text:
Open Broadcaster Software/Advanced selective audio management with PulseAudio

This is your advanced selective audio management with Open Broadcaster Software and PulseAudio.

This guide is useful if you want to reproduce a professional selective audio management with just a computer and without the need of any professional hardware mixer.

With this solution you avoid extraneous audio sources from being broadcasted or recorded by OBS and you will have a large margin of management about what goes online and what you hear in the headphones ecc.

About
Is most GNU/Linux distributions (Debian, Ubuntu, ecc.) the default audio daemon is called PulseAudio.

PulseAudio has some professional features to create fake audio containers - called "sinks". With these sinks you can pipe the audio output of a single application to the input of Open Broadcaster Software and so on.

For example, with PulseAudio, you can redirect the audio of a browser tab into a "sink". Then, OBS can take as audio input that specific "sink". In this way OBS does not send on air the entire audio of your desktop.

If you want to learn everything about PulseAudio, this is for you:

 * https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/PulseAudio/Documentation/User/Modules/

This guide is somehow advanced. If you want a quick start guide instead, check the quick start with Open Broadcaster Software.

Use cases

 * selective audio management

Features

 * not being forced to silence everything else to avoid any interference

Disadvantages

 * you have to open your command line

Requirements

 * 30 minutes
 * Debian
 * Debian 10 buster is OK
 * Ubuntu
 * Ubuntu 20.04 LTS is OK
 * any other GNU/Linux distribution with PulseAudio
 * any other GNU/Linux distribution with PulseAudio
 * any other GNU/Linux distribution with PulseAudio

Step 1: configure Open Broadcaster Software
This guide is for OBS 25 (2021). Please update if it will be needed.

 * 1) Open Open Broadcaster Software
 * 2) Plug headphones
 * 3) File > Settings > Audio > Disable everything
 * Tip: you don't want to send OnAir any audio as default
 * 1) first scene "Welcome"
 * 2) Image: pick a start splash image
 * 3) Media source: weird jingle (in loop)
 * 4) Text: write something like "Welcome, starts at ...."
 * 5) second scene "OnAir" (← !)
 * 6) window capture on BigBlueButton
 * 7) audio input capture
 * 8) third scene "Pause"
 * 9) Image: pick a splash image
 * 10) Media source: another weird jingle (in loop)
 * 11) Text: write something like "Welcome, starts at ...."
 * 12) fourth scene "Final"
 * 13) Image: pick a splash image
 * 14) Media source: another weird jingle (in loop)
 * 15) Text: write something like "Thank you! That was really long but I'm still alive dehydrated and tired! Now let's go out to see the sunlight! asd"
 * 16) Edit > Advanced Audio Properties
 * 17) Test each scene
 * 18) if you do not ear something in your headphones, select "Monitor and output" on that element
 * Enable for "Media"
 * 1) if you do not want to ear something in your headphones, select "Monitor off"
 * Eventually disable for "Monitor output"

That's all!

Step 2: configure PulseAudio
On you GNU/Linux operating system, open your "Terminal emulator" and paste this long text and press enter:

pactl load-module module-null-sink sink_name=BrowsersOut
 * 1) Create a NULL sink
 * 2) Note: this can be used to capture browser's output
 * 3) Note: this creates also an internal 'BrowserOut.monitor' for its output
 * 4) Note: as default you cannot listen to it (you need a loopback)
 * 1) Note: this creates also an internal 'BrowserOut.monitor' for its output
 * 2) Note: as default you cannot listen to it (you need a loopback)

pactl load-module module-loopback source=BrowsersOut.monitor
 * 1) Create a loopback for the above NULL sink
 * 2) Note: this allow to listen it in your speaker/headphones
 * 1) Note: this allow to listen it in your speaker/headphones
 * 1) Note: this allow to listen it in your speaker/headphones

pacmd update-sink-proplist  BrowsersOut         device.description=BrowsersOut pacmd update-source-proplist BrowsersOut.monitor device.description=BrowsersOut.monitor
 * 1) Assign a nice description for my NULL sink
 * 2) Note: without this, in pavucontrol you will see weird things
 * 1) Note: without this, in pavucontrol you will see weird things
 * 1) Note: without this, in pavucontrol you will see weird things

Tip: BrowsersOut is just a dummy name and you can anything else instead. In this example we want the audio of a browser web so we called it in this way.

Close your terminal.

Now open your favorite browser (Chromium?) or whatever other app you want to stream and make sure it's playing audio.

Then open your audio mixer. It's called "Pavucontrol". It's usually pre-installed. If not:

sudo apt update sudo apt install -y pavucontrol
 * 1) first try to install Pavucontrol

pavucontrol
 * 1) then open pavucontrol

Now that you have opened pavucontrol, configure it in this way the playback section:

The recording section should be configured in this way:

That's it!

Now Open Broadcaster Software receives audio directly from Chromium (or whatever other app you have chosen) without any possible interference.


text:
Cookbook:Ice Cream Sandwich

| Desserts

An ice cream sandwich is a frozen dessert consisting of ice cream sandwiched between two cookie layers. They are typically circular or rectangular in shape, although other novelty shapes exist as well.

Ingredients

 * 80 g (2.8 oz / ⅔ stick) unsalted butter
 * 125 g (4.4 oz / ⅝ cup) superfine sugar
 * 1 standard egg
 * 180 g (6.3 oz / 1¼ cups) plain flour, plus extra for dusting
 * 20 g (0.71 oz / 1 heaped tablespoon) cocoa powder
 * 1 teaspoon bicarbonate of soda
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * 500 ml (1.1 pint / 2 cups) ice cream

Procedure

 * 1) Mix the flour, cocoa, bicarbonate of soda, and salt in a bowl.
 * 2) Beat the butter and sugar in a mixing bowl until soft and fluffy.
 * 3) Beat in the egg.
 * 4) Fold the dry ingredients into the wet ingredients, and bring together until a dough forms.
 * 5) Knead the dough for 2 minutes on a floured surface until smooth.
 * 6) Shape the dough into a flat disc.
 * 7) Cover with cling film and chill for 30 minutes.
 * 8) Preheat the oven to 190 C.
 * 9) Cover 2 baking trays with baking paper.
 * 10) Roll out the dough to 5 mm thick.
 * 11) Cut out into 24 circles, and arrange on the baking trays.
 * 12) Bake for 10–12 minutes until well-cooked.
 * 13) Place the biscuits on a wire rack and leave to cool.
 * 14) Scoop 1 scoop of ice cream on a biscuit.
 * 15) Sandwich together with another biscuit.
 * 16) Repeat steps 15–16, using remaining biscuits and ice cream.
 * 17) Enjoy!

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If the dough is too wet, mix in 1 tablespoon of plain flour.
 * Ice cream sandwiches can be frozen for up to 3 months.
 * This recipe uses chocolate biscuits. For vanilla biscuits, replace cocoa powder with extra 20 g (0.71 oz / 1 heaped tablespoon) plain flour and 1 teaspoon vanilla extract. Add vanilla when beating butter and sugar.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Ice Cream Sandwich


text:
User talk:Shaheen Farjo

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, Shaheen Farjo!

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-- Jules (Mrjulesd) 14:27, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Shaheen Farjo


text:
German/Grammar/Future tense

Future tense
So far we've only covered the present tense, but now is a good time to introduce another one. There are actually two past tenses in German, and both are complex enough to merit sections of their own. The future tense is relatively simple though, and will give us a chance to introduce a few additional concepts which will be useful in other ways.

Terminology
The future tense is, as you might expect, used to make statements about the future. As mentioned earlier, German tends to use the present tense when a specific time is given or when something is imminent. English does this as well, for example "I'm working tomorrow," "Goodbye, I'm leaving for work," but in German this happens a bit more and the future tense is used correspondingly less.

English forms the future tense using a helping verb. The most common such verb is "will", for example "I will see you soon." The verb "shall" is used in the same way only it's a bit more formal: "I shall see you soon." Yet another possibility, this time rather informal, is the verb "go": "I'm going to see you soon." In this case the construction is more complicated since it requires a second helping verb "be" and uses "to". In general, a helping, or auxiliary verb is a verb that is combined with another verb to change its meaning in some way. As we mentioned earlier, we're calling this type of phrase a verb complex. For example "will see" is a verb complex formed by "will" and "see". In English, a verb complex is normally (but not always) kept together so it can be aptly called a verb phrase. This isn't true in German though, as we'll see in a moment, so we won't use this term.

In German, only part of a verb complex is conjugated according to the subject. The part that's conjugated is called the finite part, and the rest is called the nonfinite part. You can see this in English to a certain degree, for example in the sentence "He wants to see you," the verb "want" is conjugated according to "he", but "to see" is not conjugated. So "wants" is the finite part of the "wants to see" verb complex, while "to see" is the nonfinite part; in fact, it's the infinitive. There are circumstances in German where a verb complex does not have a finite part, but this is rare in normal conversation.

Forming the future tense
In German, the future tense is formed by combining the helping verb werden, conjugated according to the subject, with the infinitive of the main verb. We've already met werden in its sense "to become", but this is another sense and you must use the other elements of the sentence to figure out which sense is meant. In general, the finite part of a verb complex goes in V2 position, while the nonfinite part is normally placed at the end of the sentence. (In more complex sentences this rule has to be rephrased; we'll say more about this when we cover conjunctions.) At least this is the rule for sentences where the V2 rule would normally apply, but in sentences where some other rule applies then the finite part would be placed according to that rule instead.

The German cognate of "will" is wollen, and one of its infections is will, but this is used to express a desire or intention to do something rather than a prediction of the future. (This will be discussed in more detail in a later section.) English sometimes uses "will" in this way too, which can make its meaning ambiguous. In German, wollen is not used to form the future tense, so this ambiguity does not occur, though the difference in meaning between wollen/will and "will" can be confusing to English speakers.

For example, to change from the present tense to the future tense, we add the helping verb werden, conjugated according to ich so werde, and place that in V2 position instead of sehe. The infinitive of the main verb sehen, is placed at the end.
 * Ich sehe dich. - "I see you."
 * Ich werde dich sehen. - "I shall see you."

Moving the main verb to the end of the sentence is contrary to the trend in English, which tends to keep it's verb complexes together so none of the pieces get lost. As sentences get more complex, the two parts of the verb complex can be become widely separated. This can seem odd to English speakers, who are used to the main verb coming near the beginning of a sentences and don't want to wait until last word to find out what's gong on.

Examples:
 * Sie wird ein Auto kaufen. - "She's going to buy a car."
 * Wird er hier bleiben? - "Is he going to remain here?"
 * Ich werde gewinnen. - "I will win."

The position of nicht
We said that when nicht is used with a verb, it comes last, except when something has a higher priority. Infinitives do have a higher priority and nicht will be placed just before the infinitive:
 * Ich werde nicht gewinnen. - "I will not win."

Adverbs with the future tense
Since the future is always uncertain, it's common to use an adverb to express your confidence in a prediction. Some adverbs that are usable for this are:
 * sicher, sicherlich, bestimmt, gewiss - "surely", "certainly"
 * wahrscheinlich, vermutlich - "probably", "presumably"
 * vielleicht, möglicherweise, eventuell - "possibly", "perhaps", "maybe"

The sentence bracket
With the verb in two parts, there are three regions for the rest of the sentence elements to go. This is the basis for a structural model of German sentences used in many grammars, especially ones in German. The two parts of the verb themselves are called the sentence bracket (Satzklammer in German). The region before the finite verb is called the front field (Vorfeld). As we have seen, it often contains the subject but can contain nearly any other sentence element and can be regarded as the sentence topic. The region between finite and nonfinite verbs is called the middle field (Mittelfeld), and this holds most if not all of the remaining parts of the sentence. The region after nonfinite part of the verb complex is called the back field (Nachfeld). This is normally empty in simple sentences like those we've covered so far. There are grammatical rules for which sentence elements can and cannot go in the back field, but it's not really necessary to know them in conversational German; it suffices to know the back field is reserved for longer, somewhat self contained phrases that would not fit well in the middle field. We won't use this terminology much, but you should be familiar with it because it's often used by German speakers as a frame of reference for explaining the finer points of grammar. In addition to the two parts of the verb complex and the three fields, there are the preambles and postambles mentioned in an earlier section, but they don't really affect the grammar of the main sentence. Altogether that makes seven possible segments in the anatomy of a sentence (preamble, front field, finite verb, middle field, nonfinite verb(s), back field, postamble), but in practice most of them will be empty most of the time.

