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User:Fadedglint/BajaCaliforniaPeninsulaSonoranDesert

Baja California Peninsula Sonoran Desert

=  Biodiversity  =

Dermochelys Coriacea

The leatherback sea turtle is the largest of all living turtles and is the fourth-heaviest modern reptile behind three crocodiles. It is the only living species in the genus dermochelys and family dermochelyidae. The leatherback sea turtle can be easily differentiated from other modern sea turtles by its lack of a bony shell, hence the name. Instead, its carapace is covered by skin and oily flesh.

Cultural Significance
The Seri people, a tribe found in Mexico, find the leatherback sea turtle of significant cultural significance because it is one of their five main creators. The Seri people devote ceremonies and fiestas to the turtle when one is caught and then released back into the environment.

Ecological Trouble
Leatherbacks have slightly fewer human-related threats than other sea turtle species. Their flesh contains too much oil and fat to be considered palatable, reducing the demand. However, human activity still endangers leatherback turtles in direct and indirect ways. Directly, a few are caught for their meat by subsistence fisheries. Nests are raided by humans in places such as Southeast Asia. In the state of Florida, there have been 603 leatherback strandings between 1980 and 2014. Almost one-quarter (23.5%) of leatherback strandings are due to vessel-strike injuries, which is the highest cause of strandings.

The Seri people have noticed the drastic decline in turtle populations over the years and created a conservation movement to help this. The group, made up of both youth and elders from the tribe, is called Grupo Tortuguero Comaac. They use both traditional ecological knowledge and Western technology to help manage the turtle populations and protect the turtle's natural environment.

Antilocapra Americana Peninsularis

Antilocapra americana peninsularis, also known as the Baja California pronghorn, is a subspecies of pronghorn endemic to the Baja California Peninsula. Antilocapra americana peninsularis is a critically endangered subspecies according to the IUCN with only an estimated 200 animals remaining in the wild. This subspecies can stand up to 35 inches tall at the shoulder and weigh in at up to 125 pounds. These animal's coloration ranges from golden brown to tan, with white coloration on the jaws, stomach, rump and lower neck. The Baja California Pronghorn is often called los fantasmas del desierto which translates to, “ghosts of the desert,” because their particular coloration in combination with their fast speeds allows them to disappear in the desert. Furthermore, these animal's white underbellies deflect ground heat, keeping them cool. Females are smaller than males, and if horned, retain their spike-like horns for 2-5 years before shedding them. The larger males are longer horned than females, with darker faces. Males' horns are forward-pointing prongs below backward-facing hooks, and outer sheaths are shed annually. These animals are known to live roughly 9-10 years in the wild but may live longer in captivity.

Range
The Baja California pronghorn now only exists in the El Vizcaíno Desert Biosphere Reserve of Baja California and in the Valle de Los Cirios Reserve of Baja California, Mexico. The animals once roamed largely over central Baja California, including areas like the one east of Guerrero Negro named Llano del Berrendo, or Pronghorn Plains.

Cultural Significance
Baja California pronghorn have long-standing ties as a source of sustenance to people indigenous to Baja California. The animals, once widespread, were hunted with bows and arrows, eaten, and skinned to make women’s clothing. The indigenous people, the Cochimí, referred to them as ammo-gokio or ammogokió.

Additional Information
Antilocapra Americana Peninsularis is the fastest hoofed mammal in the world and the second-fastest land mammal. They possess the ability to run at 40-60 miles per hour for over an hour. With 27 foot strides at their top speeds, the Baja California Pronghorn has padded cloven hooves to absorb the resulting shock. When running these animals open their mouth and leave their tongue hanging to consume more air. Their windpipe can reach up to two inches in diameter, funneling air to their enlarged lungs and heart which aid them in oxygen consumption. This unique animal’s oxygen consumption is three times greater than that of comparably sized animals.

Baja California Pronghorn have remarkable eyesight and have the largest eyes of any hoofed animal in North America their size. They have the ability to see for miles. Their pupils can constrict into horizontal slits, which gives them 300-degree vision, protecting them from predators.

Threats and Conservation
The future for these animals remains uncertain. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists their conservation status as critically endangered. Livestock fencing and cattle ranching threaten their livelihood. These obstructions inhibit the animal’s access to favorable habitats and their ability to conduct natural movement. Urban sprawl, human endeavor, and droughts also all threaten populations.

In 1997, the Mexican Government, in cooperation with ENDESU (Espacios Naturales y Desarrollo Sustentable), established the Peninsular Pronghorn Recovery Project. This project, working in conjunction with zoos such as the Los Angeles' Zoo’s animal husbandry program, has grown the population of the Baja California Pronghorn to now exceed 420 animals, both captive and wild, in the areas of the El Vizcaíno Desert Biosphere Reserve and The Valle De Los Cirios Reserve.

Phocoena Sinus

This wonderful aquatic creature named Vaquita is under the Porpoises family which is a long group of marine animals that are mammals that are classified as Phocoenidae. Also the Vaquita, is an endemic animal, that is to say relevant of its location that receives its name “ Vaquita” which in Spanish means “little cow”. This species appears in the Gulf of Baja California and unfortunately is in danger of extinction.

Cultural Significance
The Vaquita is one of the few species of the porpoise endemic which means that it exists only one place in the planet. Because of this it can bring many tourists in the area for ecotourism which is environmental tourism that sees wildlife in its habitat. But because unfortunately the Vaquita is in danger of extinction it can negatively affect the cultural aspect of the areas surrounding the Gulf of Mexico.

Ecological Trouble
Unfortunately, the Vaquita is in danger to extinction. Because of this there will be fewer animals for both prey and predators many sea creatures will be affected by this in which the balance of the food chain in the Gulf of Mexico will have to change and adapt with the disappearance of this wonderful aquatic creature. Vaquitas usually eat around a dozen different type of small and medium-sized fish in which will have one less predator so their numbers can grow and affect the food chain there and also other larger species such as sharks were the Vaquita’s predator in which they will have one less food source again negatively affecting the food chain.

Ctenosaura Hemilopha

This animal is also known as the cape spinytail iguana. They are reptiles that eat mostly plants but they are also able to eat small animals and bugs if they are present. They live in trees, build dens, and sometimes even in cacti. Some people believe that they are in the locations they are today because the Seri Indian people brought them as a source of food. These animals are considered vulnerable because humans are taking over their natural habitat, sometimes they can be hunter to be sold as pets and dogs and cats can pose a threat to them as well. What I think is most surprising about these animals is that they coexist with another type of iguana which is not always common since there may be a limited amount of resources.

Ficus Palmeri

Baja California has two native species of figs from the Moraceae Family: Ficus Palmeri, which grows from the Cape Region to the Tinaja de Yubay region, in Central Baja, many of the islands, and parts of Sonora; whereas, Ficus brandegeei has a smaller range from the Cape to a little north of Loreto, only. They are both pretty similar, with the largest difference being that the Ficus Palmeri does not display its branches and leaves with long ¨hairs¨, meanwhile the Ficus brandegeei does.

Both varieties are called Higuera ("Fig" in Spanish), Zalate or Amate ("you love you" in Spanish), or the Desert Fig in English.

Ecological Significance
The Baja Ficus grows usually on cliffs or in the cracks of rocks. Trees and plants such as the Ficus, help to breakdown or weather stone, creating soil in its wake. Ficus palmeri, as well as three species of cacti in the Baja region (Pachycereus pringlei, Stenocerueus thurberi, and Opuntia cholla) feed on dense layers of microscopic bacteria and fungus that cover the rock surfaces. Then release valuable minerals such as potassium, zinc, magnesium, copper, iron, manganese, and phosphorus during this chemical weathering process. This process provides an indispensable supply of inorganic nutrients for other plants that do grow in the soil.

In Baja, a tea made from the leaves and small branches is used as an antidote for rattlesnake bites in cattle and mules. A wash is used to treat cuts and infections. This is probably due to the fact that the milky white sap of this tree is natural latex that is toxic, a known allergen and is photosensitive. It is also shown to contain anti-inflammatory and antiseptic chemicals as well.

Fouquieria Columnaris

Fouqueria Coumnaris, also often referred to as a Boojum tree or Cirio tree, is a nearly endemic species of stem succulent tree found in the Baja California Peninsula. These trees have a single or branched tapered primary stem. Their primary stems are armored with hundreds of horizontal secondary branches that are not succulents and are armed with spines. When moisture is available to the tree, leaves and secondary branches may grow. However, the trees are usually leafless during arid periods. In relation to moisture received during winter and spring months, the Boojum will elongate its stem. The Boojum is known to bloom in late summer and autumn, bearing clusters of white fragrant flowers or creamy yellow flowers with a honey scent. The tree is a member of the ocotillo family. The Boojum is reported to grow up to 70 feet tall, with its trunk growing up to 24cm thick.

Range
Fouqueria Coumnaris is nearly endemic to the Baja California Peninsula. The tree grows with the help of moist, cool winds from the Pacific Ocean moderating the arid desert climate. The tree can be found in both upper and lower Baja, California. However, it is most commonly found in the subregion of Vizcaíno. Along the Gulf Coast of Sonora, a small population of Boojum exists with help from the cold waters that replicate the influence of the Pacific.

