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World of Dinosaurs/Cladograms

What is a clade?
A clade refers to one bushy branch of an evolutionary tree.

 * If we consider any two animals, we can guess what features were common to their last common ancestor.
 * If we consider this last common ancestor, and ALL of its descendants, we are considering one whole clade.

A clade can be small or large.

 * A biologist studying squid might be interested in one particular clade of squids related to the giant squid.
 * A paleontologist studying birds might be interested in a clade so broad that it even includes crocodiles!

If we intentionally exclude a sub-branch, we are no longer talking about a whole clade.

 * For example, the clade dinosaurs includes the last common ancestor of a Triceratops and a pigeon, and alllllllll of its descendants.

 * If a person says, "Well, birds don't really count, because they are birds!" that's ok. Just know they are no longer talking about the WHOLE clade.

 * There are LOTS of different terms for the ways folks break up or combine parts of clades, which anyone can learn about in advanced classes, books, online, etc.
 * In this class, we just want to ask, "Hmmmm, are the animals I'm considering constituting a whole clade? Am I excluding anyone?"

What is a cladogram?
A cladogram illustrates how a person interprets relationships between different clades of animals.

For example, the clade of dinosaurs fits within a larger clade of animals with bones.

There are lots of formal rules about how to draw and understand cladograms. In this class, we keep it very simple:

 * Names of animals are placed at the edges of the diagram (often the top edge), and each name is a tip – the end of a branch.
 * Every spot branches split apart, we try to draw a simple y – just two branches spreading out (not three or five!).

These illustrations represent specific interpretations.

 * Any two animals ought to have a common ancestor.
 * How different it looked, how long ago, and how far away can totally vary - depends on the clade you're considering.
 * We do NOT need to know exactly what the last common ancestor looked like.
 * We do NOT need to know exactly how many descendants have lived since that common ancestor did, or what they looked like, etc.
 * When we create a y branch to represent the splitting apart of two lineages of decent, we mark that junction with a node.
 * This node basically represents the mysterious last common ancestor.
 * This node is an easy way to recognize the base of a clade.

 * If we see two branches split away from a node, we should mark at least one of those branches with a trait.
 * A trait is an anatomy feature that we show arising within animals along that branch.
 * We will assume all animals along that branch path still have the trait, unless we show them loosing it.
 * If we take a trait away from a subsequent branch of life, we need to mark this too.
 * Some cladograms are built by illustrating the tree that requires as few traits as possible.
 * But traits are so complex, from a genetic and developmental perspective, that this strict rule doesn't work all the time.
 * A trait that actually has really different underlying anatomy is not good for a cladogram.
 * For example, butterflies and birds each have wings.
 * But their wings are constructed in totally different ways!
 * Instead of marking a cladogram with a very complex anatomy feature like "wings", try to observe and include anatomy more fundamental and specific:
 * bones
 * the shape, size, or arrangement of the bones

Phylogeny
Phylogeny refers to a set of evolutionary relationships between animals.

We can consider this as an absolute concept. For example, "We may never know the entire phylogeny of Cretaceous birds, but we have learned a lot more about it in the past decade."

We can also use the term to refer to a specific interpretation of the evolutionary relationships. For example, "Dr. Smith and Dr. Kunungo present conflicting phylogenies for fossil crabs." We'll need more observations to decide which best resembles their actual history.

A cladogram illustrates a phylogeny.

How do we read cladograms?
Cladograms DO illustrate:

 * Traits that arose as lineages of animals diverged and became more and more different from each other.
 * Example: Stumpy tailbones arise on branches of birds as they diverge away from flying dinosaurs that still had long tails.
 * Traits that arose as lineages of animals that were really different acquired similar anatomy to meet an environmental challenge.
 * Example: Penguins have flippers, and dolphins have flippers, but the last common ancestor of a penguin and a dolphin did NOT have flippers.
 * This is called convergent evolution and it's so rad.
 * Clades nest within each other:
 * Parrots are a clade of birds.
 * Birds are a clade of dinosaurs.
 * Dinosaurs are a clade of vertebrates (animals with a spinal chord).

Cladograms do NOT illustrate:

 * When, why, or how the branches split.
 * What the common ancestor looked like, exactly.
 * Which animals are "most evolved"!
 * Dr. Winkelman studies squid, so she'll make a cladogram all about the nuanced differences between calamari squid and giant squid.
 * Dr. Melstrom studies crocodiles, so he'll make a cladogram all about the nuanced differences between alligators and crocodiles.
 * Dr. Yacobucci studies ammonites (extinct shelled squid monsters), so she'll make a cladogram about different ammonites.
 * Because each person studies different animals, they pay attention to different traits. If the animal they study is extinct, or smart, or fancy, doesn't make it more or less evolved.

Why are cladograms important for this class?
Once you get the hang of it, cladograms are easy and fun to read.

 * It's like a road map for evolution.
 * Every cladogram shows an interpretation.
 * Most interpretations can be improved with more observations!

Paleontologists can use cladograms to:

 * Predict that an animal with a certain set of traits should exist in the fossil record.
 * Predict that an animal with a certain set of traits should be fossilized in a particular layer or time-period.

When paleontologists find new fossils:

 * The cladograms can be changed to include these new observations.
 * The new tree gives folks ideas for new predictions on where or what to look for.

In World of Dinosaurs, we want to observe the anatomy features that were used to support the phylogeny illustrated in a cladogram. This class will provide special access and focus on fossils – in the Natural History Museum of Utah, as digital models, and as 3D prints – and live animals – at the Tracy Aviary and via video – on which we can SEE the traits marked on the branches.

This class uses claodgrams as puzzles.

 * We will ask students to read, remember, and reconstruct some cladogram features.
 * This is because the cladogram puzzles are useful tools to visualize and talk about our interpretations.
 * This class is NOT about memorizing cladograms as unchanging facts!

title: World of Dinosaurs/Cladograms


text:
User:Conan/sandbox

The Computer Revolution/Security

 * – arch specific cpu topology information
 * – generic cpu definition
 * – CPU affinity reverse-map support
 * – CPU-up CPU-down
 * – a generic framework for CPU idle power management
 * – Cpumasks provide a bitmap suitable for representing the set of CPU's in a system, one bit position per CPU number.
 * – CPU-up CPU-down
 * – a generic framework for CPU idle power management
 * – Cpumasks provide a bitmap suitable for representing the set of CPU's in a system, one bit position per CPU number.
 * – Cpumasks provide a bitmap suitable for representing the set of CPU's in a system, one bit position per CPU number.
 * – Cpumasks provide a bitmap suitable for representing the set of CPU's in a system, one bit position per CPU number.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Conan/sandbox


text:
The Prison-Industrial Complex

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Origin/
 * /Current Prison Populations/
 * /Private Prisons/
 * /Immigration in the Prison Industrial Complex/
 * /Conclusion/
 * /Opportunities for Further Study/

Introduction
The prison industrial complex (PIC) encapsulates the belief that government and industry have vested monetary and political interests in expanding the use of “surveillance, policing, and imprisonment as solutions to economic, social and political problems,” as described by a leading advocacy group, Critical Resistance. Although it’s called the PIC, it includes both centers for criminal incarceration and immigrant detention. The term is coined from the military industrial complex - a comparison which has drawn criticisms for opposing reasons. Some claim the comparison is inaccurate as the prison system will never approach the magnitude of the military, while others argue that the focus on prisons is far too constricting; the entire criminal justice system is involved. As the PIC encompasses a wide range of contentions and definitions, this chapter will focus on the legislative, economic, and political origins leading to the current system, the role of private prisons, and the immigration wing of the PIC.

Legislation
Three key pieces of legislation contributed to the modern day PIC. The first were passed in 1973 in New York state -- the Rockefeller Drug Laws. In contradiction to contemporary attitudes towards incarceration, these laws instituted a minimum 15 year sentence for various drug-related offenses. Similar laws were gradually adopted nationwide, with effects so great that half a million Americans (48% of federal inmates) are now serving long sentences for nonviolent drug offenses.

The second piece of legislation, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, introduced the three-strike system, wherein federal offenders convicted for three or more serious violent felonies or drug trafficking crimes are sentenced to mandatory life imprisonment without possibility of parole.

The third piece of legislation, the Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996, includes the Work Opportunity Tax Credit (WOTC), which some argue incentivizes imprisonment for cheap labor, as discussed in the following economics section.

Hence, these three pieces of legislation exponentially increased the number of individuals incarcerated, extended the sentences of repeat offenders, and financially incentivized maintaining an incarcerated labor force.

Economics
Integral to the concept of the PIC are financial incentives behind its maintenance and growth. The WOTC provides just that, by offering a tax credit of up to $2,400 per year per ex-felon hired, defined as anyone released from prison for — or convicted of — a felony within the last year. This includes currently incarcerated individuals, making it financially favorable to use prison labor.

However, expanding the prisoner population necessitates expanding the number of prisons. In the wake of the Rockefeller Drug Laws in New York state, new prisons were desperately needed. In his search for quickly accessible funding to build prisons, Governor Mario Cuomo turned to the Urban Development Corporation. As a public agency created in 1968 to build housing for the poor, it had the authority to issue state bonds without voter approval. Hence, funds that had been intended to house lower-income families were instead used to imprison many of their members.

