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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/December 15

On today's birthday of the Esperanto creator, Esperantists celebrate Zamenhofa Tago or Esperanto Book Day, the most popular holiday in Esperanto culture, with events to promote Esperanto literature. The auxiliary language is the strongest project of its kind to date. It is pitched as pivot language that can facilitate communication between participants that do not even speak Esperanto as a common language. This older community shares many beliefs and goals with enthusiasts who believe in the democratizing powers of the Internet, but focuses on a different technology with more low-tech appeal.


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Template:Web App Development with Google Apps Script/js

{	"params": {}, "description": "puts in javascript code with line numbers" }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Cookbook:Vetkoek (South African Fried Dough)

Vetkoek is a South African fried dough. It can be savory or sweet—the recipe below makes sweet doughnut-like pastries.

Ingredients

 * 5 cups flour
 * 1 sachet of instant dry yeast
 * 750 ml warm water
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1 cup white granulated sugar
 * 750 ml oil, for frying

Procedure

 * 1) In a large bowl combine the flour, salt, sugar and yeast.
 * 2) Add water, and mix until a dough forms.
 * 3) Knead the dough for approximately 10 minutes.
 * 4) Put the dough in an oiled bowl, and cover it tightly. Let the dough rise for 1–2 hours.
 * 5) Heat the oil in a pot (target temperature should be around 350–375°F).
 * 6) Shape the dough into balls, and add to the hot oil. Do not overcrowd the pot or let the temperature drop too much.
 * 7) Continue turning the dough balls until golden brown all over and cooked through.
 * 8) Serve hot or cold with cold or hot beverage.


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Greek Mythology/Protogenoi/Gaia

Gaia was one of the first gods to be born according to the Greek mythology

title: Greek Mythology/Protogenoi/Gaia


text: Web App Development with Google Apps Script/exercises


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text: Template:Web App Development with Google Apps Script/scenario


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English-Hanzi/Vitamin D toxicity can be treated by stopping vitamin D supplementation

Vitamin D toxicity can be treated by stopping vitamin D supplementation and limiting calcium intake. Kidney damage may be irreversible.

可以通过停止补充维生素D和限制钙的摄入来治疗维生素D的毒性. 肾脏损害可能是不可逆的.


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User:Manbir.dhilon

Manbir Dhillon

title: User:Manbir.dhilon


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Talk:Personal Finance/Housekeeping

This whole business of "Getting a library card" instead of watching TV is unhelpful and condescending. There are good reasons to watch TV.

08:55, 28 June 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Personal Finance/Housekeeping


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User talk:Ritikupadhyay

Welcome, Ritikupadhyay!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally. Aranya (discuss • contribs) 14:21, 28 June 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ritikupadhyay


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User:Ritikupadhyay

I AM NITIN UPADHYAY I AM STUDY FROM RHS INTERCOLLEGE

title: User:Ritikupadhyay


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/August 14

The Open Source Development Labs consortium, the forerunner to the Linux Foundation, was founded today in 2000.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/November 26

Today in 2006 the Nexa Center for Internet and Society was founded.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/September 6

Knowledge is open if anyone is free to access, use, modify, and share it Today in 2006 the first official release version (1.0) of the Open Definition was published.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 16

Today in 2007 Aaron Swartz announced the Open Library project.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/July 16


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 19

Today in 1996 the first version of the differential file transfer and synchronization utility rsync was released. It is the backend of e.g. most Linux backup software.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/June 19


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/November 11

Today in 2016 the documentary film National Bird had its theatrical release in the US.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/April 25

Today in 2004 the OpenNet Initiative was announced. It monitored and reported on filtering and surveillance of Internet traffic.


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/February 27

Today in 2002 Wendy Seltzer’s Chilling Effects database (now Lumen) was officially launched.


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Statistical Thermodynamics and Rate Theories/Blackbody Radiation

Blackbody radiation is the phenomenon where a heated object will emit electromagnetic radiation

 * $$B_\nu(\nu, T) = \frac{8 \pi \nu^2}{c^3} \times { \langle E(\nu,T) \rangle }$$

Rayleigh–Jeans Law
The average thermal energy of a classical harmonic oscillator is predicted by equipartition theorem to be,

 * $$ \langle E(\nu,T) \rangle = k_B T $$

Combined with the Rayleigh model, the blackbody intensity is predicted to be,

 * $$B_\nu(\nu, T) = \frac{8 \pi \nu^2}{c^3} \times k_B T$$

This purely classical theory is known as the Rayleigh–Jeans Law. Although it provides a reasonable description of the intensity of blackbody radiation at low frequencies, it incorrectly predicts that the intensity will continue to increase at higher frequencies, although experiments show that the intensity should reach a maximum and then decline at high frequencies. This is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.

Planck's Law

 * $$B_\nu(\nu, T) = \frac{8 \pi \nu^2}{c^3} \times \langle E(\nu,T) \rangle$$

If we derive the average energy for the oscillator based on the quantum harmonic oscillator, this equations becomes
 * $$B_\nu(\nu, T) = \frac{8 \pi \nu^2}{c^3} \times \frac{h \nu}{\exp\left(\frac{h\nu}{k_B T}\right) - 1}$$

Planck's law states that
 * $$B_\nu(\nu, T) = \frac{2h\nu^3}{c^2}\frac{1}{e^{\left( h\nu/k_B T \right) } - 1},$$

where
 * Bν(T) is the spectral radiance (the power per unit solid angle and per unit of area normal to the propagation) density of frequency ν radiation per unit frequency at thermal equilibrium at temperature T.
 * h is the Planck constant;
 * c is the speed of light in a vacuum;
 * k_B is the Boltzmann constant;
 * $$\nu$$ is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation;
 * T is the absolute temperature of the body.


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Pascal Programming/Miscellaneous

The last Pascal-related standards were published in 1990, ISO standard 7185 “[Standard] Pascal”, and ISO standard 10206 “Extended Pascal”. But ever since IT did not stop evolving. Several compiler manufacturers continued extending Pascal by miscellaneous extensions, some of which we are presenting here.

Inline assembly
Since TP version 1.0 there exists the possibility to include assembly language inside your Pascal source code. This is called inline assembly. While normal Pascal is surrounded by a  frame, assembly language can be framed by. Here is an example that can be compiled with the FPC: Writing inline assembly code is useful if you have special knowledge about data and the compiler generates inefficient code. You can try to optimize for speed or size in order mitigate performance bottlenecks.

All, Delphi, the FPC as well as the GPC support  frames, but each with a few subtle differences. We therefore refer to the compiler’s manuals, and not forgetting this book is about programming in Pascal.

title: Pascal Programming/Miscellaneous


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Selected Essays/A Visit to a Historical place

India is a country of rich culture and has centuries of history and tradition of its own. Thus, the country is full of places which are rich in traditions, are important historically, economically, politically or sociologically. Moreover, the diversity that it presents baffles many because the diversity is not only geographical but social and cultural as well. Thus, India attracts thousands of tourists from all around the globe.

Last year, I had a chance to visit Agra with my uncle’s family. As soon as I got the invitation, I accepted it because Agra has been a great centre for art and architecture from the Mughal period. It goes to Akbar’s credit to transform Agra into a great city of cultural and historical importance. Interestingly, these monuments have the depiction of both Hindu and Islamic cultures and architecture.

History stands testimony that the old brick fort of Sikandar Lodhi was dismantled by Akbar and a magnificent fortress of rust coloured sandstone was built. For the same reason, the ‘Fort of Agra’ is also known as ‘Lal Quila’. This fort was built by Akbar, in AD 1565. It took 8 years to be completed.

The fort is said to have 500 buildings in the style of Bengali and Gujarati architecture. This is what Akbar’s historian Abul Fazal had recorded. But unfortunately only a few survive today and the successors of Akbar too subsequently made a few changes and additions. The fort stands on the banks of the river Yamuna with double walls to protect it. These walls are very high.

The fort has four gates. Presently, the entry to the fort is allowed through the gate in the South of the fort called the Amar Singh Rathore Gate. Just outside the gate is a stone statue of a horse’s head built by Amar Singh Rathore of Jodhpur in remembrance of his faithful horse that had jumped the walls of the fort and lost its legs in order to save its master.

The gate on the West side of the fort is called the Delhi Gate at whose entrance are the famous statues of Jamal and Patta who had laid down their lives fighting for Akbar. The space between the fort and the river was used for holding elephant fights.

Right behind is Akbar’s majestic Palace, the roof and floor of which are made of red stone. The Diwan-e-Aam of the Palace was the place where he held his Darbar and dispensed justice. We also saw the Diwan-e-Khas and the Machhli Bhavan; Close to the Diwan-e-Aaam is the Meena Bazaar. To the West is the building which is a very curious kund of a Hide and Seek building.

It is said that Akbar was indebted to the blessings of Sufi of Sikri, Sheikh Salim Chishti for the birth of his son. Therefore, in order to show his gratitude, Akbar built and developed Sikri and decided to shift his capital there. The place is 40 km to the South-West of Agra. He named its as Fatehpur Sikri. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are outstanding in their carvings.