Name
The plant received its English name from the Southwestern naturalist Godfrey Sykes in 1922. When Sykes encountered the foreign-looking plants, he dubbed them “boojums,” a nod to Lewis Carroll’s poem The Hunting of the Snark. The Spanish name of Cirio, meaning candle, originates from the plant's long tapered look, similar to that of candles at nearby missions.

Cultural Significance
An indigenous group of people native to Sonora, the Seri, believe touching the Boojum tree will cause undesirable, strong winds to blow. Furthermore, botanists used to believe mainland patterns of distribution of the plant indicated that the Seri transplanted the boojum further in the interior. However, given the Seri belief about the Boojum, which they call cototaj, this belief has been called into question.

Additional Information
Fouqueria Coumnaris differs from its relatives in the ocotillo family by growing in the winter. Boojum trees were previously believed to only grow inches per year and reach up to 700 years old. Scientists now know that the plants can grow up to as much as 1 to 2 feet during a wet year. Additionally, repeated photography helped discover that the plants only typically live roughly a century. Large individual Boojum are particularly susceptible to direct hurricane events which cause significant destruction to the Boojum population every few decades.

Notable Boojum
The tallest Boojum on record was in Montevideo Canyon near Bahai de Los Angeles. It was recorded by Robert Humphrey in the 1970s and at the time, was 81 feet tall. Hurricane Nora passed directly over the large boojum in 1997, however, the mighty tree survived.

The University of Arizona recently had to remove one of its diseased Boojum trees. The tree was planted in the 1920s or 1930s after a University of Arizona sponsored Baja California trip. The specimen was a noted member of the Krutch Garden and, at 37 feet tall, one of the largest Boojum in the state. Nurserymen plan to attempt to clone the tree using its tips. This process will be documented and is an opportunity for botanists to evaluate opportunities and methods for cloning Boojums. If the precise genotype is successfully saved, it will be reintroduced into Krutch Gardens.

Threats and Conservation
Fouqueria Coumnaris trees are pollinated by many different insects. A study of over 20 years yielded a wide variety of species from the same Fouqueria Coumnaris trees in both Baja California and Sonora. However, many of these species of insects have not been seen again for many years. This may be caused by a temporal niche separation. Diverse types of pollinators have been recorded every year prompted by unknown environmental circumstances in which further study is needed.

Other known threats to boojum include urban sprawl, expansions of agricultural frontiers, climate change, and harvesting for ornamental wood.

The El Vizcaíno Biosphere Region was created in 1988. This protected area is 9,625 sq. miles and is the largest protected wildlife refuge in Mexico. It is home to some boojum, as well as many other protected species. The El Vizcaíno Biosphere Region borders on the Valle de los Cirios.

The Valle de los Cirios, located near Guerrero Negro on the Baja California Peninsula, is the second-largest wildlife protection area in Mexico. This area was deemed a nationally-protected area in 1980 and encompasses over 9,500 sq. miles. The Valle de los Cirios contains a large population of boojum and is home to the highly endangered Desert Pronghorn. It is listed as a tentative site to become a World Heritage Site.

Fouquieria Splendens

This unique plant named the Ocotillo also known as a Fouquieria Splendens is a tall, greyish/greenish spiky plant from the Plantae family. This plant isn't considered a true cactus even though it is covered in thorns and is ingenious to both the Sonoran Desert and the Chihuahuan Desert.

Cultural Significance
The Ocotillo does flower but only when it rains and when the flower dries it can be collected and used for tisanes which is an herbal tea. Also, Native American use to use to cut off the flowers when they blossomed and also cut of parts of the root and collect them for when someone in the tribe use to get cut they would apply either the root or the flower on the open cut which slowed down the bleeding.

Ecological Significance
Both White-Tailed deer and Mule deer have the Ocotillo in their diet, but white-tail deer tends to eat much more Ocotillo than the Mule deer. Because the Ocotillo does flower both hummingbirds and native carpenter bees are able to get nectar from them which also helps the Ocotillo spread its pollen. Also, it can provide some cover or shelter from the hot desert for smaller mammals, birds and reptiles.

Agave shawii

This plant is also known as Shaw's agave or coastal agave. These plants which are part of the genus agave are drought resistant which makes them great for living in the desert. Their roots respond fast to rain which is a good adaptation for life in the desert. These plants were used by Kumeyaay Native Americans as a source of food, tools, and even clothing. They would make many things by beating the leaves which would result in fibers that they would use for rope, clothing, traps, sandals and many other things.

=  Climate & Geology =

Geological Origin
Baja California is located on the west side of Mexico. It is separated by the mainland of Mexico by the Sea of Cortez, making it a peninsula. How it has been mentioned in our visit of Professor Croxen and in our book, Baja California was not a peninsula until the earth started to change. This change is what is now described as Basin and Range, which simply put are mountains or higher land and valleys or lower land. This process which took thousands of years started when the Pacific Plate and the Farallon Plate started to move east under the North American Plate. When the Pacific and Farallon plates were under the North American Plate they started to move northwest. This would stretch out the crust of the earth and create these Basins and Ranges which extends throughout the western United States and northwestern Mexico. Baja California was the westernmost part of the North American Plate which was eventually separated. This also brought in the Sea of Cortez where the Colorado River would flow to when it flowed freely.

Current Geography

The peninsula of Baja California is located in the northwestern part of Mexico; it covers an area of 71,777.589 km2. This peninsula extends to almost 1,300 km from north to south and is a land of steep mountain ranges and coastal valleys. Mexicali is a city just south of the US border, and the capital city of Baja California. The Gulf of California (also known as The Sea of Cortez) separates this peninsula with mainland Mexico and the maximum distance between the two is 250 km. The Pacific Ocean lies on the west of Baja California. Several NNW to SSE trending mountain ranges are present on this peninsula, and Picacho del Diablo is the highest peak on the Baja California peninsula, measuring 3,096 meters (10,157 ft). It is alternately called Cerro de la Encantada, "Hill of the Enchanted," "Hill of the Bewitched." The peak is located in the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir, part of the Peninsular Ranges. Desert areas comprise about 65% of the peninsula. The largest desert in Baja California is the Vizcaíno Desert, located in the west-central part, that has been designated a protected Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations. This peninsula has a variety of types of geological environments like coastal wetlands, sandy beaches, over 100 islands mostly located along the Gulf coast.

Climate
The climate of the Baja Peninsula ranges from Mediterranean to tropical and 69% of the region is hot deserts with little rainfall in winter with hot and dry summers when temperatures. Being surrounded by the ocean, fog appears in areas closest to water. Change in altitude always comes with a change in temperature. In the Sierra de Baja California, the climate is an alpine climate meaning that it is cooler there in the summers and can get cold during the winter. Forests can be present in the mountains as well as snow during the winter season. However, being home to part of the Sonoran Desert, the summers can be hot and barely mild winters. During summer and fall, tropical storms locally known as chubascos may bring rain and winds that may last for a few hours to a few days. Hurricanes are infrequent, yet occasionally occur from time to time, for e.g. Hurricane John in 2006 severely impacted Cabo Pulmo causing heavy rains and 240 km/hour winds. In conclusion, the climate of Baja California is usually hot in lower elevations and cooler in higher elevations.

The Cultural Use of Minerals in Baja California and the Gulf of California

Baja California is home to a total of 161 operating mines in the whole Mexican state. A total of 19 different minerals are being mined which are Gold, Tungsten, Copper, Iron, Silver, Phosphorus-Phosphates, Sulfur, Manganese, Lead, Aluminum, Barium-Barite, Graphite, Silica, Zinc, Zirconium, Titanium, Titanium Metal, Molybdenum, and Chromium. The mines are spread out through the state of Baja California and are broken into 5 different provinces which are placed depending on its location and what is mined. In the first province deposits of mesothermal sulfates of iron, copper and gold are being mined. The second province corresponds to the gold veins distributed along with the whole state. The third province corresponds to deposits of tungsten. The fourth province corresponds to the deposits of manganese sulfites, barite, lead, zinc, and silver. The fifth province involves gold pleasure deposits. Some of the cities in Baja California that have these mines are Tijuana (which has 23 operating mines), Ensenada (which has 13 operating mines) and Mexicali (which has 4 operating mines). More mines are located in other cities and towns throughout the Baja California region.

= Water & Land Use =

Water Use

For water usage, the water is gathered from the Colorado River in Mexicali Baja California and with a canal system it goes through La Rumorosa which goes to into a reservoir named “El Carrizo” in which Tecate, Rosarito and Tijuana Baja California. In the south most of the water is collected by rainfall in the mountains named “Sierra de las Trincheras” and “El Novillo” in which water is distributed to La Paz and its surrounding towns.

Land Use
For land usage, unfortunately, there is a lot of trash that is illegally dumped throughout the desert and in the ocean but the trash that is collected, each city in Baja California gathers it and disposes it to its closest landfill in which each large city has their own in their outskirts and the smaller towns around it use them as well. Landfills are located in San Luis Rio Colorado, Mexicali, Tijuana, Ensenada, San Quintin, Rosarito, Santa Rosalia, Loreto, and La Paz. Sewage waste is also disposed of in landfills alongside solid waste.

