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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?

This is a critique of the research paper Effects of the Amount of Exercise on Body Weight, Body Composition, and Measures of Central Obesity: STRRIDE - A Randomized Controlled Study.  Slentz, C. et al, 2004, Arch Intern Med, Vol 164, Jan 12, 2004 submitted as an assignment in the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, September 2019.

What is the background to this research?
Obesity can be defined as an excess of body-fat mass and is considered to affect over 30% of adults in the USA and account for on third of total mortality. In Australia, rates of obesity are similar to the USA. Persons who are obese are at increased risk of developing a host of disorders including cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, high levels of blood cholesterol, and stroke.

The financial and social cost of obesity to the Australian economy was estimated to be of the order of $58 billion in 2008. Thus, finding cost-effective and appropriate ways to manage and limit the health and financial costs of obesity is an important social issue. Central obesity, i.e. excess abdominal fat, is of particular concern, as it is strongly linked to a greater increased risk of disease than that associated with excess fat stored elsewhere

The role of exercise in weight management programs has been the subject of much research. The STRRIDE (Studies of a Targeted Risk Reduction Intervention through Defined Exercise) program investigated the impact of exercise volume and/or intensity on a range of cardiovascular risk factors.

The research was conducted between February 1999 and July 2002 and was understood to be the first clinical trial that was designed to assess the separate and combined effects of exercise volume and intensity on various measures of central obesity. As such, the article is critiqued against the level of understanding at the time of publication.

Where is the research from?
The authors are part of the Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina.

What kind of research was this?
The research comprised a randomised control clinical trial.

A total of 302 persons living the Durham area of NC, who met the following criteria:

 * sedentary at commencement of study, i.e. exercised less than once per week
 * aged between 40 and 65 years old;
 * calculated BMI in the range 25 to 35 (overweight to moderately obese); &
 * diagnosed with mild to moderate lipid irregularities

were initially assessed for inclusion in the study. Of these, 182 were included and randomised into one of four groups.

Excluding criteria included:

 * high blood pressure and diabetes;
 * currently dieting (or intending to diet);
 * heart disease, presence of musculoskeletal problems; &
 * taking of medication that may cause confounding issues.

Of the 182 persons who commenced the study, roughly 50% were female and 20% were from ethnic minorities.

Exercise sessions were supervised or monitored using a heart rate monitor.

The trials were eventually completed by 120 persons

What did the research involve?
Qualifying participants were randomly split between four groups: Three groups that exercised at different levels of volume and intensity; and a control group that did no exercise.

The three exercise groups were as follows:

 * High volume/vigorous intensity - equivalent to 32km per week at 65% to 85% peak VO2;
 * Low volume/vigorous intensity - equivalent to 19.2km per week at 65% to 85% peak VO2; &
 * Low volume/moderate intensity - equivalent to 19.2km per week at 40% to 55% peak VO2

Specifically, the high volume/vigorous intensity group were required to use 13kcal/kg of body weight per week and the other two groups were required to use 14kcal/kg of body weight per week.

The volume and intensity of the exercise sessions started at lower levels and was increased to the specified level over a period of 2 to 3 months. Once participants had reached the specified levels of volume and intensity, this was maintained for a period of 6 months.

The dietary intake of each participant was controlled. It was a requirement of the study that participants try to maintain body weight throughout the trial and not lose weight. Any change in baseline weight greater than 2.5%, led to a nutritionist reviewing their calorific intake and making recommendations to return body weight to the baseline.

Prior to commencement and at conclusion of the trial the following parameters were measured:

 * Height (to nearest 0.64cm);
 * Weight (in light clothing without shoes to nearest 100g);
 * Body composition - sum of 4 skinfolds (triceps, suprailiac, abdominal, and thigh);
 * Abdominal waist circumference;
 * Minimum waist circumference;
 * Hip circumference; &
 * Thigh circumference.

What were the basic results?
Participants in all of the exercise groups generally showed improvements or stability in some or all measures of central obesity when compared with the control, non-exercising group.

A clear dose-response was demonstrated, with the high-volume/high-intensity group realising the best results, followed by low-volume/high-intensity and then the low-volume-moderate-intensity groups.

The results showed that the non-exercising group gain weight during the study, with no corresponding increase in calorific intake.

The non-exercising group also showed an increase in excess abdominal fat.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
The research indicates that even a low level of regular exercise at moderate intensity can stabilise and maintain measures of central obesity. Increased levels of exercise both in terms of volume and intensity may be necessary for weight loss and reductions in other measures.

One outcome that contradicts other research was that exercise did not appear to specifically reduce levels of excess abdominal fat. However, it was observed that the non-exercise group increased levels of excess abdominal fat from baseline. This result appears to indicate that even low levels of exercise can stabilise markers of central obesity. Stabilisation and maintaining markers of central obesity can be considered to be a positive outcome as risk factors are not increasing.

Practical advice
The research led to evidenced based information to support recommendations relating to the levels of exercise (volume and intensity) required to either maintain or reduce weight, assuming no change in calorific intake. This was an important as it could guide physicians when making recommendations to patients about how exercise can help managing their risk profile. It also provided evidence based information to help health authorities develop guidelines on exercise and health.

Further information/resources
This research formed part of the STRRIDE clinical trials. Several other papers of interest were also published relating to this research. A good introduction to the trials is provided by Kraus et al. Several other papers present specific findings from the trials.

Of particular interest is a paper published by Johnson et al in 2019 reporting on the ten-year legacy effects of the STRRIDE trials. This article discusses the findings of a ten-year follow-up study of 161 participants of the original STRRIDE clinical trials. A major question around exercise (and other short-term, supervised interventions) is whether there are any long-term benefits or whether gains would be lost overtime as participants returned to previous behaviour patterns. The findings of the 10-year Legacy Study indicate that:

 * all participants from the exercise groups experienced smaller increases in waist circumference than the control group members;

 * participants in the vigorous exercise group demonstrated a lower reduction in peak VO2, when compared to the other groups;
 * members of the moderate intensity group and high volume/high intensity group had significantly lower mean arterial blood pressure than before the intervention began; &
 * participants who continued to exercise post trial showed a significantly lower reduction in peak VO2 than participants who did not.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Parkour/Basic Moves/strides

To stride or "striding" is a form of parkour in which you walk or run with ling even steps.

title: Parkour/Basic Moves/strides


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries

The following wikipage is a critique of the article "Impact of exercise on neuroplasticity-related proteins in spinal cord injured humans" conducted by Vega SR, Abel T, Lindschulten R, Hollmann W, Bloch W, Strüder HK. This critique was completed for the the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra.

What is the background to this research?
Spinal cord injuries (SCI) can be described as any trauma that occurs to the spinal cord that results in a partial or complete loss of sensory and motor neurons. This directly affects a person’s motor and sensory function below where the lesion occurred ultimately affecting their overall quality of life. Depending on the severity, these types of injuries can lead to debilitating conditions referred to as paraplegia and quadriplegia. Quadriplegia is resultant of neuron damage from the neck down (C1-C8) and paraplegia is neuron damage from the chest down (T1-T12). Interestingly 25-30% of all spinal cord injuries maintain intact neuronal pathways below the level of the lesion (depending if its a partial or complete laceration) that have potential to be utilised through neuroplasticity and rehabilitation interventions. This is aimed to allow the injured individual to possibly strengthen those connections and regain some sensation/strength which was previously lost below the lesion.

Exercise has been shown to up-regulate Brain Deriver Neurotropic Factor (BDNF) which, similarly to the peripheral nervous system, can play a role in the regeneration of axons depending on the severity and type of neuronal pathways which are preserved. Throughout the literature, BDNF and Insulin like growth factor (IGF-1) are the main proteins that are essential to neuroplasticity of the spinal cord as they are able to excite neurons as well as synthesising the synaptic connections. Within the current scope of literature into the most beneficial exercises, it is widely agreed that locomotion based exercises are the most effective in promoting increased BDNF and IGF-1 thus improving neuroplasticity within the spinal cord.

Where is the research from?
This study was conducted in 2008 at the German Sport University, Cologne, Germany.

What kind of research was this?
It was predominantly a case controlled study although had elements of meta-analysis and cross sectional, through comparing the benefits of exercise on SCI elite athletes to able-bodied individuals and animal conducted studies.

What did the research involve?
The study was conducted on eleven paraplegic elite male athletes that all displayed a SCI specifically a lesion from T4 - T12. The testing was conducted over 2 days with no strenuous physical activity permitted two days prior to the testing.

