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Exercise as it relates to Disease/The tools for fun in school

u3068778 Tim Johnston

This is a critique an article from the European Journal of Public Health titled "Increasing Children’s Physical Activity Levels During Recess Periods in Elementary Schools: The Effects of Providing Game Equipment".

What is the background to this research?
This experiment was conducted to gain perspective as to whether kids are getting necessary daily exercise. Previous studies found that with physical education classes alone children weren’t receiving the proper amounts of exercise.

The author has stated that previous experiments have focused on utilising time during physical education classes in order to increase physical activity, however this article aims at looking at recess and lunch times. This could potentially be more effective as there is more time during these periods and children have more freedom to do as they please.

The results of this article become paramount as previous articles have stated the importance of early childhood exercise. Proper education in physical activity from an early age teaches children to be physically active. As discussed by Coe and colleagues (2006) as children progress through school there is less pressure to remain physically active, therefore adolescents are not meeting their physical activity requirements and unknowingly putting their health at risk. Self-efficacy and social influences are positively correlated with high intensity activities, meaning the more involved in activities a child is, the results will be a healthier social life and a better perception of themselves (Strauss et al., 2001).

The author has previous experience in physical education interventions. She has completed various other studies, looking to alter the physical activity levels of people. Demonstrating her ability to confidently manage the current study.

Where is the research from?
The study was based in Belgium, the experiment involved seven elementary schools involving 235 students. 122 children (four schools, 75 boys and 47 girls, mean age of 10.8) were in the intervention group, and 113 children (three schools, 46 boys and 67 girls) were used in the control group. It is unclear why there was a significant gender difference between the control group and the intervention group, this difference in the group could have skewed the data, as they state that girls were less likely to participate in moderate to vigorous activity. Speculatively, this could have been a conscious decision to exacerbate the results of the study, or this could simply be a coincidence of the school student ratio.

On a general basis the results of the project may be relevant to Australian schools, however, in depth analysis is required to determine if the climate of school children exercise levels and the results of the study are similar.

What kind of research was this?
This research was a pretest post-test design, meaning prior to the commencement of the experiment the participants were tested to determine their usual MET readings. After the three month experiment the participants were tested again. The results were compared using ANOVA.

What did the research involve?
The research involved looking at the levels of physical activity for children during recess and lunch. This involved gathering data from MTI Actigraph accelerometers that were used by the school children, and using SPSS for Windows (12.0) for statistical analysis. Several studies have validated the use of accelerometers when measuring exercise amounts in children (Trost et al., 2002, Wickel et al., 2007).

What were the basic results?
The results show that the intervention group had increased levels of physical activity throughout the cohort, on all measures of physical activity (low, moderate, vigorous and moderate to vigorous) during both recess and lunch. The results in recess were a little more varied, however that could due to the time limit and the inability to organise a game in the amount of time available.

The article has stated that these measures were slightly higher than previous studies. Comprehensive previous studies and results have been provided, describing how they differ to the current experiment, demonstrating proper analysis of previous projects, and also demonstrating how the current results varied from others.

The statistical measures used for the experiment were sound, as they used ANOVA (both between and within subjects testing) to determine the variance between the intervention and control group.

The accelerometers used have been proven previous to be effective instruments for measuring physical activity (Wetten et al., 2014, Caprio et al., 2010,). Conversely other articles (Saint-Maurice et al., 2016 & Wickel et al., 2007) have discussed the use of adult MET readings on children (as this experiment has done) and the resulting difficulties in attaining accurate readings. This point may have disrupted the validity of the research results.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
The conclusions we can take from this is that children are more likely to play active games during lunch and recess when there is additional play equipment to use. Which leads to children achieving their daily moderate/vigorous activity, improving their overall health.

The experiment comprehensively covered all aspects of the research and came to a sound conclusion. They have mentioned further research areas and limitations in their study.

As mentioned in the discussion a significant limitation for the project is the lack of consideration for the input from teachers during recess and lunch. Previous studies have placed significant importance on the influence of adults on children’s physical activity levels. This could have affected the experiment as the play equipment may not have been the only factor in increasing physical activity, therefore possibly skewing the results.

Practical advice
As previously mentioned, the need to ensure good physical activity habits is paramount in children. A useful and easy method of engaging children in physical activity is to provide play equipment they can use. Simply implements like a soccer ball, or jump ropes have been proven to be effective toys to get children moving.

Further information/resources
https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/benefits-of-physical-activity-for-children

https://www.dsr.wa.gov.au/support-and-advice/participation/youth/active-parent-education-kit/benefits-of-physical-activity-for-your-children

https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/exercise.html


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History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Graphics

Wiki graphics help pages
This page is for use as a ready reference for all things graphic, especially the various help guides in Wikimedia, Wikipedia and Wikibooks

Wikimedia Basic Uploading Pages

 * Commons: First steps/Uploading files

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 * Commons: Guide to batch uploading

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 * Commons:Infobox_templates - Comparison of all templates by fields

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Object Oriented Programming/Abstraction Barrier

Data Abstraction
The idea behind data abstraction is to identity certain ways or operations data is expressed and manipulated. Once this is done, the goal is then to use only those operations when it comes to manipulating data. Restricting the use of operations, makes it much easier to change the representation of abstract data without changing a program's behavior.

Examples
A few examples of abstraction barriers can be found in this table from composing programs.com, which demonstrates how different types of abstraction barriers can handle rational numbers.

The last column 'using only' demonstrates an extraction barrier being enforced. The functions are called from higher levels then, implented through a lower level of abstraction.

Abstraction Barrier Violations
Violations occur when a program that has the ability to use a higher level function, instead uses one in a lower level. An example would be referring directly to numerators and denominators in your code rather then just using mul_rational, a function that does not assume anything about how a rational number is implemented.