 * Notes

title: German/Grammar/Future tense


text:
Women's Writing Before Woolf: A Social Reference,/WINK: Women's Invisible Ink

WINK: Women’s Invisible Ink

WINK is a project funded by the European Research Council Starting Grant (European Research Council 2021) that is funded from 2019 to 2024. The project aims to recover lost women’s writing from the 16th to 18th centuries (BBC, 2020). WINK researches the unmaintained body of women’s writing in early European modernity to restore balance to the male paradigm of intellectual value. By surveying the data, which is in many European languages, a methodology is used to scour the writings for trans-genre voices rather than closed genre voices. This is to allow for persuasive arguments to become apparent and show us a clear intellectual input. WINK aims to place intellectual value on a voice that is androcentric to show that women also had transformative, yet underrepresented, authorship (WINK 2021).

How does WINK operate?

Firstly, The project aims to discover how much of women’s intellectual property remains intact, existing but underrepresented, in writings from the early modern period. The research looks at how textual and stylistic factors have promoted women's writing to remain invisible. By using a male-centric epistemology, women’s ways of knowing were often hidden. This research tries to remove the ‘textual misogyny’ by specifying that gender modified and influenced the value of intellectual thinking, rather than pitting the sexes against each other (WINK 2021). Many of the texts they will be looking at have been uncatalogued in private collections and local libraries (BBC 2020).

WINK looks at how women wrote about religion and also autobiographical work, to determine their thoughts and communications about life and the common good. By looking not at the woman behind the text, and focusing only on her writings, WINK uses a method of trans-genre analysis to determine the intellectual value of women’s work, and explore how the history of intellect has been valued higher from the writings of men.

WINK is working on rendering interpretations of texts and piecing together chains of fragmented texts (like letters) to disclose fragments of information that as a whole, exemplifies its meaning and challenges our idea of 'broad literary genre'. This also deals with the issue of a source for the complex construction of the arguments in the text. Lastly, the attribution of intellectual property is considered via a qualitative methodology. By ascertaining how women obtained knowledge, and then attributed it or misattributed it, and then shared it with others. This is done by researching the rendered interpretations for social factors of attribution issues. (WINK, 2021)

Who is WINK

Wink is made up of 5 academic researchers.

Carme Font Paz is the director and principal investigator for the project, based in Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Carme is tenured at the university as an English Lecturer and her research explores the marginalisation of women’s thought in the early modern period.

Helena Aguilà Ruzola is the postdoctoral researcher and leads the Italian section of the project. Her research concerns early Italian women writers, along with being an experienced literary translator, she also has experience in sixteenth-century translations of Italian works into Spanish.

Maxim Rigaux is a Junior Post-Doctoral Research Fellow at Ghent University who specialises in the cultural and literary histories of Spain and Portugal and is focusing on the interaction of Latin, spoken language, text, race, imagery, and gender as the main part of his research.

Francesca Blanch-Serrat is a teacher and Ph.D. candidate at Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona where she focuses on English Romanticism and women poets.

Paula Yurss Lasanta is a post doctoral researcher and teacher at Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Focusing on the 18th century, Paula’s research centers on women writers tied to France and intersecting with feminism, the French Revolution, and Romanticism.

Making Change

WINK regularly holds events and presentations to educate their peers and interested parties on their progress and findings. The work is important because it sheds light on the lost canon of work by an entire gender of authors between the 16th and 18th centuries. By interpreting and researching this work, not only as women’s work but for its epistemological value, it brings the body of knowledge into its rightful space (BBC 2020). The research does not discriminate regarding the genre of the writing, from religious musings to personal communication and literature. Compared to their male counterparts, early modern women writers are rarely featured in the canon of early modern writers or are given a separate category for women’s literature. Via their research, WINK is identifying that important intellectual value is androcentric. The co-authored articles and books the WNK team produces, along with a virtual space for comparative textual analysis, are bringing to life the transformative thinking of the undervalued, understudied, and underrepresented women writers of the early modern period. (Mena Report 2019)

References:

BBC 2020, Report of BBC Radio on Wink’s Research on BBC World Service radio, Vimeo,

European Research Council 2020, ERC Funded Projects, website viewed 21 May 2021, europa. eu/ projects-figures/ erc-funded-projects

MENA Report 2019, ”Women’s Invisible Ink: Trans-Genre Writing and the Gendering of Intellectual Value in Early Modernity”, Feb 2 2019, London

WINK 2021, WINK - Women's Invisible Ink, website viewed 21 May 2021

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Further reading:

The book series “Early Modern Women Writers in Europe: Texts, Debates, and Genealogies of Knowledge“ by Brepol Publishing

The Journal Women’s Writing; which publishes research on women’s writing in English from the Middle Ages to the end of the long nineteenth century, covering gender, culture, race, and class.


text:
User:MEMIZAT/sandbox

p_bot_cookie_last MEMIZAT (discuss • contribs)

title: User:MEMIZAT/sandbox


text:
Fractals/curves

Curves
 * definition

2D scalar field
 * level curves
 * field lines
 * boundary
 * component of Parameter plane (Mandelbrot set, exterior of M set)
 * of component of Mandebrot set
 * of dynamic plane (Fatou components, Julia set)
 * components of Julia set

=types=

Cyrve types
 * defined by equation
 * Implicit curves
 * Explicit curves
 * Parametric curves
 * spline curves
 * Bezier curves
 * B-spline curves

=Level curves= Level cures:
 * edge detection of level sets gives boundaries
 * tracing equilevel curves
 * computes contour polygons by applying marching squares to a rectangular array of numeric values ( d3-contour library )
 * inverse iteration of closed curve ( circle) around attractor

Level curves of 2D scalar field:
 * equipotential lines ( isocurves, contour lines)
 * boundary
 * filed lines ( rays) = level curves of external angle

The field lines of a vector field ( the gradient of a scalar field ) can be drawn without solving a DE, because the gradient of a scalar field is orthogonal to the level curves of the scalar field. In general they can only be solved numerically using a computer.

the most convenient way to get a metric perpendicular to equipotentials is to take the arctan2 of the point at bailout. That gives field lines (or lines of longitude) that branch at each iteration boundary in exterior regions. In interior regions they do not branch, so it's easy to apply continuous textures. ( xenodreambuie)

=See also=
 * Category:External rays : images in Commons, some with src code
 * Category:Level_set_method in commons
 * 2D algorithms
 * axismaps: go-with-the-flow
 * awoodruff: relief-flow
 * wind map and code

=References=

title: Fractals/curves


text:
User:TapticInfo

See w:en:User:TapticInfo (My main Wikimedia account).

title: User:TapticInfo


text:
Epistemology

Table of contents
 Introduction  - What is epistemology?

Section 1: The Analysis of Knowledge

 * 1) /What is analysis?/
 * 2) /Justified true belief/
 * 3) /Gettier cases/
 * 4) /Adding an extra condition/
 * 5) /Reliabilism/
 * 6) /Virtue reliabilism/
 * 7) /Virtue responsibilism/
 * 8) /Maybe knowledge can't be analysed/

Section 1: References and further reading

Section 2: The Sources of Knowledge

 * 1) Rationalism vs Empiricism
 * 2) Perception
 * 3) Intuition and deduction
 * 4) /Innatism/
 * 5) Memory and introspection
 * 6) Testimony
 * 7) Science

Section 2: References and further reading

Section 3: The Problem of Scepticism

 * 1) Agrippa's trilemma
 * 2) Foundationalism
 * 3) Coherentism
 * 4) Other responses (infinitism, positism, foundherentism)
 * 5) Radical scepticism (sceptical scenarios and the closure principle)
 * 6) Contextualism
 * 7) Here is one hand, and here is another
 * 8) Even if I'm being deceived I know I'm right (veridicalism)
 * 9) Pragmatism

Section 4: Living in a World of Knowledge

 * 1) The epistemology of disagreement
 * 2) Epistemic responsibility
 * 3) Epistemic injustice
 * 4) Feminist epistemology
 * 5) Epistemology of the internet

title: Epistemology


text:
Epistemology/What is epistemology

What is epistemology and why should you learn it? Well, epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with knowledge and surrounding concepts such as justification, belief and credence, and is tightly interconnected with many other areas of philosophy such as metaphysics, ethics and philosophy of science, just to name a few. Epistemology aims to explain how we know the things we do, whether that's mathematics, science, history, or even just the things that we see or hear right in front of us. Another important project of epistemology is in characterising when and why we should believe some things and not others. Therefore, epistemology is not only a central area in—and useful introduction to—philosophy as a whole, it also helps us to know the limits and nature of our knowledge, helps guide our intellectual practices by showing us when we are truly justified in our beliefs, and it helps us to develop key philosophical skills such as critical thinking and intellectual humility.

Epistemology is a broad and exciting area of philosophy as represented by the range of issues covered in this textbook. One of the central questions of epistemology has been "what is knowledge?" and as a result, the first section is dedicated to analysing the concept of knowledge. It is important to note with regards to this section that there are actually many kinds of knowledge. For example, I could say "I know Bob, I've met him many times before" or I could say "I know blue, I've been lucky enough to be acquainted with that colour in all its shades!" In both these examples, I am expressing a type of knowledge called acquaintance knowledge. Likewise, I could say "I know how to ride a bike, that's easy." In this example, I am expressing a type of knowledge called ability knowledge. Neither of these two types of knowledge are the focus of the analysis of knowledge in section I. The analysis of knowledge has historically focused on the analysis of propositional knowledge. This is the type of knowledge we have when we know of the truth or falsity about a proposition. Examples of propositional knowledge are "I know that 2 + 2 = 4" and "I know that Bob is a philosopher". Analysis of this kind of knowledge has a long history but remains a difficult and contentious question in epistemology and philosophy more broadly.

Another argument important throughout the history of philosophy is whether experience or reason is the true source of knowledge. In section II, we will explore the historical debate between Rationalists and Empiricists in the early modern era about how we gain knowledge of the world by examining perception and reason as sources of knowledge. Philosophers today not only consider perception and reason as sources of knowledge but have begun to also consider other sources of knowledge including memory, introspection and testimony. Testimony is different to the other sources of knowledge we have talked about so far in that testimony has an inherently social component, it relies on whether or not and under what circumstances we should trust others. Building on this, we will consider the social practice of science as a source of knowledge. This consideration of social epistemology will be echoed and developed further in section IV.

I think that one of the first thoughts many students of epistemology have is about scepticism and the possibility that we are living in the Matrix or that we are a "brain in a vat" as most philosophers use as such a sceptical example. Indeed, Descartes' methodological doubt and corresponding evil demon thought experiment led to perhaps the most famous line of philosophy ever written or spoken: "I think, therefore I am." Section III will consider the problem that radical scepticism poses for epistemology by exploring solutions to two defining problems in epistemology. The first is Agrippa's trilemma which threatens the idea that any of our beliefs could possibly be justified and the second is sceptical scenarios we have talked about above and "the closure principle".