Baja California is part of Mexico, but is separated by the Sea of Cortez. It is 71,450 km2 with a population of 3,315,766. Land is used in many ways one of them being for real estate. This would make sense with the population they have and the services they would need. Although it has been changing withing the last 1-2 decades because of changes in the border between Mexico and the U.S. The second way that land is used is agriculture. Agriculture is extensively practiced throughout Baja California. Although vegetables and fruits would be a big part of it, there is also wines that are produced by this agriculture. Mining is probably the last main use of land in Baja California. Silver and other precious metals could be mined in this area. One of the wilderness areas in Baja California is Cabo Pulmo National Park. It is a coral reef that has been estimated to be around 20,000 years old with about 800 species living there today. Another wilderness area is El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, which is the largest area of protected land in Mexico.

Urban Sprawl
Urban sprawl is a current threat to the Sonoran Desert portion of Baja California. Cabo San Lucas is a major tourist destination for Baja California. However, developers now have sourced colonial Loreto as a potential location for a tourist and vacation destination. These developing tourism destinations threaten to bring urban sprawl to the lower half of Baja California, increasing the probability of habitat fragmentation for endemic species. Urban sprawl may have secondary detrimental environmental effects. Baja California sources the majority of its energy from power plants, such as those in Rosarito and Ensenada. These power plants are massive contributors to man-made climate change. Increases in tourism and resulting urban sprawl will increase demand for energy from these pants, which run off destructive natural gasses supplied by the United States.

=  Opportunities & Threats =

Climate Change
Climate change looms as the largest ecological threat to the Baja California subregion and the entire Sonoran Desert. Unchecked, the effects of climate change in the Sonoran Desert will be far-reaching and widespread throughout all biomes and ecosystems. The Sonoran Desert already finds itself in a drought with at least a 25 to 40% drop in precipitation over the last 50 years. The region has been identified as being within a projected “global hot spot” resulting from climate change, with models demonstrating warming of 5.4-10.8 degrees Fahrenheit.

Increased temperatures place strains on entire ecosystems by undermining food webs. Warming temperatures, among many other factors, will increase evapotranspiration rates, stressing primary producers and the resulting food webs. Slow-moving species such as desert tortoises will have much harder times reacting to the unpredictable weather patterns produced by climate change. Furthermore, species capable of more rapid reaction and migration may attempt to move out of designated protected wildlife areas, such as the Valle de los Cirios area, only to have their movement blocked by human habitat fragmentation.

Opportunities to address climate change exist at every moment of every person’s day on a global scale. From choosing a profession that champions global climate change causes or conducts research to a person's simple daily choices, there is a way for everyone to get involved. A plethora of information on making more sustainable choices is widely available. Other ways to help address climate change are to research and donate to the most effective organizations battling climate change. Practicing responsible civics by researching and voting for environmentally friendly legislation and candidates and starting grassroots environmental movements or joining current movements are all ways of addressing climate change.

Invasive Species

Sahara mustard weed, a large, hardy fast-growing winter annual, along with a with similar invasive grass, Buffelgrass, threaten many of the endemic flora of Baja California and the Sonoran Desert. Sahara mustard started as a localized population before beginning a massive range expansion. The weed is particularly effective at challenging native cacti and perennial shrubs for resources such as light and soil moisture. Furthermore, the weed possesses the capacity to smother native herbaceous plants.

First recorded in California’s Coachella Valley in 1927, by the 1970s the plant was widespread across the Sonoran Desert and Baja California. Sahara mustard mainly kept to disturbed soil and sandy areas until in the 1990s, when it began invading undisturbed desert. In the twenty-first century, the weed again adapted and began invading the steep desert slopes and rocky soils of the Sonoran. It is now known to cause acres of impenetrable thickets in some places, completely excluding any other annuals.

Currently, research is being conducted on the best ways to combat aggressive invasive species such as Sahara mustard weed. The most effective method to date is hand weeding. Though this method is not considered a tenable long-term solution, it has been shown to be useful while research is being developed. The Bureau of Land Management conducts hand weedings, in which they may be looking for local volunteers. Contacting your local BLM office may be one of the best ways to help fight such invasive species.

Endangered Species

Antilocapra americana peninsularis, also known as the Baja California pronghorn, is a subspecies of pronghorn endemic to the Baja California Peninsula. Antilocapra americana peninsularis is a critically endangered subspecies according to the IUCN with only an estimated 200 animals remaining in the wild.

Combatting climate change may be one of the best ways to help save the pronghorn. High mortality rates, especially during droughts have contributed to the decline of this species. Currently CONANP (Mexico’s National Commission of Protected Natural Areas) is working with American organizations such as the L.A. Zoo to stabilize the pronghorn through the Peninsular Pronghorn Recovery Program in the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve. Consider donating to or contacting these organizations to ask how you can help these animals. Finally, people can raise awareness about antilocapra americana peninsularis.

Like many other threats in the world, humans have a big part in this. One big issue in the Baja Californina/Gulf of California area is the vaquita. This small porpoise is threatened by gill-nets that are used to fish another endangered species the totoaba. Gill-nets are nets that are nets that are placed in the water and catch anything that tries to swim through. This is the only place that the vaquita lives in and having these nets makes them face some challenges. Although, regulations on the use of gill-nets have been established, there is still people that illegally use these gill-nets to fish and vaquitas are accidentally being caught an most of them die. They are the most endangered marine mammal of the world with less than 30 in the entire planet and none in captivity. Luckily for the vaquita there is a lot of people that are trying to help. Other than banning gill-net fishing, the Mexican government also tried to help fishers use alternatives to gill-nets so that they still have a way to make a living. Other conservation groups are also trying to remove the gill-nets but there is a lot and they keep getting replaced. Some ways that can help the vaquita is enforcing the ban of gill-nets, educating people about the vaquita and people can ask how the fish you are about to buy was fished.

Habitat Fragmentation

Many opportunities are found in Baja California because it is in the middle of both the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. Because of this tourism is in every city that is in the shore to either of the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of California. For example, San Felipe is in the shore of the Gulf of California and because of this many people from both the U.S and other parts of Mexico go there to enjoy the beach. Also because of the tourism the beaches bring San Felipe they also host an off-road racing event named San Felipe 250 which happens yearly bringing more people to this city.

The threats from what the Baja California Peninsula and the Gulf of California suffers from are all done by humans. The principal threats are livestock ranching, salt extraction, and hunting. With ranching many acres of space are taken away in which affected both populations of mule deer and bighorn sheep significantly. With hunting because so much deer type animals are being hunted it has affected the population of Pumas in the area due to they no longer have their main source of food available as much as they were having. And with the salt extraction from the see this has negatively affected the breeding and migration of gray whales.


text:
Template talk:Center

Internal span?
. I am in good faith assuming that the internal SPAN was the design intent here, However in places this template is being called with what is effectively a DIV or P argument..

In a miminial example, what happens is:-

Will generate:

This is clearly going to lead to rendering issues because mediawiki then tries to tidy up when it sees the SPAN, and a P can't go inside a SPAN, per HTML5 structuring rules. (Aspects as to where P gets (mis-inserted are a known issue, and noted in Phabricator.).

The above was a miniminal example, in other calls, center may be being called where the nominal argument is a full blown DIV or TABLE, and the writers of code calling the templates (possibly a replacement for the deprecated CENTER html) may not have noted it's expecting a SPAN argument not a DIV.

If you feel it's appropriate I am happy to look at some of the templates where it's been (mis)called.

ShakespeareFan00 (discuss • contribs) 08:34, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

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title: Template talk:Center


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Learn BASIC with wikibooks

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text:
Wikibooks:Collections/Learn 'BASIC'

Learn BASIC with wikibooks

 * BASIC Programming
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 * BASIC Programming/Beginning BASIC/PRINT, CLS, and END
 * BASIC Programming/Beginning BASIC/Variables and Data Types
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 * BASIC Programming/Beginning BASIC/Documentation
 * BASIC Programming/Beginning BASIC/Control Structures/IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE
 * BASIC Programming/Beginning BASIC/Control Structures/WHILE...WEND
 * BASIC Programming/Beginning BASIC/Control Structures/FOR...NEXT
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title: Wikibooks:Collections/Learn 'BASIC'


text:
Professionalism/Data Ownership

In Correspondence with STS 4600 at the University of Virginia.

Introduction
Personal data refers to information that relates to an identified or identifiable individual. Items that identify the individual could vary from their user account, their personal identifiers such as their name and address, or can be objects such as their IP address or cookie identifier. While almost any kind of data can be collected on a user, data collection is often protected and limited. Louise Matsakis, a technology editor from Wired, writes that “health records, social security numbers, and banking details make up the most sensitive information stored online. Social media posts, location data, and search-engine queries may also be revealing but are also typically monetized in a way that, say, your credit card number is not.”

"Data ownership refers to both the possession of and responsibility for information. Ownership implies power as well as control. The control of information includes not just the ability to access, create, modify, package, derive benefit from, sell or remove data, but also the right to assign these access privileges to others."

Data is quickly becoming one of the most valuable resources on Earth. Because data is sourced by people, this introduces a host of ethical dilemmas regarding the ownership of personal data.

People often unwittingly agree to terms that consent to the collection and sale of their personal data. These terms are generally presented in the form of fine-print terms and conditions statements or unassuming notifications from mobile apps asking to access information from your device. Once a data broker obtains a person's data, they generally do not allow the person any control over it; this raises ethical questions, especially if this data is sensitive and in cases where this data is breached.