There is and Ibadat-Khana built for holding discussion an matters of religion. But the crowning glory of the city is the Jama Mosque which can accommodate 10,000 worshippers and is believed to be the replica of the Mosque at Mecca.

It is a monumental example of the mixture of Persian and Indian style. Inside the Mosque is the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti. Right at the entrance of the Mosque is the famous Buland Darwaza which is 41 meters high from the ground level. Other structures to see at Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai’s Palace, the Sunhera Makan and many other buildings.

We also went to see the great Taj Mahal on the banks of the river Yamuna. It surely is a ‘wonder of the world;’ as it is beyond any description. Words would fall short to describe this “Symbol of Eternal Love”. It is beautifully decorated with precious and carved stones. It is built in the memory of Shah Jahan’s beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.

The real tomb of the queen lies in a small room downstairs made of white and black marbles. Scriptures and verses form the Quran are engraved on the walls along with lovely floral designs and different coloured carved precious stones.

Its overall architectural brilliance is still a question for modern builders and architects. They get really surprised to see the full proof plan of the Taj Mahal built at the time when technology was not that much advanced. It’s extra-ordinary beauty made us utter ‘Waah Taaj!’ However, just one thing that pinched me was how recklessly people have ruined this historic beauty. But our government has taken the right steps at right time by relocating the factories far off from the Taj Mahal. It was thus an overall enriching and enlightening experience to visit these places.

It is really a ‘dream in marble’ as thousands of posted have attempted to describe it in many ways. One gets speechless on seeing this great spectacle of marble. It was an extremely mesmerizing trip.

Since then Agra and Fatehpur Sikri have become my favourite destination to spend my vacations. I am now eagerly waiting for another chance to visit Agra.


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Selected Essays/Agriculture in India

Agriculture has existed in India, since the Vedic times, Rigvedic treatise describes various agricultural activities, such as, ploughing, irrigation and cultivation of fruits and vegetables. Even rice and cotton were cultivated in the Valley.

Agriculture is the means of livelihood of almost two-thirds of the workforce in the country. It has always been India’s most important economic sector. Before 1947, Indian history was replete with famine, drought and food shortages. Between 1770 and 1880, as many as 27 food scarcities and famines were recorded. At least 20 million lives were lost in India in about 20 famines that had struck since 1850. Much of this loss was because of the wrong colonial policies, which aimed to derive maximum economic gain at the cost of human suffering and misery.

After the British had created a transport infrastructure in the first half of the 19th century, they began encourage in farmers to grow crops that could be exported. The boom in export and trade accompanied by rising prices forced farmers to shift to cash crops like cotton, indigo, poppy and sugarcane. The area under food grains subsequently shrank. In other words, efforts to improve agriculture in colonial India were directly linked to the needs of the British industries.

After Independence, India made rapid strides in the agricultural sector. Dependence of India on agricultural imports in the early 1960s, convinced planners that India’s growing population, as well as concern about national independence, security and political stability, required self-sufficiency in food production. This perception led to a programme of agricultural improvement called the Green Revolution, to a public distribution system and price support system for farmers.

The growth in food grain production is a result of concentrated efforts to increase all the Green Revolution inputs needed for higher yields: better seeds, more fertilisers, improved irrigation and education of farmers. Although increased irrigation has helped to lessen year-to-year fluctuations in farm production result in from the vagaries of the monsoon, it has not eliminated them.

Non- traditional crops of India, such as summer mung (a variety of lentil, part of the pulse family), soybeans, peanuts and sunflowers are gradually gaining importance. Steps have been taken to ensure an increase in the supply of non-chemical fertilisers at reasonable prices.

There are 53 fertiliser quality control laboratories in the country. Though the Green Revolution increased yields greatly, it aimed at the better-endowed regions. For millions of farmers languishing in the dry lands, constituting more than 70% of the cultivable lands, it continues to be a futile struggle. Despite emphasis on dry land farming during the past several decades, the scenario still remains grim.

The undulating topography and the irregular rainfall patterns have combined to aggravate the situation. Out of 141 million hectare of cultivated area, dry land area constitutes 85 million hectare i.e.60% of the total cultivated area.

The dry lands produce about 42% of the country’s food which shows that the future of farming lies in these areas. A large quantity of many nutritious crops like wheat, ragi, pulses, fruits, oilseeds, grown in the country come from these areas. The poor yields and the fluctuation in production are indications of the scant attention dry lands have received from policymakers and the planners.

The problem of increasing productivity on dry lands has serious socio-economic implication. With every passing year, the gap between the farmer’s yields in irrigated areas and in the dry farming regions is widening. One year of drought is enough to push a farmer into a deep well of poverty for another two to three years. Drought is a recurring phenomenon in arid and semi-arid areas. Fifty years after Independence, life for millions of people somehow surviving in the dry lands continues to be worse than ever before.

India’s topography, soils, rainfall and the availability of water for irrigation have been major determinants of the crop and livestock patterns characteristic of Indian agriculture. The monsoons, moreover, play a critical role in determining whether the harvest will be bountiful, average or poor in any given year. In the absence of sufficient irrigation measures, the areas receiving scanty rainfall suffer.

India is among the top global producer of staple food crops. But even then, the productivity of is fields is far below that of Brazil, US and France. This is due to small size of their landholdings, their fragmentation, high cost of technology and lack of awareness. Many agricultural lands are also being diverted for commercial exploitation.

title: Selected Essays/Agriculture in India


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User:LostockGuy/Collections/Meter marks

 * International Postage Meter Stamp Catalog/Introduction

title: User:LostockGuy/Collections/Meter marks


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User:Quinsly

Hi,I'm Abigail Quinsly but my friends call me Aby

title: User:Quinsly


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Planet Earth/7h. Soil: Living Dirt

Living Dirt
Earth is the only planet with soil. As truly defined, soil is the ecological biome that exists in the shallow subsurface on Earth and includes both living and dead organisms, as well as the natural mineral and rock resources that sustain the living biota within and above the shallow terrestrial subsurface of Earth. Soils are important for the terrestrial organisms that rely on the nutrients, moisture and substrate that provide attachment for plants, fungus, and bacteria through their extensive roots and distribution through this narrow horizon below Earth’s surface. Eroded rocks and minerals, lacking significant organic contain, like that found on other planets is called regolith. Regolith is the covering of unconsolidated dust, broken rocks, and various minerals that cover the deeper bedrock of a planet, and is found on Mars and the Moon. Soil on the other hand, which is unique to Earth, contains abundant organic material, both living and dead, such as decaying leaves, organic compost, bacteria, invertebrates, such as annelid worms, complex roots, fungal molds and burrows of animals. Hence, soil is part of Earth’s living biome.

Typical Soil Horizons
All soils exhibit a set of horizons which are identified by combination of leaching due to the precipitation of rain or snow melt moving into the soil subsurface and carrying dissolved ions deeper, while also the continued input of organic dead vegetation (leaves and other plant litter) and transported sediments onto the surface. Through these natural processes, soils develop a set of characteristic horizons. These soil horizons were codified by Russian soil scientist Vasily Dokuchaev. In the 1890s, Vaily Dokuchaev was commissioned to study soils around the Russian city of Nizhniy Novgorod. The city is located at the junction of the Oka River and Volga River, within the agricultural center of the Volga drainage basin that provides even today much of the world’s wheat. Soils and their study was important to continue the projection of crops in the region, and Vaily Dokuchaev codified soil horizons into a set of four major horizons.

O Horizon- The O horizon is the organic rich horizon at the top at the atmosphere-geosphere interface, between the gas filled part of Earth and the solid interior. It is called the O horizon because of the abundance of organic matter. Most of this organic matter is living and dead plants, but also includes living and dead bacterial, fungal and animal matter. The O horizon varies in thickness, sometimes its absence or paucity in certain biomes like desert and tundra environments. In other environments the O Horizon can be thick, especially when there is a supply of organic matter such as temperate deciduous biomes, where trees lose their leaves in the winters, and temperate grasslands, which go dormant during the winter months, adding organic matter to the surface of the soil, which gets buried over time. This horizon is nutrient-rich, and tends to be strongly humified with moisture retention.

A Horizon- The A horizon is a mixed horizon, with the cumulation of organic matter from above and the process of weathering, with the input of wind-blown dust that produces an organic and clay-rich zone. The A horizon is subjected to bioturbation, the process of burrowing and root growth that results in mixing or altering the subsurface by the acts of biological activity. This often includes burrowing, ingestion, and defecation within the sediment by subterranean animals, as well as the growth and movement of the soil to accommodate roots and tissue growth in plants. The A horizon is best identified for its dark brown or gray color, due to the rich organic content of carbon-based molecules, which are dark brown to black in color. B Horizon- The B horizon is characterized by a red color, which stems from the process of oxidation, particularly of iron bearing minerals. As water moves through the soil, it transports dissolved ions into the deeper horizons. The B horizon is where iron minerals will oxidize with the oxygen-rich water, resulting in the deposition of red-colored rust, including minerals of hematite and limonite. Some of this oxidation might be mediated by bacteria. The B horizon is also affected by bioturbation, with roots of some plants extending into this layer of the soil, although less so than the above A horizon. The unique red color makes identification of the B horizon fairly easy in a dug hole, as it often stands out. Interestingly the B horizon tends to preserve subsequent soil deposition, as paleosol (fossilized soils) tend to lack the A horizon, but are often stacked B and C horizons, alternating between red colored sediments (B-Horizon) and the lower white colored sediments (C-Horizon).