Composingprograms.com examples -

>>> def square_rational(x): return mul_rational(x, x) Correct: code is simple and makes no assumptions on rational number implementation.

>>> def square_rational_violating_once(x): return rational(numer(x) * numer(x), denom(x) * denom(x)) Incorrect: violates one abstraction barrier, by directly referring to numerators and denominaters making code more complex then needed.

>>> def square_rational_violating_twice(x): return [x[0] * x[0], x[1] * x[1]] Also incorrect due too making extra assumption rationals are represented as two element list. This would be considered two abstraction barrier violations.

In short, abstraction barriers make programs easier to maintain and modify, by using as few functions as possible to represent operations so fewer changes will be needed to be made to the code in order to change it's representation. Remember simplicity is better then complexity, especially when it comes to abstraction barriers.


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching

This article is regards to comparing and seeking the benefits of Treadmill, Tango and Stretching on people with Parkinson Disease (PD).

What is the background to this research?
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer. PD is destroys pigmented aminergic brain stem neurons in the brain. Without these cells which produce dopamine, the brain slowly losses its control of movement over time. This causes symptom's such as tremor or shaking, muscle rigidity or stiffness, slowing of movement, stooped posture and balance problems. PD also brings non movement symptoms and problems, these include depression, anxiety, fatigue and sleep disorders. It has been shown that these are commonly missed by treating doctors.

The onset of PD can be typically seen in ages 50-65 however research has shown that there is a higher percentage of people with PD over the age of 65. In 2016, 6.1 million people had PD globally and 211,296 deaths occurred due to PD.

To date there has been no cure found for PD, however there are medications which minimize the effects of the motor control symptoms of the disease. Further research has shown the benefits of exercising and improving the functionality of movement including gait for people with PD. It has been found that interventions such as stretching, aerobic activities, strength and balance training have shown to be beneficial for functionality, movement, gait speed, strength and balance.

Where is the research from?

 * This study was undertaken at the Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis, Missouri

 * The funding for the study was from Greater St Louis Chapter of the American Parkinson Disease Association (APDA), Parkinson Study Group and the Parkinson’s Disease Foundation’s Advancing Parkinson’s Treatments Innovations Grant, Barnes Jewish Hospital Foundation (Elliot Stein Family Fund and Parkinson Disease Research Fund), ad APDA Advanced Research Center at Washington University in St Louis.

 * All of the authors have PhD and are respected in their fields. They have also been apart of other studies.

What kind of research was this?

 * This study was a Prospective Controlled Trial.

 * The participants were serially assigned to either of the three interventions.

 * A Prospective trial is a valid study design which provides valuable data and future proof however they can be expensive and require funding.

 * Although a Prospective Controlled Trial is not the Gold standard it is still reliable study design which produces minimal bias.

What did the research involve?
The Research involved Participants with idiopathic Parkinson's Disease take part in a 12 week study which included three exercise interventions and they were Tango, treadmill and stretching. They recruited from Washington University School of Medicine's Movement Disorders Center, the Greater St Louis Area Chapter of the American Parkinson Disease Association, and the St Louis community. The study design was based around community exercise classes and they had to complete 2 classes per week over the 12 week period. The participants were tested Pre, post the 12 weeks and also had follow up testing 12 weeks after the completion of the study.

119 people enrolled for the study however over the different stage people left for various reasons.

The sessions went for 1 hour which included a light warm up and cool down.

Limitations in methodology:
 * The main limitation that can be seen is that the participants were off Anti medication during the trial and follow up. This means that the results would not reflect every day life for the participants as many would usually take their medication. If they were taking medication the results might have differed most likely improving however we do not know which intervention would of improved or declined.
 * Another limitation is the loss of participants from baseline to follow up which could have potentially effected the results.

What were the basic results?

 * Forward Velocity improved in the treadmill group

 * Backward velocity improved in Tango however it was not a significant change. However there was significant results of improvement for the treadmill and stretching group between baseline and post testing. Treadmill also improved at the follow up test.

 * Tango improved the most in timed walking distance by 4.4%.

 * Tango group included a lot of standing around and learning the movements which could have limited the results.

 * Stretching group may have improved for the backward velocity through an increase in flexibility.

What conclusions can we take from this research?

 * Exercise in particular walking on a treadmill, stretching and Tango can be beneficial for someone with PD to improve their movement functionality.
 * The treadmill and Stretching were seen to be the key factor in improving forward velocity and backward velocity.
 * Tango could potentially help with walking speed however further research needs to be completed.

Practical advice

 * Further research needs to be undertaken that includes PD participants that are on medication. If they are off anti PD medication it does not demonstrate their day to day life as most people diagnosed with PD take medication.
 * This study and others have shown that exercise can be beneficial for the movement functionality, gait speed and balance. However there have been no significant results from these studies suggesting exercise helps with the psychological effects such as depression so further research needs to be done.
 * The combination of exercise and medication will on increase the benefits of reducing physical symptoms of PD.

Further information/resources

 * Critiqued Study - https://journals.lww.com/jnpt/Fulltext/2019/01000/Exercise_and_Parkinson_Disease__Comparing_Tango,.4.aspx
 * Parkinson Australia - https://www.parkinsons.org.au/
 * Brain Foundation - https://brainfoundation.org.au/disorders/parkinsons-disease/
 * Neurological Alliance - https://www.msaustralia.org.au/about-msa/neurological-alliance-australia-naa


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Exercise as it relates to Disease/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis

''This is a critique of the research article: Whitney R.D. Duff, Justin W. Andrushko, Doug W. Renshaw, Philip D. Chilibeck, Jonathan P. Farthing, Jana Danielson, and Charity D. Evans (2018) Impact of Pilates Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis. International Journal of MS Care: March/April 2018, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 92-100.''