Legislation
In the United States, there is no general consumer privacy law at the federal level. Industry-focused laws exist, such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the finance-related Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA), but consumer data collected on the internet is largely left unregulated. California and Virginia are the only US states with any legislation requiring data brokers to provide people the option to opt-out of allowing the sale of their data.

California
In California, a bill called the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) gives consumers rights over their collected data. The bill was signed into law on June 28, 2018, and gives Californians the rights to know what personal data is being collected and to whom it is being sold or disclosed. It also gives them the rights to delete their data and opt-out of the sale of their personal information, and provides protection from discrimination for exercising these rights.

Virginia
Virginia enacted the Consumer Data Protection Act (CDPA) on March 2, 2021, becoming the second state to enact data privacy legislation. Similar to the CCPA, it allows consumers to access their data, delete their data, and determine who possesses their data. It also gives consumers the right to opt-out of the processing and sale of their data. The CDPA further requires companies to implement "reasonable" data security practices to protect consumer data, and limits the collection and use of this data only to what is "reasonably necessary." However, it differs from the CCPA in that it also allows consumers to correct errors in their personal data.

Other States
Several other states have proposed similar data privacy bills, including New York, Maryland, Massachusetts, Hawaii, and North Dakota. These bills grant rights and protections similar to the CCPA and CDPA; however, they have yet to be passed.

European Union
The EU has been improving privacy policy since 1995 when it implemented the Data Protection Directive. More recently, it enacted the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in May 2018 to implement protection and privacy with regard to personal data. It addresses transparency, constrains data usage and collection only to what is necessary, calls for reasonable security measures, and ensures that personal data can be corrected for accuracy, among numerous other principles. It also includes a limited version of the, known as the right of erasure; this right allows individuals to request their data be removed from search engines and other databases. However, this right can only be exercised if one of several possible conditions are met. There are two important court cases surrounding this right.

Court Cases
In 2014 the Google Spain case set precedent for the right to be forgotten in the EU. The case arose when a Spanish man complained about an old newspaper article selling his repossessed property. The man felt that because his debts had since been resolved, it was unfair that this search result still appeared. The EU court ruled that the info should be deleted. Some claim deleting information, as seen in this example, is a form of censorship. A similar court case was heard between Google and a French privacy regulator in 2019 about the jurisdiction of the right to be forgotten. The EU court ruled that search results do not have to be deleted outside of the EU. Google implements this using its Geoblocking tool, which restricts access to search results based on the location that the search was performed. For instance, while 'forgotten' search results would be hidden within the EU, since the U.S. does not legally grant the right to be forgotten, the search result would still appear in the United States.

Country Comparison
There is no single approach to data ownership and data privacy. Though the U.S. does not have a nationwide consumer privacy law analogous to the European Union's GDPR, individual states have started to take action, as seen in California and Virginia.

Some see this as a step in the right direction, but issues remain. For example, in California, one can only opt-out of data sale, but not data collection. Thus, companies can still gather and leverage personal data, unless a specific request for deletion is submitted. Furthermore, since only two states have enacted data privacy laws, personal data is left largely unregulated in the United States. While some companies have decided to roll out nationwide changes in response to the laws in California and Virginia, others have not.

China has a privacy law similar to the EU’s GDPR called the Personal Information Security Specification that was enacted in March 2018. However, there is tradeoff between privacy and surveillance. It is difficult to both maintain government access to citizen’s information while also protecting citizens from data usage by other parties.

Handling issues of data ownership is not straightforward as there are many uncertainties and tradeoffs.

General
In today's digital age, data has irreplaceable value. The largest consumers of user data include Google and Facebook, followed by Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft. These big tech companies use data for obvious things such as tailored advertisements and understanding consumer behavior, but the primary application is providing data for input to artificial intelligence algorithms. When data is such a valuable commodity, the question of whether data producers should be paid for their contribution arises.

In tech, what users give away for free is transformed into a precious commodity. It powers today’s most profitable companies. But the consumers it extracts data from often know little about the extent to which their information is being collected, who looks at it, and how much it is worth. In exchange for free use of their products, such as Google, Facebook, Youtube, users are paying with their data.

Examples of How Data Became so Valuable
Popular music/video streaming platforms such as YouTube, Netflix, Spotify rely on the data they collect about a users interests on their platform. Netflix states, "our business is a subscription service model that offers personalized recommendations, to help you find shows and movies of interest to you. To do this we have created a proprietary, complex recommendations system." However your collected data can get complex. In addition to knowing what you have watched on Netflix, Netflix will also best personalize recommendations by looking at the time of day you are watching, the devices you are using, the duration of your watching, how other Netflix members with similar tastes use Netflix, information about the titles, such as their genre, director, actors, release year, etc. This is a common trend among streaming platforms, to collect as much data about users' usage habits and keep them as a customer for longer.

Another common trend with the collection of user data, is the then selling of user data to third parties, done with user consent. However, often times users are not totally informed on what they are truly consenting to. 23andMe is a genetics startup from San Francisco. As of 2018, they had 5 million customers who sent samples of their spit to be analyzed to identify genetic changes at 700,000 different locations in their genomes. 23andMe does as promised, and delivers their analyzations and findings about your DNA. However, in order to use their services, users have to give consent for 23andMe's use of their data in medical research, which is not apart of the product that the user will ever see. "Giving consent by checking the appropriate box below means that you agree to let 23andMe researchers use your Genetic & Self-Reported Information for 23andMe Research." So in 2018, a London based drug giant, GlaxoSmithKline, partnered with 23andMe to develop new medicines. Part of the deal entailed GlaxoSmithKline making a $300 million investment in 23AndMe.

These two examples provide detail on how your personal data is the true commodity that companies are seeking. From a business ethics perspective, companies need to find more effective ways to inform customers about the types of data being collected on them. Similarly, customers need to be better educated about how valuable their personal data truly is, and how it is largely generating money for the companies. In both of the above examples, it is important to note that the user is not necessarily directly harmed through their data collection. However, there is a professional ethical dilemma with not being totally transparent about how personal data is used. Even further, while this personal data is being collected, a data breach/attack can put sensitive information on users under threat. Later in this chapter, professional ethics perspectives on data ownership will be explored.

Data Brokers
Data brokers are entities that collect and sell data. Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, there has been a high demand for highly accurate identification of individuals through data and data brokers such as LexisNexis, Axciom, and Experian have been able to fill this demand through the collection of highly personal information from millions of people.

The ways in which data brokers collect data are numerous and include public records, internet scraping, as well as getting people to opt-in to their data collection schemes through terms and conditions statements. Some of the data collected could be subject to federal law, but the lack of regulation of data brokers in the US allows data brokers to buy and sell the information anyway.

Once a data broker has someone's information, it is nearly impossible for them to regain control of their data. As mentioned previously, some states have begun legislation to fix this problem

Data Protection
The possession of large quantities of consumer data have become increasingly valuable to those who know how to use it. For companies, big data can be processed and analyzed to lead smarter business moves, promote more efficient operations, and yield higher profits from satisfied customers. However, when placed in the wrong hands from cyberattacks, sensitive data can be used for malicious behavior. The management of data privacy protection has become increasingly complex due to the ubiquity of the information-intensive environment and the multidirectional demand of stakeholders and clients. Companies dealing with the use and distribution of personal data must implement plans to ensure the implementation and compliancy of data privacy policies, standards, guidelines and processes. A systematic approach used in navigating data security is understanding what kind of data the company has, tracking how company data is stored and transferred, and conducting regularly scheduled risk assessments. Some fear that the over-complexity of current data protection practices may expose vulnerabilities and weaknesses as data spreads across more platforms, both on-premise and in the cloud.

Cyberattacks and Data Breaches
Data breaches occur from cyberattacks, or the unauthorized access of a computer system or network, and involve the leak of confidential/sensitive company data. A data breach can have expensive short-term impacts on companies in all industries, costing business on average $3.86 million per breach and $148 per lost or stolen record. On top of that, companies are obligated to perform forensic investigations to assess what information was stolen and where the vulnerability in the data security infrastructure. Long term effects include the loss of customer trust as the company's reputation diminishes from the breach. Studies found that 85% of customers won't shop at businesses that have data security concerns and 69% of customers would avoid a company that suffered a data breach.

Data Collection Freedom for Data Brokers
The lack of legislation regulating data brokers means that there is little to dictate how data brokers go about collecting data. Some data is free to collect, such as public webpages or public records. Other, often times more personal, data is not however, and so data brokers have developed processes to getting users to unwittingly agree to terms.

An example of this is X-Mode, which is a data broker that collects location data from people's smartphones through software embedded into mobile apps. when a user downloads an app running X-Mode's software, the app prompts the user to allow it to use the device's location data without any further information. Many users will allow the app to use the data because they want to be able to in-app features. However, what is unknown to the user is that their location is now being tracked, and that data sold by X-Mode. This lack of transparency in the X-Mode process can be contrasted with that of 23andMe. Where X-Mode's approach doesn't informs user about their data usage, 23andMe tells used exactly who wants to use their data, and how and why they want to use it.

