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Mirad Grammar/Verbs

The Verb Stem

 * Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see Mirad Grammar/Verbs), such as yexer....to work. The infinitive minus the er ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations.  The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in -wer will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is the infinitive minus the -wer ending.  All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions.

 * This shows how to determine the stem of a verb listed in the dictionary:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! SIMPLE INFINITIVE !! STEM + INFINITIVE ENDING
 * + Verb Stems
 * yex er ....to work || yex + er
 * pos er ....to (come to a) stop || pos + er
 * x er ....to do || x + er
 * x wer ....to happen, be done (PASSIVE)|| x + wer
 * }
 * x er ....to do || x + er
 * x wer ....to happen, be done (PASSIVE)|| x + wer
 * }
 * }

Verb Formants

 * The active stem of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"

! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples
 * + Verb Formats
 * -xer || action or causation || xer....to do, saxer....to create, agaxer....to magnify, yixer....to use
 * -xler|| forceful action || yixler....to employ
 * -xrer|| more forceful action || yixrer....to wear out
 * -ber|| gesture || ber....to put, aber....to apply, yujber....to close
 * -bler|| forceful gesture || yujbler....to lock
 * -brer|| more foreful gesture || yobrer....to knock down
 * -ser || state or becoming || ser....to be, eser....to exist, aser....to become, zyaser....to widen, become wider
 * -per || motion or going || per....to go, yaper....to ascend, paper....to fly
 * -ier|| action toward subject || bier....to take, nier....to consume, ifier.'..to enjoy, dier....to ask
 * -uer|| action toward object || buer....to give, nuer....to supply, ifuer....to please, duer....to suggest
 * -ner || various verbs || uxner....to motivate, axner....to behave
 * -der || communication || der....to say, vader....to affirm, yevder....to judge
 * -drer || writing || drer....to write, teedrer....to report, taxdrer....to record
 * -ter || knowing || ter....to know, tester....to understand, teater....to see
 * -fer || volition || fer....to want, ifer....to love, ufer....to hate
 * -ver || some modal verbs || yiver....to have a right to, yuver....to have a duty to
 * -ker || various verbs || aker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play
 * -jer || opening/closing || ijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open
 * -ler || various verbs || baler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak
 * -[aiu]rer|| tool use || ukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill
 * -zer|| perform an art || dazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing
 * }
 * -der || communication || der....to say, vader....to affirm, yevder....to judge
 * -drer || writing || drer....to write, teedrer....to report, taxdrer....to record
 * -ter || knowing || ter....to know, tester....to understand, teater....to see
 * -fer || volition || fer....to want, ifer....to love, ufer....to hate
 * -ver || some modal verbs || yiver....to have a right to, yuver....to have a duty to
 * -ker || various verbs || aker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play
 * -jer || opening/closing || ijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open
 * -ler || various verbs || baler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak
 * -[aiu]rer|| tool use || ukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill
 * -zer|| perform an art || dazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing
 * }
 * -ker || various verbs || aker....to win, oker....to lose, eker....to play
 * -jer || opening/closing || ijer....to begin, ujer....to end, tajer....to be born, tojer....to die, yijer....to open
 * -ler || various verbs || baler....to press, boler....to support, beler....to carry, daler....to speak
 * -[aiu]rer|| tool use || ukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill
 * -zer|| perform an art || dazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing
 * }
 * -[aiu]rer|| tool use || ukarer....to shovel, purer....to drive, myekirer....to mill
 * -zer|| perform an art || dazer....to dance, dezer....to act, deuzer...to sing
 * }
 * }

Verb Categories

 * Verbs have morphological categories, which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as live, lives, lived, living). They also have lexical categories, which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (enjoy, enjoyable, enjoyment)

Morphological Categories

 * Verbs are inflected with the following morphological categories:

 * 2 STATES: finite, non-finite
 * 4 TENSES: present, past, future, atemporal1
 * 5 ASPECTS: simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential
 * 2 VOICES: active, passive
 * 2 MOODS: indicative, hypothetical

Note 1: The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, Pu! is the imperative of the verb per....to go. It means Go! and is atemporal. The -u ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.

 * In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb.  In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I am, you are , he is , we are , etc.), but not so in Mirad.  The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form se for all persons and numbers:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller"

! PERSON !! NUMBER !! ENGLISH !! MIRAD !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular !row=1| 2nd !row=1| 3rd !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural !row=1| 2nd !row=1| 3rd
 * + Verb ser (to be) Unchanged for person/number
 * I am  || at se
 * you are  || et se
 * he/she/it is  || it se
 * we are  || yat se
 * you are  || yet se
 * they are  || yit se
 * }

 * This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses.

Lexical Categories

 * In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing lexical categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation.

Non-finite Forms

 * Non-finite verb forms are
 * not conjugated for person or number
 * cannot form a predicate
 * and do not have a subject.

 * There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad:

 * infinitives: the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in -er
 * gerunds: verbal nouns, ending in -en
 * participles: verbal adjectives, ending in -a

Infinitives

 * Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the active voice simple aspect infinitive form, which always ends in er and means to X, or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in wer and means to be Xed. The part of the verb form minus the -er or -wer is the verb stem.

 * The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined:

 * In the above chart,
 * the verb stem is igx- and
 * the infinitive marker is -er;
 * the simple aspect active voice marker is zero;
 * the simple aspect passive voice marker is w;
 * the perfect aspect active voice marker is -ay-;
 * the past aspect passive voice marker is -aw-.

The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as xwer to happen. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary.

Gerunds

 * The gerund is a verbal noun like English playing in playing ball.
 * The gerund has two possible aspects (simple and perfect) and two possible voices (active and passive):

 * Note: Intransitive verbs like per to go do not have a passive gerund form.

 * Lexicalized gerunds, such as sanxen formation, forming generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice.

 * Some examples of gerund usage:

 * (sanxer....to form)   Ha sanxen bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.....The forming (or: formation ) of this star took millions of years.
 * (deuzer....to sing)   Iyta deuzen sa gla via.....Her singing was very beautiful.
 * (poper....to travel)    Popen se yika yex..... Traveling is hard work.
 * (teeter....to hear)    Teetwen fiay se glatesa av dezuti..... Being heard well is important for actors.
 * (teater....to see)    Teaten se vyatexen ...... Seeing is believing .
 * (uper....to come)   His se ha jeb bi Upen .....This is the season of Advent (coming).
 * (tadier....to get married)   Ata tadiayen ewa jodi bixa tepzex.....My having married twice drew attention.
 * (aker....to win)   At voy ta ita akawen hua nuz.....I did not know about his having won that prize.
 * Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects:
 * At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.....I am pleased by your having given me that money.
 * Tojben eut voy se kebiyaf.....Killing yourself is not an option.

 * The special gerundive ending -eyn gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings -ment or -tion. Here are a few examples showing the difference between -en and -eyn.
 * yanlaxen....combining ≠<  yanlaxeyn....combination
 * xen....doing ≠<  xeyn....action, deed
 * zayben....advancing ≠<  zaybeyn....advancement

 * Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is -un, which expresses the result of an action, eg.:
 * zyegxer....to puncture ≠<  zyegxun....a puncture
 * zyeuber....to transmit ≠<  zyeubun....a broadcast
 * deuzer....to sing ≠<  deuzun....a song

Participles

 * Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending -a.  Participles are marked by aspect (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and voice (active, passive).
 * The aspect markers per voice are:

 * 1: The double aa in the perfect endings is reduced to a.
 * 2: The wa ending is changed to awa after stems ending in a double consonant, the second being l or r. Example:  dr- (to write) becomes drawa (written).
 * Note 1: The perfect active particple ending in -ya is used only for intransitive verbs like per (to go). He is gone . is expressed by Wit se pya .
 * Note 2: The potential aspect, represented by the vowel u is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, tojbu means would kill and the participle tojbua means lethal (referring to something that would/has the potential to kill).  More about this in a later section.
 * Note 3: There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase The animals bothering our bird feeder..., the participle bothering would be oboxea in Mirad.  By inserting the letter y between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in bothersome (obox y ea).  Such participles are invariably in the active voice.  Most such adjectives in English end in -ive as in repulsive or -ly as in wiggly or -ous as in circuitous.  Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in -yea.

 * Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter y. Examples:

 * Iyt yepa ha tim deuzeay .....She entered the room singing .
 *  Ujbaway ha dodal, it pia.....The speech having been finished, he left.

 * Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing n. Examples:

 * tiluwa....drinkable → tiluwan....potability
 * tojbua....lethal → tojbuan....lethality
 * mansea....shining → he mansean bi iyta deuzen....the brilliance of her singing
 * aakaxyea....inventive → aakaxyean....inventiveness

 * Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with s for things and t for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized:

 * xwa....done → xwas....what is done, a happening
 * xwa....done → xwasi....happenings, deeds
 * otwa....unknown → otwas....what is not known, a mystery
 * osexea....destroying → osexeas....a destroyer
 * tojbua....lethal → tojbuas....something lethal, a lethal thing
 * tojboa....moribund → tojboati....people about to die, fatal cases
 * tejea....living → tejeat....a living person
 * tejea....living → tejeasi....living things

 * There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for agent nouns (English one who does something, Xer, Xant, Xist), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in -ut.

 * sexut....builder
 * nuut....supplier
 * tojbut....killer
 * ifut....lover
 * akuti....winners

 * Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun ha akeat....the one winning and the non-tensed agent noun ha akut....the winner.

 * Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, in animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in -us.

 * yuxus....aid (a thing that helps)
 * byuxwus....button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)
 * paxus....motive (a thing that moves one)
 * jaupus....precedent (a thing that comes before)

 * The above -us ending contrasts with the endings -ar (instrument), -ir (machine), -ur (motor, engine), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root.

Finite Forms

 * In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories:

 * TENSES
 * present
 * past
 * future
 * atemporal
 * MOODS
 * indicative
 * hypothetical
 * ASPECTS
 * simple
 * progressive
 * perfect
 * imminent
 * potential
 * VOICES
 * active
 * passive
 * reflexive
 * reciprocal

 * Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, am, is, are, which change according to the person subject in English,  are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: se.  Thus, at se....I am, et se....you are, it se....he/she/it is, etc.

Moods

 * There are two moods in Mirad:
 * indicative
 * hypothetical.

Indicative Mood

 * The indicative form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as he went, he is going, he will go.

 * The indicative mood has three tenses, present, past, future, indicated by the suffixes -e, -a, and -o, respectively.

Hypothetical Mood

 * Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the hypothetical mood expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel u.

 * a command, i.e. the IMPERATIVE (Go!)
 * a wish or suggestion, i.e. the HORTATIVE or JUSSIVE (May the king live long!, Let's celebrate!)
 * an unrealized situation, i.e. the SUBJUNCTIVE (It is important that you be early.)
 * an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the CONDITIONAL (If I were rich, I would be happy.)

Aspects

 * There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system.

 * the SIMPLE aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional.
 * the PROGRESSIVE aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using ey
 * the PERFECT aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using ay
 * the IMMINENT aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using oy
 * the POTENTIAL aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using uy

The Simple Aspect

 * Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is simple, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect:
 * Present with e
 * Past with a
 * Future with o.

 * An atemporal, verb from ending in u in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence:
 * a conditional like I would go (if...)
 * an imperative like Go!
 * a hortative like Let's go!
 * a subjunctive like (It is important that) we go.

 * Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb per (to go) with the endings underlined:

 * Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative.

The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense

 * The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix e and has a non-progressive (habitual) aspect as in English I work or I live. Progressive aspect forms like I am studying are explained later.

 * Examples:
 * At yexe be tam. ....I work at home.
 * Hia tom se nam. ....This building is a store.

The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense

 * The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix a and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English I did something at some particular point in time. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (I was doing something) or the present perfect (I have done something), or past potential (I would have done something).  The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time.

 * Examples:
 * Iyt iba ha nyuf zojub. ....She received the package yesterday.
 * At ujba ha dyes ji iwa jwobi. ....I finished the book three hours ago.
 * His kyesa exag hijub.....This happened twice today.

The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense

 * The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix o and has the same meaning as in English I will do something at some particular point in the future.

 * Examples:
 * Yit tadso zajab.....They are going to get married next year.
 * Hua kaxon ujako . ....That solution will work .

The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense

 * A verb form ending in u like pu has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the imperative, hortative, conditional, or subjunctive.
 * Examples:
 *  Upu him!.... Come here! (IMPERATIVE)
 *  Von upu ! .... Don't come ! (NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE)
 * Ha edeb fu teater et. ....The king would like to see you. (CONDITIONAL)
 * Ven at su et, at dolu . ....If I were you, I would be quiet. (CONDITIONAL)
 * Van yeyt ujaku be yeytia yexnadi. ....May all you (women) succeed in your careers. (HORTATIVE)
 * Van yat ijbu bay fyadil. ....Let's begin with a prayer. (JUSSIVE)
 * Se kyitesa van et puu jwa. ....It's important that you arrive early. (SUBJUNCTIVE)
 * Se kyitesa von et puu jwo.....It's important that you not arrive late. (NEGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE)

 * Hypothetical verb forms ending in -u can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence:
 * Generally, if a verb form ending in -u begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, Ipu!, Go away!.
 * If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers van, ven, or von, then it is probably a CONDITIONAL predicate like At fu per.....I would like to go..
 * If the subject of the verb is preceded by ven....if, then it is a CONDITIONAL clause as in Ven at su nasikat.......If I were a rich man..
 * If the subject is preceded by Van....that/let/may or von....don't, then it is a HORTATIVE wish like Van et yagteju.....May you live long. or a JUSSIVE suggestion like Van yat fyadilu.....Let us pray. or a prohibition like Von tiliu his!....Don't drink this!.

Voices

 * Mirad has four voices:
 * Active
 * Passive
 * Reflexive
 * Reciprocal.

Active Voice

 * The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action.
 * At teata ha kyes.....I saw the event.

Passive Voice

 * A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a w just before the last vowel of the verb form. The past passive particle ending -waa is usually abbreviated to -wa (done is xwa).  However, if the verb stem ends in a consonant plus l or r, then -wa is changed to -awa for ease of pronunciation, eg. dr awa ....written.

 * The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs:

 * Many intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, tajer....to be born is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form.  However, the transitive verb tajber....to bear, give birth can be passive, as in Ha tudet tajbwa zajub.....The child was delivered yesterday (as opposed to Ha tudet taja zajub.....The child was born yesterday.)  Notice the following verb:
 * Ha mes uja.....The door opened. (medio-passive)
 * Ha mes ujpa.....The door came open. (dynamic medio-passive)
 * Ujbu ha mes.....Open the door. (transitive active)
 * Ha mes ujbwa.....The door opened. (passive)

Reflexive Voice

 * A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun ut (self), for example:

 * tojber....to kill → uttojber....to kill oneself
 * vyilxer....to wash → utvyilxer....to wash up
 * teater....to see → utteater....to see oneself
 * yalber....to lift → utyalber....to lift oneself → Utyalbu!....Lift yourself up!
 * trer....to know → uttrer....to know oneself → Uttru!....Know thyself!

Reciprocal Voice

 * A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun hyuit....one another, for example:

 * tojber....to kill → hyuittojber....to kill one another
 * vyilxer....to wash → hyuitvyilxer....to wash one another
 * teater....to see → hyuitteater....to see one another

 * Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form yut is used if the subject is plural, for example:

 * Yit vyilxa yut .....They (f.) washed up. (= washed selves ).
 * Ha twobeti dizeuda hyuit .....The boys laughed at one another .
 * The word hyuit is a hybrid of hyit....the same one combined with hyut....the other one.

Aspects Revisited

 * Mirad verbs have the following aspects:

 * SIMPLE -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. NON-PROGRESSIVE, NON-PERFECT, NON-IMMINENT, and NON-POTENTIAL.
 * PROGRESSIVE -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time.
 * PERFECT -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state.
 * IMMINENT -- this describes an action or state about to happen.
 * POTENTIAL -- this refers to an action or state where something is possible.

The Simple Aspect

 * The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels a, e, o, and u are affixed to the stem.  In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant w is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels.  The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (I regularly go to school.), regular (The earth revolves around the sun.), or permanent (Blue is a color.).  The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (I did my homework last night.).  The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.).  The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (You would make a good president.).

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;"

! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical
 * + Simple Aspect
 * At x e ....I do || Has x we ....It is done
 * At x a ....I did || Has x wa ....It was done
 * At x o ....I will do || Has x wo ....It will be done
 * At x u ....I would do || Has x wu ....It would be done
 * }

Note: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = CONDITIONAL

The Progressive Aspect

 * The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel e followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel.  The buffer consonant is y in the active voice, or  w in the passive voice.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; "

! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical
 * + Progressive Aspect
 * at x eye ....I am doing || Has x ewe ....it is being done
 * at x eya ....I was doing || Has x ewa ....it was being done
 * at x eyo ....I am going to be doing || Has x ewo ....it will be happening
 * at x eyu ....I would be doing || Has x ewu ....it would be happening
 * }

The Perfect Aspect

 * The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel a following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel.  The buffer consonant is y in the  active voice, or w in the passive voice.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical
 * + Perfect Aspect
 * At x aye ....I have done || Has x awe ....It has been done
 * At x aya ....I had done || Has x awa ....It had been done
 * At x ayo ....I will have done || Has x awo ....It will have been done
 * At x ayu ....I would have done || Has x awu ....It would have been done
 * }

The Imminent Aspect

 * The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel o following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel.  The buffer consonant is y in the  active voice, or w in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! ASPECT || TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative
 * + Imminent Aspect
 * At x oye ....I am about to do || Has x owe ....It is about to be done
 * At x oya ....I was about to do || Has x owa ....It was about to be done
 * }

The Potential Aspect

 * The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel u followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel.  The buffer consonant is y in the  active voice, or w in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative
 * + Potential Aspect
 * At x uye ....I am to do || Has x uwe ....It is to be done, it is doable
 * At x uya ....I was to do || Has x uwa ....It was to be done, it was doable
 * }

Verb Conjugation Chart

 * The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb xer....to do and its passive xwer....to be done, happen. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms.

 * Note 1: The perfective passive participle usually ends in -wa, but occasionally the longer form -awa is used, especially if the verb stem ends in a consonant followed by l or r that make the shorter form harder to pronounce, eg. pyuxr wa  becomes pyuxr awa  (shocked).

 * Note 2: Intransitive verbs such as per to go have no passive forms.  An expression such as They are gone. would be translated as Yit se pya.