The critique was written for a wiki assignment for Health, Disease and Exercise (8365) at the University of Canberra, September 2019.

What is the background to this research?
Before it was suggested that people living with multiple sclerosis (MS) should avoid exercise. However these days, those with MS can tolerate physical exercise, which is helpful in managing symptoms, preventing complications and comorbidities as well as maintaining overall well being. Pilates training is a series of exercises, based on whole-body movements that focuses on body structure, body alignment and muscle recruitment with an emphasis on stabilizing core muscles during dynamic movements. Pilates may have a beneﬁcial effect because activation of core muscles could combat difﬁculties with mobility and balance in persons with MS. Despite this, a meta-analysis of 12 studies of 2360 patients with MS, cumulative evidence suggested that patients with MS are less physically active than people without the disease.

The purpose of the present study was to see if Pilates specific training on persons with MS, could improve mobility and determine the effect of Pilates in walking performance in people with multiple sclerosis. The importance of this study can help influence different types of training adaptations such as Pilates training in the physical therapy of persons with MS, which could promote further investigation into why this specific type of training is beneficial in the well being of persons with multiple sclerosis.

Where is the research from?
The Authors of this study, Whitney R.D. Duff (College of Medicine), PhD; Justin W. Andrushko (College of Kinesiology), MSc; Doug W. Renshaw (College of Kinesiology), MEd; Philip D. Chilibeck (College of Kinesiology), PhD; Jonathan P. Farthing (College of Kinesiology), PhD; Jana Danielson (College of Kinesiology), MBA;  Charity D. Evans (College of Pharmacy and Nutrition), all have extensive knowledge in this study, planned and implemented by the Consortium of Multiple Sclerosis Centers in Canada. The assessment was undertaken at the University of Saskatchewan and the intervention at Lead Pilates and Integrative Therapies sites, both located in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.

What kind of research was this?
The study conducted on the Impact of Pilates Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis was a RCT - Randomized Controlled Trial. Which means people are allocated at random to receive one of several clinical interventions. RCT reduces bias and provides a outcomes to examine a cause-effect relationship between an intervention and an outcome. This is because the RCT balances out participants attributes between groups, allowing characteristic differences between the groups, this is not possible with any other design such as observational or meta-analysis.

What did the research involve?
A total of 30 individuals (15 female, 15 male) were obtained through the local MS Society of Canada office and social media from November 20, 2016, through January 20, 2017. The criteria was kept broad that consisted of a diagnosis of MS, that were not restricted to a wheelchair or scooter.

The 12-week study involved a randomization of the 30 participants where a Pilates and a control group were formed, that included a baseline and post-intervention results. The Pilates group were given an exercise program that included a range of exercises, such as the CoreAlign "hoof" which focused on gait and "angles in the snow", which focused on shoulder mobility. Progression was added over the course of the period, with instructors to observe each participants ability to focus on proper breathing, correct body alignment and core stabilization. The Pilates group also received weekly 1-hour massage therapy session with a registered massage therapist specifically trained in massage for MS.

Participants in the control group received a weekly 1 -hour massage therapy session. The researchers decided to include a massage session because it had the potential to improve health outcomes in persons with MS, such as pain and stress, without minimal effect on walking ability. The control group did not receive a Pilates training program, but were not restricted from performing other exercise during the study period.

The primary outcomes was walking ability which was assessed via the 6-Minute Walk Test (6MWT). Secondary outcomes included Timed Up and Go (TUG) test where studies have shown it as a measure of functional mobility in both clinical and research practice in persons with MS; Sit and reach test for flexability; Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale (FABS) for balance; Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry for body composition; Plank-Hold test for core endurance and Maximum Voluntary Contraction for quadriceps strength. Test for fatigability and voluntary muscle activation were also assessed.

What were the basic results?
The results showed that the intervention group improved walking distance by a mean of 52.4m compare with 15.0m in the control group with the 6MWT. Results for the TUG functional ability test showed an improvement in the left turn compared to the right turn, with the mean decrease of 1.5 seconds in the intervention group compared to an increase of 0.3 seconds for the control group. There were no major differences between group for secondary outcomes, for balance and flexibility presented in the data below.

What conclusions can we take from this research?
The conclusion we can take from this study design can be the fact that any type of exercise whether it be walking or functional training can be beneficial for persons with MS.

The study design covered certain aspects of the research and came to a sound conclusion that 'Pilates is a safe and effective exercise option for improving mobility in individuals with MS'. The researchers have also expressed the need for future studies in comparing Pilates training with other training therapies and evaluate and compare outcomes in MS. The have also mentioned limitations to their study.

A primary focus of the study plan focused on mobility, which is a limitation of the fact that mobility is not a symptom for all individuals with MS. Other limitations include tests which were not specific to MS, such as the Fullterton Advances Balance Scale which was developed to identify balance in older adults.

Practical advice

 * As shown in recent studies, the benefits for physical activity far out whey the negatives, and when coupled with a specific training program, can improve quality of life, increase mobility, strength, cardiovascular fitness and even better cognition based speed of information processing.
 * Given the value of physical activity for health outcomes, Pilates is a safe and effective exercise option for individuals with MS which can correlate into improved healthy parameters, or a bridge between more intense and other forms of physical activity.

Further information/resources
Information related material

What is multiple sclerosis

Multiple Sclerosis Australia

Brain foundation: Multiple Sclerosis information and support

Exercise and Activity

Maintaining a healthy lifestyle

Pilates training: positive change

CoreAlign Hoof exercise

CoreAlign Angels in the Snow


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User:Jemmo1998/sandbox

This Wikibooks page is a critical appraisal of the journal article "

title: User:Jemmo1998/sandbox


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Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20

Welcome
Hello and welcome to the Wikibook Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019–20.