In section IV, we will explore some exciting problems that are posed by the social context of knowledge. How can we understand widespread disagreement in many areas even amongst equally educated people and how should we respond to it? Do we have any responsibilities to others in our intellectual lives and can we even commit epistemic injustices against others? Could such epistemic injustices even rise to the systemic level? Can the social structure of inquiry bias the knowledge we acquire and how can we alleviate this problem? Should we trust experts, how can we know who the experts even are, and what problems do fake news and the internet play for these questions? These are all questions asked in the areas of social and applied epistemology.

Hopefully this introduction has given a taste of the issues in epistemology covered in this textbook and created an appetite for the content of the rest of the book, as well as epistemology more generally. Even more so, hopefully this book is useful for those interested in philosophy and epistemology and provides an accessible introduction to the subject.

title: Epistemology/What is epistemology


text:
Epistemology/What is analysis?

In our everyday speech, we often use very complex or lofty concepts such as "justice" or "knowledge" but when asked "what is justice?" or "what is knowledge?", we might find it hard to give an exact answer. Despite the fact that we presumably know what these words mean (we can use them perfectly fine when we need to!), we seem to only have a fuzzy idea of what they are or how they work. One of the methods that philosophers use to make our understandings of the words we use less fuzzy is called conceptual analysis. Conceptual analysis rests on the idea that we really do already know what these words mean so that we can reliably test a definition or "analysis" against examples to see if it is right. First, we propose an analysis of the concept we're interested in by placing conditions on what counts as falling under that concept. Then, we test this analysis to see if there are any counterexamples which show that it is not quite right. Counterexamples can come in two forms: (1) the analysis may miss a genuine case of the concept which it should have captured or (2) the analysis may include a false case of the concept which it should not have. If we find either of these counterexamples, we need to alter the analysis appropriately to fix the problem.

Individual necessity
In scenario (1), our analysis misses a genuine example that it should have captured. For example, we may try to analyse the concept of a chair by saying that a chair is "an object that is (i) wooden, (ii) has four legs, and (iii) is something that people sit on". When considering this analysis, we might realise that it misses chairs which are made of plastic and chairs which have less than four legs (e.g. see the picture to the right). Here we can see that when our analysis misses a genuine example, it is because it is too strict and contains too many conditions. Some of the conditions in our analysis aren't individually necessary and have to be removed. In the chair example, we see that not all chairs are wooden and they don't all have four legs so these conditions can be removed. Doing this we are left with an analysis saying "a chair is an object that people sit on".

Joint sufficiency
In scenario (2), our analysis includes something which it shouldn't by mistake. For example, consider the analysis of chair that we have left from the last section: "a chair is an object that people sit on". There are many things that people sit on that are not chairs. Horse riders sit on horses while they are racing, Christians sit on church pews on Sundays, and park-goers often sit on benches or even the grass. Here we can see that when our analysis captures something it shouldn't, it is too broad and we need some extra conditions to rule out the false cases. Overall, our conditions are not jointly sufficient to guarantee that a case is a genuine example rather than a false example. We could add the condition that chairs must not be animals but this wouldn't rule out all the false cases we have thought of. Furthermore, simply adding "not [counterexample]" conditions to an analysis seems ad hoc, it rules out the things it should but it also doesn't give us much insight into why those counterexamples don't count or into what truly makes a chair a chair.

Having seen how difficult it is to analyse even the concept of a chair into its necessary and sufficient conditions, it might become clear here why the analysis of knowledge has been a historically debated topic worthy of an entire section of this textbook. Throughout this section, we will explore various analyses of knowledge and test them to see if they have any counterexamples that mean their conditions are not all individually necessary or jointly sufficient to properly define knowledge.

title: Epistemology/What is analysis?


text:
Epistemology/Justified true belief

In this chapter, we will introduce and discuss the tripartite (or "JTB") analysis of knowledge. The tripartite analysis of knowledge has been held by many philosophers throughout history and can trace its origins all the way back to Plato's discussion of a tripartite analysis of knowledge in the Theaetetus. The tripartite analysis of knowledge is often called JTB knowledge after its conditions of justification, truth and belief. Each of these conditions is claimed to be individually necessary for knowledge and together they are said to form the jointly sufficient conditions for knowledge.

Attacks of the JTB analysis have come in two main forms: (a) in this chapter, we will discuss objections to the individual necessity of each of the conditions and (b) in the next chapter, we will discuss a famous attempt to show that these conditions cannot always guarantee us knowledge and so are not jointly sufficient.

Justification
The justification condition is placed on knowledge to make sure that we don't know things by pure luck. It is reasonable to say that without any reasons one way or the other to believe a proposition is true or false, we would not have no rational way to judge whether it is true or not and so we can only be right about that proposition by luck alone. Justification can be thought of as anything that gives us those good reasons that we need to legitimately believe that a proposition is true. To understand why philosophers see "lucky knowledge" as a problematic concept, let's look at the following example:

 * You and a friend are playing a game where you try to guess the outcome of a coin flip
 * Your friend shouts out that they know that the coin is going to land heads up
 * By pure chance the coin does land on heads
 * But the coin could just have easily landed on tails making them completely wrong!

This example aims to show that there is something faulty in the idea that we can know things without having the right kind of justification because if we don't have justification for our belief, all that matters is whether our beliefs happen to come true or not. There is no difference between an expert undertaking complicated research in an area to come to a conclusion and a person that makes a random guess on the subject so long as they both happen to be right in the end. All it takes to change the guesser to a knower is the toss of a coin (until we add a justification condition to our analysis, of course!).

Attempts to argue against the necessity of justification to knowledge have attempted to create an equivalence between the JTB analysis of knowledge and true belief so that true belief alone is really all that is needed. For example, consider this passage by Plato from the Meno:

Soc. If a man knew the way to Larisa, or anywhere else, and went to the place and led others thither, would he not be a right and good guide?

Men. Certainly.

Soc. And a person who had a right opinion about the way, but had never been and did not know, might be a good guide also, might he not?

Men. Certainly.

Soc. And while he has true opinion about that which the other knows, he will be just as good a guide if he thinks the truth, as he who knows the truth?

Men. Exactly.

Soc. Then true opinion is as good a guide to correct action as knowledge

Opponents of the tripartite account could use this argument to make the claim that there is no meaningful difference between justified true belief and true belief and so justification isn't needed. However, even though true belief and justified true belief are both good guides to action, this doesn't mean that there is no meaningful difference between them. As we saw from the coin flip/expert research example, the difference between a person who merely has right opinion and somebody who has justified true belief is that the person who has justified true belief has a certain sense of epistemic legitimacy. If we want the status of knowledge not to be granted to people who happen to believe true things but are motivated by ignorance, intolerance or epistemic laziness, then our analysis of knowledge must make sure that it guarantees a certain bare minimum of epistemic legitimacy.

Truth
Most philosophers believe that truth is the most secure and uncontroversial of the conditions on knowledge. To understand why, let's reconsider our previous example:

 * You and a friend are playing a game where you try to guess the outcome of a coin flip
 * Your friend shouts out that they know that the coin is going to land heads up
 * Unlucky for them the coin lands heads down

If your friend were to continue to claim that they knew that the coin would land heads up after it lands the opposite way, you would probably think they'd gone a little bit insane.

The basic point is, you can't know something is it isn't even true in the first place – knowledge simply aims at the truth.

Belief
Augustine defined belief as "to think with assent". In other words, belief can be defined simply as thinking that something is true. If you were to hear somebody say that they believe that ghosts exist but they don't really think it's true that they exist, you might think that they don't really believe in ghosts at all. Now let's consider what reaction we would have if we were to hear somebody say "I know that ghosts exist but I don't really believe that they do." It seems like the rational reaction to this statement would be similarly to think that this person doesn't really know that ghosts are real, for how could they possibly know something that they don't even believe.

However, a counterexample by Colin Radford has attempted to show that not all of our knowledge needs to be believed, some of it may be known implicitly or subconsciously.

 * Albert learned that Queen Elizabeth died in 1603 at school years ago.
 * When asked when Queen Elizabeth died, Albert doesn’t believe she died in 1603 because he can’t remember being taught about her at all. He doesn’t have any belief about which year she died because he is uncertain.
 * Randomly guessing, he answers 1603 and he can also answer many more similar history questions correctly with accuracy far better than chance.
 * Radford argues that Albert must know subconsciously and that this is an example of knowledge without belief.

Somebody who believed in the JTB analysis of knowledge could deny that this counts as an example of knowledge, but they would have to provide an explanation for how Albert could possibly get so many questions right without knowledge (for it seems very plausible that this example really could happen in real life).

title: Epistemology/Justified true belief


text:
Epistemology/Gettier cases

In 1963, Edmund Gettier released one of the most influential philosophy papers of the 20th century entitled Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?. Maybe deciding he should quit while ahead, he has never released another paper on epistemology since. In the previous chapter, each of the conditions of the tripartite analysis of knowledge were scrutinised to see if they are really necessary for knowledge. In this chapter, we will study the critique that Gettier made of justified true belief. In his paper, Gettier presents two counterexamples to the JTB analysis of knowledge which purported to show cases in which a person could have a justified true belief that fails to be knowledge. These examples and other similar examples which attack the sufficiency of the JTB conditions are now referred to as "Gettier cases".

Gettier's counterexamples
In his first counterexample, Gettier gives us the case of two people applying for a job:

 * Smith and Jones apply for a job
 * Smith hears the interviewer say “I’m going to give Jones the job”
 * Smith also sees Jones count out 10 coins from his pocket
 * Smith forms the belief “the person who will get the job will have 10 coins in their pocket”
 * This is justified: Smith has good reason to think Jones will get the job and that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket
 * But actually Smith gets the job! Unknown to him, he has 10 coins in his pocket!
 * So his justified belief has turned out to be true by random chance and satisfies the JTB conditions for knowledge

In the last chapter, we discussed why most philosophers see epistemic luck as a deadly blow for any analysis of knowledge and this is exactly what Gettier has shown can happen for the tripartite analysis of knowledge. In his next case, Gettier utilises the idea of disjunction to arrive at the same result. Disjunction is when you combine two propositions (1) and (2) together to make the proposition "(1) or (2)" which is made true if either one (or both) is true.

In his second counterexample, Gettier gives us another case involving Smith and Jones:

 * Smith sees Jones driving a Ford
 * Smith thinks to himself that not only does he have justification for believing Jones owns a Ford but also the belief “Either Jones owns a Ford or Brown is in Barcelona”
 * He is justified in believing this is true because he is justified in believing that Jones owns a Ford (and this alone would make his belief true)
 * But Jones doesn’t own a Ford, He was driving a friend’s car!
 * By complete chance Brown is in Barcelona

Once again, Gettier has provided an example where Smith has justified true belief by a complete coincidence – can this possibly be considered true knowledge?

Russell's counterexample
Previously to Gettier's paper in 1963, Bertrand Russell provided this example in his 1948 book Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits:

 * Jones owns a very precise, reliable clock
 * Jones comes downstairs in the morning to check the time from his trusty clock
 * It shows the time to be 10 o'clock
 * Jones forms the belief “It’s 10 in the morning”
 * Justified: his clock has always been reliable and precise in the past
 * However, last night at 10pm, the clock stopped and hadn’t moved since
 * By chance, it is 10 in the morning! So Jones has JTB
 * If Jones had gotten down the stairs even a minute later, he would have been wrong

This example not only shows that there are possible cases of justified true belief which fail to be knowledge, but also that such cases can even be uncomplicated everyday cases of belief!

How to respond to the Gettier cases
Most contemporary philosophers agree that justification, belief and truth are not sufficient for knowledge precisely because of the type of examples that Gettier presents. This leaves epistemology in big trouble, if this common sense analysis of knowledge isn't enough, what can we replace it with? We will briefly consider one obvious response.

