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User:SteRos7/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar 2/History

Invented or Discovered?
Mathematics has been a key discipline in discovering the way the world around us works. Throughout history, there has been a debate as to whether mathematics was invented or discovered with key arguments being maths found in nature (fibonacci sequence discovered from rabbit populations, natural numbers e, π etc.) and isolated Amazonian tribes understanding geometry as well as the western population versus its comparison to the invention of languages.

Early Mathematics
Whether it exists naturally or not, Maths can be seen as one of the earliest formed disciplines, dating back to Ancient Babylon (≈2000BC) in which a base 60 counting system was developed to represent fractions and other large arbitrary units, acting as the building block for mathematics in relation to area, volume and surface area. The now named 'Pythagorean Triples' (a²+b²=c²) were also mentioned in several ancient mathematical texts (Plimpton 322, the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Moscow Mathematical Papyrus) before it's 'discovery' over 1000 years later, making it one of the most prolific and predominant notions throughout mathematical history.

Formation as a Discipline
Unlike other scientific disciplines such as Physics, which was first taught and understood under the branch of philosophy, mathematics has been taught as an isolated subject field since ancient civilisation, beginning as a clear cut discipline in 6th century BC by Pythagoras and his followers. The name 'Mathematics' also originated from Pythagoreanism, coming from an Ancient Greek word meaning 'subject of instruction'. Due to Pythagoras' long lasting and bountiful influence on the discipline of Mathematics, it is widely accepted that his coining of the term can be seen as the definitive beginning of the discipline.

Modern Mathematics
Although Mathematics had been widely taught from ancient civilisation onwards, it's teaching in modern universities began with controversy as many English universities only offered teachings in humanities during their establishment. It took until the early 17th century for English universities to improve the quality of Mathematic teachings and, even so, students who wanted to study the subject were not greeted with much support or enthusiasm. This, however, changed in 1619 when the first chair in Geometry was set up in the University of Oxford, recognising Mathematics as the important and influential discipline it is seen as today.

History of Physics: The Conflict between Science and Religion
Physics is a branch of science that focuses on nature and the properties of matter and energy. The study of this discipline can be dated to the 17th century, with marking events such as the creation of the Royal Society in 1660. This institution marked the birth of physics as a discipline as it encouraged the sharing of scientific ideas and formalized the teaching of experimental knowledge. Since its start, the Royal Societies’ motto “Nullius in verba” (“takes nobody’s word for it”) showed the will to verify all statements through a scientific method that consisted of a hypothesis and observation.

However, the English society in the 17th century was heavily influenced by the catholic church, that discussed the same domain as physicians but answered it with a different approach. While religious people used faith and empirical claims, physicians used observation and experimentation, making the latter give different explanations to the events happening in our world, leading to a clash between religion and physics. For example, during decades the catholic church supported a geocentric model that stated all planets orbited around the earth and even made it heresy to teach any other model after 1615. In spite of this, after observations through the telescope, Galileo stated that Jupiter, Venus and Mercury orbited around the sun and not the moon, causing him to be summoned by Rome and being accused of heresy in 1932. It can be seen, therefore, that in the early decades of physics, the influence of the catholic church impeded its development as a discipline.

Nonetheless, as modern physics gained authority and social changes decreased religion’s impact on society, physics and religious studies have been analyzed together. Indeed, in 1988, Pope John Paul II stated in a letter addressed to the Director of the Vatican Astronomical Observatory "Science can purify religion from error and superstition; religion can purify science from idolatry and false absolutes. Each can draw the other into a wider world, a world in which both can flourish." The fact that the Pope, the head of the catholic church, acknowledged a benefit coming from interdisciplinarity between religious studies and sciences shows that society has evolved and therefore forgotten the past conflict between the two disciplines.

Despite this, the two disciplines remain fundamentally separate in their approaches to evolution and the creation of the world. In fact, ten years after the Pope wrote his letter, groups of Christians fought with the state of Kansas' education board to adjust the science curriculum, so that the theory of evolution and Big Bang theory were no longer referred to or taught. Thus, whilst compromise and collaboration between the two disciplines is possible, there are certain beliefs engraved in each of their history's which prevents them from being able to overcome their issues of the past and completely support each other.

History of Artificial Intelligence as a discipline
Artificial intelligence (AI) is described as ‘the study of how to produce machines that have some of the qualities that the human mind has, such as the ability to understand language, recognize pictures, solve problems, and learn'. As a discipline, AI can be categorised into two main areas of study. First, the understanding and simulation of human intelligence, and secondly the study of computational reasoning pathways. Historically, AI has been classified as a sub-discipline of Computer Science. In a classical university setting, you will often find the artificial intelligence 'section' within the department of computing. This is because the methodologies and content needed to formally engage with the study of Artificial Intelligence, come predominantly from computer science (the need for a strong mathematical background and a sound knowledge of programming and logic). However, this argument is undermined by many of the underlying principles of the AI discipline, including the physical symbol system hypothesis (PSSH).

A physical symbol system refers to a process of receiving physical patterns which are then formed into structures and expressions. Newell and Simon, the philosophers credited for the idea, believed that a ‘physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means for general intelligent action’[3]. When broken down, this statement implies two things. Firstly, as the human brain is regarded as ‘intelligent’, it must be a symbol system. Secondly, that a computer (a classical symbol system) must have the capacity for intelligent action. This hypothesis is relevant because it highlights that one of the guiding principles of AI is built from a philosophical and psychological perspective. It is the relationship between psychology, philosophy and computer science that has allowed the discipline of artificial intelligence to emerge. In addition, the field of AI research was only founded in 1956 and therefore the discipline is still young and so has not had the same time to individualise its theories and practices. It is evident that unique methodology and research is important to distinguish AI as its own discipline rather than simply being an interdisciplinary field of study.

Introduction
There is an ardent debate as to how facts should be determined and the way the models of philosophy and science can be mapped onto reality, both within and between both disciplines, psychology has had a fruitful interplay with both of these areas.

The roots of psychology reach deep into the philosophical tradition. In the late 18th century Immanuel Kant hypothesized the first dimensional model of personality, paving the way for a huge variety of personality models as well as statistical psychology. Friedrich Nietzsche, although now thought of as a philosopher, often referred to himself as a psychologist and criticized much of the preceding philosophical tradition as overly introspective and self-indulgent. This foreshadowed the rift that formed over the coming century between the psychologist-philosophers and the institutions of psychology.

The Rift
This rift was largely due to the rapid progress was made in understanding the brain and human behaviour and the desire of psychology departments to establish themselves as equals to the already established natural sciences. Psychology succeeded in this through the use of empirical and statistical methods and rigorous scientific methodology and experimental protocols in conjunction with technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging and advances in biochemistry that were facilitated by quantum mechanics. However, this materialistic focus led to a loss of confidence in the utility of psychoanalytic theories and widespread criticism of the psycho-philosophers that claimed knowledge or predictions about human behavior individually and societally based on introspective experiences or enumerative inductivism (the repeated observation instances which fit a framework or hypothesis).

Conclusion
Freud, Jung, and Addler, for example, thought of themselves as psychologists and scientists. However, by the end of the twentieth century their work was respected and taught more in fringe institutions, humanities, and social science departments. In psychology departments, if taught, these thinker's work is usually in the context of a historical artifact rather than a working theory. The discussion that lead to this view of psychoanalytical work helped separate psychology, based on empirical evidence and methods of experimentation developed in the natural sciences, from the multitude of observation, interpretation, introspection and enumerative inductivism based hypotheses developed by early 'psychologists', both turned psychology into a true science and advanced the scientific method as a whole as well as producing some fascinating, important and useful philosophies and interpretive models. However, the psychoanalitic discipline has been left in disarray by its dissociation from academic institutions, which still considerably hampers it's developement despite it's continueing importance in theraputic settings and culture.

History of Disciplines: Emergence of Criminology
Criminology is a discipline that studies the crime in its large meaning, including all the things that are contrary to the moral and lead to legal proceedings. This is a study of the crime in its globality from the comprehension of the convicted and his crime to the management of the situation at the scale of the legal system and even at the scale of a society. To have this complete approach several disciplines need to be intertwined: psychology, law, sociology, history, economy…. The creation of criminology is based on the previous work of several specialists in the various sectors of activity mentioned above. One can mention Bentham or Lombroso as the precursors of the discipline in the 18th century. At this time, the term ‘criminology’ wasn’t topical. One of the reasons is because of the conflicts between the different fields, the aim of each discipline is unique and it can be laborious to see it as a set. For example, one of the major aspects of the law is its objectivity, while psychology tries to understand and create an adequate sanction considering the person. The term ‘criminology’ only appeared in the book of Raffaele Garofalo called ‘Criminologia’ published in 1885. The first lectures were destined to postgraduate medical students and senior prison medical officers. Later in July 1931, the ‘Association for the Scientific Treatment of Criminals’ was established in London, it is known today as the 'Centre for Crime and Justice Studies’. The real turning point for this discipline was the creation of the Criminology program at Cambridge University Institute of Criminology. Criminology is a fast-growing discipline that is now appearing at more and more universities. The taking into account of the individual behind the act was a real turning in the approach to crimes of the legal system, for example, one finds the ’extenuating circumstances’ that will lead to a different and generally a more lenient punishment.