Day one: Incremental test to failure on a cycle 2 ergometer (attached to power meter)

 * Warm up: 20W for 5 minutes
 * Test: every 5 minutes resistance was increase by 20W, maintained 60RPM for whole duration or until failure, RPE to 18 reflecting maximum exhaustion.
 * Measurements collected: VO2max, Heart rate, Capillary blood samples through the ear lobe and RPE.
 * Measurements collected: VO2max, Heart rate, Capillary blood samples through the ear lobe and RPE.

Day two: Time trial marathon (42 km) on a hand bike attached to a treadmill
 * Warm up: 10minutes to whatever pace the athlete wanted
 * Test: After the 10minutes the athlete entered into a time trial and covered the distance of a marathon (42 km)
 * Measurements: VO2, Heart rate, Capillary blood samples

Limitations found throughout this article were the lack of research within the area as well as the effects of differing exercising intensities/ durations, the effects that kinetic release has and how primarily BNDF and IGF-1 improve the recovery of a spinal cord injury. Neurotrophic factors on spinal cord injuries need to be assessed in conjunction with BNDF and IGF-1 to strengthen the literature. As this article was from 2008 can be shown as a limitation compared to more recent literature.

What were the basic results?

 * BDNF concentrations at rest were six times higher in the paraplegic subjects compared to able bodied athletes conducted in other studies.
 * IGF-1, prolactin and cortisol remained within normal range.
 * Short moderate exercise over 10 minutes was shown to have an elevated response in BDNF but diminished after high intensity and exercises of long duration. IGF-1 was found the opposite this as it was shown to become elevated in high intensity and increased duration.
 * IGF-1 induced from exercise displayed a reduction in muscle atrophy within spinal cord athletes as well has shown benefits in brain and spinal neuroplasticity.
 * Prolactin increased within the testing that displayed increased levels of serotonergic neurons due to increased acid base balances within the blood that enhanced neuroplasticity.
 * Both BDNF and IGF-1 promote neurogenesis and preservation of neurons.
 * Previous studies mentioned within the article stated that compared hemi sectioned rat showed that after exercise BDNF increased 133% compared to the control rats.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
BDNF and IGF-1 play an important role in neuroplasticity when induced by exercise. Neuroplasticity has been shown to improve and preserve motor and sensory neurons effected by spinal cord lesions. These findings give hope to sufferers of SCI with the emerging possibility of regaining sensation and movement in areas of previous loss. Elevated levels of neuroplasticity promoting proteins as the result of exercise show that neuroregeneration is possible when comparing SCI populations to able bodies. More research is required into the area of neuroplasticity and neuronal regeneration in order to fully understand the impact that neuroplasticity can have within the SCI population. Exercise intensity and duration often contradict one another when they are compared in recent literature, however the importance of exercise overall for positive rehabilitation outcomes is well agreed upon throughout all literature found. Although this article is slightly dated, it still reflects relevant research in regard to neuroplasticity and forms the basis for understanding how BDNF and IGF-1 can positively impact spinal cord neuroplasticity when combined with exercise.

Practical advice
As previously mentioned, the optimum exercise intensity and duration for individuals with SCI remains unclear within the current scope of literature in this area. It is however well agreed upon that exercise has strong benefits not only for spinal cord neuroplasticity but overall quality of life and independence. SCI individuals should engage in exercise to the best of their ability not only for rehabilitation purposes but also psychological and nutritional as well. All research found further highlighted the importance of the right intervention for rehabilitation and that it should be prescribed by a professional within a multidisciplinary team such as Accredited Exercise Physiologist and/or Physiotherapist to ensure patient safety as well as positive rehabilitation outcomes specific to their needs.

Further information/resources
Australian organisations:

 * Spinal Cord Injuries Australia
 * Spinal Life Australia
 * Spinal Cure Australia
 * Spinal Cure Australia
 * Spinal Cure Australia

For further information, services, resources, or support for spinal cord injured individuals and their families and how you can get involved through donations and fundraisers contact:

 * Spinal Cord Injuries Australia Hotline: 1800 819 775


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User:Ekenyos/sandbox

Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease.

This is a critique of the research article: Left ventricular vascular and metabolic adaptations to high-intensity interval and moderate intensity continuous training: a randomized trial in healthy middle-aged men.

What is the background to this research?
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a collective term that refers to various diseases that have an adverse effect over the heart and blood vessels. These forms of disease are the most prevalent cause of mortality within countries of higher economic standards, while it continuous to grow through developing countries parallel to their economic growth. Due to the diverse number of contributing factors towards diseases of this form it often goes undiagnosed, thus highlighting the importance of providing individuals with sufficient knowledge to conduct safe practices regarding their health. It is hypothesised that individuals with CVD may be at increased risk with higher intensity adaptations to training, emphasising the importance in understanding potential negative reactions surrounding the epidemic.

The current trend associated with high intensity interval training (HIIT) has generated a large pool of studies providing significant amounts of evidence surrounding the various health benefits associated with the style of training however, the resources linked to potential risks for certain individuals is limited. This study examined the myocardial perfusion, metabolism and cardiac functions of healthy, sedentary, middle aged men when conducting either HIIT or moderate intensity continuous training (MICT). Thus, providing a resourceful base for reference when determining probable risk factors or benefits associated with training at high intensities for individuals suffering from CVD.

Where is the research from?
The entirety of the study was conducted regarding the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethical committee of the Hospital District of South Western Finland. It was directed within the Centre of Excellence in Cardiovascular and Metabolic research and no obvious biases were evident throughout the article, as majority of the authors had past research in exercise related adaptations through the body as well as cardiovascular research. The authors background may have been advantageous for the study as their knowledge may have provided them with an increased understanding of both benefits and risks alike. Interpretation of results may also have been conducted efficiently considering the knowledge depth present.

What kind of research was this?
The interventional study was one of pre-post design. There were two parallel groups that conducted separate training regimes with no crossover. Neither participants nor investigators were blinded regarding group allocation as the action would've been ineffective and had no influence over the final results. Studies of this design have the ability to create ideal opportunities to examine specific changes implemented through the intervention purpose. However, factors such as incidence or prevalence need to be considered as they often reduce the reliability of the studies results.

What did the research involve?
Twenty-eight untrained, non-smoking, middle aged, healthy men conducted a total of six sessions over a two-week study time frame. They were equally divided into two groups and conducted either a HIIT regime consisting of 4-6 repeated Wingate tests with approximately four minutes of rest in between each run or the MICT program where 40-60 minutes cycling was completed at 60% max workload. Developments were made through the number of repeated efforts, starting from 4 and working through to 6 respectively, while the MICT group increased in time from 40 to 50 minutes to additionally 60 minutes after every other session.

The methodology managed was sufficient for the examination at hand. Equal group participants along with the thorough physical pre-screenings ensured that participants were standardised, reducing outside confounding factors, thus emphasising the intervention as the only variable, increasing validity through statistical tests based on probability theory. However, conducting the intervention over a longer timeframe would have benefitted those investigating the adaptations as it would've allowed for more relevant considerations to be observed such as changes through left ventricular mass, which has been shown through other studies as a noteworthy adaptation. Additionally, an inadequate amount of background information was available regarding the relationship between exercise and reduced vascular function and insulin action within the heart.

What were the basic results?
The study found that the adenosine stimulated myocardial perfusion had the most significant difference between intervention groups with the HIIT group having a reduction of 19%, while the MICT had an increase of 9%. This finding was found to be connected to the myocardial glucose uptake, particularly within the HIIT group. Despite this connection to myocardial glucose uptake there was little understanding regarding the reasoning for the reduction in adenosine stimulated myocardial perfusion through the HIIT group, highlighting the requirement of additional future studies examining this component. It was also found that the myocardial vascular hyperaemic reactivity was impaired post HIIT. All other metabolic and functional adaptations of the heart were similar throughout both groups. Additionally, the insulin stimulated myocardial glucose uptake was decreased by training, with no significant differences evident throughout the groups, as well as no changes through free fatty acids.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
The authors conclusion stated that, HIIT training in healthy, previously sedentary men may lead to compromised myocardial vasodilation. The evidence suggested that the reduction in adenosine-stimulated myocardial perfusion was decidedly linked to high intensity training as well as clear impairments through the myocardial vascular hyperaemic reactivity, therefore individuals who were untrained shouldn't par take in exercise of the strenuous form. Thus, supporting the hypothesise regarding cautious exercise prescription for individuals suffering from CVD as the already prevalent conditions within their heart could increase risk or mortality and create dangerous situations for participants. However, a large majority of studies have been published that provide evidence supporting HIIT as a positive form regarding improvements through cardio-metabolic factors. Various studies have found that both HIIT and MICT interventions have had significant reductions in resting blood pressure with participants suffering from hypertension, with HIIT having larger improvements. Arguments may be made concerning what aspects were examined through the studies at hand and whether the lack of focus surrounding the in-depth adaptations to the heart on a muscular level as its this analysis that highlights the high risk associated with training at high intensities with CVD. Nevertheless, it's clear that there are advantageous aspects to HIIT within participants suffering from CVD, and even without minimal evidence for comparison of varying HIIT prescriptive variables for optimal treatments, the overarching rule for the training regime has proven effective.