Simply adding a condition ruling out epistemic luck solves the problem of Gettier cases. However, it is not a solution favoured by philosophers. This is because this solution is ad hoc. Something is called ad hoc when it is created to solve a problem and for which we have no other independent reason for creating. This is a problem because it means that this solution is trivial and uninteresting; it tells us nothing new about how knowledge works and why it is not lucky. A good analysis of knowledge would rule out epistemic luck without needing to add a "no epistemic luck" rule because it would tell us something substantive about how and why our knowledge is not lucky.

In the following chapters of this section, we will explore the various ways in which philosophers have responded to Gettier cases. We will discuss the prospects of adding an extra condition to the JTB analysis (sometimes called JTB+X), then the views of those philosophers who have argued that this kind of analysis of knowledge has been doomed from the start, ending finally on the consideration that maybe all attempts to analyse knowledge are doomed, maybe knowledge is simply unanalysable.

title: Epistemology/Gettier cases


text:
User:Minorax/Pinyin

 * 1) Pinyin/ Some of the inherited genetic disorders that can cause colorectal cancer
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 * 3) Pinyin/Big cut in antibiotic prescriptions
 * 4) Pinyin/Bilingual skills help stroke recovery (2015-11-20)
 * 5) Pinyin/Black fungus prevents artery hardening
 * 6) Pinyin/Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body
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 * 8) Pinyin/Blood test refers to collecting blood samples from human body for testing
 * 9) Pinyin/Bomb kills many in Turkey (2016-08-21)
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 * 11) Pinyin/Bombardier to cut 7,500 more jobs across its global operations (2016-10-21)
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 * 13) Pinyin/Boxing legend Muhammad Ali dies at 74 (2016-06-04)
 * 14) Pinyin/Brain training is good for health (2015-11-03)
 * 15) Pinyin/British soldier killed in Syria (2016-08-02)
 * 16) Pinyin/Broccoli is a healthy vegetable
 * 17) Pinyin/Broccoli is good for detoxification
 * 18) Pinyin/Brown rice can prevent diabetes
 * 19) Pinyin/Brussels terror alert (2015-11-21)
 * 20) Pinyin/Buckwheat improves heart health
 * 21) Pinyin/Buildings collapse in China landslide (2015-12-20)
 * 22) Pinyin/Bus fire kills 14 in Ningxia (2016-01-05)
 * 23) Pinyin/Cairo restaurant attack (2015-12-04)
 * 24) Pinyin/Calcium pills pose heart risk
 * 25) Pinyin/Canada slows down Syrian refugee intake (2015-11-25)
 * 26) Pinyin/Cardiovascular disease includes all the diseases of the heart and circulation
 * 27) Pinyin/Cauliflower preserves eye health
 * 28) Pinyin/Children die as boats sink off Turkey (2015-11-27)
 * 29) Pinyin/Chile is a South American country
 * 30) Pinyin/China And S Africa Sign $6.5bn In Deals (2015-12-03)
 * 31) Pinyin/China And Vietnam Promise To Be Good Neighbors
 * 32) Pinyin/China And Vietnam Promise To Be Good Neighbors (2015-11-06)
 * 33) Pinyin/China Approves New Economic Plan (2016-03-16)
 * 34) Pinyin/China Box Office Grows By 48% (2015-12-04)
 * 35) Pinyin/China Coal Mine Fire (2015-11-21)
 * 36) Pinyin/China Factory Gas Leak Kills 10 (2015-11-30)
 * 37) Pinyin/China Landslide Kills At Least 25 (2015-11-16)
 * 38) Pinyin/China Market Turmoil Hits Global Shares (2016-01-07)
 * 39) Pinyin/China National Offshore Oil Corporation
 * 40) Pinyin/China Promised $60bn To Develop Africa (2015-12-04)
 * 41) Pinyin/China Sets New Economic Growth Target (2016-03-05)
 * 42) Pinyin/China To Register Urban Migrants (2015-12-13)
 * 43) Pinyin/China and S Africa sign $6.5bn in deals (2015-12-03)
 * 44) Pinyin/China and Vietnam promise to be good neighbors (2015-11-06)
 * 45) Pinyin/China approves new economic plan (2016-03-16)
 * 46) Pinyin/China backs Brics' long term prospects (2016-10-16)
 * 47) Pinyin/China box office grows by 48% (2015-12-04)
 * 48) Pinyin/China coal mine explosion kills 33
 * 49) Pinyin/China coal mine fire (2015-11-21)
 * 50) Pinyin/China factory gas leak kills 10 (2015-11-30)
 * 51) Pinyin/China investigates mass swan deaths (2016-10-27)
 * 52) Pinyin/China is ready for space station mission (2016-10-16)
 * 53) Pinyin/China landslide kills at least 25 (2015-11-16)
 * 54) Pinyin/China launches mobile telecoms satellite (2016-08-07)
 * 55) Pinyin/China market turmoil hits global shares (2016-01-07)
 * 56) Pinyin/China promised $60bn to develop africa (2015-12-04)
 * 57) Pinyin/China sets new economic growth target (2016-03-05)
 * 58) Pinyin/China to build China-Pakistan superhighway (2015-04-21)
 * 59) Pinyin/China to register urban migrants (2015-12-13)
 * 60) Pinyin/China's Alibaba in 'flying pig' controversy
 * 61) Pinyin/China's Imports fall 19% (2015-11-08)
 * 62) Pinyin/China's Shenzhou 11 docks at Tiangong 2 space station (2016-10-19)
 * 63) Pinyin/China's Worst Pollution (2015-11-10)
 * 64) Pinyin/China's Xiaomi launches first drone (2016-05-25)
 * 65) Pinyin/China's economy grows steadily at annual rate of 6.7% (2016-10-19)
 * 66) Pinyin/China's first large passenger plane (2015-11-03)
 * 67) Pinyin/China's thinner & lighter phablets (2015-01-18)
 * 68) Pinyin/China's worst pollution (2015-11-10)
 * 69) Pinyin/Chinese #Pinyin creator dies aged 111 (2017-01-14)
 * 70) Pinyin/Chinese buy President Xi visit pub (2016-12-05)
 * 71) Pinyin/Clinton email 'motherlode' found
 * 72) Pinyin/Clinton's foreign policy plan would start WWIII (2016-10-26)
 * 73) Pinyin/Colombia seizes record cocaine haul (2016-05-16)
 * 74) Pinyin/Colorectal cancer typically starts as a benign tumor
 * 75) Pinyin/Common painkillers causes heart disease
 * 76) Pinyin/Corn prevents CVD
 * 77) Pinyin/Corn prevents blood vessel hardening
 * 78) Pinyin/Coronary heart disease develops when blood to heart obstructed
 * 79) Pinyin/Countries OK world’s largest marine reserve in Antarctica
 * 80) Pinyin/Countries are lining up to enter trade talks with Britain
 * 81) Pinyin/Cuba And US To Restore Postal Service (2012-12-12)
 * 82) Pinyin/Cuba and US to restore postal service (2012-12-12)
 * 83) Pinyin/Cuba signs internet deal with Google (2016-12-12)
 * 84) Pinyin/Cuba's Fidel Castro dies aged 90 (2016-11-26)
 * 85) Pinyin/Cyclone Megh Batters Yemen's Island Of Socotra (2015-11-09)
 * 86) Pinyin/Day of mourning after Beirut blasts (2015-11-13)
 * 87) Pinyin/Deadly blasts rock Assad strongholds (2016-05-23)
 * 88) Pinyin/Deadly bridge collapse in Indonesia (2016-10-16)
 * 89) Pinyin/Deadly collapse at Chinese power station
 * 90) Pinyin/Deafness And Hearing Loss
 * 91) Pinyin/Deafness and Hearing Loss
 * 92) Pinyin/Deafness and hearing loss
 * 93) Pinyin/Delhi Government Is Banned To Buy Diesel Cars (2015-12-11)
 * 94) Pinyin/Delhi government is banned to buy diesel cars (2015-12-11)
 * 95) Pinyin/Dementia 'link to blood pressure fall' (2016-10-13)
 * 96) Pinyin/Dementia increases with age
 * 97) Pinyin/Dementia is a broad category of brain diseases
 * 98) Pinyin/Dementia is a series of symptoms
 * 99) Pinyin/Dementia is a syndrome with decreased memory
 * 100) Pinyin/Dementia is a widespread brain disease
 * 101) Pinyin/Dementia is not a normal aging phenomenon
 * 102) Pinyin/Dementia now leading cause of death
 * 103) Pinyin/Denmark The Happiest Country (2016-03-16)
 * 104) Pinyin/Denmark the happiest country (2016-03-16)
 * 105) Pinyin/Dinosaur Relics Park Morning Tour
 * 106) Pinyin/Dinosaur Relics Park morning tour
 * 107) Pinyin/Dozens Hurt In Bangkok Boat Explosion (2016-03-05)
 * 108) Pinyin/Dozens Missing From Indonesia Ferry (2015-12-20)
 * 109) Pinyin/Dozens Protesters Arrested (2015-11-17)
 * 110) Pinyin/Dozens dead in Nigeria suicide attack (2016-12-09)
 * 111) Pinyin/Dozens hurt in Bangkok boat explosion (2016-03-05)
 * 112) Pinyin/Dozens missing from Indonesia ferry (2015-12-20)
 * 113) Pinyin/Dozens protesters arrested (2015-11-17)
 * 114) Pinyin/Dracunculiasis (Guinea-Worm Disease)
 * 115) Pinyin/Dracunculiasis (Guinea-worm Disease)
 * 116) Pinyin/Dracunculiasis (Guinea-worm disease)
 * 117) Pinyin/ECB Reveals Surprise Stimulus Moves (2016-03-10)
 * 118) Pinyin/ECB reveals surprise stimulus moves (2016-03-10)
 * 119) Pinyin/EU Expects Three Million Migrants
 * 120) Pinyin/EU Expects Three Million Migrants (2015-11-05)
 * 121) Pinyin/EU To Launch New Border Force Plan (2015-12-14)
 * 122) Pinyin/EU agrees to boost defence and security
 * 123) Pinyin/EU expects three million migrants (2015-11-05)
 * 124) Pinyin/EU in critical situation (2016-09-16)
 * 125) Pinyin/EU leaders 'not bluffing' over Brexit (2016-11-25)
 * 126) Pinyin/EU supporters protest against Brexit
 * 127) Pinyin/EU to grant Turkey visa-free travel (2016-05-03)
 * 128) Pinyin/EU to launch new border force plan (2015-12-14)
 * 129) Pinyin/EU-Canada deal to be signed on Sunday (2016-10-29)
 * 130) Pinyin/Eastern Aleppo faces 'total ruin' (2016-10-06)
 * 131) Pinyin/Eating oily fish reduces rheumatoid arthritis risk
 * 132) Pinyin/Egypt car bomb leaves eight soldiers dead (2016-11-24)
 * 133) Pinyin/Egypt migrant boat capsize kills many (2016-09-21)
 * 134) Pinyin/Egyptian police killed by Cairo bomb (2016-12-09)
 * 135) Pinyin/El Nino could be as bad as 1998 (2015-12-30)
 * 136) Pinyin/Eleven dead in Norway helicopter crash (2016-04-29)
 * 137) Pinyin/Elsie Tu Dies At 102 (2015-12-08)
 * 138) Pinyin/Elsie Tu dies at 102 (2015-12-08)
 * 139) Pinyin/Ethiopia hit by dry (2015-12-08)
 * 140) Pinyin/Eurozone economy slows (2015-11-13)
 * 141) Pinyin/Eurozone in 'breakthrough' Greece deal (2016-05-25)
 * 142) Pinyin/Eurozone inflation rises (2015-11-16)
 * 143) Pinyin/Every ideology is a product of human society
 * 144) Pinyin/Every kinds of ideology is a product of human society
 * 145) Pinyin/Exercise Is Good For Parkinson's
 * 146) Pinyin/Exercise Prevents Dementia
 * 147) Pinyin/Exercise Relates To Dementia
 * 148) Pinyin/Exercise Relates to Dementia
 * 149) Pinyin/Exercise after dinner helps to slim
 * 150) Pinyin/Exercise boosts men's sperm
 * 151) Pinyin/Exercise is good for Parkinson's
 * 152) Pinyin/Exercise is good for health
 * 153) Pinyin/Exercise is good for heart
 * 154) Pinyin/Exercise is good for the heart
 * 155) Pinyin/Exercise is good to heart
 * 156) Pinyin/Exercise prevents dementia
 * 157) Pinyin/Exercise prevents hypertension
 * 158) Pinyin/Exercises are beneficial for osteoporosis sufferers
 * 159) Pinyin/Explosion hits Tunisia presidential guard bus (2015-11-24)
 * 160) Pinyin/Fast Internet for all UK by 2020 (2015-11-07)
