text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Waray

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Waray and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Waray alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 3.6 million native speakers of Waray as of 2015.

Where is this language spoken?
Waray is an Austronesian language and the fifth-most-spoken native regional language of the Philippines, native to Eastern Visayas. It is the native language of the Waray people and second language of the Abaknon people of Capul, Northern Samar, and some Cebuano-speaking peoples of western and southern parts of Leyte island. It is the third most spoken language among the Bisayan languages, only behind Cebuano and Hiligaynon.

What is the history of this language?
Waray is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Waray. Waray therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Norberto Romualdez y Lopez or known as Norberto Romualdez Sr. is a Waray ethnic writer. In 1908, Romuáldez wrote Bisayan Grammar and Notes on Bisayan Rhetoric and Poetic and Filipino Dialectology, a treatise on the grammar of the Waray language. The following year (1909) he founded the Sanghiran san Binisaya ha Samar ug Leyte (Academy of the Visayan Language of Samar and Leyte) for the purpose of promoting and intellectualizing Waray.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
This is a Waray version of the Tagalog song Bahay Kubo.

Here is the English translation of that song.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Waray


text:
Samoan/Greeting

Talofa/ (lava) - Greetings

Malo/ (lava) - Greetings

Malo le soifua - Good health to you

Oa mai oe? - How are you?

Manuia, faafetai - Good, thanks.

Ae a oe? - What about you?

Manuia foi faafetai - Good also, thank you.

Fa - Bye

Manuia le aso - Have a good day

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Samoan/Greeting


text:
Meitei Culture/Literature

Meitei literature has both written as well as oral forms.

All the Meitei language literary works, produced before the 18th century CE, were written in the traditional Meetei Mayek writing system. During and after the 18th century CE, Bengali script replaced the Meitei script for writing the Meitei language. However, in the later parts of the 20th century CE, Meitei script rose once again to replace the Bengali script for writing Meitei language.

With the changes of writing system, the usage of words in Meitei literature, also changes, simultaneously, due to acculturation. Meitei script enthusiasts usually love to write linguistically pure Meitei language, free from any foreign or borrowed or corrupted words. On the other hand, Bengali script enthusiasts usually love to mix Meitei language writings, with the words borrowed or derived from Bengali language and Bengali's ancestor language, Sanskrit. Thus, in case of Meitei culture, the writing systems matter to the language of literary works.

Meitei people believes that "language" is their mother and "script" is their father. And if Bengali script or Latin script is used to write their language, they believe that it is equivalent to their mother being under the control of another man, who is not their father. This notion leads the masses to revive the traditional Meetei Mayek writing system.

Meitei oral literature (orature) is mainly composed of folktales and folk songs. As oral retellings may become varied from one narrator to another, folktales and folk songs usually exist in multiple variations. On the other hand, the possibility of variations is very limited in case of written literature.

title: Meitei Culture/Literature


text:
Samoan/Alphabet

Vowels
Aa Ee Ii Oo Uu

Vowels with a Macron
Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū

Consonants
Ff

Gg

Ll

Mm

Nn

Pp

Ss

Tt

Vv

Borrowed Letters
Hh

Kk

Rr

Glottal Stop
'

title: Samoan/Alphabet


text:
Meitei Culture/Non-Meiteis

The concept of someone being a non-Meitei (alias non-Meetei) is very complex if they are indigenous to Kangleipak, because the Meitei language term "Meitei" (or "Meetei") means "an amalgamation of people". However, the group of people who are identified as "Meitei people" in today's world, are based on their mother language, being the so called Meitei language, in most cases.

However, anyone who follows the traditional Meitei religion (known as "Sanamahism" or "Lainingthouism" in present times), irrespective of their mother language, may also be identified as a Meitei.

Irrespective of their mother language and religion, any person who has a Meitei family name (or surname) or ancestral roots, may also be identified as a Meitei.

Therefore, any person who isn't fitted in any of the above mentioned conditions are classified as a non-Meitei.

title: Meitei Culture/Non-Meiteis


text:
Meitei Culture/Slavery

Slavery in Meitei civilization were not confined on a permanent basis. If any slave wants to quit his/her profession, they are free to do so as there is no force, but on certain terms and conditions (usually a contractual timing), of their masters or mistresses.

Marriages of slaves to their masters or mistresses usually don't happen in traditional Meitei society.

title: Meitei Culture/Slavery


text:
Electricity and magnetism/Light

The wave equation
In the absence of charges and currents, Maxwell's equations are

$$\operatorname{div} \mathbf{E} = 0$$

$$\operatorname{div}\mathbf{B} = 0$$

$$\operatorname{curl} \mathbf{E} = - \frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}$$

$$\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}$$

We can deduce :

$$\frac{ \partial^2 \mathbf{E} } {\partial t^2} = \frac{1}{\mu_0 \epsilon_0} \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{B} = -\frac{1}{\mu_0 \epsilon_0} \operatorname{curl} \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{E}$$

Or $$ \operatorname{curl} \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{E} = \operatorname{grad} \operatorname{div} \mathbf{E} - \nabla^2 \mathbf{E}$$ ( the proof of this equality, from the definitions of $$\operatorname{curl}$$, $$\operatorname{grad}$$, $$\operatorname{div}$$ and $$\nabla^2$$ is given at the end of this chapter)

$$\operatorname{div}\mathbf{E} = 0$$

and $$\frac{1}{\mu_0 \epsilon_0} = c^2$$

so

$$\frac{ \partial^2 \mathbf{E} } {\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 \mathbf{E}$$

where $$\nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = (\frac{ \partial^2 \mathbf{E} } {\partial x^2}, \frac{ \partial^2 \mathbf{E} } { \partial y^2}, \frac{ \partial^2 \mathbf{E} } {\partial z^2})$$

$$\frac{ \partial^2 \mathbf{E} } {\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 \mathbf{E}$$ is the wave equation. Its solutions are waves that propagate at the speed $$c$$ of light, or superpositions of such waves.

Plane waves
A wave that propagates throughout space is a function $$f$$ of 4 variables, x, y, z and t, 3 space coordinates and one time coordinate. $$f(x,y,z,t) = f (\mathbf{r}, t)$$ is the field at the point $$\mathbf{r} = (x,y,z)$$

To understand a plane wave, we can think of a mille-feuille whose leaves can slide over each other. A wave can then propagate in the direction perpendicular to the leaves. If a moving leaf carries its two neighbors and is carried by them, a movement on one side of the mille-feuille can propagate to the other side. This propagation movement is a plane wave.

If the direction of propagation is the x axis, the leaves are vertical planes and the movement of a point does not depend on its position on the leaf, it only depends on its x abscissa. A plane wave can therefore be represented by a function $$f(x, t)$$ which depends only on a spatial coordinate x and time t. It is a one-dimensional wave, because it depends only on one spatial coordinate.

If, moreover, the leaves always move in the same vertical direction, their movement can be measured by a single number, their movement in the vertical direction. The plane wave can then be represented by a function $$f(x, t)$$ whose value is a single real number. If the motion were more complicated, $$\mathbf{f}(x, t)$$ would be a vector.

Let $$g$$ be a real function of a single real variable. $$g(x)$$ is a real number that depends only on the real number $$x$$.

$$g$$ can represent any curved line in a plane that never goes back, extending infinitely from left to right. This way, for each $$x$$, there is a unique point on the line whose coordinate is $$x$$. The distance from this point to the horizontal axis is $$g(x)$$.

Let $$f$$ be the real function of two real variables, defined by

$$f(x, t) = g(x - ct)$$

$$f$$ represents a plane wave which propagates without distortion at speed $$c$$. The sign of $$c$$ determines the direction of propagation. The mille-feuille is deformed by the propagation of the wave, but the $$g$$ shape of this deformation does not change. It remains the same throughout its journey. Such a wave can therefore transmit a message from one point to another, as far away as we want. $$c$$ is the signal propagation speed.