Negative Forms

 * All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by preceding the negative adverb voy.  Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in -u use the negative subordinate conjunction von.
 *  Voy mamilo.....It will not rain. (indicative)
 *  Von mamilu..... Let it not rain. (subjunctive)
 *  Von yat fuyaku..... Let us not despair. (jussive)
 * At voy te.....I don 't know.
 *  Von pu!.... Don't go. (imperative)
 * At voy xu hus.....I would not do that.

How to Express Certain English Tenses

 * English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema:
 * The English tense I have been studying French for four years. is translated in Mirad by At tixeye Ferad ji uwa jabi.....I am studying French since four years. (Mirad present progressive tense).
 * The English tense I had been studying is translated in Mirad by At tixeya. (Mirad past progressive tense).
 * The English tense I am going to be starring in that role. is translated in Mirad by At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon. (Mirad future progressive).
 * The modern Black English tense Don't you be doing that. is handled in Mirad by Von et xeyu hus. (Mirad imperative progressive).

Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

 * Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity.

 * Verbs that end in xer (to do, -ify, -ize) are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in ser (to be, become, -ify, -ize). Likewise, verbs ending in ber (to put, take) are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in per (to go).  Here are some examples:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE
 * + Transitive vs. Intransitive
 * xer....do || ser....be
 * agxer....grow (something) || agser....grow (up)
 * amxer....heat, make hot || amser....become hot, heat up
 * puxer....throw || puser....jump
 * per....go || ber....put
 * aber....put on || aper....get on
 * yaber....raise || yaper....rise
 * poxer....stop (something) || poser....(come to a) stop
 * yuber....bring || yuper....approach
 * yeber....insert || yeper....enter
 * }
 * aber....put on || aper....get on
 * yaber....raise || yaper....rise
 * poxer....stop (something) || poser....(come to a) stop
 * yuber....bring || yuper....approach
 * yeber....insert || yeper....enter
 * }
 * yuber....bring || yuper....approach
 * yeber....insert || yeper....enter
 * }
 * }

 * At agxe vobi.....I grow [TRANSITIVE] plants.
 * Ha vobi agseye ig.....The plants are growing [INTRANSITIVE] fast.

 *  Poxu ha pur!.... Stop [TRANSITIVE] the car!
 * Ha pur posa .....The car stopped [INTRANSITIVE].

 * At yaba ha mis.....I raised [TRANSITIVE] the window.
 * Ha maar yapaye .....The sun has risen [INTRANSITIVE].

Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity

 * Note the following verbs, whose stems end in j are hard to pronounce with intransitive s and transitive x, so these two endings are placed with p and b, respectively, although the presence of the p is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. tujer....to sleep vs. tujper....to fall asleep. The transitive forms can be either active or passive.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! colspan=2|INTRANSITIVE !! colspan=2|TRANSITIVE ! STATIC !! DYNAMIC !! ACTIVE !! PASSIVE
 * + Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity
 * Ha mes yija  The door opened . || Ha nasyef yijpa  The purse came open . || At yijba ha mes. I opened the door. || Ha mes yijbwa bey yelput. The door was opened by an intruder
 * Ha mes yuja . The door closed . || Ha yanup yujpa . The meeting adjourned . || At yujba ha mes. I closed the door.||Ha mes yeyfe yujbwer ja sumjob. The door should be closed by bedtime.
 * Ha dezun ijaye . The play has started .||Ha par ijpa boy poys. The car started up immediately. ||At ijba ata tyal. I started my meal.||Ha tyal ijbwa jwa. The meal was started early.
 * Ha dezun ujaye . The play has ended .||Ata yex ujpaye . My work has come to an end . || A ujba ha dyes. I finished the book.||Ha dyes hyoj ujbwa . The book never got finished .
 * Ha tob toja zomoj. The man died yesterday evening.||Ha tob tojpa . The man dropped dead.  || Hot tojba ha twob? Who killed the man?||Ha twob tojbwa bey ita tayd. The man was killed by his wife.
 *  Teju .  Live! .|| Tejpu! .  Come alive! . || Yat efe tejber ha twob. We need to revive the man.||Ha twob yofwa tejbwer . The man could not be revived .
 * Ha tobot taja zojub. The baby was born yesterday. || Hoj ha tobot tajpo ? When will the baby pop out ? || Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub. She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.||Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj. The baby boy was birthed after midnight.
 * At tija jwe. I woke up on time.||It voy tijpa . He did not come to. . || At tijbo et jwa. I will wake (you) up early.||At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa. I don't want to be woken too early.
 * At tujeya . I was sleeping. ||At tujpeya . I was falling sleep . || At tujbo it. I will put (him) to sleep. .||Ha tobot tujbwo glojo. The baby will be put to sleep soon.
 * }
 *  Teju .  Live! .|| Tejpu! .  Come alive! . || Yat efe tejber ha twob. We need to revive the man.||Ha twob yofwa tejbwer . The man could not be revived .
 * Ha tobot taja zojub. The baby was born yesterday. || Hoj ha tobot tajpo ? When will the baby pop out ? || Iyt tajba awa twobot zojub. She gave birth to a baby boy yesterday.||Ha twobot tajbwa jo eymoj. The baby boy was birthed after midnight.
 * At tija jwe. I woke up on time.||It voy tijpa . He did not come to. . || At tijbo et jwa. I will wake (you) up early.||At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa. I don't want to be woken too early.
 * At tujeya . I was sleeping. ||At tujpeya . I was falling sleep . || At tujbo it. I will put (him) to sleep. .||Ha tobot tujbwo glojo. The baby will be put to sleep soon.
 * }
 * At tija jwe. I woke up on time.||It voy tijpa . He did not come to. . || At tijbo et jwa. I will wake (you) up early.||At voy fe tijbwo gra jwa. I don't want to be woken too early.
 * At tujeya . I was sleeping. ||At tujpeya . I was falling sleep . || At tujbo it. I will put (him) to sleep. .||Ha tobot tujbwo glojo. The baby will be put to sleep soon.
 * }
 * }

Reflexive Verbs

 * Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.:

 * At tujboye aut.....I am going to kill myself.
 * Tru eut!....Know thyself!
 * It gobla iut bey goblar.....He cut himself with a knife.
 * Ot yefe yuxer out.....One must help oneself.

 * Sometimes, verbs incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using ut as the prefix:

 * uttujber....commit suicide (= self-kill)
 * utboler....support oneself (= self-support)
 * utdider....wonder (= self ask)

 * Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.:

 * Et efe vyilxer eut .....You need to wash up [= wash yourself ]. (or)
 * Et efe utvyilxer .....You need to wash up [= self-wash ].

Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs

 * Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! PREPOSITION-INCORPORATING VERB !! EXAMPLE
 * + Inherent Propositions
 * per....go (to) || Pu tam! (Not: Pu bu tam!) Go home. It pa Paris.....He went to Paris.
 * der....say (to), tell || Du at eta dyun.....Tell me your name. Du at has.....Tell it to me.
 * peser....wait (for) || Pesu at.....Wait for me.
 * buer....give (to) || Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book.
 * }
 * peser....wait (for) || Pesu at.....Wait for me.
 * buer....give (to) || Buu at hua dyes.....Give me that book.
 * }
 * }

 * As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. Buu at hus.....Give me that. or Buu hus bu at .....Give that to me . See more about this in the chapter on Syntax.

Derived from Adjectives

 * Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. A causative verb has the sense to make something have some quality, while an inchoative verb means to become or take on the quality of something.  Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object).  English causative / inchoative verbs often end in -ify like magnify, or -ate, liberate, or ize, like sensitize.

 * To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix xer....to do to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the a ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance.  A verb with adjective stem + xer is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + axer.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! ADJECTIVE !! CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE !! CAUSATIVE/TRANSITIVE ! -xer !! LITERAL !! IDIOMATIC
 * + -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs
 * aga big || ag a xer to magnify || agxer to grow
 * ana one || an a xer to unify || anxer to unite
 * yona apart || yon a xer to separate || yonxer to cut
 * yaga long || yag a xer to lengthen || yagxer to stretch
 * yuga slow || yug a xer to retard || yugxer to brake
 * sana formal || san a xer to formalize || sanxer to form
 * gea equal || ge a xer to equalize || gexer to copy, equate
 * jaa prior || ja a xer to prioritize || jaxer to prepare
 * }
 * yuga slow || yug a xer to retard || yugxer to brake
 * sana formal || san a xer to formalize || sanxer to form
 * gea equal || ge a xer to equalize || gexer to copy, equate
 * jaa prior || ja a xer to prioritize || jaxer to prepare
 * }
 * jaa prior || ja a xer to prioritize || jaxer to prepare
 * }
 * }

 * To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix ser....to be to either the stem or the whole adjective.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! ADJECTIVE !! INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE !! INCHOATIVE/INTRANSITIVE ! -ser !! LITERAL !! IDIOMATIC
 * + Creating Inchoative Verbs
 * aga big || ag a ser to get bigger || agser to grow
 * ana one || an a ser to unify || anser to unite, become united
 * yona apart || yon a ser to become separate || yonser to break
 * }
 * yona apart || yon a ser to become separate || yonser to break
 * }
 * }
 * }

 * Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.:
 *  Ansu ey yet golxwo..... Unite or you will be divided. [INTRANSITIVE]
 * At yontadsa hoj at sa eta jag.....I got divorced when I was your age. [INTRANSITIVE]
 * Hisi agaxo hos et teate.....These will magnify what you see. [TRANSITIVE]
 * Hia tud agseye ig.....This child is growing up fast. [INTRANSITIVE]
 * Ata tayd agxe vosi be oyebzom.....My wife grows flowers out back. [TRANSITIVE]