 * 161) Pinyin/Fat people's brains "age earlier" (2016-08-04)
 * 162) Pinyin/Fears over unauthorized Qomolangma flights (2016-04-29)
 * 163) Pinyin/Fifth of developing country children live in extreme poverty
 * 164) Pinyin/Food contains the nutrients needed
 * 165) Pinyin/Food is something that animals eat
 * 166) Pinyin/Former South Korean president dies (2015-11-21)
 * 167) Pinyin/France is one of the most important countries in Europe
 * 168) Pinyin/France launches anti-IS air attacks from aircraft carrier (2015-11-23)
 * 169) Pinyin/France mobilizes 115,000 police (2015-11-17)
 * 170) Pinyin/French high-speed train derails (2015-11-14)
 * 171) Pinyin/French stock market will open on Monday (2015-11-15)
 * 172) Pinyin/Full article German shops stop selling clown masks (2016-10-28)
 * 173) Pinyin/G20 leaders told 'avoid empty talk' by China's Xi Jinping (2016-09-04)
 * 174) Pinyin/Gambia declared Islamic republic (2015-12-12)
 * 175) Pinyin/Google car crash not a surprise (2016-03-14)
 * 176) Pinyin/Google car hits bus (2016-02-29)
 * 177) Pinyin/Google car is too slow (2015-11-13)
 * 178) Pinyin/Greece is a country in the southeast of Europe
 * 179) Pinyin/Greece requests EU help to solve border problem (2015-12-04)
 * 180) Pinyin/Greece warns to suspend Schengen (2015-12-02)
 * 181) Pinyin/Green spaces good for mental health
 * 182) Pinyin/Gun Attack Kills Egypt Police (2015-11-28)
 * 183) Pinyin/Gun Injure
 * 184) Pinyin/Gun attack kills Egypt police (2015-11-28)
 * 185) Pinyin/Gunman Kills 2 In Tel Aviv (2016-01-01)
 * 186) Pinyin/Gunman Kills Bosinian Soldiers (2015-11-19)
 * 187) Pinyin/Gunman kills 2 in Tel Aviv (2016-01-01)
 * 188) Pinyin/Gunman kills Bosinian soldiers (2015-11-19)
 * 189) Pinyin/Gunmen Kill 7 Indian Soldiers (2016-01-03)
 * 190) Pinyin/Gunmen kill 36 Nigerian miners
 * 191) Pinyin/Gunmen kill 7 Indian soldiers (2016-01-03)
 * 192) Pinyin/Gunmen kill five at barbecue party (2016-03-10)
 * 193) Pinyin/Healthy lifestyle prevents glaucoma
 * 194) Pinyin/Healthy weight cuts heart disease risk
 * 195) Pinyin/Heart disease risk inherited
 * 196) Pinyin/Heart symptoms differ in women
 * 197) Pinyin/Helicopter crash in Siberia kills 19 (2016-10-22)
 * 198) Pinyin/Hemorrhoids cause anus pain
 * 199) Pinyin/Henan builds giant Mao statue (2016-01-05)
 * 200) Pinyin/High blood pressure increases the risk of serious problems
 * 201) Pinyin/High blood pressure is a longterm disease
 * 202) Pinyin/High blood pressure rarely has noticeable symptoms
 * 203) Pinyin/High blood sugar can cause sudden weight loss
 * 204) Pinyin/High blood sugar causes weight loss
 * 205) Pinyin/High blood sugar harms organs
 * 206) Pinyin/High blood sugar leads to thirst
 * 207) Pinyin/High blood sugar leads to thirsty
 * 208) Pinyin/High blood sugar leads to tiredness
 * 209) Pinyin/Hijacked Egyptian jet lands in Cyprus (2016-03-29)
 * 210) Pinyin/Huawei revenue jumps 70% in 2015 (2016-01-06)
 * 211) Pinyin/Huawei sues Samsung over patents (2016-05-25)
 * 212) Pinyin/Hubble spots evidence of water plumes on Jupiter’s moon Europa
 * 213) Pinyin/Hypertension leads to brain problems
 * 214) Pinyin/Hypertension leads to eye problems
 * 215) Pinyin/Hypertension leads to heart problems
 * 216) Pinyin/Hypertension leads to kidney problems
 * 217) Pinyin/Hypertension symptom - insomnia
 * 218) Pinyin/Hypertension symptoms - palpitations, shortness of breath
 * 219) Pinyin/I wanted to curl up, says Clinton
 * 220) Pinyin/IS 'loses over a quarter of territory' (2016-10-09)
 * 221) Pinyin/IS Finance Chief "Killed" (2015-12-11)
 * 222) Pinyin/IS Homs Bomb Attack Kills 25 (2015-12-12)
 * 223) Pinyin/IS Homs bomb attack kills 25 (2015-12-12)
 * 224) Pinyin/IS Kills 12 Iraq Soldiers (2016-01-03)
 * 225) Pinyin/IS Kills 18 In Baghdad (2016-01-12)
 * 226) Pinyin/IS Kills 2 More Hostages (2015-11-19)
 * 227) Pinyin/IS Kills 31 In Baghdad (2016-02-28)
 * 228) Pinyin/IS Kills Egyptian Police (2016-01-09)
 * 229) Pinyin/IS Loses 22% Territory (2016-03-15)
 * 230) Pinyin/IS Oil Trade "Worth More Than $500m" (2015-12-11)
 * 231) Pinyin/IS attacks Brussels (2016-03-22)
 * 232) Pinyin/IS attacks gas factory in Iraq (2016-05-15)
 * 233) Pinyin/IS finance chief "killed" (2015-12-11)
 * 234) Pinyin/IS killed 1,950 Iraq soldiers in November (2016-12-01)
 * 235) Pinyin/IS killed 1950 Iraq soldiers in November (2016-12-01)
 * 236) Pinyin/IS kills 12 Iraq soldiers (2016-01-03)
 * 237) Pinyin/IS kills 13 policemen in Sinai (2016-03-19)
 * 238) Pinyin/IS kills 18 in Baghdad (2016-01-12)
 * 239) Pinyin/IS kills 2 more hostages (2015-11-19)
 * 240) Pinyin/IS kills 25 Yemen police (2015-05-15)
 * 241) Pinyin/IS kills 31 in Baghdad (2016-02-28)
 * 242) Pinyin/IS kills Egyptian police (2016-01-09)
 * 243) Pinyin/IS kills US soldier (2016-03-19)
 * 244) Pinyin/IS kills Yemen Governor (2015-12-06)
 * 245) Pinyin/IS kills Yemen governor (2015-12-06)
 * 246) Pinyin/IS kills many in Baghdad (2016-09-27)
 * 247) Pinyin/IS kills soldiers in Egypt (2016-10-14)
 * 248) Pinyin/IS launches counter-attack (2016-10-21)
 * 249) Pinyin/IS loses 22% territory (2016-03-15)
 * 250) Pinyin/IS oil trade "worth more than $500m" (2015-12-11)
 * 251) Pinyin/IS suicide attack (2016-03-25)
 * 252) Pinyin/IS suicide bomb kills many in Aden (2016-08-29)
 * 253) Pinyin/IS suicide bombs attacks Iraq's cities
 * 254) Pinyin/If there is insufficient calcium in the blood
 * 255) Pinyin/India Chennai floods worsen (2015-12-02)
 * 256) Pinyin/India Girl Dies Of Injuries After Being Set On Fire (2016-03-09)
 * 257) Pinyin/India Helicopter Crash In Kashmir (2015-11-23)
 * 258) Pinyin/India Man Kills 14 Members Of His Family (2016-02-28)
 * 259) Pinyin/India Plane Crash Kills 10 In Delhi (2015-12-22)
 * 260) Pinyin/India Schoolboys Arrested For Gang Rape (2015-11-27)
 * 261) Pinyin/India To Ban Old Vehicles To Curb Fumes (2015-12-03)
 * 262) Pinyin/India helicopter crash in Kashmir (2015-11-23)
 * 263) Pinyin/India hospital fire kills at least 23 (2016-10-17)
 * 264) Pinyin/India man kills 14 members of his family (2016-02-28)
 * 265) Pinyin/India plane crash kills 10 in Delhi (2015-12-22)
 * 266) Pinyin/India schoolboys arrested for gang rape (2015-11-27)
 * 267) Pinyin/India temple fire kills at least 100 (2016-04-10)
 * 268) Pinyin/India to 'divert rivers' to tackle drought (2016-05-16)
 * 269) Pinyin/India to ban old vehicles to curb fumes (2015-12-03)
 * 270) Pinyin/India train crash death toll passes 100
 * 271) Pinyin/India train crash death toll passes 140
 * 272) Pinyin/Indian Soldier Killed In Kashmir (2015-11-25)
 * 273) Pinyin/Indian economic growth rises to 7.4% (2015-11-30)
 * 274) Pinyin/Indian shelling 'kills nine on bus' (2016-11-23)
 * 275) Pinyin/Indian soldier killed in Kashmir (2015-11-25)
 * 276) Pinyin/Insulin delivers blood sugar to cells
 * 277) Pinyin/Insulin delivers blood sugar to the body's cells
 * 278) Pinyin/Insulin is a hormone that takes blood sugar and delivers it to the body's cells
 * 279) Pinyin/Iran Could Face EU Sanctions Over Missile Tests (2016-03-13)
 * 280) Pinyin/Iran Pig Flu Outbreak (2015-12-08)
 * 281) Pinyin/Iran could face EU sanctions over missile tests (2016-03-13)
 * 282) Pinyin/Iran is a country in the west of Asia
 * 283) Pinyin/Iran pig flu outbreak (2015-12-08)
 * 284) Pinyin/Iran to Get Russian Missile System
 * 285) Pinyin/Iran to Get Russian Missile System (2015-11-09)
 * 286) Pinyin/Iran to get Russian missile system (2015-11-09)
 * 287) Pinyin/Iran train crash kills at least 31 (2016-11-25)
 * 288) Pinyin/Iraq Attack Kills Dozens (2016-03-06)
 * 289) Pinyin/Iraq attack kills dozens (2016-03-06)
 * 290) Pinyin/Iraq is a country in the west of Asia
 * 291) Pinyin/Iraqi Forces Push Into Ramadi (2015-12-23)
 * 292) Pinyin/Iraqi forces push into Ramadi (2015-12-23)
 * 293) Pinyin/Islamic State claims Tunisia bus blast (2011-11-25)
 * 294) Pinyin/Israel tests missile defence system (2015-12-10)
 * 295) Pinyin/Israeli Killed In West Bank (2015-11-19)
 * 296) Pinyin/Israeli killed in West Bank (2015-11-19)
 * 297) Pinyin/Israelis killed in Tel Aviv (2015-11-19)
 * 298) Pinyin/Istanbul bomb attack (2016-03-19)
 * 299) Pinyin/Italy 'father-only' surname law rejected
 * 300) Pinyin/Italy is a country in the south of Europe
 * 301) Pinyin/Ivory Coast Attack Kills 16 (2016-03-13)
 * 302) Pinyin/Ivory Coast attack kills 16 (2016-03-13)
 * 303) Pinyin/Jakarta anti-governor rally turns violent
 * 304) Pinyin/Japan And India Sign Bullet Train Deal (2015-12-13)
 * 305) Pinyin/Japan Falls Back Into Recession (2015-11-16)
 * 306) Pinyin/Japan To Resume Whaling In Southern Ocean (2015-11-28)
 * 307) Pinyin/Japan and India sign bullet train deal (2015-12-13)
 * 308) Pinyin/Japan falls back into recession (2015-11-16)
 * 309) Pinyin/Japan to resume whaling in Southern Ocean (2015-11-28)
 * 310) Pinyin/Japanese Women Lose Surname Law Case (2015-12-16)
 * 311) Pinyin/Japanese pop star stabbed by fan (2016-05-22)
 * 312) Pinyin/Japanese women lose surname law case (2015-12-16)
 * 313) Pinyin/Junk food ads face online ban in UK (2016-03-14)
 * 314) Pinyin/Kansas attack kills 4 (2016-02-26)
 * 315) Pinyin/Kashmir attack kills Indian soldiers (2016-09-18)
 * 316) Pinyin/Kolkata flyover collapses (2016-03-31)
 * 317) Pinyin/Korea stocks fall as economy slows (2016-03-25)
 * 318) Pinyin/Kurdish fighters regained Iraqi town (2015-11-13)
 * 319) Pinyin/Lack of blood in the brain
 * 320) Pinyin/Lack of blood in the brain can lead to dementia
 * 321) Pinyin/Lack of vitamin B12 causes psychosis
 * 322) Pinyin/Lake Chad Suicide Bombs Kill 27 (2015-12-05)
 * 323) Pinyin/Lake Chad suicide bombs kill 27 (2015-12-05)
 * 324) Pinyin/Lakes In Qomolangma Are Dangerous (2015-11-27)
 * 325) Pinyin/Lakes In Qomolangma Is Dangerous (2015-11-27)
 * 326) Pinyin/Lakes in Qomolangma are Dangerous (2015-11-27)
 * 327) Pinyin/Landmark US commercial flight lands in Cuba (2016-08-31)
 * 328) Pinyin/Learn to make reading card
 * 329) Pinyin/Learning foreign language can prevent dementia
 * 330) Pinyin/Libya bomb attack kills 50 (2016-01-07)
 * 331) Pinyin/Lightning attack in Germany (2016-05-28)
 * 332) Pinyin/Lightning hurts dozens at rock festival (2016-06-04)
 * 333) Pinyin/Lightning kills 50 in Bangladesh (2016-05-14)
 * 334) Pinyin/Lightning strikes Paris children's party (2016-05-28)
 * 335) Pinyin/Living style affects cardiovascular health
 * 336) Pinyin/London derailment kills 7
 * 337) Pinyin/Long sitting causes stroke
 * 338) Pinyin/Long sitting is dangerous to health
 * 339) Pinyin/Lorry ploughs into Berlin festive market (2016-12-19)
 * 340) Pinyin/Low vitamin D increases dementia risk
 * 341) Pinyin/MRI detects heart damage caused by chemotherapy