Conflict Between Law and Psychology
Law & Psychology – two disciplines connected by their explorations of human behaviour yet individually grounded by opposing principles and methodologies. Methodology in particular is an important aspect to look at when examining the history of the disciplines. In 1857, Francis Bacon shared his concerns that inadequate psychological motives could influence the legal system and its outcomes.

Case Study Intersection
Whilst Psychology uses experiments to come to potential conclusions which can always be altered or falsified with new information, methodologies and paradigms, the law is firmly rooted in perpetual and indisputable facts with conclusions drawn through strictly regulated guidelines and constitutionally assigned principles. The history of the disciplines significantly intersects in a 1908 case of a laundromat owner in the state of Oregon who was charged with violating gender-specific employment rules – forcing his female staff to work more than the legal 10 hours per day. When writing his brief, Louis D. Brandeis focused his argument on data-based psychological information demonstrating the negative impacts of excessive work hours on women, being the first brief to be submitted to the Supreme Court whose argument was fundamentally backed by extra-legal and psychological data.

Psychology's Influence on Law
The brief inspired the rise of non-legal, psychological data in legal cases and since this, any brief to contain such data has become known as a ‘Brandeis Brief .’ One could attribute the increasing merge between the disciplines with the change in a historical context whereby there is an increasing need to incorporate certain psychological facts to determine the success of particular processes (e.g. testimony, eyewitness accounts etc.), necessary to enforce the principles of justice.

Conclusions
Though the history of psychological science is highly nomothetic whilst that of Law is ideographic, history has seen these two disciplines overcome their fundamental methodological differences and strengthen each other.

Introduction
Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field of study that combines aspects from history, literature, science, sociology, and economics. It has evolved from Women’s Studies, and the final name for the discipline is still an ongoing debate. Gender and Women’s Studies focus on a wide range of topics, including women’s health; intersections between gender, race, and sexuality; activism and social change, and many others.

History of Women’s Studies
Women’s Studies originated in the 1960s. They were inspired by the first wave of feminism. The founders used the gender-sensitive perspective to create a new, interdisciplinary field of study. In the United States, the first programme originated at the San Diego State University in 1970. Later, in the United Kingdom, the first postgraduate programme was founded in 1980 at the University of Kent. Defining Women’s Studies as a discipline helped the founders obtain financial resources and gave necessary credibility. At the beginning of the 1990s, the debate over the name of the discipline started, suggesting a change to "Gender Studies".

History of Gender Studies
Gender Studies connects ideas from different disciplines to investigate issues regarding race, masculinity, LGBTQ+ studies, and inequality. In 1997, the first department of Gender Studies was founded at Indiana University. That raised the question of whether the change of the name of the discipline made it more or less inclusive for marginalised social groups. The name Women’s Studies limits the research only to issues concerning females, arguably excluding other communities. Some people state that the name “Gender Studies” gives an origin to the institutionalisation of the research on gender. Moreover, there is a strong belief in society that Women’s Studies achieved its goal to promote and empower women, who are no longer oppressed. Furthermore, academic publishers prefer the term “Gender Studies”, stating that it brings financial benefits. Alternative perspectives disagree, arguing that the change of name can limit the research on women’s issues, making it less relevant in academia. That would have an impact on the funding and opportunities for quality research. However, the word 'women' is more internationally accepted than 'gender'. Many cultures and traditional communities do not acknowledge 'gender' as a valid characteristic nor a discipline on its own. Gender an anglophone concept that is not recognised globally. By naming the discipline Gender Studies, not only are we moving away from more inclusive feminism but discrediting the history of communities around the world that do not acknowledge gender. .

Conclusion
The case of this discipline shows how, over time, a field of study can change to match the current political debate and social issues. Women's Studies, although still relevant, has been replaced with the studies of gender. One can argue that it explains the main aim of creating new interdisciplinary studies: to solve the complex issues of the modern world.

Sociology
Sociology, according to Wikipedia, “refers to social behaviour, society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture that surrounds everyday life.” Originally, sociology solely existed rooted in other disciplines such as history and philosophy, however as its relevance to society became increasingly apparent, it was recognised as an individual discipline.

Sociology's emergence from within other disciplines
The complex relationship between an individual and their society has been a topic of interest long before sociology was recognised as its own discipline. Aristotle, who is most commonly known as a philosopher, has been said to have been the founder of sociological thought in his attempts to systematically gather and rationalise knowledge about humans in society. Centuries later, a Chinese historian named Ma Tua-Lin wrote an encyclopedia titled General Study of Literary Remains, in which he recognises the key role that social dynamics play in historical development. Shortly after, Ibn Khaldun, who many consider the first sociologist, expanded on this soon-to-be discipline, building the foundation for modern sociology.

Becoming its own discipline
Although sociological concepts and thought existed long before this, the term “sociology” was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès. This distinction set it apart from the disciplines that it was once rooted in, catalysing its path to becoming the complex, huge field that it is today. In a similar way to how it emerged from compatibility to other disciplines, it is commonly used to further understand problems from an interdisciplinary lens. For example in the sub-field of social psychology, where scientific methods are used to “understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings.”

History of International Relations
International Relations is a key discipline to understand and study the increasingly globalized world we live in. It is very interdisciplinary since it requires, among other things, knowledge of law, geography, economy, sociology, politics and history. Studying the history of International Relations reveals several debates and disagreements concerning the theories and actions arising from this discipline.

The emergence of International Relations as a discipline could date back to 1919. Indeed, in 1919, the first ever department of International Relations was established at the University of Aberystwyth, Wales. However, International Relations may also be considered as a political activity, going back to the Greek political systems or more recently to the Peace Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 in Europe. On the 24th of October 1648, after the Thirty Years War between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics that tore Europe apart, the Peace Treaty of Westphalia was signed with the aim of creating a new system of international relations based on state sovereignty. It emphasized the importance of maintaining peace between the key actors of international relations to create collective European security based on international laws and defined standards of acting. The Peace Treaty of Westphalia can thus be seen as the starting point of International Relations.

However, the discipline also referred to as IR, and its theories weren’t recognized before the end of World War I when dedicated searchers began to study it. Many theories ensued to understand and try to make sense of the world around us: traditional theories like liberalism and realism, middle ground theories, like Constructivism and The English School, or moreover the critical theories that emerged in response to these early theories like Marxism, Post-colonialism, Feminism and Post-structuralism. All these theories have a different perspective on our world and its interconnected societies.

Today, International Relations is a well-known and recognized discipline studied in many diverse programs at universities. Linked to other disciplines, it tries to maintain peace and avoid new conflicts in an even more complex society.

History of Peace and Conflicts Study: Counterterrorism
Counterterrorism has become in just a few years one of the most crucial disciplines in the world. Its approach combines knowledge of the current international relations, patience, strategy, power, managing information and data with discretion. But what does this discipline try to fight? We can see counterterrorism as a newborn in the tremendous population of disciplines. In order to support that point, we need to take a look at the definition of terrorism, and this definition represents an ongoing debate. In fact, there is, in 2020, no universal agreement on how to define this word. The definition clearly varies from one country to another.

When looking at the emergence of counter terrorism on the international scene, the creation of the League of Nations has to be mentioned. It was the first worldwide organization in charge of maintaining international peace. Therefore, a few years later in 1938, the first legislative statement on counterterrorism was published. Afterwards, the multitude of legal systems and government agencies resulted in greater support at the national level in terms of counterterrorism. However, some worldwide organizations set the framework for the international fight against terrorism. The most famous ones are NATO, INTERPOL, or the United Nations.

Now that we have mentioned how counterterrorism emerged, we can talk about its role since then. In fact, we can separate two periods for the counterterrorism. The first extends from the beginning of the 20th century to 9/11, and the other period lies after. 9/11 attacks represent a crucial moment for counterterrorism. It is still to this day, the first and only time that NATO invoked its collective defence clause which is the fifth article of the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed in 1949.

Formation of History as a Discipline
The starting point of history as a discipline is something that can be considered blurry. The shift of a subject into a discipline can be seen through a number of actions. Indeed, markers such as the establishment of a student and teacher relationship, the creation of a department, degree programs, learning societies, and even the publication of journals all contribute as a whole to the idea of a subject becoming a discipline. We can highlight the fact that it is hard to target the precise moment when a subject can be considered as a discipline, and it is better to acknowledge a compilation of different events through time.

History as a Discipline in Acient Greece
In this case, when history is taken as an example, it can be argued that the historian Herodotus laid the first stepping stone of what the academic know now as history. Indeed, Herodotus is known as "The Father of History” for being the first to document and depict events all regrouped in his work “The Histories” . He described various topics from the Greco-Persian Wars (499-479BCE) to a vivid narration of how the Persian Empire developed itself. In spite of his work being highly criticized for being a romanticized and hyperbolic version of the actual event, and not as objective and accurate, he still managed to inspire future historians, and even to this day, his work is studied in schools.