An electromagnetic wave is a wave of an electric force $$\mathbf{E}$$ and magnetic force $$\mathbf{B}$$ which propagates at the speed $$c$$ of the light :

The wave $$f$$ is a solution of the wave equation $$\frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 f$$

Proof :

As $$f$$ does not depend on y or z,

$$\frac{ \partial f } {\partial y} = \frac{ \partial f } {\partial z} = 0$$

so

$$\nabla^2 f = \frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial x^2}$$

Now

$$\frac{ \partial f } {\partial t} (x, t) = -c \frac{ \partial g } {\partial x} (x - ct)$$

$$\frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial t^2} (x, t) = c^2 \frac{ \partial^2 g } {\partial x^2} (x - ct)$$

We can show in the same way that

$$\frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial x^2} (x, t) = \frac{ \partial^2 g } {\partial x^2} (x - ct)$$

So $$\frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial t^2} (x, t) = c^2 \frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial x^2} (x, t) $$ for all x and all t.

Are electromagnetic waves mechanical?
A mechanical wave is a wave that propagates by setting masses in motion:

Maxwell believed that electromagnetic waves were similar to mechanical waves that propagate in a material medium, which he called the ether, and which was supposed to fill the entire Universe, since light propagates everywhere, and because mechanical waves like sound do not propagate in a vacuum.

When a wave is mechanical, its material support does not propagate. The moving masses oscillate around an equilibrium position. In a homogeneous and isotropic medium, the speed of wave propagation is the same in all directions. It is the speed of the wave relative to its material support, which we measure when we are at rest in relation to this support. If we are moving relative to the material support, the speed of the waves is not the same in all directions.

If light propagated in the ether, we would have to observe this dependence of its speed on its direction, because we cannot always be at rest with respect to the ether. We tried to observe it, but we never succeeded.

The theory of relativity posits that the speed of light is always the same for all observers, regardless of their motion. This is absurd from a classical point of view because the speeds measured by observers in relative motion are always different. Einstein showed that there is however no contradiction, provided that we admit that the simultaneity of events depends on the movement of the person observing them. According to Einstein, time is not absolute, because the simultaneity of events is not absolute, but relative to the observer.

If light propagated in the ether, the measurement of its speed would depend on the movement of the observer relative to the ether. So the theory of relativity dictates that the ether does not exist. Light is a wave without material support.

Electromagnetic waves are waves of electric and magnetic force that propagate in a vacuum. They are not mechanical waves because they can propagate without putting masses in motion.

Monochromatic waves
A wave $$A$$ is monochromatic with frequency $$f = 2 \pi \omega$$ if and only if for all $$\mathbf{r}$$ and all t, $$A(\mathbf{r},t) = A(\mathbf{r}) \operatorname{sin}(\omega t + \phi(\mathbf{r}))$$

$$\omega$$ is the angular frequency, or the pulsation..

A monochromatic sound wave is pure sound. The higher its frequency, the more high-pitched it is.

A monochromatic light wave is a pure color, one of the colors of the rainbow, but extremely bright, as if we could see the rainbow in front of the night sky. Low frequency light is red. If we increase the frequency, we reach violet, the highest frequency, passing through orange, yellow, green and blue, in that order. Beyond violet, we find ultraviolet, X-rays and $$\gamma$$ rays. Below red, we find infrared, microwaves and radio waves, the frequency of which can be as low as we want.

White light is a superposition of monochromatic lights. A rainbow and a prism sparate the components of white light and thus reveal its spectrum, that is to say its composition in monochromatic lights:

A monochromatic plane wave of pulsation $$\omega$$ which propagates at speed $$c$$ is represented by a function $$A$$ such that

$$A(x,t) = A \operatorname{sin} ( \omega t - kx ) $$

where $$ A$$ is a constant, $$k = 2 \pi / \lambda$$, $$\lambda$$ is the wavelength.

The definitions of $$c$$, $$\lambda$$, $$f$$, $$\omega$$ and $$k$$ lead to

$$ c = \lambda f = \omega / k$$

The superposition of waves
If $$A$$ and $$B$$ are two wave solutions of the wave equation $$\frac{ \partial^2 f } {\partial t^2} = c ^2 \nabla^2 f$$, then $$A+B$$ is also a wave solution of the wave equation.

Proof: the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives, so $$ \frac{\partial^2 (A+B)}{\partial t^2} = \frac{\partial^2 A}{\partial t^2} + \frac{\partial^2 B}{\partial t^2}$$ and $$ \nabla^2 (A+B) = \nabla^2 A + \nabla^2 B$$.

Photons are particles of light. Electromagnetic waves represent their movements. Photons do not collide. An illuminated object can emit light without being hindered by the light illuminating it, because light going in one direction is not hindered by light going in the other direction. Photons can pass through each other without knowing each other, as if each could pass through the other. The superposition of waves explains this mutual indifference of photons. Two waves propagating in opposite directions are superposed at the point where they meet, and this superposition does not affect their propagation.

The superposition of waves is a very general principle with which most phenomena are explained, in particular the decomposition of white light, because it is a superposition of monochromatic waves.

Standing waves
A wave $$A$$ is stationary if and only if for all $$\mathbf{r}$$ and all $$t$$, $$A(\mathbf{r },t) = f(t) A(\mathbf{r})) $$

Such a wave does not propagate. The shape defined by $$A(\mathbf{r}))$$ vibrates in place but does not move.

The vibrations of a string stretched at its ends and the surface of a drum are standing sound waves. The vibrations of air enclosed in a cavity, such as inside a guitar, are also standing sound waves.

Let $$A$$ and $$B$$ be two identical monochromatic plane waves, except that they propagate in opposite directions.

$$A(x,t) = A \operatorname{sin}(\omega t - k x)$$

$$B(x,t) = A \operatorname{sin}(\omega t + k x)$$

$$A + B$$ is a standing wave.

Proof: $$ \operatorname{sin} (a+b) + \operatorname{sin} (a-b) = 2 \operatorname{sin} a \operatorname{cos} b$$. So $$(A+B)(x,t) = 2A \operatorname{sin} \omega t \operatorname{cos} kx$$

If light is trapped between two parallel mirrors, both perpendicular to its direction of propagation, it is reflected on the two mirrors and therefore propagates at the same time in two opposite directions. It thus produces a standing wave. Light trapped between two mirrors inside a laser is a standing wave.

The reflection of light

Sound waves are pressure waves. All bodies, solid, liquid or gaseous, can vibrate. When they vibrate, they cause neighboring bodies to vibrate. This vibration is sound. When it is transmitted through the air to an ear, it vibrates its eardrum, which is like the surface of a very small drum. This vibration is transformed by neurons into electrical signals which propagate to the brain.

Sound is also a density wave, because the pressure of bodies depends on their density.

Sound is also a wave of velocity, because in the absence of movement, the density of bodies is constant.

Echo is the reflection of sound off a cliff or wall, in the same way that light is reflected by a mirror.

A soft wall does not reflect sound. The harder the wall, the better it reverberates sound. The reverberation of sound is its reflection, its bouncing off the hard walls.

A very hard wall does not vibrate, or almost not. Its velocity field is zero. The same goes for the air in contact with it.

A wave on the surface of the water is reflected because it must remain horizontal, perpendicular to the wall which reflects it. So its slope is equal to zero.

If a mirror is metallic, the electric field parallel to its surface is zero, or almost zero, because the electric charges are mobile, they are constantly moving so as to cancel the electric forces that move them. A metal mirror behaves towards light like a hard wall towards sound waves, because it cancels the electric field parallel to its surface.

Consider a plane wave $$f$$ which propagates without deformation towards the right (increasing x) emitted at a point located at $$x = -a$$ in the direction of a reflecting wall located at $$x = 0$$. $$f$$ is determined by its movement at $$x=-a$$, which can be the emitting source of the wave.

$$f(x,t) = g(x-ct) = f(-a, t - (a+x)/c)$$ because $$-a - c(t -(a +x)/c) = x -ct$$

We seek a solution $$F$$ of the wave equation such that $$F(0, t) =0$$ for all t, since the field must cancel on the reflective wall.

$$F(x,t) = f(x,t) - f(-x,t) = g(x-ct) - g(-(x+ct))$$

By definition of $$F$$, $$F(0,t)=0$$ for all $$t$$.

$$F$$ is the superposition of two waves that are symmetrical to each other. One is the reflection of the opposite of the other relative to the reflecting wall. The two waves $$g(x-ct)$$ and $$-g(-(x+ct))$$ propagate in opposite directions. The wave $$-g(-(x+ct))$$ could be emitted by a point at $$x=a$$ which has a movement opposite to that of the initial emitter:

$$-g(-(a+ct))=-g(-a-ct)$$

Everything happens as if the reflecting wall produced a wave emitted by a body exactly symmetrical to the body emitting the initial wave. It's the mirror effect. We see in a mirror as if the bodies in front of it were present behind it.

