enforces people to further not commit severe crimes as they would consequently have to lose more money through higher fines. The fines are varied according to the defendant’s income so that defendants of the same crime with varying ‘financial circumstances’ can face an equally impacting punishment. As people commit crimes, they have to pay money as fines, and through intricate interactions, this system enforces a wider network of power where the society conforms to following the law to avoid the consequences of losing their own individual power in the society from losing their money.

A defendant can obtain a bail which is an agreement with the court in the form of a recognisance. This means that a defendant provides a guarantee of money with the court to be released from custody while awaiting trial. The bail money is with the court so that the defendant follows the bail conditions such as following a curfew, not consuming alcohol, refraining from visiting certain places or people, and being electronically tagged to be able to surveille the location of the defendant. This system enforces defendants to conform with the conditions set by the authoritative court in power, even if they otherwise would not have followed a curfew or would have consumed alcohol and so on. This presents how the courts have power as direct coercion and they are able to do this as they take a surety of money from the defendant. To not lose their money, defendants will refrain from violating the bail conditions. As the defendant’s money is with the courts, they are situationally relatively powerless and have to follow the courts instructions.

Power of Money Throughout Society
Ultimately, money represents itself as power in different forms through its ability to exchange into something that is equally valuable. The power of money is present in many different parts of the society such as, but not included to education, transport, nutrition, technology, finance, medical care, communication and housing. Money is needed to be able to further continue the complex network of social systems developed. Humans have constructed a society that follows the dynamic that without money, all is powerless. Similarly, a world without a society of humans to use money and impose power, would consequently signify that money itself would have no value.

Power of Money in Politics
Even in long established democracies, money remains intrinsic to the attainment of political power. For the first time, in the 2008 US presidential race, candidates raised and spent over $1 billion. By 2012, this figure was $2.6 billion. In the recent 2020 election, candidates raised $3.69 billion, with Democratic nominee and eventual winner Joe Biden alone raising over $1.3 billion. Of the vast sums expended the majority (Biden - 80% ; Trump - 66% ) is spent on media used to attain public recognition and garner voter support. While much of this funding comes from regular voters and party funds, a sizeable amount comes either directly or indirectly from corporations and/or individuals with their own political agendas. In the United States this is in part enabled by a landmark 1976 Supreme Court that effectively ruled that limiting spending on election campaigns constituted a contravention against the First Amendment right to free speech.

The ability to theoretically contribute unlimited sums of money threatens the freedom and fairness of elections by effectively enabling those with greater financial means to have a more substantial influence on voter choice. Worryingly most of these contributions also come with implied rewards, such as government contracts or funding, beneficial legislative changes, increased business from political candidates, and even a position on political committees.

It is clear then, that money can be used to gain an increased voice or presence in politics, or obtain a level of special treatment. To counter this, most modern democracies require the identities of donors be disclosed, which understandably results in media and public inquiry regarding the motives of said donations. Subsequently, lawmakers often attempt to introduce reformative regulations, like the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act and the Federal Elections Campaign Act, but these are repeatedly met with litigation from moneyed interests such as in the case of Citizens United v. FEC. Even with new regulation, political financiers continue to find new legal loopholes to facilitate further contentious donations. In the US, this has occurred with the development of PACs, 527 groups and SuperPACs. Thus an endless cycle is created, where ever-innovative methods for attaining political power through financial means are created to combat currently failing attempts at regulation. Even with oversight and critique from international organisations, such as The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, and various media outlets, the influence of money in politics looks set to continue globally.

Power Distance Index as a Tolerance of Power Structures
Hofstede categorized trends in different societies as cultural dimensions, and one cultural dimension is the Power Distance Index (PDI). The two extreme ends of the index are individualistic and collectivistic. Individualism is a trend in a society where people form their identity as an individual and they prioritize the values of the individual. Collectivism is where people form their identity as part of a social group and they prioritize the values of the group over an individual. ‘Self-sufficiency, competitiveness and personal achievements’ are valued in individualistic cultures while they are not regarded as valuable in collectivistic cultures over social responsibility. Individualistic cultures distribute power and influence of decisions or change equally among each individual and do not tolerate inequality, while collectivistic cultures are hierarchical in nature and tolerate inequality as it is a part of the social hierarchy system. With this extreme difference, the PDI measures the tolerance of uneven distribution in the society. Thus, individualistic cultures have low PDI scores and collectivistic cultures have high PDI scores.