 * 342) Pinyin/Ma Ying-jeou Will Meet Xi Jinping
 * 343) Pinyin/Ma Ying-jeou Will Meet Xi Jinping (2015-11-03)
 * 344) Pinyin/Ma Ying-jeou will meet Xi Jinping (2015-11-03)
 * 345) Pinyin/Making foreign things serve China
 * 346) Pinyin/Mali hotel attack (2015-11-21)
 * 347) Pinyin/Man Is Naturally Endowed With Sincerity
 * 348) Pinyin/Man Stabs Children Outside China School (2016-02-29)
 * 349) Pinyin/Man is Naturally Endowed with Sincerity
 * 350) Pinyin/Man is naturally endowed with sincerity
 * 351) Pinyin/Man stabs children outside China school (2016-02-29)
 * 352) Pinyin/Many missing in Myanmar landslide (2015-12-26)
 * 353) Pinyin/Many pilgrims killed in India stampede (2016-10-15)
 * 354) Pinyin/Mass grave found in Iraq (2015-11-28)
 * 355) Pinyin/Mass rally urges S Korea leader to quit
 * 356) Pinyin/Mental health problems is linked to cardiovascular diseases
 * 357) Pinyin/Merkel condemns migrant route closure (2016-03-10)
 * 358) Pinyin/Merkel says migrants offer opportunity (2015-12-31)
 * 359) Pinyin/Missile attacks Yemen hospital (2015-01-10)
 * 360) Pinyin/Missing Russian pilot is saved (2015-11-25)
 * 361) Pinyin/Missing bookseller goes back Hong Kong (2016-03-04)
 * 362) Pinyin/Mob attacks Nei Mongol checkpoint (2015-12-06)
 * 363) Pinyin/Modi arrives in UK (2015-11-12)
 * 364) Pinyin/Moments of joy can damage heart (2016-03-03)
 * 365) Pinyin/More than 170 inmates break out of Haiti jail (2016-10-23)
 * 366) Pinyin/More young Americans 'living with parents' (2016-05-25)
 * 367) Pinyin/Mother Teresa declared saint by Pope Francis at Vatican (2016-09-04)
 * 368) Pinyin/Mother Teresa to be made a saint (2016-03-15)
 * 369) Pinyin/Mugabe accuses of foreign companies stealing diamonds (2016-03-04)
 * 370) Pinyin/Mugabe welcomes Xi Jinping (2015-12-01)
 * 371) Pinyin/Myanmar jade mine landslide (2015-11-22)
 * 372) Pinyin/Myanmar opposition confident of victory (2015-11-09)
 * 373) Pinyin/Myanmar promised smooth handover (2015-11-15)
 * 374) Pinyin/N Korea fires ballistic missile into sea (2016-08-03)
 * 375) Pinyin/N Korea fires missiles (2016-03-21)
 * 376) Pinyin/N Korea fires short-range missiles (2016-03-10)
 * 377) Pinyin/N Korea has small nuclear warheads (2016-03-09)
 * 378) Pinyin/N Koreans defect from overseas restaurant (2016-05-24)
 * 379) Pinyin/Nauru asylum seeker sets herself alight (2016-05-02)
 * 380) Pinyin/Nepal drains dangerous Qomolangma lake
 * 381) Pinyin/Nepal passenger plane crash kills 23 (2016-02-24)
 * 382) Pinyin/New Ebola cases in Liberia (2015-11-20)
 * 383) Pinyin/New York bomb was act of terrorism (2016-09-18)
 * 384) Pinyin/Next UN chief calls Syria 'top priority' (2016-10-14)
 * 385) Pinyin/Nigeria suicide attack (2015-11-18)
 * 386) Pinyin/Nigeria suicide bomb attack (2015-11-18)
 * 387) Pinyin/Nigeria suicide bomb attack (2015-11-27)
 * 388) Pinyin/Nigeria suicide bombs attack mosque (2016-03-16)
 * 389) Pinyin/Nigeria's leader gets warning from wife (2016-10-14)
 * 390) Pinyin/Nigerian first lady 'belongs in kitchen' (2016-10-14)
 * 391) Pinyin/North Korea could stop nuclear tests (2016-04-24)
 * 392) Pinyin/North Korea fires long-range rocket (2016-02-07)
 * 393) Pinyin/North Korea fires missiles into sea (2016-03-03)
 * 394) Pinyin/North Korea has Hydrogen bomb (2015-12-10)
 * 395) Pinyin/North Korea has hydrogen bomb (2015-12-10)
 * 396) Pinyin/North Korea preparing new nuclear test (2016-04-18)
 * 397) Pinyin/North Korea tests H-bomb successfully (2016-01-06)
 * 398) Pinyin/North Korea tests long-range missile engine (2016-04-09)
 * 399) Pinyin/North Korea tests nuclear bomb successfully (2016-09-09)
 * 400) Pinyin/North Korea tests rocket engine successfully (2016-09-20)
 * 401) Pinyin/North Korea urges ready to use nuclear weapons (2016-03-04)
 * 402) Pinyin/North Korea will test nuclear warheads (2016-03-15)
 * 403) Pinyin/Oat is good for coronary heart disease
 * 404) Pinyin/Obama calls for European unity (2016-04-25)
 * 405) Pinyin/Obama lifts Myanmar trade sanctions (2016-10-07)
 * 406) Pinyin/Obama refuses N Korea's proposal (2016-04-25)
 * 407) Pinyin/Obama rejects ground troops for Syria (2016-04-24)
 * 408) Pinyin/Obama visits Cuba (2016-03-21)
 * 409) Pinyin/Obesity biggest threat to women (2015-12-11)
 * 410) Pinyin/Obesity causes health problems
 * 411) Pinyin/Obesity causes worse memory (2016-02-26)
 * 412) Pinyin/Obesity increases risk of atherosclerosis
 * 413) Pinyin/Obesity increases risk of osteoporosis
 * 414) Pinyin/Olympics 2016 set for opening ceremony (2016-08-05)
 * 415) Pinyin/Omega-3 oils 'halve' in farmed salmon (2016-10-06)
 * 416) Pinyin/One In Three Could Get Dementia
 * 417) Pinyin/Online Spending Surge In UK And US (2015-11-27)
 * 418) Pinyin/Oscar Pistorius Guilty Of Murder (2015-12-03)
 * 419) Pinyin/Osteoporosis in the over-50s causes fracture every two minutes
 * 420) Pinyin/Other common symptoms of dementia include emotional problems
 * 421) Pinyin/Outrage after girl dies from 68-day fast (2016-10-10)
 * 422) Pinyin/Pakistan Bombing Kills 22 (2015-12-29)
 * 423) Pinyin/Pakistan Factory Collapse (2015-11-04)
 * 424) Pinyin/Pakistan Factory Collapses
 * 425) Pinyin/Pakistan Market Bombing Kills 15 (2015-12-13)
 * 426) Pinyin/Pakistan Taliban attacks Christians (2016-03-28)
 * 427) Pinyin/Pakistan bans all Indian TV and radio (2016-10-21)
 * 428) Pinyin/Pakistan guard shoots boy in mask (2016-03-21)
 * 429) Pinyin/Pakistan poisoned sweets kill 23 (2016-04-25)
 * 430) Pinyin/Pakistan shrine bomb 'kills 30'
 * 431) Pinyin/Palestinian kills US tourist in Israel (2016-03-09)
 * 432) Pinyin/Palestinian man stabs Israeli soldier to death (2015-11-23)
 * 433) Pinyin/Paris Attacks Kill At Least 120 (2015-11-14)
 * 434) Pinyin/Paris Attacks Weapons "Made In Serbia" (2015-11-28)
 * 435) Pinyin/Paris Cafe Reopens After Attacked (2015-12-04)
 * 436) Pinyin/Paris is the capital of France
 * 437) Pinyin/Passenger accosts Ivanka Trump on flight (2012-12-22)
 * 438) Pinyin/People With Autism Die Younger (2016-03-18)
 * 439) Pinyin/People over the age of 50 should eat an apple daily
 * 440) Pinyin/People's Economic Identities Change Quickly In China (2016-03-16)
 * 441) Pinyin/People's Republic of China
 * 442) Pinyin/Person dies in push under NY subway train
 * 443) Pinyin/Peru investigates death of 10,000 frogs (2016-10-18)
 * 444) Pinyin/Philippines Seizes North Korea Ship (2016-03-05)
 * 445) Pinyin/Philippines Sizes North Korea Ship (2016-03-05)
 * 446) Pinyin/Philippines mayor shot dead in cell
 * 447) Pinyin/Pilgrim boat capsizes in Thailand (2016-09-18)
 * 448) Pinyin/Pirates' hostages freed in Somalia (2016-10-22)
 * 449) Pinyin/Plant proteins link to longer life (2016-08-01)
 * 450) Pinyin/Possible Threat To Westerners In Beijing (2015-12-24)
 * 451) Pinyin/Poundland Shares Falls Sharply (2015-11-19)
 * 452) Pinyin/Powerful Quake Attacks Off Indonesia (2016-03-02)
 * 453) Pinyin/Powerful Storm Hits Fiji (2016-02-20)
 * 454) Pinyin/Powerful hurricane hits Haiti (2016-10-05)
 * 455) Pinyin/Pregnancy-related Deaths Fall By Half (2015-11-12)
 * 456) Pinyin/President Blocks S Leone Abortion Law (2016-03-12)
 * 457) Pinyin/Preventing coronary heart disease
 * 458) Pinyin/Problem of Hanzi application in IT
 * 459) Pinyin/Processed Meat Causes Cancer
 * 460) Pinyin/Protests After US Police Shoot Black Man (2015-11-16)
 * 461) Pinyin/Putin Orders Strong Action Against Threats (2015-12-11)
 * 462) Pinyin/Putin Orders Syria Withdrawal (2016-03-14)
 * 463) Pinyin/Qatari Hunters Kidnapped In Iraq (2015-12-16)
 * 464) Pinyin/Qomolangma's first woman climber Junko Tabei dies at 77 (2016-1022)
 * 465) Pinyin/Rain And Flood Hit India's Chennai (2015-11-17)
 * 466) Pinyin/Recalls Of Mars And Snickers Bars (2016-02-23)
 * 467) Pinyin/Red meat chemical substance damages heart
 * 468) Pinyin/Refugee Boat Sinking Kills Children (2015-12-08)
 * 469) Pinyin/Refugee Boats Sinking Kills Dozens Off Turkey (2016-01-05)
 * 470) Pinyin/Refugee Crisis "Historic Test" (2015-12-14)
 * 471) Pinyin/Refugee dies of burns in Australia (2016-04-29)
 * 472) Pinyin/Refugees Drown Off Greece (2016-01-28)
 * 473) Pinyin/Regular Exercise Is Good For Health
 * 474) Pinyin/Regular Exercise is Good for Health
 * 475) Pinyin/Regular consumption of omega-3 fatty acids can reduce the development of Alzheimer's disease
 * 476) Pinyin/Renminbi Gains IMF Reserve Status (2015-12-01)
 * 477) Pinyin/Risk Of Chemical Attack (2015-11-19)
 * 478) Pinyin/Risk factors for CVD
 * 479) Pinyin/Rocket Attacks UN Base (2015-11-28)
 * 480) Pinyin/Russia Bans Egypt Air Flights (2015-11-13)
 * 481) Pinyin/Russia Bombs "Kill 200 Syria Civilians" (2015-12-23)
 * 482) Pinyin/Russia Coal Mine Blast Kills 36 (2016-02-28)
 * 483) Pinyin/Russia Names Nato As Threat To Security (2015-12-31)
 * 484) Pinyin/Russia Says Turkey Trading Oil With IS (2015-12-02)
 * 485) Pinyin/Russia Sells Nuclear Technology To Iran Again (2015-11-23)
 * 486) Pinyin/Russia Steps Up Attacks Against IS (2015-11-17)
 * 487) Pinyin/Russia Stops Gas To Ukraine (2015-11-25)
 * 488) Pinyin/Russia Suspends Egypt Flights
 * 489) Pinyin/Russia Suspends Egypt Flights (2015-11-06)
 * 490) Pinyin/Russia accuses UK of delaying visas (2016-10-22)
 * 491) Pinyin/Russia plane crash kills dozens (2016-03-19)
 * 492) Pinyin/Russian Activist Sets Fire
 * 493) Pinyin/Russian Activist Sets Fire (2015-11-09)
 * 494) Pinyin/Russian Mental Hospital Fire Kills 23 (2015-12-13)
 * 495) Pinyin/Russian ambassador shot dead in Turkey (2016-12-20)
 * 496) Pinyin/S Korea sees largest protests against President Park Geun-hye (2016-11-26)
 * 497) Pinyin/S Sudan Women Sexually Assaulted Instead Of Wages (2016-03-11)
 * 498) Pinyin/Sainsbury's Half-year Profits Fall (2015-11-11)
 * 499) Pinyin/Sainsbury's Sales Return To Growth (2016-03-15)
 * 500) Pinyin/Sainsbury's bids for the owner of Argos (2016-03-18)
 * 501) Pinyin/Sainsbury's hit by falling prices (2016-05-04)
 * 502) Pinyin/Salt is essential to life
 * 503) Pinyin/Samsung recalls 2.8m washing machines
 * 504) Pinyin/Samsung's Galaxy S3 beats Apple's iPhone (2012-11-08)
 * 505) Pinyin/Sardine is a nutritious oily fish
 * 506) Pinyin/Sardine is rich in omega-3
 * 507) Pinyin/Saudi Arabia Stampede Kills Thousand People
 * 508) Pinyin/Saudi Fire Kills 25 (2015-12-24)
 * 509) Pinyin/Saudi Women Voting For First Time (2015-12-12)
 * 510) Pinyin/Saudi and Egypt to build Red Sea bridge (2016-04-08)
 * 511) Pinyin/Saudi causes the most of Yemen's casualties (2016-03-18)
 * 512) Pinyin/Saudis Elect First Woman Politician (2815-12-13)
 * 513) Pinyin/Schools Urged To Ban Tackling In Rugby (2016-03-02)
 * 514) Pinyin/Sea water is rich in salt