Considering the large variety of evidence across numerous spectrums its hypothesised that there is not concrete answer regarding whether or not HIIT with individuals suffering from CVD is worthwhile. Rather than establishing a clear decision regarding the prescription of the training intensity, personalised considerations regarding whether or not the benefits outweigh the risks for specific individuals would be most effective. Individual assessments regarding previous aerobic fitness and current health standpoints will provide professionals with an efficient amount of information to conduct the most educated prescription of either HIIT or trainings at lower intensities levels for those suffering from CVD.

Practical advice
The conclusions state that previously sedentary males should not participate in strenuous HIIT. There is a brief mention that perhaps a slow integration of the training style would be beneficial, however the recommendations are no HIIT sessions throughout the early stages of a program. Additional resources suggest that conducting a baseline stress test, from which personalised training sessions may be calculated regarding intensities based off the heart rate maximum calculations, reduce the risks associated. It is advised that individuals suffering from CVD of any severity seek medical clearance prior to executing any training at high intensities. Once cleared, a slow progressive introduction to the training regime will allow the body to adapt efficiently, while experiencing all the health benefits associated with HIIT.

Further information/resources
For further information regarding exercise and cardiovascular health, please click the links below:

Heart Disease in Australia

Physical Activity for People With Cardiovascular Disease: Recommendations of the National Heart Foundation of Australia

High-Intensity Interval Training for Patients With Cardiovascular Disease - Is It Safe?

title: User:Ekenyos/sandbox


text:
Micronations/List of already existing micronations/Autonomous Kingdom of Neoptolemia

The Autonomous Kingdom of Neoptolemia is located in an apartment in central Athens, the capital of Greece. It has 3 legal citizens.The King's name is Georgios and national motto is " Our Kingdom, our Home". The national currency is the Neoptolemian Drachma and it’s formal religion is Christianity. National colours are dark blue, blue and white (as the flag's colours) and national animal is the bird. The nation was founded in 22/02/2016 at a notary office in Ampelokipi city in Athens by Georgios, Nektarios and Despina.

Long live the Kingdom of Neoptolemia!


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User:JMurphy98

James Murphy is a student at the University of Canberra who is currently studying a bachelors degree of exercise physiology and rehabilitation. When James finishes his degree, he hopes to work in a clinical setting where he can help people rehabilitate from sporting injuries. James' passion for rehabilitation originates from when he broke his tibia on a football tour in England in 2015. His passion for health has led him to participate in multiple sports both in the winter and summer seasons, as well as gymming four times a week. When he isn't studying or playing sport, he is usually with friends, playing video games or listening to music.

title: User:JMurphy98


text: Category talk:Book:Japanese/Lessons

title: Category talk:Book:Japanese/Lessons


text: Category talk:Book:Japanese/Grammar

title: Category talk:Book:Japanese/Grammar


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Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2019/May

Multilingual Shared Templates and Modules
Hello en-wiki community!

I recently organized a project to share templates and modules between wiki projects and languages. It allows modules and templates to be “language-neutral”, and store all text translations on Commons. This means that it is enough to copy/paste a template without any changes, and update the translations separately. If someone fixes a bug or adds a new feature in the original module, you can copy/paste it again without any translation work. My bot DiBabelYurikBot can help with copying. This way users can spend more time on content, and less time on updating and copying templates. Please see project page for details and ask questions on talk page.

P.S. I am currently running for the Wikimedia board, focusing on content and support of multi-language communities. If you liked my projects like maps, graphs, or this one, I will be happy to receive your support. (any registered user group can vote). Thank you! --Yurik (🗨) 04:06, 12 May 2019 (UTC)

 * (Aside: One wonders whether "en-wiki" is being used to mean all English wikimedia sisters (which would be refreshing).) --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 12:59, 12 May 2019 (UTC)
 * (hehe, Pi zero, I was thinking the same thing when writing it -- at first I wanted to do a longer en-wikibooks but then thought it would be fairer to just call everyone a wiki :) --Yurik (discuss • contribs) 16:59, 12 May 2019 (UTC))


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis

This is a critique of the article: Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Exercise in Older Adults With Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Randomized Controlled Trial Elvira Lange, Daniel Kucharski, Sara Svedlund, Karin Svensson, Gunhild Bertholds, Inger Gjertsson, and Kaisa Mannerkorpi

What is the background to this research?
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), is an autoimmune disease that causes pain and swelling of the joints. It could lead to the destruction and deformation of the joint if not treated. Individuals affected with RA disease are commonly associated with limitation in range of motion, pain, fatigue and mental issues. These symptoms can obstruct the person's capabilities to perform their daily tasks which will implement on their quality of life.

Although some studies suggest that the onset of Rheumatoid Arthritis is detected in individuals aged between 35–64 years old,  Another study suggested that individuals aged 75 and over had the highest percentage of individuals reporting with symptoms of RA, also slightly higher percentage in females as compared to males.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of a moderate‐to‐high–intensity, aerobic and resistance exercise with person‐centered guidance in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), through a randomized controlled trial.

Where is the research from?
This study was conducted by Elvira Lange with the assistance of her colleagues, the study took place in Gothenburg and Skovede, Sweden which started in Jan 2015 and ended in November 2016. It was then published in January 2019 by Wiley Periodicals from the Arthritis Care and Research on the behalf of the American College of Rheumatology.

The assessed population were older adults aged between (65–75 years) and were selected from Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, and Skaraborg Hospital, Skövde. However, an article showed that Swedes are considered to be the most physically active population. In addition a survey done by the WHO showed that 61% of Swedish of individuals aged between (65–84 years) from both genders were achieving recommended physical activity levels

What kind of research was this?
This study is a Randomized controlled Trial (RCT)

The study consisted of two groups, individuals were randomly allocated into two different groups one undergoing exercise intervention at the gym (treatment group), the other group performed light exercise at home(control group). Both groups were trialed for a period of 20 weeks.

What did the research involve?
The research included 1028 registered participant, these participants had to undergo a phone interview , medical record screening and medical assessment. Only 74 participants passed all three assessments and where randomly split into two group, 36 participant were selected for the exercise intervention and 37 participants in the control group.

Both the control and physical intervention group had to undergo a person-centered approach which focused on addressing training comfort, goal setting , familiarity with exercise and self introduction.

The control group performed the following exercises:

Frequency: low-intensity physical activities 5 days a week, and home exercises 2 times a week for 20 weeks. Home-exercise: 5 exercises for mobility, strength in the lower extremity, and one-leg standing balance conducted without any equipment.

The intervention group performed the following exercises:

Frequency: 3 times per week for 20 weeks, supervised by physiotherapists on 2 of 3 occasions.

Starting Phase:

Exercise sessions: 10 minutes of warm-up, aerobic exercise at 3-minute intervals with 1 minute of recovery between each repetition. Resistance exercise for 20 minutes using a standardized protocol that included leg-press, knee-extension and seated row using a weight machine, biceps curl using free weights, core stability using body weight and 5 minutes of cooling down. Aerobic exercise: weeks 1–3: 3 sets of 3 minutes; weeks 4–9: one added set of 3 minutes each week until reaching 9 sets, which were kept for the remainder of the intervention.

Progression Phase:

Resistance exercise: weeks 1–3: 40% of one repetition maximum (1RM), with 8–12 repetitions in 1–2 sets. Weeks 3–6: 60% of 1RM, with 8–12 repetitions in 2 sets. 7–12 weeks: 70–80% of 1RM, performed with 8–12 repetitions in 2 sets. Week 13: 1 set of power training with explosive contractions added at 60% of 1RM

Assessment: The recordings and measurement were taken on 3 stages, baseline, post-intervention (20 weeks after) and Follow up (12 month after the intervention). The data was collected using the following methods and techniques:

Primary outcome (Disability): HAQ-DI test Secondary outcome (Functional): 1-Monark Exercise test 2-Functional balance test (https://www.physio-pedia.com/Timed_Up_and_Go_Test_(TUG)/TUG test] 3-Leg muscle strength was tested using which was modified to 60 seconds instead. 4- questionnaire scale, that was done during the post- intervention (20 weeks after intervention) and follow up (12 month after intervention). 5- Load was measured using Leisure Time Physical Activity Instrument (LTPAI).