Yet, this fund was unique to New York and alternative funding was needed across the country. Private prisons threw their hats in the ring. Such groups had begun creating detention centers for immigrants in the 70’s, and in 1983 a group called Corrections Corporation of America claimed they could build and operate state and federal prisons with the same quality of service at a lower cost. Although private prisons have been in use for nearly 40 years, their claims of lower costs are still debated, with inquiries into the matter reaching no clear consensus.

Politics
Keeping Americans safe has always been a popular political strategy and criminalizing dangerous or so-called deviant behavior plays a large role. “Law and Order” has always been a buzz phrase, but exploded in popularity during the frenzy that led to the Rockefeller Drug Laws, peaking in 1971. As drug laws spread across the country, however, the new tagline of choice became “War on Drugs,” later followed by politicians claiming to be “tough on crime."

The impact of political discourse on the PIC extends past the campaign trail, however. Stock prices of private prison corporations are largely affected by presidential elections, dipping dramatically at the end of Obama’s term, before spiking in Trump’s tenure, and shrinking again dramatically upon election day 2020. Such fluctuations indicate fragility in the current prison system and legitimize, to a certain degree, the claims of political advantage afforded by the PIC.

Current Prison Populations
As a result of the above discussed origins, the United States currently contains around 2.1 million incarcerated individuals, down from a maximum of 2.3 million in 2008. Approximately 6.3 million people are under supervision of adult correction systems, whether on probation, parole, or in correctional facilities. Incarcerated populations have skyrocketed from just 300,000 individuals in the 1970’s. Today, the incarceration rate is 810 per 100,000 adult residents in the U.S., down from a peak rate of 1000 per 100,000 in 2008. Private prison populations are also decreasing. The U.S. has by far the highest incarceration rate of any country in the world, despite this downward trend. El Salvador has the second highest rate, estimated at 13% lower than that of the U.S.

The recent decrease in prison populations is due, in part, to changing state and federal policies and heightened awareness of the problem of mass incarceration. Many states are closing prisons due to reduced populations. In New York, reforms to the Rockefeller drug laws passed in the late 2000’s decreased prison populations. Under Governor Andrew Cuomo, New York closed 18 state prisons, and plans to close 6 more in early 2022. Since 2011, at least 22 states have closed 94 state prisons and juvenile facilities. At the federal level, the Biden White House signed an executive order this year to eliminate contracts with private prison companies.

Private Prisons
Private prisons, or for-profit prisons, are contracted by government agencies to imprison individuals. Over the years, private prisons have grown controversial for different reasons, including their treatment of prisoners. As of 2019, private prisons house about eight percent of the total state and federal prison population. Among the largest private prison companies in the U.S. are CoreCivic, the GEO Group, and the Management and Training Corporation. These companies own and manage private correctional facilities and make billions in revenue each year. Private prisons claim to provide rehabilitation programs for prisoners, including education, vocational training, addiction treatment, and faith-based programs. However, the Department of Justice found that only 60% actually offered rehabilitation programs.

Private prisons contribute heavily to political campaigns: private prison groups gave a record $1.6 million to candidates and parties during the 2016 presidential election. The vast majority of their funding has gone to Republican candidates in 2021-2022.

Immigration in the Prison Industrial Complex
One branch of the PIC that has historically received significant political attention addresses immigration. Under the former Trump administration, the Migrant Protection Protocols, commonly known as the Remain in Mexico policy, made it difficult to obtain asylum in the United States. In 2019, just 0.1% of cases were granted asylum. Individuals caught illegally crossing the border are detained in a combination of public and private facilities. Recent growth in border crossing provides the means for sustaining the Prison Industrial Complex with individuals. The Immigration and Customs Enforcement Agency, ICE, contracts with local governments to hold individuals. The local government then contracts with private facilities. Private facilities are paid a rate of 25 cents per day per person. In 2009, the private prison system earned $95 million in revenue. Between 2003 and 2011, the number of individuals held grew from around 232,000 to just under 430,000 people.

Both private and public facilities contract out operations such as security, inmate transportation, and food services. To reduce costs, consultants recommended reducing food, medical assistance, and personnel. High profile consulting firms such as McKinsey, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Booz Allen Hamilton, and Deloitte contract with ICE. Amid reports of medical negligence, poor food, sexual assault, and death, reducing costs purely increases profit for the private facilities at the expense of detainees. In addition to facilities operations, tech companies are contracted to track and identify illegal immigrants within the country. In 2019, Palantir received attention due to its $38 million contract with ICE. Data from software companies likely resulted in workplace raids which provided more detainees.

The immigration portion of the PIC is perpetuated by legal apparatuses. In 2003, Director Tangeman of the Office of Detention and Removal within ICE released a 10-year goal to remove all aliens. This plan built on the 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) and the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA). The IIRIRA strengthened immigration law by instituting penalties for undocumented immigrants who commit crimes. A misdemeanor or felony can result in deportation. IIRIRA added Section 287(g) to the Immigration and Nationality Act, permitting ICE to supervise and train local or state law enforcement to identify and remove immigrants. The AEDPA reformed habeas corpus procedure and grounds. The defendant has a single appeal to overturn a wrongful conviction. The grounds by which a defendant could have a successful appeal were also limited. This act perpetuates the complex as immigrants waiting for deportation are sent to detention facilities. The Criminal Alien Program (CAP) builds on the 1996 acts. The program aims to identify noncitizens within the US prison system and obtain a removal order before being released. Private prisons are awarded contracts to hold immigrants during their criminal sentencing. After serving their criminal sentence, individuals are transferred to an immigration detention facility as they await deportation. This is known as inverted double jeopardy. If an immigrant is charged with -- but never convicted of -- a crime, they may still be removed. In 2009, 57% of deported immigrants from the CAP program were not criminals. The Secure Communities program is another means for local authorities to enforce immigration laws. Active in 44 states, the program forces the FBI to send fingerprints of arrested individuals to the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The DHS checks the fingerprints against a database. Matches will lead to deportation or transfer of the individual to ICE detention while awaiting further investigation. From these acts and programs, the number of immigrants detained has increased which rewards detention centers that profit from the number of individuals held.

Conclusion
Prisons are intended to house those who pose a threat to their neighbors and give them space for rehabilitation. With the introduction of stricter drug laws, this idea extended not just to keeping people safe from each other, but safe from themselves. As prison populations increased, so too did the need for prison space. Hence, the new technology of private prisons was introduced, along with a host of other technologies involved in the maintenance and expansion of the PIC.

Yet, prisons are a tool, not a solution. They’ve been treated as a solution to an unsolvable problem. When the question was initially posed to society - how do we increase prison spaces - the immediate response was to address it. The better response would have been to question the necessity of such a solution in the first place. Simply because we have the technological capability does not mean we should use it. Such a reflection is central to many problems being faced today, and deserves careful consideration.

Opportunities for Further Study
Future authors could strengthen this chapter with discussion of additional laws that led to the prison system we have today, deeper analysis of the role of drugs, and greater attention to the demographics of prisoners, with special attention paid to discussion of the racial components to the PIC.

[Video: TED Talk - Bryan Stevenson ]

title: The Prison-Industrial Complex


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The Prison-Industrial Complex/Introduction

In countries with a large incarcerated population, a Prison-Industrial Complex has a chance to form. By turning incarceration into a significant industry, there are a number of observable economic, social, and legal effects and consequences as a result.


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Hacking/Attack

A is a hidden unauthorized access or use of information system.

One of most simple attacks is. Notorious kind of attack is. Common method to make some money by hacking is. is an example of expensive attack. Authorized simulation of cyberattack is called.

Preparation
As as permission for. Follow ethical hacking. Then anticipate possible problems. Prepare what needed before it is too late. s probably start with setting up anonymous communication with.

Tools:
 * https://docs.rapid7.com/metasploit/installing-metasploit-pro
 * https://www.offensive-security.com/metasploit-unleashed/metasploit-fundamentals/

Reconnaissance
See Reconnaissance

Creative
Develop exploits.