 * 515) Pinyin/Senegal plans to ban full-face veil (2015-11-18)
 * 516) Pinyin/Sexually Transmitted Infection
 * 517) Pinyin/Sexually assaulted India girl dies of burn injuries (2016-03-09)
 * 518) Pinyin/Shell to cut another 2,200 jobs (2016-05-25)
 * 519) Pinyin/Shift workers more susceptible to infections
 * 520) Pinyin/Shipwrecks 'kill up to 700 migrants' (2016-05-29)
 * 521) Pinyin/Sierra Leone Declared Free Of Ebola (2015-11-07)
 * 522) Pinyin/Skipping breakfast harmful to heart
 * 523) Pinyin/Slightly high cholesterol can also harms heart
 * 524) Pinyin/Slow China Output Causes Worries (2016-03-13)
 * 525) Pinyin/Social change is mainly due to the development of internal contradictions in society
 * 526) Pinyin/Soldiers Captured After Afghan Helicopter Crash (2015-11-25)
 * 527) Pinyin/Somali Refugees Killed As Forces Clash (2015-11-16)
 * 528) Pinyin/South Africa Luxury Presidential Airplane Plans Condemned (2015-11-09)
 * 529) Pinyin/South Korean Police Surround Buddhist Temple (2015-12-09)
 * 530) Pinyin/South Sudan Plane Crash (2015-11-04)
 * 531) Pinyin/Spain bus crash (2016-03-20)
 * 532) Pinyin/Stock Markets Welcome US Rate Rise (2015-12-17)
 * 533) Pinyin/Stop junk food ads on kids' apps
 * 534) Pinyin/Storm Makes Huge Damage In Fiji (2016-02-21)
 * 535) Pinyin/Strange creatures found in deep ocean (2016-10-20)
 * 536) Pinyin/Stress gene is related to heart attacks
 * 537) Pinyin/Strong earthquakes shake central Italy (2016-10-27)
 * 538) Pinyin/Sudan is a country in the northeast of Africa
 * 539) Pinyin/Suicide Bomb Kills 2 In Kabul (2016-01-01)
 * 540) Pinyin/Suicide Bombs Kill 50 In Nigeria (2015-12-29)
 * 541) Pinyin/Suicide bomber kills four at Afghan US base
 * 542) Pinyin/Suicide bombs attack Yemen (2016-03-25)
 * 543) Pinyin/Sunlight can reduce the level of cholesterol
 * 544) Pinyin/Suu Kyi Aide Elected Myanmar President (2016-03-15)
 * 545) Pinyin/Suu Kyi Predicts Election Majority (2015-11-10)
 * 546) Pinyin/Suu Kyi's NLD Wins Landslide Victory (2015-11-13)
 * 547) Pinyin/Sweden Introduces Border Checks (2015-11-12)
 * 548) Pinyin/Sweden Introduces Border Controls (2016-01-04)
 * 549) Pinyin/Sweet potato skin prevents cardiovascular disease
 * 550) Pinyin/Switzerland is a country in the west of Europe
 * 551) Pinyin/Syria Army Breaks IS Airbase Siege (2015-11-10)
 * 552) Pinyin/Syria Blasts Kill 16 (2015-12-31)
 * 553) Pinyin/Syria Ceasefire To Start At Weekend (2016-02-23)
 * 554) Pinyin/Syrian Army Takes Western Towns From IS (2015-11-23)
 * 555) Pinyin/Syrian forces capture key Aleppo area (2016-11-28)
 * 556) Pinyin/Taliban Attacks Kabul Embassy Area (2015-12-11)
 * 557) Pinyin/Taliban Attacks Kandahar Airport (2015-12-09)
 * 558) Pinyin/Taliban Bomb Kills 6 US Soldiers (2015-12-21)
 * 559) Pinyin/Taliban Bomb Kills Six Foreign Soldiers (2015-12-21)
 * 560) Pinyin/Taliban Push Further (2015-12-23)
 * 561) Pinyin/Taliban Refuses Fresh Afghanistan Peace Talks (2016-03-05)
 * 562) Pinyin/Taliban attack kills dozens (2016-06-30)
 * 563) Pinyin/Taliban pushes into Helmand capital (2016-10-10)
 * 564) Pinyin/Tear gas fired at Istanbul protesters
 * 565) Pinyin/The Billionaire Capital Of The World (2016-02-25)
 * 566) Pinyin/The Cats Inside My Home
 * 567) Pinyin/The Crusades were a war between Christians and Muslims
 * 568) Pinyin/The Ministry of Gender Equality and Family slashes 2017 budget for former comfort women
 * 569) Pinyin/The Sun Goes To Work Seriously
 * 570) Pinyin/The World Is Celebrating New Year 2016 (2015-12-31)
 * 571) Pinyin/The capital of the USA
 * 572) Pinyin/The changes are usually small at first
 * 573) Pinyin/The content of plasma
 * 574) Pinyin/The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere
 * 575) Pinyin/The eye is part of the sensory nervous system
 * 576) Pinyin/The eye is the organ of the visual system
 * 577) Pinyin/The eye provides vision to the animal
 * 578) Pinyin/The first line of treatment for hypertension is lifestyle changes
 * 579) Pinyin/The human eye can differentiate between about 10 million colors
 * 580) Pinyin/The human eye is an organ that reacts to light and allows vision
 * 581) Pinyin/The human heart is located on
 * 582) Pinyin/The most of the territory of the United States of America
 * 583) Pinyin/The most simple single cell is the smallest living thing
 * 584) Pinyin/The poem to my mom
 * 585) Pinyin/The symptom of high blood pressure - headache
 * 586) Pinyin/There are many examples of success and failure in the history
 * 587) Pinyin/Those Who Really Think Of You Would Leave You Message
 * 588) Pinyin/Tissue damage reduced by heart attack drug
 * 589) Pinyin/Top 10 vegetable proteins good for health
 * 590) Pinyin/Toshiba Robot Becomes More Human-like (2016-03-09)
 * 591) Pinyin/Toshiba To Cut Almost 7,000 Jobs (2015-12-21)
 * 592) Pinyin/Trump and Putin 'will try to mend ties'
 * 593) Pinyin/Trump beats Clinton to take White House
 * 594) Pinyin/Trump cries foul as FBI clears Clinton
 * 595) Pinyin/Trump says talks with Obama an 'honour'
 * 596) Pinyin/Trump threatens to terminate Cuba deal (2016-11-28)
 * 597) Pinyin/Turkey "Mistreated Scores Of Refugees" (2015-12-16)
 * 598) Pinyin/Turkey 'Knew Downed Fighter Jet Was Russian' (2015-11-26)
 * 599) Pinyin/Turkey Army Hit Refugees In Boat (2016-03-12)
 * 600) Pinyin/Turkey Downs Russian Warplane (2015-11-24)
 * 601) Pinyin/Turkey airport attack kills 41 (2016-06-29)
 * 602) Pinyin/Turkey airport attack kills many (2016-06-29)
 * 603) Pinyin/Turkey threatens EU with migrant surge (2016-11-25)
 * 604) Pinyin/Turning migrants away "won't work" (2016-05-16)
 * 605) Pinyin/Two British bodies found on Matterhorn (2016-08-06)
 * 606) Pinyin/Two new Ebola cases in Guinea (2016-03-18)
 * 607) Pinyin/Two-year-old shoots mother dead in US
 * 608) Pinyin/Typical symptoms of diabetes
 * 609) Pinyin/Typical symptoms of type 1 diabetes
 * 610) Pinyin/UAE Warplane Missing In Yemen (2016-03-14)
 * 611) Pinyin/UK Inflation Rate Remains Negative (2015-11-17)
 * 612) Pinyin/UK Inflation Rate Turns Positive (2015-12-15)
 * 613) Pinyin/UK Jobless Rate At Lowest Since 2008 (2015-11-11)
 * 614) Pinyin/UK Manufacturing Output Fell In October (2015-12-08)
 * 615) Pinyin/UK Manufacturing Output Strengthens
 * 616) Pinyin/UK Manufacturing Output Strengthens (2015-11-06)
 * 617) Pinyin/UN Chief To Visit North Korea (2015-11-16)
 * 618) Pinyin/UN suspends all aid convoys in Syria (2016-09-20)
 * 619) Pinyin/US Air Strike Killed Civilians (2015-11-21)
 * 620) Pinyin/US Air Strike Maybe Killed Libya IS Leader (2015-11-14)
 * 621) Pinyin/US Allows GM Salmon For Food (2015-11-19)
 * 622) Pinyin/US And Cuba To Resume Regular Air Flights (2015-12-17)
 * 623) Pinyin/US Could Increase Interest (2015-12-04)
 * 624) Pinyin/US Creates 242,000 Jobs In February (2016-03-04)
 * 625) Pinyin/US Drug Overdose Deaths Rise Sharply (2015-12-19)
 * 626) Pinyin/US Expands North Korea Sanctions Over Arms Trade (2015-12-09)
 * 627) Pinyin/US Federal Reserve
 * 628) Pinyin/US Growth Slightly Lower Than Estimate (2015-12-22)
 * 629) Pinyin/US Growth Slows Slightly (2015-12-22)
 * 630) Pinyin/US Gun Attack (2015-12-03)
 * 631) Pinyin/US Gun Attack Kills Three (2015-11-28)
 * 632) Pinyin/US Issues Burundi Travel Warning (2015-12-13)
 * 633) Pinyin/US Marine Guilty Of Transgender Killing (2015-12-01)
 * 634) Pinyin/US Raises Interest Rates By 0.25% (2015-12-17)
 * 635) Pinyin/US Retail Sales Weaker Than Expected (2015-11-13)
 * 636) Pinyin/US Schools Shut In Islam Script Row (2015-12-18)
 * 637) Pinyin/US States Say No To Syrian Refugees (2015-11-16)
 * 638) Pinyin/US To Tighten Travel Restrictions (2015-12-01)
 * 639) Pinyin/US abstains from UN Cuba embargo vote (2016-10-27)
 * 640) Pinyin/US bans Samsung Galaxy Note 7 phones on flights (2016-10-14)
 * 641) Pinyin/US cruise ship makes historic Cuba trip (2016-05-02)
 * 642) Pinyin/US man jailed for spying in N Korea (2016-04-29)
 * 643) Pinyin/US military trainers killed in Jordan
 * 644) Pinyin/US retail sales rise is biggest in year (2016-05-13)
 * 645) Pinyin/US schools shut in Islam script row (2015-12-18)
 * 646) Pinyin/US suicide rate highest in 30 years (2016-04-22)
 * 647) Pinyin/US to send more troops to Syria (2016-04-25)
 * 648) Pinyin/US-led Air Attack Kills Iraqi Soldiers (2015-12-18)
 * 649) Pinyin/Unhealthy Middle Age Lead To Unhealthy Old Age (2016-03-07)
 * 650) Pinyin/Vegetarian diet "reduces heart risk by a third"
 * 651) Pinyin/Venezuela Opposition Leader Killed (2015-11-26)
 * 652) Pinyin/Vitamin C deficiency leads to scurvy
 * 653) Pinyin/Vitamin C helps heal wounds
 * 654) Pinyin/Vitamin D has two forms
 * 655) Pinyin/Vitamin D heals damaged hearts (2016-04-05)
 * 656) Pinyin/Vitamin D pills' effect on healthy bones questioned
 * 657) Pinyin/Vitamin E Good For Dementia Sufferer
 * 658) Pinyin/Vodafone Boss Backs UK Staying In EU (2015-11-10)
 * 659) Pinyin/WHO backs 'sugar tax' on soft drinks (2016-10-11)
 * 660) Pinyin/Walking "could treat depression"
 * 661) Pinyin/Walking after meals better
 * 662) Pinyin/Wall Street Rises As Oil Price Rebounds (2015-12-29)
 * 663) Pinyin/Watching the screen for a long time is harmful
 * 664) Pinyin/Weapons Found In Paris Car
 * 665) Pinyin/What You Say And What You Do Must Be The Same
 * 666) Pinyin/What are the health benefits of yoga?
 * 667) Pinyin/What is diabetes?
 * 668) Pinyin/What is friendship
 * 669) Pinyin/What is scurvy?
 * 670) Pinyin/What is yoga?
 * 671) Pinyin/White foods are less nutritious
 * 672) Pinyin/Woman Jumps From Balcony To Escape Rape (2016-03-07)
 * 673) Pinyin/Woman Smuggles Child In Hand Luggage (2016-03-10)
 * 674) Pinyin/Woman smuggles child in hand luggage (2016-03-10)
 * 675) Pinyin/World wildlife 'falls by 58% since 1970' (2016-10-27)
 * 676) Pinyin/World wine production "reached a four-year low" (2016-10-20)
 * 677) Pinyin/World's Oldest Man (2016-03-11)
 * 678) Pinyin/World's Second-largest Diamond (2015-11-19)
 * 679) Pinyin/World's hottest borehole nearly complete (2016-12-14)
 * 680) Pinyin/World's largest marine protected area declared in Antarctica (2016-10-28)
 * 681) Pinyin/World's longest rail tunnel opens (2016-06-01)
 * 682) Pinyin/Worsening depression links to dementia (2016-04-30)
 * 683) Pinyin/Xi Jinping Calls For Cyber Sovereignty (2015-12-16)
 * 684) Pinyin/Xi Jinping Visits Saudi Arabia (2016-01-19)
 * 685) Pinyin/Xi Jinping tells Donald Trump US and China must co-operate
 * 686) Pinyin/Yemen Air Attack Kills 30 (2016-02-27)
 * 687) Pinyin/Yemen Attack Kills 16 (2016-03-05)
 * 688) Pinyin/Yoga betters your bone health
 * 689) Pinyin/Yoga can improve quality of life
 * 690) Pinyin/high blood pressure symptoms - dizziness and tinnitus