Electromagnetism therefore explains why metal surfaces are always shiny and reflective.

Rough surfaces also reflect light, unless they are black and perfectly absorbent. But they do not have the effect of a mirror:

The eye and the formation of images
For an image to form, it is enough for each point on the image plane to receive the light emitted by a single point on the object. The wider the light source that illuminates a point in the image, the blurrier the image.

We can see an image on a white wall in a dark room if we let the light pass through a small hole made through the shutters. We can thus see the sunny opposite facade projected upside down on a wall or on a white sheet. Each point on the wall receives light from a single point on the facade if the hole is very small. If the hole is large the image is blurry.

A curved interface between two transparent materials has the property of making the light passing through it converge, or diverge.

Images form at the back of the eye, upside down, because light from one point on an object converges on a single point at the back of the eye.

We explain the propagation of light in transparent materials with Maxwell's equations. The formation of images is therefore also a consequence of Maxwell's equations.

The refraction of light
Refraction of light explains why a stick appears broken by the surface of water and why lenses can cause light waves to converge or diverge.

Refraction is explained by the difference in the speed of propagation of light between two transparent materials. Light is always slower in transparent materials than in a vacuum, 300,000 km/s. In the air this slowdown is very slight, but in water its speed is almost 215,000 km/s, and in a diamond it goes down to 125,000 km/s.

When the direction of propagation of light is perpendicular to the surface between the two materials it passes through, it is not modified:

But the light is all the more deviated as its initial direction of propagation deviates from the perpendicular to the surface:

If we have our heads underwater and look at the edge of the pool, beings seem to be further away than they really are:

Conversely, if we are in the air, and if we look at beings underwater, they appear to be closer than they actually are. This is why the sticks appear to be broken by the water surface:

We see in this photograph that the brush is broken by the surface of the water and that it is enlarged by the curved surface of the glass, as if this surface was were a magnifying glass.

Light always obeys Fermat's principle: the path followed by light is always the shortest among all possible paths.

A lifeguard is on a beach. If the person she has to save from drowning is in front of her, she chooses the shortest path, which is in a straight line, perpendicular to the line of the beach. If the future rescued person is not in front of her, she must not go in a straight line, because she runs faster on the beach than she swims in the water. She must therefore choose a broken line as her trajectory, first running on the beach to be almost in front of the future rescued person, then swimming. Light does the same when it passes from air into water.

Intelligence is to choose the best among the possibilities, or at least a satisfactory one. Light always chooses the shortest path, because there is no time to lose.

The slowing of light in water and other transparent materials is explained with the Maxwell and Lorentz equations. When light passes through a material, its charges begin to move and themselves become light-emitting sources. The superposition of the incident wave and the induced waves is the cause of the reduction in the speed of the resulting wave, and therefore of the refraction of light.

Interference
One of the most astonishing consequences of the principle of superposition is that light plus light can equal darkness:

The energy of the light we observe is proportional to $$\mathbf{E}^2$$, the scalar square of the electric field it propagates. If two light sources produce equal and opposite electric fields, their superposition produces a zero field, without energy, therefore an absence of light, darkness.

In Young's slit experiment, two slits allow light to pass through. If we observe the light on a screen which receives it, we see an alternation of dark and bright fringes, but the dark parts are illuminated by the two slits like the bright parts:

Young understood in 1803 that waves in opposite directions cancel each other out while they add up when they have the same direction:

The polarization of light
Sunglasses sometimes have polarized lenses:

Light is linearly polarized when it has a direction perpendicular to its direction of propagation. A polarizer is a filter that stops light polarized in one direction and lets it pass if it is polarized in the perpendicular direction.

Circular polarization is a superposition of two linearly polarized waves:

When light is circularly polarized, it has a direction of rotation around its direction of propagation. For quantum physics, the polarization of light is the spin of photons. Photons have spin means that they have rotational inertia, like spinning tops. Rotational inertia is what makes a body maintain the same axis and the same speed of rotation. It is what keeps the moving bicycles in balance. Stationary bicycles do not have this balance, because their wheels do not turn.

Light from the Sun or from incandescent light-emitting materials is not polarized. But the light in the sky is polarized. The light obtained by reflection on a mirror, on water or on a glass can also be polarized.

To see if the light is polarized, simply look at it through a polarizing glass that is rotated around an axis perpendicular to its surface:

These two photographs were taken with a polarizer filter that was rotated 90° between the left and right images.

When we put a material under stress, it generally behaves like a polarizer. This polarization effect reveals the stress:

If we place a crystal between two crossed polarizers that we rotate, we can obtain very beautiful effects, because birefringent crystals behave like polarizers:

Maxwell's equations show that the direction of linearly polarized light is the direction of the electric field $$\mathbf{E}$$.

$$\mathbf{E}$$ and $$\mathbf{B}$$ are always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave.

Proof for a plane wave: the partial derivatives with respect to y and z are zero, since the field depends neither on y nor on z. According to Maxwell's fourth equation, the component $$E_x$$ in the direction of propagation of the electric field $$\mathbf{E}$$ is such that $$\frac{\partial E_x}{\partial t} = -c^2 (\frac{\partial B_z}{\partial y} - \frac{\partial B_y}{\partial z}) = 0$$. Since $$E_x$$ cannot vary over time, it cannot propagate a wave. It is therefore zero for a propagating wave. The same argument holds for $$B_x$$ from Maxwell's third equation.

Let there be light
The Maxwell and Lorentz equations predict the existence of light and all its properties: its propagation, its colors, its standing waves, its reflection, why it forms images, its refraction, its interference and its polarization. They make it possible to study most of the properties of matter (except its radioactivity, which is of nuclear origin, and its gravity) and its interactions with light.

The electromagnetic field has an autonomous existence. Once accelerated electrical charges produce light, it propagates on its own, and the charges that produced it can no longer stop it.

By giving Maxwell's equations (or Coulomb's law and the relativistic geometry of space-time) God gave the laws which make that light can exist, that we can see it and that we can see the world thanks to it. God said “Let there be light” giving the laws of electromagnetism, the equations of Maxwell and Lorentz.

The nabla operator
The gradient of a scalar field, the divergence and the rotational of a vector field are the three fundamental operators with which physicists do most of their calculations, particularly in electrodynamics and fluid dynamics. All three can be written with the nabla $$\nabla$$ operator:

$$\nabla = ( \frac{\partial}{\partial x}, \frac{\partial}{\partial y}, \frac{\partial}{\partial z} )$$

$$\operatorname{grad}A = \nabla A = ( \frac{\partial A}{\partial x}, \frac{\partial A}{\partial y}, \frac{\partial A}{\partial z} )$$

$$\operatorname{div}\mathbf{A} = \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} = \frac{\partial A_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial A_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial z}$$

$$\operatorname{curl}\mathbf{A} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A} = (\frac{\partial A_z}{\partial y} - \frac{\partial A_y}{\partial z}, \frac{\partial A_x}{\partial z} - \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial x}, \frac{\partial A_y}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial A_x}{\partial y})$$

$$\nabla^2 = \nabla \cdot \nabla = \frac{ \partial^2} {\partial x^2} + \frac{ \partial^2 } {\partial y^2} + \frac{ \partial^2 } {\partial z^2}$$

$$ \operatorname{curl} \operatorname{curl} \mathbf{A} = \operatorname{grad} \operatorname{div} \mathbf{A} - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}$$ can therefore be written:

$$ \nabla \times (\nabla \times \mathbf{A}) = \nabla (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{A}) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}$$