Facebook and Cambridge Analytica Scandal
In 2014, about 270,000 users were paid to take a personality survey through an app which scraped their Facebook profiles. They consented to the collection given it was for academic use by Cambridge University’s Psychometrics Center. Aleksander Kogan, a professor at the University, was hired by Cambridge Analytica to create this app. The app used Facebook's Open Graph platform, which at the time, also gave access to all of the participants' friends' information. The acquired data included names, birthdays, likes, and location information, all of which were both sensitive and valuable information. In this way, approximately 87 million Facebook users' data was obtained by Cambridge Analytica, 99.7% of whom did not consent.

Within the next year Facebook learned that the data was being used by Cambridge Analytica to aid Ted Cruz's presidential campaign. They removed Dr. Kogan's app from the site and demanded that Cambridge Analytica delete the data. According to Facebook, Cambridge Analytica confirmed that the data was deleted. However, in 2016 the company was hired by the Trump 2016 Presidential Campaign to provide tools for identifying personalities of American voters and targeting advertisements to influence their behavior.

The scandal exploded in 2018 when whistleblower Christopher Wylie exposed Cambridge Analytica’s misuse of Facebook data, including that it was not in fact deleted. In the words of Mark Zuckerburg when he testified to Congress: “When we heard back from Cambridge Analytica that they had told us that they weren’t using the data and deleted it, we considered it a closed case. In retrospect, that was clearly a mistake.” Facebook also suspended Cambridge Analytica from the site at this time.

Interestingly, Facebook claimed this was not a data breach. Facebook VP and Deputy General Counsel Paul Grewal stated in 2018: "The claim that this is a data breach is completely false... People knowingly provided their information, no systems were infiltrated, and no passwords or sensitive pieces of information were stolen or hacked." Facebook routinely allows researchers to collect user data for academic purposes, as Dr. Kogan's app did. However, Kogan broke the rules when he sold the data to Cambridge Analytica, a commercial third party.

Christopher Wylie
According to Wylie, as a Cambridge Analytica employee heavily involved in the project, he had witnessed their "corruption and moral disregard" firsthand. . He admitted that the project's massive scale was exciting at first: "We had done it. We had reconstructed tens of millions of Americans inside of a computer... I was proud that we had created something so powerful." However, after realizing the unethical nature in which the data was obtained and seeing how it was being applied, Wylie broke free from this state of acclimatization. He said "the office culture seemed to be clouding my judgment" and that it was easy to "lose sight of what I was actually involved in" while simply "staring at a screen." After experiencing this wake-up-call, he came forward as a whistleblower.

Lessons
Christopher Wylie demonstrated the obligation of the professional to speak out against unethical practices. As an ex-employee, Wylie faced immense pressure when speaking out, but was ultimately motivated by professional responsibility and duty to bring these issues to light. Wylie's experiences demonstrate that it can be easy to fall victim to acclimatization with regard to malpractice in the workplace; however, by taking a step back and considering the impact on consumers' lives, newfound clarity can be achieved. Though the massive amount of personal data initially showed promise for advancing psychological profiling technology, Wylie eventually realized that the unethical procurement and usage of the data was too great a cost (see Data Ownership vs. Data Processing). The end does not always justify the means, in cases of data ownership and professional ethics as a whole.

For more information, see.

Consent
In any study that uses participants to gather data, the participants must give informed consent. For a participant to give informed consent, they must be informed of all relevant information including how the data will be used, they must understand that information, they must participate voluntarily, and they must have the capacity to make a decision about whether to participate. The EU's GDPR is the most comprehensive regulator of online data in that whenever a company collects personal data from a citizen, it requires explicit and informed consent by that person in the form of opting in to the data collection.

However, the case studies presented above exemplify that this practice is nowhere near ubiquitous. Data collection policies hidden inside terms and conditions and apps that do not disclose the true uses of collected data do not satisfy the requirements for informed consent. The US and the rest of the world would need stronger regulation on data harvesting in order to protect the individual rights of online users.

Data Ownership vs. Data Processing
Should companies focus on using data to advance technologies or should consumer data be kept private to avoid misuse?

Accessibility in large amounts of data has allowed us to improve on pre-existing technologies and develop new technological fields like machine learning (ML). However, the availability of all this information can lead to selfish and ill-intentioned actions. While Facebook collected data from their users for their efforts of improving their consumer's experience on the platform, their data was eventually misused. The Cambridge Analytica Scandal, referenced above, is a good example of how data was shared without consent and how this data was then used to influence the 2016 election. However, there's no reason that data like this could not be used for benevolent reasons.

Companies have banks of their users personal data. Their is a professional expectation that the company use the data in an ethical manner and transparently. However, as in the Facebook example, the data was thought to be terminated, but instead it lived on and was eventually used to manipulate political campaigns without the users' knowledge.

Individual Rights vs. The Common Good
At what point does serving the common good start limiting personal liberties? Data-driven solutions rely on utilizing as much data as possible to improve results, but what if obtaining the data is not easily accessible? Similarly, what if obtaining the data is puts the consumer's data at risk?

A good example of this is medical data. Medical data collected could produce advancements in science and medicine, but how is that balanced with an individual’s right to privacy of personal information? We’ve seen this recently surrounding the COVID-19 crisis. Contract-tracing is tracking who has a disease and who those people have been near. This is a crucial tool to limit the spread of an outbreak. The system uses your phone's Bluetooth to anonymously track who you have been in close proximity to, as long as they also use the system. It is built off of data collection. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Google and Apple worked together to add coronavirus tracing to Android and iOS, the two most important mobile operating systems.

Recently revealed in April 2021, the Android version exposure notification app had a privacy flaw that let other preinstalled apps potentially see the sensitive data that is if someone had been in contact with a person who tested positive for COVID-19. Google immediately worked on rolling out a fix to this bug, however, had the vulnerability never been found, members of the contact tracing app are left vulnerable. This contradicts the promise of contact tracing apps to keep data anonymized and secured. Serge Egelman, the CTO of AppCensus, which reported the vulnerability to Google, stated that "the lesson here is that getting privacy right is really hard, vulnerabilities will always be discovered in systems, but that it’s in everyone’s interest to work together to remediate these issues."

Transparency vs. Accessibility
Should companies be able to sell user data collected without being transparent about it's collection?

In the section above, this is discussed in relationship to the company X-Mode. Companies are able to keep cost of their services low or free by selling user data (location data in the case of X-Mode) without really being clear about doing so. Should users have a choice in this? Such as, shoulda user be able to choose to pay for an app rather than sharing location or other data?

Such as in the previously mentioned 23andMe case, users are forced to consent to the sell of their saliva samples/data for medical research. But, has 23andMe considered the selling their product as is, but allowing the user to opt into the medical research program by choice. If so, perhaps their wouldn't be enough users opting into the program, and thus 23andMe is losing revenue.

At the end of the day there are good arguments for handling data ownership problems a variety of different ways. These questions are important to consider, especially as new legislation begins to arise around data ownership and privacy.

Further Work
The subject of data ownership is broad and covers an extensive list of ethical dilemmas and relevant case studies. This chapter can also include ethical assessments on how personal data should be properly used in tech fields of blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML). A topic to explore is also the lifespan of personal data, such as how and when it should be properly disposed of, and do users know how long their data is being used for?

title: Professionalism/Data Ownership


text:
Scribbling On Regardless/Making Stickers

Fun & easy stickers using simple materials!

Materials you'll need

 * Sticker paper
 * Pens or pencils
 * Scissors

Instructions
Watch our video for a step-by-step guide
 * 1) Sketch out your sticker design – what do you want it to be? Maybe use your Art Dice to help you decide…
 * 2) Do you want to make one big sticker? Or lots of little ones?
 * 3) Draw your design onto the paper
 * 4) What shape do you want your stickers to be? Round? Square? Curvy?
 * 5) Now decide where it’s going to go… on your sketchbook maybe?

Next Project
Making a Shrinkie

Previous Project
3 colour drawing


text:
User talk:Dan Polansky/COVID-19

Map of Active Cases in Europe
Dear Dan, maybe you are also interested in this map. It shows the active cases per capita. --Pechristener (discuss • contribs) 19:24, 22 April 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dan Polansky/COVID-19


text:
User:Vascosoares1998

\usepackage[pdftex]{hyperref} \hypersetup{ pdftitle = {The documents title}, pdfauthor = {me} }

Abstrato

\tab Este artigo descreve o estado da arte na arquitetura de sistemas embutidos, no setor automotivo. À medida que a autonomia aumenta, a operação man-in-the-loop termina com maior complexidade do sistema e ênfase total em eletrônicos e software que substituem o driver humano. Um automóvel moderno é composto por várias componentes redundantes conectadas por meio de uma rede de comunicação confiável, que transfere dados com vários sensores para o cálculo em tempo real do comando enviado aos atuadores. Os sistemas automotivos são críticos para a segurança, o que exige verificação, validação e teste abrangentes, para garantir o funcionamento adequado em todas as situações. Inspirado no "carro autônomo do Google", espera-se que os carros totalmente autônomos sejam o futuro do mercado automotivo. As tecnologias de Veículos Autónomos podem diminuir o custo do transporte e aumentar a acessibilidade de famílias de baixo rendimento e pessoas com problemas de mobilidade a este meio de transporte. Essa tecnologia emergente também tem aplicações e implicações de longo alcance além de todas as expectativas atuais. Este documento ira fornecer uma revisão abrangente das tecnologias relevantes e explora um amplo espectro de questões, da segurança à ética da máquina os impactos das atividades autônomas (também denominadas autônomo, sem motorista ou robótico) veículos e suas implicações no planejamento de transporte. Ele investiga a rapidez com que esses veículos provavelmente se desenvolverão e serão implantados com base na experiência com tecnologias anteriores, seus prováveis benefícios e custos, como eles afetarão as atividades de viagem, e seus impactos nas decisões de planejamento, como fornecimento ideal de estradas, estacionamentos e transporte público. Essa análise indica que veículos autônomos são capazes de operar sem motorista e quais as tecnologias neles usadas e que podem estar disponíveis comercialmente e legais para uso em algumas jurisdições até o final da década de 2020. Alguns benefícios, como mobilidade independente para não-motoristas abastados, podem começar nas décadas de 2030 ou 2040, mas a maioria dos impactos, incluindo redução de tráfego e congestionamento de estacionamento.