History as a Discipline in the 19th Century
A couple of centuries later, the publishing of historical revues contributed to history becoming a discipline. Before the mid 19th century history and English literature were intermixed to create one single discipline. Heinrich von Sybel, a German historian from Louis and Maximilien University in Munich published in 1856 the first independent historical journal: “Historische Zeitschrift”, and in 1867 Gabriel Mondo and Gustave Fagniez followed with “The Revue Historique” still existing to this day.

Conclusion
As stated above, Herodotus is to some the first historian and even “The Father of History”. However, this doesn’t necessarily imply the discipline of history was born with him. In the same way, in the discipline of physics, the ancient Greek philosopher Thales was one the first physicians since he used trigonometry to measure distances and he hypothesized that water is the essence of all matter. Nonetheless, the discipline of physics was born centuries after when the Royal Society was created in 1660. Indeed, the Royal Society managed to implement physics in their society and gave it an important role. We can therefore see, that the first men to study those disciplines (Herodotus and Thales) did not create them as they did not incorporate the discipline in their society. Therefore, it can be assumed that history as an independent discipline had its origin in the 19th century.


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User talk:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/2020-21/Seminar group 6/History

Hi, to the author of the section of "Psychology's Transition to a Scientific Discipline", I am thinking of adding a more explanatory paragraph on what the British Psychological Society is, and how it's emergence contributed to the creation of the discipline! Is that alright? -- Hellllothere (discuss • contribs) 16:12, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi Hellllothere, I think that a BPS explanatory paragraph is a great idea! I read what you wrote, and was curious about what sources suggest that psychology was previously regarded as a hobby? From what I've researched, although prior to the late 1800s/early 1900s it was more theoretical than experimental, psychology was still regarded as an academic pursuit. Blacklipstick (discuss • contribs) 16:51, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi again! Okay, I will check up on that and do a bit more research! Thank you for pointing that out! -- Hellllothere (discuss • contribs) 11:27, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Directed to author of the section of "History of Environmental Sciences as a discipline", This is more of a content validity issue. I was reading "Environmental studies: discipline or metadiscipline" by L.K. Caldwell after you mentioned that environmental studies is a meta discipline and then did some more research on what the prefix "meta-" means after Caldwell's publication made me question how generally accepted it is that environmental studies are a meta discipline. According to Cambridge Dictionary and also looking into epistemology, "meta" means "referring to itself or to something of its own type". For example, metaethics studies what ethics is, metalogic studies what logic is, and so on. Through analogy, meta disciplines should study what the respective discipline is, which is not what environmental studies do. What I intend to say is that I don't think Caldwell's publication is widely accepted (as further proof, the article has very few citations), hence it shouldn't be included in an objective description of the discipline. What do you think? Icloneseashells (discuss • contribs) 16:08, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

To the author of How Did Neuroscience Begin as an Academic Discipline? I have written a short paragraph about how developments in technology are one of the biggest causes of paradigm shifts in the world of science, and I think it would work well if it was added to your current 3rd paragraph. Is it ok with you if I insert it there? Blacklipstick (discuss • contribs) 17:09, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Blacklipstick,
 * The more information the better! I also read an article about this and I think it would definitely serve the purpose of the assignment well. Thank you! Icloneseashells (discuss • contribs) 09:46, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

"How did Neuroscience begin as an Academic Discipline?" Title
Hi, I just wanted to suggest changing the name of this article so that it isn't a question, for example: Neuroscience as an academic discipline. What does the author think? I didn't make the edit in case you disagree.

Onchesilbeach (discuss • contribs) 21:41, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

Hello, Yes I think that would be more adequate. Thank you! Icloneseashells (discuss • contribs) 09:43, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

History of environmental sciences suggestions
Hey RomarinLavende, I read about your essay. I think it is really interesting! However, I think that you could add a bit of the history of environmental awareness and environmentalism. Thousands of years ago tribes had rituals and beliefs about how human should treat nature. I read an article about the History of the environmentalism. For example, Taoist thought that the patterns of nature should reflect the human's way of life. Perhaps, exploring this aspect of environmentalism could add some historical background to your essay, and for example linking it to today's environmentalism. How did we shift from environmental rituals to environmental sciences? Also, I think that you could be a bit more specific about the rise of awareness when you talk about WWII, feminism... How does that created awareness? Why at this particular time did people start to care about the environment? Looking at the shift from science to social science and why environmentalism went beyond science and became also a societal issue can really be interesting... Hudsonvalley12 (discuss • contribs) 08:40, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Hello Hudsonvalley12! Thank you for your comments on my paragraph and your advice. You are welcomed to add your example on the Taoist culture and deeper explanations on our shift from environmental rituals to environmental sciences.

Moreover, your question about the link between feminism, post war/pacific and civil war movements; and environmental awareness made me realise how vaguely I explained it so I will add more details and you can tell me what you think of it (if it is clearer). Of course, these movements were not the only supporters of the environmental movement but I thought they were more interesting to mention. However, I plan on adding more obvious examples such as the creation of different academic societies asking for more environmental studies. Romarinlavende (discuss • contribs) 13:06, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Hi!

Your paragraph on environmental sciences is very interesting! I thought of a few things to add to your article. In my opinion, environmental science as a discipline took a major turn in the 21 st century and I could therefore add a part on this and perhaps refer to the Paris agreement as a political convention is a figure of authority in the establishment of the discipline. Here is what I would add:

In the 21st century, increased political and social globalization has contributed to collective responses to environmental issues. For example, in 2015, the United Nations Climate Change Conference, or COP 21, negotiated the Paris Agreement was a global agreement on the reduction of climate change. The members agreed to reduce their carbon output and keep global warming to well below 2 degrees C. 1. Qu'est-ce que la COP 21 ? [Internet]. Agence Parisienne du Climat. 2018 [cited 9 November 2020]. Available from: https://www.apc-paris.com/COP-21 Despite being high emitters when compared to the world’s poorest countries, many of the world’s developed countries are now reducing their carbon footprint size, in part owing to a move towards renewable energy (Germany) or a shift from coal-burning to gas-burning. The rise of the internet and information flows (e.g. social media) has also helped to improve awareness concerning the environmental status.

Bascrzm (discuss • contribs) 19:30, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi! I think your contribution would be interesting to give a overall view of the current state of environmental issues and how they're approached nowadays although I don't really see the link to its emergence as a discipline... You can still add your paragraph to the section, just be sure to precise that it is an observation of the ongoing state of environmental issues :) 128.86.177.101 (discuss) 10:28, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Hi!, I really enjoyed reading this contribution, especially with the new additions, for example including Taoist ideologies - I thought this was really interesting. I was just reading your citation for “Silent Spring”, and was wondering if it would be better to reference the book itself rather than the wikipedia page? As I feel that the information about it from the wikipedia page ultimately comes from the book itself. But I understand that you may have a different reason for doing so, which is fine as well!Onchesilbeach (discuss • contribs) 16:17, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Suggestions on the "Creation of Modern Nutritional Sciences as discipline"
Hi Bascrzm, I have read your contribution to the creation of modern nutritional sciences as a discipline which I found pretty interesting. However, I wanted to suggest you a couple of things. Firstly, you state Nutritional Sciences as interdisciplinary discipline before explaining why it is a discipline, therefore I simply thought of changing the order of the paragraphs. Secondly, I found an impressive article on the early emergence of the history of the nutrition science which gives more precisions you could add on the beginning of Nutrition Sciences as a discipline coming from chemistry (as you already say in on of your paragraphs) and dates it earlier than the discovery of the Vitamin B. So I thought it could be useful for you to add... Romarinlavende (discuss • contribs) 13:43, 24 October 2020 (UTC)

Dear Romarinlavande,

A big thank you for this very interesting article that i have now used in my paragraph! i also took into account your comment on the structure. Bascrzm (discuss • contribs) 20:12, 9 Novembre 2020 (UTC)

From 11er467va to the author of 'Neuroscience as an Academic Discipline'
First of all, just to say it was a really concise, clear and easy to read contribution! I only had a few comments mostly related to typos or punctuation. The first of which is that you've still got the 'et al' at the end of the second sentence,the second is perhaps changing 'onto' to 'on' in the third sentence - as this is the typical form of the idiom, and then I would perhaps add a comma after 'renaissance'. You could potentially change the beginning of the third paragraph to 'As technology progressed, it became easier for...', just to create a more formal register, similarly with changing 'coming up with' to 'discovering' or another more formal synonym. In the same paragraph you've also written 'was a technique key later used to understand', I wasn't sure if this was intentional or result of writing both 'technique used later' or 'technique key in understanding' - I could be wrong though! Overall I think it is really effective that you've included several dates to consider throughout, as well as in the final paragraph focusing directly on when neuroscience became a discipline according to the 'university subject' and 'department' criteria.