Aggressive
See Penetration

The unified kill chain

 * 1. Reconnaissance - Researching, identifying and selecting targets using active or passive reconnaissance.
 * 2. Weaponization - Preparatory activities aimed at setting up the infrastructure required for the attack.
 * 3. Delivery - Techniques resulting in the transmission of a weaponized object to the targeted environment.
 * 4. - Techniques aimed at the manipulation of people to perform unsafe actions.
 * 5. - Techniques to exploit vulnerabilities in systems that may, amongst others, result in code execution.
 * 6. Persistence - Any access, action or change to a system that gives an attacker persistent presence on the system.
 * 7. - Techniques an attacker may specifically use for evading detection or avoiding other defenses.
 * 8. Command & control - Techniques that allow attackers to communicate with controlled systems within a target network.
 * 9. - Tunneling traffic through a controlled system to other systems that are not directly accessible.
 * 10. - Techniques that allow an attacker to gain knowledge about a system and its network environment.
 * 11. - The result of techniques that provide an attacker with higher permissions on a system or network.
 * 12. Execution - Techniques that result in execution of attacker-controlled code on a local or remote system.
 * 13. Credential access - Techniques resulting in the access of, or control over, system, service or domain credentials.
 * 14. Lateral movement - Techniques that enable an adversary to horizontally access and control other remote systems.
 * 15. Collection - Techniques used to identify and gather data from a target network prior to exfiltration.
 * 16. Exfiltration - Techniques that result or aid in an attacker removing data from a target network.
 * 17. Impact - Techniques aimed at manipulating, interrupting or destroying the target system or data.
 * 18. Objectives - Socio-technical objectives of an attack that are intended to achieve a strategic goal.

title: Hacking/Attack


text:
Wine/Types of Wines

Types of wine include:

 * White wine - Wine made without the skin of the grape. Typically has a golden tinge of color.
 * Red wine - Wine made with the skin of the grape. Sometimes it is also made with grapes which have naturally red juices.
 * Rosé - Wine made with a portion of the grape skin. Typically a hue of pink.
 * Brut wine - Wine with no or minimal added sugars.
 * Dry wine - A moderately sweet wine.
 * Doux or Sweet wine - A very sweet wine.

title: Wine/Types of Wines


text:
Talk:Public International Law/International Criminal Law

Review: 13 June 2023
Dear Annalisa,

Thanks for the chapter! I left some minor comments in the text. My main point is that given that this chapter introduces ICL and all the following chapters under this umbrella, I think it should "set the scene" a little bit more clearly and build the narrative for the following questions. In my opinion, this chapter should briefly introduce what the field is all about, the questions that arise etc., maybe some historical aspects, but it can leave the details for the later chapters. I also think it would be great if you could provide a roadmap and link to the chapters that follow. After having read Tax' chapters on International crimes, for example, I think that the Rome Statute and the relevance of the ICC in today's ICL regime should be introduced. He presupposes the Rome Statue. Maybe also the main legal sources should be introduced?

Best, Raffaela --Raffaela Kunz (discuss • contribs) 13:27, 13 June 2023 (UTC)

Review: May 26, 2023
Your chapter effectively outlines the historical background, key milestones, and major developments in ICL. This provides students with a solid foundation to understand the significance and evolution of ICL.

However, it is important to note that certain sections of the chapter assume a level of prior knowledge in international criminal law. For students who are unfamiliar with the subject, this may pose a challenge in grasping the concepts and theories presented. I recommend providing additional explanations and simplifying complex ideas to ensure accessibility for all students, including those without prior knowledge in this field.

Additionally, I have made some suggestions for restructuring certain parts of the chapter. Restructuring can enhance the coherence and flow of the content, allowing students to follow the logical progression of your chapter more effectively. I encourage you to carefully consider and implement these restructuring suggestions.

I also recommend revisiting the chapter and ensuring that appropriate footnotes are included where necessary. If you would like assistance in transferring the footnotes from your Word document to Wikibooks, please feel free to send me the document, and I will be more than happy to help you with the process.

You will also find some comments in your chapter in which I elaborate on something more specific. To view these comments, open your chapter page and click "Edit" in the top-right menu bar.

Some minor things:
 * Note that the following parts are still missing: required knowledge, conclusion
 * There are some issues with the formatting of the footnotes, which are not always consistent with the OSCOLA citation style. To ensure the chapter is fully compliant with OSCOLA, you should review the formatting of the footnotes and make the necessary corrections.
 * Note that I have made some linguistic improvements to the text

--Max Milas (discuss • contribs) 12:48, 26 May 2023 (UTC)

Review October 2021
Dear all, The outline looks great to me and from what I can tell covers a lot of ground! Since I don't work in international criminal law I don't really have any specific suggestions, just one general thought from the outsider perspective: Even more so than for international law in general, I tend to see a lot of critiques of international criminal law - e.g. that individual criminal responsibility will not solve structural, especially economic problems, and of course the major imbalance between global North and global South in the context of international criminal law. I think these would be important to include. Perhaps you're planning on doing that anyway (e.g. in sections A or D), but since there is currently no explicit mention in the outline I figured I would just raise the issue. Cheers, Jens Theilen (discuss • contribs) 10:29, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

Review: Walter Arevalo Ramirez
The current approach is very interesting and the current content is very good, nonetheless the chapter is still underdeveloped, more "handbook"ish elements are missing, such a traditional explanation of the crimes, and the explanation of fundamental institutions of ICL, that are particular to in in comparison to its domestic law counterparts,  such as superior responsibility, joint criminal enterprise, forms of liability, the classic issue of control, indirect perpetration throught organized structures of power, etc. Max Milas (discuss • contribs) 16:48, 26 January 2023 (UTC)


text:
User:Abbas Poorhashemi

Abbas Poorhashemi holds a Ph.D. in International Law from the University of Strasbourg (France, 2005). He received a Postdoctoral Fellowship in International Law & Globalization at CEDIM of the UQAM University (Canada, 2013). He is the President of the Canadian Institute for International Law Expertise (CIFILE). He is also the Editor-in-Chief of the CIFILE Journal of International Law (CJIL), Canada. Dr. Poorhashemi is academic and an expert in international law. His practice, teaching and research interests are in the areas of Public International Law, International Criminal Law and International Environmental Law. He has published many books and articles in each of these areas.

title: User:Abbas Poorhashemi


text:
User:47777hhfh/sandbox

this is MY sandbox! MINE NOT YOURS >:((

title: User:47777hhfh/sandbox


text:
User talk:47777hhfh

i like to edit wiki sites to make them "better"

title: User talk:47777hhfh


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User:47777hhfh

i will shut down wiki books one article at a time :)

title: User:47777hhfh


text:
The Prison-Industrial Complex/Causes

Sentencing
Sentencing policy, such as mandatory sentences for certain crimes, may lead to increased prison populations.

title: The Prison-Industrial Complex/Causes


text:
The Prison-Industrial Complex/Impact

Social
The effects of a large prison system on a society can be quite severe. The resulting separation of families, recidivism, and other factors often lead to severely negative societal outcomes.

Economic
Large prison systems, especially those with significant privatized elements, often leads to a prison industry. As with any industry, this leads to a mixed bag of issues relating to political power, labor rights, and tax policy.

title: The Prison-Industrial Complex/Impact


text: The Prison-Industrial Complex/Printable version


text: Category:Book:The Prison-Industrial Complex


text:
The Story of Rhodesia/Central African Federation & Return to “Rhodesia”

Central African Federation Background

In 1953, with calls for independence mounting in many of its African possessions, the United Kingdom created the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (or the Central African Federation, CAF), which consisted of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland (now Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, respectively). The idea was to try to steer a middle road between the differing aspirations of the black nationalists, the colonial administration and the white settler population. The CAF sought to emulate the experience of Australia, Canada and South Africa – wherein groups of colonies had been federated together to form viable independent nations. Originally designed to be "an indissoluble federation", the CAF quickly started to unravel due to the low proportion of British and other white citizens in relation to the larger black populations.

Central African Council
In 1929, the Hilton Young Commission (a commission seeking a closer union of British colonies in Eastern & Southern Africa) concluded that "in the present state of communications the main interests of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, economic and political, lie not in association with the Eastern African Territories, but rather one another and with the self-governing Colony of Southern Rhodesia". In 1938, the Bledisloe Commission concluded that the territories would become interdependent in all their activities, but stopped short of recommending federation. Instead, it advised the creation of an inter-territorial council to coordinate government services and survey the development needs of the region. The Second World War delayed the creation of this institution until 1945, when the Central African Council was established to promote coordination of policy and action between the territories. The Governor of Southern Rhodesia presided over the council and was joined by the leaders of the other two territories. The Council only had consultative, and not binding, powers.

Negotiations

In November 1950, Jim Griffiths, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, informed the House of Commons that the government has decided that there should be another examination of the possibility of a closer union between the Central African territories, and that a conference of the respective governments and the Central African Council was being arranged for March 1951. The conference concluded that there was a need for closer association, pointing to the economic interdependence of the three territories. It was argued that individually the territories were vulnerable and would benefit from becoming a single unit with a more broadly based economy. It was also said that unification of certain public services would promote greater efficiency. It was decided to recommend a federation under which the central government would have certain specific powers, with the residual powers being left with the territorial governments. Another conference was held in September 1951 at Victoria Falls, also attended by Griffiths and Patrick Gordon Walker. Another two conferences would be held in London in 1952 and 1953 respectively, where the federal structure was prepared in detail.

While many points of contention were worked out in the conferences that followed, several proved to be acute, and some, seemingly insurmountable. The negotiations and conferences were arduous. Southern Rhodesia and the Northern Territories had very different traditions for the 'Native Question' (black Africans) and the roles they were designed to play in civil society.[ Fedrhnld.gif

An agreement would likely not have been reached without Sir Andrew Cohen, CO Assistant Undersecretary for African Affairs (and a later Governor of Uganda). He became one of the central architects and driving forces behind the creation of the Federation, often seemingly singlehandedly untangling deadlocks and outright walkouts on the part of the respective parties. Cohen, who was Jewish and traumatised by The Holocaust, was an anti-racialist and an advocate of African rights. But he compromised his ideals to avoid what he saw as an even greater risk than the continuation of the paternalistic white ascendancy system of Southern Rhodesia – its becoming an even less flexible, radical white supremacy, like the National Party government in South Africa. Lord Blake, the Oxford-based historian, wrote: "In that sense, Apartheid can be regarded as the father of Federation". The House of Commons approved the conferences' proposals on 24 March 1953, and in April passed motions in favour of federating the territories of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. A referendum was held in Southern Rhodesia on 9 April. Following the insistence and reassurances of the Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister, Sir Godfrey Huggins, a little more than 25,000 white Southern Rhodesians voted in the referendum for a federal government, versus nearly 15,000 against. A majority of Afrikaners and black Africans in all three territories were resolutely against it. The Federation came into being when the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Rhodesia and Nyasaland Federation Act, 1953. The Act authorised the Queen, by way of an Order in Council, to provide for the federation of the three constituent territories. This order was made on 1 August 1953, bringing certain provisions of the Constitution into operation. The first Governor-General, Lord Llewellin, assumed office on 4 September. On 23 October 1953, Llewellin issued a proclamation bringing the remainder of the provisions of the Constitution into operation.