Power Distance Index's Influence on Conformity
In 1967, Berry and Katz conducted a study between participants that belonged to an individualistic culture (Inuit people) and collectivistic culture (Tenme people). The study sought to understand the difference in behaviour in the context of conformity between the two cultural groups. Conformity is the tendency to follow norms or beliefs established, and in this instance, norms or beliefs by the social group. The study used an Asch paradigm where participants were shown one line at the top of a page, and given 8 lines below. The participants had to identify the line which had an equal length to the line at the top of the page. The researchers told the participants that a majority of people in their social group previously selected a certain line, which was actually incorrect. It was identified significantly that the Inuit (individualistic) people ignored the suggestion and chose a line which they individually believed to be correct while the Tenme (collectivistic) people significantly conformed with the suggestion and made the decision, even if they internally thought it was a different line. They valued conforming to their group and holding the same beliefs as the group more than their individual perspective. A participant also explained that if the group chooses something, then everyone must follow that decision as it is their form of cooperation within the group. In this context, even though the power dynamic in the group presents direct coercion from people choosing an option which they might have not chosen otherwise from their own individual perspective, the culture with a high PDI does not perceive making choices that conform or collective decisions as coercion. The choice to conform is perceived as a natural behaviour for the people in the group. Additionally, power in the group represents itself as a strategy as it constructs subjectivities that one in the group must follow the decisions by the group. Due to the high tolerance of a power structure in the collectivistic society, the people have developed subjectivities as their choices and decisions are influenced by the group’s perception.

Power Distance Index's Influence on Obedience
In collectivistic cultures, at a level of the home environment, power relationships through family dynamics are identified by children. Children in collectivistic cultures remain obedient and do not retaliate while parents hold an authoritative position and may dictate behaviour. This power relationship within a family is further enforced as children observe that other children conduct similar behaviour with their families, and feel that they hold similar beliefs as the people in their social group, developing a sense of social identity for the child. This power dynamic within a family where the parents who are older in age hold the authority is a behaviour that is conformed further by the children as they grow outside the family. In the collectivistic society, older citizens will hold the power to dictate actions for the younger people, and they do not retaliate as it is a norm in the society of the power distribution. This is further applied to a broader context of the society itself where people follow the decisions of the leaders of the social group such as people at a high position in the social hierarchy. The interactions in a power relationship at small levels can correlate and connect to a broader and wider network of power in the society.

Power Distance Index's Influence on Silence
In 2009, Meeuwesen, van den Brink-Muinen and Hofstede conducted a cross-cultural analysis of how a difference in PDI would affect the communication between a patient and a doctor. In collectivistic cultures, doctors are perceived as authoritative people because of their superior medical knowledge. It was found that participants from cultures with a low PDI (individualistic cultures) tend to have consultation sessions that last longer and the conversation between the doctor and patient was more flexible as both would engage in the conversation. In contrast, participants from cultures with a high PDI (collectivistic cultures) tend to have shorter consultation sessions due to less irrelevant or unexpected information being shared, and participants would choose not to engage in a conversation with the doctor, which means that only the doctor would be explaining about the medical condition to the patient. This shows that societies that tolerate power structures represent the authority of people in a hierarchy by the people that are less powerful in the power relationship being silenced. As a strategy, presence of power in a society manifests as a strategy. Ultimately, people that are less powerful in the power relationship remain silent. Children stay obedient to their parents, they listen to the elders in the society, they do not question a doctor, they remain silent and do not retaliate. This is in contrast to individualistic cultures with low PDI wherein there is a low presence of power relationships and power is distributed equally. This allows them to retaliate to their parents, not listen to their elders, react to doctors, and voice their own individual perspective. While it may be perceived that people in collectivistic cultures oppress their perspectives, the people instead feel it natural to share similar beliefs, and hence similar perspectives as the group. Their perspective of what to choose and what to decide ultimately changes because of their perception of what is socially responsible. It is not an oppression of their perspectives, it is an influence of their perspectives. Tolerance of power in a social group enforces holding similar perspectives to the other members of the group, and as part of this process, people can be silenced as remaining silent in particular situations is perceived as appropriate and a norm that is shared among the members of the social group.

Power Distance Index's Influence on Performance in Empowerment
In 1999, Eylon and Au conducted a study to analyze the trend between empowerment in a workplace, work satisfaction, and work performance between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. It was found that while participants from both cultures were satisfied when empowered in a workplace (put in a position of power such as a team leader), the work performance was significantly different. The findings were that participants from individualistic cultures showed no difference in work performance than usual, whether they were in a place of power or not, their work performance was ultimately the same. However, the work performance of participants from collectivistic cultures decreased. When they were placed in a place of power, they underperformed from their abilities when not empowered. This research signifies that people from social groups with high PDI scores tend to perform better when disempowered. This includes having structured work where the responsibilities of the assignment are explicit. This shows the conditioning of people that tolerate power structures to apply similar dynamics in their work place. As a child grows up, they follow the behaviour dictated by the parents, and listen to the orders by elders, and of the leader of the social group. The obedience and nature of following instructions is applied to the workplace where they are told what their responsibilities are, and what to do in a task, and they follow those guidelines. The difference in work performance is due to the low exposure of situations and experiences where members of collectivistic cultures can make decisions dynamically and individually without having to ensure that other people agree with the decision. In contrast, members from individualistic cultures are exposed to experiences where they can make their own individual decisions, and this allows individuals to work with their ability without the constraint of the perspectives of others in the group. Thus, their work performance remains the same on the sole basis of their ability and skill. The conditioning of a power system strategises itself as it forms an individual’s behaviour and perception. Small scale learning of respecting positions of power through obedience evolves to be applied in a larger network of power such as completing a task, formation of responsibilities and work performance.