Derived from Nouns

 * Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is to make be X and of the latter, to become X.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! NOUN !! TRANSITIVE/CAUSATIVE/ACTIVE !! INTRANSITIVE/INCHOATIVE/PASSIVE
 * + Verbs Derived from Nouns
 * mog....ash || mogxer to incinerate || mogser to become ashes
 * yan....collection || yanxer to collect || yanser to get together
 * tad....spouse || tadxer to marry || tadser to get married
 * yom....ice || yomxer to freeze/make ice || yomser to freeze/become ice
 * mag....fire || magxer to burn, set fire to || magser to burn, get burned
 * uk....void || ukxer to empty || ukser become empty, empty out
 * }
 * yom....ice || yomxer to freeze/make ice || yomser to freeze/become ice
 * mag....fire || magxer to burn, set fire to || magser to burn, get burned
 * uk....void || ukxer to empty || ukser become empty, empty out
 * }
 * uk....void || ukxer to empty || ukser become empty, empty out
 * }

Intermediary Causative Verbs

 * Intermediary verbal causatives like have/get my car washed, make/force him go, get one's hair cut are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix -ux- (active) or uxw (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.:

 * At gorb ux o ata tayeb zamaj.....I will get my hair cut tomorrow.
 * Et voy yafe p ux er at.....You cannot make me go.
 * It tojb ux a yit.....He had them killed.
 * At efe vyilx ux er ata par.....I need to have my car washed.
 * Et up ux wa him hesav.....You were made to come here for some reason.
 * At bakamb ux o et.....I will have you hospitalized.
 * Et voy yafe deuz ux er at.....You cannot make me sing.
 * At hihid ux wa.....I was tickled (= made to laugh).
 * Eta deuz hihid ux a yat.....Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)
 * Van het ivas ux u weti.....May someone get you guys to be happy.
 * Hua enzyukpur uzp ux a ha pur.....That motorcycle caused the car to veer.

Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs

 * The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix -i- for an action or motion toward the speaker and -u- for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! SUBJECT-DIRECTED !! PATIENT-DIRECTED
 * + Directional Verbs
 * b i er....to take || b u er....to give
 * nier....to consume || nuer....to supply
 * nyier....to order || nyuer....to deliver
 * nunier....to buy || nunuer....to sell
 * nazunier....win a prize || nazunuer....award a prize
 * noysier....pay off || noysuer....charge
 * ojbier....borrow || ojbuer....lend
 * tadier....get married || taduer....marry off
 * papier....take flight || papuer....send off flying
 * pipier....set sail || pipuer....dock
 * simbier....take a seat || simbuer....offer a seat
 * tampier....leave home || tampuer....arrive home
 * tamier....settle in || tamuer....shelter
 * nuxbier....to buy || nixbuer....to sell
 * telier....to eat || teluer....to feed
 * gonbier....to participate || gonbuer....to share
 * tilier....to drink || tiluer....to ply with drink
 * teubier....to swallow || teubuer....to spit out
 * teatier....to observe, watch || teatuer....to show
 * taxier....to memorize || taxuer....to remind
 * alier....to breathe in || aluer....to breathe out, expire
 * ilier....to absorb || iluer....to pour
 * ifier....to enjoy || ifuer....to please
 * dier....to ask || duer....to suggest
 * tier....to learn || tuer....to inform
 * pier....to depart || puer....to arrive
 * kebier....to choose || kebuer....to distribute
 * byier....to originate || byuer....to target
 * mempier....to take off || mempuer....to land
 * sinier....visualize || sinuer....display
 * xier....to result || xuer....to cause
 * yifier....to get up the courage || yifuer....to encourage, challenge
 * yafonier....to gain power || yafonuer....to empower
 * trier....to become acquainted with || truer....to acquaint with, introduce to
 * tepizier....to pay attention to || tepizuer....to draw attention to
 * }
 * teatier....to observe, watch || teatuer....to show
 * taxier....to memorize || taxuer....to remind
 * alier....to breathe in || aluer....to breathe out, expire
 * ilier....to absorb || iluer....to pour
 * ifier....to enjoy || ifuer....to please
 * dier....to ask || duer....to suggest
 * tier....to learn || tuer....to inform
 * pier....to depart || puer....to arrive
 * kebier....to choose || kebuer....to distribute
 * byier....to originate || byuer....to target
 * mempier....to take off || mempuer....to land
 * sinier....visualize || sinuer....display
 * xier....to result || xuer....to cause
 * yifier....to get up the courage || yifuer....to encourage, challenge
 * yafonier....to gain power || yafonuer....to empower
 * trier....to become acquainted with || truer....to acquaint with, introduce to
 * tepizier....to pay attention to || tepizuer....to draw attention to
 * }
 * byier....to originate || byuer....to target
 * mempier....to take off || mempuer....to land
 * sinier....visualize || sinuer....display
 * xier....to result || xuer....to cause
 * yifier....to get up the courage || yifuer....to encourage, challenge
 * yafonier....to gain power || yafonuer....to empower
 * trier....to become acquainted with || truer....to acquaint with, introduce to
 * tepizier....to pay attention to || tepizuer....to draw attention to
 * }
 * yifier....to get up the courage || yifuer....to encourage, challenge
 * yafonier....to gain power || yafonuer....to empower
 * trier....to become acquainted with || truer....to acquaint with, introduce to
 * tepizier....to pay attention to || tepizuer....to draw attention to
 * }
 * tepizier....to pay attention to || tepizuer....to draw attention to
 * }
 * }

 * In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix -ui- (a hybrid form) is used, eg.:
 * nunier ....to purchase (subject-directed)
 * nunuer....to sell (patient-directed)
 * nunuier....to trade (subject & patient-directed)

 * tier....to learn, realize (subject-directed)
 * tuer....to inform, tip off (patient-directed)
 * tuier....to communicate (subject & patient-directed)

 * alier....to breathe in, inhale (subject-directed)
 * aluer....to breathe out, exhale (patient-directed)
 * aluier....to breathe, respire (subject & patient-directed)

 * bier ....to take (subject-directed)
 * buer....to give (patient-directed)
 * buier....to give and take, exchange (subject & patient-directed)

Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes

 * Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in b will assimilate to p before the verb per....to go and a preposition ending in b will lose the b before a verb beginning with b. Here are some examples:

 * {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! PREPOSITION/ADVERB !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB
 * + Verb Prepositional Prefixes
 * ab....on || aber....apply || aper....get on, mount
 * ob....off || ober....remove || oper....get of, dismount
 * eb....between || eber....block || eper....intervene
 * yab....up || yaber....raise || yaper....rise
 * yob....down || yober....take down || yoper....descend
 * yub....near || yuber....bring near || yuper....approach
 * yib....far || yiber....take away || yiper....go far away
 * yeb....in || yeber....insert || yeper....enter
 * yeb....in || yepuxer....throw in || yepuser....jump in
 * oyeb....out || oyeber....expose || oyeper....exit
 * oyeb....out || oyepuxer....eject || oyepuser....jump out
 * zyu....round || zyuber....rotate || zyuper....revolve
 * zya....throughout || zyaber....spread || zyaper....tour
 * av....for || avdaler....plead || avper....pursue
 * ov....against || ovber....oppose || ovper....countervene
 * yan....together || yanber....compose || yanper....meet
 * yon....apart || yonber....separate || yonper....separate
 * iz....direct || izber....lead || izper....head
 * uz....curved || uzber....divert || uzper....diverge
 * yuz....around || yuzbexer....surround || yuzper....circulate
 * yiz....beyond || yizber....transfer || yizper....surpass
 * zoy....back, re- || zoyber....return || zoyper....go back
 * }
 * zyu....round || zyuber....rotate || zyuper....revolve
 * zya....throughout || zyaber....spread || zyaper....tour
 * av....for || avdaler....plead || avper....pursue
 * ov....against || ovber....oppose || ovper....countervene
 * yan....together || yanber....compose || yanper....meet
 * yon....apart || yonber....separate || yonper....separate
 * iz....direct || izber....lead || izper....head
 * uz....curved || uzber....divert || uzper....diverge
 * yuz....around || yuzbexer....surround || yuzper....circulate
 * yiz....beyond || yizber....transfer || yizper....surpass
 * zoy....back, re- || zoyber....return || zoyper....go back
 * }
 * iz....direct || izber....lead || izper....head
 * uz....curved || uzber....divert || uzper....diverge
 * yuz....around || yuzbexer....surround || yuzper....circulate
 * yiz....beyond || yizber....transfer || yizper....surpass
 * zoy....back, re- || zoyber....return || zoyper....go back
 * }
 * yiz....beyond || yizber....transfer || yizper....surpass
 * zoy....back, re- || zoyber....return || zoyper....go back
 * }
 * }

Verbs with Other Semantics-altering Prefixes

 * As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics:

Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw-

 * The prefix zoy-....back or gaw-1....again are used like the English prefix re-, eg.:

 * ember....to position →  zoy ember....to re position, re place
 * buer....to give →  zoy buer....to re turn (an object), give back
 * sanxer....to shape, form →  zoy sanxer....to re shape, re form, trans form
 * zyauber....to broadcast → gawzyauber....to re-broadcast
 * taja....born → gawtaja....reborn
 * aber....to apply → gawaber....to reapply
 * uper....to come → zoyuper....to return (come back)
 * teaper....to visit →  gaw teaper....to re visit
 * uper....to come →  zoy uper....to re turn, come back
 * buxer....to push →  zoy buxer....to re pel, push back
 * puxer....to throw →  zoy puxer....to re ject, throw back, jettison
 * Note 1: The prefix gaw- before a consonant is pronounced like the gaw in the English word gawk.  It is short for ga awa jod or gawa meaning one more time, again.  If the "re-" word means to do something again, then gaw- is used, eg. To reconvene ( = meet again)....gawyanuper  If the sense of back is intended, than the prefix zoy- is used, eg. To return ( = come back)....zoyuper. Both prefixes are used in the expression Come back again!....Gawzoyupu!.