title: User:Minorax/Pinyin


text:
Epistemology/Adding an extra condition

In the previous chapter, we saw that Gettier cases provide motivation for the idea that justified, true belief is an insufficient analysis for knowledge. In this chapter, we will consider the possibility that the tripartite analysis does not provide the sufficient conditions for knowledge because it is missing a necessary condition. In other words, we will consider whether adding an extra condition on top of justification, truth and belief will rule out Gettier cases as knowledge.

No false lemmas
A natural first thought for a new condition to add to the tripartite analysis might be to rule out beliefs inferred from false premises. A proponent of this view could then argue that Gettier's examples do not count as knowledge because the justified, true beliefs in these examples were inferred from falsehoods and so were not properly formed to count as knowledge. As can be seen from the table above, the "no false lemmas" analysis rules out the original Gettier cases provided in Gettier's famous paper. However, there have been Gettier cases that have been provided for the "no false lemmas" analysis. For example, consider the following "fake barn county" example:

 * Jones is driving through fake barn county
 * In fake barn county, it is tradition for the locals set up many cardboard cut-outs of barns
 * Jones sees a lot of fake barns thinking that they’re real barns
 * Then, Jones happens to see a real barn!
 * Jones has justified true belief that there is a barn

In this example, Jones has a justified true belief that there is a barn. But not only does he have a justified true belief that there is a barn, he has a justified true belief that is not inferred from any falsehoods. This is because Jones' belief that there is a barn is inferred directly from his visual perception of a barn and so is not inferred from any premises at all. However, Jones could very easily have been looking at a fake barn with the exact same visual justification and his belief would have been false. Therefore, even with the "no false lemmas" condition, there can still be epistemic luck.

Sensitivity conditions
Another way we could rule out the Gettier cases as counting as knowledge is by considering their relationship to the truth. The key insight behind adding a sensitivity condition is that knowledge should not only be true, but it should also track the truth. To fix the tripartite analysis, then, we just need to add a sensitivity condition that ensures knowledge must be sensitive to the truth (as shown in the table below). A proponent of this view could argue that we can rule out Gettier's examples as cases of knowledge because the justified, true beliefs in these examples are insensitive to the truth. Adding a sensitivity condition, like a "no false lemmas" condition, rules out Gettier's original examples. However, can it also rule out the fake barn county counterexample? Initially we might think that it can. After all, if the barn was not there for Jones to see, he wouldn't believe that there was a barn there. However, what if inside the real barn had been a cardboard cut-out of a barn set up. Then, if there was no barn there for Jones to see, he would have still believed there was a barn there because he would have seen a fake barn and mistaken it for a real barn. Saul Kripke takes this example one step further to show how counterintuitive a sensitivity condition could be. Consider the following case:

 * Jones is driving through fake barn county
 * In fake barn county, it is tradition for the locals set up many cardboard cut-outs of barns
 * Cardboard cut-out barns are always green in fake barn county and real barns are always red
 * Jones happens to see a real barn (with a cardboard cut-out barn inside)
 * Jones forms the justified true belief that there is a barn
 * Jones also forms the justified true belief that there is a red barn
 * If there had been no real barn there, Jones would still believe there is a barn but he would not have believed there was a red barn
 * Therefore, in this case, Jones' belief that there is a red barn is sensitive to the truth but his belief that there is a barn is not
 * Therefore, in this case, Jones knows that there is a red barn but he doesn't know that there is a barn!

A general problem with JTB+X solutions
Linda Zagzebski has argued that all analyses of knowledge which simply add an extra condition X onto the tripartite JTB analysis to acquire a JTB+X analysis will always be vulnerable to Gettier cases. This is because the fallibility of justification (as well as any added condition) will always be able to be able to be subverted to create Gettier cases. In fact, Zagzebski even provides an easy recipe with which to create a Gettier case for any JTB+X analysis of knowledge:

 * 1) Find a case of justified false belief which satisfies condition X
 * 2) Make the belief true by complete luck
 * 3) You have a Gettier case!

We will discuss Zagzebski's solution to this problem in a later chapter. However, in the next chapter, we will look to a completely new way of analysing knowledge called "reliabilism".

title: Epistemology/Adding an extra condition