C Horizon- The C horizon is characterized by its white color. This white band within the lower most part of the soil profile, contains deposits of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a white mineral. Calcium carbonate is a white chalky mineral that is formed from ions of Ca+2 and the carbonate ion (CO3-2), which results from the dissolution of carbon dioxide (often coming from decomposition of organic matter in the higher A horizon) within the water. In wet environments C horizon is poorly formed as the water does not dry out to leave behind the white deposits of calcium carbonate, however in dry deserts, an abundance of calcium carbonate is precipitated out as the water evaporates in the subsurface, resulting in thick deposits called caliche. Caliche is white mineral deposits that acts as a cement or glue that binds other materials such as gravel, sand, clay, and silt together in a concrete looking hard matrix. It is common in arid environments like eastern Utah, where stones and other rocks near the surface can be coated in a white rind of calcium carbonate. The C horizon is the lowest of the soil horizons.

Bedrock – Below the C horizon is the bed rock, or the parent rock layers. These layers are weathered through the process of water transport through the soil horizons (chemical weather), as well as the action of biological activity to split or break these rocks in the subsurface. The amount of uplift and subsidence in an area can determine the thickness of each of the soil horizons as well. An area of active uplift and erosion will have shallow soil horizons, while areas of active subsidence and deposition will have thicker and often multiple bands of various soil horizons, as older soil horizons get buried by newer soils.

Other soil horizons – There are other horizons, as well as ways to subcategorize the O, A, B and C horizons, but nearly all soils on Earth will have some combination of these four soil horizons.

Types of Soils
Soils can be characterized by five major influences, 1) climate (such as the amount of rain), 2) the terrain or topography (including water drainage), 3) the biota, the plants and animals that live within and on the soil, and 4) the rocks and minerals in the bedrock, and sediments transported into the area. The final 5th major influence is the amount of time between ground disturbances, or soil maturity.

The United States Department of Agriculture defines twelve major soil types resulting from the five major influences, each ending with the suffix -sol.

Soils in wet climates
Histosol – organic soils found in poorly drained wet marshes and swamps, sometimes called bog soils, these soils are characterized by wet dark black soils, in a reducing oxygen environment that preserves thick deposits of carbon rich molecules in the subsurface.

Vertisol – clay-rich wet dark soils that dry out periodically leaving deep forming cracks and slip surfaces due to the swelling of the clay material and form vertical slip marks within the mud. These soils are typical found near lakes, ponds and wet basin centers that are frequently flooded, such along flood plains. They are organic rich, with abundant bioturbation.

Ultisol – soils found in the humid hot tropics and subtropics, heavily leached of ions of calcium, magnesium and potassium due to intense rain, but exist in well drained terrain. They are heavily weathered by transitory nature of the rain water moving through these soils. They are highly weathered, forming thick B horizons, and the soil is a dark reddish color.

Oxisol – are heavily weathered reddish soils found in tropical rainforests. They are enriched in red iron oxides and weathered white clays like kaolinite. Like ultisols, they are heavily leached of many other ions, due to the frequency of rain and warm temperatures of their tropical climate. They tend to be organic poor soils, with thin O and A horizons. The reddish clay found in these soils is called laterite and is mined as a source of aluminum in places like India, which is subjected to seasonal monsoonal rains.

Soils in dry and cold climates
Aridisol – are dry soils found in desert regions which have limited rain fall. They have little organic matter, and form weak O and A horizons. They are characterized by extensive C horizons, with thick deposits of calcium carbonate including deposits of white caliche in some regions. The thickness of the red B horizon is related to the local climatic history of the area, and can be fairly thick. Soils in cold climates

Gelisol – are permafrost soils formed within permafrost and found within frozen regions of Earth near the poles, where ice plays a major part in the formation of these soils. The movement of sediments is a result of the freeze/thaw cycle of weathering, and the limited amount of organic matter and rainfall.

Spodosol – are found across boreal forests in the northern hemisphere. They are fairly acidic soils with iron and aluminum leached layers that form a white band below or within the A horizon. This unique horizon is called the E horizon (Eluvium) which is caused by the leaching of minerals within this zone, leaving behind a layer of white clay. This is a result of the amount of precipitation, from rain and snow, exceeding the amount of evaporation, leaving a white band in the upper part of the soil profile. These soils are typical restricted to coniferous and deciduous forests in cold climates.

Soils in disturbed environments
Inceptisol – are young, immature soils, with little formation of soil profile horizons in the subsurface, with little amounts of leaching or weathering. They tend to contain a fair amount of rock fragments, and formed in steep terrains with close proximity to the undelaying parent bedrock or in areas with frequent ground disturbance.

Entisol – are sandy soils, that lack distinct soil horizons, which often form from windblown sediments, and little organic input. They are often uncharacteristic of scrub lands, and difficult to classify, given their uniform profile. Found in beach sediments, lake short sediments, or sand dunes, the input of sediments outpaces the input of organic matter, to produce a more uniform color. They are one of the most common type of soils on Earth.

Andisol – are soils formed on volcanic ash. These soils are fertile, as they have yet to leach many nutrients, and often will generate significant plant growth over time. Depending on the volcanic history, these soils will produce a banding of organic rich dark lays and red layers, with frequent bands of volcanic ash interspersed within the soil profile.

Soils due to the living biota
Mollisol – are dark black organic rich soils found in grassland and some hardwood forests that are highly sought after because of their importance in agriculture. These soils have thick A horizon (top soil), which are rich in organic matter, and other nutrients. Mollisol soils form on grasslands where organic matter builds up from the annual death and re-growth of grasses, adding new organic material to the thick A horizon. These important soils account for only 7% of the world’s soils.

Alfisol – are soils that frequently form under deciduous hardwood forests, within humid semi-wet regions. They exhibit significant accumulation of clay minerals, with little leaching of aluminum and iron, leaving a fairly rich soil, found in many temperate forests and agricultural lands. They are not as organically rich as mollisol.

Soil Maps
Surveys of soils are frequently carried out by governments to better understand the availability of lands to different types of crops. The type of soil often is an important determining factor in what will grow in the soil. In the United States geologists survey lands as part of the Soil Conservation Service, currently named the Natural Resources Conservation Service to map out the various soil types in a region of interests. Soils change with land use, climate conditions and the amount of disturbance on the land. Soils increase their organic content over time, but much of this organic content (O and A horizons) is lost due to continuous farming, soil erosion and changes in climate. The increase use of fertilizers is a consequence of the loss of these soil nutrients, which add nitrogen, phosphate and potassium (potash) to the soil. These are required for plants to grow, which normally gain them through the organic decaying matter of dark organic rich soils. When these materials are absence or eroded, then artificial nitrogen, phosphate and potassium (potash) is added to the soil to increase crop yields. This results in high levels of chemicals of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium, with low organic matter entering the soil, with each crop harvest. Overtime the soils become nutrient poor as little organic matter is inputted into the soils, which are turned over with each plowing of the field. Mapping soils become a major way to track changes in the soil profiles over time, and to access the health of the landscape toward agricultural practices.

Palmer Soil Moisture Index
Palmer drought index was developed in by Wayne Palmer in the 1960s to access the changing soil moisture levels using weather data to predict the amount of soil moisture in a region in a given month or week. Soil moisture is of vital importance to overall health of crops and for industrial agriculture. These indexes are able to recognize regions with abnormal drought-like conditions, and access the severity of those droughts. Palmer index maps of soil moisture factor in the duration of the dry conditions and the amount of moisture that is retained in the soil for plants to use. As a short term assessment they can be used to determine when and where droughts occur, and the severity of the drought compared to previous years.