This book is collaboratively written by students at University College London (UCL) taking the module 'Approaches to Knowledge', a first-year undergraduate course that forms part of the core of the Arts and Sciences degree programme.

The book is split into four sections, covering four common issues facing those conducting interdisciplinary work:

 * History
 * Truth
 * Evidence
 * Power

Each chapter explores how one of these issues might play out in an actual example of interdisciplinary work.

Potential readers may range from stakeholders in interdisciplinary education (e.g. educators or policy-makers) to students thinking of pursuing an interdisciplinary degree programme, either at UCL or elsewhere.

This book is a sequel to the Wikibook Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2018-19.

Any interested parties can contact the module convenors, James Everest and Lauren Bird, for further information. Contact details are available on the UCL Arts and Sciences departmental webpage.

History

 * History of the Nuclear Family in Britain
 * /The issue of History in the 2013 - 2016 EVD epidemic/
 * /The Issue of History in Wellbeing/

Truth

 * /Truth in Lie Detection through Neurolaw/
 * /Truth in the Ted Bundy Case/
 * Truth in Free Will
 * Truth in The Nanjing Massacre
 * /Truth in the Prison System/
 * /Truth in the Formation of Social Groups/
 * Truth in Nazi Germany
 * /Truth in the Creation of the Universe/
 * /Truth in Gender/
 * Truth in the treatment of hysteria: from ancient Greece to the end of the 19th century
 * /Truth in Abortion/
 * /Interdisciplinary Depictions of Human Nature/
 * /Truth in Cults/
 * /Truth in Cambridge Analytica Scandal/
 * Truth in The Advertisement of Tobacco

Evidence

 * Evidence in Dreams' Significance
 * /Evidence in Religious Experience/
 * /Evidence in the Causes of Homosexuality/
 * /Evidence in the Afterlife/
 * /Evidence in the Nature of Crime/
 * /Evidence in Intermittent Fasting/
 * /Evidence in the Diagnosis of Schizophrenia/
 * Evidence of the Vichy-Regime after World War Two
 * /Evidence: Is private school really better than public school?/
 * /Evidence in Addiction/

Power

 * /Power in corporate aggregation/
 * /Power in single-parent families/
 * Power in the impact of Pornography
 * /Power of the Unconscious in Decision Making/
 * /Power and Pregnancy/
 * /Power in Guilt/
 * /Power in Blaxploitation Cinema/
 * /Power Over Disney Princesses/
 * /Power in Voluntourism/
 * /Power in climate action/
 * /Power in Film Production/
 * /The Power of the Hijab/
 * /Power in the United States Opioid Crisis/

title: Issues in Interdisciplinarity 2019-20


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User:JREverest/sandbox/Approaches to Knowledge/Seminar group 1/Power

Power in History
It is no secret that those in power largely have the ability to alter the past. People in powerful positions can alter historical stories that exist in people's minds, for many reasons. Mainly, this is done to justify ones' own actions. An example of this can be seen in Venezuelan Politics, where Maduro has altered past events to justify his own actions. For instance, Maduro supports Bolivar's revolution in the 19th century, as it is largely akin to his coup at the dawn of the 21st century. Maduro has justified many other coups in addition to this in the past, ignoring the constitutionally illegitimate aspects of them to justify his own actions. This is not only done by Maduro. Many politicians support others' who are acting in a fashion that they'd like to, to justify it. For instance, many see Russia and Turkey allying with Syria as a sign of things to come in those nations, perhaps following Assad's autocratic nature of government. Russia and Turkey can largely be seen as 'competitive autocracies' (coined by Levitsky, 2010) which could easily fall into the pit of dictatorship. If Erdogan and Putin were to condemn the actions of Assad, they would not be able to act in that way themselves. It would be hypocritical to condemn such actions. Therefore, these politicians are likely to explain Assad's actions in a way that is far from the truth, to justify it. What this creates, is a distortion in history through power. These effects disciplines' ability to research the topic and learn more about it.

Power in Neuropsychopharmacology
The study of psychedelic compounds has been greatly affected by power. Although the past decade has seen a resurgence in psychedelic research, there is a lot of social baggage, a struggle to find funding and a rather shallow bank of knowledge about the uses and nature of these classical psychedelics such as LSD as a result of the dynamic of power between government and researchers.

LSD was first synthesized in 1938 by Albert Hoffman, and in the years to follow it became apparent it could have substantial therapeutic applications. Indeed, 1960 saw the start of the Harvard Psilocybin Project where researchers led by Timothy Leary researched their potential. Areas of interest were its use in treating mental disorders like schizophrenia, substance abuse and depression. However, the extent that these psychedelic compounds engaged the youth greatly concerned the government due to the left-leaning anti-government position that users seemed to be left with that led to resistance to the Vietnam War. By 1966, the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) shut down all psychedelic research and LSD was made illegal which halted the promising strides being made.

Psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin remain illegal, Schedule I substances in the USA, with activists and researchers attempting to legalize these compounds for research and recreational use in many different states. However, the fact that this direction must be taken, battling legislation and requiring so much administration for every development is a result of the relationship between power and this field.