Proof of $$ \nabla \times (\nabla \times \mathbf{A}) = \nabla (\nabla \cdot \mathbf{A}) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}$$:

$$ (\nabla \times (\nabla \times \mathbf{A}))_x = \frac{\partial }{\partial y} (\frac{\partial A_y}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial A_x}{\partial y}) - \frac{\partial}{\partial z}(\frac{\partial A_x}{\partial z} - \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial x})$$

$$= \frac{\partial }{\partial x}(\frac{\partial A_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial z}) - (\frac{\partial^2 }{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 }{\partial z^2})A_x$$

$$= \frac{\partial }{\partial x}(\frac{\partial A_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial A_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial z}) - (\frac{\partial^2 }{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 }{\partial y^2} + \frac{\partial^2 }{\partial z^2})A_x$$

The calculation is similar for the other two components.

title: Electricity and magnetism/Light


text:
Talk:Fundamentals of Transportation/Queueing and Traffic Flow/Additional Problems

Why flow become zero
tell answer indeed of this question ❓ 2402:3A80:4390:48B0:0:37:D45B:7701 (discuss) 12:29, 20 February 2024 (UTC)


text:
User:LittleDictionary

Hi there! :)

title: User:LittleDictionary


text:
User:LittleDictionary/sandbox

Hi there! :)

title: User:LittleDictionary/sandbox


text: Learning Python 3 with the Linkbot/Printable version


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Aklanon

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Aklanon and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Aklanon alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 560,000 native speakers of Aklanon as of 2010.

Where is this language spoken?
Aklanon is an Austronesian language of the Bisayan subgroup spoken by the Aklanon people in the province of Aklan on the island of Panay in the Philippines.

What is the history of this language?
Aklanon is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Aklanon. Aklanon therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Roman A. dela Cruz was a writer on multiple subjects, he has then published short stories, poems, two novels, several essays and articles on various subjects and several books ranging from religious apologetics and Bible passages, local history school textbooks, juvenile stories, strange experience stories, a successful treatise on a claim and a diverse lot of many others. His monumental contribution to Aklan is his 929-page five-language dictionary that came out in 2004. It includes English, Hiligaynon, Tagalog, Kinaray-a and Aklanon words.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Pagbugtaw it Aga-aga is an Aklanon song.

Here's the English translation of that song.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Aklanon


text: Category:Celery seed recipes

title: Category:Celery seed recipes


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Kinaray-a

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Kinaray-a and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Kinaray-a alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 600,000 native speakers of Kinaray-a language as of 2010.

Where is this language spoken?
Kinaray-a is an Austronesian regional language in the Philippines spoken by the Karay-a people, mainly in Antique.

What is the history of this language?
Kinaray-a is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Soon after the Age of Contact came and the Philippines started trading with other people like Persians, Arabs, Malays, Indians, Japanese, and Chinese. The people who traded with the Filipinos also introduced their language and culture, and soon after the Filipinos started using words from their languages and dressed, ate, and lived like them.

The Spaniards came and introduced Spanish, taught the Filipinos Spanish, and soon after many Spanish words entered the Language. The Americans came and introduced English and encouraged the use of English, so English words also entered Kinaray-a. Kinaray-a therefore is one of the most diverse languages of the world, with Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese, ../Mandarin Chinese/, Nahuatl, Persian, ../Arabic/, ../Japanese/, ../Spanish/, and ../English/ loanwords.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Alex C. Delos Santos is a Kinaray-a writer born in San Jose, Antique. UGSAD KANG KINARAY-A is the second book written entirely in Kinaray-a by Delos Santos, after his controversial collection of gay short stories AGI, AGI MAY PUTAY SA DAHI published in 2006.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Antique, Banwa Nga Hamili is the provincial hymn of Antique.

English Translation (by Ulysses C. Loresto)

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Kinaray-a


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/North Macedonia/Image


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Ivatan

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Ivatan and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet.

The Ivatan alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ñ' (enye), which the Filipinos borrowed from the Spanish, and 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

How many people speak this language?
There are 33,000 native speakers of Ivatan language.

Where is this language spoken?
Ivatan is a Philippine language of Austronesian origins spoken in the Batanes Islands of the Philippines.

What is the history of this language?
Ivatan is an Austronesian Language. It was thought that the Austronesian language came from Taiwan and migrated southwards through sailing. They first reached Batanes islands, by around 2200 BCE.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Ivatan language doesn't have any writers at all.

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Madahet i Mata Mo is an Ivatan folksong.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Ivatan


text:
User:LukeSRoss

Student at WSU studying MSE. Currently working on revising the Overview of Elasticity in Materials Wikibook for publishing.

title: User:LukeSRoss


text:
Kitchen Remodel/Cabinet installation trouble shooting

In this chapter, I will write about some problems that we expectedly or unexpectedly faced during our kitchen installation, and how we solved them.

A too low stretch of ceiling
An expected cause of trouble that we had to cope with during our cabinet installation was the low ceiling above the refrigerator/oven row of cabinets and in the pantry space. It has a height (concrete floor to ceiling) of 83" (221 cm). The cabinets are, without legs, 80" (203 cm), and the legs require at least 3½" (9 cm). The European version of those legs would have saved us, since they require only a minimum of 2¾" (7 cm), but those are not available in the U.S.

As I already mentioned in the previous chapter, we solved this problem by cutting the legs down to the length that we needed. For additional support, we also used brackets for island support and a great many screws that went into the walls, into the ceiling and from one cabinet into another.

A slanting stretch of ceiling
I designed the space that is shown in the first image below to accommodate a row of high cabinets, including our refrigerator, the oven and the microwave oven.

Originally, I had planned to align those elements with the front edge of the dropped ceiling. Then we noticed that this dropped ceiling isn't level but slopes down to the right by half an inch. There was no way aligning it with the top edge of the cabinets.

We fixed that problem by moving the entire cabinet block one inch forward into the kitchen space and covering its vertical edges with two strips of cover panel. The ceiling is still slanted, but the cabinets cover it now.

A not wide enough space
Some of the distress that the installation of our kitchen cabinets gave as came from my incomplete knowledge of Ikea's 153° hinges. For the "extra", a pair of 18" high cabinets, we had designed a a special recess with walls at both sides. That recess was not too narrow to hold the cabinets – they went into their places without a problem –, but after we mounted the first door, we noticed that it wouldn't open wide enough to allow the drawers which lay behind this door to open.

The solution was not the most elegant, but for our purposes it is absolutely sufficient: Instead of mounting those doors to the exterior sides of the two cabinets, we used the interior sides. Since these are wide opening hinges, the access to the cabinets' interior is virtually not impaired. The only downside is that the two doors cannot be opened at the same time.

Another not wide enough space
It never rains but it pours. The most severe problem that we had to deal with, arose during the installation of our pantry row of cabinets. Those were supposed to fit between two walls: one that was already there before the remodel and another one we had newly built just for this purpose. The row includes 3 high cabinets of 30"+30"+18", which add up to 78". We directed our contractor to position the new wall accordingly and to also add a little extra margin for safety.

We got a width of 78¼".

Guess what, that was not enough. What we had not considered was:

 * 1) That the left-most cabinet had to be removed from the wall ¼" (6 mm) so that its left door can be opened (see section above). Flipping of hinge sides not possible in this case, because the cabinets have pairs of doors.
 * 2) The old wall, the one at the right side, turned out not be vertical but to lean outwards, with its lower half getting in our way.

My first idea was to tear the half-inch-drywall down on the right-hand wall and to replace it with the thinnest drywall that was available. But even that would not have been enough. Since we were not inclined to modify both walls, just to reap the needed fraction of an inch, we decided not to use ¼" drywall, but hardboard, which is only 1/8" thick. This did the trick, it works fine and isn't even noticeable.

One possible alternative would have been to shave the cabinet to size. That we didn't want to do because it might have compromised the functionality of the cabinet's door.


text: Category:Chanterelle recipes

title: Category:Chanterelle recipes


text:
User talk:208.168.248.20

--SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 03:06, 22 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:208.168.248.20


text:
Steam Deck

This is a guide and manual for Valve Steam Deck that is a gaming handheld as well as a personal computer.