As the difference in tolerance of power in a social group exhibits differences in conformity, submission, obedience and performance, this correlates to a significant relationship that power only has the power to influence people if you give it power and importance in the society.

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History of Disciplines: Physiology and Psychology in Mental Health
Physiology and psychology have different approaches to health issues, rooted in their different histories as disciplines, resulting in conflicts between aims and methods of conducting and interpreting research. This is seen to cause problems when approaching mental health from an interdisciplinary perspective, such as trying to apply the connection between the mind and body in treatments. The knowledge of the mechanisms of the body and mind are required from physiology and psychology respectively, to best understand a phenomenon such as the brain-gut axis. The connection between the brain and gut is an area with much potential for developing the effectiveness of mental health treatments, however its application is yet to be seen on the scale that other treatments are practiced. It has been found that more than 90% of the body's serotonin is produced in the gut, and there is a strong correlation between poor mental health and poor digestive health , demonstrating the need to integrate the approaches of these different disciplines in mental health treatment.

Physiology
Physiology is the study of how the body works, from cellular and molecular mechanisms to whole organ systems. Its research and application is predominantly concerned with observable phenomena: diseases, injuries, etc., as it emerged as a discipline to cure ailments that individuals were visibly suffering from, through constructing methods based on direct observation e.g. blood tests and electrocardiograms. These methods used by physiology produce empirical data which is easy to quantify, display and deduce conclusions from. This empirical approach was, and still is, seen as the most effective scientific method, partly to maintain the recognition and respect of science, separate from arts, humanities and social sciences; historically, the social sciences tried to adopt these methods of natural science to gain the same recognition and respect. Furthermore, throughout history, those pursuing physiology have been preoccupied with treatment rather than prevention, the greatest celebrations and landmarks in physiology have been those of vaccine and drug development, as arguably the primary purpose of physiology was to cure disease and other ailments. This approach strongly persists today, with many individuals entering the medical field with the intention of creating a "cure" or method to mask the symptoms of a disease, rather than prevention in the first place. This approach has been displayed as resulting in the most success, recognition and application, therefore many of those pursuing physiology would approach mental health issues in the same way, suggesting drug-based medication as a course of treatment.

Psychology
Psychology is the study of how the mind works, with a focus crossing over between research to understand how the mind works e.g. developmental and social psychology, and clinical applications of psychology concerning mental illness. This integration has historically deemed psychology as separate from medical practices like physiology and has affected the approach and methodology that psychology uses today. In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential figures in psychology with the aim of constructing a treatment for those suffering with mental health issues. Freud developed the "talking cure", which focused on patterns of thought which would represent an underlying subconscious state to uncover. Early psychological theories were built upon qualitative and anecdotal data, contrary to physiology and other natural sciences; psychology was not perceived as a discipline on the same level as physiology in society and academia, its progression and development was not as recognised. Psychology did not receive as much funding or research opportunities as natural sciences such as physiology, as the result of its applications were less fruitful in terms of successfully treating (mental) health issues, and as the outcomes are harder to defy quantitatively. As psychology was seen as separate from psychiatry (which focused on prescribing medication, from a physiological perspective), it was more concerned with phenomenology i.e. the meaning and perception of the experience to an individual. Psychological therapies throughout history have been largely based on theories of mind with little empirical evidence. Many existing mental health treatments continue to follow early psychological theories based around patterns of thought in research and practice - it is perhaps most commonly applied in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) based on consciously deconstructing and reconstructing patterns of thought which result in unpleasant emotions. The approach of psychology is a necessity in mental health, to understand how the mind works from a philosophical and phenomenological perspective to make sense of an individual's experience and to aim to understand the cause of the problem.

Interdisciplinary issues
The methods by which physiology and psychology conduct their research are different; physiology largely relies on direct observation and empirical data, the historical basis of natural sciences. On the other hand, psychology mostly produces qualitative data when concerning the mind as an unobservable phenomenon, such as anecdotal studies in the form of unstructured interviews or behavioural observation, as it is not perceived as a natural science and is considered separate from psychiatry. This would result in complications when carrying out interdisciplinary research concerning the methodology employed to conduct the research and the interpretation of results.