Soil Erosion
Most arable land on the surface of the Earth is disturbed by the rotation of crops, from planting to harvesting, tilling to seeding. Each year a farm is utilized this way, there is a risk of soil erosion, a result of exposed dirt and soil transported due to exposure to rain and wind. This erosion of the soil is particularly dangerous to the agricultural industry, because it rids the soil of the light organic rich matter that provides nutrients to plants and crops grown on the land. Alternating or laying a field fallow, as well as crop rotation can help maintain the soil, and re-generate new organic matter, but often this costs money in having a field not produce crops during a growing season. These trade-offs between planting or not planting can result in more barren crop lands, or longer termed returns on crops. Understanding the over-all health of the land and its soils is particularly challenging given the economic incentives to plant and harvest each year. With the risk of droughts and other weather changes, these farming can be a risky venture, even in the best of times. Protection of soil erosion is enormously important to maintain the yields of crops available for the long term, and help keep food prices from rising. Soils are a renewable resource, but it takes time for soils to reach organic levels necessary to produce high yields, often this is circumvented with the use of fertilizers. With the lack of organic matter, the soils are more prone to drought, due to increased evaporation, as well as erosion from wind and water.

title: Planet Earth/7h. Soil: Living Dirt


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User:Penny on mars

Cookbook:Yellow rice

ingredients

 * white rice
 * mild curry powder
 * boiled water
 * chopped onion
 * oil
 * salt
 * grated carrots
 * peas

PROCEDURE

 * add oil on a saucepan add chopped onion and heat up the stove
 * cook onion until brown and add carrots and peas
 * add curry powder and let it cook for a few minutes
 * when ready add uncooked rice and add boiled water
 * let it boil until rice is ready and enjoy

OPTION
you can serve it with grilled fish or grilled meat with gravy

title: User:Penny on mars


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Planet Earth/7i. Earth’s Ecology: Food Webs and Populations

Species Habitat and Niche
Across the barren ice tundra of the island of Spitzbergen in the Svalbard Archipelago, a lone fur clad figure hiked across the landscape. Located north in the Arctic circle, the Svalbard Archipelago is a cold foreboding place, inhabited by a scraggily few coal miners who make a scant living pulling out coal from ice covered mines to be shipped south. The islands are technically governed by Norway, but its loose inhabitants come from America, Russia and Germany to work the coal seams, with a tiny tourism industry. However, the islands are nearly unpopulated with so few human inhabitants making the islands ideal to study natural ecology, arctic soils and the biotic world in a place so remote that it has been left to its original natural state, with little human disturbance. This remoteness was what drove Julian Huxley, a professor of zoology at Oxford University to come to the island as part of his travels of the world. Julian Huxley was the grandson of the famed defender of evolution and prominent zoologist, Thomas Huxley. Following in his grandfather’s footsteps, Julian had studied zoology and traveled to Texas to start up a university program in the United States, but with the outbreak of World War I, he found himself enlisted and back in Europe during the war. The aftermath of World War I found him back in his native England, where he took the place of his mentor at Oxford, Geoffrey Smith, who had died during the battle the Somme in 1916. One of Julian Huxley’s pupils at oxford was Charles Elton, and he invited him to travel to remote island of Spitzbergen to study what he could of the native life.

Charles Elton was enthusiastic for the expedition, but many viewed the trip as foolish, since the remote arctic island was noted for being nearly barren of life, with only a few insects and plants, and few if any vertebrates. Nevertheless, Charles Elton accompanied Julian Huxley and started his career in understanding the ecology of life. Elton was influenced by the question of how animals make a living within a community of organisms. The islands have few terrestrial mammal species, including the Svalbard reindeer, Arctic fox, and sibling vole, and wandering polar bears that crossed over the ice feeding on aquatic seals. Attempts had been made to introduce other species, like musk oxen, but they did not survive the cold harsh winters.

Ecologists define two characteristics of every biological species. The first is the habitat of the species, which is the physical geography of where the organism lives, and second is the niche of the species, the way in which the species is able to survive and acquire food and nutrients to live on. An easy way to remember the difference is that the habitat of a species is equivalent to its home, while the niche is equivalent to its job. For example, the Arctic fox that lives on the Svalbard Archipelago, has a habitat across the Arctic tundra, but a niche as a predator of small voles and birds that live on the island. During his study of the life on the Svalbard Archipelago, Elton was particularly interested in the cycle of population growth and decline in voles, which appeared to rise and fall with food availability. He also noticed that populations of arctic fox appeared to follow the rise and fall in vole populations, since they were dependent on healthy populations of voles to survive. The expedition was funded by the Hudson Bay company, a company interested in fur trapping and understanding the population dynamics of fur bearing mammals. Following the expeditions and his studies, Elton was hired as a consultant for the company to look at the dynamics of population growth and decline in fur bearing mammals in Canada. This allowed Elton access to an enormous amount of historical data regarding the record of trappings of mammals by the Hudson Bay company going back decades. Analyzing the company’s archives, Elton discovered a ten-year cycle in the abundance of Canadian lynx and snowshoe hares. Snowshoe hare populations would rise, resulting in an increase in available food for Canadian lynx, leading to their increase in population, as predation increased resulting in snowshoe hare populations to decline, as the snowshoe hare populations declined the population of Canadian lynx would subsequently decline too, and predation would decrease, this would result in a slow increase in snowshoe hare populations. This oscillatory cycle of population dynamics between the two species was strong evidence for the interconnection of prey and predator populations through the availability of food. The story of Canadian lynx and snowshoe hares is more complex, as the two species are also influenced by the availability of other sources of food, but they illustrated to Charles Elton the importance of food chains or cycles, and the interdependence of species on each other.

Food Webs, Trophic Pyramids and Ecological Communities
A food cycle or food web is the interconnection of food sources into a graphical representation depicting a web illustrating which species are being consumed by other species in an ecological community. Another name for food web is consumer-resource system. You can broadly divide all life into either autotrophs or heterotrophs. Autotrophs are organisms that derive their energy and nutrients from the abiotic environment, for example many plants unitize the sun (photosynthesis), requiring only water, carbon dioxide and soil nutrients to grow. Heterotrophs are organisms that must derive their energy and nutrients from other organisms, for example deer that eat shrubs and grass. These divisions are also called a trophic level. A trophic level is the number of steps along the food chain (or web) a species is from a primary producing autotroph. For example, snowshoe hares feed on grass and shrubs, and has a trophic level of 2, while the grass and shrubs are autotrophic, with a trophic level of 1. Canadian lynx that feed on the snowshoe hares have a higher trophic level of 3, since they feed on tropic level 2 animals. Trophic levels higher than 4 are rare, as the amount of energy and nutrients decreases with each level, making higher trophic levels susceptible to breaks in the food chain when a prey species drops in population size or disappears. One important addition to a trophic level scheme are organism that feed on dead organic matter, the decomposers, which occupy a unique strategy for food by living on waste or dead organic matter, and depend on this supply of organic matter to feed on for their population growth and decline. Trophic levels can be depicted graphically into a trophic pyramid, which shows the decrease in total biomass with each level, as availability of food resources decreases with higher trophic levels that can support fewer individuals and less total biomass. For example, the total individual grass plants are far larger than the total number of individual deer feeding on the grass. And the total individual deer population is far larger than the total number of individual wolves feeding on the deer. The total number of individuals of each species is depend on the metabolism and physiology of each species, and how effective they are in the amount of food they required to live.

The idea of food webs, and the interconnection of species is a major concept in ecological idea of a biological community. A community is a group of organisms that live together in the same geographical location and depend on each other for survival. The concept of an ecosystem, induces the abiotic environmental into the concept of a biological community as well, including such influence as climate, weather, water and nutrient resources, availability of light, water depth, water salinity, terrain and geology. All of these factors influence the plants and animals within a biological community.

Ecological cascade effect
An ecological cascade effect is a series of cataclysmic extinction events that occur when a single species is removed from a community, or when an invasive species is introduced that significantly disrupts the community structure. For example, a study led by Ransom Myers and Julia Baum in 2007 found that when sharks are heavily fished and killed in the open ocean, a removal of the top predators (a keystone species) in a marine community, prey species of those sharks (such as the cownose ray) increase in population size. This increase puts additional pressure on bay scallops which cownose rays feed on. This results in a decrease of bay scallop populations due to the increase in predation, and this will ultimately mean that cownose ray populations will eventually decline as well once bay scallop populations are reduced and the number of cownose ray falls without this availability of its food source. This is an example of a cascade effect that quickly collapses a biological community. Another example of an ecological cascade is a study done by Mark Albins and Mark Hixon (2011) on the introduction of the invasive lionfish to the Caribbean ocean. Lionfish are predatory fish with venomous spines that were introduced to the Caribbean waters sometime in the 1980s. They have few if any predators because of the venomous spines which protect them from larger fish. Since 2005 they have increased dramatically in population size and geographic range in the Caribbean beyond their normal population density in their native habitat in the South Pacific. This is due to the abundant availability of fish in the Caribbean ocean and absence of predators. Lionfish are known to eat large quantities of groupers, snappers and goatfishes as well as gobies, wrasses and basslets, which are important fish for the region. These fish population sizes are in steep decline because of the introduction of lionfish. As lionfish switch to other prey items, such as the parrotfish, the ecological cascade effect becomes more dire. Parrotfish feed on seaweed and algae that grow on coral reefs. By keeping the seaweed from overgrowing the surface of the coral reefs in Caribbean, any drop-in the populations of parrotfish will result in seaweed overgrowing coral reefs, causing them to die because of lack of sunlight. If parrotfish are over preyed upon by lionfish, the overgrowth of seaweed and algae on corals will result in a major extinction within coral reef communities, altering the Caribbean reefs ecosystem. Ultimately the lionfish will become so populated that they will deplete the native fish populations and subsequently fall in population size themselves because of the lack of food— leaving an ocean devoid of many of the previous native species. To combat the invasion of lionfish, active fishing and harvesting of these fish is encouraged.