INTRODUÇÃO

O termo sistema embutido é bastante complexo. Simplesmente é uma combinação de hardware e software que forma o componente de um sistema maior, isso, por sua vez é programado para executar uma série de funções dedicadas, geralmente com uma intervenção mínima do operador. Em sistemas embutidos, o hardware normalmente é exclusivo para um determinado aplicativo, os chips de computador são incorporados aos componentes eletrônicos de controle para gerenciar a funcionalidade dos produtos. Os sistemas embutidos estão rapidamente se tornando um catalisador de mudanças na computação de comunicações de dados, telecomunicações, setores de controle industrial e entretenimento. Novas aplicações inovadoras nessas e em outras áreas como redes domésticas e transportes serão lançadas num futuro próximo. E é do avanço nos transportes que vamos abordar, nos últimos anos foi alcançada uma inovação tecnológica na automação para tornar veículos previamente manuais, em sistemas telo operados e totalmente robóticos ou autônomos. Assim, a tendência na indústria automotiva passou do controle mecânico clássico para o sistema drive-by-wireless para veículos telo operados e, finalmente, para veículos sem motorista, como mostrado na fig.1. Neste artigo, discutimos alguns subsistemas básicos de sistemas tão complexos, com considerações especiais sobre comunicação, computação e controle em tempo real. Assim como a necessária abordagem integrada de vários domínios para esses sistemas embutidos críticos e de segurança em tempo real que precisam detetar e controlar a estabilidade, rastreamento, frenagem, direção e navegação. No veículo embedded networks como CAN, LIN, FlexRay etc., são usadas como comunicação para conectar todas as unidades de controle eletrônico, sensores e atuadores em uma arquitetura tolerante a falhas. Portanto a dependência de tempo para informação critica deve ser assegurada através da conceção inteligente do sistema de comunicação. A mudança de paradigma de veículos semiautónomos para veículos totalmente autônomos sobrecarregou bastante os computadores de bordo. A perspetiva de projetos que requerem maior número de componentes eletrónicos como sensores resulta em complexidade excessiva assim como requisitos de segurança e proteção que aumentam custos para condução autônoma. Uma das maiores inspirações para os veículos autônomos comerciais chegou dos veículos terrestres não tripulados, em aplicações de defesa e espaço. Esses veículos não tripulados executam autonomamente a missão desejada sem a intervenção humana. No entanto, para cenários inesperados, a intervenção humana via modo de tele operação é possível. Alguns exemplos elegantes de tais sistemas incluem Mars Rover,bomb disposal robot, desafio automotivo DARPA Grand etc. Atualmente, estas tecnologias desenvolvidas são usadas em aplicações comerciais, como testemunhado pelos carros autônomos. De facto, o desafio da DARPA Grand lançou a primeira pedra do benchmarking em unidades autônomas. Um desses veículos autônomos é Stanley, que venceu a competição de viagem sem motorista no grande desafio da DARPA, realizado em 2005. O veículo era um Volkswagen Touareg real modificado com atuadores acionados por computadores de bordo. Também foi equipado com múltiplos sensores, como 5 lasers LIDAR, lente única e câmeras estéreo, além de RADAR de 24 GHz para substituir um driver humano. A Figura 2 mostra o veículo que usa um algoritmo de seguimento de caminho usando a abordagem de aprendizado de máquina em execução em tempo real. Este algoritmo usa imagens em tempo real e mapa de prevenção de obstáculos usando os lasers. Essa localização simultânea e mapeamento (SLAM) mostra o erro de 12,6% devido a obstáculos falsos. Este artigo está organizado da seguinte forma, primeiro descreve os detalhes da tecnologia de veículos autônomos, de seguida discute o impacto da tecnologia de veículos autônomos. As redes incorporadas no setor automotivo são apresentadas depois, com ênfase no protocolo CAN e suas variantes, seguidas pela discussão sobre sistemas embutidos e arquiteturas usadas no setor automotivo.

Pdfcreator={Vasco Soares, up201604364}

title: User:Vascosoares1998


text:
User talk:All4me2000000k

Good day.
Who is the author All4me2000000k (discuss • contribs) 04:14, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:All4me2000000k


text:
Cookbook:Khubz Muluwah (Yemenite Layered Flatbread)

Khubz muluwah is a flaky flatbread widely baked and consumed in Yemen as well as in other parts of Arabia. It is traditionally made in an earthen oven (tannur), but can also be baked on a hot griddle.

Ingredients

 * 4 cup of all-purpose wheat flour
 * 2¼ cup of water
 * 1 tbsp salt
 * 200 g ghee or melted butter
 * 3 tbsp black cumin (Nigella sativa)

Procedure

 * 1) Mix together flour and salt in large bowl.
 * 2) Gradually mix in the water to make a dough with a uniform consistency.
 * 3) Sprinkle with water, and let dough rest for 45 minutes.
 * 4) Begin to work the dough again, stretching it and folding it over onto itself. Cover and let it rest for 15 minutes.
 * 5) Place on cutting board, and cut into two equal parts. Shape each piece into a ball.
 * 6) Use your hands to flatten the dough on a floured surface. Use a rolling pin to roll it into a very thin round.
 * 7) Brush the surface dough with ghee, and sprinkle lightly with black cumin.
 * 8) Cut flattened dough into elongated strips and fold one end, lengthwise, over itself. Baste with ghee (or butter) and sprinkle with black cumin.
 * 9) Repeat process with other ball of dough.
 * 10) After both balls of dough have been flattened out and each one folded over itself in repeated folds (with added ghee and black cumin on each fold), combine the two elongated dough portions, placing one on top of the other.
 * 11) Begin to roll up the dough from one end, just as one would do to a sleeping bag. After completely rolled-up, turn it so that it will lay down upon its side (with the coiled rings facing upward).
 * 12) Once rolled-up in this fashion, cover and allow the dough to rest 15 minutes.
 * 13) Take up dough and brush it with ghee (or butter) and sprinkle a little black cumin over its surface. Once again, roll-out the dough with a rolling pin (maintaining its round shape). Dust the flat surface with flour if needed, to prevent its sticking.
 * 14) Take up the flattened dough and place on heated griddle. Add ghee once more and cook until golden on each side.


text:
High School Life Science/Reproduction and Life Stages

Breathing Feeding Growing Sensing Reproducing Excreting Moving

The seven life processes


text:
English-Hanzi/You need to pay attention to the eating amount

You need to pay attention to the eating amount and replace it with wholegrain food if possible. The more food you eat, the more sugar you absorb.

您需要注意饮食量，并尽可能用全麦食品代替. 您吃的食物越多，吸收的糖就越多.


text:
User talk:Manas29

Early life and family
single

title: User talk:Manas29


text:
Making a Programming Language From Scratch

Introduction
This book covers the art of language creation. Making a language is a sophisticated task; however, simple languages can be made by transpiling to other higher level languages and by using lexing and parsing packages such as Bison or Flex. This book does not cover this. It demonstrates the creation of languages from nothing at all, as most commercial languages are. Here, the basic algorithms for conversion, assembly language equivalents for some common statements, the advantages and disadvantages of each type of compilation method, basic lexing and parsing are demonstrated. Note that this book assumes that you have at least a moderate understanding of x86 assembly and can write programs in a language. Keep in mind that language creation is an exhaustive process, and thus will require many days of hard labor to create.

Preliminaries

 * /Decisions/
 * /Line by Line Input System/

Data Declarations

 * /Simple Data Types/
 * /Arrays/
 * /Pointers/
 * /Structures/

Expressions

 * /Simple Expressions/
 * /Complex Expressions/

Conditions

 * /Comparing Two Values/
 * /Complex Conditions/
 * /The Braces Problem/
 * /If statements/
 * /Else if and else/
 * /While statements/

Functions

 * /Localizing/
 * /Function Definitions/
 * /Function Call/

큐베이직 프로그래밍


text:
Talk:Making a Programming Language From Scratch

I will be following up with the missing pages soon Debanshu.Das (discuss • contribs) 12:21, 23 April 2020 (UTC)

No it is not a mistake. As I said I will be creating the missing chapters soon but it will take some time. Debanshu.Das (discuss • contribs) 16:41, 28 April 2020 (UTC)


text:
User:TeamOneLove

Tapiwa Darlington Bhauti, is a Zimbabwean Christian Apologists, Born on 22 March 1992 in Nyanga. He is the first child to his parents.

title: User:TeamOneLove


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User:Brs57/sandbox/geology

 Baja Region of Sonoran Desert

 Geological Origin:

Baja California is located on the west side of Mexico. It is separated by the mainland of Mexico by the Sea of Cortez, making it a peninsula. How it has been mentioned in our visit of Professor Croxen and in our book, Baja California was not a peninsula until the earth started to change. This change is what is now described as Basin and Range, which simply put are mountains or higher land and valleys or lower land. This process which took thousands of years started when the Pacific Plate and the Farallon Plate started to move east under the North American Plate. When the Pacific and Farallon plates were under the North American Plate they started to move northwest. This would stretch out the crust of the earth and create these Basins and Ranges which extends throughout the western United States and northwestern Mexico. Baja California was the westernmost part of the North American Plate which was eventually separated. This also brought in the Sea of Cortez where the Colorado River would flow to when it flowed freely.

