text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 06

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10. - JUNE, 1945 - No. 1

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.32)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

A Well-tried Reflex Circuit. . . . 20

TECHNICAL —

Radio Location - War-winner. . . . 5

Walkie-Talkies in Peace. . . . 11

Wireless Rules the Waves. . . . 13

A Short Course in Radio Fundamentals - Part 5. . . . 16

Fragmentary Crystals. . . . 19

History and Theory of Microphones. . . . 21

Another Hint for High Fidelity. . . . 24

Latest Technical Notes from New York. . . . 25

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 26

New Stations. . . . 27

Loggings. . . . 28

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 30

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

Of tremendous interest to all radiomen and to the radio trade as a whole are the announcements from both England and America that the use of the walkie-talkie in peacetime is to receive official encouragement. Elsewhere in this issue we give details of the American plan, which sets out to encourage manufacturers to market cheap transmitter-receivers for civilian use. Applications of walkie-talkie will become accepted as just another modern convenience. The wavelengths allotted for use with walkie-talkie may appear startling to those who have not been in close touch with recent radio development. The use of wavelengths below one metre calls for special technique, but there is nothing to be afraid about and we look forward to that not too far distant day (we hope) when we will be running constructional articles telling you how to build and operate your own transmitter for use on this band. It is expected that some sort of licence will be required, but no qualification tests, such as a theory examination or a speed test in morse code as was, and probably will be, required for the licence to operate an experimental transmitter working on the longer wavelengths. It should be clearly understood that there is no question of the walkie-talkie licence replacing the amateur experimental licence, and, if everything turns out as we have every reason to hope, the two classes of transmitting licences will be complementary to each other, co-operating to create even greater interest in technical radio than ever before. The prospects are exceedingly rosy.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 07

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10 - JULY, 1945 - No. 2

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Wide Range Resistance and Capacity Meter. . . . 9

Tone Compensation Amplifier. . . . 20

TECHNICAL —

Radio in America. . . . 5

Theory of Oscillation. . . . 17

Power Supply Filters. . . . 24

Straede's Amplifier Contest. . . . 24

A Short Course in Radio Fundamentals. . . . 26

Latest Technical Notes from New York. . . . 29

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 30

New Stations. . . . 31

Loggings. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

The Service Pages. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

The Wireless Institute of Australia has issued a "white paper" in the form of a list of draft proposals for post-war experimental radio. The suggestion is made that there should be three types of amateur licences. The new licensee is to pass the usual type of examination and is then allowed to operate a power of 50 watts on morse code for the first six months. If all goes well he is then allowed to operate telephony, still on 50 watts for another six months. Having operated for twelve months without falling foul of any trouble, the ham is then allowed to step up to a "B" licence, which allows him to use 100 watts of power. After operating under "B" class conditions for six months; and passing a test in Higher Radio Technology and Electrical Theory and morse code at 16 words per minute, the amateur operator will then qualify for a licence to operate an "A" class station at 250 watts of power. Many other matters are covered, such as minimum ages for class "C" at 16 years and class "B" at 18 years, but the above outline gives a fair idea of the plan. To us the scheme seems sound, except for that one sore point of ours, the morse code test. In both England and America there appears to be a trend to abandon the code test as having little use. War experience has shown that morse code communication is slow, unsatisfactory and generally considered quite out-of-date. To some people the code comes easily, to others it means hundreds and hundreds of hours wasted in "swotting," ending in sad disappointment to the nervous candidate when he makes a few errors at the examination. A. G. HULL.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 08

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10 - AUGUST, 1945 - No. 3

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Making Paper Condensers. . . . 11

Small Hints for Big Effects. . . . 15

TECHNICAL —

Radio for Model Planes. . . . 5

Eliminating Hum. . . . 6

Trade With America. . . . 7

A Short Course in Radio Fundamentals. . . . 18

Decibel — a Logarithmic Function. . . . 22

The Theory Behind Proper Amplifier Design. . . . 26

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 30

New Stations. . . . 32

Loggings. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

The Service Pages. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

It is unfortunate that censorship has made it necessary to suppress the telling of the wonderful tale of what radio and radar have done to ensure victory, to save lives and to make the winning of the war so much more pleasant than would otherwise have been the case. I recently encountered (and I don’t mean met) a National Service Officer who really thought that the only use for radio in the forward areas was to provide the troops with light entertainment! There was a man who held the destiny of hundreds in the palm of his hand, yet knew nothing of the achievements of electronics. Needless to add, when I left him he had an impression that there was something more to radio than horror serials. I hope that I did not reveal any of the "Confidential" and "Top Secret" angles on the latest methods of gun aiming, shell velocity measuring, and so on. I feel that it is the duty of every one of our readers to do what he can to spread the gospel about radio and radar, even if he can only go as far as to tell what has already been released in our recent articles on radar and the vital part it played in the Battle of Britain. There is so much about radio that is not worthy. Many of the abuses of broadcasting must make the radio pioneers squirm in their graves, but at least radio's part in the fight for freedom is something worth while for the poets to write about. Let’s all do our part and make the most of it. It is a fine topic for conversation with your friends and customers. A. G. HULL.


text:
Cookbook:Thin Waffles

These waffles can be served straight away or used to make waffle cake.

Ingredients

 * 6 eggs
 * 1 cup white granulated sugar
 * 1 cup all-purpose flour
 * 200 g butter, melted

Equipment

 * Rectangular waffle-iron for making thin waffles

Procedure

 * 1) Crack the eggs into a mixing bowl, and add the sugar.
 * 2) Gradually stir the flour into the egg mixture. Then, gradually mix in the melted butter.
 * 3) Heat the waffle iron according to the manufacturer's directions until it is ready.
 * 4) Ladle a sufficient amount of batter onto the waffle iron—it should just barely cover the surface. Close the iron, and cook until the waffle is medium-brown (about 2 minutes). Remove the cooked waffle from the iron.
 * 5)  Repeat the waffle cooking process until you have used up all the waffle batter.
 * 6) Serve waffles on their own, or use to make waffle cake.

title: Cookbook:Thin Waffles


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 09

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10. - SEPTEMBER, 1945 - No. 4.

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

A Camera Case Portable. . . . 15

Getting the Best from a Pick-up. . . . 17

TECHNICAL —

An Answer to the Cathode Follower. . . . 11

Theory Behind Proper Amplifier Design — Part 2. . . . 18

Probe Adapter for the V.T.V.M. .. . . 24

Future Appreciations of Radio. . . . 28

Starting in the Radio Business. . . . 5

Standard Valve Types for 1945. . . . 7

Victorian Amplifier Contest. . . . 7

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes from My Diary. . . . 30

New Stations. . . . 31

Loggings. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

The Service Pages. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

You will be interested in Mr. Langford Smith’s article in this issue in which he announces, on behalf of the Amalgamated Wireless Valve Company, the type numbers of the valves which are to be recommended as the standard or preferred-type valves for the immediate future. In his article Mr. Langford Smith gives a full explanation of the reasons behind the choice of these valves, giving the article added interest. After reading the article you will doubtless agree that the policy adopted is sound and logical. It is to be hoped, however, that the powers-that-be will appreciate that it is not reasonable to expect the local factories to produce every type of valve that the fertile mind can conceive, and make due allowance by making it easy for importers to land stocks of those particular valve types which cannot be produced locally on an economical basis. Valves such as the 6SN7GT and other twin types, for example, have many special applications and if the local experimenters are denied a chance to obtain small quantities of these valves it may tend to retard progress. It almost looks as though we need two classifications for considering the importation of valves, giving preference to the types which are not locally-made. The locally-made valves are reasonably satisfactory and doubtless they can supply the need for all standard types. Whilst on the subject of valves, we hope that a more legible branding of type numbers can be made, and that a handy abbreviation can be found for the mouthfuls like "6SN7GT." How about starting off a new run of serial numbers or letters say, a single type letter, such as "A," "B," "C," etc., stamping it into the bakelite base and painting on a colour code as well? A. G. HULL.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 10

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10. - OCTOBER, 1945 - No. 5.