Statistical Analysis: t-test, Mann-Whitney U test and Mantel-Haenszel test were used to analyse and compare the variables.

The intervention was well structured and organized, it included a variety of test measurements also the exercise program was structured for the individuals to adapt with however, the duration of the exercise is set on long period of time (20 weeks). The population that has been selected targeted a specific age group and also the majority of the participants were women 75% and 76.3% in the intervention and control group respectively.

What were the basic results?
No significant improvement was recorded during the static elbow flexion test.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
Both light and moderate-high physical exercise activities have shown to improve the functional capabilities (strength and balance) of an individual with RA however, a moderate-high intensity exercise is more likely to improve their physical endurance. For this age category (64–75 years) muscular endurance is not essential in their daily activity, as older adults do not undergo pro-longed daily activity ( work , training , house cleaning ,etc) instead the need of explosive power and strength is more adequate. Convincing individuals in this age group to undergo a high and intensive training program can be inconvenient and cost efficient as they will most likely need to be monitored by an exercise specialist.

Practical advice
Individuals with RA arthritis must not practice independently unless declared with a medical clearance, also the exercise intervention should be targeting the muscles that are activated along the movement of the affected joint to help in strengthening these muscles such as the wrist joints. Also acknowledge the participants that exercise intervention does not cure them from RA disease instead it helps them restore their physical activity and muscular strength.

Further information/resources
Rhuematology Research Foundation

AIHW

Arthritis Australia


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Cognitive Science: An Introduction/Creativity, Planning, and Imagination

Cultural Evolution's Creativity
Cultures evolve over time. This evolution is independent of the genetic evolution that is simultaneously occurring in human beings over time. This cultural evolution results in surprisingly creative solutions to problems.

As we have seen in the previous section, individuals are capable of impressive creative acts. But it turns out that if these innovations are not shared with a social group, over time innovation stagnates. More minds catch more errors, recombine things in more ways, and even benefit from lucky accidents. If the learning from one generation to the next is cut off, due to war or some other disaster, the culture often loses innovations it might have enjoyed for centuries, such as how to make a kayak.

But what sense does it make to talk about a culture being creative independently of the individuals in it? Many cultural practices that are important for survival involve complex patterns of behavior (see the section on how to prepare manioc in the section on How Humans Got So Smart for an example), and the people in the culture often do not know what each step does. No one person came up with the behavioral pattern, and no one person might even understand it. So when we have a complex, effective innovation for something like food preparation, to what creative process do we give credit? The culture itself, over time, evolved the innovation. This is why we can think of a culture as being an entity that can be creative.

Genetic Evolution's Creativity
Just as cultural evolution can produce creative results, solutions to the problems species face can be solved by solutions arising in evolution that strike many of us as creative. An example of this is countershading.

Creativity and Artificial Intelligence
Looking back far enough, the history of artificial intelligence becomes synonymous with the history of computers. When Alan Turing invented The Bombe, a machine capable of deciphering the Enigma code used by the German army in World War Two, questions arose as to the potential for computers to demonstrate intelligent behavior. His popular ‘Turing Test’ is used as a benchmark to gauge the intelligence of AI programs even today.

The first AI computer program is widely accepted to be ELIZA, developed between 1964 and 1966 MIT. The program was a tool for natural language processing and capable of simulating a conversation with a human.

However, very few steps were taken before the end of the millennium to develop Machine Learning in AI programs, which is the basis for measuring any sort of creative capacity in contemporary Artificial Intelligence.

What is Creativity?
The Cambridge Dictionary defines “creativity” as ‘the ability to produce original and unusual ideas, or to make something new or imaginative. Boden claims creativity is a definitive quality of human intelligence generally. Avdeeff describes a marker for creativity as being the development of individual style and its manipulation.

The Neuroscience of Creativity
According to Dietrich, creativity is representative of cognitive flexibility, and exemplifies the ability to break patterns while maintaining sensibility. The neural circuits meant for processing information to perform non-creative tasks are the same as those that perform creative tasks. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for combining information in new ways and assessing whether the combination is meaningful or merely novel. Insight is the first step in the creative process, and the brain puts conscious effort to turn an insight into a useful idea. Creative thinking is based on two neural processing modes: deliberate and spontaneous. The spontaneous mode is beyond rationality, and is the popular way to think of creativity. An example of this would be the chemist Kekule discovering the structure of Benzene by dreaming of a snake in the shape of a ring. In this mode, insight is immediately useful and task-appropriate.

Conscious working memory does not select the combinations of information based on logical structures or beliefs and values and overlooks which products ‘slip out’ of the unconscious processing mode. In the deliberate processing mode, creativity is the result of rigorous conscious effort. Attention is provided to the combinations of information and therefore the insight conforms to external and internal structures, beliefs, values, and expectations. Common examples include Bach’s symphonies, Einstein’s theory of relativity, and the discovery of DNA, all of which involved carefully transforming insight into useful products.

The stochastic combinational process, as Dietrich describes, is a telling mental protocol which highlights the difference between human creative thought and artificial creative thought. When thoughts are unguided by attentional restrictions such as norms and logical structures, the combinational ideas and sequence of thoughts manifesting in consciousness are loosely connected by any coherent structure and chaotically combined together. These are generally ignored by the conscious working memory process and “slip through” when attention is less active. This suggests that creativity contains a high degree of unpredictability on the neurological level. It is possible this is the reason that true artificial creativity has been very difficult to achieve, and why the parameters for creativity are so difficult to quantify and transcribe algorithmically.

There are four basic types of creative insight :

1. Deliberate mode-cognitive structures

These are initiated by the prefrontal cortex, and almost always task-relevant. The process is characterized by structured responses between prefrontal brain and rear lobes.

2. Deliberate mode-emotional structures

These are initiated in the frontal attentional network and conform to personal values and beliefs, but are not necessarily domain-specific. Mostly, in the process, affective memory is retrieved from emotional structures rather than cognitive structures.

3. Spontaneous mode-cognitive structures

These types of insights arise from associative unconscious thinking. They are initiated in the rear lobes of the brain rather than the prefrontal cortex. The insight emerges without conscious effort into working memory and gains attention either on its own or as an augmentation of the information already in the attentive working memory.

4. Spontaneous mode-emotional structures

During this process, biological structures largely in control of emotional responses produce a “loud” signal that demands the attention of the conscious working memory. Without this signal, there is no way to gain access to the insight. The insights produced in this manner include mainly artistic expression, and create a profound emotional effect.

Making Artificial Intelligence Creative
According to Boden, AI can use three techniques to create new ideas: producing novel combinations of familiar ideas; exploring the potential of conceptual spaces; and transforming data in a way that enables the generation of previously impossible ideas. The first technique is widely associated with poetic imagery and forms of analogy, which computers are becoming increasingly more nimble with. The second technique is most commonly researched in computer models for intelligence. This technique involves defining parameters of the conceptual space first, which can be difficult even for professionals of a given field. Adequate knowledge of a conceptual space has to then be transcribed into a computable knowledge-base or semantic network before it can be explored. However, more emphasis is being put on the third technique in modern research. Most people would define creativity in this way across professions and disciplines. Boden also claims when creativity is acknowledged in jazz musicians or scientists for example, it is generally an acknowledgement of the individual’s capability to transform data to pave the way for new and previously impossible ideas.

The dominant discourse on AI believes in a version of the philosopher Laplace’s deterministic argument for intelligence. Laplace claimed that a truly intelligent being will be able to derive a formula for the universe which predicts its future and recounts its past based on the trajectories of every particle within it. The being will perfectly know everything about each aspect of the universe, and be able to recount a “story” of the universe from the beginning forward into infinity.

Approaches
An integral part of computational creativity research in artificial intelligence is recognizing that there are systematic patterns within human creative fields, which historically have been thought as unpredictable and non-orderly. These systematic patterns become the foundation on which artificial programs can produce novelties that are non-identical to items found in a computer’s database.

In addition, when considering combinational creativity, the AI may also produce new connections between items in its semantic network. This is a goal that characterizes creative AI research starting from the late 2000s. Before this, innovations in AI creativity were the production of novel items in a database using the same, pre-programmed connections, such as with ELIZA.

In most cases where creativity research in AI has succeeded, the AI program and the human programmer assist each other rather than either one developing a project or artifact alone. There are two major ways in which this complementary workstyle functions: the human programmer edits and adjusts the work produced by the AI software, referred to as content creation; and the AI software enhances and upscales a finished item produced by a human, referred to as content enhancement.