 Current Geography:

The peninsula of Baja California is located in the northwestern part of Mexico; it covers an area of 71,777.589 km2. This peninsula extends to almost 1,300 km from north to south and is a land of steep mountain ranges and coastal valleys. Mexicali is a city just south of the US border, and the capital city of Baja California. The Gulf of California (also known as The Sea of Cortez) separates this peninsula with mainland Mexico and the maximum distance between the two is 250 km. The Pacific Ocean lies on the west of Baja California. Several NNW to SSE trending mountain ranges are present on this peninsula, and Picacho del Diablo is the highest peak on the Baja California peninsula, measuring 3,096 meters (10,157 ft). It is alternately called Cerro de la Encantada, "Hill of the Enchanted", "Hill of the Bewitched". The peak is located in the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir, part of the Peninsular Ranges. Desert areas comprise about 65% of the peninsula. The largest desert in Baja California is the Vizcaíno Desert, located in the west-central part, that has been designated a protected Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations. This peninsula has a variety of types of geological environments like coastal wetlands, sandy beaches, over 100 islands mostly located along the Gulf coast.

 Climate:

The climate of the Baja Peninsula ranges from Mediterranean to tropical and 69% of the region is hot deserts with little rainfall in winter with hot and dry summers when temperatures. Being surrounded by the ocean, fog appears in areas closest to water. Change in altitude always comes with a change in temperature. In the Sierra de Baja California, the climate is an alpine climate meaning that it is cooler there in the summers and can get cold during the winter. Forests can be present in the mountains as well as snow during the winter season. However, being home to part of the Sonoran Desert, the summers can be hot and barely mild winters. During summer and fall, tropical storms locally known as chubascos may bring rain and winds that may last for a few hours to a few days. Hurricanes are infrequent, yet occasionally occur from time to time, for e.g. Hurricane John in 2006 severely impacted Cabo Pulmo causing heavy rains and 240 km/hour winds. In conclusion, the climate of Baja California is usually hot in lower elevations and cooler in higher elevations.

 The Cultural Use of Minerals in Baja California and the Gulf of California:

Baja California is home to a total of 161 operating mines in the whole Mexican state. A total of 19 different minerals are being mined which are Gold, Tungsten, Copper, Iron, Silver, Phosphorus-Phosphates, Sulfur, Manganese, Lead, Aluminum, Barium-Barite, Graphite, Silica, Zinc, Zirconium, Titanium, Titanium Metal, Molybdenum, and Chromium. The mines are spread out through the state of Baja California and are broken into 5 different provinces which are placed depending on its location and what is mined. In the first province deposits of mesothermal sulfates of iron, copper and gold are being mined. The second province corresponds to the gold veins distributed along with the whole state. The third province corresponds to deposits of tungsten. The fourth province corresponds to the deposits of manganese sulfites, barite, lead, zinc, and silver. The fifth province involves gold pleasure deposits. Some of the cities in Baja California that have these mines are Tijuana (which has 23 operating mines), Ensenada (which has 13 operating mines) and Mexicali (which has 4 operating mines). More mines are located in other cities and towns throughout the Baja California region.

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User:SidP

SidP is a longtime Wikipedia contributor. He has been, off and on, a professional editor, proofreader and copy editor.

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Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies/Online Learning Communities

< Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies
= Part IV: Environments and Tools: Online Learning Communities =

Introduction
This section of Web 2.0 will discuss Online learning communities and collaborative learning within those online learning communities. Hiltz (1997) defines collaborative learning as a learning process that emphasizes groups of cooperative efforts among faculty and students. As we look further into collaborative learning within the context of online learning communities. Using online platforms to facilitate discussion and collaboration among students is not a new idea, but tools techniques and research is continuing to evolve in this area. Many instructors have been using tools such as wikis, blogs, Google Docs, and forums to facilitate discussions between students and promote collaboration outside of class hours and assignments. Web 2.0 moves students from being consumers of websites and educational content to being active participants, creators, and contributors in the online educational community. By using platforms that allow for creation, tagging, sharing,and remixing of content students and student groups are invited to become active participants and move towards the mind set of “we participate, therefore we are.”

Categories of Online Learning Communities
On January 16, 2001 Wikipedia started a new era of discovering information and resources pertaining to any interest or inquiry. This new form of information seeking and knowledge building created a wave of web-based forms of learning. Years later, web-based forms of learning are among the most popular and well utilized tools in information discovery (Bonk, 2016). Wikipedia defines online learning communities as groups that interact and connect solely through some means of mobile technology and blended learning communities as groups that utilize face-to-face meetings as well as online meetings to engage in educational interactions. There are a vast range of different types of learning that can occur when engaging in online learning communities. Specifically, we are focusing on online communities that support informal web-based collaborative learning.

Informal Online learning
Referring to research surrounding Informal and Self-Directed Online Learning Environments an analysis of 305 informal learning websites was conducted by the “Self-Directed Online Learning Environments (SOLE) Research Team” at Indiana University (IU) (Kim et al., 2014). From this analysis we chose the following the characteristics to define categories of informal online learning (Bonk, 2016). Please note that many informal online learning communities will fall in more than one category. Technological supported language learning resources that integrate sound, voice interaction, text, video, and animation. This category supports real-time interactive learning without being restricted by a physical place and time.
 * Language learning

Outdoor and adventure learning are hybrids of online educational environments where students have opportunities to explore real-world concepts, issues, and topics through an authentic learning experiences within online collaborative learning structures. Often including inquiry-based learning including teamwork, authentic data analysis, and project-based learning to support engagement and interaction.
 * Outdoor and adventure learning

Social change/global resources are communities that aim to educate and inform people about issues and needs. This often creates innovative ways to spread social good and access to learning worldwide. It is also used to empower and inspire people involved in the community.
 * Social change/global

Virtual education refers to online learning environments where teachers and students are not necessarily within the same space or time. The content is provided through course management applications as well as various multimedia and Web 2.0 tools. Virtual education may be managed by organizations and institutions that have been created through alliances and partnerships to facilitate teaching and learning. Many virtual education websites provide tools for both the learner and educator.
 * Virtual education

Learning portals are allocated learning centers that contain educational information on a topic that supports the user and context learning. Information can be obtained based on interest, time, and space of the individual. This information is often current or continually updated.
 * Learning portals

Shared online video includes any educational video (uploaded content and live streaming) that can be watched or shared. Some content is provided in professional contexts while other can be simply home-made. These sites often allow for interaction via comments and messaging. Additionally, videos can allow for downloading of content.
 * Shared online video

Flipgrid
Introduction

Discussions are an important pedagogical tool in today’s online coursework. The benefits for discussions range from promoting critical-thinking and reflection to being useful for engaging all students in course content in a different way. Online discussions that are solely text based are not effective for all students. This type of online discussion often lacks the personal connection that is present when in a classroom based discussion. One tool developed to build online learning communities that is becoming increasingly popular is Flipgrid. When integrating Flipgrid into discussion, students can have online discussions using the short video format which promotes the feeling of in person interaction through online discourse.

Flipgrid is a free platform for educators designed for students and teachers to engage in recorder conversations which include video and audio. Flipgrid is a web-based application that includes an app for mobile use as well. There are two important terms to remember when talking about Flipgrid, the “Grid” and the “Topic.” The grid is where an educator can create their course and holds the discussions for that course. Topics are nested inside the grid and they are the grouped discussions, often separated by questions or topic areas. Within the topics student responses are threaded.

Creating Grids and Topics

When educators are moving to implement Flipgrid into the education experience, they create a free account, and then add a grid using the ‘Add New Grid’ button. With each grid the educator can name the grid and then choose the type of grid they are creating, which is really asking about how people will be able to access the grid they are creating. Then educators will be able to select the flip code hyperlink to share with students so they can join the newly created grid. Two additional methods are available for students to join the grid, QR code and an embed code for adding to a website.

After the creation of the grid the next step is the topic. One feature included in creating topics that is advantageous to educators is the ability to create many topics ahead of time, and having a separate function to share those topics with students. Topics are always titled and can have a text prompt or question added. The option focus feature allows educators to add media resources from many embedded tools including: YouTube Vimeo, Nearpod, Wonderopolis, Giphy, Newslea, Wakelet, and more. When creating a topic there are extended features that can help educators gain feedback on student responses, as well as indicate how students can interact and respond to a topic.