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

TECHNICAL —

Our Future Policy. . . . 5

Honour Roll. . . . 7

Amateur Radio. . . . 9

The Transitron Oscillator. . . . 11

Vibrating Power Supplies. . . . 17

Radar's Work With the Navy. . . . 21

The Theory Behind Proper Amplifier Design. . . . 24

SHORTWAVE SECTION —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 30

The Month's Loggings. . . . 32

New Stations. . . . 33

THE SERVICE PAGES —

The Service Pages. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

My editorial in the July issue has drawn sharp criticism from a reader who has just returned from four years service with the R.A.F. He says that he hates to see personal bias creeping into a fine magazine. The subject under discussion, to save you turning up the July issue, was that old one of morse code versus phone for ham licence qualification. I fail to appreciate the crack about personal bias, as I did not make any effort to disguise the fact that the opinions expressed were my own, carried my own signature at the bottom and were published for the sole purpose of letting readers know what I thought about the subject. I am not unreasonable enough to expect every reader to agree with everything I say, but surely I have just as much right to express my views as anybody else. To make quite sure that nobody can have cause to grouch I will hand over the editorial column this month to the morse code exponent, Con. A. Stiglish (ZL4DU) of New Zealand. Amongst many other things this is what he thinks about it: "My experience in the R.A.F. as a wireless operator has proved to me the value of c.w. To my knowledge, the R.A.F. had no overseas radio telephone links. Inter-comm and circuits were all c.w., some hand speed, some high speed. Spelling out words by phone is slower than sending letters by c.w. For copying through QRM or QRN and on a busy channel, give me c.w. every time. In cases of emergency it is easier to rig up a c.w. outfit and power drain is lower. Using a given power you will get further on c.w. I think that an amateur should be an all-rounder, equally efficient on phone or c.w., as each has its advantages and disadvantages." All of which is sound and logical, but doesn’t explain the reason why four words per minute greater speed in morse code should be the deciding factor as to whether a ham should be allowed 50 watts or 250 watts. — A. G. HULL.


text:
Planet Earth/5f. La Nina and El Nino: the sloshing of the Pacific Ocean

El Niño Southern Oscillation
For centuries Peruvian fisherman would observe warm ocean waters as they set out their fishing nets during late December, although not every year produced such odd warming of the ocean. The fish caught during these strange warm ocean water events where different species than the fisherman normally found in their fishing nets. Such events became known as El Niño de Navidad, but later shortened to El Niño (the boy). The event was often followed by intense inland rain storms, where deserts flooded and rivers swelled. These strange weather patterns were observed for centuries by the Incas, and later by the Spanish. It was later discovered that the Pacific coastal waters also undergo periods of cooling, which became known as La Niña (the girl). People began observing an oscillating cycle along the equatorial region off the Pacific coast of Peru and Ecuador. The La Nina/El Niño cycle (often abbreviated as ENSO; El Niño Southern Oscillation) is an important cycle of warming and cooling surface ocean waters that occur within the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) near the equator. This warming and cooling cycle has a profound effect on weather patterns elsewhere, particularly in the countries bordering the Pacific Ocean, such as the United States.

Until the 1980s, scientists did not have a clean understanding of ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation), and most evidence was based on sailors logs which recorded surface water temperatures while crossing the Pacific Ocean. But the doldrums near the equator were rarely visited by sailors, so a clear picture of variations of ocean water temperatures in these warm equatorial waters was lacking. In 1985, the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program (TOGA) was funded by Pacific nations to study the temperatures of the ocean in the hopes that it could be used to aid weather forecasting. This included deploying buoys that would record ocean water temperatures at various depths in the ocean. The success of the recordings was followed up with today’s Tropical Atmospheric Ocean (TAO) deployment, which is a series of about 70 moored buoys spread across the equatorial Pacific Ocean which record ocean water temperatures at various depths in the ocean and send this information using satellite communication. This data gives a glimpse into the dynamic nature of equatorial tropical ocean water, and how it changes from month to month. As discussed earlier, the equatorial regions of the world’s ocean are affected by the near surface Equatorial Counter-Current which is an eastward flowing, westerly wind-driven current which extends to depths of 100–150m in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. It is limited to the equatorial regions between 0° to 5° latitudes. It divides the two large gyres in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. This surface ocean current is a result of westerly winds, which are influenced by the ocean surface temperature oscillations resulting from Earth’s seasonal changes in its tilt. Because this ocean water does not travel north or south beyond this zone, the Coriolis effect is minimum, with the surface ocean current more strongly affected by wind. The Intertropical Convergence Zone is a low-pressure system caused by air moving into the Equator replacing air rising over the tropical warm ocean. The rising air results in intense rain-storms over these regions of Earth, but also the doldrums that slow wind speeds. Within the Intertropical Convergence Zone, these equatorial ocean water temperatures can vary between equatorial regions, east and west. If ocean water is relatively hot near the surface, the air above the ocean will rise, resulting in a strong low-pressure zone and will be relatively wetter, while if the ocean water is relatively cold near the surface, the air above the ocean will sink, resulting in a strong high-pressure zone within these tropical regions, and will be relatively drier.

During an El Niño event the hot surface ocean water off the coast of Ecuador and Peru, will result in a low-pressure zone, with air moving into the region and rising high into the atmosphere. This rising warm air will contain an abundance of moisture which will rain out over the South and North American continents, resulting in devastating flooding. During a La Nina event the cold surface ocean waters off the coast of Ecuador and Peru will result in a high-pressure zone, with air moving out into the Pacific Ocean, resulting in dry weather patterns in North and South America. It also flows toward low pressure zones above the Gulf of Mexico, which can increase the frequency of hurricanes. The westerly Equatorial Counter-Current pushes the equatorial Pacific Ocean waters east against the South American coastline, but are also being held back by easterly trade winds from the southern‑ and northernmost regions of the large Pacific gyre to the north and south, which act like a brake on this eastward motion. Every decade or more, the easterly trade winds will slow, resulting in the westerly Equatorial Counter-Current to push hot ocean water against the South American coastline (El Niño event), and every decade or more, the easterly trade winds will increase, resulting in the westerly Equatorial Counter-Current to push less of this hot ocean water against the South American coastline (La Nina event), resulting in cooler waters in these regions. This oscillation results in what are called Kelvin Waves. Kelvin Waves behave like the sloshing of water in a bathtub. In a bathtub, hot water comes from the faucet, and the water cools as it moves away from the faucet. The coldest water accumulates on the far end of the bathtub on the opposite side. If you were to slosh back and forth in the bathtub, the colder water on one side of the bathtub would mix with the warmer water from the other side, resulting in a better distribution of water temperature, and a more pleasant bathtub experience. Kelvin waves are a natural way that ocean water temperatures are spread out through sloshing back and forth resulting from the tug of the westerly equatorial counter-current and the easterly trade winds. However, the Pacific Ocean is 10,000 miles (16,000 kilometers) wide, and the amount of water sloshing back and forth is immense! Resulting in major weather patterns, and devastating flooding during these events, so scientists keep close observations on this cycle.

The La Nina/El Niño Cycle and Earth’s History of Global Climate

Earth’s La Nina/El Niño Cycle, or ENSO is controlled by the geographic arrangement of the continents on Earth. Today the North and South America continents are connected together and extend nearly from pole to pole preventing the flow of warm equatorial Pacific Ocean water flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama has blocked this flow of water resulting in the modern ENSO weather patterns. Prior to this, warm tropical water was able to flow across into the Atlantic Ocean, and even pass between Eurasia and Africa, through an ancient seaway called the Tethys Sea, that covered North Africa and the Middle East in ocean waters about 50 million years ago. This warm westerly Equatorial Counter-Current pushed ocean water between the various continents resulting in a complete Global Circum-Equatorial Counter-Current of warm ocean water rotating around the entire Earth at the equator. Trade winds would slow the rotation of this circum-equatorial counter-current, allowing the warm ocean temperatures to warm the entire planet through convection, and the rising of moist warm air from this trans-equatorial ocean resulted in some of the warmest climates in Earth’s history. This configuration of the continents occurred in the millions of years leading up to the Early Eocene Epoch, about 50 million years ago, and resulted in a profoundly different Earth than exists today. For example, in Utah and Wyoming in the American West crocodiles swam in swampy tropical lakes, palms grew, and lemur-like primates lived in vast forests that covered the region. In the high arctic of Canada, browsing tapirs and forests of tall Metasequoia trees covered the high arctic landscape instead of ice and tundra. Globally the climate was much warmer than today, and lacked extreme seasonal temperatures, and the Arctic Ocean was free of sea ice. During late Eocene Period, the Circum-Equatorial Counter-Current was blocked by the development of Anatolia and the collision of India with Asia. This caused warm water to slow, and kept Europe and Asia warm, while North and South America cooled during the late Eocene around 40 million years ago. However, the biggest change in climate occurred at the end of the Eocene as a result of the Drake Passageway opening, and the development of another major ocean current, the Circumpolar Current in the Southern Ocean, which led to the freezing of Antarctica. The Isthmus of Panama formed in the late Miocene, resulting in the recent Ice Ages of the Pliocene and Pleistocene Epochs, that resulted in the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets to form and sea ice in the Arctic Ocean, as the passageway of ocean water was fully blocked. The La Nina/El Niño Cycle is extremely important in the Earth’s long-term climate, as well as in yearly weather prediction today.