Power in medical research and public policies
While different forms of contraception already existed since Ancient Times or during the Middle Ages, it is from 1855 that appears the first form of male contraception of the modern period, but this does not seem at the time to be regulated by any medical or national institution. It is in 1960 that contraception becomes a medical and social issue: societies starts talking about new methods of contraception, the opening of women's rights, and the emergence of several social movements on these themes. It is indeed in 1961 that the international association "Family Planning Association" opens the access to the contraceptive pill in France and in the United Kingdom, which is perceived by several religious entities, in particular, Catholicism, as a danger because contrary to its values. The more the issue of women's rights is discussed, the more virulent the debate became between certain groups or associations with significant power and influence over the public opinion. With the opening of the voluntary termination of pregnancy, or abortion, political or religious groups around the world were able to slow down the opening and legalization, while others aimed to accelerate it, although this medical practice does not directly concern all the associations involved. Examples include "Laissez-Les-Vivre " in France, "National Right to Life Committee " in the US or "SPUC " in the UK. The role of these groups of powers, which some would define by the word "lobby" remains difficult to define. However, for the most part, the actions of these political groups have led to the decriminalization of abortion only, and not an authorization or regulation by law. The same went for the contraceptive pill back in the 1960's.

In a different example, to illustrate the role of some organizations or political entities in medicine and scientific research, we can mention the HIV crisis. As early as 1985, when the disease appeared, and research began, some associations for the defense of patients were created, including Act Up, in the 1980s in London, in 1987 in New York , and in 1989 in Paris. While around 1985, HIV seemed to affect more the LGBTQ+ community, some governments are reluctant to fund research or to inform about methods of protection against HIV, considering that the disease affects only a minority (an attitude that Act Up denounced several times). While the Catholic Church condemned the use of condoms in 1989, Act Up Paris, for instance, led actions to counter this message and to inform about the need for protection to fight against HIV. While some laboratories refused to share their research on HIV, for unknown reasons, some were targeted by ACT UP associations around the world who denounced a homophobic behavior and called for progress in research, while some governments did not even participate in the HIV treatment research in the first place. Through the HIV crisis, there was a real clash between different groups of powers and forms of power; while the role of the governmental power is at the same time disputed for its inaction then encouraged for its financial participation in the medical research, associations demonstrated their influence over the public opinion, and thus their power, through demonstrations, die-in, sitting, while being limited by their lack of financial means. These associations representing patients, defending LGBTQ+ rights clash in debates with conservative associations or medical associations, which considered that other researches should be on a higher priority than HIV. These demonstrations of different forms of power through these social or health crises underlines how the scientific research community or the medical community can easily be hijacked, influenced or encouraged by a political entity.

Regarding a current major health crisis, Ebola, an analysis of the actors in power would also be appreciated to study how different entities of power play a role in the disease regulation. Between some governments accused of diverting funds from research to the benefit of other sectors, public or private, or accusations of corruption, through the management of patients, they are various authorities and actors involved directly or not which participates in eliminating the disease. WHO regulations to prevent the spread of the disease, for example, have also played a different role: by equipping mandatory caregivers full protective clothing, populations, especially in countries in Africa have lost confidence in health centres and are not trusting caretaker anymore. Almost every day now, patients will no longer be treating themselves or will attack health centres because they consider that these centres contaminate more than they heal. The presence of different forms of authority, such as governments, WHO or populations, complicates the situation of the epidemic and can worsen the situation. This is why considering various forms of power in a health or social crisis is necessary to solve the crisis or understand it. Medicine and scientific research must, therefore, take into account how public policies will be adapted to be effective. Is this then, a new challenge for medicine and research today?

Power and the Antivax Movement
Andrew Wakefield was a fully qualified, highly experienced physician, holding a degree from Imperial College Medical School, then St Mary's Hospital School. He had power in the sense that he was trusted as a medical professional to deliver information and guidance to the public on how best to take care of themselves. In 1998, Wakefield released a study saying that a group of 12 children had been given the MMR vaccine, and within two weeks had begun to show signs of autism. Scientifically, the reliability of the study's methodology was dubious regardless of the conclusions; a sample size of twelve does not lend to representative results and no scientist could achieve vaguely similar results implying the study was not reproducible. Furthermore, the financial motive behind the apparently unrelated enquiry into whether some children had been harmed by the MMR vaccine for which Wakefield was paid by lawyers who had argued against vaccine-producing companies in the past calls into question whether Wakefield's motives for the study were to provide accurate information, or biased information that benefits those who are paying him, hence skewing his results to be optimally beneficial. Although many investigations were done to look into and eventually discredit Wakefield's study, and journals such as the British Medical Journal publishing articles stating the financial motives behind the conclusions, the damage had been done. Having been published on The Lancet, a prestigious, well-credited peer-reviewed journal, once the information went public it arguably caused MMR vaccination rates to drop between 2000-2004 to 79.9%, the lowest since the triple vaccine was introduced in 1990. The result of this was the incidences of measles in 2007-2008 being almost as high as the incidences for the previous eleven years combined. The Hippocratic Oath is sworn by all doctors to uphold ethical standards and essentially states that doctors have a duty to care for their patients as people, without ever causing them harm or denying them help. By abusing his power of medical knowledge and the obligation held to him by members of the public, Wakefield not only violated this oath but also the trust of those who listened to him. His malpractice not only affected those who believed the results of his study but also those who did not, but cannot be vaccinated due to other health conditions such as a vaccine component allergy that may rely on herd immunity. Academic professionals must be cautious with how they present their findings and use their intellectual power, as it can never be predicted how one episode of either intentional or unintentional malpractice may affect so many people for years to come.

Power Structures in the Sciences
Power can be defined as being able to have an effect on or as having authority or control over something. Power structures often manifest through different forms of discrimination, and these are also prevalent in academia. In the Sciences, for instance, exisiting power structures are reflected by the underrepresentation of women and their structural disadvantage within the field.

Various research has shown that women are still significantly underrepresented in the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Additionally, female scientists have generally less career chances, higher positions usually remain in the hands of men and the number of women publishing in renowned journals as well as a female first authorship trails male authorship.