For Artificial Intelligence in general, Ong & Gupta outline five pillars of research: rationalizability, resilience; reproducibility; realism; and responsibility. Overall, these pillars are meant to support the growth of AI research across its different fields and applications. Many of the pillars are aimed at addressing the opaqueness of machine learning methods and to encourage the constructions of clear goals and strategies before the implementation of methods.

Narratives and scripts
‘Sunspring’ is a movie whose script is written almost entirely by an AI program called Benjamin. Launched in 2016, the movie is live-action and its post-production workflow was executed using AI-based decisions and monitoring. In 2016, IBM’s Watson platform created the first AI-produced movie trailer. The trailer was designed for 20th Century Fox’s horror movie, Morgan, and the project was led by the Manager of Multimedia and Vision at IBM Research, John Smith.

Games
In video game narratives, creative AI has made significantly faster progress than in most industries. AI Dungeon is a web-based game which generates storylines in real time and interacts with player input. The algorithm is trained by more than 10,000 label contributions to ensure smooth user interaction. Procedural generation randomizes the content to add variability and uniqueness to each game.

Visual art
Some attempts have been made in the content creation area of creative AI research in visual art.

The Next Rembrandt, a 3D printed painting made in 2016, was produced by AI software solely based on taking data from the famous Dutch painter Rembrandt’s portfolio and training using deep learning algorithms and facial recognition techniques. The first painting created solely by AI was auctioned in 2018.

Music
Musical creativity in modern AI research is based on a model called Long Short-Term Memory, which takes a transcribed musical idea as input and uses transformational creativity to manipulate it in meaningful ways. Several important innovations have occurred in the past decade which demonstrate the plausibility and quality of genuine AI-generated music.

Amper is the world’s first AI music composer, which released its beta software in 2014. It features a more human mood and style including optimizations that impose minute variations rather than strict and “robotic” adherence to time. This technique brings it closer to having a ‘ human spirit’. Software such as Amper is used mainly to speed up the production of royalty-free backdrop music, and is useful for content creation such as podcasts and YouTube videos. For this purpose, the music that AI creates does not need to be emotionally engaging or even musically interesting, it just creates an atmosphere that augments the primary focus of a certain piece of content. The music being produced by AI and used by human content creators can be considered a type of content creation on the part of the AI machine, but its primary function is content enhancement. Since this function affects the parameters and expectations for creative AI, it is appropriate to label it as content enhancement rather than creation.

A similar software was developed by Sony CSL Research Laboratory called Flow Machines. These are referred to as “augmented creativity” and cannot generate meaningful tracks on their own, but can help human creators enhance their own music and gain inspiration. Flow Machines differ from Amper in that they play an active role in the musical production and innovation process. In 2018, Flow Machines released their first album, ‘Hello World’, with compositional help by Benoit Carré, known as “SKYGGE”.

The audio uncanny valley
The closer AI-generated music gets to human-produced music, it enters into what software engineers have termed the “audio uncanny valley.” Music in this zone is characterized as unsettling to human ears and doesn’t seem “right,” in that it does not fit a standard expected musical piece composed by a human. The brain seems to reject the technically similar AI-produced track as authentic. The cause for this, Avdeeff claims, lies in Freud’s notion that people become disturbed if they observe a trace of a larger or unfamiliar creative force behind something.

Humans can immediately tell when music appears to lack a human authorship. At one of the first concerts of SKYGGE’s debut album, Hello World, in 2018, the appeal was largely contained in the design and mechanical traits of the production rather than any aesthetic value it may have had. Comments were mixed about the quality of the music itself, with several people saying how it “just doesn’t add up” or “doesn’t seem right”.

Images and animations
Most examples of creativity in AI to enhance or change images and video can be considered content enhancement, as the system is not making creative decisions but merely executing protocols based on vast input and specific goal-oriented operations.

Samsung AI takes an existing portrait and makes it look like the face is talking. Adobe has created the Character Animator software which enables lip synchronization, eye tracking and gesture control in real-time, by picking up input from the webcam and microphone. The software has been adopted by Hollywood and several online creators. Facebook’s Oculus Insight uses “SLAM” (meaning “simultaneous localization and mapping”) to generate maps and position tracking of the user in real-time.

The 2018 Peter Jackson film “‘They Shall Not Grow Old’ used an AI software to colorize 90 minutes worth of archived footage from World War One. The software took an input study database of WW1 equipment and uniforms as reference to convert the footage into a realistic colorized film. Other architectures, such as NesNet and DenseNet, have been effective at conversion from grayscale to natural-looking images with color.

Fictional Representations
Artificial Intelligence has been a part of fictional narratives for centuries. Starting with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, the artificially produced sentient or “intelligent” automaton has been a part of popular culture in science fiction primarily, and recently has made its way into other genres. A foundational work of science fiction which inspired some of the world’s leading AI researchers, is Isaac Asimov’s short story Runaround, in which two engineers develop an intelligent robot based on the Three Laws of Robotics. A recent example is the 2013 movie Her, directed by Spike Jonze. The movie is a romantic comedy-drama featuring a highly intelligent AI software with creative abilities which the protagonist falls in love with.

Most representations of AI in popular fiction depict creative AI. Characters such as Morgan and Frankenstein’s monster demonstrate traits that would fit one or more of Boden’s types of creativity. They are not merely observant in a sophisticated way, but can evaluate their observations for the purpose of producing non-trivial actions based on a flexibility of cognitive boundaries. The reason for this may be that creative AI carries more entertainment value than AI that functions purely as a virtual assistant without any novel and productive capacity. Tony Stark’s JARVIS from the Iron Man and Avengers movies from Marvel Studios demonstrates a creative capacity of producing novel combinations of data, such as finding an optimum landing location for Stark when his suit malfunctions mid-flight, and providing relevant creative information which is adaptive to changing parameters, such as dissecting a model of the Möbius strip to help Stark invent time travel.

Challenges
At present, AI is most valuable at the content enhancement level, where human efficiency is low and post-production tasks require increasingly more labor. Creative AI can help in enhancing and restoring data from acquisition as well as be trained to upscale data from relatively low input.

State-of-the-art Machine Learning techniques have been designed to make use of recursive encoding-decoding leading to reiterative content enhancement, but the same techniques rarely translate into the content creation domains for creative AI research.

Ethics
Currently, AI performs with intelligence but not an awareness of the wider context. Artificial intelligence has not yet been programmed to balance the ethical factors surrounding the execution of tasks. Deepfakes, which are becoming increasingly higher quality, can be used for malicious purposes, and AI used in visual art and music can endanger artists and designers to exploitation and fraud. According to Anantrasirichai & Bull, future considerations regarding the development of creative AI techniques should include ethical consideration of wider contextual implications as a parameter.

The three categories for relating ethics to AI, classified by Dignum, are: Ethics by Design, the practice of including ethics into the programming methods; ethics in Design, methods that assess the ethical implications of AI systems within the architecture; and ethics for Design, consisting of protocols which consider and ensure the protection of artist and developer rights.


text:
User talk:RMaung (WMF)

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text:
SAP ERP/EM

= SAP Event Management = SAP's standard, on-premise, solution for process and object track and trace functionality. Businesses today can operate in a highly distributed, outsourced and networked environment. Globalization is upon us which means that we have to be more intelligent with the way that we operate. We have to collaborate efficiently and effectively. We need to ensure that regulations are enforced during the entire process. How do we do that?

 * 1) We need to track and trace our products and processes across the supply chain measuring performance and proactively reacting to deviations to the plan in real time.
 * 2) We need complete visibility of our end-to-end processes across all the geographical and partner boundaries.
 * 3) We need the ability to quickly adapt to changing conditions in our process.
 * 4) We need to head off issues before they become an issue...

Overview

 * SAP Event Management (SAP EM) is an application within the component SAP SCM that belongs to the mySAP Supply Chain Management solution. SAP EM can be connected to other mySAP Business Suite components such as SAP R/3, SAP CRM, and SAP BW. It can also be connected to non SAP systems using BAPI or XML / XI calls. IDocs are also a popular way to get data to your SAP EM system.
 * With the SAP Event Management application your company can monitor and manage events across your distributed processes involving partners, inventories and assets. It captures events from your system and your partners systems, analyzes them against it's predefined plan and alerts or workflows a response to the required people to react of deviations are found. It comes integrated with SAP NetWeaver BI and SAP Auto-Id Infrastructure (RFID enabled scenarios).