From 11er467va to the author of 'Women's Studies as a Discipline'
Such a good choice of topic for history! I only have a couple of tiny suggestions and they're mostly to do with referencing: I noticed the first line wasn't referenced and I thought perhaps it should be, as well as the sentence in the first paragraph ending in 'scholars' and the following sentence about Madge Dawson. Also, you could potentially change 'in the first place' to 'originally', 'proper' to 'official', 'all around the world' to 'across the globe', to change the tenor of the text to a more professional one. As I said, just suggestions though!

Women's Studies as a Discipline

To the editor of “Women’s studies as a discipline”:

Great idea as a continuing emerging discipline! When reading your text you mentioned “empowerment of the feminism movement” i thought it would contribute to the importance and understanding of this discipline if you just mentioned some of the feminist movements which had a significant impact on society and feminism within itself (ex- the women’s liberation or the Suffragette movements) this is only a suggestion but even just a mention might contribute to your explanations! I can add the contribution f you wish or you can explore it and add it in your prepared way yourself if you feel it is appropriate. Hi! so I added a small part mentioning the suffragette movement in the end, I hope that is okay with you? if not I can change it or delete it!

To the author of "From Orators to Lawyers: when law became a discipline"
Hey! I find your topic really interesting, and I have added few sentences at the end of your paragraph about the emergence of law as university discipline! I think it is quite relevant and it is worth to have it in your paragraph! I focused on the history of Europe, you may want to elaborate on that topic! This is what I inserted:

The first European university to teach law, was a Bologna University in Italy. Bologna law school has been established by legal scholars from glossator school in Bologna in 12th century. During Middle Ages most of European universities has taught Roman Law, and introduced the study of national law in the beginning of 18th century.

I have also added this bit into your paragraph, as I found it quite interesting and relevant - check it out! As the time went on, the new genre of legal literature has emerged, and some jurisconsults became a regular law teachers.

My last suggestion would be changing a title a little bit so it will be more concise and shorter - for something like "The emergence of law as a disciple". You could emphases it's roots in orators by adding a subtitle "Origins" or "History". What do you think?

Your contribution is great and very relevant! Indeed, your contribution shows that there is not only one truth :) and show an alternative view... Stunning! You're right, I will change it!

--Dearenemy (discuss • contribs) 21:24, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 13/ History

Film Studies section
Hi ! this article is very interesting ! One point that could be mentioned is that the first systemic use of films was - first in the USSR then in the US and Europe -- was political and exploited as a mean of state propaganda. This intricacy between film-making and politics propels films studies to an interdisciplinary field of analysis from its birth. Obviously the economic aspect (of financing for example) is a major component. One can also question the power of images in "emotional persuasion and manipulation" (psychological approach). The technical aspects of films -- editing for example -- and the "esthetic choices" guide/manipulate the viewer in his emotional/ intellectual journey (aka powerful narrative/political tool). The french author Julien Gracq discusses this issue in his book Reading Writing--Alwayslearningmore (discuss • contribs) 12:26, 22 October 2020 (UTC)

Might be a little late to write this but the section on paradigm shifts in film studies is lacking citations. I'm not sure who wrote this but you may want to consider adding them! Bfevidal (discuss • contribs) 11:13, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Hello, I have also noticed that the citations were not posted. So I have just added all of the citations and references that you had previously marked on the text as missing a citation. Thanks for pointing it out. Ethan.dawson101 (discuss • contribs) 20:43, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

=Theology section= Hi! I'm not sure who wrote the theology section but you may want to clarify if by Oxford you mean Oxford university. Bfevidal (discuss • contribs) 18:23, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Absolutely! Thank you for pointing that out Unadorablemensonge (discuss • contribs) 19:05, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

=References= Good day all, I was wondering if it would be a good idea format-wise to just have a singular section at the end for all of our references combined? And if so, whether we should start formatting as such now or wait until all entries have been submitted. Please let me know what you think, thank you. Edgeofdawn (discuss • contribs) 17:02, 17 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hello, it was a wonderful surprise reading your comment! I have just been trying to figure out a way to homogenise the references of our page by inserting them all at the bottom. I have managed to insert the 'references' part at the end of the page and add my references there, however the references from the article on IR in relation to History seem to follow a different code. Not the standard 1,2,3,4 but History in IR 1,History in IR 2 and so on. I think this is why I can't add them on to the rest of the references. Any idea on how to modify this? I think it's best if we do this as we go rather than leaving it all for the end Unadorablemensonge (discuss • contribs) 18:50, 17 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hello everyone! I also agree on the topic, and think that uniting all of the references would be a good idea. I will try do so now. Macabre Roses (discuss • contribs) 01:07, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Alright, so it turned out that the references were following a different code because some of the references were used twice, and sometimes two reference hyperlinks led to one single reference. I have thus moved the references of the "History and International Relations" category to all of the other references in the "References category", without changing the names of the reference groups. The hyperlinks still lead to the proper reference, they are simply now at the bottom of the page. Macabre Roses (discuss • contribs) 01:23, 18 October 2020 (UTC)

=Chemistry:= Hello, I have edited and tweeked a bit of the chemistry section, I have aslo added just a line about the formalization of the discipline at university level teaching. Furthermore, I think it would be quite interesting if using this initial analisis of the basis of the history of the discipline we could examine some clear and evident instances of paradigm shift in the discipline,like for example the theory of conservation of mass or the valence bond and molecular orbital theories. An example I think is specifically good and would be quite easy to look at is the revolution of quantum mechanics that happened as the laws of classical physcics started to fail us in the beginnig of the 20th cnetury and a new field of quantum mechanics was explored with a heavy fixation on chemistry. This then could also link to the idea of atomic structure to spectroscopy, which would just add to the idea of fluidity within the contents of a discipline and the power of paradigm shift as part of a disciplines history.Ethan.dawson101 (discuss • contribs) 21:25, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

=The Importance of History to Genetics section=

Hello! I found your article very interesting but a bit short (104 words). I'm sure there is plenty of other things to say about it.

=Themed categories=
 * Hello everyone, since we are trying to make the page look consistent/coherent, I thought that it would be a good idea to categorise the different contributions. I have so far created two categories: "History of Disciplines" and "Relationships between History and different Disciplines". If, as the contributions multiply and change, any of you think of another pertinent category, or think that a contribution should be moved, we could make the necessary changes correspondingly. Macabre Roses (discuss • contribs) 01:30, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes, I think this makes sense. I did notice that in the "Contents" part at the top of the page, the references are marked as 2.2 under the category of "2. Relationship Between History and Different Disciplines," rather than as a third category. Should we attempt to change that? Unadorablemensonge (discuss • contribs) 08:05, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hey, I've just alphabetised the categories to make it a little more orderly :) Bfevidal (discuss • contribs) 18:34, 19 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi, it's me again. I have just made the change, you can look at the difference in the History of page edits; tell me what you think is better! Unadorablemensonge (discuss • contribs) 08:10, 18 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I do think it looks better that way. Macabre Roses (discuss • contribs) 01:04, 19 October 2020 (UTC)

=Conclusion:= Hey since I noticed that all of the other issues had conclusions and this one didn't, I suppose because it was the first one we had to, I have just added a paragraph at the end grouping together the ideas that are shown throughout all of the different sections you all wrote. Feel free to change it if you believe anything is missing, as a lot of different topics have been mentioned in the article and I am not sure I fully included them in the conclusion. I also do believe the conclusion if missing a final point or argument as it only sums up what we have already said, but doesn’t really expand this information into something larges and more complex. Ethan.dawson101 (discuss • contribs) 23:54, 9 October 2020 (UTC)
 * I have also just seen that the conclusion whas posted twice and that someone edited the second voy of it, so I have erased the firs on and left the second one. Thank you. Ethan.dawson101 (discuss • contribs) 12:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC)


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User:Mouxy73/sandbox

The Question of Truth in Law
In 1966, the Supreme Court of the United States declared that “the basic purpose of a trial is the determination of truth.”. Law should serve the truth and be a tool to uncover it. But if trials were working perfectly, the existence of appeals would be baseless. Trials establish a ‘formal legal truth’ based on facts presented in the court. While it is expected this formal legal truth is the same as the substantive truth, it isn’t always the case.

R. summers give two reasons for this divergence: the first is mostly cost considerations. One cannot defend himself as well as someone who can afford a very good lawyer. In these cases, the substantive truth might not be uncovered due to a lack of trial preparation for example. The second reason calls into question the trial court procedures. The facts are supposed to lead to the substantive truth; however they are constrained by the law and can’t all be accepted in court. For example, a coerced confession isn’t considered as valid and can’t be taken into account by a judge even if it leads to the substantive truth.

In addition, if it said that the purpose of a trial is to uncover the truth, both parties (defense and prosecution) do not always seek to inquire the truth but only to defend their cause. S. Haack qualifies the trial of a contest as to whether enough proof is given, and not a search for the truth.

Moreover, those who give the verdict and create the formal legal truth are men. They can be influenced and manipulated into believing something is true. Thus, if law as a discipline is to be trusted because it brings people together in a community where they obey the same rules, the truth it seeks to discover is constructed by men, which makes it questionable.