There is a wikibook title for History of video games/Platforms/Steam Deck

On Windows 10: Setup Steam
If you don't use SteamOS 3 Arch Linux and have Windows 10;

If the game does not correctly use Steam deck controller, you can install Steam and enable it through adding Windows games as non Steam game into Steam library, if there are still problems you could install Steamdeck Windows Controller Driver (SWICD) that should help there is a guide too steamcommunity [ https://steaminput.wiki/en/home ]

Losing battery while shutdown
1.Shutdown your Steam Deck

2.Hold down the volume up (+) button and press the power button to boot into BIOS

3.Open BIOS

4.Open Setup Utility, Open Power

5.Select Battery Storage mode

6.Select Yes

7.Your device will boot up in battery storage mode

title: Steam Deck


text:
Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2024/January

Special:Contributions/139.130.241.224
Making bad pages etc. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 06:51, 3 January 2024 (UTC)

Special:Contributions/Jojohohoho
Vandalism. ASid (discuss • contribs) 16:17, 3 January 2024 (UTC)
 * edit.ASid (discuss • contribs) 16:19, 3 January 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅ by WikiBayer. --SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 03:16, 4 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you for the notification ASid (discuss • contribs) 05:55, 4 January 2024 (UTC)

A discussion on the Commons admin noticeboard may be of interest to Wikibooks admins
I have started a discussion at Commons:Administrators' noticeboard/User problems#Prototyperspective and "AI Art Application and Improvements Handbook" on Wikibooks which may be of interest to administrators on this project. The Squirrel Conspiracy (discuss • contribs) 08:24, 9 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Thank you for the heads-up! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:11, 9 January 2024 (UTC)

Remove permission
Hi there, I was wondering if someone could remove the editor right from my account here? I don't think I'll need it in the foreseeable future. Much appreciated! Best, Maximillion Pegasus (discuss • contribs) 06:24, 7 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Unless you really want us to, there's no reason to remove it. The right is granted automatically, and not removed when editors become inactive. MarcGarver (discuss • contribs) 10:00, 9 January 2024 (UTC)
 * As long as it's not a problem, I will humbly keep it. Appreciate your help. Kind regards, Maximillion Pegasus (discuss • contribs) 14:38, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

Linking Question
What is the WB policy on linking again? I have been operating under the assumption that relying on linking out to 1) other wiki projects, 2) external sites, and 3) other books is discouraged since our books are intended to be mostly self contained (as compared to say, Wikipedia which is an encyclopedic repository of information including some linking). But, I'm now having trouble finding this in policy. @MarcGarver was it you I got this information from? Or maybe @Leaderboard or @Xania? Thanks! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 00:11, 15 January 2024 (UTC)
 * It's not a policy, it's a recommended practice covered here Dewikify and here Using Wikibooks/Wikipedian Primer. The exception is that there is an unofficial policy (i.e., administrative practice) of removing links from Wikijunior because it is supposed to be safe for children so providing links out to, say, Wikipedia, breaks that safeness. MarcGarver (discuss • contribs) 09:47, 15 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Perfect, thank you! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 16:46, 15 January 2024 (UTC)

Informing you about the Mental Health Resource Center and inviting any comments you may have
Hello Wikibooks folks! I work in the Community Resilience and Sustainability team of the Wikimedia Foundation. The Mental Health Resource Center is a group of pages on Meta-wiki aimed at supporting the mental wellbeing of users in our community.

The Mental Health Resource Center launched in August 2023. The goal is to review the comments and suggestions to improve the Mental Health Resource Center each quarter. As there have not been many comments yet, I’d like to invite you to provide comments and resource suggestions as you are able to do so on the Mental Health Resource Center talk page. The hope is this resource expands over time to cover more languages and cultures. Thank you! Best, JKoerner (WMF) (discuss • contribs) 21:07, 18 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I think this needs community attention rather than admin assistance, should this be moved to Reading room/General? MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 08:59, 21 January 2024 (UTC)

Special:Contributions/Mr_Backwards_2
Evidently a vandalism-only account. Please block, thanks! Fehufanga (discuss • contribs) 10:22, 23 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Appears to be globally locked. Cheers! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:05, 23 January 2024 (UTC)

Move protection to Sandbox
One of our editors has repeated problematic moves on the sandbox page. Problematic redirects that came from this move are now tagged for deletion. Please consider move protection to Sandbox to prevent this issue from coming back. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 07:24, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Protected the sandbox and some other key pages this user moved. Thank you for the heads up! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:32, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

Do we allow DeepL translations?
I'm bringing this question here because The Wikimedia movement claims to be this kind of translation, and can be considered as problematic (language and copyright issues). MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 02:19, 11 January 2024 (UTC)
 * there is no general prohibition. The output may not be a good translation, which is clearly a problem. In terms of copyright, I reviewed the T&Cs on the deepl.com website and there appears to be no copyright issue albeit that I am not a lawyer. The content on the source project is licensed to allow it to be uploaded to deepl.com, and deepl.com makes no claim to copyright. In general a translation is a derivative work so the copyright resides with the original author, not the translator. I recommend importing the foreign language version here first, then translating it, to preserve the attribution history. MarcGarver (discuss • contribs) 14:07, 11 January 2024 (UTC)

 * 7.4 All rights regarding the Content, Processed Content and/or Customer Training Data remain with Customer. However, Customer grants DeepL the non-exclusive worldwide right to use the Content and/or Customer Training Data solely in order to provide DeepL’s services to Customer. In particular, Customer grants to DeepL the right to temporarily store, modify, process, translate and transmit the Content and/or Customer Training Data, and to sublicense the foregoing rights to its subcontractors, to the extent required to provide the services set out in this Agreement.

 * 7.5 DeepL does not assume any copyrights to the translations made by Customer using the Products. In the event that the translations made by Customer using the Products are deemed to be protected under copyright laws to the benefit of DeepL, DeepL grants to Customer, upon creation of such translations, all exclusive, transferable, sublicensable, worldwide perpetual rights to use the translations without limitation and for any existing or future types of use, including without limitation the right to modify the translations and to create derivative works.
 * Thank you very much, my understanding about the usage of machine translations at Wikimedia projects was vague and possibly outdated, so I appreciate the clarification. I know that different projects may have different preferences for machine translation, and that is why I brought this to admin attention. If there are any other related discussions about the usage of machine translation at English Wikibooks, I would also like to learn about them. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 11:37, 15 January 2024 (UTC) (Fixed indent, MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 11:37, 15 January 2024 (UTC))
 * Hello @MarcGarver and @MathXplore, I've taken note of this discussion and will shortly be importing the contents of the book I've authored from its original French version. I'll then invite members of the community to translate the book into English. Thank you for this discussion, which has enabled me to anticipate the best thing to do. A wonderful end to the day! Best regards, Lionel Scheepmans (discuss • contribs) 15:18, 30 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh ! @MathXplore. As you are administrator on en.wikibooks, is that possible for you to import all pages of the French version of the book, and by the way keeping all edition history of all subpages that compose the book in Wikibooks?
 * Here is the page from where you can all subpages in question, but if I do not mistake, it's also possible to import automatically all subpages, choosing an option during the importation of the main page. Do not hesitate to pink me if you have doubt or question. Best regards, Lionel Scheepmans (discuss • contribs) 15:29, 30 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Manually importing pages don't need advanced permissions, so you can do it by yourself with providing attribution. I only import things when I understand the language, French is not included in my language preferences. For the full list of our admins, please see Administrators. MathXplore (discuss • contribs) 02:39, 31 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for this new opinion @MathXplore. Have a nice day ! Lionel Scheepmans (discuss • contribs) 17:11, 31 January 2024 (UTC)


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/Saint Kitts and Nevis/Image


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/Saint Lucia/Image


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/Saint Vincent and the Grenadines/Image


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/Samoa/Image

title: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/Samoa/Image


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/San Marino/Image


text: Wikijunior:Countries A-Z/São Tomé and Príncipe/Image


text:
Polish/Instrumental case

Narzędnik (Instrumental)
The instrumental case in Polish is used in the following situations:
 * 1) Indicates the object of a sentence when it is used with certain verbs, prepositions, or phrases.
 * 2) * Idę z Piotrem. - I'm going with Piotr. (Piotrem is in the instrumental case)
 * 3) Used for sentences of the type "to jest …" when the subject is not a pronoun.
 * 4) * To jest moim domem. - This is my house. (moim domem is in the instrumental case)
 * 5) Indicates the means or way something is done.
 * 6) * Piszę długopisem. - I'm writing with a pen. (długopisem is in the instrumental case)

The instrumental case answers the questions with who? (z kim?) and with what? (z czym?).