Constitution
The semi-independent federation was finally established, with five branches of government: one Federal, three Territorial, and one British. This often translated into confusion and jurisdictional rivalry among various levels of government. According to Lord Blake, it proved to be "one of the most elaborately governed countries in the world."

The Constitution provided for a federal government with enumerated powers, consisting of an executive government, a unicameral Federal Assembly (which included a standing committee known as the African Affairs Board), and a Supreme Court, among other authorities. Provision was made for the division of powers and duties between the federal and territorial governments. Article 97 of the Constitution empowered the Federal Assembly to amend the Constitution, which included a power to establish a second legislative chamber. The Governor-General would be the representative of the Queen in the Federation. Federal authority extended only to those powers assigned to the federal government and to matters incidental to them. The enumerated federal powers were divided into a "Federal Legislative List" for which the federal legislature could make laws, and a "Concurrent Legislative List" for which both the federal and territorial legislatures could make law. Federal laws prevailed over territorial laws in all cases where the federal legislature was empowered to legislate, including the concurrent list.

The executive government consisted of the Governor-General, who would represent the Queen, an Executive Council consisting of the Prime Minister and nine other ministers appointed by the Governor-General on recommendation from the Prime Minister, and a Cabinet of ministers appointed by the Prime Minister. The judiciary consisted of a Supreme Court, later regulated by the Federal Supreme Court Act, 1955, which consisted of the Chief Justice, two federal justices, and the chief justices of each of the three constituent territories of the Federation. The court was inaugurated on 1 July 1955, when the Governor-General swore in the Chief Justice and the other judges. The ceremony was also attended by the Lord High Chancellor and the Chief Justice of the Union of South Africa. The Chief Justices were Sir Robert Tredgold, previously Chief Justice of Southern Rhodesia, who was Chief Justice of the Federation from 1953 to 1961, and Sir John Clayden, from 1961 to 1963. The Supreme Court's jurisdiction was limited chiefly to hearing appeals from the high courts of the constituent territories. The court, however, had original jurisdiction over the following:

 * Disputes between the federal government and territorial governments, or between territorial governments inter se, if such disputes involved questions (of law or fact) on which the existence or extent of a legal right depended;
 * Matters affecting vacancies in the Federal Assembly and election petitions; and
 * Matters in which a writ or order of mandamus, or prohibition or an injunction, is sought against an officer or authority of the federal government.

In 1958, the Prime Minister established an Office of Race Affairs which reviewed policies, practices and activities which may have hampered or adversely affected a climate favourable to the federal government's equal "partnership" policy. On 1 April 1959, the Prime Minister appointed the Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Home Affairs, who held the status of a full minister, to assume responsibility for racial affairs. It was commonly understood that Southern Rhodesia would be the dominant territory in the federation - economically, electorally, and militarily. How much so defined much of the lengthy constitutional negotiations and modifications that followed. African political opposition and nationalist aspirations, for the time, were moot.

Decisive factors in both the creation and dissolution of the Federation were the significant difference between the number of Africans and Europeans in the Federation, and the difference between the number of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia compared to the Northern Protectorates. Compounding this was the significant growth in Southern Rhodesia's European settler population (overwhelmingly British migrants), unlike in the Northern Protectorates. This was to greatly shape future developments in the Federation. In 1939, approximately 60,000 Europeans resided in Southern Rhodesia; shortly before the Federation was established there were 135,000; by the time the Federation was dissolved they had reached 223,000 (though newcomers could only vote after three years of residency). Nyasaland showed the least European and greatest African population growth.[ The dominant role played by the Southern Rhodesian European population within the CAF is reflected in that played by its first leader, Sir Godfrey Huggins (created Viscount Malvern in February 1955), Prime Minister of the Federation for its first three years and, before that, Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia for an uninterrupted 23 years. Huggins resigned the premiership of Southern Rhodesia to take office as the federal Prime Minister, and was joined by most United Rhodesia Party cabinet members. There was a marked exodus to the more prestigious realm of federal politics. The position of Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia was once again, as under Britain's Ministerial Titles Act of 1933, reduced to a Premier and taken by The Rev. Garfield Todd, the soon-to-be controversial centre-left politician. It was considered that Todd's position and territorial politics in general had become relatively unimportant, a place for the less ambitious politician. In fact, it was to prove decisive both to the future demise of the CAF, and to the later rise of the Rhodesian Front.[

Rather than a federation, Prime Minister Huggins favoured an amalgamation, creating a single state. However, after the Second World War, Britain opposed this because Southern Rhodesia would dominate the property and income franchise (which excluded the vast majority of Africans) owing to its much larger European population. A federation was intended to curtail this.[ Huggins was thus the first Prime Minister from 1953 to 1956, and was followed by Sir Roy Welensky, a prominent Northern Rhodesian politician, from 1956 to the Federation's dissolution in December 1963.

The fate of the Federation was contested within the British Government by two principal Ministries of the Crown in deep ideological, personal and professional rivalry – the Colonial Office (CO) and the Commonwealth Relations Office (CRO) (and previously with it the Dominion Office, abolished in 1947). The CO ruled the northern territories of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, while the CRO was formally but indirectly in charge of Southern Rhodesia. The Northern Territories opposed a Southern Rhodesian hegemony, one that the CRO promoted. Significantly, the CO tended to be more sympathetic to African rights than the CRO, which tended to promote the interests of the Southern Rhodesian (and to a lesser extent, Northern Rhodesian) European settler populations.[

It was convenient to have all three territories colonised by Cecil Rhodes under one constitution. But, for Huggins and the Rhodesian establishment, the central economic motive behind the CAF (or amalgamation) was the abundant copper deposits of Northern Rhodesia. Unlike the Rhodesias, Nyasaland had no sizeable deposits of minerals and its tiny community of Europeans, largely Scottish, was relatively sympathetic to African aspirations. Its inclusion in the Federation was more a symbolic gesture than a practical necessity. This inclusion would eventually work against the CAF: Nyasaland and its African population was where the impetus for destabilisation of the CAF arose, leading to its dissolution.[

Economic growth and political liberalism
Despite its convoluted government structure, the CAF economy was a success. In the first year of the federation, its GDP was an impressive £350 million; two years later it was nearly £450 million. Yet the average income of a European remained approximately ten times that of an African employed in the cash economy, representing only one third of local Africans.

In 1955, the creation of the Kariba hydro-electric power station was announced. It was a remarkable feat of engineering creating the largest man-made dam on the planet at the time and costing £78 million. Its location highlighted the rivalry among Southern and Northern Rhodesia, with the former attaining its favoured location for the dam.

The CAF brought a decade of liberalism with respect to African rights. There were African junior ministers in the Southern Rhodesia-dominated CAF, while a decade earlier only 70 Africans qualified to vote in the Southern Rhodesian elections.

The property and income-qualified franchise of the CAF was, therefore, now much looser. While this troubled many whites, they continued to follow Huggins with the CAF's current structure, largely owing to the economic growth. But to Africans, this increasingly proved unsatisfactory and their leaders began to voice demands for majority rule.

Military

The Minister of Defence was the President of the Defence Council, which consisted of military and civilian members, and considered all matters related to defense policy.

The Army, in 1960, consisted of three training formations:

 * The School of Infantry, based in Gwelo, was responsible for extra-regimental training. It was organized into tactical and regimental wings, with courses ranging from command and weapons training.
 * The Regular Army Depot, based in Salisbury, handled all basic training for black recruits.
 * The Depot, The Royal Rhodesia Regiment, trained recruits for the Territorial Force battalions.

Corps training was handled by the Rhodesia and Nyasaland Corps of Engineers, Corps of Signals, and the Army Service Corps.

In May 1958, three installations were named after "three of the most famous soldiers in the military history of Central Africa". The RAR camp in Llewellin was named Methuen Camp after Colonel J.A. Methuen. The Zomba Cantonment was named Cobbe Barracks after Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Cobbe. The Lusaka military area was named Stephenson Barracks after Lieutenant-Colonel A. Stephenson.

Llewellin Barracks in Bulawayo commemorated the first Governor-General of the Federation. The Battle of Tug Argan was commemorated in the name of Tug Argan Barracks in Ndola.

The Army consisted of four African battalions: the 1st and 2nd Battalion, King's African Rifles; the Northern Rhodesia Regiment; and the Rhodesian African Rifles. 1961, the all-White 1st Battalion of the Rhodesian Light Infantry regiment was added.

The Rhodesia and Nyasaland Women's Military Air Service (known popularly as the "WAMS") was the Federation's women's auxiliary unit. In 1957 a policy change led to the unit being gradually scaled down until its work was taken over by civilian staff.