Ideas for Engagement

As Flipgrid continues to grow, their team continues to add new features that engage students and foster the learning community. Some of these ideas are discussed below:

 * Class discussions. This is the most commonly used way educators engage with students. This allows students to share their ideas when they are ready to, thereby giving some students more time to reflect, which boosts overall engagement.
 * Exhibitions of Student presentations. With Flipgrid educators can select the time allowed for student videos up to 10 minutes. This is ideal for presentations that would normally take up class time. A feature that assists with presentations is the Video Moderation, where the educator can review all submissions before they are available for other students to view.
 * Parent Teacher Conferences. Flipgrid can be used to continue to share learning after the end of the parent teacher conference day. Educators can create a grid or topic for parents to ask questions, or share ideas. This helps to include parents into the classroom community and shows them they are an integral part of their child's education.
 * Reflections and Project Overviews.  This can build on student presentations, educators can ask learners to  reflect and summarize presentations or class projects, offering feedback and ideas for future presentations/projects.
 * Environment based learning. With the app for Android and IOS students can take the classroom with them and document hands on learning experiences in their community and environment.

Scratch
Scratch is a free online web based program that allows users to learn to think creatively, reason systematically, and work collaboratively. Scratch is a platform where students can share interactive projects, learn important computational concepts, how to think creatively, reasoning systematically, and work collaboratively. Scratch is used in more than 150 different countries and available in more than 40 languages. Scratch is specifically designed for students ages 8 to 16, but is used by people of all ages. In Scratch students are able to learn at all levels, from elementary school to college as well as learn at levels across all disciplines, such as math, computer science, language arts and social studies.

Scratch is a project of the Lifelong Kindergarten Group at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab. The MIT Scratch Team and collaborators are researching how people use and learn with Scratch. Educators can request a Scratch Teacher Account, which makes it easier to create accounts for groups of students and to manage your students’ projects and comments.

Personalization: People learn best, and enjoy most, when working on personally meaningful projects. Scratch offers students the power of personalization. Scratch has been designed with features that allow users to personalize their projects by importing photos and music clips, recording voices, and creating graphics. The Scratch platform personalizes the development experience by making it easy for students to add personalized content and actively participate in the development process. Students are able to create projects that have personal meaning by adding their own pictures and their own voices.

Community: Millions of people create Scratch projects in a wide variety of settings, including homes, schools, museums, libraries, and community centers. Using block-based coding language users create interactive stories, games, and animations that students can share with others in class or in the online community. This online community allows real-time connections to share and collaborate with millions of users. A popular means of interaction is remixing each other's projects. Students have the capability to modify another student's projects, typically keeping some form of the original content. Remixing another student's work does not affect the original project but instead creates a web connecting the videos for all users to see. Students are also able to connect with other peers through comments on projects and messaging. Additionally, educators can share stories, exchange resources, ask questions, and find people on the ScratchEd website.

Prodigy
Prodigy is a free web-based, adaptive math game that integrates common-core math into a fantasy style interactive .game-based learning a step further. Prodigy provides teachers with a powerful reporting and assessment tools that allows easily identified trouble spots, dynamic instruction, and management of classroom supported activities. There are over 1200 crucial mathematical pedagogies and practices embedded in Prodigy. These practices are aligned with the Common Core State Standards for Grades 1- 8. Educators can inform their classrooms with 24/7 reporting. Everything students work on in Prodigy is reported back to the instructor in real-time Prodigy allows educators to address students' individual needs with a diagnostic test that places students in the appropriate grade, embedded with assessments, and automatic differentiation. Prodigy also ensures that students succeed at their own pace.

Prodigy supports collaborative learning by creating content that delivers instruction through small groups that empower students to work together to build their understanding of topics and concepts. Adapted from Marcus Guido(2017), here are five aspects of cooperative learning that drive Prodigy's success in collaborative learning :

 * 1) Positive Interdependence - Students should see that each group member’s efforts are important to both individual and team success.
 * 2) Promotive Interaction - Students should empower each other by offering help, praise, feedback and resources.
 * 3) Accountability - Each student must accept responsibility for fulfilling his or her role, helping the team reach its learning goals.
 * 4) Soft Skills Instruction - Interpersonal skills are needed to effectively work in groups. Instructors should give lessons and activities about teamwork.
 * 5) Group Processing - Groups strategize how to meet individual and group learning goals.

These aspects work slightly differently depending on which type of cooperative learning you use.

Tips for Facilitating Collaborative Learning Activities in Online Learning Communities
When introducing collaborative learning activities into online learning communities educators should think about how they can facilitate discussions that help students dig deeper. Collaborative learning stresses active participation and interaction on the part of both students and instructors (Hiltz, 1997). In Clark (2011) Online learning environments and communities are defined as distinct, pedagogically meaningful and comprehensive where learners and educators participate in the learning process whenever and wherever they please. When a group does not physically meet at a fixed location and interval this can make collaboration more difficult. The following methods that can be used to facilitate collaboration in Online Learning Communities below are adapted from Clark (2011):
 * Policies for the Course- Where an educator plans ahead and has clear policies and procedures for interactions, it is easier for the students to understand what is expected of them both individually and as a group.
 * Distinct Work-spaces- Each group should have different work-spaces that can be used for discussion and building their group projects, these group workspaces should be private to the group members and not available to other groups in the course.
 * Debates- A controversial topic is stated and then students post their opinions, points, and theories trying to convince other students of their position. At the end of the debate a vote or poll can be taken.
 * Role Playing- The educator can assign issues and students can work together as experts to collaborate and present solutions to the issue.
 * Group-Created Stories- This method involves educators assigning groups an introductory paragraph, then the group members would each take a turn submitting the next paragraph to the story, until all have participated and they complete the story.
 * Group Lists- This type of activity involves the instructor creating an issue and then defining the constructs where each student contributes something they think will help to solve the issue, and once all solutions and supports are listed, discussions on priority and value of solutions and supports take place. One example of this is an camping expedition, where each student can only carry a certain amount of supplies and they all need to work together to create a full supply list for a successful camping expedition.
 * Structured Controversy- When employing a structured controversy the educator divides the group into two and groups are given a position to take. Then groups work together to research and present supporting information for their groups position. Next the groups switch positions and repeat the activity. After each group has presented both positions, a vote can take place to determine the class’ position based on the highest consensus.

Informal Cooperative Learning Strategies
Informal cooperative learning strategies involve creating groups that work together to achieve a common and straightforward learning goal. This strategy can be between a few minutes to an entire class. Instructors should provide clear instruction and assign the completion of a product in forms as a written or spoken answer.

Here are two strategies to try:

Use the Jigsaw Method The jigsaw method encourages social interaction between different groups as well as the whole class, this is a very popular technique among many teachers. The method consists of dividing a task into subtasks for each individual as well as assigning one to each group member. Students then work in groups to play the role of experts by analyzing guided research, or holding discussions with students from other groups handling the task. They then return to their original groups to share new knowledge. This approach teaches students how important individual contributions are to meeting group goals.

Give a Pre- and Post-Task Test One of the best ways to gauge how well groups are doing is to give each student a test before and after working together. For example, students can complete a short quiz focusing on a specific learning goal. Then students should get into groups and engage in chosen methods of online learning, focusing on those skills and the overarching topic. After, give a similar quiz of equal difficulty. Hopefully, students should improve on testing scores. If not, consider spending more time with struggling base groups or rearranging groups altogether, giving insight as to what successful and unsuccessful teams are doing differently.

The Future of Online Learning Communities
Looking to the future of online learning communities, much is being done in the fields of Virtual Reality(VR), Augmented Reality(AR), and Artificial Intelligence (AI), that can support the collaborative experience of learning online. It is expected that artificial intelligence in U.S. education will grow by 47.5% from 2017-2021 according to the Artificial Intelligence Market in the US Education Sector report (Marr,2018). AI technology is still developing especially within the context of education, with the aim for AI to allow students and teachers to do more than ever before, including the following:
 * Increase Personalization - By assisting teachers who are managing classrooms of 25+ to adjust learning based on individual student needs, identifying gaps and redirecting students to new topics. As we look toward the future it might even be possible for AI to read student expressions to pick up if the student is struggling to grasp a subject.
 * Create Universal Access - Making adaptable and accessible classrooms and connections available to connect students globally, regardless of language barriers or hearing or visual impairment, or physical ability. AI can help break down siloed traditional schools and access.
 * Automate Administrative Tasks- Moving beyond simply grading multiple choice test, the future of AI includes assessment of written responses and offering recommendations for closing gaps in learning. This integration can open up the teacher to spend more time with each student.
 * Increase Support Outside the Classroom- Things like chatbots are already in place on some college campuses, this AI powered technology may soon be available to support all students with homework and test preparation and moving to the future they may even be able to respond to a range of unique learning styles.

Education is starting to adopt technology and tools now more than ever before. Looking to the future of online learning communities the limits are endless and collaboration is being fostered through ways in which education researchers of the past only imagined.

Conclusion
Online learning Communities offer affordances that have continued to transform the expectations of what learners learn and as well as how learners learn. Unfortunately, traditional classroom settings attempt to harness these present-day expectations to aid learning with stagnant tools. Online learning Communities are learning tools that have the capability to bridge, transform, and innovate physically and virtually any learning environment. Instructors are encouraged to incorporate forms blended learning and collaboration to assess knowledge and perceptions built by the learners and their online learning environments.


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User:Positivelives/sandbox

Positive Lives

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