Until we meet again. is expressed by Ju van yat gawyanupo.

Expressing de-, dis-, un- with lo-

 * The prefix lo- reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English dis-, de-, or un-, eg.:

 * saxer....to build, construct →  lo saxer....to de stroy, de construct
 * anxer....to unite →  lo anxer....to dis unite
 * xer....to do →  lo xer....to un do

 * Note the difference between o- and lo-.

 * odoparuwa.... un armed (= not armed)
 * lodoparuwa.... dis armed (= from the verb lodoparuer....to disarm)

Expressing co- with yan-

 * The prefix yan-....together is used as the English co-, eg.:

 * exer....to operate →  yan exer....to co operate
 * tamer....to dwell →  yan tamer....to co habit
 * napber....to put in order →  yan napber....to co ordinate

Making Verbs Completive with ik-

 * Verbs can be made completive by prefixing them with ik- (fully). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with up and other prepositions as in to eat up.  Here are some examples in Mirad:
 * tojber....to kill → iktojber....to kill off, exterminate
 * telier....to eat → iktelier....to eat up
 * ujber....to finish → ikujber....to finish off/up
 * gofler....to rip → ikgofler....to rip up
 * drer....to write → ikdrer....to write down
 * byexer....to beat → ikbyexer....to beat up

Making Verbs Continuative with je-

 * Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix je-:
 * daler....to talk → jedalar....to go on talking, to blabber
 * tejer....to live → jetejer....to go on living, to survive
 * yexer....to work → jeyexer....to go on working, to keep working
 * teaxer....to look → jeteaxer....to watch
 * teexer....to listen → jeteexer....to keep listening, to pay attention
 * duler....to insist → jeduler....to nag

Making Verbs Inchoative with ij-

 * Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix ij-:
 * texer....to think → ijtexer....to start to think
 * ifier....to enjoy → ijifier....to start liking
 * tyer....to know → ijtyer....to get to know

Making Verbs Terminative with uj-

 * Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix uj-:
 * telier....to eat → ujtelier....to finish eating
 * dyeer....to read → ujdyeer....to finish reading
 * ufteuder....to complain → ujufteuder....to quit carping

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with if-

 * tyoper....to walk → iftyoper....to stroll
 * tuyuxer....to finger → iftuyuxer....to tickle
 * teaxer....to look → ifteaxer....to ogle (voyeuristically)
 * piper....to sail → ifpiper....to go cruising
 * teuder....to shout → ifteuder....to laugh

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with uf-

 * tosier....to feel → uftosier....to get angry
 * eker....to play → ufeker....to fight
 * der....to say → ufder....to express displeasure
 * aluer....to exhale → ufaluer....to huff
 * daler....to talk → ufdaler....to rant

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with of-

 * bier....to take → ofbier....to steal
 * deler....to declare → ofdeler....to ban
 * yeper....to enter → ofyeper....to intrude, break in
 * zeyper....to cross → ofzeyper....to transgress, poach
 * gelxer....to copy → ofgelxer....to pirate, plagiarize
 * bekuluer....to administer medicine → ofbekuluer....to dope
 * nuxuer....to pay → ofnuxuer....to bribe, pay off, suborn

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with fya-

 * bexler....to keep → fyabexler....to enshrine
 * buer....to give → fyabuer....to sacrifice
 * der....to say → fyader....to bless
 * daler....to speak → fyadaler....to preach, sermonize
 * diler....to request → fyadiler....to pray
 * deuzer....to sing → fyadeuzer....to chant
 * ifrer....to love dearly → fyaifrer....to worship, adore
 * jader....to predict → fyajader....to prophesy
 * miluer....to sprinkle → fyamiluer....to sprinkle with holy water
 * ojvader....to promise → fyaojvader....to swear
 * xeler....to practice → fyaxeler....to celebrate
 * koser....to hide → fyakoser....to go on a retreat, go into hermitage
 * teazer....perform a show → fyateazer....to perform a miracle

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with fyo-

 * der....to say → fyoder....to curse
 * diler....to request → fyodiler....to conjure
 * tyezer....to perform magic → fyotezer....to engage in black magic
 * xer....to do → fyoxer....to sin

Expressing Good Actions with fi-

 * der....to say → fider....to praise
 * fer....to want → fifer....to mean well
 * xer....to do → fixer....to do well
 * yaker....to expect → fiyaker....to hope
 * yuxer....to help → fiyuxer....to benefit

Expressing Bad Actions with fu-

 * yevder....to judge → fuyevder....to critique negatively
 * fer....to want → fufer....to will ill
 * der....to say → fuder....to badmouth
 * napxer....to arrange → funapxer....to mess up
 * yuxer....to help → fuyuxer....to abuse

Expressing More Intense Actions with az-

 * yujber....to close →  az yujber....to lock
 * der....to say →  az der....to emphasize
 * duer....to suggest →  az duer....to urge
 * dizeuder....to laugh →  az dizeuder....to guffaw

Expressing Less Intense Actions with oz-

 * der....to utter →  oz der....to whisper
 * duer....to suggest →  oz duer....to hint
 * dizeuder....to laugh →  oz dizeuder....to chuckle
 * uvteuder....to moan →  oz uvteuder....to whimper
 * tyoper....to walk →  oz tyoper....to limp

Expressing pre-, fore- with ja-

 * der....to tell →  ja der....to foretell, predict
 * teater....to see →  ja teater....to foresee, preview
 * ter....to know →  ja ter....to presage, have foreknowledge of
 * yever....to judge →  ja yever....to prejudge
 * juder....to date →  ja juder....to antedate

Expressing post-, after- with jo-

 * juder....to date →  jo juder....to postdate
 * texer....to think →  jo texer....to reflect on, review
 * uvder....to express sadness →  jo uvder....to mourn, regret
 * ibler....to obtain →  jo ibler....to inherit

Expressing excessively with gra-

 * telier....to eat →  gra telier....to overeat
 * fer....to want →  gra fer....to covet
 * der....to say →  gra der....to exaggerate
 * daler....to talk →  gra daler....to yammer

Expressing inadequately with gro-

 * fyinder....to value →  gro fyinder....to underestimate
 * mageler....to cook →  gro mageler....to undercook
 * xaer....to perform →  gro xaer....to underperform

Expressing counter-, contra- with ov- or oyv-

 * axler....to act →  ov axler....to counteract
 * apyexer....to attack →  ov apyexer....to counterattack
 * daler....to speak →  ov daler....to oppose
 * der....to say →  oyv der....to contradict
 * ber....to put →  oyv ber....to reverse, overturn
 * texer....to think →  oyv texer....to contest, disagree
 * per....to go →  oyv per....to contravene

Expressing on behalf, for with av-

 * axler....to act →  av axler....to act on behalf of
 * daler....to speak →  av daler....to advocate, speak on behalf of

Making Verbs Reflexive with ut- (self-, auto-)

 * tojber....to kill →  ut tojber....to commit suicide
 * vyovider....to flatter →  ut vyovider....to flatter oneself
 * zaypuxwer....to be propelled →  ut zaypuxwer....to be self-propelled
 * fider....to praise →  ut fider....to brag
 * gober....to decrement →  ut gober....to autodecrement

Making Verbs Reciprocal with hyuit- (one another)

 * tojber....to kill →  hyuit tojber....to kill one another
 * ifer....to love →  hyuit ifer....to love one another

Expressing inter-, intra- with eb- (between)

 * tadier....to marry →  eb tadier....to intermarry
 * zyaber....to spread →  eb zyaber....to intersperse
 * vyexer....to relate →  eb vyexer....to interrelate

Expressing the Opposite of an Action with o- (un-)

 * bexler....to keep →  o bexler....to release, let go of
 * aynser....to integrate →  o aynser....to disintegrate, to decay
 * beler....to carry →  o beler....to drop
 * bier....to take →  o bier....to leave, relinquish
 * boser....to be quiet →  o boser....to be upset
 * drer....to write →  o drer....to erase

 * Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix o-, then the prefix is changed to ol-, eg. obexler....to release →  ol obexwa....to unreleased

Expressing a Public or Official Action with do-

 * Do- is a stub for dot (society).