The history of psychology as a branch of medicine
Mind and body were believed to be linked in Ancient times. The saying "Mens sana in corpore sano", which is a quote from Juvenal in Satires, is still used today. This citation demonstrates the importance in people’s mind of, in order to be well, not only be in a good physical shape but also in a good state of mind. The interdependence between body and mind was questioned throughout the centuries with in parallel the interdependence between psychology and medicine. The involvement of psychology in medicine has not been continuous or unanimously encouraged. Different from psychiatry which can be considered as the medical form of psychology because it uses prescriptions and medicines, psychology itself has come to be a medical discipline. Psychology can be simply defined as the study of experience and behaviour according to Sonja Hunt in The relationship between psychology and medicine, which makes a common point with medicine: an interest in human functioning. However as mentioned earlier, the link between these two disciplines was questioned when the view on Man changed: body and mind became two distinct areas of study in the 17th century, especially due to the work of Descartes (Mediationes de Prima philosophia, Meditation VI).

If the view on the link between mind and body has since changed and psychology is considered essential, it may still be marginalised. The sometimes-abstract aspect of the discipline, less concrete than other branches of medicine can undermine the credibility of the discipline. Nevertheless, psychology is increasingly recognised especially with the growing awareness of the importance of mental health. However, a new question may arise as psychology can appear as more important. A psychologist may be seen as a mere new fashion rather than belonging to the medical profession and essential to health.

The role of evidence in archaeology
The discipline of archaeology can de be simply defined as the retrieval and study of evidences to understand the human activity and past. These evidences are qualitative and primary. Archaeological practice relies on evidence. The challenge in this discipline is how evidences, sometimes retrieved thousands of years later, can be interpretated correctly. This task relies on the archaeologist who has to analyse the data to validate or revoke his or someone else’s thesis. This interpretation has to be as objective as possible, it is one of the key stakes of archaeology. We can distinguish two movements in this discipline: processual and postprocessual archaeology. Processual archaelogy believes that a scientific method can analyse and interpret data. However, postprocessual archaeology believes it isn’t possible, the archaeologist will always have his bias and won’t be able to be completely objective. Studying evidence according to postprocessual archaeologists relies on theory (theoretical discussions and criteria).

Therefore, a discipline such as archaeology, which practice depends on evidence, shows us how evidences in themselves are not enough. It is the meaning they are given by archaeologists through work and analyses which gives them the status of evidence. Without it, they would only be artifacts, ecofacts and not evidences which proved or demonstrated an aspect of human’s past and way of living.

Nevertheless, studying artefacts without a method can lead to extreme interpretations, which is illustrated by pseudoarchaeology, also known as alternative archaeology. By refuting scientific analysis pseudoarchaeologists can give evidences completely different meanings. Therefore, the status of evidence and its meaning must be carefully apprehended in archaeology.

title: User:Mouxy73/sandbox


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User talk:Nicola.georgiou/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 7/ History

Would you mind adding references (@ whoever wrote the astronomy paragraph)? LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 17:58, 17 October 2020 (UTC) do you mind if I put the 1.4	How should higher education respond to a change in knowledge? paragraph at the end of the history part so that it can act as a conclusion for all of our work?

Whoever wrote "The Development of Psychology as a Scientific Discipline" don't you think that another paradigm shift could be the revolution brought from Freud regarding psychoanalysis? I mean he actually reconceptualizes the human psychological brain from his point of view he divided the human brain in ( EGO- SuperEgo-ID)and psychoanalysts are still using today his methods
 * I wrote the Development of Psychology! I was mainly focusing on the "beginnings" of "new psychology" rather than covering all paradigm shifts in the history of psychology so I can be more concise. The beginnings of (experimental/scientific) psychology come before Freud and psychoanalysis so I wanted to write about that. LittleSpadePerson (discuss • contribs) 10:12, 21 October 2020 (UTC)

Whoever wrote the "A major shift in the discipline of Astronomy" paragraph, you seem to use the english and french version of the name "Copernicus" interchangeably, might it be best to stick with one spelling to avoid confusion? Also, it might be helpful if, given that you don't give Copernicus' first name, you could add a wikilink to the first mention of him. Wildharvestvalley5 (discuss • contribs) 11:12, 20 October 2020 (UTC)


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Linux Guide/Run an Android emulator

Add 'contrib' to your sources.list:

sudo nano /etc/apt/sources.list

For example you should have a line like this: deb http://mirror.linux.org.au/debian/ buster main contrib

Update and install anbox:

sudo apt update sudo apt install anbox

Load two kernel modules needed for anbox:

sudo modprobe ashmem_linux sudo modprobe binder_linux

Download android.img as instructed here. Save it to `/var/lib/anbox/android.img`.

Start the container manager:

sudo anbox container-manager --data-path=/var/lib/anbox

Start the session manager:

anbox session-manager

Launch anbox:

anbox launch

title: Linux Guide/Run an Android emulator


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User:LGreg/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge (LG seminar 2020/21)/Seminar 18/History/History of Philosophy

Etymology

The term History has its roots in the Greek word ἱστορία, historia, meaning ‘inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation. Therefore, History is also the study of the past.


text: AppleScript Programming/Script Libraries


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History of video games/1980-1989

Decision Making
The early 1980's were a chaotic time in the Gaming Industry, with little demographic information on gamers available to inform game companies on their decisions.

Home Computers
The 1980's saw the rise of personal computers, as well as home game development companies.

See the 1980's section of the Computer gaming article.

Arcades
The late 1970's and early 1980's is widely considered to be the peak of arcades, as they were culturally relevant and popular in many countries. Arcade machines allowed players to game without the expensive upfront cost of consoles, as well as to experience graphical fidelity that often surpassed what was possible on popular home hardware.

High Difficulty
Games from the 1980's are known for their high difficulty. As game media could not easily store information for detailed long stories and campaigns, many developers instead used high difficulties to make games last longer.

Gaming Watches
While gaming watches first hit the market in the 1970's, they became relatively common during the 1980's and 1990's. An example of a watch from this time is the 1984 Casio GD8 wristwatch, which included a simple racing game.

Popular Genres

 * Arcade games
 * 2D Platformers
 * 2D Action adventure games
 * Puzzle games
 * Rougelikes (On Computers)

The Golden Age of Spanish Software dawns
Spanish software becomes a major player in the home computer gaming scene in Europe.

Game Stores
By 1983 there were dedicated game stores and mail order used game services in the United States.

The Video game crash of 1983
The 1980's also saw the end of the Second generation of video game consoles with the Video game crash of 1983 severely disrupting the market in North America. Unsold North American-market Atari consoles, computers and cartridges are buried in a New Mexico landfill to be discovered only in 2013.

Third Generation of Video Game Consoles
Beginning in 1983 the Third generation of video game consoles later saw widespread mainstream success. These consoles offered much better 2D graphics and sound then earlier generations.

WarGames
WarGames, a 1983 movie about a teenager computer hacker and phreaker looking for unreleased video games but accidentally triggering a nuclear defense system, helps put computer hacking in the public imagination and sparks some of the first high level American government efforts regarding cybersecurity. While many aspects of the movie were fake, automated scanning of phone numbers for game company computers was inspired by real phreaker practices from the time like demon dialing, which came to be known as "wardialing" after the film. The aesthetics of the film would also influence a number of later retro revival games made after the 1980's.

Distribution
A few companies such as Cumma Technology try their hand at game distribution through rewritable cartridges.

Beginning of the Fourth Generation of Video Game Consoles
Early fourth generation game console began to be released in 1987, though serious competition in this space would not begin until 1990 with more international releases. The improved hardware in these consoles featured much better audio and graphics than the previous generation.

Fall of the Berlin Wall
Throughout the 1980's game developers in East Germany had to make games in accordance to party wishes, such as not including violent elements in their games. Meetings of gamers were often monitored by the Stasi agents out of concern that western software and games were being used. On November 9th, 1989 East German citizens begin to tear down the Berlin Wall, leading to German Reunification and thus the end of gaming culture under the East German government.

title: History of video games/1980-1989


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History of video games/2010-2019

The changing economy of games
Online game marketplaces like Steam became quite popular as digital distribution of computer games takes off with gamers. Other major publishers enter or redouble their efforts in the market, such as the launch of EA's Origin platform in 2011, the revamping of Ubisoft Uplay in 2012, the release of the Bethesda Launcher in 2016, and the release of the Epic Games Store in 2018. There were also less standard online storefronts that gained popularity, such as the launch of the indie focused platforms Humble Bundle in 2010, and itch.io in 2013. In the later part of the decade, cross play between platforms begins to see more adoption.

Often new game storefronts and associated customer support systems were poorly secured, leading to large breaches of gamer information. Casual games reach wide audiences with digital distribution on smartphone application stores, as well as on social media websites such as Facebook. The new frontier of digital game storefronts also attracted criminals, who took advantage of these new platforms and associated services by exploiting policy weaknesses to resell hacked keys or launder money gained through more traditional criminal acts.