Singular
The singular form of the instrumental case is formed by adding specific endings to the nominative form.

Noun Declension
See Polish/Hard and soft consonants

Plural
In the plural form, nouns in Polish are declined based on gender, either as virile (masculine personal) or nonvirile (masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter).

title: Polish/Instrumental case


text:
Italian/Grammar/Interrogatives

Interrogatives in Italian Grammar
Interrogatives, or "parole interrogative," are used to ask questions in Italian. They are essential tools for obtaining information and are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence. Here are the main interrogatives in Italian:

1. **Chi?** - Who? 2. **Che cosa? / Cosa? / Che?** - What? 3. **Quando?** - When? 4. **Dove?** - Where? 5. **Perché?** - Why? 6. **Come?** - How? 7. **Quanto/a/i/e?** - How much/many?

Let's look at each one in more detail:

- **Chi? (Who?)**: This interrogative is used to ask about people. For example, "Chi è quella persona?" (Who is that person?).

- **Che cosa? / Cosa? / Che? (What?)**: These interrogatives are interchangeable and used to inquire about things or activities. For example, "Che cosa stai facendo?" (What are you doing?).

- **Quando? (When?)**: This interrogative is used to ask about time. For example, "Quando arriva il treno?" (When does the train arrive?).

- **Dove? (Where?)**: This interrogative is used to ask about location. For example, "Dove abiti?" (Where do you live?).

- **Perché? (Why?)**: This interrogative is used to ask for explanations or reasons. For example, "Perché sei triste?" (Why are you sad?).

- **Come? (How?)**: This interrogative is used to ask about the manner in which something is done. For example, "Come stai?" (How are you?).

- **Quanto/a/i/e? (How much/many?)**: This interrogative agrees in gender and number with the noun it refers to. It's used to ask about quantity. For example, "Quanto zucchero vuoi nel caffè?" (How much sugar do you want in the coffee?).

Remember, the use of intonation is crucial when asking questions in Italian. Even without these interrogatives, you can turn a statement into a question by raising your intonation at the end of the sentence.

title: Italian/Grammar/Interrogatives


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Tausug

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Tausug and almost all of the languages in the Philippines are written using the Latin alphabet. Tausug language has only three vowels, a, i and u.

The Tausug alphabet includes all of the same letters we use in English, along with 'Ng', a digraph already available as a single character in Baybayin.

Where is this language spoken?

Tausug is an Austronesian language spoken in the province of Sulu in the Philippines and in the eastern area of the state of Sabah, Malaysia, by the Tausūg people.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Tausug


text:
User talk:Al wier

Welcome!
Welcome, Al wier!

If you have any questions, you can ask in the assistance reading room or possibly contact me personally.

--Xania   talk 03:43, 23 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Al wier


text:
User:Rozzychan/darnwell2

=Open Educational Resources=

Here I will discuss some OER starting with things I find on Wikibooks.

In general, I find wikibooks like class notes. Instructors upload resources like they might upload their own notes. Sometimes people are inspired and modify a chapter or two. Images, for the most part, come from Wikimedia Commons, but the format inspires people to contribute to the commons in order to put images in books. Derivative work images also occur.

In general, I find OER a bit inconsistent. Published textbooks are often more consistent in the level they are written. Much OER has a moderate consistency for most of the work, and some areas where they are more specialized or specific. I think I will mark such areas - Inconsistent Detail. Other terms to use are Level too low (LTL) and Level too high (LTL).

Another thing I fear is inconsistent referencing. I find the problem in my own work. Some statements need to be verified or updated to reflect the times. That is a major win for wikibooks, because individuals can come in and update and reference facts. The problem is that when they do, it disrupts the style, and damages readability. Having a consistent voice in a work improves readablity.

Return to Rozzychan Rozzychan (discuss • contribs)

title: User:Rozzychan/darnwell2


text:
Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Skyline Drive

This page is for a case study on the Shenandoah National Park scenic byway, Skyline Drive, created by Johnathan Selmer, Jay Shuey, and Guillermo Padilla. It is part of the GOVT 490-003 (Synthesis Seminar for Policy & Government) / CEIE 499-002 (Special Topics in Civil Engineering) class offered at George Mason University taught by Jonathon Gifford.

Summary
The idea of Skyline Drive was first suggested in 1924. In a report from the Southern Appalachian National Park Commission to Secretary of the Interior Hubert Work recommending the establishment of a national park in this area, it was pointed out:

 * “The greatest single feature, however, is a possible skyline drive along the mountain top, following a continuous ridge and looking westerly on the Shenandoah Valley, from 2,500 to 3,500 feet below, and also commanding a view of the Piedmont Plain stretching easterly to the Washington Monument, which landmark may be seen on a clear day. Few scenic drives in the world could surpass it.”

Under the joint supervision of the Bureau of Public Roads and the National Park Service, construction of Skyline Drive began in 1931. By September 15, 1934, the first section of the Drive, 34 miles long, was opened for travel. This made available an extensive region of the Blue Ridge in which was located the vast central portion of the proposed Shenandoah National Park extending from Thornton Gap to Swift Run Gap. Within a year more than one-half million visitors were attracted to this portion of the park.

Today, Skyline Drive has grown and now runs 105 miles north and south along the crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains and continues being the only public road through the Park – attracting over 1.2-million travelers annually.

History/Timeline

 * 1924: Southern Appalachian National Park Committee selects the site for a national park in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, leading to the establishment of Shenandoah National Park.
 * 1929: President Herbert Hoover calls for the construction of a roadway along the Blue Ridge Mountains, initially proposed to be named Hoover Highway but later known as Skyline Drive.
 * January 1931: Field survey for Skyline Drive begins.
 * July 18, 1931: Official groundbreaking for Skyline Drive.
 * Late 1932: Congress approves $1 million for the construction of Skyline Drive.
 * 1933: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) is formed and contributes to the construction of Skyline Drive.

 * Mid-1934: Section of Skyline Drive between Thornton Gap and Swift Run Gap opens.
 * 1935: Shenandoah National Park officially established, CCC continues construction on Skyline Drive.
 * October 1, 1936: Skyline Drive completed between Front Royal and Thornton Gap.
 * August 29, 1939: Portion of Skyline Drive from Swift Run Gap to Jarman Gap opens.
 * August 11, 1939: Completion of the Blue Ridge Parkway section between Jarman Gap and Rockfish Gap, later incorporated into Shenandoah National Park as the southernmost portion of Skyline Drive in 1961.
 * 1950s: Original chestnut log guardrails on Skyline Drive removed and not replaced.
 * 1958: Marys Rock Tunnel partially lined with concrete.
 * 1983: Federal Highway Administration begins work to replace original stone walls on Skyline Drive with concrete walls.
 * April 28, 1997: Skyline Drive added to the National Register of Historic Places.
 * September 22, 2005: Skyline Drive designated a National Scenic Byway.
 * October 2008: Skyline Drive designated a National Historic Landmark for its role in the development of national parks in the eastern United States.