Furthermore, there may be contradictions in the aims of the research, as applications of physiology are concerned with masking the symptoms of an illness rather than addressing the cause, as the predominant treatment for health problems is drug-based, historically being the most rewarded. Whereas psychology seeks to understand the cause of the problem, largely influenced by the historical aim of uncovering memories or subconscious thoughts about past experiences or trauma, being a discipline seen as separate to drug-based physiology and medical practices. This contradiction leads to problems in treating mental health from an interdisciplinary perspective; today, psychology is increasingly seen to integrate more holistic approaches into its treatment, such as meditation and dietary changes, as psychologists cannot prescribe medication unlike psychiatrists, due to fundamental differences in the history of the demarcation of these disciplines.

For a given health problem, such as a chronic digestive illness (e.g. IBS with a strong brain-gut basis), a physiological approach may suggest long-term digestive medication, however, practices in holistic psychology may look into the individual's life situation and stress level, which impacts the gut microbiome. The effect of poor digestive health on mental health may be seen only as a mental health issue by physiology, treating this through psychiatric medication, whereas (holistic) psychology would look into the cause, such as state of the gut microbiome based on diet. Holistic applications of psychology are sometimes lacking a scientific basis, such as an understanding of gut physiology when concerning the diet or the specific structure and role of the different bacteria in the microbiome, demonstrating the need to integrate these disciplines in research. Furthermore, in practice, it is necessary to consider both approaches; for example, in a situation of a mental health issue caused by an incurable gut disorder, digestive medication may be the most appropriate course of treatment.

Introduction
Architecture has been entwined with biology since the birth of the art form. The first architectural representations date back to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_architecture#:~:text=Neolithic%20architecture%20refers%20to%20structures,2%2C000%20BC%2C%20the%20Neolithic%20period. Neolithic] (100,000 BC), where the settlement of nomadic people lead to the construction of structures including shelters, ritual monuments, and tombs among others. . Its relation to biology resides not only in the materials used for this primitive construction, taken from the wilderness; but also in its design and form, resembling the shapes prehistorian “architects” observed in nature. From then until now, architectural designs and structures have been heavily inspired by the patterns, materials, and morphology of living beings.

The aim of the following paragraphs is to illustrate the different ways in which these two disciplines intertwine in modern architecture nowadays; and the environmental, artistic, and technological impact of this new specialty.

Biomimetics
The term Biomimetics comes from the addition of the Greek prefix "Bio" (meaning life) to the stem "mimesis", which means imitation or mimicry. This term, which in its whole means "imitation of life", is used to describe the practice of taking inspiration from nature's processes, systems, and structures and applying it in fields unaffiliated with biology.

Nature has undergone millions of years of evolution, where all of the systems, cycles, and microorganisms have balanced and perfected themselves over time. The morphology of living beings is highly sophisticated and more complex than any artificial machine ever created, thoroughly organized at a macro and microscopical level. Furthermore, architecture counts with two gateways to get inspiration and imitate biology: through art and science. Architecture is a discipline that combines subjective areas such as design and art with more objective and rigid areas such as physics or mathematics, and both aspects can be heavily inspired by the patterns, colors, and motion of nature.

Some examples of architectural and artistic features that are heavily inspired by biology are the following:

 * 1) Structure: Inspiration from bones, shells, leaves in the making of the building's skeleton.
 * 2) Hydrophobicity: Inspiration from lotus leaves and insect wings, concerning impermeability and hydrophobic/hydrophilic surfaces.
 * 3) Photorregulation: Inspiration from eyes and phototropism for tracking solars used in photovoltaic panels.
 * 4) Skin: human and animal skin, Namib desert beetle (able to collect water with his wings from the fog) concerning porosity, water collection...
 * 5) Colour: The use of carbon nanotubes to produce the coloration of some surfaces is often inspired by butterfly wings and bird feathers.

Bioarchitecture
Since the birth of the combination of these disciplines, bioarchitecture has had many different definitions. Some consider it as the design of ecological and sustainable constructions, others as the creation of buildings that aesthetically resemble the shapes of nature, etc. In our case, we will refer to bioarchitecture as the use of microorganisms for the construction of structures and architectural elements.

The principal pioneer in this new discipline is the Israeli architect and designer Neri Oxman. With a Ph.D. in Design Computation at MIT, a diploma from the Architectural Association in London, and training at the Department of Medical Sciences at the Hebrew University, Oxman counts with the ideal formation for interdisciplinary research.