Arrival in Malaya
Following the departure of "C" Squadron, Southern Rhodesia was uninvolved in Malaya until early 1956, when the 1st Battalion, the Rhodesian African Rifles (RAR) were tasked to relieve the Northern Rhodesia Regiment (NRR) in Johore province. Originally formed in 1916 as the Rhodesian Native Regiment, the RAR were, by Southern Rhodesian standards, an old and well-tried unit; they fought for Britain in East Africa during the First World War, and contributed to the Burma campaign during the Second. The Rhodesian Native Regiment (RNR) disbanded soon following the end of the First World War in 1918, and the Rhodesian African Rifles (RAR) were formed in 1940. Although technically separate, the two shared many traditions and personnel, and were generally considered to be closely linked. The RAR successfully lobbied for permission to emblazon their regimental colours with the RNR's First World War battle honours in 1952. The regiment's black soldiers and warrant officers, led by white officers, came from both Mashonaland and Matabeleland, with Mashonas in the majority.

The Royal Australian Regiment was also present in Malaya, so to prevent confusion the Rhodesian African Rifles' acronym was temporarily changed to "RhAR". The regiment's advance party, made up of officers, non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and warrant officers, left the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury by air on 13 February 1956. Their tortuous route took them through Nairobi, Aden, Karachi, and RAF Negombo (in Ceylon). After touching down in Singapore, the RhAR's advance party travelled to Kluang in Johore, where they spent three weeks in jungle training with the NRR. They then redeployed to Batu Pahat, where they camped with the Fiji Infantry Regiment. A spirit of camaraderie quickly developed between the Fijian and Southern Rhodesian soldiers. The RhAR officers and NCOs continued their acclimatisation with the local environment over the following weeks, assisted by the Fijians. The rest of the battalion travelled by sea aboard SS Empire Clyde, and reached Singapore on 26 April 1956. Soon after, the RhAR set up headquarters at Chaah, about 130 km north-west of the port city.

MNLA and RhAR tactics
By this stage of the insurgency, the MNLA had largely split into small groups of guerrillas, which existed by basing themselves in a chosen rural area, subverting local villagers and accumulating from them manpower and supplies. The lot of any security forces posted nearby was to play a constant game of hide-and-seek with the communists, whereby the army would indefinitely search for and destroy any base camps and food caches the MNLA set up. The Commonwealth leaders surmised that the MNLA could not possibly resist such a campaign forever, and would, in time, simply give up attempting to regroup.

In Malaya, the RhAR comprised A, B, C and D Companies, each of which was split into three 32-man platoons. The white lieutenant commanding each platoon carried the weapon of his choice, usually a shotgun or an FN FAL battle rifle, and acted with the assistance of a black platoon sergeant and a black warrant officer. Under the lieutenant, three black corporals led a rifle section each. These consisted of the section leader (generally armed with a shotgun), a scout, a Bren gunner, a Patchett-Sterling machine-gunner, and up to seven FN FAL riflemen. When marching through thick jungle, an RhAR patrol moved in single file, with each trooper 5 m behind the man in front. The warrant officer followed close behind the lieutenant, ready to take over command if necessary, with the radio operator and medic with him. The platoon sergeant made up the rear. According to Second Lieutenant John Essex-Clark, an Australian-born officer who led an RhAR platoon in Malaya, these Southern Rhodesian units moved much faster in jungle conditions than those made up of British men. The black Southern Rhodesian soldiers were reportedly naturals when it came to tracking; many of them came from rural backgrounds, and had acquired relevant instincts and skills while growing up.

RhAR operations in Malaya
The RhAR patrolled around Johore from May to September 1956 without major incident. The rain of the Malayan monsoon season seemed endless to many of the battalion's men, and actual sightings of the communists were rare in the extreme. Even when the guerrillas were spotted, they almost invariably fled after a few shots. "We can but hope that the chaps will get a chance of seeing a CT [communist terrorist] for a change," reported an RhAR officer in August; "they are all as keen as mustard to come to blows with them." So determined were the RhAR's officers and men to come face to face with the enemy that they ambushed around the railway line at Bekok for seven nights in a row, starting on 30 October 1956. Patrols were led by a different officer each night, but there were no contacts.

Around this time the British Royal Lincolnshire Regiment, operating in the Bahau area, about 200 km north-west of Bekok, reported to the RhAR that they had encountered the communist 32 Independent Platoon, led by Hor Lung, which was then heading south-east towards the Palong River. The RhAR therefore redeployed to intercept Hor Lung's men. On 9 November, a half-section of Southern Rhodesians led by Corporal Munyameni sighted 16 pack-laden guerrillas, marching east. On his own initiative, Munyameni attacked, catching the communists by surprise; the insurgents split up and fled, running in all directions. One fighter attempted to hide behind a tree, but was killed by RhAR rifle fire.

On 17 November, the RhAR was withdrawn for a period of rest and recuperation (R&R). The battalion's Transport Platoon was ambushed by communist guerrillas as it was returning to base: a shot through the windscreen of one of the two trucks nearly hit its driver, but the convoy was able to escape the ambush without anybody being injured. On 26 November, the RhAR and the King's Own Scottish Borderers assisted the local police at Kelapa Sawit in an action called Tartan Rock: the security forces moved into the village and arrested 34 communist sympathisers, most of whom were ethnic Chinese students from the University of Malaya in Singapore. Two days later, the RhAR were back on regular duty.

Starting in February 1957, the RhAR took part in Operations Cobble and Shoe. These were "food denial" operations, whereby efforts to deny supplies to the communists were to be redoubled. Patrols around the rubber plantations and the edges of the jungle were intensified. To prevent guerrilla supplies from north of the Rompin River from reaching the food denial areas to the south, covered by Operation Cobble, an RhAR platoon under Lieutenant David Heppenstall was posted to the area directly south of the river midway through the month. This action lasted from 21 February to 4 April 1957. There were few contacts, and only one communist was killed by Heppenstall's men, but a great deal of intelligence was secured regarding guerrilla organisation and supply routes.

Over the next few months, RhAR patrols in the Chaah, Labis, Bekok and Sungai Karas areas were stepped up to last between 10 and 18 days each, but contacts with the communist forces remained rare. The constant patrols gradually began to take their toll on the insurgents, and guerrillas began to give themselves up increasingly frequently. A contributing factor here was Britain's granting of independence to Malaya within the Commonwealth on 31 August 1957, which dented the motivation of many fighters. Starting in October 1957, the RhAR were tasked to work alongside former MNLA personnel to wipe out any remaining communist forces in the region. The ex-insurgents were supposed to lead the security forces to MNLA camps and resting places, but this strategy was not successful. The RhAR soon developed a low opinion of these ex-MNLA men.

As it approached the end of its two-year commitment in Malaya, the RhAR continued its patrolling in Johore province without major incident until February 1958, when it returned to Rhodesia. Five of the regiment's number had been killed over the previous two years: Corporal Tavengwa, and Privates Joseph, Hunyani, Manuel and Mjikijelwa.

Dissolution
By the time Macmillan went on his famous 1960 African tour leading to his Wind of Change speech to Parliament in Cape Town, change was well underway. By 1960, French African colonies had already become independent. Belgium more hastily vacated its colony and thousands of European refugees fled the Belgian Congo from the brutalities of the civil war and into Southern Rhodesia.

During the Congolese crisis, Africans increasingly viewed CAF Prime Minister, Sir Roy Welensky, as an arch-reactionary and his support for Katanga separatism added to this. Welensky was disliked by both the right as well as the left, though: a few years later, in his by-election campaign against Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front, some RF supporters heckled the comparatively moderate Welensky as a 'Communist', 'traitor' and 'coward'.

The new Commonwealth Secretary, Duncan Sandys, negotiated the '1961 Constitution', a new constitution for the CAF which greatly reduced Britain's powers over it. But by 1962, the British and the CAF cabinet had agreed that Nyasaland should be allowed to secede, though Southern Rhodesian Premier Sir Edgar Whitehead committed the British to keep this secret until after the 1962 election in the territory. A year later, the same status was given to Northern Rhodesia, decisively ending the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the immediate future.

In 1963, the Victoria Falls Conference was held, partly as a last effort to save the CAF, and partly as a forum to dissolve it. After nearly collapsing several times, it ended by 5 July 1963, and the state was virtually dissolved. Only the appropriation of its assets remained as a formality.

By 31 December, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was formally dissolved and its assets distributed among the territorial governments. Southern Rhodesia obtained the vast majority of these including the assets of the Federal army, to which it had overwhelmingly contributed. In October 1964, Northern Rhodesia gained independence as the Republic of Zambia, obtaining majority rule and led by Kenneth Kaunda. Earlier in the same year, in July 1964, the Nyasaland Protectorate became independent as Malawi, led by Hastings Banda.

On 11 November 1965, Southern Rhodesia's government led by Prime Minister Ian Smith proclaimed a Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom. This attracted the world's attention and created outrage in Britain. More about that in the next chapter.