Key Points

 * Provides monitoring capability (visibility) to any business process
 * Partners - See how your partners are performing and react to deviations to planned partners performing certain events in your process
 * Locations - If your process is intended to have Event A end up at Location A but it arrives at location B then raise exception!!
 * Measurements - You're transporting frozen goods from point A to point B and the temperature must not go above 10 deg. If it arrives at point B at 11 deg then raise exception!!!
 * Tracks status changes to YOUR business processes
 * Matches the planned process with the actual process (TO UNCOVER EXCEPTIONS)
 * Real time notification of events
 * Alert framework
 * Workflow engine
 * 2 Types of events:
 * Those that you expect to happen (the plan)
 * Those that actually happen (the actual)
 * Regular event => Events that occur within the planned period
 * Early / Late event => Events occurring outside the planned period
 * Unexpected event => Events that you never planned for
 * Unreported event => Event that you expected to occur but never did
 * Manage the sequencing of your events
 * Provides both operational and analytical reporting capabilities
 * Operational => Web GUI application - Where are my issues now?
 * Analytical => SAP NetWeaver BI integration - How well did I do and where are my improvement points?

title: SAP ERP/EM


text:
SAP ERP/Glossary

ABAP
Advanced Business Application Programming. Programming language of the R/3 System.

ABAP Dictionary
Central storage facility containing metadata (data about data) for all objects in the R/3 System. The ABAP Dictionary describes the logical structure of application development objects and their representation in the structures of the underlying relational database. All runtime environment components such as application programs or the database interface get information about these objects from the ABAP Dictionary. The ABAP Dictionary is an active data dictionary and is fully integrated into the ABAP Workbench.

ABAP Editor
ABAP Workbench tool for developing and maintaining ABAP programs, function modules, screen flow logic, type groups, and logical databases. Besides normal text operations (such as insert, search, and replace), the ABAP Editor offers several special functions to support program development.

ABAP Workbench
SAP?s integrated graphical programming environment. The ABAP Workbench supports the development of and changes to R/3 client/server applications written in ABAP. You can use the tools of the ABAP Workbench to write ABAP code, design screens, create user interfaces, use predefined functions, get access to database information, control access to development objects, test applications for efficiency, and debug applications.

activation
Process that makes a runtime object available. The effect of activation is to generate runtime objects, which are accessed by application programs and screen templates.

activity group
Subset of actions from the set of actions that were defined in the Enterprise IMG. From the activity group, you can use the Profile Generator to generate the authorizations needed by R/3 users for these actions.

Add-On Patch
Support Packages that are component patches for add-on software. They are specific to an add-on of a particular R/3 Release. They contain corrections for only the specific add-on.

ADO
Application defined object.

ALE
Application Link Enabling. ALE is a technology for building and operating distributed applications. The basic purpose of ALE is to ensure a distributed, but integrated, R/3 installation. It comprises a controlled business message exchange with consistent data storage in non permanently connected SAP applications. Applications are integrated not through a central database, but through synchronous and asynchronous communication. ALE consists of three layers:
 * Application services
 * Distribution services
 * Communication services

ALE Customizing Distribution
Process that enables you to ensure that the Customizing settings related to ALE scenarios are identical on the different R/3 Systems in the system landscape.

Alert Monitor
A tool that enables you to monitor all actions that have been performed with TMS and that draws your attention to critical information.

API
Application Programming Interface. Software package used by an application program to call a service provided by the operating system?for example, to open a file.

Application data
Client-specific data that comprises master data and business transactional data.

Application server
A computer on which at least one R/3 instance runs.

ArchiveLink
Integrated into the Basis component of the R/3 System, a communications interface between the R/3 applications and external components. ArchiveLink has the following interfaces: user interface, interface to the R/3 applications, and interface to external components (archive systems, viewer systems, and scan systems).

Archiving object
A logical object comprising related business data in the database that is read from the database using an archiving program. After it has been successfully archived, a logical object can be deleted by a specially generated deleting program.

ASAP
AcceleratedSAP. Standardized procedural model to implement R/3.

Background processing
Processing that does not take place on the screen. Data is processed in the background, while other functions can be executed in parallel on the screen. Although the background processes are not visible for a user and are run without user intervention (there is no dialog), they have the same priority as online processes.

BAPI
Business Application Programming Interface. Standardized programming interface that provides external access to business processes and data in the R/3 System.

Batch input
Method and tools for rapid import of data from sequential files into the R/3 database.

CATT
Computer Aided Test Tool. You can use this tool to generate test data, and automate and test business processes.

CCMS
Computing Center Management System. Tools for monitoring, controlling, and configuring the R/3 System. The CCMS supports 24-hour system administration functions from within the R/3 System. You can analyze the system load and monitor the distributed resource usage of the system components.

Change and Transport Organizers (CTO)
The Organizers in the R/3 System for managing change requests as a result of development efforts in the ABAP Workbench and Customizing activities in the IMG. It comprises the Workbench Organizer, the Customizing Organizer, and the Transport Organizer.

Change and Transport System (CTS)
Tools used to manage changes and development in the R/3 System and their transport to other R/3 Systems. It comprises the Change and Transport Organizers, the Transport Management System, and the operating system level programs, tp, and R3trans.

change request
Information source in the Workbench Organizer and Customizing Organizer that records and manages all changes made to R/3 Repository objects and Customizing settings during an R/3 implementation project.

Client copy
Function that allows you to copy a client in the same R/3 System (a local client copy) or to another R/3 System (a remote client copy). Client copy profiles determine what will be copied: Customizing data, business application data, and/or user master records.

Client copy according to a transp. request
Functionality with which you can transport client-specific objects of either a change request or a task between clients in the same R/3 System.

Client copy profile
A profile that enables you to copy certain data (e.g., Customizing data, application data, or user master records) from a client into another client. SAP provides all possible profiles and requires that you select the appropriate one for what you need to copy from one client to another.

Client-specific
Specific only to one client. Settings in client-specific tables relate only to the client that was accessed during the logon process. Such tables contain the client number in the table?s primary key. Client-specific is synonymous with the formerly used term client-dependent.

Client-specific transport route
A transport route that consolidates or delivers to an R/3 System and client combination rather than simply an R/3 System. Client-specific transport routes are available with extended transport control in R/3 Release 4.5.

Component Patch
A type of Support Package that applies to a particular software component (SAP_BASIS, SAP_HR, SAP_APPL …) and contains corrections to errors in the Repository and ABAP Dictionary in this component only.

Controlled Availability (CA)
Related to phase FCP in the R/3 Release Strategy. In this phase, a new R/3 Functional Release is available. R/3 Functional Releases are available only for a limited number of customers.

Correction R/3 Release
Corrections used primarily to support the continuous improvement of software quality rather than introduce new functionality are collected together in Correction Releases. SAP provides Support Packages for Correction Releases that correct several types of software errors. SAP recommends a Correction R/3 Release for production activities.

CPI-C
Common Programming Interface-Communication. Programming interface?the basis for synchronous, system-to-system, program-to-program communication.

Cross-client
Relevant for all clients in an R/3 System. Cross-client is synonymous with the formerly used term client-independent.

Customer development
Additions to the standard, delivered SAP software using the ABAP Workbench. Customer developments involve creating customer-specific objects using the customer?s name range and namespace.

Customizing
Adjusting the R/3 System to specific customer requirements by selecting variants, parameter settings, etc.

Customizing change request
Change request for recording and transporting changed system settings from client-specific tables.

Customizing Cross-System Viewer
The client comparison tool as of R/3 Release 4.5. In addition to determining the differences in Customizing settings, the Customizing Cross-System Viewer provides for the correction/adjustment of differences. It is often simply referred to as the Cross-System Viewer.

Data archiving
Removing data that is currently not needed from the R/3 database and storing it in archives (see ?archiving object?).

Database
Set of data (organized, for example, in files) for permanent storage on the hard disk. Each R/3 System has only one database.

Database instance
An administrative unit that allows access to a database. A database instance consists of database processes with a common set of database buffers in shared memory. There is normally only one database instance for each database. DB2/390 and Oracle Parallel Server are database systems for which a database can be made up of multiple database instances. In an R/3 System, a database instance can either be alone on a single computer or together with one or possibly more R/3 instances.

DBA
Database administrator.

Delta Customizing
Customizing activities that the customer needs to do to be able to use new functionality in the business application components after an R/3 Release upgrade. While Upgrade Customizing is mandatory for existing functionality, Delta Customizing is only necessary to make use of new functionality.

development class
A grouping of R/3 Repository objects belonging to a common area. Unlike the objects in a change request, the grouping is logical rather than temporal. The development class is assigned a transport layer to ensure that all objects have the same consolidation route.

development system
System in a system landscape where development and Customizing work is performed.

dialog box
Window that is called from a primary window and displayed in front of that window.

dialog work process
R/3 work process to process requests from users working online.

dispatcher
The process that coordinates the work processes of an R/3 instance.