Her work focuses on the relationship between the buildings and the ecosystems they inhabit. The new ways of production she uses enables her constructions to possess characteristics, such as texture, color, taste, or smell that make them heterogeneous and versatile. Oxman’s team has discovered a new way of creating her constructions, where microorganisms are strategically used to synthesize ecological materials, taking advantage of their properties and nature’s complex design. In doing so, humans and nature establish a symbiotic relationship where the different abilities of the microscopic world are exploited in industry and tissue engineering. The purposes of these materials are boundless, from textiles and fabric to building materials. Some of her most revolutionary projects are:

 * Aguahoja Pavilion : This sustainable design based on cellulose, chitin, and pectin, abundant materials in nature, allows the structure to return to the ecosystem and be part of the life cycle again, making it renewable and biocompatible. The five meters tall, strong, and flexible structure is designed to resist and adapt to different conditions while maintaining its consistency.
 * Fiberbots : Neri Oxman and her team designed an army of robots that autonomously create high-strength cylindrical structures made with fiberglass. In total there are 16 robots and a design system that controls them, responsible for simultaneously creating a 4.5-meter-high structure. The construction was tested outdoors in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The structure withstood without damage for seven months.
 *  Silk pavilion  : They programmed a robotic arm to mimic the way a silkworm builds its cocoon. After making the base structure, 6,500 worms were placed to make a panel suspended from the ceiling. This was used to study the movements of silkworms when making their cocoon and transferred to a robotic database, in order to perform nature’s work on larger scales. They created an army formed by 16b robots and a design system that monitories them, that autonomously create 5-meter high-strength cylindrical structures with fiberglass. The construction was tested outdoors in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where the process took 12 hours to make the fabrics. The structure withstood without damage for seven months.

Art Nouveau: An interplay between Biology and Architecture
An example of artistic and architectural concepts being influenced by biology is the Art Nouveau movement that emerged around the 1890s in Europe and the United States. This movement incorporates organic shapes and lines and is most commonly found in architectural designs. In this style of architecture, constricting, symmetrical shapes are substituted for asymmetrical, free-flowing lines that are created to resemble shapes found in nature. These shapes can include, the wings of a bird or insect, the outlines of leaves and flowers, shapes representing animals and many other naturally occurring, biological aspects of nature.

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History of Forensic Science: The Use of Fingerprint Classification and Identification in the Conviction of Criminals
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History of Forensic Science

Forensic Science is known as the application of scientific techniques and methods in judiciary procedures, where evidence is collected and analysed to aid in matters of criminal investigations. The history of Forensic Science can be traced back to Alexandria in 300 B.C. where the first known autopsies were carried out however, Forensic Science can be said to have emerged as a discipline starting around 1909 when the Institut de police scientifique was founded by Archibald Reiss, this being the first institute of forensic science. Following this, more forensic laboratories and schools started to emerge, with the FBI opening its Scientific Crime Detection laboratory in 1932 the American Academy of Forensic Science’s foundation in 1948 and the establishment of one of the first criminology department at the University of California, Berkeley in 1950.

Paradigm shift: Fingerprint Analysis

The introduction of fingerprint analysis as a method of identification created a paradigm shift in the way evidence was collected and revolutionised the manner in which criminals were convicted, allowing for a much higher degree of accuracy than the previous Bertillon method, previously employed in the forensic field. In 1879, after the rise of photographical evidence, Alphonse Bertillon, a French criminologist, created the Bertillon method where photographs of suspects/criminals would be analysed, and measurements would be taken of specific, supposedly unique, anatomical features. This information was then stored in police galleries and was believed to suffice as evidence for convictions.

Fingerprint analysis started to emerge in 1892 after Sir Francis Galton published a text on fingerprint identification, Finger Prints, which prompted Sir Richard Henry to develop a system of fingerprint identification in India and Juan Vucetich to also create a fingerprint system in Argentina in the same year. This along with the William and Will West case caused the Bertillon system to become obsolete. Eventually, this led to the conviction of Harry Jackson through the use of fingerprint identification in the United Kingdom in 1902. . The establishment of fingerprint analysis lead to this technique being used in a range of other disciplines such as technology, biology, law and many more, highlighting the interdisciplinary impact this discovery had.

Biometrics: The modern day Fingerprint Today, the applicability of Fingerprint analysis reaches far beyond the Forensic Sciences and within security, most commonly immigration, automated fingerprint analysis has become a standard tool. Fingerprint analysis highlighted the utility of measuring biological features, and as a result of its success, the principal concept was extended to make use of other unique human characteristics, such as; facial, iris, retina and DNA structures. These developments allowed Biometrics, the automated analysis of human traits, to come into being.

Fingerprint analysis built the foundation for this field of study, and it continues to grow with the expansion of biometric databases, and technological advancements allowing auditory, spatial, chemical, olfactory and behavioural information, to be used for the same purposes. Together, these characteristics form an individual's Biometric ID, which have the potential to replace the less reliable physical ID cards, currently in use. Doubts regarding how accurate these measures of distinctiveness are, remain, but the value of Biometric systems has evidently been recognised. In part this can be attributed to the successful application of Fingerprint analysis in the Forensic Sciences.

Introduction
The universality of childbirth has always made studying this natural process an intrinsic part of humanity, yet the recognition of midwifery and obstetrics as important medical subdisciplines, was repeatedly delayed by religious beliefs and social constructs, throughout history.