Another example of a continental configuration like today, existed around 230 million years ago, during the Triassic Period, when all the continents were connected into a single large landmass called Pangea. This Super Continent Pangea extended from pole to pole, and was imbalanced on a single side of the planet, with the other side composed of the largest ocean to have ever existed in Earth’s history. Geologists called this massively large ancient ocean the Panthalassic Ocean, from the Greek meaning “All Sea.” This ancient ocean was nearly twice the size of the Pacific Ocean, which resulted in a very dramatic La Nina/El Niño like cycle, as equatorial ocean water was blocked from flowing eastward along the equator, by the Super Continent Pangea (similar to today how the American Continents together block this current). The effects of this miss-balanced world had a profound effect on the climate at the time. Warm equatorial ocean waters were blocked by the super continent and pooled on the western coastline of Pangea, similar to how they do today off the coast of Peru and Ecuador, but on the eastern coastline of Pangea, cooler equatorial ocean waters existed. Driven by similar trade winds that exist at the time, this block equatorial counter-current would oscillate over a decade or longer scale. The warm ocean waters on the western coast would drive low pressure, resulting in rising moist air, which would result in intense rain over the interior of the continent, before sinking on the eastern coastline over the cooler ocean waters on the opposite coastline. This strange arrangement of the Earth’s land masses, resulted in a climate that underwent extremes in rainfall. Rainstorms could last years, and would be followed by years of drought, depending on the ocean oscillations. These intense rainy years and drought years, resulted in much of the Red Rock country in eastern Utah, best exposed around Moab and Canyonlands National Park. Iron minerals in the sediments exposed to the alternating wet/dry cycle oxidized or rusted with the intense rain, followed by drought, forming the bright red sandstones and siltstones that form much of Utah’s scenic country. From the tall canyons of Zion to labyrinthian region of Canyonlands, the red color in Utah’s canyon country is a result of this massive superior continent. Geologists call this period of intense rain, the Carnian Pluvial Event, which occurred 230 million years ago during the deposition of the dark red Chinle and Windgate Formations that surround the canyons around the town of Moab, Utah. Such red rock layers are found in similar aged terrestrially deposited rocks in Texas, Connecticut, Scotland and southern Germany.

The power of La Nina/El Niño cycles and the flow of warm tropical equatorial ocean waters around the Earth, is an important driver of Earth’s habitable climate. The oceans have such a strong influence of Earth’s climate due to the high heat capacity of water. The convection of warm equatorial water across the entire ocean determines the distribution of Earth’s global temperatures. When convection of this heat is restricted, the polar regions freeze and the equators cook, while an unrestricted flow of ocean waters are able to distribute the heat toward the poles better, leading to a warmer climate, and less geographic extremes across Earth’s surface. The oceans of Earth are extremely important in maintaining the habitability of the entire planet between climatic extremes, and have changed over its long history.


text:
Talk:Visual Basic for Applications

hello (and hello to others who might be interested in this). I was revising the official VBA documentation in Microsoft's GitHub repository, and then Microsoft decided they were not going to accept any more updates from general users to the repository. This left my planned changes only in my private fork of the documentation repository. Was scratching my head as to what to do with the work I did. I think that because the documentation appears to be licensed under the "Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License" licence, I can probably port the work to Wikibooks without a great deal of difficulty. Was thinking of adding it to this book. The work doesn't much involve code examples, and instead focuses on better presenting the documentation on the various VBA programming concepts.

Can you or people in general, let me know whether this seems okay? I note that currently the book mostly appears to be a code cookbook, so am not entirely sure whether it would be right for me to include the material just outlined.

title: Talk:Visual Basic for Applications


text:
ROSE Compiler Framework/PreprocessingInfo

Overivew
In addition to nodes and edges, ROSE AST may have attributes in addition to nodes and edges that are attached for preprocessing information like #include or #if .. #else. They are attached before, after, or within a nearby AST node (only the one with source location information.)

An example translator will traverse the input code's AST and dump information which may include preprocessing information.
 * https://github.com/rose-compiler/rose-develop/blob/master/exampleTranslators/defaultTranslator/preprocessingInfoDumper.C

For example

exampleTranslators/defaultTranslator/preprocessingInfoDumper -c main.cxx --- Found an IR node with preprocessing Info attached: (memory address: 0x2b7e1852c7d0 Sage type: SgFunctionDeclaration) in file /export/tmp.liao6/workspace/userSupport/main.cxx (line 3 column 1) -PreprocessingInfo #0 --- : classification = CpreprocessorIncludeDeclaration: String format = #include "all_headers.h"

relative position is = before

Source: http://www.rosecompiler.org/ROSE_Tutorial/ROSE-Tutorial.pdf (Chapter 29 - Handling Comments, Preprocessor Directives, And Adding Arbitrary Text to Generated Code)

What is PreprocessingInfo
It is a type of ROSE AST meta information to store source code comments.

They do not exist independently, but are attached to located sgnode.
 * before: before a code segment
 * after: after a code segment
 * inside: inside an empty scope

PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType position=PreprocessingInfo::before

typedef Rose_STL_Container AttachedPreprocessingInfoType;

 * source comments: c style, c++ style
 * preprocessor info: include, define, ifdef, line declaration
 * and more

SageInterface::dumpPreprocInfo
void 	dumpPreprocInfo (SgLocatedNode *locatedNode)

Dumps a located node's preprocessing information.

(gdb) p SageInterface::dumpPreprocInfo(scope) ---  Found an IR node (at 0x7ffff7ec2230 of type: SgGlobal) in file rose_test_20_2019_lib.cpp with attached preprocessingInfo numbering #0 :- classification= CplusplusStyleComment: String format:// tool_G -roseoutline:use_dlopen -rose:outline:copy_orig_file -rose:unparseHeaderFiles -c test_20.cpp

relative position is: after with attached preprocessingInfo numbering #1 :- classification= CplusplusStyleComment: String format://

relative position is: after with attached preprocessingInfo numbering #2 :- classification= CplusplusStyleComment: String format:// This causes the reprocessing of generated files : generating rose_rose_xxx_lib_lib.cp

relative position is: after with attached preprocessingInfo numbering #3 :- classification= CplusplusStyleComment: String format://

relative position is: after with attached preprocessingInfo numbering #4 :- classification= CpreprocessorIncludeDeclaration: String format:#include "test_20_2019.h"

relative position is: after with attached preprocessingInfo numbering #5 :- classification= CplusplusStyleComment: String format:// other comments here

relative position is: after $4 = void

the builtin preprocessingInfoDumper
This tool is not built by default. You have to build it manaully

 * cd buildDebug/exampleTranslators/defaultTranslator
 * make install

ROSE_SRC/exampleTranslators/defaultTranslator/preprocessingInfoDumper.C

ROSE_INSTALL/bin/preprocessingInfoDumper

! cat test2020_comment_1.f90 subroutine suba implicit none write(13,fmt='( & &3x,"Damping work: ")') ! good comment write(13,fmt='( & &3x,"Friction work: ")') ! BAD 1 This comment comes one line later end subroutine suba

./preprocessingInfoDumper -c test2020_comment_1.f90

--- Found an IR node with preprocessing Info attached: (memory address: 0x2ce0700 Sage type: SgWriteStatement) in file

test2020_comment_1.f90 (line 5 column 4) -PreprocessingInfo #0 --- : classification = FortranStyleComment: String format = ! good comment relative position is = before --- Found an IR node with preprocessing Info attached: (memory address: 0x2b3e640 Sage type: SgInitializedName) in file

test2020_comment_1.f90 (line 0 column 0) -PreprocessingInfo #0 --- : classification = FortranStyleComment: String format = ! BAD 1 This comment comes one line later relative position is = after

see also ROSEAttributesList::display from rose_attributes_list.C for dumping it

call stack
Two phases: collect them first, then attach them into matching nodes

main
 * frontend
 * frontend
 * SgProject
 * SgProject::parse
 * SgProject::parse
 * determineFileType
 * SgSourceFile::callFrontEnd
 * SgFile::callFrontEnd
 * attachPreprocessingInfo(sourceFile); attachPreprocessingInfo.C

class AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav // attach_all_info.C/h
 * AttachAllPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateSynthesizedAttribute
 * AttachAllPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateInheritedAttribute

Fortran code main frontend frontend SgProject::SgProject SgProject::parse SgProject::parse SgFile::secondaryPassOverSourceFile src/frontend/SageIII/sageSupport.C:5049 attachPreprocessingInfo src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfo.C:636 AstTopDownBottomUpProcessing SgTreeTraversal AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateInheritedAttribute src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C:750 AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::getListOfAttributes AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::buildCommentAndCppDirectiveList src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C:514 ROSEAttributesList::collectPreprocessorDirectivesAndCommentsForAST src/frontend/SageIII/rose_attributes_list.C:1973 Calling attachPreprocessingInfo to attach them
 * C/C++ SgFile::callFrontEnd
 * Fortran: SgSourceFile::build_Fortran_AST

SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo(PreprocessingInfo *prepInfoPtr, PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType locationInList )

The locationInList abuses the PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType, only before and after positions are meaningful here, which is used to specify the head or the rear of the info list.