EDI
Electronic Data Interchange. Electronic interchange of structured data (for example, business documents) between business partners in the home country and abroad who may be using different hardware, software, and communication services.

enhancement
Enhancements generally consist of user exits provided by SAP in the program code to call up external customer-developed programs. The source code of the SAP standard R/3 Release does not need to be changed, as the connected customer objects also lie in the customer name range. The advantage of using enhancements is that during a subsequent upgrade, you do not need to perform a modification adjustment. Enhancements are not affected by upgrading to a new R/3 Release.

External system
An R/3 System defined from within TMS for which no physical system exists. As with virtual systems, an import queue is maintained for them if defined as part of a transport layer. Unlike virtual systems, external systems have their own transport directory that may be explicitly defined.

Functional R/3 Release
An R/3 Release that introduces improved business processes and/or new technology into the R/3 System. Functional Releases are delivered upon request to those customers who want to test the new functionality. For Functional Releases, SAP provides Support Packages that correct major software errors. SAP recommends not using a Functional R/3 Release for production activities.

General Availability (GA)
A phase in the R/3 Release Strategy in which a new R/3 Correction Release is available to all customers.

SAP GUI
Graphical User Interface. The medium through which a user can exchange information with the computer. You use the GUI to select commands, start programs, display files, and perform other operations by selecting function keys or buttons, menu options, and icons with the mouse.

high availability
Property of a service or a system that remains in production operation for most of the time. High availability for an R/3 System means that unplanned and planned downtimes are reduced to a minimum. Good system administration is decisive here. You can reduce unplanned downtime by using preventive hardware and software solutions that are designed to reduce single points of failure in the services that support the R/3 System. You can reduce the planned downtime by optimizing the scheduling of necessary maintenance activities.

IDoc type
Internal document in SAP format, into which the data of a business process is transferred. An IDoc is a real business process formatted in the IDoc type. An IDoc type is described by the following components:
 * A control record: Its format is identical for all IDoc types.
 * One or more data records:A record consists of a fixed administration segment and the data segment. The number and format of the segments differ for different IDoc types.
 * Status records: These records describe stages of processing that an IDoc can go through. The status records have the same format for all IDoc types.

Implementation Guide (IMG)
A tool for making customer-specific adjustments to the R/3 System. For each application component, the Implementation Guide contains:
 * All steps to implement the R/3 System
 * All default settings and all activities to configure the R/3 System
 * A hierarchical structure that maps the structure of the R/3 application components
 * Lists of all the documentation relevant to the implementation of the R/3 System

Import buffer
A file at the operating system level containing the list of change requests to be imported into a specific R/3 System. This file resides in the transport directory?buffer. The terms?import buffer?and?import queues?are often used interchangeable.

import options
Import options that can be assigned either from within TMS import functionality or when using the?tp?command. They are used to cause specific rules of the Change and Transport System (CTS) to be ignored. Traditionally, transport options are known as unconditional modes.

import queue
The import queue in R/3 reflects the operating system level import buffer and contains the list of requests that will be imported during the next?import all?process. Because of end marks and nonstandard change requests, there may be more requests in the import buffer than are highlighted in the import queue. The terms?import buffer?and?import queues?are often used interchangeable.

Industry Solution (IS)
Industry-specific applications for R/3. For example, IS-H (IS Hospital), IS-RE (IS Real Estate), or IS-PS (IS Public Sector).

Integration system
System in the system landscape where developments and Customizing are carried out and then transported to the consolidation system. Each R/3 Repository object is assigned to an integration system through its development class and transport layer.

Internet Transaction Server (ITS)
Gateway between the R/3 System and the World Wide Web.

Legacy system
Typically refers to a customer?s previous system (for example, a mainframe system). The data in this system has to be reformatted before it is imported into a new system (for example, into a client/server system such as R/3).

Local change request
Change request that cannot be transported to other R/3 Systems.

Local object
A Repository object assigned to a local development class such as the development class $TMP. Local objects are local to the R/3 System on which they are created and cannot be transported.

Locks
The locking of data during transaction processing and R/3 Repository objects during development work.
 * If a user changes a data record with a transaction or changes a Repository object, the same record or object cannot be accessed simultaneously by a second user. The record or object is locked for the duration of processing (ENQUEUE), and only afterwards is it released or unlocked (DEQUEUE).
 * Repository objects are locked in Workbench change requests until the change request is released.

Logical system
A way of representing a client in an R/3 System without having to define the R/3 System. Logical systems allow applications to run with a common data basis. In SAP terms, a logical system is a client defined in a database. Logical systems can exchange messages and can be used, for example, by ALE.

Manual transport
The recording of Customizing changes to a change request using a manual rather than an automatic method. Some IMG activities can only be transported using a manual transport option.

Master data
Master data is a type of application data that changes infrequently, but is required for the completion of most business transactions. Examples of master data include lists of customers, vendors, and materials, and even the company?s chart of accounts.

Modification
Change made by a customer to SAP-owned R/3 Repository objects. During an R/3 Release upgrade, modifications may require the new SAP standard to be adjusted.

Modification Assistant
Functionality designed to help manage the repair of a Repository object using the ABAP Workbench tools. The Modification Assistant guides the change process to ensure that changes are well documented, original forms of the objects are preserved, and the change request to which the changes are recorded is indicated.

Name range
A name range is an interval in a namespace. The name range for customer programs is the set of program names beginning with Y or Z. Customer name ranges can be reserved in view V_TRESN.

namespace
Set of all names that satisfy the specific properties of the namespace. A namespace is defined by a prefix SAP provides to the customer or complementary software partner.

Object checks
When activated, object checks subject Repository objects in a change request to checks, such as a syntax check for ABAP programs, prior to the release of the change request.

Object directory
Catalog of R/3 Repository objects that contains the following information: object type, object name, original system, person responsible, and development class.

Object list
List of R/3 Repository objects and/or Customizing objects in change requests or tasks. Whenever changes are made, objects are added to the object list of a task. When a task is released, its object list is placed in the object list of the request to which it is assigned.

OCS
Online Correction Support. OCS is a global term comprising various tools designed to help you support your production environment by supplying Support Packages.

Original object
The original of an object is normally the version maintained in the development system. Because all changes and developments are made using the original, it may never be overwritten by a transport.

Presentation server
A computer providing GUI services.

Production system
System that contains an enterprise?s active business processes. This is where ?live? production data is entered.

Profile Generator
Automatically generates an authorization profile based on the activities in an activity group.

Project IMG
Subset of the Enterprise IMG, containing only the documentation for the Enterprise IMG components required in a particular Customizing project.

Project IMG views
Subset of a Project IMG, containing, for example, all mandatory activities for the project.

Quality assurance system
System in which final testing is carried out. Tested, stable development objects and Customizing settings are transported into the quality assurance system from the development system at times defined for final testing. After verification and sign-off, development objects and Customizing settings are delivered to the production system.

R/3
The full form of SAP R/3 is SAP Realtime, Version 3.

R/3 instance
Group of resources such as memory and work processes, usually in support of a single application server or database server in an R/3 client/server environment. Instance processes share a common set of buffers and are controlled by the same dispatcher process. An R/3 System can consist of one or more instances.

R/3 Repository
Central storage facility for all development objects in the ABAP Workbench. These development objects include ABAP programs, screens, and documentation.

R/3 runtime environment
Set of programs that must be available for execution at runtime. The ABAP interpreters in the runtime environment do not use the original of an ABAP program. Rather, they use a copy generated once only during runtime (early binding). Runtime objects, such as programs and screens, are automatically regenerated (late binding) when a time stamp comparison between the object and the ABAP Dictionary detects a difference.

R/3 System
Consists of a central instance offering the services DVEBMGS (dialog, update, enqueue, background processing, message, gateway, spool), a database instance, optional dialog instances offering the service D (dialog), and optional PC frontends.

R/3 System service
Logical function required to support the R/3 System, such as the database service and the application services, which may include the services Dialog, Update, Enqueue, Batch, Message, Gateway, and Spool.

R/3 Upgrade Assistant
Support tool for R/3 upgrades. The R/3 Upgrade Assistant provides one or more graphical user interfaces for the upgrade control program. It also permits you to execute an R/3 upgrade remotely and monitor its status.

R3trans
A transport utility at the operating system level for the transport of data between R/3 Systems.?R3trans?is also used for the installation of new R/3 Systems, for migration to different R/3 Releases, and for logical backups. Other programs usually call?R3trans, in particular the transport control program?tp?and the upgrade control program?R3up.

RDBMS
Relational Database Management System.