Many games go free to play, with monetization strategies such as in app purchases proving lucrative for some developers. Dark patterns in many games enabled by internet connectivity begin to catch attention. In particular, many games, both paid and free to play, add cosmetic and "Pay to Win" microtransactions and loot boxes. Loot boxes in particular are linked to gambling addictions during this time. These techniques raised concerns and potentially ran afoul of gambling laws, creating friction between the industry and regulators. Unofficial sites that offered services such as skin gabling proliferated during this boom of in game cosmetics.

A lack of moderation on online storefronts lead to a number of controversial and low quality games being released.

Some games see success on crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter, despite often lacking solid prototypes. This also helps to revive old styles of games no longer seen as viable by major industry players. At the same time, a number of high profile scams and failures shake confidence in crowdfunding as a model for video game funding.

Many of the first widely available cloud gaming platforms were launched during this time. Some launches have problems, though the potential of the technology is acknowledged.

The ebb and flow of sanctions on Iran during this decade helped shape their burgeoning game industry. Notably, their small but hardy homegrown industry managed to compete against mostly pirated international imports for its domestic marketshare of about 20 million gamers.

Developer treatment enters the public eye
This decade saw the increasing awareness of gamers of frequent poor treatment faced by video game developers in some work environments. While imperfect conditions can exist in any occupation and issues had existed in the game industry previously, this decade saw a large deterioration in relations between companies and developers.

Tactics used by companies which hurt developers during this time included misclassifying workers to dodge labor laws, expecting a cycle of long crunch times with unemployment following immediately after, and creating a fear of retaliation so that employees would be reluctant to speak to the press.

In late 2016 the video game industry saw its first major strike, following a breakdown of negotiations between a handful of major companies and the Screen Actors Guild - American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA), with 450 members picketing the company Insomniac Games. This lead to industry concern that game developers would observe these workers demanding better and possibly unionizing as a result.

Quality Assurance (QA) Testing entered the spotlight as a field where some companies were mistreating employees. The practice of using Bug Quotas in QA testing in particular were in decline around 2019, as it created a perverse incentive which resulted in counterproductive work being done.

From 2009 to 2019 game developer views on unionization shifted radically from a small percentage of developers in favor of unionization to much broader support. Notably, in the United Kingdom an official trade union for video game developers was formed in 2018. Some American politicians supported unionization efforts within the gaming industry.

Not all companies mistreated their developers this decade. As a result of increased public awareness of these issues, companies such as Nintendo and Media Molecule use their avoidance of crunch as a symbol of ethical leadership within the video game industry.

Player Wellbeing
As video game industry grew dramatically this decade, interest grew in safeguarding the wellbeing of gamers.

Following industry support for gamer healthcare, the Obama Administration supported an initiative for gamers to get healthcare coverage in the United States of America from 2015 to the end of the administration's term in office in 2017.

On May 25th, 2018 the World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes gaming addiction as a medical disorder, though there was some contention around the issue. The description of gaming addiction provided was very specific, and was only applied to those neglecting basic needs to play games for extended periods of time. Research this decade also suggested that gaming may have positive effects when performed in balance with other life activities.

Mobile operating systems iOS and Android focused on digital wellbeing tools in 2018. While meant for general use, the granular settings of these tools allowed either parental or self imposed limits to be set on game time specifically.

People's Republic of China opens up to consoles
By January 2013 it was openly rumored that the ban on the sale of video game consoles in the People's Republic of China would be lifted.

On January 7th, 2014 the People's Republic of China temporarily eases their ban of video game consoles put in place in the year 2000. The ban was permanently ended on July 25th, 2015.

Decline of the Physical Mediums
As the industry shifted to online focused markets, the industry shifted away from traditional physical ones. This decade was especially transitional, as though physical games remained an important factor in the industry throughout the decade, digital games went from a small niche to the favored future of game distribution. Online shops gave serious competition to physical stores, leading to large chain stores floundering by the end of the decade. This also affected other games related media. Continuing from the late 2000's game manuals continued to shrink and were abandoned all together in some cases. Major publishers of Strategy Guides went from paper to online during this time.

Automotive Gaming
Tesla CEO Elon Musk announces partnership with Atari for games as Easter eggs on Tesla electric cars.

German automakers Audi and Mercedes-Benz both experimented with in car gaming concepts in 2019.

Rebirth of Arcades
To a limited extent, Arcades saw a small revival during this time. In the 2000's arcades had struggled to compete with increasingly better home gaming experiences. Recognizing that Arcades could no longer rely on the technical dominance they once did, arcades reinvented themselves. Often this meant appealing to nostalgic adults and young adults looking for a new experience with barcades. Others focused on special experiences that couldn't be had at home without spending significant amounts of money, such as virtual reality, to mixed success.

Popular Genres

 * Open World games
 * Survival games
 * Shooters
 * Action adventure games
 * Rougelikes
 * Platformers
 * Retro revival games
 * Walking Simulators
 * Visual Novels

Mass Effect 2
Outcry from conservative media on the first Mass Effect lead to LGBTQ themes in Mass Effect 2 being suppressed.

Call of Duty: Black Ops
This game attracted media attention for it's secret level featuring John F. Kennedy, Richard M. Nixon, Robert McNamara, and Fidel Castro cooperatively fighting against zombies in the Pentagon.

Final Fantasy XV
Released in 2016 Final Fantasy XV is known for it's well written characters and real time combat system. Final Fantasy XV is also known for the extensive care which was taken in modeling it's in game food.

eInk games
A few makers of eInk based ebook readers experiment with simple games that play well with the slow refresh displays used on these devices, though the market for such games quickly peters out.

Video Games as Speech
In 2011 the United States Supreme Court rules video games are protected speech under the First Amendment of the United States constitution. This overruled state legislation restricting the purchase of games based on game content. Justice Antonin Scalia wrote the majority opinion, which was backed by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Justice Sonia Sotomayor, and Justice Anthony Kennedy.

Justice Clarence Thomas and Justice Stephen Breyer dissented in this case. Justice Stephen Breyer cited court rulings allowing similar prohibitions on sexual content, while Justice Clarence Thomas suggested that a constitutional right to free speech does not fully apply when speaking to youth. Justice Antonin Scalia criticized the opinion given by Justice Clarence Thomas, noting that if such a position was taken, it would also lead to the erosion of the religious and political freedoms of youth in areas outside video games. Thus this case not only strengthened civil liberties in the United States of America as it relates to video games, it helped set a much broader precedent supporting general freedom of speech by youth.

Video Games as Artwork
In November 2012 the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City debuted an applied design exhibition of 14 noteworthy video games. This prompted some backlash by those who did not consider video games to be artwork.

Satellite technology in Games
The 2012 release of Super Snowcross by EA (Electronic Arts) capitalizes on the public data provided by the ASTER sensor of the NASA earth observational satellite Terra to make realistic game maps based on real world locations based on data collected by the satellite, improving realism by replacing earlier randomly generated terrain.

Microconsoles: Boom & Bust
A number of crowdfunded microconsoles are launched this year, with hopes of finding a new approach to the console industry that was more open and inexpensive then what traditional consoles offered. Several years later it becomes clear that none of the early microconsoles were long lived successes,  though the boom did create an interesting period of gaming history.

Eighth Generation of Game Consoles
2013 saw the eighth generation of game consoles begin in earnest.

Digital catches Physical
In 2014 digital sales of games roughly reach parity with physical sales of games. The convenience of digital games was especially resonant with owners of portable devices, with many gamers growing accustomed to not needing to carry multiple cartridges with them in addition to the system itself.

Twitch Plays Pokémon
An experimental crowed source play through of the GameBoy game Pokémon Red leads 35,000 collective players to beat the game in 16 days. The immense internet sensation created by Twitch Plays Pokémon spurs other creators to create more interactive content on streaming platforms such as Twitch.

Kojima & Konami
In early 2015 Konami and a well known then Konami employee Hideo Kojima had a falling out, resulting in Kojima going independent.

Konami also attempted to remove independent journalistic coverage of the event. This backfired, as this action attracted the attention of larger media outlets.

Death of Satoru Iwata
Satoru Iwata, CEO of Nintendo, passes away at the age of 55, shocking the industry and resulting in a number of tributes made. Respects were paid across the industry, including from people working at rival companies who respected the impact and character of Iwata.

Year of Innovation
2017 is noted for a number of high quality or mold breaking games releasing that year, like Breath of the Wild, Cuphead, Nier: Automata, Sonic Mania, Gravity Rush 2, Pyre, and Super Mario Odyssey. Nier: Automata was noted for it's nihilistic tone.

2017 also saw the release of new ways of gaming. The Nintendo Switch was released this year as the first popular hybrid game console, combining a portable console and a home console in one unit. Netflix tested out interactive movies this year.

End of Miiverse
On November 8th, 2017 the Miiverse social networking service is shuttered. Miiverse had been Nintendo's gaming social network since 2012. An unofficial community archive of Miiverse content was made before the shutdown occurred.

Blockchain Mania
In 2017 blockchain technology saw significant hype. Later in 2017 the early blockchain game Cryptokitties is released, crowding the Ethereum network with over one million USD worth of transactions made after a few days.