PreprocessingInfo::before

gdb breakpoint:

> break PreprocessingInfo::PreprocessingInfo(PreprocessingInfo::DirectiveType, std::string const&, std::string const&, int, int, int, PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType)

algorithm
src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C

The SgFile (always) constructor calls the function invokes a tree traversal in order to attach the preprocessor directives (i.e., the preprocessingInfo objects) to located nodes in the AST.
 * void attachPreprocessingInfo(SgFile *sageFilePtr); which in turn calls
 * getPreprocessorDirectives (see above) and then

For this purpose, a data member attachedPreprocessingInfoType* attachedPreprocessingInfoPtr; is available to the SgLocatedNode class. This is done in ROSETTA/src/node.C.

Furthermore, There are corresponding access functions: to the SgLocatedNode class. This is done in ROSETTA/Grammar/LocatedNode.code.
 * void addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo(preprocessingInfo *prepInfoPtr);
 * attachedPreprocessingInfoType* getAttachedPreprocessingInfo(void);

The tree traversal works as follows:
 * whenever it hits a located node
 * it checks if there is preprocessing info the line number of which is less or equal than the line number of the current located node (currently: of the current statement).
 * If this is the case, the corresponding preprocessing info is attached to the current located node (currently: before the current statement), unparse flag: "before". All this is done in the evaluateInheritedAttribute member function of the derived tree traversal class.
 * The evaluateSynthesizedAttribute member function deletes the list of preprocessingInfo objects as soon as the traversal returns to a SgFile object and attaches trailing preprocessing information to the last located node (currently to the last statement) that has been visited in the file (unparse flag: "after").

Node that the preprocessingInfo objects are always attached to AST nodes. By switching the USE_OLD_MECHANISM_OF_HANDLING_PREPROCESSING_INFO flag, you only change the mechanism which the unparser is based on! If USE_OLD_MECHANISM_OF_HANDLING_PREPROCESSING_INFO is set to 1, then the unparser simply ignores the preprocessingInfo objects that have been attached to the AST nodes.

Problems with the handling of preprocessing information can be found in the directory ROSE/TESTS/KnownBugs/AttachPreprocessingInfo.

attaching function
// frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C

void AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::iterateOverListAndInsertPreviouslyUninsertedElementsAppearingBeforeLineNumber ( SgLocatedNode* locatedNode, int lineNumber, PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType location, bool reset_start_index, ROSEAttributesList *currentListOfAttributes)

different call sites of iterateOverListAndInsertPreviouslyUninsertedElementsAppearingBeforeLineNumber

how to decide on different locations
 * before: AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateInheritedAttribute ( SgNode *n,AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTraversalInheritedAttrribute inheritedAttribute)
 * attach to the current statement's before position if traversal is in evaluateInheritedAttribute
 * calling iterateOverListAndInsertPreviouslyUninsertedElementsAppearingBeforeLineNumber(currentLocNodePtr,line,PreprocessingInfo::before, reset_start_index, currentListOfAttributes );
 * inside: AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateSynthesizedAttribute( SgNode *n, AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTraversalInheritedAttrribute inheritedAttribute, SubTreeSynthesizedAttributes synthiziedAttributeList)
 * attach to the inside position of a multiline located node when leaving the node during evaluateSynthesizedAttribute
 * after: AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateSynthesizedAttribute( SgNode *n, AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTraversalInheritedAttrribute inheritedAttribute, SubTreeSynthesizedAttributes synthiziedAttributeList)
 * e.g. attach to the previous located node 's after position if the traversal is leaving V_SgSourceFile during evaluateSynthesizedAttribute

comments
Not all Located nodes can have comments!!

arbitrary text
More versatile than comments:

deletion
Cannot remove elements while iterating the container. Save a subset of elements into another container and remove them later on

Move comments to new statements
Source comments and #if directives should be preserved when we remove or replace statements in the AST

A possible call stack is
 * SageInterface::removeStatement from src/frontend/SageIII/sageInterface/sageInterface.C:10086
 * SageInterface::moveCommentsToNewStatement from src/frontend/SageIII/sageInterface/sageInterface.C:10193

How to debug
Debug the insertion action: SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo in buildTree 's Cxx_Grammar.C

b SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo(PreprocessingInfo*, PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType)

C/C++ example debug output
b Cxx_Grammar.C:54114

Breakpoint 1, SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo (this=0x2aadaee62010, prepInfoPtr=0x2aadb00c0190, locationInList=after) at Cxx_Grammar.C:54114 54114       ROSE_ASSERT(prepInfoPtr != NULL); (gdb) bt   locatedNode=0x2aadaee62010, lineNumber=1000000000, location=after, reset_start_index=true, currentListOfAttributes=0x2aadb00bf840)    at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C:313    synthiziedAttributeList=...) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C:1081 treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:1297   treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:879 treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:841
 * 1) 0 SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo (this=0x2aadaee62010, prepInfoPtr=0x2aadb00c0190, locationInList=after) at Cxx_Grammar.C:54114
 * 2) 1 0x00002aaaabb6afc3 in AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::iterateOverListAndInsertPreviouslyUninsertedElementsAppearingBeforeLineNumber (this=0x7fffffffd820,
 * 1) 2 0x00002aaaabb6d8a9 in AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateSynthesizedAttribute (this=0x7fffffffd820, n=0x2aaab05eb010, inheritedAttribute=...,
 * 1) 3 0x00002aaaabb19e60 in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal(SgNode *, AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTraversalInheritedAttrribute, ) (this=0x7fffffffd820, node=0x2aaab05eb010, inheritedValue=...,
 * 1) 4 0x00002aaaabb13730 in SgTreeTraversal::traverse(SgNode *, AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTraversalInheritedAttrribute, ) (this=0x7fffffffd820, node=0x2aaab05eb010, inheritedValue=...,
 * 1) 5 0x00002aaaabb1381e in SgTreeTraversal::traverseWithinFile(SgNode *, AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTraversalInheritedAttrribute, ) (this=0x7fffffffd820, node=0x2aaab05eb010, inheritedValue=...,
 * 1) 6 0x00002aaaabb0cf65 in AstTopDownBottomUpProcessing::traverseWithinFile (this=0x7fffffffd820, node=0x2aaab05eb010, inheritedValue=...) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:659
 * 2) 7 0x00002aaaabb0268d in attachPreprocessingInfo (sageFilePtr=0x2aaab05eb010) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfo.C:636
 * 3) 8 0x00002aaaabb979f5 in SgFile::secondaryPassOverSourceFile (this=0x2aaab05eb010) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/sageSupport.C:5049
 * 4) 9 0x00002aaaabb95360 in SgProject::parse (this=0x2aaab057d010) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/sageSupport.C:4104
 * 5) 10 0x00002aaaabb94668 in SgProject::parse (this=0x2aaab057d010, argv=...) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/sageSupport.C:3828
 * 6) 11 0x00002aaaabc2704a in SgProject::SgProject (this=0x2aaab057d010, argv=...) at Cxx_Grammar.C:21076
 * 7) 12 0x00002aaaad5af1d4 in frontend (argv=...) at ../../../sourcetree/src/roseSupport/utility_functions.C:138
 * 8) 13 0x00002aaaad5af070 in frontend (argc=2, argv=0x7fffffffdde8) at ../../../sourcetree/src/roseSupport/utility_functions.C:118
 * 9) 14 0x0000000000403e4d in main (argc=2, argv=0x7fffffffdde8) at ../../../sourcetree/exampleTranslators/defaultTranslator/preprocessingInfoDumper.C:54