Obstetrics during the Middle Ages
During the middle ages, midwifery had religious connotations, rather than medical ones, as there was a common belief that the practise involved witchcraft. While general training and regulations regarding medical skills for midwifery were limited, the Church of England therefore implemented the requirement of an episcopal license. Included in this process were an “examination of her character and skill” and an oath, found in “The Book of Oaths” that stated: “The midwife shall not use witchcraft, charms, sorcery, unlawful prayers, or abortifacients...” These critical views based on superstition, created a barrier between the highly regarded discipline of medicine and midwifery, yet this did not undermine the midwives necessity. From the middle ages through to the 18th century, midwives continued to be in charge of the delivery of a child, as the presence of men during labour was considered “offensive”. Male physicians were only called in case of complications.

Midwives offered experience, usually from undertaking an apprenticeship or bearing a child themselves, but they still lacked medical training, which in the 18th century began preventing them from using new obstetric tools e.g. the forcep. Prior to 1754, there were no female doctors qualified to use these tools, thus the popularity of midwives schrank, as the demand for the presence of male physicians during labour grew. A rivalry was created, rather than a unification of the two practitioners' knowledge, and pregnant women were faced by a new dilemma: whether to oppose social norms by allowing a man into the birthing room, or having access to potentially life saving instruments.

The birth of Obstetrics as a discipline
In 1752, William Smellie, a major advocate in the teaching of practical obstetrics, published “The treatise on Theory and Practise of Midwifery”. This publication encouraged obstetrics and midwifery to be understood from a scientific point of view, marking an important moment in the progression of both practises from trades, to medical subdisciplines. The enlightenment set the stage for obstetrics to become a properly acknowledged subdiscipline of medicine, yet infant mortality rates remained high, until the 20th century.

Antenatal care, a concept very familiar to midwives that entailed supporting a pregnant woman before, during and after her pregnancy, was still a distant construct to obstetricians until 1911, when the first set of clinics for this purpose were founded. The separation of the two disciplines, had again caused a delay in the advancement of knowledge.

Obstetrics and gynecology nowadays
Religious and social beliefs made the beginnings of these subdisciplines difficult, hindering the sharing of knowledge and technological advancements from being used to their full potential. Once their overlap in subject matter was finally seen as an opportunity for development, rather than a competitive threat, subdisciplines, such as gynaecology, also gained recognition. Nowadays, these subdisciplines have established foundations within the discipline of medicine. Degree programs are available, and specifically, obstetrics is a subject that even General Practitioners are required to train in at university. Together, these subdisciplines encapsulate modern women's healthcare, and by using a more interdisciplinary approach that triggered research into contraception, treating infertility and psychiatric problems faced by patients, this field of medicine is continually expanding.

History of marketing
History of marketing traces back to the start of civilization itself. In order to trade the goods or services they had to be presented in the most attractive way possible. Persuasive manner and communication were the key components of the beginning of marketing idea as we know it today.

Industrial Revolution caused a social, technological and scientific change that also made it easier for people to purchase goods than to produce them themselves as before. To fulfill the demands of people mass production industries were created. There had to be transportation and media improved in order to meet the customers’ satisfaction as well as products further developed. 20th century came with an increased competition in market. Up until late 1940s businesses started using more and more intense techniques, it became pivotal to market and develop a brand. The race of providing better product than competitor company took off, that required types of consumer communication and distribution methods to improve.

With 1960s the need for specialists in marketing became obvious. With increased competition and necessity to gain and keep clientele businesses started enlarge their contributions to marketing. The influence of marketing experts in deciding the means and content of communication to customers, prices and general strategy became more evident.

1990s focus on high-quality products and setting up their brand sprang a start in strategic branding. It quickly followed by marketing shift towards internet marketing in late 1990s. Initially used to provide information about products and services internet quickly became an essential tool for marketing.

There are many aspects of marketing, which makes it an interdisciplinary subject. And its history hints that the changes occurring in technology as well as social aspects of human civilization add more and more aspects to it.

History of Marketing and Consumer Psychology
Consumer psychology emerged as a discipline during a time of huge growth in the availability of products and services, and consequently the focus on marketing techniques to promote these products. Much of this occurred during the 20th century, where a pioneering figure in the establishment of this discipline was psychologist John B. Watson who had conducted experiments on conditioning children, and joined J. Walter Thompson - a major marketing communications brand, to incorporate psychology into their methodology, and deduced that evoking an emotional response in viewers was key to marketing success - making an advertisement personal and memorable. The psychology of marketing and advertising grew much as a discipline, although the predominant focus within marketing was still on economics, however from the 1950s, following a report on the detrimental lack of incorporation of behavioural science, disciplines such as sociology and psychology were integrated to understand the psychological underpinnings of successful marketing. This shift resulted in more emphasis on the consumer as a unit of analysis; this was incorporated into concepts such as opinion leadership and brand loyalty of customers, leading to marketing having more sophisticated theory development and research methods, and marketing and consumer psychology being a more established sub-discipline within marketing.