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Template:Amber/doc

My text

gives

My text

title: Template:Amber/doc


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User talk:Sihle Luntinto

Well people what I'd like to ask is why music is regarded as a useless career when you study for it as a profession?

title: User talk:Sihle Luntinto


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User:Sihle Luntinto

Sihle Luntinto

Sihle Sikho Luntinto (01 July 2002).He was born in the Eastern Cape province (Qumbu).Sihle is doing his studies at Adams College that was founded in 1853 .Sihle is one of becoming a transgender after his studies.

title: User:Sihle Luntinto


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User:Reilist wëst

Yes

title: User:Reilist wëst


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Art History/21st Century

The 21st century in artwork is hallmarked by the use of advanced technology and production techniques in the creation of art. Many of these technologies enabled creators to create works which would have been previously difficult or impossible to perform just decades before. Some of these technologies included computer rendering, 3D printing, and the use of novel materials such as vantablack by the sculptor Anish Kapoor. It is important to note that traditional works and methods did not disappear during this time, though in some genres such as animation, their use rapidly declined due to becoming commercially nonviable.

title: Art History/21st Century


text: Category:Userboxes/Location/North America


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Fundamentals of Airports/Airport Regulatory Bodies

Internationally
The International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO), an agency of the United Nations, is responsible for establishing international aviation standards that are adopted by regional aeronautical syndicates. The ICAO's Annex 14 establishes regulations specific to aerodromes and heliports.

In the United States
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is responsible for the oversight of aviation activities in the United States, and the FARs−or Federal Aviation Regulations (comprising Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations) are largely adapted from ICAO recommendations. While Part 139 of the FARs, found in Subchapter G, outlines regulations regarding airport certification, Subchapter I is concerned entirely with rules surrounding airports.


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Fundamentals of Airports/Airport Ownership and Operational Responsibility

Types of Airport Ownership
Airports can be owned by a number of different entities; the military, civil government bodies, privately owned corporations, and even individuals are examples of these. The owners of an airport are responsible for overseeing day-to-day operation of the field and ensuring compliance with the rules imposed on them by the regulatory body/bodies responsible for their governance. Regardless of the airport's owner, fields can be designated either for public or private use. In essence, a public use airport is accessible to all aircraft provided they comply with any rules the airport operators develop concerning operations at their field. Conversely, private-use airports are designated for specific people and companies, and may not be accessed (except in an emergency) without prior permission.

Government Owned Airports
Government owned airports fall under the authority of a specific level of local government, such as the federal government, the state government, county government, or municipal government. Some larger areas delegate power over airports to the local port authority (The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), for example, has operational authority over LaGuardia Airport, Newark Liberty Airport, John F. Kennedy Airport, Stewart Airport, Teterboro Airport, and Atlantic City Airport). Other airports are run directly by the county or municipality in which they are located; Westchester County Airport and Santa Monica Municipal Airport are owned by the respective governmental authorities for which they are named. Military Airfields tend to be owned by the branch of service responsible for their management—the United States Air Force owns McGuire Field—a joint air force base in New Jersey. In some cases, airports designated for both military and civil use (such as Charleston Joint Base) are designated as shared use, and the military owns part of the airport while the civil government owns and operates the parts of the airport pertinent to civil flight, such as passenger terminals.


text: Fundamentals of Airports/Printable version


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TCAT Rider Guide/Routes

Currently, there are more than thirty bus routes that comprise the TCAT system. Routes are identified by number and are usually indicated on a marquee at the front of the bus, and sometimes on the side as well. Some notable routes are as follows:

Route 10 is a loop shuttle service between the Cornell University Campus and downtown Ithaca (The Commons.) Service is every ten minutes, the most frequent of any route on the system, and runs Monday through Friday 7:30am to 5:30pm

Route 11 connects the Ithaca College Campus with downtown Ithaca. It runs every half hour Monday through Saturday until 7:00 PM and hourly on Sunday until around 5:00 PM. It also serves the Longview Retirement Home.

Route 15 connects the Ithaca Commons with Wegmans Supermarket, also stopping at Walmart, Kmart, Lowes Home Improvement and other shops along the way. Connects with the 11 route.

Route 30 links the Commons with the Pyramid Mall, running through the Cornell Campus along the way. Service is every half hour, during peak periods every fifteen minutes. Runs seven days a week.

Routes 80 and higher solely serve the Cornell Campus, many other routes pass through the Cornell Campus. Route 81 serves between A lot and B lot in Cornell campus. Route 82 serves between Hasbrouk apartment complex for graduate students and East Hill Plaza. Route 83 serves between West Campus and North Campus via Uris Hall in Central Campus.

Routes 90 and higher provides night services. Route 90 serves between Ithaca Commons and Robert Purcell Community Center in Cornell campus. Route 92 and 93 serves various points at Cornell campus including North campus, West campus, and East Hill Plaza. More frequent services are provided during the weekend.

title: TCAT Rider Guide/Routes


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TCAT Rider Guide/Zones and Fares

Fares are based on TCAT's zone system. When riders travel within one zone (which is the case for the majority of passengers), they pay the single-zone fare. Riders that travel through two or more zones pay the multi-zone fare. On weekends there is one fare for all zones -- the single zone fare.

Zone 1 includes all of the City of Ithaca and the neighborhoods of South, East, and West Hill, and the Northeast neighborhood areas -- including the Tompkins County Airport, the Cayuga Medical Center, and Pyramid Mall.

Zone 2 covers the outer suburban areas of the county and the rural towns (includes Lansing, Etna, Freeville, Dryden, McLean, Groton, Brooktondale, Slaterville Springs, Danby, Newfield, Enfield, and Trumansburg).

Adult single fares are $1.50 and $3.00 for single and multi zone trips respectively. Child fares are $1.25 and $2.50, and fares for seniors and disabled persons are 75 cents and $1.50. Various pass options also exist ranging from a single day pass to an annual one offering unlimited travel anywhere on the system. Although no special fares for college students exist, there are several semester pass options for Ithaca College and Cornell University students.

title: TCAT Rider Guide/Zones and Fares


text: TCAT Rider Guide/Printable version

title: TCAT Rider Guide/Printable version


text: Honda Nighthawk/Printable version

title: Honda Nighthawk/Printable version


text: Epistemology/Printable version

title: Epistemology/Printable version


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...d5/2. exd5/2...c6

= Scandinavian Defense: Blackburne Gambit = Black plays this gambit to gain a developmental advantage with Nxc6. Black can also go for the dubious Kloosterboer Gambit with 3...e5 after the accepted variation with 3.dxc6.

Theory table
.

'''1. e4 d5 2. exd5 c6'''


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Types of sentences/Declarative

.

Description
A declarative sentence makes a statement. It ends with a period (.).

Examples
I am hungry.

I am full.

I am serious.

I am tired.

This is hard.

This is soft.

title: Types of sentences/Declarative


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Types of sentences/Interrogative

?

Description
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It ends with a question mark (?).

Examples
Do you like this?

Are you hungry?

Are you full?

Is this hard?

Is this soft?

Am I good? Am I fat? Is that good?

title: Types of sentences/Interrogative


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Types of sentences/Exclamatory

!

Description
An exclamatory sentence shows excitement. It ends with an exclamation mark (!).

Examples
This is fun!

Wow!

Great!

Fantastic!

title: Types of sentences/Exclamatory


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Types of sentences/Imperative

.!

Description
An imperative sentence ends with a period  or an exclamation mark.

Examples
Stop talking!

Turn in your homework!

Stop talking.

Turn in your homework.

title: Types of sentences/Imperative


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Public-Private Partnership Policy Casebook/University of California Merced (redux)

This case study reviews the University of California Merced 2020 project as a collaborative work of Danielle Harris, Brian Todd, and Karim Delrehim. The casebook is a product of the George Mason University graduate program, as an assignment for the Public-Private Partnership Policy course under the leadership of Dr. Jonathan Gifford. The views expressed here are the product of student research. It does not represent the views of Dr. Jonathan Gifford or George Mason University.

The casebook explores elements such as key actors, event timeline, risks, financial and institutional structures, policy issues, and key takeaways.

Summary
The University of California, Merced (UC Merced) is a public institution founded in 2005 and is the newest school in the University of California system. It is situated in rural Merced, California focused on serving the students of San Joaquin Valley many of whom are first-generation college students. As of 2020, UC Merced has over 8,800 students across 24 majors, 25 minors, and 17 graduate programs. In addition to serving its students, UC Merced contributes to the economic growth of Central California with an estimated impact of $23 billion since 2000 and currently employs over 1,500 staff and faculty.

In September 2020, the project known as Merced 2020 completed construction and is now labeled the largest social infrastructure public-private partnership in the United States. The project was first conceptualized in 2012 as a mixed-use expansion of the campus on a 219 acre parcel of university-owned land that would nearly double the campus capacity. In 2016, UC Merced selected Plenary Properties Merced (PPM) to design, build, finance, and maintain the project for 39 years. PPM was the first single private development team to take on a multi-year, fast track project for any University of California campus. The development team consisted of financial adviser and equity investor, Plenary; builder, Webcor Builders; architect, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, architect; and services, Johnson Controls.

Public Stakeholders

 * University of California, Merced (UC Merced): UC Merced opened September 5, 2005, as the newest campus in the University of California system and the first American research university of the 21st century. Situated near Yosemite National Park, the campus significantly expands access to the UC system for students throughout the state, with a special mission to increase college-going rates among students in the San Joaquin Valley. It also serves as a major base of advanced research, a model of sustainable design and construction, and a stimulus to economic growth and diversification throughout the region.
 * Merced 2020 Project Board:This board is advisory to the Chancellor and charged with ensuring the campus and the project meet their overarching objectives. The board provides timely decision making, and acts as a check-and-balance on competing campus interests. The board also proactively manages any organizational changes necessary for UC Merced to be 2020-ready.
 * Board of Regents, University of California: The University of California is governed by the Board of Regents which is established under the California Constitution to organize and govern specific areas of legislative control. This group was the approver of the financial budget for Merced 2020.
 * Merced City Council: City Council expressed support for Merced 2020 and is looking to capitalize it as a source for revenue for the city.