 * afder....to allow →  do afder....to authorize
 * bier....to take →  do bier....to conquer, take over, take control of
 * tojber....to kill →  do tojber....to execute
 * buer....to give →  do buer....to dedicate
 * daler....to speak →  do daler....to orate, speak in public
 * deler....to declare →  do deler....to announce
 * drer....to write →  do drer....to publicize, report

Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with vya-

 * der....to say →  vya der....to avow, be frank
 * ber....to set, put →  vya ber....to control
 * napxer...to arrange, order →  vya napxer....to adjust
 * kexer....to seek →  vya kexer....to investiage
 * tuer....to inform →  vya tuer....to advise

Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with vyo-

 * der....to say →  vyo der....to lie, to misstate
 * tester....to understand →  vyo tester....to misunderstand
 * tuer....to inform →  vyo tuer....to misinform, to deceive
 * xer....to do →  vyo xer....to do wrong, fail, misdo
 * yuxler....to serve →  vyo yuxler....to betray, to serve unfaithfully

Making Verbs Positive with va-

 * der....to say →  va der....to affirm
 * texer....to think →  va texer....to believe
 * yeker....to expect →  va yeker....to presume
 * bier.....to take →  va bier....to accept

Making Verbs Negative with vo-

 * der....to say →  vo der....to deny
 * texer....to think →  vo texer....to doubt
 * yeker....to expect →  vo yeker....to rule out
 * bier.....to take →  vo bier....to reject

Making Verbs Suppositional with ve-

 * der....to say →  ve der....to conjecture
 * texer....to think →  ve texer....to suppose, hypothesize
 * yovder....to blame →  ve yovder....to indict, accuse

Speeding up Verbs with ig-

 * pier....to leave →  ig pier....to flee
 * pyoser....to drop →  ig pyoser....to plummet
 * tyoper....to walk →  ig tyoper....to run
 * yeper....to enter →  ig yeper....to rush in

Slowing up Verbs with ug-

 * paser....to move →  ug paser....to amble
 * teaxer....to look →  ug teaxer....to gaze
 * ilper....to flow →  ug ilper....to trickle
 * tilier....to drink →  ug tilier....to sip

Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with yok-

 * baxer....to stir →  yok baxer....to startle
 * hihider....to laugh →  yok hihider....to burst out laughing
 * teaser....to appear →  yok teaser....to suddenly appear
 * yoktojer....to die →  yok tojer....to drop dead

Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with kyo-

 * byaser....to stand →  kyo byaser....to stand still
 * kexer....to seek →  kyo kexer....to hound, stalk
 * teaxer....to look →  kyo teaxer....to stare, glare
 * texer....to think →  kyo texer....to obsess with, fixate on

Expression the Notion of Randomness with kye-

 * der....to say →  kye der....to guess, divine
 * per....to per →  kye per....to fluctuate
 * poper....to travel →  kye poper....to wander
 * napxer....to order →  kye napxer....to scramble
 * bier....to take →  kye bier....to select

Expressing the Notion of Change with kya-

 * baser....to make a move →  kya baser....to shift
 * sanxer....to form →  kya sanxer....to transform
 * xer....to do/make →  kya xer....to change
 * napxer....to order →  kya napxer....to shuffle
 * dyanxer....to phrase →  kya dyanxer....to paraphrase

Expressing Covert Actions with ko-

 * ber....to put →  ko ber....to hide
 * beler....to carry →  ko beler....to smuggle
 * bier....to take →  ko bier....to steal
 * ebkyaxer....to exchange →  ko ebkyaxer....to traffic
 * exer....to operate →  ko exer....to spy, operate under cover
 * fler....to wish for →  ko fler....to covet, be jealous of
 * apyexer....to attack →  ko apyexer....to ambush, to sneak-attack
 * loexer....to destroy →  ko loexer....to sabotage

Expressing Actions with Intentionality with ke-

 * teaxer....to look →  ke teaxer....to scan
 * vyaxer....to prove →  ke vyaxer....to experiment
 * tier....to learn →  ke tier....to be interested in

Expressing Lateral Actions with ku-

 * buxer....to push →  ku buxer....to rebuff, shun
 * der....to say →  ku der....to comment, remark
 * tyoper....to step →  ku tyoper....to step aside

Expressing Near Actions with yub-

 * der....to say →  yub der....to intimate, hint
 * gexer....to equate →  yub gexer....to approximate
 * bixer....to pull →  yu(b) bixer....to attract, draw near
 * teaxer....to look →  yub teaxer....to scrutinize, examine

Expressing Distance Actions with yib- (far, tele-)

 * drer....to write →  yib drer....to wire, telegraph
 * bixer....to pull →  yi(b) bixer....to distract
 * tuier....to communicate →  yib tuier....to telecommunicate
 * nyuxer....to deliver →  yib nyuxer....to mail, post

Expressing up-, super- with yab-

 * ber....to put →  ya(b) ber....to raise, to put up
 * bixler....to drag →  ya(b) bixler....to dredge up
 * uper....to come →  yab uper....to come up
 * nogyanxer....to scale →  yab nogyanxer....to scale up, escalate

Expressing down-, sub- with yob-

 * ber....to put →  yo(b) ber....to lower, put down
 * kyaber....to shift →  yob kyaxer....to downshift
 * musper....to climb →  yob musper....to climb down
 * nogyanxer....to scale →  yob nogyanxer....to downscale

Expressing in- with yeb-

 * ber....to put →  ye(b) ber....to insert, put in
 * beler....to carry →  ye(b) beler....to import
 * uzber....to bend →  yeb uzber....to inflect
 * yujber....to close →  yeb yujber....to enclose, include

Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb-

 * ber....to put →  oye(b) ber....to put out, expose
 * beler....to carry →  oye(b) beler....to export
 * uber....to send →  oyeb uber....to emit, send out
 * yujber....to close →  oyeb yujber....to exclude

Expressing pro-, forward with zay-

 * ber....to put →  zay ber....to advance, put forward
 * kexer....to seek →  zay kexer....to scout out
 * puxer....to throw →  zay puxer....to propel, thrust
 * tyoper....to walk →  zay tyoper....to progress, to walk forward

Expressing back-, retro-, re- with zoy-

 * uber....to send →  zoy ber....to send back
 * kixer....to bend →  zoy kixer....to reflect
 * puxer....to throw →  zoy puxer....to repel
 * neadper....to track →  zoy neadper....to backtrack

Expressing across, trans-, over-, cross- with zey-

 * per....to go →  zey per....to cross, transit
 * beler....to carry →  zey beler....to transport, convey
 * drer....to write →  zey drer....to transcribe
 * kyober....to fix →  zey kyober....to transfix, transplant
 * vyayeker....to check →  zey vyayeker....to crosscheck

Expressing through, per- with zye-

 * per....to go →  zye per....to permeate, get through
 * kexer....to seek →  zye kexer....to rummage, sift through
 * drer....to write →  zye drer....to cross out, draw a line through
 * iluer....to pour →  zye iluer....to soak
 * koper....to sneak →  zye koper....to sneak through

Expressing all over, widely, all about with zya-

 * ber....to put →  zya ber....to spread
 * buer....to give →  zya buer....to distribute
 * ijber....to open →  zya ijber....to open wide
 * nuxer....to pay →  zya nuxer....to disburse
 * puxer....to throw →  zya puxer....to scatter, cast about

Expressing mid-, center with ze-

 * ber....to put →  ze ber....to balance
 * byaser....to stand →  ze byaser....to straddle
 * der....to say →  ze der....to interject
 * pyoser....to fall →  ze pyoser....to sag
 * poxer....to stop →  ze poxer....to interrupt

Expressing futurity with oj-

 * ber....to put →  oj ber....to put off, postpone
 * bier....to take →  oj bier....to borrow
 * fer....to want →  oj fer....to wish, aspire
 * texer....to think →  oj texer....to plan
 * teater....to see →  oj teater....to envision
 * vader....to affirm →  oj vader....to promise

Expressing past with aj-

 * ber....to put →  aj ber....to pass, relegate to the past
 * der....to say →  aj der....to evoke, hearken, recount
 * embier....to occupy →  aj embier....to haunt
 * texer....to think →  aj texer....to reminisce, to reflect
 * uvtosder....to express sadness →  aj uvtosder....to apologize
 * nexer....to store →  aj nexer....to archive

Expressing present with ej-

 * buer....to give →  ej buer....to present
 * eser....to exist →  ej eser....to attend, to be present
 * nuxer....to pay →  ej nuxer....to pay cash
 * tuer....to inform →  ej tuer....to update
 * uvtosder....to express sadness →  ej uvtosder....to apologize

Expressing a stretched out action with yag- (long)

 * beser....to stay →  yag beser....to linger
 * bexer....to hold →  yag bexer....to conserve, preserve
 * daler....to talk →  yag daler....to ramble
 * dodaler....to orate →  yag dodaler....to harangue
 * fer....to want →  yag fer....to yearn, pine
 * teaxer....to look →  yag teaxer....to stare
 * fer....to want →  yag fer....to yearn, pine

Expressing a brief action with yog- (short)

 * drer....to write →  yog drer....to abbreviate
 * teaxer....to look →  yog teaxer....to glance at
 * tujer....to sleep →  yog tujer....to snooze, nap
 * gobler....to cut →  yog gobler....to cut short, truncate

Some Hybrid Prefixes
The prefix kui- is a hybrid of ku- (lateral) and ki- (diagonal)

 * per....to go →  kui per....to wobble
 * tyoper....to walk →  kui tyoper....to limp

The prefix zao- is a truncated hybrid of zay- (forward) and zoy- (backwards), eg:

 * baser....to move →  zao baser....to rock
 * per....to go →  zao per....to alternate
 * beler....to carry →  kui beler....to shuttle, ferry
 * pyoser....to fall →  kui pyoser....to pendulate

The prefix yaob- is a hybrid of yab- (up) and yob- (down). The final b- is assimilated or dropped before a b or p.