History of Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy
Ethics is a discipline that deals with questions of morality, what is good and what is bad, trying to create a set of moral values, it "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". From Ancient Greek the work ēthos means "habitual character and disposition; moral character; habit, custom;". The origin of ethics as a system of moral norms cannot be described in the same sense as the origin of, for example, science or philosophy. There was no particular point on a timeline when morality arose, morality was inherent in the society, in one form or another, at all stages of its development. People living together were bound by different moral norms shaped by accepted beliefs, tendencies, and presuppositions.

The rise of Philosophy as a discipline
In the western tradition, philosophical reflection on morality is considered to have started with the sophists in the fifth century B.C.E. The Sophists were teachers who taught a wide range of different subjects from philosophy and rhetoric to mathematics. They were focusing on arete –"virtue" or "excellence" Socrates challenged the subjectivism of Sophist ethics. He held the belief that ethical principles were universal and they were able to be identified, examined, and improved within the individual. Our knowledge of Socrates is derived mainly from Plato’s dialogues, such as The Republic and Gorgias. Plato’s student, Aristotle builds his view of ethics upon his teacher’s beliefs but with significant differences. Unlike Plato, he viewed the goodness as a part of a flourishing life (or eudaimonia ) as the highest good, not the good itself. And eudaimonia can only be achieved through virtuous life.

The development of the concept of ethics
With the development of the discipline, philosophers started to distinguish between deontological ethics (from Greek: δέον, 'obligation, duty' + λόγος, 'study') and consequentialism, the first of the two hold that morality of an action is determined by the action itself, while the second one focuses on the consequences or results of an action. In this sense, deontology is often associated with Immanuel Kant, who believed that ethical actions follow universal laws, while utilitarianists, such as Jeremy Bentham or John Stuart Mill, believed in maximization of utility of an action.

Ethics is now a part of most degrees in Philosophy, however it is rarely presented as a separate degree. On the other hand, it is a part of nearly all disciplines. Modern world is unimaginable without ethics in psychology, biosciences, social policy making, politics, etc.

History of the Demarcation of Science and Scientific Disciplines
During the 1820-1830s, Britain was undergoing a time of political and social reform, involving the replacement of human labour by machines, demonstrations over the right to vote and the expansion of the British Empire. In the first half of the 19th century, science was a generic term in Britain, consisting of logic, theology, grammar and natural philosophy, however, specialised disciplines began to appear, such as chemistry, astronomy and biology; science was transformed from a vocation for those who can afford it, into a profession to earn money. With the rise of engineering, more theoretical types of science were put into practical context; there became a friction of the definition of a scientist and what constitutes science: between those who work for science as a way to earn money such as engineers, and those who are more of a theoretician, such as natural philosophers.

Methodology as a Demarcation Criterion
The 19th century started with a fear of decline as science had stagnated since the revolutionary 17th century, the new scientific revolution was achieved by reviving induction as a scientific method; William Whewell was an influential figure in the demarcation of science, he thought that science should be identified by its method, which he argued, should be induction. This became a priority as the specialisation of science was resulting in science becoming fragmented, so Whewell thought that the way to unify and demarcate science would be through its method. Whewell coined the term "scientist" as a remedy for the disintegration of science due to specialisation, stating that what defines a scientist is the method of conducting research - induction. Whewell also praised a figure whom he had labelled a "natural philosopher" rather than a scientist, called Mary Somerville, who wrote "On the connexion of the physical sciences", unifying all specialisations of science through mathematics. Somerville explained how mathematics is the underlying element which unifies all science, as it represents the foundations which all science is based on, and is the grounding for the desired systematicity across all scientific disciplines.

Norms as a Demarcation Criterion
Robert Merton, the founder of the sociology of science, explained how society flourishes through individual contributions of different institutions, including science, and how science is defined by its norms - this became a popular approach within the early 1970s. Merton suggested the concept of CUDOS norms - essential rules to conform to in order to be part of the institution of science: This more recent approach demonstrates how norms as a demarcation criterion have changed throughout history; today, much of science is published as open access research, whereas historically in early scientific journals, only a very small number of specialised and wealthy philosophers had access to scientific papers. Different historical demarcation criterions for science are very much reflected in science today, it is still unclear as to what specifically separates science from non-science, with much ongoing debate in this topic about what should be the determining factor.
 * Communism - results should be shared between scientists
 * Universalism - the science should be seen as separate to the scientist
 * Disinterestedness - scientists should remain neutral to the outcome of research
 * Organised Scepticism - question everything