Private Stakeholders

 * Plenary Properties Merced (PPM): Winning bidder of Merced 2020, PPM is a consortium of design, engineering, construction, maintenance, operations and financial partners.
 * Plenary Group: International infrastructure developer and investor in public-private partnership with a portfolio of 73 assets across North America and Australia.
 * Webcor Builders: PPM’s lead contractor is Webcor Builders, a San Francisco-based firm whose previous projects include California Memorial Stadium at UC Berkeley, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and the California Academy of Sciences.
 * Johnson Controls, Inc.: PPM’s lead operations and management firm. Providing the operations, maintenance and renewal services to the PPM team throughout the 39-year contract term.
 * Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Inc.: Lead architect in coordination with various others including: WRNS Studio, HOK, Page Southerland Page, Mahlum Architects, and Arup North America.
 * Initial RFQ/RFP and Procurement Advisors: Multiple advisory firms were brought on during the procurement of Merced 2020 including WT Partnership, Nossaman LLP, Ernst and Young, AECOM, Solomon Cordwell Buenz, JLL, and The Hivdt Group.

Timeline of Events
Early 2012: Project was first conceptualized and UC Merced invited the Urban Land Institute Advisory Services Panel to analyze potential development options.

Fall/Winter 2012: Students, faculty, and the community were interviewed for input and the Urban Land Institute Advisory Services Panel released their final report including a 7- step plan for project start up.

Fall/Winter 2013: Community focus groups continued and preparation for further analysis commenced specifically looking into project delivery methods, financial structures, project costs, budget, design, and project schedule.

Fall/Winter 2014: The RFQ was released and six teams responded. Three of the development teams were determined to be qualified.

November 2015: An RFP was then released only to the three qualified teams and due by Spring 2016.

Spring 2016: Plenary Properties Merced (PPM) was named the winning bidder.

Summer 2016: The UC Board of Regents approved the project budget

October 14, 2016: Project official start with groundbreaking ceremony

2017: The project received several awards including Best Social Infrastructure Project, P3 Awards, North American Social Infrastructure Deal of the Year IJGlobal Award, and The Americas P3 Deal of the Year PFI Award.

Fall 2018: First phase of project completed including the first four facilities. Will entail 700 new student housing beds, 600-seat Dining Facility, classrooms and 940 parking spaces. Received CASE Circle of Excellence Award for phase one opening event.

Fall 2019: Second phase of project is scheduled for completion adding three new facilities: Wet Laboratory building and Computational Laboratory building with faculty offices, and NCAA-II level outdoor competition field

June 1, 2020: Project completed on-time and on budget. Nine new facilities were added including new Wet Laboratory building with faculty offices and classrooms, research greenhouse, 980 new beds of Student Housing, 630 new parking spaces, Conference Center, dedicated Transit Hub for buses, new Wellness Center, Enrollment Center, expansion of existing Early Childhood Education Center, Competition Swimming Pool, 3 Tennis Courts, and 4 Basketball Courts.

Fall 2020: All fourteen buildings received LEED Gold certification and many obtained LEED Platinum certification.

2055: 39 year contract term ends

Risk Matrix
School Public Private Partnership Transaction Risk Matrix

Contract Type
The UC Merced project used an availability-payment-concession contract type, which is a type of P3 contract that constitutes using a private entity to manage and oversee the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of all the facilities over the contract term. PPM was contracted for a period of 39 years, however ownership remained with UC Merced during this period.

The contract also established a system of milestone and availability payments scheme, this made financing the project more manageable as the system was used to finance the majority of the project cost (around 50-75 percent). However the payments were contingent on the developer’s performance, enabling the owner to reduce the payments depending on their expected outcomes. The contract also included a clause that allowed UC Merced to cancel the agreement at any point.

Cost
Total estimated development cost for the UC Merced Campus expansion is $1.338 billion as of 2020 and includes offices, classrooms, laboratories, operations, parking, housing, and construction contingency costs. Development costs were further identified by state-eligible and non state eligible funding categories, denoting potential financing sources and tax exemptions. Refer to the Construction Cost Breakdown table below. * Italicized Cells indicate Non State-Eligible Funding

Based on final campus development conditions, operations and maintenance costs are expected to be on the order of $14.64 million per year.

Financial Structure
UC Merced 2020 project was funded with an approved budget of $1.338 billion, using a number of funding sources, outlined below: Funding for the project was split between Merced funds/debt and developer funds, using a long-range financial model based on anticipated development and lifecycle costs, as well as anticipated revenue and interest. Financing repayment began in 2019 with a term of 40 years set to expire in 2059. Projected annual debt servicing and repayment is given below:

Campus and developer funds were used to pay debt throughout the construction timeline of the project. Following construction, revenue from the UC Merced expansion among other sources will be used to pay for the debt. In addition to the aforementioned financing structure, financing benchmarks were established to measure various financing metrics of Merced’s debt affordability model.

Narrative of the Case
With 10 major campuses located across the state of California, over 250,000 students and more than 1.5 million alumni the University of California (UC) is considered one of the major public universities in the US. Given the scale of the university, UC is considered one of the major employers and providers of the health care delivery system in California. One of its newest campuses is UC Merced which opened in 2005 as part of an effort to encourage college education among the residents of San Joaquin Valley.

In 2014, the Merced 2020 project was proposed as a campus expansion and redevelopment consisting of 1.2 million square feet, almost doubling the existing campus area. The project included several new facilities such as new research labs, faculty offices, and 1,700 new beds for students’ accommodation. It included design features such as an academic walk which included educational, retail, and social spaces. To align with the UC sustainability goals of reaching triple net zero, the design aimed to achieve a LEED Gold certification. According to the UC Merced Chancellor, Dorothy Leland, P3 was chosen as the preferred procurement method due to a reduced funding capability, attributed to economic downturns, resulting in an inability to fund campus projects. This choice enabled UC to make the best use of its available resources and was described by UC President Janet Napolitano as a “model for our other campuses." At the time, UC’s capital operations, academic facilities and deferred maintenance were financed at an estimated $1 billion. In order to finance it UC relies on two types of funding, with a total of $28.7 billion in revenues, which includes: state funding almost 10% of annual revenues and external funding which includes 14% student tuition. However, due to inflation adjusted expenditures the student tuition fees have decreased which has led to a decrease in the annual revenues. For 2015, revenues were $257 million and the expenses $282 million, resulting in a loss of $25 million. However, the projections for continued losses for the fiscal year 2015 till 2017 were anticipated with a positive turn for the years 2018-2020, which was part of an investment plan for UC Merced 2020 project put in place in 2014.

In August 2016 the project officially broke ground, becoming the first higher education P3 project awarded in the United States. The principal agreement was with PPM which included a 39-year contract term for design, construction, operation, and maintenance of the project. This included the following members: (1) Plenary Group as the PPM equity member, (2) Webcore Builders as the lead contractor, (3) Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Inc. as the lead planner, and (4) Johnson Controls Inc. as the lead O&M manager. This was the first time UC has collaborated with a private development team on a fast-track project of this size. As a part of the P3 agreement the developer is responsible for the project’s private financing. The total budget for the project was approved at $1.3 billion; $600 million supplied by UC, $590 million provided by PPM, and $148 million using the campus funds.

The project had a three-phase delivery plan with an estimated total duration of four years; the first delivery dated for summer 2018, the second for summer 2019, and the third for summer 2020. In August 2018 the first phase of the project was completed, adding three new buildings. This included a new 600-seat dining facility named the Pavilion which overlooks Little Lake; it also included two mixed-use residence halls that contained new classroom space, retail space, and mixed-use residential halls. The project at this phase was expected to create an economic impact of $1.9 billion and statewide impact of $2.4 billion throughout its development. By July 2019 the project began the second phase which focused on development of the “Arts and Computational Sciences Building, the Sustainability Research and Engineering Building, a Research Server Container Facility, a regional loading dock, a recreation field and outdoor basketball courts, and additional residential housing”, with each building expected to house over 400 people.

The Merced 2020 project third phase was finally completed in 2020, marking the completion of the largest P3 infrastructure project in the United States. The project adds 1.2 million gross square feet which includes student housing, a conference center, 1,570 parking spaces, a greenhouse, computational labs, recreational fields, and more planned projects for the upcoming phases. The project also managed to achieve all of its sustainability goals, becoming the first higher education campus in the U.S. where all the buildings are LEED certified, with the 2020 buildings being LEED Platinum certified. It is also the first public university to achieve carbon neutrality. Dale Bonner, the executive chairman of Plenary, said “this on-time, on-budget completion of the 2020 Project shows that incredible things can happen when all stakeholders work together with a true spirit of partnership."