Celebrities in Gaming
2018 saw several celebrities attempt to get involved in the gaming industry, primarily by leveraging their name or brand to partner with existing manufacturers.

Rapper Soulja Boy briefly launches a console line, with Soulja Boy claiming 5 million consoles sold before withdrawing from the market. Consoles were existing models, such as the Chinese Fuze microconsole.

Telltale Games
In September 2018, noted studio Telltale Games abruptly collapses. Following a failure to raise needed funding, most employees are fired and given 30 minutes to leave. Inability to retain talented employees, poor management, dated technology, and increasing competition from other studios are common factors cited in the collapse of the studio.

Scapegoating games
In the United States, politicians consider a ban on violent games, blaming violent video games for recent mass shootings despite little evidence linking the two together.

In response to the shootings some stores and television networks reduced or eliminated advertisements for violent video games. Additionally, lawmakers in Pennsylvania revived discussions on a 10% tax on mature rated games in response to the shootings.

Auto chess
2019 saw the release of a number of games release in the new genre Auto Chess.

Runescape
A prolonged power outage in Venezuela leads to an economic shock in the MMORPG Runescape.

title: History of video games/2010-2019


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History of video games/1990-1999

Network Gaming
The Internet was a sensation in the 1990's, leading to more incorporation in games. LAN parties became common among computer gamers. Many legacy dial up gaming services from the 1980's shut down in the mid 1990's and many were founded in the 1990's.

- The noise of a dial up connection being made, a common way 1990's gamers got on the internet.

3D Gaming
While 3D games predate the 1990's, this decade saw a huge leap and refinement in 3D video games in terms of graphical fidelity. More importantly, this decade also saw refinements in 3D gameplay especially in level design and control. The 1990's also saw improvements to storytelling in games, allowing for richer tales and better plots.

Expanding Audience
The demographics for video game consoles shifted older, to include more young adults.

Some families suffered strain due to generational conflict.

Big Box Era
Following a number of packaging styles in the 1980's, computer game packaging from the early 1990's on through the late 2000's would adopt an informal "Big Box" standard.

Realism & Controversy
In the 1990s more game developers would strive to achieve realism in their games. This was often in the form of graphical realism, taking advantage of increased graphical fidelity to push the limits of hardware. Other developers sought to leverage improving technologies by crafting ever greater and vaster worlds. Others still sought to push storytelling in a more serious direction, focusing on real world issues.

The main controversial games of the era include:
 * Mortal Kombat
 * Doom
 * Duke Nukem
 * Tomb Raider

Controversy was not limited to major commercial titles. A 1992 successor game to The Oregon Trail depicting American slavery prior to the Civil War, Freedom!, attracted controversy due to several misstepes which were insensitive, despite good intentions by the developers.

Popular or Iconic Genres
Some terms in this section will link to Wikipedia for more information.

Platformers
Gaming in the early 1990s is often exemplified by the 2D platformer. As better game hardware enabled new experiences, developers took risks with new and novel takes on the platformer genre, such as the fast-paced Sonic the Hedgehog. Other titles, such as Super Mario World, were iterative improvements that improved on tried and true gameplay.

The later half of the decade saw the industry pivot to 3D platformers. 3D platformers were dominated by the collectathon genre, notably by the landmark title Super Mario 64, which helped pioneer easy to use 3D control schemes. Other notable collectathons include Spyro the Dragon, Donkey Kong 64, and Banjo Kazooie. Other 3D platformers tried to differentiate themselves through other means, such as the use of lush and well crafted linear levels in Crash Bandicoot, or humor in Gex: Enter the Gecko.

Action-Adventure
Notable general Action-Adventure games of the decade include The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time and Tomb Raider.

Survival Horror Action-Adventure games of the decade included Alone in the Dark, Resident Evil, Resident Evil 2 and Silent Hill.

3D Racing games
This genre was influenced by important games such as the 3DO and DOS game The Need for Speed (1994-1995) and the PlayStation game Gran Turismo (1997) which aimed for realistic 3D graphics and driving mechanics for a much more immersive driving experience then prior 2D racing games could provide. Both generated successful franchises for the PC and console platforms (although the latter never left the PlayStation line).

Less realism focused arcade style and karting games were also released, including the original 2.5d titles F-Zero and Super Mario Kart, as well as their fully 3D followups F-Zero X and Mario Kart 64. Other notable 3D racing games not focused on realism included titles such as Wipeout, Cruis'n USA, Sega Rally Championship, and Daytona USA. Ridge Racer was an interesting example of a game that mixed very realistic graphics, with arcade style gameplay.

Shooters
After id Software's first-person interface experiments with Hovertank 3-D (1990) and Catacomb 3-D (1992), a number of Shooter sub genres, especially third person shooters and fast-paced first person shooters, were pioneered in this decade with groundbreaking hit titles. id's Wolfenstein 3D (1992) was a landmark title in the genre, a remake of the earlier 2D video games Castle Wolfenstein and Beyond Castle Wolfenstein and one of the first popular first-person shooters ever and pioneer in 2.5D graphics, although it allowed 2D-only gameplay action, thus making it impossible to jump, go up or down stairs, or even aiming up or down. More complex shooters such as id's highly controversial Doom (1993) and the tongue-in-cheek Duke Nukem 3D (1996) developed by the emerging Apogee Software and published by 3D Realms, would follow.

All three games also spawned notable modding communities, altering and modifying game files at one's own pleasure. Also, Doom pioneered the technology of online multiplayer games, already experimented by games such as the 1970s Maze War (which is also one of the very earliest FPS).

Other notable first person shooters would include Quake, Unreal Tournament, Tribes, MDK, Perfect Dark, and the 1997 Nintendo 64 shooter GoldenEye 007, based on the 1995 James Bond film. Later games with FPS mechanics such as Half-Life and Deus Ex would use this medium to tell detailed and immersive stories.

Point and Click Adventure
The 1990's are often seen as the critical apex of the Point and click adventure genre, where the culmination of a developers with a decade of experience during the 1980's still retained significant financial backing from publishers.

Fighting Games
Games such as Street Fighter II and Mortal Kombat would forever shape the genre with their technical and artistic decisions which skyrocketed the appeal and popularity of the genre.

Role Playing Games
Notable JRPGs (Japanese role-playing (video) games) from the decade include games III-VIII in the Final Fantasy series, Chrono Trigger, and Secret of Mana.

Notable western computer role playing games from this decade include System Shock, Fallout 1 & 2, and the first Baldur's Gate from American studios. CRPGs were popular with European PC gamers during this time.

Other RPGs sought to subvert traditional expectations of the RPG formula, including Earthbound/Mother 2, Super Mario RPG, and Moon: Remix RPG Adventure.

FMV Games
A number of games attempted to leverage the high capacity of CD-ROM to make movies interactive using full-motion video (FMV). This was a selling point of consoles such as the original PlayStation (1994) by Sony Computer Entertainment and the failed CD-i (1990) by Philips.

Sports
At the very end of the decade, Tony Hawk's Pro Skater would spark an interest in the skating subgenre.

Strategy & Tactics
This decade saw increased interest in real time strategy games, notably with the release of Starcraft, Age of Empires, Warcraft: Orcs & Humans, and Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness.

Turn based strategy and tactics games would also see landmark titles, such as Fire Emblem: Genealogy of the Holy War, Front Mission, and Final Fantasy Tactics.

The original XCOM trilogy, including X-COM: Enemy Unknown, X-COM: Terror from the Deep, and X-COM: Apocalypse, offered a unique take on the genre with a theme of planetary defense, and offered a hybrid approach of real time strategy on a macro scale, with turn based tactics on a micro scale.

Simulation
Notable games from the decade include SimCity 2000 (Despite the name, it was released mid decade).

The Golden Age of Spanish Software ends
Many companies in the Spanish gaming industry fold, ending an era in home computer gaming.

Tetris in Space
"Like all cosmonauts, I love sport. My particular favorites are football and swimming. During flight, in rare minutes of leisure, I enjoyed playing Game Boy."

Cosmonaut Aleksandr Serebrov flies on the Soyuz TM-17 mission to the Russian space station Mir, bringing a MIR postmarked Game Boy and a copy of the famous Russian game Tetris to play in space during limited free time, thus becoming among the first, if not the first person, to play video games in space.

While this may seem like a trivial fact, it represents a small though significant milestone in space exploration. Following the revolt of the crew of the space station Skylab in 1974, the welfare of spacefaring people has been of particular importance. Today entertainment during extended time in space is considered a critical part of daily life. This event marked a point where video games became part of that strategy.

Industry Organization
In 1994 the Computer Game Developers Association is founded, later becoming the International Game Developers Association.

Neon Genesis Evangelion
The 1995 release of the anime Neon Genesis Evangelion would go on to influence a number of Japanese game developers.

Dawn of the MMORPG
The game Meridian 59 launches on PC, letting over 10,000 players play simultaneously in a 3D environment, making it among the earliest modern MMORPGs. Players engage in social activities that the developers did not anticipate such as marriage and mass player killing. Emergent behavior caused by the social systems massively multiplayer games would often prove an interesting field of study in the following years.