Fortran debugging output
Breakpoint 1, SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo (this=0x20b0f50, prepInfoPtr=0xb0ca50, locationInList=PreprocessingInfo::after) at Cxx_Grammar.C:89431 (gdb) info breakpoints Num    Type           Disp Enb Address            What 1      breakpoint     keep y   0x00007ffff458a702 in SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo(PreprocessingInfo*, PreprocessingInfo::RelativePositionType) at Cxx_Grammar.C:89431 breakpoint already hit 1 time (gdb) p this->class_name $1 = "SgWriteStatement" (gdb) bt gInfo::before, reset_start_index=false, currentListOfAttributes=0xb02bc0) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTraversal.C:539 aversal.C:2837 ritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:774 ritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:828 ritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:828 inheritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:828 inheritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:828 inheritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:828 edValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:742 0, inheritedValue=..., treeTraversalOrder=preandpostorder) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:702 0x7fffeb8de010, inheritedValue=...) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/midend/astProcessing/AstProcessing.h:502
 * 1) 0 SgLocatedNode::addToAttachedPreprocessingInfo (this=0x20b0f50, prepInfoPtr=0xb0ca50, locationInList=PreprocessingInfo::after) at Cxx_Grammar.C:89431
 * 2) 1 0x00007ffff440b302 in AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::iterateOverListAndInsertPreviouslyUninsertedElementsAppearingBeforeLineNumber (this=0x7fffffff9840, locatedNode=0x20b0f50, lineNumber=5, location=Preprocessin
 * 1) 2 0x00007ffff440e3b6 in AttachPreprocessingInfoTreeTrav::evaluateInheritedAttribute (this=0x7fffffff9840, n=0x20b0f50, inheritedAttribute=...) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfoTr
 * 1) 3 0x00007ffff43c4fcf in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x20b0f50, inhe
 * 1) 4 0x00007ffff43c5168 in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x1c53ae0, inhe
 * 1) 5 0x00007ffff43c5168 in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x1cf7bf0, inhe
 * 1) 6 0x00007ffff43c5168 in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x7fff39b31010,
 * 1) 7 0x00007ffff43c5168 in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x7ffff7ee1120,
 * 1) 8 0x00007ffff43c5168 in SgTreeTraversal::performTraversal (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x7fffeb8de010,
 * 1) 9 0x00007ffff43bfb13 in SgTreeTraversal::traverse (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x7fffeb8de010, inherit
 * 1) 10 0x00007ffff43bfcb3 in SgTreeTraversal::traverseWithinFile (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=0x7fffeb8de01
 * 1) 11 0x00007ffff43bbd0f in AstTopDownBottomUpProcessing::traverseWithinFile (this=0x7fffffff9840, node=
 * 1) 12 0x00007ffff43b3740 in attachPreprocessingInfo (sageFilePtr=0x7fffeb8de010) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/attachPreprocessingInfo.C:797
 * 2) 13 0x00007ffff444a14c in SgFile::secondaryPassOverSourceFile (this=0x7fffeb8de010) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/sage_support/sage_support.cpp:3597
 * 3) 14 0x00007ffff4447a5d in SgProject::parse (this=0x7fffeba2b010) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/sage_support/sage_support.cpp:2593
 * 4) 15 0x00007ffff444673a in SgProject::parse (this=0x7fffeba2b010, argv=std::vector of length 9, capacity 9 = {...}) at ../../../../sourcetree/src/frontend/SageIII/sage_support/sage_support.cpp:1965
 * 5) 16 0x00007ffff4525653 in SgProject::SgProject (this=0x7fffeba2b010, argv=std::vector of length 9, capacity 9 = {...}, frontendConstantFolding=false) at Cxx_Grammar.C:29216
 * 6) 17 0x00007ffff674644d in frontend (argv=std::vector of length 9, capacity 9 = {...}, frontendConstantFolding=false) at ../../../sourcetree/src/roseSupport/utility_functions.C:482
 * 7) 18 0x00007ffff6746300 in frontend (argc=9, argv=0x7fffffffa738, frontendConstantFolding=false) at ../../../sourcetree/src/roseSupport/utility_functions.C:444
 * 8) 19 0x000000000040a820 in main (argc=9, argv=0x7fffffffa738) at ../../../../sourcetree/tests/nonsmoke/functional/testTranslator.C:59


text:
Planet Earth/5g. Earth’s Rivers

Exploring Earth’s Rivers
On a wet and muddy April day, John Wesley Powell and his Battery “F” artillery faced a massive army of confederate soldiers marching toward them in Southern Tennessee. As he gave the command to fire the cannons to his company, a lead bullet sliced through his right arm. The cannons blasted around him and the mangled arm gushed blood, as the horror of war fell upon them all. Born in New York, Powell’s family moved west to northern Illinois, where he discovered his love of rivers. His restless nature led him on a series of adventures to travel the great rivers of the region by boat. First in 1855, hiking across the state of Wisconsin, then a great adventure in 1856 to follow the Mississippi River from St. Anthony, Minnesota, until it reaches the Gulf of Mexico, a journey by boat of about 2,300 miles (3,700 kilometers), and in 1857 he followed the Ohio River and then Mississippi River from Pittsburgh to St. Louis, a journey of about 1,500 miles. Between these adventures in exploring, he attended classes at Illinois College (today’s Wheaton College), and taught small science classes at the college, lecturing on his river adventures and map making. In 1861, with his brother Walter, Powell enlisted in the Union Army with the outbreak of the American Civil War. The autumn before being sent into battle, John Wesley Powell married his first love, Emma Dean. The two brothers John and Walter were placed in the same artillery unit and on that fateful day and faced an army together on the western banks of the Tennessee River. At the first morning light, a massive assembly of confederate soldiers advanced on the encamped Union Army. By sundown, the two brothers would be changed forever. John Wesley Powell would lose his right arm that day, in a two-day battle that became known as the Battle of Shiloh. His right arm was amputated following the battle, while his brother Walter would lose his mind. Uninjured, Walter continued to serve in the artillery, firing cannon balls into the living flesh of advancing soldiers. In 1864, Walter was captured by the Confederate forces near Atlanta, and although attempted to escape from the war prison, he was recaptured, nearly starved to death, and finally released as part of a prisoner exchange. With the victory of the Union, the two brothers returned back to Illinois, one without an arm, the other suffering of the mental horrors of war and life in a prison camp.

The country had also changed during those war-torn years, the adventures on the rivers and tributaries of the Mississippi River that John Wesley Powell had done before seemed small, as new efforts were pushing people westward in search of a new life. The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1868, drastically shorted the distance to travel from coast to coast overland, a journey that could take over a year to make by ship, now people could journey in the comfort of a rail car in weeks, with a simple ticket purchased at a rail station. Much of the American West remained completely unexplored, while John Frémont mapped much of the west during the onset of the Mexican-American War, there were still large regions not well explored and mapped, particularly the complex canyons of the Green River and Colorado River in eastern Utah and Arizona. In 1859, prior to the civil war U.S. Government Surveyors, led by John N. Macomb, attempted to locate the confluence of the two rivers, but had failed. Maps of the United States still had large unexplored regions in the American West, particularly in the deserts of the Southwestern States of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. After the war, John Wesley Powell returned to teaching in Illinois, but traveled to Colorado with his wife and some students to collect natural history specimens for the museum at the college in 1867 and 1868, and during these trips west, Powell hatched a daring plan to run the length of the Colorado River drainage, as he had the Mississippi River. Traveling by rail to Green River, Wyoming, he could access the large Green River, which snaked through deep canyons into Colorado, Utah, Arizona and parts unknown. With funding from the United States Government, on May 24, 1869, he and his brother, Walter, and a crew of 8 other men set out on three boats down the river. Passage down the Green and Colorado Rivers was not as simple as the journey down the Mississippi, as they had to pass through dangerous rapids and roaring white waters in wooden boats. Early in their journey one boat was bashed to pieces against rocks in the rapid currents, and one of their crew abandon the journey near Ouray, Utah, the others pressed on. In Arizona they entered into the Grand Canyon region, as the Colorado River sliced into the largest canyon on Earth. Along the journey Powell surveyed the river, mapping the region, and frequently hiking over the landscape, measuring the height of mountains using a barometer, using a sexton to measure their latitude and chronometer to measure their longitude, as they traveled through the wild country, describing the rocks, plants, animals, and the people that lived along the river. When the river rapids got even worse, and it appeared that they could not travel safely any further, 3 members of the team attempted to hike out of the canyons, and where later found dead. The remaining crew continued on, down the river. As veterans of the Civil War, they were not daunted by their journey into the unknown. Feared dead, newspapers ran stories of their unsuccessful trip, but on August 30, 1869, the remaining crew, including both John Wesley and his brother Walter Powell had arrived in Yuma, Arizona. Powell had personally seen more section of river than anyone alive, the two major river drainages of North America. Two rivers that contrast in their very nature; the low winding path of the gentle Mississippi River, and the wild roaring white waters of the Colorado River.

The Nature of Rivers
What is the science behind the nature of rivers? How do they flow across the land? How do they carve canyons that defy the imagination? Or bring silt and mud to their flooded banks? Rivers are the earthly passage of freshwater. Water from rain and snow on the land that trickles back to the oceans. The sinuous path defining where one region can support farms and crops, and cities, while other regions are dry deserts, with rivers cut into steep canyons.