Funding and Financing

 * Official groundbreaking was July 18, 1931, although the actual field survey began in January of that year.
 * First section of construction initially was to be from Rapidan Camp to the Skyland Resort, some twenty miles, but evolved into the 34 miles from Swift Run Gap (U.S. 33) to Thornton Gap (U.S. 211). Original funds were allocated by the Federal Drought Relief Administration to employ Virginia farmers and apple pickers suffering from the severe drought impacts on the apple and produce harvests in 1930.
 * Congress appropriated $1,000,000 the fall of 1932 to continue construction of the Drive and the Department of the Interior announced that the Drive would extend from Swift Run Gap to Front Royal.
 * Roosevelt formed the Civilian Conservation Corps and the first two companies in the National Park Service were formed at Skyland (NP-1) and Big Meadows (NP-2). Shenandoah National Park would eventually benefit from ten CCC camps. May, 1933.
 * Skyline Drive from Thornton Gap to Swift Run Gap was completed in the summer of 1934 and opened to the public on September 15, 1934. This section cost $1,570,479 or approximately $39,000/mile.
 * Skyline Drive from Thornton Gap to Front Royal (32 miles) was opened to the public on October 1, 1936 and cost $ 1,235,177 or approximately $42,000/mile.
 * Skyline Drive from Swift Run Gap to Jarman Gap (32.4 miles) was opened to the public on August 29,1939 and cost $1,666,528 or approximately $51,500/mile.
 * Skyline Drive (then Blue Ridge Parkway) from Jarman Gap to Rockfish Gap (8.5 miles) was completed on August 11, 1939 and cost $358,636 or, approximately, $40,000/mile. [The southernmost section of the Drive from Jarman Gap to Rockfish Gap was originally constructed in 1938-1939 as a part of the Blue Ridge Parkway and was deeded to Shenandoah National Park in 1961.
 * Fees are collected at entry points to Skyline Drive (Front Royal, Thornton Gap, Swift Run Gap, Rockfish Gap). Pass options include:
 * $30.00 for a seven-day pass for private non-commercial vehicles
 * $25.00 for motorcycles, $15.00 for individuals 16 and older (not in private non-commercial vehicles)
 * Commercial tours pay between $25.00 and $200.00 based on passengers
 * Annual park pass: $55.00 for private non-commercial vehicles
 * America the Beautiful Pass options:
 * Annual Pass: $80.00
 * Annual Senior Pass: $20.00
 * Lifetime Senior Pass: $80.00
 * Lifetime Access Pass (free for persons with disabilities)
 * Volunteer Pass (free for 250 service hours)
 * Free Annual Pass for U.S. Armed Forces members
 * Free admission for fourth graders' families with the Every Kid in a Park Pass.

Institutional Arrangements - Oversight and Maintenance
Key Actors and Institutions involved with the development and maintenance of the Skyline Drive include:

 * National Park Service (NPS): The designated federal agency responsible for the oversight and maintenance of the entire Skyline Drive.
 * Department of the Interior (DOI): The parent agency that the NPS resides under, DOI directs funding towards NPS projects and collects fees from each park that the NPS administers.
 * Southern Appalachian National Park Committee (SANPC): SANPC played a pivotal role in informing the general public about the overarching national park system and specifically about the creation of Southern Appalachia, as legislated by Congress.
 * Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): The CCC provided the necessary labor force for the construction of Skyline Drive, receieved financial backing, and oversaw the implementation of the scenic byway.
 * Federal Highway Administration (FHA): FHA contributed to the design and provided some oversight during the construction of Skyline Drive. Given its jurisdiction over Federal lands, the FHA ensured compliance with its established standards throughout the development of Skyline Drive.

Narrative of the Case
In the late 19th century, widespread exploitation of natural resources, particularly in the Western regions, prompted growing concerns regarding wasteful practices and the need for conservation measures.

President Theodore Roosevelt emerged as a leading advocate for conservation, making calls for federal oversight of resources and the protection of wilderness areas. Collaborating with influential figures such as John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, advocated preservation of natural resources from use, while Gifford Pinchot, a forester, called instead for conservation, the proper use of natural resources. Together, environmentalist advocacy of different types led to the establishment of the National Park Service by Congress in 1916, and the preservation of areas including Yosemite and Yellowstone. In addition, the Roosevelt administration implemented significant policies, notably the Newlands Act of 1902 and the establishment of the National Conservation Commission in 1909.

The proposal for a ridge road along the Blue Ridge mountains in Virginia was initially embraced as part of a new National Park plan in 1924. However, it sparked intense controversy within the conservation community. Benton MacKaye, a key figure in conservation, opposed the road, fearing it would disrupt the wilderness. On the other hand, Myron Avery, known for his leadership in trail construction, supported the road's inclusion in the Skyline Drive project. Their clash highlighted differing views on wilderness preservation versus accessibility.

Despite MacKaye's objections, the road was built, deepening the divide between preservationists and those advocating for broader public access to nature. The conflict underscored the complexities involved in balancing conservation objectives with societal interests. While MacKaye emphasized preserving the untouched wilderness of the Appalachian region, Avery prioritized practical trail construction and public engagement. Their disagreement left a lasting impact on the history of conservation in the United States, serving as a significant chapter in the evolving narrative of wilderness preservation.

Policy Issues
Environmental Impact & Wildlife Management:

The way Shenandoah National Park has approached their environmental and wildlife management has evolved over time to address challenges from increased human activities, including as they pertain to Skyline Drive. A scenic byway stretching 105 miles through the park, Skyline Drive aimed to provide visitors with stunning views of the Blue Ridge Mountains from the comfort of their vehicles. However, this monumental undertaking altered the landscape and ecosystems and created long-lasting consequences for the park's natural environment.

The construction phase of Skyline Drive involved extensive land clearing, grading, and paving, which resulted in the destruction and fragmentation of local habitats. Habitat fragmentation impedes the movement of wildlife populations, inhibits gene flow between isolated habitats, and increases the vulnerability of species to extinction. Forested areas were cleared to make way for the roadway meanwhile excavations and the construction of bridges and retaining walls altered the park's natural drainage and rate of soil erosion. Skyline Drive's ongoing use as a popular tourist attraction and recreational thoroughfare has continued to impact Shenandoah National Park's environment and wildlife. Influxes of traffic along the roadway introduced air and noise pollution, which disrupted wildlife behavior, and posed risks to pedestrian safety. Regular road maintenance, such as asphalt resurfacing and roadside vegetation management, continue to act as a catalyst of environmental degradation. Invasive species along road corridors pose a threat to native plant communities and exacerbates competition for resources.

Despite these environmental challenges, legislation such as the Clean Air Act, enacted in 1970, have provided regulatory frameworks for environmental protection in Shenandoah National Park. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 required the protection of at-risk species like the Shenandoah Salamander. Recent technological advancements allow park officials to evaluate management effectiveness and monitor wildlife, habitat, and ecosystem health more closely. The SWAS-VTSSS (Stream Water and Sediment Chemistry, Virginia Tech School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences) monitoring program, initiated in 1979, plays a crucial role in evaluating water quality and ecological conditions in mountain streams affected by Skyline Drive and other anthropogenic activities. The program contributes to evidence-based and adaptive management practices in Shenandoah National Park by collecting comprehensive data on stream water chemistry, discharge rates, and ecological responses. The National Park Conservation Association's (NPCA) "Polluted Parks Report" underscores the ongoing challenges posed by air pollution in Shenandoah National Park. Despite its designation as one of only 49 Class I air areas managed by the National Park Service, the park continues to experience significant air quality concerns stemming from external sources of pollution. Efforts to address air quality concerns involve sophisticated monitoring systems, regulatory compliance, and collaborative initiatives to reduce pollution levels and preserve the park's natural resources.

Land Acquisition & Eminent Domain:

The policy of land acquisition and eminent domain for the creation of Shenandoah National Park was a multifaceted and contentious process that unfolded over several years in the 1930s. Discussions about the park's creation began in 1924, but it wasn't until February 1, 1934, that the federal government under Arno Cammerer, director of the National Park Service, announced that the government would not accept land for the park from the state of Virginia until all residents had left the area.

In 1928, the Virginia legislature passed a condemnation law which allowed the state to acquire land for park via eminent domain. However, the law faced opposition from landowners who felt undervalued by the state's appraisal process. By 1933, landowners owning about 20,000 acres of land had contested the appraised values, leading to appeal hearings and delays in the acquisition process. The blanket condemnation law also faced legal challenges, most notably in the case of Robert H. Via, who sued the state on constitutional grounds citing the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Although Via's appeal was ultimately rejected by the Supreme Court in November 1935, his legal battle slowed the land acquisition process. Furthermore, an estimated 268 families living in Shenandoah at the time had no legal claim to the land they had inhabited for generations. The total number of families affected by the removals and resettlement efforts exceeded 500.