Evolutionary thought throughout history
Evolutionary Biology is a subdiscipline of biology that deals with matters of evolutionary processes, with the study of patterns of relationship between species, as to understand the workings of the diversification of life on earth. History of evolutionary thought traces back to Antiquity, rudimentary ideas of evolution guided by natural processes in living beings can be found with pre-socratic philosophers such as Anaximander or Empedocles. Other Greek philosophers, notably Plato, rejected these ideas to adopt an essentialist view which leaves no place for “incremental organic change”. Aristotle, in his work Parts of Animal argues that life forms are a product of design rather than chance. The first evolutionary theory “transmutation of species”, produced by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, dates back to 1809. His findings preceded those of Darwins, who half a century later, proposed a new evolutionary theory: natural selection. The latter acknowledged patterns of relationship between species (ancestry) unrelated to morphology. Another significant event in this field is known as the “modern synthesis of the 20th century” where Darwinian, and other ideas of the 19th century, such as Mendelian genetics, were assembled (Neo-Darwinism, or a gene-centered approach to Darwinism). The discipline of evolutionary biology formally emerged with the creation of academic departments in the 1980s.

Paradigm shifts in Evolutionary Biology
Darwin’s theory of natural selection was a paradigm shift that impacted not only the field of Biology but also many other disciplines. The idea of the “survival of the fittest” has numerous applications in social sciences, such as seen with the moral theory of social Darwinism. Two opposing paradigms are, to this day, found in evolutionary biology: functionalism and structuralism. Functionalists (includes Darwinists) believe in external constraints (environment) to cause species to adapt, whereas structuralists believe in internal constraints, changes that arose are unrelated to the environment and do not happen to serve a purpose, rather they are simply reactions that took place due to physical rules of matter.

History of Genetics
Initially a sub-discipline of Biology, Genetics emerged as a formal discipline in the first half of the 20th century with the first university departments of Genetics. ,, Today Genetics is widely available to study as a degree.

There has been interest in the manipulation and understanding of genetics for millennia. After the Neolithic Revolution, which began 12,000 years ago, crops began to be cultivated and animals domesticated. Artificial selection occurred when individuals chose higher-yielding plants and more tame animals to breed. This resulted in the foods we farm today. Hippocrates (c.460 – c.375 BCE) believed that semen was formed from products of each body part and that progeny inherited those characteristics. Aristotle (385 – 322 BCE) disagreed in parts, but agreed that acquired characteristics were inherited.

Modern Genetics
Modern Genetics began with Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk who lived in the 19th century. He experimented with pea plants, observing how distinct characteristics such as flower colour were inherited. Mendel developed a new theory of inheritance. At this time the common theory held by Charles Darwin, among others, was that offspring had the average of their parents' characteristics - they were 'blended'. From his experiments, Mendel concluded that characteristics were inherited as unconnected (genes are unlinked), discrete factors, with dominant and recessive versions, now called alleles. He determined that progeny got one from each parents’ two alleles, and that the combinations of these could account for the characteristics expressed (phenotype). Mendel presented his ideas in 1965 in a paper entitled 'Experiments in Plant Hybridization' This could be considered the paradigm shift that started Genetics as a discipline, although his findings were not accepted by the scientific community until 1900 when other scientists revisited his work and his theories were found to fit patterns of inheritance.

In the first half of the 20th century advances were made, including determining the components of deoxyribose-nucleic-acid (DNA), first isolated in 1869, in 1929, as well as discovering that genes, and therefore the characteristics they code for, are carried on chromosomes. In the 1950s it was confirmed that DNA carried the genetic code and Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962 for their determination of DNA’s double-helix structure, based on the research of Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.

In the following decades methods for sequencing DNA were invented and in 1983 the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was developed as a way of copying sections of DNA called short tandem repeats (STRs) rapidly. The Human Genome Project (HGP), started in 1990, had sequenced the whole human genome by 2003.

Recent developments and interdisciplinary uses
Since the HGP completed in 2003, genome sequencing has become much easier and is now widely commercialised with many companies offering to sequence customers’ genomes. This has caused ethical considerations around ownership of biological data to be raised. Another recent development is gene-editing, with the CRISPR-Cas9 technique. This won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020, demonstrating how closely related modern Genetics is to Chemistry. The same technique has possible applications in cancer therapy and curing heritable diseases. Another use of Genetics in medicine is to diagnose conditions, calculate risk of developing conditions and therefore treatment options for patients. PCR is used in forensic science as part of the processing to analyse DNA samples from a crime scene.

Genetics and Evolutionary Biology
Genetics and Evolutionary Biology are closely entwined, having developed alongside one another. Although Darwin believed that traits were inherited as a combination of both parents’ characteristics, rather than as discrete units, genetics has become vital in the study of evolution. By sequencing the genome of an organism the species it is most closely related to can be determined, and where in the evolutionary tree it sits. This was groundbreaking in the field of taxonomy, and enabled a greater understanding of how humans, and other organisms, evolved. In aiding the taxonomy of species, genome-sequencing also helps conservation efforts.