The success of the river trip catapulted John Wesley Powell into national fame, although he returned to the river in 1871 and 1872 on a second expedition. This time taking with him photographic equipment to document the wonders that they saw. In 1875 he published his notes and descriptions, which became his bestselling book The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons. The success of his exploration of the Colorado River resulted in his appointment in Washington D.C. to serve as the director of Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institute to help preserve Native American culture and languages, and the United States Geological Survey to oversee the survey of the American West. Powell cautioned the government about the importance of rivers from understanding the flooding along the banks of the wet Mississippi River to water scarcity issues in dry deserts along the canyons of the Colorado River. Not all since then have yielded to his recommendations, as rivers have been dammed and drained. The Hoover Dam constructed during the Great Depression in the 1930s resulted in the reservoir of Lake Mead in Nevada, and the Glen Canyon Dam constructed in the 1960s resulted in the reservoir of Lake Powell in southern Utah. The Green River also received a dam, the Flaming Gorge Dam in 1964, generating a large reservoir of freshwater in northeastern Utah, and Wyoming. These man-made restrictions to the flow of rivers were a result of the desire to retain water for agriculture and generate electricity to serve cities and towns that have rapidly grown in the arid deserts in the American Southwest. The nature of rivers, including streams, creeks, and other tributaries, can be simply defined as bodies of moving water through a channel. Rivers transport eroded portions of the solid Earth, and deposit these loose sediments far from their original source. Geologists refer to this process of erosion and deposition caused by rivers, as fluvial processes. Rivers form within specific areas of drainage, where they form a catchment. A catchment is defined by high topography, often mountainous terrain, which divides the flow of water. These high topographic boundaries are referred to as drainage divides or watersheds, as water is shed off these slopes and into the drainage basin. Rivers flow toward the lowest topography of the landscape, incising channels that form a complex tributary system or network across the landscape. Each stream segment or link of a river system can be classified by a stream order. For example, during Powell’s river trip down the Green River, many other smaller rivers drained into the Green River, including the Yampa (or Bear) River, and the White River, each time accumulating the additional flow of those rivers. The Colorado River was once defined as the junction of the Green River and the Grand River, but since this naming convention would mean that the Colorado River did not flow in the State of Colorado, the name Grand was dropped and instead geographers extended the name Colorado upriver. Geomorphologists, who study the shape of river systems, define these names based on stream ordering, with 1st order streams being tiny tributaries, while higher orders like the 10th order, are composed of the sum of 10 tributaries, and are much larger rivers within the drainage basin. Rivers flow downslope over various gradients, with steep gradients in the mountains, and gentle gradients in the lowlands. The average gradient of the Colorado River is around 5 meters per kilometer, whereas the average gradient of the Mississippi River is only 0.01 meters per kilometer. The gradient is much higher along the Colorado River, with sections of the river that fall 12 meters per kilometer, producing the whitewater rapids that make the river famous. The gradient or slope of the river controls the overall river’s behavior as it moves across the landscape. The velocity or speed at which the water flows is also related to the gradient, but may not be how you might think. Rivers with a steeper gradient like the Colorado River exhibit slower water velocity than large low gradient rivers like the Mississippi River. The water in the Colorado River is slowed down by the rocks and other obstacles to the flow of water that actually slows the speed of the water, while the Mississippi River water is less impeded by rocks and other large obstacles in the river. The velocity of a river is measured in two different ways, one by measuring the length of time a piece of wood or other floating item passes a measured distance along the river and the other accurate way is to use a flow meter, which measures the speed of the water by its ability to turn a propeller.

Measuring River Discharge
One of the most important measurements of a river’s flow is Discharge (Q). Discharge is the total amount of water passing through a point along the river at a specific interval of time. To measure discharge, the rivers velocity, width and depth must be known. Q = V x W x D. Discharge in rivers is measured by a river gauge station. A gauge station is a concrete lined section of river that restricts the flow of the river within a specific width. Depth is measured using a ruler scale on the side of the flowing river, and velocity using a flow meter. Discharge is often monitored on various sections of rivers that are prone to spring flooding, as when discharge rises quickly following a storm, flood warnings can be issued to people living down river. The average discharge of rivers will increase with their increasing order, as more water enters from the surrounding tributaries that drain into the main river channel. The Mississippi River has an average discharge around 200,000 to 700,000 cubic feet per second entering the Atlantic Ocean. The Colorado River during the time of Powell’s trip had an average discharge around 22,500 cubic feet per second entering the Pacific Ocean, today almost no water from the Colorado River reaches the Pacific Ocean, as most water is lost due to its evaporation and use upstream, held back by the many dams along the river. In a natural state, rivers will increase the amount of discharge downstream, with the largest amount of water flowing into the oceans, forming river deltas or estuaries. River deltas form when sediment carried by the river is deposited as the carry capacity of the river decreases when it reaches the ocean, this leads to a buildup of sediment deposition which forms a complex of mud banks that splits the river into many channels as it navigates access this region of sediment deposition. River estuaries form when sea level rises and ocean processes, such as tides and waves push upriver, and flood river valleys. Estuaries are known for the brackish water they contain, a mix of salty ocean water and freshwater.

Braided versus Meandering Rivers
Geologists define two types of river systems. Braided rivers, which form braided channels interlaced between complex sand bars, and Meandering rivers, which form sinuous channels that snake across the landscape. Braided rivers are limited to regions where there is a large sediment load carried by the river, dominated by spring runoff, and tend to be located near mountainous regions fed by glaciers. The flow of the water will follow a complex braided pattern between sand bars, which channel the flow of water between them. These sand bars are reworked, especially during spring floods, but may become stable for shorter intervals of time. Braided river systems are sediment heavy, and experiments had shown they form when rocks and sediment are loosely held. Braided river systems are thought to have been the dominant form of river systems before the evolution of terrestrial plants on the surface of Earth, since the roots of plants hold sediments together, and establish stronger river banks. This prevents braided rivers from forming. Meandering River systems are the dominant type of rivers today on Earth’s surface. They form sinuous undulating paths across the land. These meanders are formed by the balance between the velocity of the flowing water and increasing effect it has on erosion against the banks of a river channel. Rivers never flow straight from one location to the next, and this is because the distribution of slight differences in the velocity of flowing water inside the river. Within the river, water flow tends to slow to one side of the river as it moves across the landscape, while the other side flows faster. This higher velocity to shift toward one side of the river is a result of the frictional forces acting against the flowing water. One side of the river will flow relatively faster and begin to erode the edges of the river bank on that side of the channel. This region of the river bank is called the cut bank of the river, the side of the river that the flow of water cuts into the edges of the river channel. On the opposite side of the river, the velocity will be less, and a point bar will form, which is where sand and other sediment transported by the river will begin to accumulate forming a point bar, a thick layer of sand and sediment. The highest velocity within the flow of the river will be off center below the cut bank, and within this zone lag deposits will form, which are large rocks which are near the limit of what the river water can carry downstream. While the point bar will accumulate smaller sediments, due to the less capacity for the river to carry larger rocks and coarse sediments. Over time the river will continue to cut into one side of the bank on the high velocity side, while the other side of the river will grow with the deposition of sand and other sediments, on the low velocity side. The river will alternate downstream with the cut bank and point bar on differing sides of the river. Eventually when the cut bank continues to be eroded the river will increase the bend, until contacting another cut bank along the course of the river. This bypass forms an oxbox lake, an isolated section of river that has been bypassed by the main river channel. Experiments conducted in large sandboxes, tilted at different gradients or slopes demonstrate that meandering rivers require sediments to be stabilized, either by roots or lithification. If the sediments are loose, like sand, the river pattern will result in a braided river system. With the advent of terrestrial plants most fluvial systems on Earth will meander, but not all rivers exhibit meandering patterns, especially when the river is highly seasonal and flows across loose sediments like sand. Throughout their history rivers on Earth have moved enormous amounts of sediment from the continents and toward the oceans, through a process of denudation. Denudation are the processes that cause the wearing away of the Earth’s surface by moving water. These sediments accumulate in drainage basins and along coastlines of continents, where they are deposited. Rivers tend to move sediments also horizontally across a drainage basin as they cut into one side of the river bank, and redeposit sediments on the opposite side on the point bar, but slightly more downstream. This deposition of sediments results in cross-bedding which is tilted downward toward the channel axis. Geologists can measure these cross-bedding features to determine the changing directions of flow of river systems over time. Rivers also cut down through the landscape, leaving terrace deposits of coarse river pebbles at different elevations during this process of eroding deeper into a canyon. These terrace deposits, if dated, can yield a history of canyon or valley incision for the river system.

Rivers are held along the banks by natural levees. A natural levee is a low ridge of sediment and/or organic materials, such as wood that is deposited alongside a river by water during their peak seasonal flow. This deposit of sediment forms a low ridge that acts to retain the river channel within the main channel system during seasonal runoff and at annual high discharge levels. However, during infrequent flooding events these natural levees can be breached, resulting in floodwaters covering the larger flood plains beyond them. Flood plains are the low topographic lands adjacent to rivers that experience infrequent flooding during periods of extremely high discharge. Because of their close proximity to water, flood plains are areas that are desirable for the construction of homes and buildings near irrigated lands. Unfortunately, they are where flooding can cause considerable damage, when rivers overflow their natural protective levees.

Flood Frequency Analysis
In 1928, Emil Julius Gumbel Professor of Math at the University of Heidelberg, published research in a book that would result in a death warrant being placed on his head. He was not a geologist nor researcher on rivers and floods at that time, but on the mathematical statistics of extreme events. As early as 1919, political murders were being committed by members of the Freikorps, a paramilitary group that would later give rise to the Nazi Party’s Sturmabteilung, or “brown shirts.” Gumbel documented the rise of these political murders in the 1920s, by tracking the statistics of recorded deaths across the country, and noting the political motivations of these deaths. Murder is an extreme event, and statistically they should be of low frequency; a burglary gone bad, murder resulting from domestic violence, a murder suicide, or even mass shootings, all extreme events. But Gumbel wanted to know if these events were a result of a rising political paramilitary that was ordering these killings secretly. In 1928, he published his second book on the topic, demonstrated the rising murder rates were in fact a result of political killings by a secret paramilitary force working in Germany. With concern he too would be murdered by these forces, he fled to France and later during the war in 1940, to the United States, where he continued his mathematical work. After World War II, and the defeat of the Nazi Party in Germany, he applied his mathematical work to other extreme events, such as floods.