The "buy an acre" campaign was another significant facet of the park's creation. This campaign aimed to raise funds for land acquisition through public donations. Led by the Shenandoah National Park Association, park backers initiated a campaign aimed at persuading Virginians from around the state to contribute to the land fund. With a slogan advocating that Virginians "Buy an Acre" for $6.00, the fundraising drive raised nearly $1.2 million dollars. Approximately $1 million of funding came from state appropriations at the urging of Governor Byrd. Park enthusiasts also tried to secure donations from noted philanthropists. Carson had hoped to raise $2 million dollars from these notable figures, but only won a small percentage of that amount. With celebrity philanthropists largely absent from the list of supporters and with the onset of the Depression in 1930 sharply curtailing other fundraising efforts, park supporters had raised only slightly more than half of the estimated $4 million dollars needed to purchase the 321,000 acres. Consequently, Carson once again prevailed upon Congress to reduce the park's size. In 1932, Congress made its final acreage reduction, drastically reducing the minimum acreage needed for the park to be established to 160,000 acres, less than one-third the original congressional authorization mandated.

The removals began in earnest after the federal government officially accepted title to 176,429.8 acres of land from Virginia on December 26, 1935. By early 1938, fewer than four years after Cammerer's removal order, between 500 and 600 families had permanently left their homes in the park. The removals were often met with resistance, resulting even with some families needing to be forcibly evicted by local law enforcement.

Initiatives were undertaken to assist displaced families in resettling. One such initiative was the Federal Homestead Corporation (FHC), which initially aimed to establish homesteads for former residents. This initiative was stalled due to its extensive bureaucratic process and legal issues. The project was later revived under the Resettlement Administration (RA) in 1937. Efforts of the RA resulted in the construction of homesteads in locations across Page, Greene, Madison, Rappahannock, and Rockingham county and were estimated to cost $6,000 per homestead. Of the more than 500 families affected by removals, only 170 families qualified for and were placed in these homesteads. However, the homesteads included mortgages and monthly bills to which many of these discplaced families were unaccustomed to. Within two decades, none of the original mountain families remained within their resettlement homesteads.

Key Lessons and Takeaways
In the broader context of national parks, large government projects such as Skyline Drive are an example of planners and policymakers utilizing the government's sole authority to acquire private property for public use through eminent domain. Eminent domain has always been and will remain a heated topic for debate within the United State’s legal system, with the pushback citing constitutional arguments for protections against the deprivation of life, liberty, and property, juxtaposed with the government’s authority to violate those said protections with reasonable cause and just compensation.

Skyline Drive in Shenandoah National Park serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between human development and environmental preservation in national parks. The construction and use of this scenic byway demonstrates the lasting effects that human activities can have on natural landscapes. The National Park Service has committed itself to spreading awareness of related environmental issues and promoting more sustainable practices to preserve America’s most treasured landscapes for generations to come.

Discussion Questions
1. How do you think the construction of Skyline Drive reflects the broader tension between preserving wilderness areas and making them accessible to the public?

2. How do you view the ethical and legal implications of eminent domain in the context of conservation efforts and public infrastructure projects?

3. How might compensation initiatives for eminent domain take into account the cultural and historical connections of individuals who lack a legal claim to the land they have called home for generations? Should those individuals be compensated?

4. Scenic roads through national parks offer a chance to experience nature up close. However, they also become arenas for tension among pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists, all vying for use of these spaces. How can policymakers balance the enjoyment of these roads for different users while ensuring safety and preservation of the natural environment?

5. Considering the current political climate, do you believe a project like Skyline Drive could be undertaken today? Would a venture of this nature, balancing preservation (protection against use) and conservation (proper use of natural resources), even be considered?


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Wikibooks:Collections/BBQ Sauces

BBQ Sauce Recipes

 * Cookbook:Apple BBQ Sauce
 * Cookbook:Barbecue Sauce (Kansas City-style)
 * Cookbook:Barbecue Sauce (Sweet)
 * Cookbook:Barbecue Sauce I
 * Cookbook:Chipotle BBQ Sauce
 * Cookbook:Cola BBQ Sauce
 * Cookbook:Eastern North Carolina Barbecue Sauce
 * Cookbook:Kansas City Barbecue Sauce
 * Cookbook:Maple Barbecue Sauce
 * Cookbook:Memphis-Style BBQ Ribs
 * Cookbook:Soy Ginger Barbecue Sauce
 * Cookbook:Whiskey Barbecue Sauce

title: Wikibooks:Collections/BBQ Sauces


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Theory of Formal Languages, Automata, and Computation/Preface

Why study the theory of automata, languages, and computation (ALC)? It is not an area of high-profile research, and it’s not regarded as an applied area either, though some of the material is bread and butter, nuts and bolts computing – so pervasive that its invisible to many. That is, it’s a foundational course. Happily, I think, we study ALC because its engaging and fun for those interested in computation. In its abstractions you will find exercises in pure computational theory and computational thinking. Like a humanities class that you take as a computing student, if you are strongly inclined only towards the vocational thrusts of computing, and you still take a course on this material, I suggest that you take on faith that some-to-much of what you learn will come in handy later. I say “take on faith” because the links between theory and application probably won’t be as overt in this text as you would see in an algorithms text for example. There are, however, conceptual links between ALC and algorithms of course, programming languages, and artificial intelligence, which this book addresses.

I took “this class” in 1979 from a PhD student, Dov Harel, and I thought it was beautiful – I thought that the Pumping Lemma was a metaphor for life. The field hasn’t changed much (foundations don’t change much, or perhaps only rarely), though the onslaught of AI on the computational fields, and on other publics, has led to new analyses of how deep learning frameworks, which are dominant in AI and machine learning right now, fit into classical computational theory. While the book touches upon the recent work on AI, as well as classical material from AI, it is largely conventional in its treatment of the theory of formal languages, grammars, automata, and computation.

Maybe you’ll have a reaction to ALC something like mine (as well as other reactions perhaps) – it’s adoration of computing as a field that offers greater wisdom, not one that simply manifests as mastery of the latest gadgetry, but stems largely from an appreciation of computing’s earliest core abstractions.

The goal of the book is to "streamline" treatment of ALC to what I generally cover in a one semester course, with an organization that I prefer, with added treatments of applications too, including artificial intelligence (AI). My knowledge of this area resulted from undergraduate learning and from teaching undergraduates in the area, using primarily the texts of Hopcroft and Ullman, though I bring personal insights to the treatment, as well as treatment of the relationship of ALC to AI and machine learning. The exercises are often taken from other sources, and are cited as such. I add other exercises as well.

My original exercises uniquely include some that require students to interact with AIs to discuss material, and to vet these interactions. Instructors like me, who are not researchers in the area, but love it nonetheless, might recognize my interest in talking to AIs about this material -- who else would I be able to talk to about it in the normal course of my day!?! The interactions with large language models of AI are an opportunity for students to discuss ALC -- its methods, concepts, and philosophies -- in ways that they might never have done before. These AIs change the way that humans can now interact with computers, and they have the potential to rob us of something that is (or was) one of the unique skill sets of computer scientists -- the ability to communicate with the world's stupidest entity capable of response! I say "rob us" because the computers are seemingly less stupid by the day. Computer scientists are, or should be, among the world's best communicators in my opinion. The mode of communication, that is programming languages, are no longer necessarily needed, but at least in the foreseeable future some of the principles of good communication, such as the danger of making assumptions about what your conversation partner knows or believes, are still germane. The exercises on conversations with AIs on ALC material ask students to analyze, debug, expand, specialize, and otherwise interrogate their discussions.


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Theory of Formal Languages, Automata, and Computation/Authors

Douglas H. Fisher, with original and editorial contributions from Kyle Moore and Jesse Roberts.