 * baser....to move →  yao baser....to bob
 * per....to go →  yao per....to heave
 * beler....to carry →  yao beler....to shuttle, ferry
 * peper....to ride →  yao peper....to jounce
 * puser....to jump →  yao puser....to hop, bounce

The prefix bui- is a hybrid of bu- (to) and bi- (from), eg:

 * drer....to write →  bui drer....to correspond
 * -er....to x →  bui er....to trade
 * beler....to carry →  bui beler....to shuttle, ferry
 * xer....to do →  bui xer....to push and pull, spring
 * poper....to travel →  bui poper....to travel to and fro, travel round trip

The prefix uiz- is a hybrid of uz- (crooked) and iz- (straight), eg:

 * drer....to write →  uiz drer....to squiggle
 * der....to say →  uiz der....to equivocate
 * baser....to move →  uiz baser....to wiggle, to squirm
 * per....to go →  uiz per....to careen, reel
 * paser....to move →  uiz paser....to swerve, yaw

The prefix zui- is a hybrid of zu- (left) and zi- (right), eg:

 * drer....to write →  uiz drer....to squiggle
 * buxer....to push →  zui buxer....to push around
 * baser....to move →  zui baser....to sway, totter
 * per....to go →  zui per....to zigzag
 * pasler....to shake →  zui pasler....to wobble

The prefix aoyeb- is a hybrid of (a)yeb- (in) and oyeb- (out), eg:

 * ber....to put →  aoye ber....to insert and extract
 * tiexer....to breathe →  aoye tiexer....to breath in and out
 * paper....to fly →  aoye paper....to fly in and out

The prefix aob- is a hybrid of ab- (on) and ob- (off), eg:

 * ber....to put →  ao ber....to put on and off
 * per....to go →  ao per....to get on and off, embark and disembark

The prefix vao- is a hybrid of va- (yes) and vo- (no), eg:

 * der....to say →  vao der....to decide
 * daler....to talk →  vao daler....to waffle
 * duder....to answer →  vao duder....to answer yes or no
 * kyaxer....to change →  vao kyaxer....to redact
 * texer....to think →  vao texer....to deliberate, vacillate

The prefix uij is a hybrid of uj- (end) and ij- (begin)

 * ber....to put →  uij ber....to switch off and on
 * daler....to talk →  uij daler....to stutter

The prefix yuij is a hybrid of yuj- (close) and yij- (open)

 * ber....to put →  yuij ber....to open and close, blink

The prefix huim is a hybrid of hum (there) and him (there)

 * paper....to fly →  huim paper....to fly here and yon
 * per....to go →  huim per....to wander
 * kexer....to seek →  huim kexer....to search high and low

Different Nuances of teaxer with Prefixes

 * teaxer....to look, behold, regard
 * aybteaxer....to supervise, look over
 * ajteaxer....to look back on (retrospect)
 * eynteaxer....to squint
 * fizteaxer....to respect
 * fuzteaxer....to disrespect
 * gawteaxer....to review, re-look
 * hyuitteaxer....to look at one another
 * ibteaxer....to ignore
 * igteaxer....to glance, glimpse
 * ifteaxer....to marvel at
 * izteaxer....to view directly, confront, aim
 * jateaxer....to preview
 * jeteaxer....to watch, observe
 * joteaxer....to review
 * kateaxer....to look for
 * keteaxer....to scan
 * kiteaxer....to look askance
 * koteaxer....to peek, spy
 * kozyeteaxer....to peep
 * kozyoteaxer....to peer
 * kuteaxer....to observe
 * kyeteaxer....to browse
 * kyoteaxer....to stare, glare
 * oteaxer....to ignore, overlook
 * ufteaxer....to glare, leer
 * ugteaxer....to gaze
 * yagteaxer....to gape, gawk
 * yebteaxer....to inspect
 * yibteaxer....to view from afar
 * yogteaxer....to glance at
 * yokteaxer....to get a glimpse of
 * yubteaxer....to examine
 * yuibteaxer....to look near and far
 * yuzteaxer....to look around, circumspect
 * yanteaxer....to view together
 * yizteaxer....to look beyond, overlook
 * vyateaxer....to investigate, check out
 * vyoteaxer....to view wrongly
 * zateaxer....to face, confront
 * zayteaxer....to look ahead, expect
 * zoyteaxer....to look back
 * zeyteaxer....to look across
 * ziteaxer....to look to the right
 * zuteaxer....to look to the left
 * zuiteaxer....to look right and left
 * zyateaxer....to look all over, survey
 * zyeteaxer....to look through, peruse
 * zyoteaxer....to squint
 * yobteaxer....to look down
 * yaobteaxer....to look up and down
 * zaoteaxer....to look back and forth
 * yabteaxer....to look up
 * yubketeaxer....to pry
 * uzteaxer....to look indirectly at
 * oyebteaxer....to look out
 * ojteaxer....to peer into the future
 * marteaxer....to star-gaze
 * tabteaxer....to autopsy

Modal Verbs

 * Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc.

Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs

 * Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples:
 * I want to go.
 * You must wait.
 * You may stay.
 * I dare say.

 * Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! TYPE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE ! Permission ! Ability ! Need ! Obligation ! Desire ! Enjoyment ! Courage ! Liberty ! Expectation ! Conation
 * + Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs
 * afer....may ayfer....might || ofer....may not oyfer....might not
 * yafer....can||yofer....cannot
 * efer....need to ||
 * yefer....must yeyfer....should ||oyefer....must not oyeyfer....should not
 * fer....want to ||
 * ifer....love to, enjoy iyfer....like to || ufer....hate to uyfer....dislike to
 * yifer....dare to || yufer....be afraid to, fear
 * yiver....have a right to, be free to || yuver....be bound to, be supposed to
 * yaker....expect to || yoker....be surprised to
 * yeker....try to ||
 * }

 * These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples:
 * At fe ter .....I want to know .
 * Wit yifa yeper .....He dared to enter .
 * Yat yafe teater yet.....We can see you.
 * Duven et yaka aker ?....Did you expect to win ?
 * Diwe yeku xer ga fi.....Please try to do better.

 * If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples:

 * At fe per.....I want to go.
 * At fu per.....I would like to go.

 * Et yafe aker.....You can win.
 * Et yafu aker.....You could win.

 * Yet yefe iper.....You must leave.
 * Yet yefu iper.....You ought to leave.

 * Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example:

 * At ife et. ....I love you.
 * At iyfe et. ....I like you.

 * Et yefe iper.....You must leave.
 * Et yeyfe iper.....You should leave.

 * Iyt yafe aker.....She can win.
 * Iyt yayfe aker.....She might win.

 * At ufa uda tuz.....I hated that art.
 * At uyfa uda tuz.....I disliked that art.

 * The use of l and r intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg:

 * Et yuve puer jwe.....You are supposed to arrive on time.
 * Et yuvle tepzexer.....You have to pay attention.
 * Et yuvre buer nas.....You absolutely must give money.

 * At yeka ser yeva.....I tried to be fair.
 * At yekla ujber jwa.....I strove to finish early.
 * At yekra nixer ga nas.....I struggled (= worked hard)) to earn more money.

 * Iyt ife eker zyun.....She loves to play ball.
 * Iyt ifla teater et.....She was delighted to see you.
 * Iyt ifre teaper him.....She adores visiting here.

 * Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries:

 * Et afe oyeper ay ifeker.....You may go out and play.
 * Yat efa tujer.....We needed to sleep.
 * Ot ofe mavier him.....One is prohibited to smoke here.
 * Mavier him ofwe .....Smoking here is prohibited.
 * At ife dyeer.....I love to read.
 * Duven et fe yeper?....Do you want to come in?
 * At fu teaper et edjub.....I would like to visit you some day.
 * It ufaye hyaj teaxwer.....He has always hated being looked at.
 * Duven et iyfe per tilami?....Do you like going to bars?
 * At uyfe tijer gra jwa.....I dislike waking up too early.
 * Et yafe xer hyehos et fu.....You can do whatever you like.
 * Et yefer xer ad vyaas.....You must do the right thing.
 * Et yeyfe voy daler huuyen azay.....You should not talk so loud.
 * At yeyfa ter ga fi.....I should have known better.
 * At voy yifu der hyea fuas.....I would not dare say anything bad.
 *  Von yufu der hos et tesde..... Don't be afraid to say what you mean.
 * Et yive dier yevanavdut.....You have a right to ask for a lawyer.
 * Yat voy yuvle kyoejer.....We are not bound to stick around.

Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms

 * All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective yafa....able is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective yafwa....possible is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! MODAL TYPE || SUBJECT-ORIENTED !! SUBJECT-ORIENTED !! PATIENT-ORIENTED !! PATIENT-ORIENTED ! !! VERB !! ADJECTIVE !! VERB !! ADJECTIVE !row=1| Permission !row=1| Necessity !row=1| Prohibition !row=1| Possibility !row=1| Obligation !row=1| Duty !row=1| Impossibility !row=1| Volition !row=1| Love !row=1| Hate !row=1| Courage !row=1| Fear !row=1| Joy !row=1| Sorrow
 * + Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms
 * afer may || afa allowed || afwer be permitted || afwa permissable
 * efer need || efa needful || efwer be necessary || efwa necessary, required
 * ofer be unallowed || ofa prohibited || ofwer be prohibited || ofwa banned
 * yafer be able || yafa able || yafwer be possible || yafwa possible
 * yefer must || yefa obliged || yefwer be obligatory || yefwa obligatory
 * yeyfer should || yeyfa supposed, duty-bound || yeyfwer be supposed || yeyfwa due
 * yofer be unable || yofa unable || yofwer be impossible || yofwa impossible
 * fer want || fa desirous || fwer be desirable || fwa desirable, wanted
 * ifer love iyfer like || ifa enamored iyfa fond || ifwer be loved iyfwer be liked || ifwa lovable iyfwa likeable
 * ufer hate uyfer dislike || ufa averse uyfa displeased|| ufwer be hated uyfwer be disliked || ufwa odious unliked
 * yifer dare || yifa daring, brave || yifwer be safe || yifwa safe
 * yufer be afraid || yufa afraid || yufwer be a danger || yufwa frightening
 * iver enjoy || iva glad || ivwer be a joy || ivwa enjoyable
 * uver be sorry || uva sorry, sad || uvwer be a shame || uvwa regrettable
 * }

 * Examples of subject-oriented forms:

 * At se yafa xer hes.....I am capable of doing anything.
 * Et ofe teater hia dyezun.....You are not allowed/are prohibited to see this film.
 * Duven at afe per hum?....Am I allowed to go there?
 * Yat fu ter eta dyun.....We would like to know your name.
 * Piti ufe beser be mel.....Fish hate to remain on dry land.
 * At ajay ifa dazer.....I once loved to dance.
 * Et se iva, at yife der.....You are beautiful, I dare say.
 * At yeyfa xer has ga ig.....I should have done it sooner.
 * Von yufu ; At yupeye..... Fear not; I am coming.
 * Et yefe puer ja eymaj.....You must arrive before noon.
 * Yet yofe daler je ha dezun.....You people must not talk during the performance.
 * Yat yeyfe (= se yeyfa ) aker.....We should (= are bound/supposed/due ) to win.
 * At ive teater et bakser.....I 'm glad to see you get better.
 * Su iva .....Be happy .
 * At uvu (= su uva) teater et iper.....I would be sad to see you leave.

 * Examples of patient-oriented forms:

 *  Afwe (= se afwa) mavier him..... It is permissible to smoke here.
 *  Ofwe (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him..... It is prohibited to throw litter here.
 *  Fwe (= se fwa) van yet dolu..... It is desired that you stop talking.
 *  Voy yafwe beser him gajob..... It is not possible to remain here any longer.
 *  Yofwa av at ivteuder..... It was not possible for me to laugh.
 *  Yefwe van et piu ig..... It is essential that you leave quickly.
 * He yeyfwe ober ata tyoyafi?....Is it obligatory to remove my shoes?
 * Ga yux efwo .....More help will be needed .
 * Yuxren se ufwa xetyen.....Slavery is an odious practice.
 *  Uvwe van wit oka..... It's a shame that he lost.

 * * lofwa is used for unwanted for disambiguation purposes.

Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems

 * Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! SUBJECT-ORIENTED !! PATIENT-ORIENTED
 * + Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems
 * afxer....allow (someone to do sthg.) || afwaxer....permit (something to be done)
 * efxer....require || efwaxer....necessitate
 * ofxer....prohibit || ofwaxer....prohibit
 * yafxer....enable || yafwaxer....make possible
 * yefxer....oblige || yefwaxer....make obligatory
 * yofxer....cripple || yofwaxer....disable
 * yifxer....embolden || yifwaxer....make safe
 * yufxer....intimidate || yufwaxer....make frightening
 * ifxer....please || ifwaxer....make pleasant
 * }
 * yofxer....cripple || yofwaxer....disable
 * yifxer....embolden || yifwaxer....make safe
 * yufxer....intimidate || yufwaxer....make frightening
 * ifxer....please || ifwaxer....make pleasant
 * }
 * yufxer....intimidate || yufwaxer....make frightening
 * ifxer....please || ifwaxer....make pleasant
 * }
 * }

Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes

 * Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems.  Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in -wa) refer only to things.

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented
 * + Modal Suffixes
 * -yafa....able to X, -able || -yafwa....possible to X
 * -yofa....unable to X || -yofwa....impossible to X
 * -ifa....fond of Xing, Xophile || -ifwa....enjoyable to X
 * -ufa....averse to Xing, Xophobic ||-ufwa....unenjoyable to X
 * -yika....hard of Xing || -yikwa....hard to X
 * -yuka....comfortable/easy Xing || -yukwa....easy to X
 * -yaka....expecting to X || yakwa....expected/likely to X
 * -efa....in need of Xing || -efwa....necessary to X
 * -yefa....obliged to X || -yefwa....obligatory/due to X
 * -yufa....afraid of Xing || -yufwa....frightening to X
 * }
 * -yuka....comfortable/easy Xing || -yukwa....easy to X
 * -yaka....expecting to X || yakwa....expected/likely to X
 * -efa....in need of Xing || -efwa....necessary to X
 * -yefa....obliged to X || -yefwa....obligatory/due to X
 * -yufa....afraid of Xing || -yufwa....frightening to X
 * }
 * -yefa....obliged to X || -yefwa....obligatory/due to X
 * -yufa....afraid of Xing || -yufwa....frightening to X
 * }
 * }

 * This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems:

 * {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;"

! ORIENTATION !! POSITIVE ADJECTIVE !! POSITIVE VERB !! NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE !! NEGATIVE VERB !row=1| Subject !row=1| Patient !row=1| Subject !row=1| Patient !row=1| Subject !row=1| Subject !row=1| Subject !row=1| Patient !row=1| Patient !row=1| Subject !row=1| Patient !row=1| Subject !row=1| Subject !row=1| Patient !row=1| Subject !row=1| Subject !row=1| Subject !row=1| Patient
 * + Modals and Orientation
 * teatyafa able to see, sighted || teatyafer be able to see || teatyofa blind || teatyofer be blind
 * teatyafwa visible || teatyafwer be visible || teatyofwa invisible || teatyofwer be invisible
 * teetyafa able to hear, hearing || teetyafer be able to hear || teetyofa deaf || teatyofer be deaf
 * teetyafwa audible || teetyafwer be audible || teeyofwa inaudible || teeyofwer be inaudiable
 * dalyafa able to speak || dalyafer be able to speak || dalyofa mute, dumb || dalyofer be mute, dumb
 * doabifa patriotic || doabifer be patriotic || doabufa rebellious || doabufer rebel
 * tosyafa sensitive || tosyafer be able to feel || tosyofa insensitive || tosyofer be numbed
 * tayotyafwa palpable || tayotyafwer be palpable || tayotyofwa numb || tayotyofwer be impalbable, numb
 * testyukwa easy to understand || testyukwaxer make easily understood || testyikwa hard to understand || testyikwaxer make hard to understand
 * tudyaka pregnant, expecting || tudyaker be expecting|| ||
 * mamilyakwa likely to rain || mamilyakwer to be expected to rain|| mamilyokwa unlikely to rain|| mamilyokwer to be unlikely to rain
 * tilefa thirsty || tilefer be thirsty || ||
 * telefa hungry || telefer be hungry || ||
 * tejefwa vital || tejefwer be vital || ||
 * tujefa sleepy || tujefer be sleepy || ||
 * nasefa poor, needy || nasefer be needy || ||
 * dudyefa accountable, responsible || dudyefer be responsible || ||
 * texiyefwa noteworthy || texiyefwer be noteworthy || ||
 * }

Sensing Verbs

 * Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows:

 * Examples of usage:

 * At teatyofxwa bey ha mani.....I was blinded by the lights.
 * Ha xeus sa teetyofxyea .....The noise was deafening .
 * Hia tit se gla teatiyafa .....This pupil is very perceptive .
 * Hua bekil se teityofwa .....That medicine is odorless (impossible to smell).
 *  Teatyofwaxu ha vyuni..... Make the spots invisible .
 * Ha magmeb yonprex tayotyafwa zya ha mir.....The volcano eruption could be felt throughout the world.

Frequentative Verbs

 * Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the infix -eg- placed between the verb stem and verb ending, eg.:

Hybridized Verbs

 * Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples:

Biradical Verbs

 * There are a few verbs in Mirad which are composed of two verb roots, called biradical verbs. Sometimes the last letter of the first verb root gets dropped.  Here are a few:

Expressing Habitual Actions and States

 * Mirad uses the term gel jubyen (as a habit) to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg:
 * At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.....I used to wake up at 9 o'clock. (Lit. I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.).
 * The term hyujod....one another occasion (or be aj....in the past) is use to express once (upon a time), eg:
 * At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut. ....I once was a teacher.
 * The term vyabxelay (routinely) can also be used, eg:
 * Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.....We play music around town routinely.

Expressing an Immediate Past

 * To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence "We have just gotten married.", Mirad uses the adverb ejnay (newly) much like the word just in English:
 * Yat tadsaye ejnay .....We have just gotten married.
 *  Ejnay tadxwa..... Just married.
 * Wit dokebiwa ejnay .....He was just elected.
 * At ujbaya yex ejnay hoj iyt yebupa.....I had just finished work when she came in.

Verb Predicate Types

 * Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows:
 * Voice
 * Active (The subject is the doer of the action)
 * Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action)
 * Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient)
 * Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.)
 * Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.)
 * Stativity
 * Stative (Does not involve action)
 * Dynamic (Action is involved)
 * Valency
 * Impersonal (There is no subject)
 * Transitive (There is an object)
 * Intransitive (There is no object)
 * Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent)
 * Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed)
 * Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed)
 * Copula (X is Y)
 * Other
 * Modal (can, must, should, wants to...)
 * Auxiliary (help to, hope to, prepare to + verb)
 * Motion (run, go, ride...)
 * Communication (say, answer, claim that...)
 * Gesture (put, shake, hit...)
 * State/Stative (be, become, live, be born...)
 * Action/Dynamic (do, act, make)

title: Mirad Grammar/Verbs