Population Ecology
When Charles Elton returned to England, he became in charge of one of the most interesting studies of rodent population experiments, when his team turned their interest to vole (Microtus) populations. This was part of the Bureau of Animal Population at Oxford University, a group of scientists interested in understanding population dynamics of animals. In the 1920s it was noticed that large populations of voles were observed in western Scotland near the towns of Dunoon and Strachur feasting on newly planted trees, an area that was part of a reforestation project. These voles increased in population, and then suddenly without explanation would die out. There was little in the way of predators, as many of the foxes and carnivores had been removed from the region, although owls and other birds of prey frequently feed on the voles, there was little sign of increased predation. This cycle of increasing populations and then a sudden crash was puzzling to the scientists, since the availability of food seemed unchanged during these cycles. There was mystery, and many on the team suspected that there was something mysterious about the decline in populations that might be related spreading disease. In 1934, G. M. Findlay and A.D. Middleton published the results of their study.

Voles were captured in live traps to determine population size of the voles in the study area, and recorded over several years. Some of these individual voles captured in the live traps were sent back to the lab to be kept in captivity, and observed. When the population suddenly started its declined, many of the traps became empty, as the population fell. The few voles captured during the population decline period were taken into captivity, but subsequently died even captivity only after a few short days later. Study of the dead bodies of the voles showed signs of lesions and cysts in the brains, related to a parasite called Toxoplasma. Toxoplasma is a single celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle that infects mammalian tissues. Once in a host, the parasite proliferates in the tissue as tachyzoites and eventually forms cysts, called bradyzoites. These cysts proliferate mostly in the brains of mammals, and can alter the behavior of the animal and can cause death. A sick or dying mammal is susceptible to predation, and the parasite can be transferred to a predator, most often domestic cats. Once in the digestive track of a cat, the parasite changes into sexually reproducing merozoites in the digestive track, that can result in abundant oocysts (eggs). These oocysts are shed from the digestive track into the soil, when the cats defecate. These oocysts, which can survive in the outside environment, if ingested can hatch and infect a new host. Food webs are more complex with the introduction of parasites, such as Toxoplasma. As vole populations increase, there was likely increased predation by house cats, resulting in the surrounding soil to become enriched in Toxoplasma. The increase in the parasites in the soil, likely meant that more voles were infected by the parasite, which made them more susceptible to illness, death, and predation. At peak population, voles were impacted by two forces, the increase in cat population and predation, but also the increase in parasites due to the increase of cats shedding oocysts into the soil. This unbalance, results in a very sudden drop in vole populations. Parasites, and other disease-causing microorganisms should not be excluded from food webs, as they can contribute to dramatic changes in population sizes, that often remain hidden to researchers.

Overpopulation
We can think of overpopulation as the moment in time when the available resources are inadequate for the population to continue to grow. Post peak population decline can be sudden, as in a crash, or it can be protracted, such as a stable plateau or slow decrease over several generations. The rate of fall depends on the patchiness of the resources, and the exponential rate of the decline in the necessary resources for the organisms to survive on. In most stable long-term ecosystems, overpopulation episodes are rare, given the natural inclination for a dynamic equilibrium to be achieved due to the negative feedbacks that stabilize populations of a biological organism overtime. Ecosystems can become susceptible to overpopulation episodes when they are disturbed from their stable conditions, like the introduction of invasive species, or alteration of land use, as well as changes to the physical environment, such as climate changes. These episodes can result in significantly altered environments that can collapse an ecosystem into fewer trophic levels, decrease species richness and biodiversity. Recovery of such events are prolonged, often requiring thousands to millions of years of slow recovery to begin to see increased biological diversity and speciation in those environments. The heterogeneity of the environment also helps partition populations, increasing the likelihood of geographic speciation events in the long-term recovery process.

Overcrowding and Self Organizing Behaviors.
One of the interesting questions explored by science, is whether there is a limit to the density of a growing population. If an organism is given access to unlimited food and resources at what point do they decline. Geographic space itself can be thought of as a hidden natural resource in overcrowded populations, which can lead to population crashes as easy as loss of food availability or other natural resources. Most species have optimum space requirements, which may become limited during overpopulation events. In the 1960s, John B. Calhoun conducted a series of experiments starting with domesticated Norway rat populations, but following with experiments on domesticated mice populations that were allowed to grow in an enclosed limited space, in the absence of predation and any food and water scarcity the population grew. The population grew quickly for the first several generations, then begin to plateau rising more slowly toward a peak of 2,200 within an 9-foot square enclosure, with a density of 20 mice per square inch of floor space, although the enclosure contained tunnels and other partitions. After this peak density, the population suffered a rapid decline, with low reproduction, fighting between individuals, cannibalism and other maladapted behaviors. The surviving population was unable to recover, leading to a complete collapse of the colony of mice. The experiments demonstrated that geographic space is an important natural resource for species, and the limitations of geographic space can result in population decline, equally or more severely as that of food and other resources. In a natural population, organisms will maximize the availability of space to their preferred life style, and self-organize within local groups or isolated units depending on the nature of the niche and habitat requirements, as well as the inner species behavior of the organism.


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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1941 09

Link to Issue PDF
| WorldRadioHistory.com's scan of | Australasian Radio World - Vol. 06 No. 04 - September 1941 has been utilised to create the partial content for this page and can be downloaded at this link to further extend the content and enable further text correction of this issue: | ARW 1941 09

In general, only content which is required for other articles in this Wikibook has been entered here and text corrected. The material has been extensively used, inter alia, for compilation of biographical articles,  radio club articles and  station articles.

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

SEPTEMBER 15, 1941; Vol. 6 - No. 4; Price, 1/-

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical

Cover Photo: Testing Valves at Philips' Australian Factory

Highlighted Contents: Serviceman's Signal Tracer: An Analysis of Push-Pull: Guide to the Short-Waves: Modern T.R.F. Circuit Design

P.03 - Contents Banner
The Australasian Radio World

Incorporating the

All-Wave All-World DX News

Vol. 6 - SEPTEMBER, 1941 - No. 4

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS:

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Signal Tracer for Servicemen. . . . 5

Simplest Five-Valver. . . . 11

"Vibra Four" as "Trade Builder". . . . 29

TECHNICAL —

Balance Conditions in Push-pull Output. . . . 30

Technical Queries. . . . 38

SHORT-WAVE SECTION —

Questions They Ask the B.B.C. .. . . 17

Short-wave Review. . . . 22

Logging of the Month. . . . 24

P.03 - Editorial Notes
Editorial

Every now and then there is a tendency to get an impression that radio development has reached its climax, that every avenue of application has now been explored. Just in case you feel that way we would like to tell you about a book recently received from overseas. It deals with some new ideas about the use of ultra high-frequency radiations. It mentions such things as special valves with positive potentials on the grids and negative potentials on the plates, just to get the electrons mixed up so that the valves will oscillate without regeneration. Like a fairy story read the chapters about radio transmission from lenses made of ebonite, instead of aerials. Further details cannot be revealed at the moment, but you can take it for granted that when peace returns the wartime research will be found to have paved the way for radio development on a scale never before imagined.

P.03 - Publication Notes
The "Australasian Radio World" is published monthly by A. G. Hull. Editorial offices, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W. Telephone MA2455.

Subscription rates: 1/- per copy, 10/6 per year (12 issues) post free to Australia and New Zealand.

Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)


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User:Coloreinlife

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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1941 10

Link to Issue PDF
| WorldRadioHistory.com's scan of | Australasian Radio World - Vol. 06 No. 05 - October 1941 has been utilised to create the partial content for this page and can be downloaded at this link to further extend the content and enable further text correction of this issue: | ARW 1941 10

In general, only content which is required for other articles in this Wikibook has been entered here and text corrected. The material has been extensively used, inter alia, for compilation of biographical articles,  radio club articles and  station articles.

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

OCTOBER 15, 1941; Vol. 6 - No. 5; Price, 1/-

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical

Cover Photo: Valve Assembly at Philips' Australian Factory

Highlighted Contents: Circuit Contest Cash Prizes: Local Station Fidelity Set: Full Details 5w. Amplifier: Five-Way Tone Control

P.03 - Contents Banner
The Australasian Radio World

Incorporating the

All-Wave All-World DX News

Vol. 6 - OCTOBER, 1941 - No. 5

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS:

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

1941 "Dandy". . . . 7

Radiotronics Tone-Control Amplifier. . . . 13

Five-way Tone-Control Switch. . . . 30

TECHNICAL —

Battery Circuit Contest. . . . 5

Stability by Neutralisation. . . . 6

A Technical Explanation of Loading. . . . 9

A Fidelity Circuit from U.S.A. .. . . 10

Technical Queries. . . . 33

SHORT-WAVE SECTION —

Short-wave Review. . . . 18

Loggings of the Month. . . . 20

P.03 - Editorial Notes
Editorial

You may be a good radio engineer, but can you prove it? Recently there has been a strong call for radio engineers to serve their country in connection with the construction and maintenance of radio location equipment. Wonderful scope is offered, together with quite good pay and excellent conditions, apart from the patriotic appeal. Many of our readers have responded and are now on the job, but one or two have found to their amazement that they have not been able to prove their ability. Although thoroughly capable on the practical side they have not possessed any university degrees or diplomas. When faced with a qualifying examination they have not been able to fully reveal their ability, and wish that they had taken the precaution of associating themselves with an organisation of some kind, such as a radio college, technical school or that worthy organisation, the Institution of Radio Engineers.