Policy Issues
The completion of Merced 2020 has opened discussions by the City Council of Merced to annex the university’s campus into Merced city limits. Although UC Merced is heavily entwined with the city and the Merced 2020 project was reliant on the support of the City Council, the campus itself is outside of city proper on unincorporated county land near Lake Yosemite. Assemblyman Adam Gray (D-Merced) introduced a bill in September 2020 that would annex the campus and a single connecting road without annexing any of the surrounding properties around the university.

The successful completion of Merced 2020 serves many benefits for this potential annexation. First, student population is expected to increase beyond 10,000 in the coming years bringing further development to the region. Developments within the annexed region will bring more sales tax which the city has relied heavily on during the COVID-19 pandemic and a diversified sales tax pool is a priority of the City Council members in preparing for future emergency situations. Further, it is predicted that UC Merced will continue to be the economic driver of the region and the economic impact from 2018-2019 alone was over $500 million and helped create 5,560 jobs. Annexing UC Merced would help solidify and secure the relationship between the university and the city’s growth.

There are also concerns with the annexation. The development of UC Merced has unintentionally exacerbated housing difficulties characterized by low vacancy rates and high prices that have continued to increase over 2020. There is also a concern that it will become a risk to preserving the farmland in the area and take a focus away from some of the other areas of the city that are in greater need. Lastly, if the UC Merced campus is annexed then students will be able to vote in city elections and there is anxiety among constituents on how that will swing votes and impact the redrawing of city council districts.

Key Takeaways

 * UC Merced is the largest Public-Private Partnership social infrastructure project completed in the United States and was completed on-time and on-budget
 * Construction cost was on the order of $1.3 billion, of which, approximately half was financed through long-term loans at varying interest rates
 * The Merced 2020 Project effectively doubled the sized of the existing university's campus with its 1.85 million square foot expansion
 * Several ongoing financial metrics were monitored, and continue to be monitored to track overall project financing health, and proactively identify financing issues

Discussion Questions

 * 1) What contributed to the success of Merced 2020?
 * 2) In relation to the policy issue of annexation, what stakeholders do you believe should be consulted?


text:
Bodybuilding and Weight Training/Nutrition

Nutrition
Nutrition is the process of providing the food necessary for health and growth. It is the process of taking in food using it for growth, metabolism and repair.

Food
Food is any substance which when taken by living organisms that repairs worn-out tissue and protect the body against diseases.

Importance of Food
1.It supplies the body with energy   for work and warmth. 2.It repairs worn-out tissue 3.It provides materials for growth 4.It keeps the body in a healthy conditions by offering protection against diseases

Classes of Food
1.Carbohydrates 2.Protein 3.Fats & oil 4.Mineral salt 5.Vitamins 6.Water


text: English-Farsi dictionary/Colors in Farsi


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User:Derek Andrews

About me
I am a long-time, off-and-on contributor to Wikipedia. I'm new to Wikibooks with the intention of writing a book about programming the 1292 APVS family of video game consoles. These include Radofin's 1292 Advanced Programmable Video Sytem, the Acetronic MPU 1000, Interton VC4000 and the Waddington's Videomaster / Voltmace Database. In 1982 I started working for Voltmace and programmed a couple of cartridges for them.

This book is part of a larger project of mine. That is to create more interest in these neglected consoles and investigate just how capable they really are. Back in the day memory was expensive. Many cartridges were limited to 2k ROM. Some were 4k, and a few were 6k ROM with 1k RAM. In my experience development times were short and I think done by lone programmers or very small teams. SO I wouCd like to see what might happen if I can use the full 6k+1k format, and exchange ideas with others.

To this end I have started a blog, sig2650.wordpress.com, and built myself a development system. Although I started writing tutorials on the blog, I think that maybe wikibooks would be a better medium for such an endeavour.

I am very much in favour of making this all a community effort, so feel free to contribute.

Book notes and ideas
User:Derek Andrews/sandbox

Finding my way around

ready made tables

title: User:Derek Andrews


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User talk:Derek Andrews

Thanks for the assist!
Thanks for updating some of the incorrect info you found in History of video games/Platforms/1292 Advanced Programmable Video System! It's hard to find reliable information about them, so I'm glad you pointed out that the source was incorrect. Based on your bio, we share a common interest in preserving information about obscure consoles, so please let me know if I can help.

Thanks again! --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 21:29, 24 October 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Derek Andrews


text:
Super Mario Bros./Characters/Mushroom Retainers

Mushroom Retainers are found at the ends of non-final castles when Mario defeats Bowser's imposters.


text:
Minecraft Speedrunning/Printable version

1.16.1


text: Final Fantasy VIII/Printable version

title: Final Fantasy VIII/Printable version


text: Treatment of cancer/Printable version

title: Treatment of cancer/Printable version


text: Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Printable version


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Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Games/Super Smash Bros. Ultimate

Introduction
Super Smash Bros. Ultimate was released for the Nintendo Switch in 2018.

Notable features

 * Return of all previous characters.
 * Introduction of a number of new characters and stages.


text:
Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Games/Super Smash Bros.

Introduction
Super Smash Bros. was released for the Nintendo 64 in 1999.

Notable features

 * Establishment of series formula.
 * Re-released later on for the Virtual Console.


text:
Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Games/Super Smash Bros. Melee

Introduction
Super Smash Bros. Melee was released for the Nintendo GameCube in 2001.

Notable features

 * Substantial improvement in features, graphics, and audio.
 * Introduction of new characters and stages.
 * Became a popular E-Sport for over two decades.


text:
Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Games/Super Smash Bros. Brawl

Introduction
Super Smash Bros. Brawl was released for the Nintendo Wii in 2008.

Notable features

 * Introduction of a comprehensive story mode.
 * Introduction of stage builder.
 * Introduction of online play.


text:
Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Games/Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS

Introduction
Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo 3DS was released in 2014 as a companion game for Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo Wii U.

Notable features

 * First official release of Super Smash Bros. for a portable console.
 * Featured a unique art style.


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Super Smash Bros. series strategy guide/Games/Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo Wii U

Introduction
Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo Wii U was released in 2014 as a companion game for Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo 3DS.

Notable features

 * Featured improved multiplayer.


text: Super Smash Bros./Printable version

title: Super Smash Bros./Printable version


text: Super Smash Bros. Melee/Printable version


text: Scribbling On Regardless/Printable version


text: Mechanics of Materials/Printable version


text: Category:Book:Mechanics of Materials

title: Category:Book:Mechanics of Materials


text: The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening/Printable version


text: User talk:Mix orenb

title: User talk:Mix orenb


text: User:Mix orenb/sandbox

title: User:Mix orenb/sandbox


text: User talk:Mix orenb/sandbox

title: User talk:Mix orenb/sandbox


text: User:Mix orenb

title: User:Mix orenb


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User:Derek Andrews/sandbox

Shelf
Category:Shelf:Console game programming

Title ideas

 * 1292 APVS programming
 * 1292 APVS programmers guide
 * 1292 APVS programmers manual
 * Programming the 1292 family of video game consoles
 * Programming the Voltmace Database
 * Voltmace Database programmer's guide
 * Signetics 2650-2636 programmers guide
 * Signetics 2650-2636 programming
 * Voltmace Database programming

Contents

 * Introduction
 * Console Hardware
 * System architecture
 * Clock generation
 * Processor
 * PVI
 * Sound circuits
 * Hand-controller circuits
 * Differences between manufacturers
 * 2650 reference
 * Memory map
 * Registers
 * Addressing modes
 * Operation instructions
 * Branch and subroutine instructions
 * Interrupts
 * PVI reference
 * Tutorials - system elements
 * Objects
 * Score
 * Programming colours
 * Background grid and screen
 * Sync to VRST ( Moving an object )
 * Sync to Object completion (reprogram objects)
 * Object collision
 * Sound
 * Keypad and console buttons
 * Joysticks
 * BCD arithmetic
 * Interrupts
 * Tutorials - game elements
 * Speed and animation
 * Sound effects
 * Music
 * How did they do that?
 * Leapfrog screen programming
 * Defender ?? interton game, specifically the terrain
 * Games that use interrupts
 * Glossary
 * Bibliography
 * Appendices
 * 2650 cheat sheet
 * 2636 cheat sheet
 * Background worksheet
 * Development systems
 * Complete code for tutorials

Introduction
This book is a guide to programming a family of video game consoles based on the Signetics 2650 microprocessor and 2636 Programmable Video Interface. These consoles were manufactured and marketed by numerous companies in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. They are largely software-compatible, though there are physical differences in the games cartridges. Some of the joysticks are self-centering while others are not. The audio effects circuitry and colour circuitry may vary too.

This book will initially concentrate on the Videomaster / Voltmace Database, as that is the console I have to work with. When differences are documented from reliable sources, they will be discussed here where appropriate. I stress reliable as there seems to be a lot of badly sourced misinformation about these consoles on the web.

Readers should have some basic knowledge of assembler level programming, perhaps with processors of a similar vintage such as the 6502 or Z80. A little background in digital and analogue electronics would be helpful too. The glossary and bibliography will include basic information and links to further reading to fill in gaps in knowledge concerning these fundamentals.

This book starts with a description of the hardware of the console, and information about the microprocessor and programmable video interface. The intent is to keep these sections concise yet detailed so that they serve as a handy reference for programmers. A later section will be a series of tutorials showing how to program the various elements of the console so that eventually the reader will have enough knowledge to build their own games.

My objective in starting this book is to encourage the creation of new games for these consoles.

title: User:Derek Andrews/sandbox