Both floods and murders can be described by their recurrence interval. The recurrence interval is the length of time between two extreme events. The more extreme the event, the longer the recurrence interval will be. A 100-year flood, would represent a flood that reaches the highest maximum discharge only once every 100 years, while a 10-year flood, would represent a flood that reaches its maximum discharge once every 10 years. Recurrence intervals are often plotted with their corresponding discharge (Q), forming an increase sloped regression line; the longer the recurrence interval the higher the total discharge (Q) will be. Whether it is murders or floods, recurrence intervals can tell you a lot about a particular place. For example, if the recurrence interval of a murder is once a year in a particular town, it is not going to be as safe as a place as a town that only experiences a murder every 100 years. The same is true with floods, you would not want to live in a house that would flood every 5 years, but a house in an area that floods every 250 years would be at less risk of flooding, and a safer place to live. It should be noted that these extreme events are probabilities, like rolling dice with different number of sides. The probability that a 100-year flood to occur would be the same as rolling a 100-sided dice, and having the number 42 appear. Each year would be a new roll of the dice. If the dice the following year also was 42, meaning that two 100-year floods happened in two consecutive years, the probability of this would be a multiple factor greater. For example, the probability that 100-sided dice rolls 42 is 0.01 (or 1:100). The probability that the second roll of 100-sided dice is 42 is 0.01 (or 1:100). However, the probability that the first roll is rolls 42 AND the second roll rolls 42 is equal to 0.01 x 0.01 = 0.0001 or (1:1,000). The probability that the first roll is 42 AND the second roll is 42 AND a third roll is 42 would be 0.01 x 0.01 x 0.01 = 0.000001 or (1:100,000). If you continue to roll 42, you would begin to question that the dice really has 100 sides, and might be fixed. In the case of murders in 1920s Germany, Gumbel documented the uncanny rise of murders with the rise of the Nazi Party, and sounded alarms about a major political coverup using math. But with rivers, how do we measure floods, especially those extreme flooding events that rarely occur and may not be documented?

Real time measurements of a river’s discharge (Q) are recorded at gauge stations along the course of the river in cubic meters per second (m3/s) or cubic feet per second (ft3/s), by measuring the width, depth and velocity of the river’s flow. This data is sorted by peak discharge and the date of that peak discharge. Each date’s discharge is numerically ranked from the greatest discharge to the smallest discharge. The return period for each discharge is calculated by the inverse probability that the flood will be exceeded on that given date of a given rank. If the return period is 0.01 (1:100) for a given year, then the reoccurrence of a flow of this discharge will be 100-years. This method of analysis is named the Gumbel distribution; named after Gumbel who developed the mathematics in 1935, and later applied it in the study of floods in 1941. Gumbel’s statistical analysis focuses on the probabilities of extreme events, from catastrophic floods to the rise of authoritarian regimes. Today, Gumbel’s studies of extreme events are important in understanding the effects of climate change on Earth, particularly how changes in the atmosphere might affect the flow of rivers across Earth’s surface.

The Importance of Freshwater
In 1973, at the age of 16, Mae Jemison left her home in Chicago to attend Sandford University in California with a scholarship. Her life-long hero was the famous ballerina Judith Jamison, and although she wanted to be a fulltime dancer like her hero, she declared her academic major in African-American studies, a new program born out of the civil rights movement during the decade before. Jemison was also interested in engineering and science and was also fan of the original Star Trek television show. As an attractive brilliant young woman, with African heritage she shyly stayed in the back of the science and engineering classes when she enrolled in them. The majority of her classmates were white men, and she felt oddly out of place being a young woman and African-American. On the first day of her Fluid Dynamics class, she hid, as she typically did in these science classes, at the back of the classroom, but her professor, noticing her there assigned her to work with a group of classmates in the front of the class. Through the experience in the class Jemison developed a love of science and engineering, and after graduating she went on toward a career as a medical doctor in New York. After medical school, Jemison served as a doctor in Southeast Asia and West Africa for several years, before returning to the United States. Her interest in space travel compelled her one day to call up the Johnson Space Center and ask them if she could apply to be an astronaut. They sent her an application, and she applied. Physically fit, with her years as a professional dancer, degrees in science and engineering, as well as her experience as a medical doctor, made her an ideal candidate for an astronaut, but on January 28, 1986, the NASA Space Shuttle challenger exploded on take-off killing all five astronauts on board. Despite the disaster and with future trips to space canceled, Jemison was brought in by NASA in 1987, one among 2,000 fellow applicants and trained to be an astronaut for the 1992 Space Shuttle Endeavour mission. Her role would be to study the effects of space travel on health, particularly studying the use of intravenous fluids in space and low gravity. Finally, she achieved her dream. High above Earth Jemison looked down through the space craft’s windows and saw the fragile nature of the place we call home. Seeing the entirety of Earth completely surrounded by the darkness of space made her realize the importance of safeguarding Earth’s supply of water. On her return to Earth, Jemison left NASA and became a professor of Environmental Studies at Dartmouth College. Her experiences as a medical doctor and as an astronaut compelled her to realize the importance of clean fresh water. She started science camps to promote, not only the exploration of outer space, but a new generation of scientists to tackle the problems facing Earth’s freshwater supply.

title: Planet Earth/5g. Earth’s Rivers


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 11

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10. - NOVEMBER, 1945 - No. 6.

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Stereophonic Amplifier. . . . 7

An Electric Filter. . . . 11

"Aegis" Little Companion Mantel Model. . . . 15

TECHNICAL —

Victorian Amplifier Contest. . . . 5

Television on Rental Basis. . . . 26

Ham Notes — Calling CQ! . . . . 27

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 30

New Stations. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

During the war years no new radio receivers were manufactured for civilian use, yet sets were operated day after day for many hours. It was expected that when the war ended and civilian sets came on the market again there would be a rush to buy them. It is, therefore, with considerable dismay that some traders who have advertised sets in recent weeks have found that enquiries are not up to expectations. Whereas a few months ago it was possible to sell a secondhand radio set for almost any price, the position today is quite different. With a view to finding a satisfactory answer to the problem we have recently conducted a sort of "Gallup Poll" on a small scale, and it is evident that people are not necessarily going to rush first sets to come on the market. We heard from plenty who are saving up for a new home, and may buy a set after they get the home. In other cases it is a new car they are saving up for. One naive person told us that he was going to wait until American sets were available in Australia! But the worst feature of the replies was the number who said they were going to wait for television, frequency modulation and the other "wonderful improvements" to be expected after so much war-time research. Which goes to show a regrettable lack of technical knowledge on the part of those who make the wild statements, as well as those who believe them. It seems the trade may have cause to regret that it has done so little to encourage a public appreciation of technical radio topics. — A. G. HULL.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1945 12

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10 - DECEMBER, 1945 - No. 7

P.03 - Publication Notes
PROPRIETOR — A. G. HULL

Manager - DUDLEY L. WALTER

Secretary - Miss E. M. VINCENT

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST

For all Correspondence: City Office — 243 Elizabeth St., Sydney, Phone: MA2325

Office Hours — Weekdays: 10 a.m.-5 p.m. Saturdays: 10 a.m.-12 noon

Editorial Office — 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney

Victorian Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, C1 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address.

Service Departments — Back Numbers, 1 /- ea. post free; Reply-by-mail Queries, 1/- each

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONTENTS

CONSTRUCTIONAL —

The "Lamb" Noise Suppressor. . . . 17

TECHNICAL —

Electro Dynamics Are Obsolete. . . . 5

The Hammond Electric Organ. . . . 6

Hints About Using A.V.C. .. . . 11

Mutton the Winner. . . . 15

Panoramic Reception. . . . 27

Ham Notes — Calling CQ. . . . 27

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes from My Diary. . . . 30

New Stations. . . . 31

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL.

THE PERSONAL TOUCH There is another aspect of postwar radio trading which is now making itself felt. It appears that Mrs. Subbubb has been calling in the local radio repairman, Tommy Twistem, and she has become greatly impressed by the way he twiddles the knobs and cocks his head on one side whilst mouthing extraordinary technical phrases. In a nutshell, she has great confidence in his radio knowledge. Now, Mrs. Subbubb has decided that she needs a new set. Will she buy a "Multiplane Diallo" or a "Synthetic Atomiser?" She won’t have either; she insists that Tommy Twistem build her a special set of his own, built just the way he thinks a set ought to be built and put together with the same personal touch that kept the old set in such good form during the war years. Live radio dealers are making the most of the above set of circumstances, for they may not last long. The war period will soon fade into the dim past, especially when the big factories get their new plans into production, including horrible under-sized, under-powered midgets at retail prices of £10 and less. Such midgets are awful to contemplate, but apparently represent the heights of ambition to some factories. A. G. HULL.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1946 02

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical.