P.03 - Publication Notes
The "Australasian Radio World" is published monthly by A. G. Hull. Editorial offices, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W. Telephone MA2455.

Subscription rates: 1/- per copy, 10/6 per year (12 issues) post free to Australia and New Zealand.

Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)


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Wikijunior:Wild Animals/Shark

Sharks are a type of large, meat-eating fish.

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Cognitive Science: An Introduction/Psychology of Pain

=The Psychology of Pain=

What is Pain
Pain can be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Pain involves somatosensory, affective, and cognitive features. Pain is physiological process in which the experience varies from person to person. It is subjective, experience-based, and is not necessarily caused by direct stimuli. It can be influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. Pain can be a localized or generalized sensation(s) that cause varying degrees of discomfort and distress. Pain can be acute, occurring suddenly and is often the result of an obvious cause. Traditionally, pain has been viewed mainly as a medical issue that required physical treatment such as medication or surgery. Recent decades have witnessed a growing viewpoint that physical treatments alone can be insufficient and can even worsen the experience of pain. Psychologists applying a biopharmaceutical lens on pain perception has begun shifting to a perspective of pain that integrates its biological, psychological, and social influences.

Measuring Pain
There have been various methods of measuring pain, from nineteenth-century evaluations of cry intensity to more recent observational studies of facial expressions. Since the 1900s doctors have largely relied on a the verbal self-report of pain on a numerical or graphical scale. However, because this pain measurement is variable and subjective it tends to result in under-treatment or over-treatment.

Imaging techniques that have explored the brain’s response to stimulated pain have illuminated the relationship between a person’s perceived pain and how pain is actually registered by the brain. Various techniques are currently used to study pain, including diffusion, structural, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electro-encephalography (EEG) and magneto-encephalography (MEG), as well as positron emission tomography. These techniques can measure variation in neurochemical concentrations, electrical activity, blood flow, oxygen metabolism, and other brain activity as it reacts to physical stimuli. It has been argued that brain mapping can provide an overly broad image containing insufficient anatomical nuance. While basic pain signals can appear overly similar, researchers have recently used machine-learning analyses to differentiate pain and its intensity within brain maps.

Emotional Effects
Pain that has been detected and perceived by the brain is then assigned an emotional value. How pain is emotionally valued can depend upon its cognitive framing, as this can significantly influence pain perception and regulation. Pain experienced during exercise, when framed as an indication of progress, can result in positive emotions and the release of analgesic dopamine. Emotions can also mitigate the effects of pain as indicated in studies that implicated the role of the insula cortex with the modulation of emotions and pain signals.

Pain and Empathy
An individual’s pain response can also become activated while observing another person’s experience of pain. Research involving fMRI data has indicated that similar neural networks respond in both cases, when a subject directly experienced pain, and when the pain was observed in others.

Placebo Analgesia and Nocebo Effects
A placebo analgesia involves the expectation that a treatment will inhibit pain and/or provide relief of discomfort. A placebo analgesia is associated with the modulation and activation of brain structures including areas of the frontal cortex, subcortical regions, the insula cortex, and ACC.

The nocebo effect is the opposite of the placebo effect, where an inert treatment is administered while informing the patient that it indicates a worsening condition. Studies have suggested that negative diagnoses and prognoses, mistrust of medical professionals, and negative information in media can lead to an increase in patient pain intensity.

A meta-analysis indicated that nocebo effects in pain experiences were variable but present. The perception of pain intensity is reportedly higher in those individual who expect an increase in pain compared to those who do not. Similar to placebo analgesia, a patient's expectations can amplify the pain response within the prefrontal cortex, the insula, and the ACC.

=The Neuroscience of Pain= Pain is a result of nerve transmission that communicates the presence of real or potential damage to the brain. By receiving pain signals, humans can respond to real or potential injuries through cognitive, hormonal and motor functions.

Nociception
Nociceptors are peripheral sensory neurons that are activated by a pain stimulus and transmit electrical signals to the brain’s receptors via neurotransmitters. Nociceptors can be excitatory - increasing pain signals, or inhibitory - blocking the transmission of pain signals. Nociceptive signals are transmitted via two nervous pathways, the spinothalamic and spinoreticular tracts. The spinothalamic is involved in localizing pain while the spinoreticular is associated with emotional aspects of pain. While pain largely involves the conscious awareness of real or potential physical damage, nociception involves the unconscious detection of tissue damage. Nociceptors do not become accustomed to sensations of pain over time and can instead become sensitized under certain conditions.

The Pain Matrix
Imaging techniques have identified a network of brain structures implicated in the pain response, which has been referred to as the “pain matrix,” or the “neural pain signature.” The primary and secondary somatosensory cortices, as well as the thalamus and cerebellum have been correlated with sensory aspects of pain while the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), prefrontal cortices, and insular cortex have been connected with with affective and cognitive responses. Further limbic structures are involved in process and are responsible for emotional responses. Not all structures in the pain matrix are activated by the pain response, nor to the same extent. Ultimately, there is no core neural structure that is associated with pain perception and processing, rather, it shares commonalities with other sensory, emotional, and stress-related brain regions. The pain matrix is a neurologically complex set of regions controlling ancillary factors and large brain structures that work together. Understanding the role of different areas of the brain in experiencing, perceiving, anticipating, and responding to pain under different conditions provides insight into why people may experience a similar pain differently.

A 2014 review found that neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) increased as a result of noxious stimuli, but did not change due to non-noxious stimuli. The research, which studied rodents, found that noxious stimulus caused a change in blood flow in the ACC, and concluded that the ACC was in some way involved in pain processing. The study also found that the ACC contributed to the modulation of pain and pain relief by activating dopamine release signals. The study concluded that subjects who reported greater pain also showed increased pain-related brain activity in brain regions associated with the anticipation or fear.

The insula cortex can also play a role in pain modulation. Its affect on the prefrontal cortex and the ACC under certain conditions suggests that the insula can regulate brain regions responsible for processing somatosensory, affective, and cognitive aspects of pain.

Chronic Pain
Chronic pain is one that is ongoing and can have causes that are identifiable and non-identifiable. Chronic pain is usually associated with a persistent illness, condition, or long-term injury and varies in severity. While acute pain serves a useful biological imperative that is bounded, chronic pain may serve no function and have no definable end. Additionally, chronic pain can cause further deleterious effects on a person’s quality of life, such as obesity and depression.

Research indicates that the neural mechanisms in the brain stem can raise, stifle, or block pain signals before being received by the brain. In cases of chronic pain, the brain stem can amplify and exacerbates pain signals experienced by a patient. Conversely, this same process can inhibit nociceptive inputs to the brain when a person is distracted or euphoric.

Chronic pain can progressively change physical brain structures and their functionality. Research indicates that the dorsolateral prefrontal lobe can be adversely affected by chronic pain. As this region plays a significant role in various other brain functions such as cognition and emotion, chronic pain can have secondary effects on pain modulation, depression, anxiety, and fear responses. =The Philosophy of Pain=

Introduction
The concept of pain has long been studied from various scientific perspectives. Fields of discipline, including psychology, neuroscience, and philosophy, have differing views regarding not only the definition of the term, but what important aspects are involved in researching and studying it as well. The philosophy of pain contrasts views such as the psychological and neuroscientific considerations, and raises several questions surrounding the nature of pain. Philosophers studying pain and its complex components have speculated about various types of pain, whether or not pain should be considered one of humans' basic senses, and the ethical issues that are associated with the condition.

Defining Pain
Despite the difficulty associated with precisely defining pain, many scientists and researchers concur that pain can be described as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience”. In their article, Sytsma and Reuter discuss that several philosophers agree that pain’s existence is dependent upon the experience of an individual. Pain perception is one aspect of the phenomenon that makes it difficult to analyze. Factors such as personality and emotional reactivity are key components that influence the perception that one would have to a certain level of pain. The sensation of pain begins from a specific part of the body and activates the anterior cingulate cortex of the brain, imposing differing reactions to the sensation that is felt depending upon the aforementioned factors. These altering receptions, and the complications that go along with attempting to accurately describe what is being felt, make pain a complicated subject lacking a comprehensive definition.