The underlying causes for these gender discrepancies can be traced back to subtle sexist belief systems and structures. For instance, one potential cause for the difference between male and female authorship is thought to be the following: Women are less often chosen to supervise a research project for younger researchers because female success is not seen as having the same high standard as equivalent success of men. In line with this is the assertion by the National Academics of Science, Engineering, and Medicine that women are underrepresented in Sciences because implicit stereotypes and gender-dependent assumptions underlie all interaction within the workspace. As a result, the academic culture systematically facilitates men's careers and impedes on women's professional pathway

Intended use of Genetic studies
Expand understanding how some diseases are influenced by genetics e.g. CF (Cystic fibrosis), Huntington’s disease, in an almost autonomous way through inheriting a mutated version. These diseases will be highly penetrant. Whereas in other cases, diseases such as diabetes and heart diseases, variables determining probability of diagnosis depends on interaction between multiple genes and the environment. In addition, having certain combination of genetic make-up may influence a person’s susceptibility to e.g. HIV, Influenza and other infectious pathogens. Cancer research is also heavily dependent on and related to genetics, which influence treatment and medication.

Economic Power through Development of GM produces
GM crops introduced to farmers in rural communities of varying social structures and farming systems

Economic power with GM goods, exploit scale, GM-free private standards?

Increase cost for farmers and consumers, more profits to agricultural suppliers

Origin of the Notion of 'Race Science’
Rooted from modern western sciences. Claim that there are evolutionary bases for disparities in social outcomes e.g. life expectancy, IQ, education, wealth, predisposed to violence etc. between racial groups.

Use as pseudoscience by alt-right to justify ethno-nationalist politics and contentions.

Research publications continued to be perpetuated by private funding and allow the idea of racial segregation to revive.

Notable historic case can be seen in The Holocaust, WWII Nazi Germany.

'Race Science' evolved and shifted into social science as the study of racism

Controversial use of Biotech – Eugenics and Human Genome Project
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1918077/

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-03479-3

Further Reads
Saini, A. (2019). Superior: The Return of Race Science. [online] HarperCollins Publishers. Available at: https://www.harpercollins.co.uk/9780008341008/superior-the-return-of-race-science/[Accessed 12 Nov. 2019].

Case Study: UCL to investigate eugenics conference secretly held on campus https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/jan/10/ucl-to-investigate-secret-eugenics-conference-held-on-campus

Power and Corruption
Power's definition and application has many effects which can be studied in the social sciences. According to an article from the online newspaper Smithsonian, power brings out both the best and the worst in people. The article first relies on a well-known psychological experiment carried out in the Stanford Prison in 1971 (SPE). This experiment focused on the relation between prisoners and prisoners officers which was ruled by power. This social psychology experiment led by Philip Zimbardo lasted 6 days where students were assigned either of the 2 roles in a mock prison. The "guards" quickly started to abuse from their position ; enforcing authoritarian measures and even psychological torture to their fellow students. Some "prisoners" accepted the embodiment while others rebelled. This experiment's outcomes show that power influences people and they may not even realize its consequence on their behavior.

Power can bring the best but also the worst in people, the difficulty of its enactment lies in the balance of self-interest and the common good. If a good person, who therefore wishes to stick to his/her moral identity (in a sense where compassion, fairness and generosity are seen as fundamental), is given some amount of power, this person will only do good. On the other hand, power can bring the worst in people and historical events such as the development of authoritarian regimes in the 1930's is a proof. Corruption can arise and spread, it all relies on the person who was given the most responsability and power.

Power challenges the mental strength of human beings, as it tests a person's character and will to affect others. When someone is given power, their reaction evolves regarding the circumstances ; why was it given ? how was it given ? legally or not ? in a peaceful way ? and so on... Usually, people react according to pre-existing tendencies which shape their feelings towards the power they are given.

Power in Pharmaceutics
Power can be defined as the ability of an individual or group to exert control over other people or events. Power can be exercised via inequalities such as colonialism, racism and sexism.

Power manifests in pharmaceutical industry as a phenomenon called biopiracy. Biopiracy refers to the illegal or improper appropriation of traditional pharmaceutical knowledge and biological materials from indigenous cultures by pharmaceutical companies. In biopiracy, academic institutions and pharmaceutical companies exploit traditional knowledge from indigenous communities or the biodiversity of developing regions in an exploitative, unfair manner or without informed consent from these communities for commercial purposes. Pharmaceutical companies proceed to use the obtained traditional medical knowledge to file patent applications. The significance of this is that when pharmaceutical companies develop drugs from the application of the knowledge exploited from indigenous peoples, only the patent-holding company is allowed to manufacture, market and profit from these drugs for a period of time, such as 20 years in the United States. As a result, indigenous peoples would lose the right to produce drugs from their own traditional medical knowledge, thus affecting their ability to profit financially and derive health benefits from such knowledge. Through biopiracy, groups such as academic institutions and pharmaceutical companies exert control over indigenous peoples in developing regions by depriving them of the right to profit from and improve their wellbeing with the medical knowledge they rightfully discovered. Thus, pharmaceutical companies can be described as exerting their power unfairly over indigenous communities and developing countries through the act of biopiracy.

Health Inequality By Race And Social Class
Quality of health among young adults has been shown to be generally contingent on social class, measured by various factors. Most important were deemed to be whether students were given free school meals, how crowded the area was, the quality of housing, and how large their family was. It was determined that factors such as family situation were not as important. Lack of employment in the family has been shown to prove deteriorating mental health primarily among men but also in women. Similarly, race has been shown to be associated with the quality of healthcase received. Poorer heath outcomes in preterm babies and their families were observed in the USA for black people and ethnic minorities.