Video games banned in Afghanistan
Following the Afghanistan Civil War from 1992 to 1996 the nation of Afghanistan came under the control of the 1996-2001 Islamic Emirate. As a result Video Games are banned along with many other forms of cultural expression deemed inappropriate by the government.

Sega Bandai Shakeup
A merger between Bandai and Sega nearly occurred, before being called off.

.beat
Swatch .beat internet time is announced, and sees some use by players of MMORPGs for coordinating across time zones.

Other Gaming Tech of the 1990's
The 1990's saw the first mobile phone games, as well as a number of novel small LCD games.

title: History of video games/1990-1999


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History of video games/2000-2009

Internet Gaming matures
In late 1999 EverQuest was released, popularizing MMORPGs. The 2000's saw the release of popular MMORPG's such as World of Warcraft, and Runescape. These MMORPGs offered unique social experiences for their players and resulted in in game social institutions being formed.

New Economics of games
The concept of free to play games primarily downloaded on the internet with small paid additions, microtransactions, is refined. This strategy begins to be seriously pursued by major game companies like EA by the end of the decade.

Companies begin seriously marketing small DLC, with incidents like Horse Armor DLC for Oblivion initially attracting an incredulous response for selling something that did not include story or other additional content, and becoming a common joke online by the end of the decade.

Virtual in-game currencies that can be officially exchanged for real currencies or to replace membership costs emerge in games like Second Life and EVE Online. In part due to concerns of inflation, EVE Online developer CCP Games hires an economist to manage the in-game economy. In games that prohibit trading in game currency for real currency like World of Warcraft, and to a lesser extent games that allow it like EVE Online, under the table deals and grey markets for in game currency obtained by techniques like gold farming arise. In game thefts for real world gain begin catching the public eye.

Games as Apps, Mobile gaming in the 2000's
Games for non-gaming mobile computer devices gained popularity, often running on mobile media players like iPods, or on basic feature phones.

Later the introduction of smartphones and application stores on them made mobile gaming more accessible.

Popular Genres

 * Rhythm and Music games

Role Playing Games
Role Playing Games continued to evolve during this decade, and would incorporate technological features to enhance storytelling, such as increased use of voice acting, better CGI, and larger maps. 3D RPGs became quite common on PC and home console, while 2D RPGs remained common on handheld devices, typically reaching graphical parity with home RPGs of the 1990's while incorporating improved understanding of game design.

First Person Shooters
While First Person Shooters continued to be popular on PC, innovations in controllers and console capabilities lead to a boom in console first person shooters. These console shooters were typically slower paced then their PC counterparts, but found massive popularity and adoption among gamers.

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
While Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) emerged before the 2000's, this decade was when they achieved mass popularity. Most notably World of Warcraft was released this decade.

Open World
As hardware increasingly became more powerful, game developers soon were able to craft comprehensive, vast 3D environments much more easily than before. Open World games blur the line between a subgenre, a design choice, and a game mechanic. Open world mechanics often were mixed with other genres for interesting results.

Constructive
One of the most notable video games to be released in the 2000s, despite the fact that it was only a paid public alpha, is Markus "Notch" Persson's 2009 masterpiece Minecraft, which was an instant success since the time of its release and has since become an ever-evolving video game running on various different platforms - eventually becoming one of the most popular games of all time. The 2009 version evolved in what was later known as the "Java Edition", due to the fact that it was completely written in Java, although this will be explored in later chapters. Earlier in the decade, similar games attempted to capture this idea of an open world where the player could do anything, though far less popularity. Minecraft was influenced by the earlier 2009 voxel building game Infiniminer. 2002 saw the beginnings of the game Dwarf Fortress.

GTA and clones
Other, earlier, games that had enormous success in the 2000s were Rockstar Games's Grand Theft Auto III (2001), IV (2008) and the intermediate chapters Vice City (2002) and San Andreas (2004). They have spawned the GTA clone video game genre, which also encompasses many other video games, all characterized by being a hybrid of third-person shooters and driving simulators and often focusing on organized crime and mafia storylines.

There was a large demand for GTA-style games on the go, which included the well-received, but controversial, 2006 video game adaptation of The Godfather and its 2009 sequel, leading to innovative attempts to replicate the gameplay on very underpowered handheld hardware. This resulted in the release of acclaimed titles such as Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars in 2009 or the Payback clone duology (2001-2012).

Handheld Era
High demand for handheld electronics of all kinds causes a severe shortage of the chemical element Tantalum.

The People's Republic of China bans video game consoles
As a measure intended to protect the mental health of youth in China, game consoles are banned in the People's Republic of China. This ban did not apply in Hong Kong or Macau, and consoles were often openly sold to wealthy gamers in grey market storefronts despite the ban during its later years. There were also a few exceptions made, allowing Sony and Nintendo to make limited sanctioned attempts to enter the Chinese market. Still, this restriction lead to computer and mobile games becoming the dominant mode of play in the country.

War on Terror
The horrific attacks on September 11th, 2001 had huge repercussions on both culture and the global economy. In response to the attacks, many games are delayed and edited out of respect to the victims of the tragedy.

Game Jams
In early 2002 Game Jams begin taking off with developers. In Oakland, California the 0th Indie Game Jam is held from March 15th, to March 18th. The first Ludum Dare follows shortly in April.

Strategy Guides Peak
By 2003 the rush to write official strategy guides that release either on or before the launch of a game lead to poor quality writing in such guides. Furthermore some strategy guides for Square Enix games required use of a non-free website in conjunction with the guide, which was problematic in an era before laptops and mobile devices were common, and when desktop computers were often kept in separate rooms from a television and console. Meanwhile a popular unofficial strategy guide website GameFAQs is acquired by CNET.

World of Warcraft goes Viral
2005 was a landmark year for World of Warcraft, including a number of events which would have broader influence outside the game.

In 2005 a bug in the popular MMORPG World of Warcraft leads to the player transmissible status effect Corrupted Blood not always disappearing after a specific encounter, thus spreading across the game world and infecting over a million player characters in a virtual epidemic.

The event became a subject of academic research by medical professionals, as the event was essentially a model of a real life epidemic. In particular observations from the Corrupted Blood incident would later be used in 2020 by researchers looking to understand decision making during the COVID-19 pandemic.

A video of the infamous total party wipe in the Leeroy Jenkins World of Warcraft raid gained enormous online popularity following its posting on the 10th of May 2005, though in 2017 the video was confirmed to have been staged. The name Leeroy Jenkins became somewhat of an icon, and was used to refer to players who charged into dangerous situations with blind enthusiasm.

Great Recession
The Great Recession hits the economy in 2007, wiping out savings and deeply hurting the stock market. Sales of video games and gaming hardware subsequently drop. Compared to other industries, the gaming industry was relatively resilient.

Tabula Rasa in Space
The creator of Ultima, Richard Garriott, flies to the International Space Station as a tourist. He attempts to play the game Tabula Rasa into space, but this is denied for security reasons, bringing the code of Tabula Rasa with him and broadcasting a message to players instead.

title: History of video games/2000-2009


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User talk:Mateen Rehman

Introduction To Enzymes Introduction to Enzymes Enzymes are the biological molecules that increase the speed of a chemical reaction in living organisms. You can say that enzyme is a substance that act as a catalyst in living organisms. The biological processes that occur within all living organisms are chemical reactions, and most are regulated by enzymes. Without enzymes, many of these reactions would not take place at a perceptible rate. Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism. This includes the digestion of food, in which large nutrient molecules (such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are broken down into smaller molecules; the conservation and transformation of chemical energy; and the construction of cellular macromolecules from smaller precursors. Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions taking place in metabolic pathways are carried out by intracellular enzymes. The enzymes in plasma membrane govern the catalysis in the cells as a response to cellular signals and enzymes in the circulatory system regulate clotting of blood. Most of the critical life processes are established on the functions of enzymes. Enzymes structure Enzymes are a linear chain of amino acids, which give rise to a three-dimensional structure. The sequence of amino acids specifies the structure, which in turn identifies the catalytic activity of the enzyme. Upon heating, enzyme’s structure denatures, resulting in a loss of enzyme activity, that typically is associated with temperature. Substrate A substrate is a molecule acted upon by an enzyme. A substrate is loaded into the active site of the enzyme, or the place that allows weak bonds to be formed between the two molecules Active site In biology, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of amino acid residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site)

Compared to its substrates, enzymes are typically large with varying sizes, ranging from 62 amino acid residues to an average of 2500 residues found in fatty acid synthase. Only a small section of the structure is involved in catalysis and are situated next to the binding sites. The catalytic site and binding site together constitute the enzyme’s active site. A small number of ribozymes exist which serves as an RNA-based biological catalyst. It reacts in complex with proteins.

title: User talk:Mateen Rehman


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Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 11

 Today in 2017 Google published the first alpha version of Flutter, a cross-platform widget system for graphical user interfaces.

title: Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/May 11