Various Types of Pain
Pain can manifest in many different ways, specifically in mental and physical forms, which together have varying impacts on individual perception. Philip R. Appel discusses in his article the idea of the mind-body relationship as it relates to pain, the sensory experience that pain causes, and how this sensory experience can translate into an internal self-conflict. Appel suggests that pain that begins as a physical sensation can develop into a mental challenge in which an individual can be confronted with thoughts such as how vulnerable humans are, and a contemplation of mortality. The mental side of pain becomes prevalent when an individual is faced with an uncomfortable physical sensation, and this pain in turn causes emotional reactions such as sadness or anger. The relationship between physical pain and mental pain has been studied by philosophers, and many believe that pain is a conscious mental state that is achieved once experienced. Based on this research, it is evident that there is a strong correlation between physical and mental pain, and often these sensations coincide to create an individual’s emotional response.

Should Pain be Considered a Sense?
Many theories contribute to the debate regarding whether pain should be included in the list of a human’s basic senses, along with taste, sight, scent, sound, and touch. As of now, pain is considered to be among a human’s bodily sensations, which include itches and tickles, for example. Because pain can be sensed in different ways, there are legitimate reasons for believing that pain is a physical condition that individuals perceive in areas of the body, as well as reasons for believing that it is not. This controversy has gained particular interest from philosophers who attempt to give a more precise definition of the term, and studying these reasons is beneficial to discovering the most applicable view of pain. Theoretically, several individuals may believe that pain should not be considered as one of human’s basic senses, as its sensation holds a deeper complexity compared to the simple sensation of tasting a specific food item. In contrast, there are schools of thought which hold that pain is experienced similarly to the way that a taste, scent, sound, or touch is experienced, and therefore it should qualify as a basic sense. Regardless of the theories that currently exist for both the inclusion and exclusion of pain as a basic human sense, philosophers continue to study this phenomenon and provide additional reasoning to guide the public in determining whether or not pain should be considered as one of our basic senses.

Ethical Issues Surrounding Pain
Several ethical issues become prevalent when examining the nature of pain. Philosophers have dedicated time to investigating the different ways that individuals experience and describe pain and have attempted to comprise a definition that encompasses both a physician’s view of pain and a patient’s view of pain. This is to ensure the best possible communication between these individuals. The widely accepted definition of pain that it is an “unpleasant sensory and emotional experience”, has provided an acceptable baseline for both patients and clinicians on which to rely. Despite this agreement, there is often some miscommunications when individuals seek to describe their pain, whether physical or mental, to a healthcare provider. As a result of a physician being unable to physically experience the specific pain with which a patient is presenting, it becomes difficult to fully understand and treat the ailment. Often doctors will ask patients to rate their pain on a one to ten scale in an attempt to interpret the intensity and severity of the pain being endured. This assessment poses its own issues, as not every individual will necessarily feel pain the same way, and a low rating given by one patient may be equivalent to a higher rating provided by another patient. This demonstrates the complexity involved in defining pain among healthcare professionals and patients, and the miscommunications that may occur between physicians and patients that can lead to ethical issues. Physician-assisted suicide is a controversial topic that relates to pain and the ethical issues that are included in alleviating pain in end-of-life care. A practitioner whose goal is to diagnose and relieve pain, is faced with the moral and ethical dilemma of helping patients who wish to end their lives as a result of intense or worsening pain. The arguments that are present regarding the ethical and non-ethical natures of physician-assisted suicide are discussions that have been frequently studied and analyzed. This extensive examination of physician-assisted suicide has provided the public with arguments for both the allowance of this practice, as well as reasons for why it should be against the law.

Additional Ethical Issues Associated with the Experience of Pain
Other ethical issues including unfair treatment as a result of age, gender, or income, for example, are frequently observed in the healthcare field when treating both mental and physical pain. As studied by Powers and Faden, in certain parts of the world, females, dark skinned individuals, and low-income families do not receive the same level of care that additionally privileged individuals receive to manage pain. These disparities have been prevalent for several years and continue to pose questions regarding the ethical issues that are associated with the treatment of pain in the healthcare field.

Conclusion
The philosophy of pain is a perspective that has been extensively studied and revised in an attempt to give an accurate disciplinary analysis of the concept. The complex nature of pain has encouraged scientists from a variety of fields to consider important aspects of pain, as well as determine helpful theoretical responses to inquiries concerning the topic. Examining scientific arguments including the numerous types of pain, whether or not pain should be considered a basic human sense, and the various ethical issues that are associated with the concept has created a stable foundation backed by successful research that can be further developed by philosophers in the future.

=References=


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User talk:Nehamalik401

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User talk:Vahidtaeid

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User:Vahidtaeid

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User:Vahidtaeid/sandbox

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User:Mobicel Astro

Mathematics education

title: User:Mobicel Astro


text: Vegan and vegetarian phrases/Polish

title: Vegan and vegetarian phrases/Polish


text:
Cookbook:Glorified Mac and Cheese

This recipe is based on a macaroni and cheese recipe, with additions of meat and vegetables to promote it from a side dish to a main course.

Ingredients

 * 250 g (½ pound) macaroni
 * 30 g (1 ounce) flour
 * 45 g (3 tbsp) butter
 * 240 ml (1 cup) milk
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste
 * 140 g (5 ounces) shredded cheese (e.g. cheddar, emmental, gruyère or whatever you like)
 * 2 hot dogs, sliced
 * 140 g (5 ounces) frozen green vegetables (e.g. spinach, kale, broccoli, peas, or whatever you like)
 * 2 fresh tomatoes, sliced
 * Grated Parmesan cheese
 * Paprika

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 180°C (350°F) and grease a casserole or baking dish.
 * 2) On the stovetop, bring 2 liters (2 quarts) of salted water to a boil; add the macaroni and cook for 9 minutes or until al dente.
 * 3) While the macaroni is cooking, start making the roux. Mix the flour and butter in a saucepan and heat over low heat, stirring until blended and bubbling.
 * 4) Add the milk, salt and pepper and stir until thickened. Reduce heat to the lowest setting and add the cheese, sliced hotdogs, and frozen vegetables.
 * 5) When the macaroni is done, drain and put in the greased dish. Pour the sauce over the noodles and stir till combined.
 * 6) Arrange the tomato slices on top, then sprinkle grated parmesan and paprika over the tomato slices.
 * 7) Bake for 40 minutes.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Instead of the hot dogs, you can use any other meat you like: ground beef (browned in a skillet first), bite-sized pieces of cooked chicken, canned tuna, and so on. For a vegetarian version, try diced tofu, textured vegetable protein (soy meat), chickpeas, brown lentils, etc.

title: Cookbook:Glorified Mac and Cheese


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1941 11

Link to Issue PDF
| WorldRadioHistory.com's scan of | Australasian Radio World - Vol. 06 No. 06 - November 1941 has been utilised to create the partial content for this page and can be downloaded at this link to further extend the content and enable further text correction of this issue: | ARW 1941 11

In general, only content which is required for other articles in this Wikibook has been entered here and text corrected. The material has been extensively used, inter alia, for compilation of biographical articles,  radio club articles and  station articles.

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

NOVEMBER 15, 1941; Vol. 6 - No. 6; Price, 1/-

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical

Cover Photo: Spot-welding the elements of a valve in the Australian factory of Philips.

Highlighted Contents: Circuit Contest: First Essay: Compact 4/5 D.W. Receiver: Inter-Office Communicator: Dual-Wave Six with Vibrator

P.03 - Contents Banner
The Australasian Radio World

Incorporating the

All-Wave All-World DX News

Vol. 6 - NOVEMBER, 1941 - No. 6

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS:

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Inter-office Communicator. . . . 5

Dual-wave Vibrator Set. . . . 7

"Nugget" Dual-waver. . . . 11

Handy 12-watt Amplifier. . . . 11

Elementary Signal Tracer. . . . 19

TECHNICAL —

Interesting Experiments with Amplifiers. . . . 21

How to Use Your Oscilloscope. . . . 23

Beat Frequency Oscillator. . . . 26

Answers to Queries. . . . 37

SHORT-WAVE SECTION —

Why They Change the B.B.C. Wavelengths. . . . 20

Notes from My Diary, by L. J. Keast. . . . 28

Loggings of the Month. . . . 30

Battery Circuit Contest Coupon. . . . 37

P.03 - Editorial Notes
Editorial

It is abundantly clear that our Battery Circuit Contest is going to be remarkably successful. It has created considerable interest in many country towns and provided a topic for conversation in most factories, according to reports from our readers. Country dealers appreciate the value of the publicity angle of having their views published and, from our point of view, we don't begrudge them this free advertising, so long as it is all for a good cause. What better cause could you imagine than helping the country man to get better performance from his set? The candid expression of opinions by country men, who are on the spot obtaining practical experience, must be a big factor in assisting in this direction. From our own point of view, we are especially delighted, as we have in hand a stock of editorial matter which should make the next half-dozen issues of infinite interest to all country readers.

P.03 - Publication Notes
The "Australasian Radio World" is published monthly by A. G. Hull. Editorial offices, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W. Telephone MA2455.

Subscription rates: 1/- per copy, 10/6 per year (12 issues) post free to Australia and New Zealand.

Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.40)


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1941 12

Link to Issue PDF
| WorldRadioHistory.com's scan of | Australasian Radio World - Vol. 06 No. 07 - December 1941 has been utilised to create the partial content for this page and can be downloaded at this link to further extend the content and enable further text correction of this issue: | ARW 1941 12

In general, only content which is required for other articles in this Wikibook has been entered here and text corrected. The material has been extensively used, inter alia, for compilation of biographical articles,  radio club articles and  station articles.

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

DECEMBER 15, 1941; Vol. 6 - No. 7; Price, 1/-

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical

Cover Photo: Graphic featuring the Logos of A.R.W.'s principal advertisers

Highlighted Contents: Vario Selectivity for All Supers: 1942 Tip-Top Mantel Model: Seven-Valve Battery Set: Highest Fidelity from Locals

P.03 - Contents Banner
The Australasian Radio World

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

All-Wave All-World DX News

Vol. 6 No. 7 - DECEMBER 15, 1941

P.03 - Publication Notes
Proprietor, Publisher, Editor - A. G. HULL

Editorial Offices - 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, Phone MA2455

Office Hours - Week-days: 9 a.m. - 5 p.m. Not open Saturday morning

Subscription Rates - 6 issues 5/3, 12 issues 10/6, 24 issues £1, Post free to any address

Service Departments - Back Numbers, 6d. ea., post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each; Laboratory Service, 2/6 per set

Printed by the Bridge Printery, 117 Reservoir St., Sydney, N.S.W. for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.44)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS:

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Acoustic Compensated Superhet. . . . 5

"My Own" Fidelity Receiver for Locals. . . . 11

A Medium-cost Signal Tracer. . . . 17

1942 Version of "Tip-Top". . . . 21

TECHNICAL —

Powerful Battery Set Circuit. . . . 15

The Meaning of Condenser Ratings. . . . 27

Answers to Queries. . . . 41

SHORT-WAVE SECTION —

Notes from My Diary, by L. J. Keast. . . . 30

Loggings of the Month. . . . 32

New Stations. . . . 36

TRADE NEWS —

Rothermel-Brush Pickups. . . . 24

New Amplion Speaker. . . . 14

P.03 - Editorial Notes
Editorial

Christmas is here again! This is our Christmas issue. Unfortunately, we are not able to make it a bumper issue, as we might have done under normal conditions. In fact, we feel quite happy and satisfied with being able to maintain our present standard in the face of the dozen and one little problems which arise at times like this. Looking back over the year, too, we find plenty to be happy about. The success of Parry's articles on acoustic compensation, the popularity of the special features for dealers, and particularly those on signal tracing, are all reflected in a substantial increase in circulation. Since our ration of paper has to cover this increased circulation, we find that we can't have as many pages in each issue as we could readily fill, but we are doing the best we can under the circumstances. It gives us great satisfaction to know that our readers appreciate the difficulties and maintain their loyal support, and so it is with the fullest sincerity that we wish you all — A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year


text:
Irish/Reference/Directions

Directions in Irish work a little differently than they do in English. There are two major differences:

 * Some of the words have multiple meanings: for example, deas, which means both "right" and south".
 * The words and forms used differ depending on context

This article gives a comprehensive overview of Irish directions for the English-speaking student.

Historical Directions
Historically, the same words were used in Irish and the languages it descended from for compass directions (north, south) and relative directions (right, left). The directions match up for a person facing east:

Deas still means both "south" and "right", but the other direction words are no longer identical in modern Irish. However, the concept survives in some idioms and expressions, which will be discussed below.

Categories of Direction Words
In Irish, different direction words are used in different contexts. The types of direction word are:

 * Noun
 * Used to describe the direction as an independent noun, or to describe a portion of a place. Example: "It will rain in the west this weekend," "She visited the south of France."

 * Adjective
 * Used to modify a noun, usually as part of a place name. Example: "She's from North America"

 * Going to
 * Used when describing motion away from the speaker. Example: "She's not here right now, she drove west this morning."

 * Coming from
 * Used when describing motion towards the speaker. Example: "It was nice of you Dubliners to drive from the east to see us."

 * Comparative
 * Used to compare relative positions of two things.

The hardest direction for English speakers to understand is "coming from," because it implies traveling in the opposite direction. For example:
 * tar suas means "come up (to here)"
 * tar anuas means "come from up (there)"--or in other words, "come down".

List of Irish Direction Words and Forms
This chart shows the different direction words. In each case there's a three-letter pattern shared by all the words indicating a certain direction (except for deisceart, South, which breaks the pattern).

The direction under "Going" is always opposite to the direction under "Coming from", e.g. going south vs. coming (north) from the south.

Forming Intermediate Directions
To form intermediate directions, use the appropriate term for the east-west direction, followed by the "going" form (the a- form) of the north-south direction:

thiar aneas (in the southwest)

Right and Left

 * "Deas" is right.

 * "Clé" is left.

 * "Ar an dheas" is "on the right".

 * "Ar an chlé" is "on the left".

In and Out
"Slí amach" is way out
 * Amach = out. "Tar amach" is "Come out", if you are already outside you are "amuigh".

"Slí isteach" is way in.
 * Isteach = in. "Tar isteach" is "Come in", if you are already inside you are "istigh".

Compass Idioms
Some of the surviving idioms related to the points of the compass in Irish include:

 * seas siar:Stand back (literally "stand to the west")
 * aniar aduaidh:By surprise (literally "from the northwest")
 * amach anseo:From now on

title: Irish/Reference/Directions


text:
Selected Essays/The Role of Indian Cinema

Cinema is in today’s world the most popular means of entertainment. Millions of people watch cinema everyday all over the world - not only as a means of entertainment, but also as an escape from the monotony, boredom, anxiety and troubles of life. It is a restful, pleasurable and entertaining way of rewinding and relaxing after a long day’s work. All the senses are captivated while viewing cinema and the next two and a half or three hours are spent in a wink. Moreover, every class and section of society can afford this form of entertainment at their will and convenience.

Indian cinema has a charm, flavour and magic of its own. It appeals not only to the film-crazy Indian public but also enchants a large number of audiences the world over. People who do not speak or understand Hindi still sing songs from Hindi films. An average Indian film is longer than films from other parts of the world, has a ginger-touch of love, hate, revenge, drama, tears, joys and also its own share of songs and dances. A typical Indian film has it all - all the spice and variety of life condensed into it, transporting the audience on a magic carpet to a totally different world where everything and anything is possible. In fact, Salman Rushdie once said:

"I have been a film buff all my life and believe that the finest cinema is fully the equal of the best novels."

Down the years, cinema in India has reached its own destination, created its own history, and touched its own milestones. From stereotyped love stories to action, to drama, to realistic, to fictional – the silver screen in its every aspect has mesmerized, captured and tantalized millions of every age, class, sex and community. The journey from silent films to talking pictures, from black and white to coloured has been long. It has catered to the dreams and aspirations of many who have hungered for glamour and reached ‘Mumbai’ and it still does.

There have been tow streams of cinema in India – one is the commercial Cinema which has the sole aim of entertaining and making money in return. The second stream is the Parallel Cinema or the Art Cinema which aims at sensitising people on various social issues and problems of the society. While Commercial Cinema appeals to all sections of the society, parallel cinema appeals mainly to intellectual class and the intelligentsia of the society. But a change has taken place over the last decade and a half. A general awareness among people has increased and Art Cinema is being more and more appreciated by a large number of people. Many a times, an art film does much better at the box-office than a main stream commercial film. This has resulted in the thinning of the differentiating line between Art and Commercial Cinema.

Cinema has an educative value too. Because it exercises a deep influence upon the minds of the people; cinema can be used as a very effective reformative instrument. Statutory warnings are included to spread the awareness about the adversity of smoking has compelled many to quit the habit. Social awareness can be generated on issues like dowry, women education, abortion, girl foeticide, youth unrest, corruption, unemployment, poverty, illiteracy etc. Films like No One Killed Jessica, My Name Is Khan, The Attacks of 26/11 are some movies which have dealt with current sensitive issues. Cinema can expose the evils prevalent in society. It is the most effective means of mass communication. Cinema also is a great unifying force in a diversified country like ours. People belonging to all communities and sections, speaking any language, watch the cinema with the same fascination and excitement. Moreover, people can go to places with cinema. We travel form Ooty to Shimla to Switzerland to Washington to Sydney. It also encourages the art of music, singing, dancing, script-writing, direction etc. It employs a large number of people from technicians to producer to spot boys to dress makers. Thousands of people earn their livelihood through cinema.

The silver screen spreads and sells not just dreams but captivates the hearts of young boys and girls. If this medium is not used judiciously and wisely, it can distract the youth from the right direction. Thus, the film makers should undertake film making as social responsibility and through films should give youth as sense of direction. The trend of making films on famous novels and plays should be encouraged to spread good literature and its appreciation among common man. Sensible and relevant themes should be picked to make films. Films need not be didactic, but they still can pass on constructive messages subtly to the masses. Hence, if used with pure sensibility, cinema can help in bringing positive changes in the society and the attitudes of the people.


text: User talk:82.219.57.81

title: User talk:82.219.57.81


text: User talk:2409:4071:221F:A8B6:8961:3FCE:8E48:DA17