Health Inequality by Gender/ Sex
Leadership positions in branches of healthcare associated with women, medical disciplines such as obstetrics and gynaecology, are still mostly occupied by men. Although this is demonstrative of an inequality of leadership positions in most disciplines, this inequality was deemed above 'historical sex imbalances among physicians entering (this) speciality', and above normal discrepancies .The discrepancy in leadership positions affects discourse on issues of the female body that has historically permeated through science. For example, Emily Martin argues that biological discourse on the female reproductive system has been historically critical as 'wasteful' and 'inferior', based on the fact that hundreds of thousands of eggs decay and are 'wasted' from birth to menopause, while omitting the fact that males produce hundreds of millions of sperm are also 'wasted'.

Martin also notes that curiosity over the female reproductive system has caused it to become selectively scrutinised far more than the male reproductive system. It is this same lack of investigative vigour over medical issues beyond the gender boundary history that means issues common to both men and women are primarily studied in men. Male reactions to drugs and disease, have been considered the standard in medical research up until 1993 in the United States, whereas now federal guidelines from the National Institute of Health require both men and women to be studied. Due to historically male-focused research, our knowledge of heart attacks in women is far less advanced, for example that women typically exhibit different symptoms to men. The American Heart Association only issued a statement on heart attacks in women in 2016.

Even after women have been used in clinical trials after these federal reports, a GAO report found that the results are not differentiated by gender, averaging the data thus 'serving neither men nor women', despite the evidence that many conditions and responses to treatment vary on average by gender/sex. Approaches to health are therefore subject to gendered and un-gendered bias. On the one hand, there are gendered assumptions and narratives created about women's health in respect to men's health, yet women's health is still based on a huge catalogue of research featuring only male participants.

Power in Soviet Russia
For over 25 years the Soviet Union has been in historical limelights especially in the concepts of power. Power is an essential aspect of the governance of a given country. The Soviet Union in Russia is known as an organized unit of power that controls systems, governments and links nations. Power in Soviet Russia is defined in various ways and ideas that make up the agency.

Soviet Roles
Soviet Russia is a single unit of governance that does not delegate roles. That is, their soviet power is autonomous. The Soviet Union has political influence and governance both in Russia and globally. Soviet Union unit is controlled with few members of the people, who make all decisions from minor to major governmental issues.

The Soviet Union and Governance
Power in Soviet Russia is also reflected in through the control of government business. Soviet Union power is evidence of the agency operations as the unit. Soviet Russia always directs and dominates the government business of the USSR.

Soviets and major Disciplines
The power of the Soviet Union is also reflected in various disciplines of life. For instance, the agency influences discoveries in neuropsychopharmacology and policies. The agency looks into the effects of the drug on women and men across the world. Additionally, the Soviet Union exhibits power in medical research, determining and taking part in world decisions concerning medical researches.

The Soviet Union and Technology
The power of the Soviet Union for a long period has been reflected in technological advances thus earning the spot in world politics. For agency has made development and advancement in technology through interpretation and applying various concepts in physics, chemistry, and astronomy.

Soviet and Restrictions
In early 1900 the agency had taken keen notice on pseudo scientists and discoverers that were up to no good. The agency used its powers to create a restriction on mediocre discoveries in the field of science and went ahead to offer a solution by generating various theories and discoveries to solve world problems.


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History of Disciplines: Consciousness studies as merging Philosophy and Neurosciences
The Study of Consciousness demonstrates well how different disciplines, with diverging methodological approaches, can work together to arrive at new insights. Consciousness studies is a domain of study that lies at the intersection between Philosophy and Neuroscience. It entails investigating subjective experience, referred to as qualia, and includes any experience from emotion to thought to attention and more. Until the date the question what Consciousness consists of, and how it can be defined is still unresolved. However, there are many theories about the nature of Consciousness. The two main strands, which both include a significant number of subtheories about the mind, are Materialism and Dualism.

Materialism holds that Cosnciousness is ultimately reducible to matter. That is to say that cognition, or mental states, are identical to the neural activity in the brain. It is, thus, the biological makeup that gives rise to conscious subjective experience. By contrast, Dualsim argues that the mind is irreducible to the brain, or any physical matter. Maybe the most well-known dualistic view is Descartes' Interactionist Dualism. It argues that mind and body are two fundamentally different entities that are independent of each other but interact. The nature of the body is to be extended in space and is material. The mind, however, is not material, not extended in space and its nature is to think.

Neuroscience and Philosophy as disciplines
Neuroscience, on the one hand, is concerned with the Nervous System and covers the biological basis of cognition and behavior. It is a Natural Science that relies on rigurous scientific inquiry. As such it usually applies quantitative methodologies and often uses randomized contol trials. Good research output thereby depends on validity, reliability, and replicability. Philosophy, on the other hand, is - broadly speaking - interested in understanding the nature of the world and existence itself. Its methodological approaches differ greatly from those applied in the Neurosciences, as Philosophy uses mainly logic and reason to arrive at conslusions about an inquiry.

Interdisciplinary approach to Consciousness
With Philosphers and Neuroscientists still debating the nature of Consiocusness and approaching it with very divergent methods, David Chalmer, a philosopher and Neuroscientist, illustrates how approaches from both disciplines can be integrated to provide a (more) unified theory of Consciosness. Such a theory uses both third-person data and first-person data - the former being traditionally used in the Neurosciences and the latter being an essential tool within Philosophy.

Third-person data refers to information that is accessible to someone else than just the person experiencing a specific event. It is independently measurable and as such includes behavior, language, or brain processes. First-person data, in contrast, refers to subjective conscious experience. As such it is only accessible to the person having this experience and it is the central data that the Science of Consciousness is interested in.