RDDIMPDP
Background job that is scheduled event-periodic. It starts the background jobs that are required for transports. RDDIMPDP is triggered by?tp,?which uses the executable?sapevt?on the operating system level to send event SAP_TRIGGER_RDDIMPDP. RDDIMPDP is also known as transport daemon and transport dispatcher.

Release
The process by which the owner of a change request or task indicates that the contents of the change request or task have been unit tested. Release of a change request of either type Transportable or Customizing initiates the export process.

Release Customizing
Only those IMG activities affected by a given R/3 Release upgrade in the business application components concerned are presented for processing. SAP distinguishes between Upgrade Customizing (corrected or amended functionality) and Delta Customizing (new functionality) for R/3 Release upgrades.

Repair
An R/3 Repository object that is changed in a system other than its original system is entered in a repair. All modifications of SAP standard objects are repairs, because the customer?s system is not the original system for SAP objects.

Repository Browser
ABAP Workbench navigation tool for managing development objects. The user interface of the Repository Browser resembles a file manager where development objects are grouped together in object lists in a hierarchical structure.

Repository object
Object in the R/3 Repository. Repository objects are development objects of the ABAP Workbench.

Repository switch
A procedure during an R/3 upgrade that replaces an existing R/3 Repository with a new R/3 Repository.

Return code
Value that indicates whether a tool (either within R/3 or on the operating system level) ran successfully, with warnings, or with errors.

RFC
Remote Function Call. RFC is an SAP interface protocol, based on CPI-C. It allows the programming of communication processes between systems to be simplified considerably. Using RFCs, predefined functions can be called and executed in a remote system or within the same system. RFCs are used for communication control, parameter passing, and error handling.

SAP Business Warehouse Patch
Support Packages that contain a collection of corrections for the SAP Business Information Warehouse (SAP BW) component.

SAP Notes
SAP?s announcements of corrections or enhancements to R/3. Often, an SAP Note provides solutions, or a solution will be provided in a Support Package.

SAP Patch Manager (SPAM)
SPAM is the R/3 System interface to SAPNet, SAP?s support services, for the purpose of downloading Support Packages and the tool for applying those Support Packages to the R/3 System.

SAP Reference IMG
Complete Implementation Guide containing all Customizing activities supplied by SAP. It is organized according to business application components.

SAPGUI
SAP Graphical User Interface.

SAProuter
A software module that functions as part of a firewall system.

Session
A user session in an SAPGUI window.

Session Manager
The tool used for central control of R/3 applications. The Session Manager is a graphical navigation interface used to manage sessions and start application transactions. It can generate both company-specific and user-specific menus. The Session Manager is available from R/3 Release 3.0C under Windows 95 and Windows NT. A default change request automatically used to record changes without prompting for a request number. A standard request must be manually set and is valid for a specified period of time.

Shared memory
Main memory area that can be accessed by all work processes in an instance. The term?shared memory?is also used to mean the main memory area shared by the RDBMS processes.

SID
SAP System Identifier. Placeholder for the three-character name of an R/3 System.

Software component
Set of software objects that can only be deliverd together. There are usually several release versions of a software component. These components are updated by upgrades. You can apply Support Packages separately to each software component. The Software Component concept is introduced with R/3 Release 4.6

SPAM Update
A type of Support Package that contains improvements and extensions to the SAP Patch Manager.

Standard transport layer
The default transport layer for an R/3 System and the transport layer used by all Customizing change requests released from that system.

Support Package
Support Packages contain corrections for errors in the R/3 Repository and in ABAP Dictionary objects. These corrections are collected periodically in Support Packages and made available in OCS.

System copy
Also known as database copy. If you create an R/3 System using a database copy, the R/3 installation is not set up with the SAP standard database, but with a database whose content is supplied by an existing R/3 System using R/3 migration tools specific to your platform and R/3 Release.

System landscape
The R/3 Systems and clients required for a company?s implementation and maintenance of R/3. For example, a common system landscape consists of a development system, a quality assurance system, and a production system.

Table logging
Activating the logging of all changes to SAP-selected Customizing tables for the purpose of providing an audit history as to who made what changes to the data.

Target group
A group of R/3 System and client combinations to which transport routes can consolidate or deliver. Target groups are available with extended transport control in R/3 Release 4.5.

Task
User-specific information carrier in the Change and Transport Organizers for entering and managing all changes to R/3 Repository objects and Customizing settings. When an object is changed, the changed objects are recorded to a task. Tasks are assigned to a change request.

Transaction code
Succession of alphanumeric characters used to name a transaction?that is, a particular ABAP program in the R/3 System. For example, Transaction VA01 (create customer order).

Transaction data
Data collected during standard business activities/transactions and typically related to specific master data. For example, data relating to a specific sale is regarded as transaction data and can be assigned to the master data of the purchaser.

Transport
The movement (export and import) of change requests between different R/3 Systems.

Transport control program (tp)
An operation system level utility for controlling the transport of change requests between R/3 Systems and R/3 Release upgrades.

Transport directory
Operating system disk space that provides the management facility for all data to be transported between R/3 Systems.

Transport domain
All R/3 Systems to be administered using the Transport Management System (TMS) belong to a transport domain. In this transport domain, system settings such as the transport route settings are identical for all R/3 Systems. To have consistent settings in the transport domain, one R/3 System (the domain controller) has the reference configuration, and all the other R/3 Systems in the transport domain receive copies of this reference configuration.

Transport group
All R/3 Systems in a transport domain that share the same transport directory.

Transport layer
Means by which the integration and consolidation system for R/3 Repository objects are determined. A transport layer is assigned to each development class and thus to all R/3 Repository objects in that development class. It determines the R/3 System in which developments or changes to R/3 Repository objects are performed, and whether objects will be transported to other systems when development work has been completed.

Transport log
Record of the transfer of the objects in a particular change request from a source system to a target system. A transport log contains:
 * A summary of transport activities
 * A log detailing the export of objects from a source system
 * The results of the import check
 * A log detailing the import of objects into a target system

Transport Management System (TMS)
The tool in the R/3 System that enables centralized transport configuration, and the execution and monitoring of exports and imports between R/3 Systems in a single transport domain.

Transport Organizer (TO)
Tool for preparing and managing transports that supplements the more commonly used Workbench Organizer and Customizing Organizer. The Transport Organizer is part of the Change and Transport Organizer.

Transport request
A released and exported change request. This term is often used synonymously with the term?change request.

Transport route
Transport routes are used to define both the target system in which you want to consolidate change requests and the R/3 Systems to which change requests are delivered after verification and testing. Transport routes are of either type?consolidation?or type?delivery.

Transportable change request
Change request that will be exported to a defined consolidation system when released.

Unit testing
Lowest level of testing where the program or transaction is tested and evaluated for faults (contrasted with business integration testing). Unit testing is the first test that is completed, normally during the Customizing and development effort, while business integration testing usually occurs in the quality assurance system. With unit testing, the focus is on the program?s inner functions rather than on system integration.

User master data
Logon and authorization information for R/3 users. Only users who have a user master record can log on to a client in an R/3 System and use specific transactions.

Version database
Storage location for versions of R/3 Repository objects when a change request is released.

view
Virtual table. simultaneously displaying data from several real tables in the ABAP Dictionary. When you create a table, you assign a key to it. However, the fields in the key may be inadequate for solving some problems, so you can generate a view from several tables or parts of tables.

Virtual system
R/3 System configured as a placeholder for an R/3 System that has not yet been set up. Transport routes can be defined for virtual systems, and the import queue can be set up and displayed.

Workbench change request
Change request for recording and transporting R/3 Repository objects and changed system settings from cross-client tables (client-independent Customizing).

Workbench Organizer (WBO)
Tools for managing Workbench change requests required to record changes as a result of development efforts using the tools of the ABAP

title: SAP ERP/Glossary


text:
Talk:Computer Programming/Function overloading

operator command
In programming the operator command is used to overload basic mathmatical functions... for example if you create your own data type using typedef ie like a:

typedef struct { int digit; int repeatXtimes; } moreF;

you would not be able to perform math Like + contantenation of strings "Hello" + "World" without operator+;

The MoreF morefunction idea is to allow digits to be repeats X times so 5555 could be "5 moreF 4" moreF numRep; numRep.digit=5; numRep.repeatXtimes=4;

I am not making much effort to describe it here. It would need show functiontion to perform string +s so the "5"+"5"+"5"+"5" would equal "5555" in this case

I was creating this idea for this kind of math 857142/999999 or 1337/9999 69/99 420/999 with repeating irrationals.

see tiny.cc/openInvent1 for a shorter blurb and other ideas.