Price, 1/-

Vol. 10 - No. 9; Feb., 1946

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10. - FEBRUARY, 1946 - No. 9.

P.03 - Publication Notes
Editor, Publisher, Proprietor — A. G. HULL, 336 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, Vic.

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST, 23 Honiton Rd. West, Carlingford, N.S.W.

Ham Notes By — D. B. KNOCK (VK2NO), 43 Yanko Av., Waverley, N.S.W.

Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address in the world.

Address for all correspondence: Australasian Radio World, 336 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, SE5 Victoria

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONSTRUCTIONAL —

Circuits — The Sober way. . . . 7

Improving DX Performance. . . . 13

TECHNICAL —

New "Ham" Technique. . . . 5

"Wireless Set Number Ten". . . . 14

Signal Tracer in Miniature. . . . 15

How Radio Signals are Broadcast. . . . 17

The Growth of the Radar Chain. . . . 23

Ham Notes — Calling CQ. . . . 27

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 31

New Stations. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL

It is high time the authorities took a more realistic view of the relationship between radio and foreign spies. Twenty years ago it was reasonable enough to expect to find that every enemy spy, in books of course, had a radio transmitter with which to pass on the secret codes. But in these enlightened days it is quite ridiculous to find that a special form has to be filled in before a type 807 valve can be purchased, apparently to prevent it being put to nefarious uses by enemy agents! Any person with the remotest knowledge of radio transmitting should be able to appreciate that any old 6L6 will do exactly the same job as the 807 for the brief space of time which a spy would need to send his messages. The 807 would have a life of so many thousand hours, whilst the 6L6 would be so overloaded that its life might be curtailed to a few hundred hours, but would that worry the spy? Any spy worthy of the name could make up a most effective transmitter from receiver parts, so why the fancy forms for the poor 807, for condensers of high voltage rating and so on? Then again in the matter of penalties. If an over-enthusiastic lad can't wait to turn 18 in order to get his ham licence and goes on the air as a pirate, he commits a crime far worse than burglary or arson. Apparently it is still another echo of the bad old days when spies used radio transmitters! How many decades will it be before Those-in-Charge recognise radio transmitting as a reasonable hobby for intelligent people? A. G. HULL.


text:
Cookbook talk:Soft Sugar Cookies

Excellent recipe, a bit too greasy for me, needed to add a touch more than 3 cups of flour to make them just right.--198.48.231.212 (discuss) 20:35, 10 June 2020 (UTC)

I've made this cookie recipe a lot, and it's quite forgiving for modification (as the flour added is supposed to get it to a certain consistency, rather than adding a specific amount, I think) so I currently have a variation prototype in the works. It's loosely based on a family chocolate/spice cake recipe, but it still needs some work in its current form, which is why I'm putting it here rather than on the main page. The measurements are a little off as I made a different batch size for my test, but for the batch size listed on the main page it should be roughly: 1/4 tsp of nutmeg, 2 tsp of cinnamon, 3 tbs of cocoa powder (thank you to the contributor that figured that out and put it in the tips section), 1 tsp vanilla extract, 0.5 tsp lemon extract, and 2.5 tbs coffee (Liquid, NOT powder). For my next batch, I'm going to up the amount of these mix ins that are added, as they taste great but, it's not as prominent as I would like. AceDragonfly (discuss • contribs) 16:09, 14 June 2021 (UTC)

Today's prototype test batch used 0.5 tsp nutmeg, 1 tbs cinnamon, 3 tbs cocoa powder, 1.5 tsp vanilla extract, 0.5 lemon extract, 3 tbs coffee. Will update with results in a bit --AceDragonfly (discuss • contribs) 15:53, 21 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Soft Sugar Cookies


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1946 03

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical.

Price, 1/-

Vol. 10 - No. 10; Mar., 1946

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10 - MARCH, 1946 - No. 10

P.03 - Publication Notes
Editor, Publisher, Proprietor — A. G. HULL, 336 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, Vic.

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST, 23 Honiton Rd. West, Carlingford, N.S.W.

Ham Notes By — D. B. KNOCK (VK2NO), 43 Yanko Av., Waverley, N.S.W.

Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address in the world.

Address for all correspondence: Australasian Radio World, 336 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, SE5 Victoria

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONSTRUCTIONAL —

The "VK2NO — V6". . . . 5

TECHNICAL —

Using the "1852". . . . 13

1852 Characteristics. . . . 14

Using Available Gangs. . . . 19

New Permag Speakers. . . . 23

Radio Trade Notes. . . . 25

Ham Notes — Calling CQ. . . . 27

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 31

New Stations. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL

Whether the war is over or not seems to be a matter of legislation, but so far as "Radio World" is concerned we are a long way from being back to where we started. Owing to a chain of unavoidable circumstances we find that the only roof under which the "Radio World" typewriter can find shelter is located in Melbourne, whilst the printing press is still in Sydney. To obtain office or personal accommodation in Sydney seems to be well beyond the limit of possibility at the moment and so we are making the best of things as cheerfully as possible. As is often the case, when you have high expectations you may feel disappointment more acutely. Conversely, when you are not over-expecting you can be happily surprised. So it happens in this case. We conjured up many visions of the problems which would arise with such an arrangement, but now that we are settling down to it there appears much to be happy about. The Melbourne radio trade is giving splendid co-operation and as a result our readers can look forward to many new components designed especially to suit their requirements and embodying new lines of thought. The Sydney trade has its own particular problems, but is also concentrating on new products to suit the changing times. We are in a handy position to co-operate with both sources of supply and so we should be able to give our readers far more interesting articles than if we were only associating with the Sydney trade. A. G. HULL.


text:
History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Australasian Radio World/Issues/1946 04

P.01 - Front Cover
The Australasian Radio World

Registered at the G.P.O., Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical.

Price, 1/-

Vol. 10 - No. 11; April, 1946

P.03 - Contents Banner
THE AUSTRALASIAN RADIO WORLD

Devoted entirely to Technical Radio

and incorporating

ALL-WAVE ALL-WORLD DX NEWS

VOL. 10 - APRIL, 1946 - No. 11.

P.03 - Publication Notes
Editor, Publisher, Proprietor — A. G. HULL, 336 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, Vic.

Short-wave Editor — L. J. KEAST, 3 Fitzgerald Road, Ermington, N.S.W.

Ham Notes By — D. B. KNOCK (VK2NO), 43 Yanko Av., Waverley, N.S.W.

Advertising Representative — W. J. LEWIS, 20 Queen St., Melbourne, 'Phone MU5154

Subscription Rates: 6 issues - 5/3; 12 issues - 10/6; 24 issues - £1; Post free to any address in the world.

Address for all correspondence: Australasian Radio World, 336 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, SE5 Victoria

Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietor of the "Australasian Radio World," Elizabeth St., Sydney (Footnote P.36)

P.03 - Contents
CONSTRUCTIONAL —

50-Watt Phone Transmitter. . . . 19

TECHNICAL —

Efficient Aerials for VHF. . . . 5

Improved Modulation Oscillator. . . . 7

Long Range Two Valver. . . . 9

Polysterene for Amateurs. . . . 11

My Own. . . . 15

The Proximity Radio Fuse. . . . 17

Crystals Will Not Amplify. . . . 21

30-Watt Modulation for Hams. . . . 23

Dismal Future for Radio Trade. . . . 25

Ham Notes. . . . 27

SHORTWAVE REVIEW —

Notes From My Diary. . . . 31

New Stations. . . . 32

THE SERVICE PAGES —

Answers. . . . 34

P.03 - Editorial
EDITORIAL

There seems to be considerable disappointment expressed by our readers in regard to the lack of startling developments in receiver design. Not only our readers, but the public in general seems to feel that the amount of work done on radar and radio equipment for the forces should have brought to light something worthwhile for incorporation in post-war receivers. The commercial receivers now being placed on the market seem to be very little different from pre-war sets, except in regard to prices, these having gone up with the general trend of the money market. Neither do our own issues bristle with new ideas in technical development, as several of our readers have pointed out to us in no uncertain terms. Frankly, that is just how it is. The wartime developments will be very much in evidence when we get around to battery portables, with the new peanut valves and the lightweight minimax batteries; there is also plenty of scope for experimentation on the higher frequencies, but ordinary broadcast receivers appear to have reached a certain amount of stagnation. We don't expect this position to remain indefinitely and we have two outstanding developments in hand in our own lab., waiting for a bit more work to be done before they are released, but otherwise we feel that we can best fill in time by commercial organisation, keeping the needs of the experimenter before the manufacturers of components, and generally paving the way for the radio enthusiast to pursue his hobby under ideal conditions. A. G. HULL.