Chalmer argues that in order to fully understand Consciousness, it is necessary to connect first-person data and third-person data and to therewith find the Neural Correlates (the brain states correlating to subjective experience) of Consciousness. However, connecting first-person data with third-person data only works through interpretation. Chalmer, thus, proposes bridging principles that are determined pre-experimentally and those include (but are not limited to) verbal report, and goal-directed behaviour: He argues that Consciousness can be inferred by a person verbally reporting a certain subjective experience, or by someone performing a specific action in response to a certain event (goal-directed). Thus, the third-person data (language, brain states, etc.) combined with the bridging principles enables researchers to make inferences about Consciousness and indeed research shows that such a combination of approaches can be fruitful: For instance, researchers were able to determine cosnciousness in vegetative patients by combining goal-directed behavior, verbal report and brain activity measurements. This illustrates that explicitely stating the philosophical assumptions underlying conscious experience (e.g. by inferring consciousness through subjective verbal reports) and combining these types of data gathering with neuroscientific methods (e.g. analyzing brain activity) is a promising way of two very different academic disciplines to work hand in hand. Iterdisciplinary approaches seem, thus, to be able to generate new knowledge and to make progress in solving problems that are difficult to tackle when disciplines work in isolation.

History of Diciplines: The Conflicts between Law and Biology
Law is established based on civilization and social development separated from natural environment. It is considered as a set of abstract formulated rules that may sometimes be subjected to forms of interpretation based on specific situations.

Biology is the study of life in terms of the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms. It integrates other scientific fields, e.g. medicine, chemistry, physics which extends to subfields such as Biochemistry, Physiology, Genetics and Ecology etc.

The two disciplines intersect in their object of study – human and the understanding of systems, how they interconnect and relate to one another. Both involves logic, deduction, empirical evidence and large amount of hard content.

Conflicts in their Basic Principles
It is criticized by Popper’s idea of rationalism (1), that a typical activity of biologists to come up with new discoveries through experiments, in turn the formulation of imprecise and unfalsifiable norms in order to contribute to knowledge; whilst in contrary, law is intended to formulate norms as precise as possible immune to debate which serve the overall end of justice.

Conflicts in Attitudes towards Ethics
Historically, the study of law focus on the actual behaviour of legal actors such as judges in appeal courts, rather than on the indeterminate reasons which these judges give for their decisions.

(++to be expanded)

Biology and law overlap with ethics considerably but do not overlap perfectly.

Conflicts in Approaches to Evidence and Judgements
In the context of court of law, Biology and Law intertwine in the establishment of forensic evidence and judicial judgements.

(++to be expanded)

Extending into Behavioral Biology, it is worth enquiring how rational and objective a verdict is made given accurate evidence is supplied. e.g. “Do Supreme Court justices combine into a bloc with deliberate objective of forcing upon the rest of the court the consideration of an issue which the bloc wants decided in a particular way?” (2) Does rational applies to only the action, but not the goal?

(++to be expanded)

E.g. Genetics on law’s understanding on the cause of criminal behaviours

 * 1) Genetics, Sex Discrimination, chromosome correlation with aggressiveness (Ref. Cognition of Law: Towards Cognitive Sociology of Law)
 * 2) Extent of brain tumour affecting individual decision making and cognition: Over active limbic system implies emotions running away and cannot control what they do; frontal lobe, relatively normal emotional response but unable to control emotion

In relation to Bioethics in law, if it is possible to turn off certain centres of the brain surgically using of a chip, proved scientifically it may have change the way past criminal acted, is this a more effective way than redemption through prison sentence? "What harsher sanctions reduce a given behaviour, and to what extent? Why are some acts not discouraged even by the most severe sanctions?" (3)

This give rise to questions, e.g. Could this approach be challenged by the notion that justice needs to be related to human nature taking into account given biological defaults and defects of an individual in order to meet the definition of ethics? Who gets to decide the criminal intent?

The History of Fine Art and Mathematics through Abstraction
Fine art- creative, subjective, a result of the cumulative work of the artistic canon. What constitutes art? How is art 'added' to the canon? Is there a logical pattern to the way in which the canon has developed? Is any art original?

Maths- logical, quantitative, foundation of computer science, physics, chemistry etc. Can it be creative? Using maths/computing, can you create artificial creativity?

The modern discipline of fine art developed from groups of individuals forming ideas relating to how we represent ourselves and the world we live in through visual media. These groups would eventually form schools of art, which in turn joined with universities to form a formal method of art education. The separation of different schools (geographically, politically and throughout time) lead to fundamental stylistic and philosophical differences, which in turn lead to the rise of different artistic movements and manifestos. One way in which you can view the development of these movements is by tracking the rise of abstraction, which began to gain traction in the artistic canon around the turn of the 20th century.

Mathematics- one of the oldest disciplines, steeped in logical thinking. Grew relatively separated from fine art, except in geometry where they were taught jointly in institutions in Italy etc. With the turn of 'modern/contemporary' art, maths has played little to no role in the development of the artistic canon. Maths is not traditionally thought of as a creative subject, as it is used as the 'language' for the physical sciences e.g. chemistry and physics.

However it could be argued that through abstraction, mathematics (and therefore computing, physics, chemistry) is fundamentally creative:

 * abstraction in fine art i.e. the rise of the avant-garde -> the simplification of form, wherein a piece loses direct representation of a specific object/person but retains an allusion to the object more generally. This allows it to represent a group of objects/people in a single subject. Alternatively, this allows an artist to merge an object's form with aspects of another object in order to draw connections between the two.

 * abstraction in mathematics i.e. algebra, mechanics -> removing real-world references in an equation/construct so that what remains may be applied to wider situations, or compared to other equations/constructs so that the relationships between multiple concepts may be proven.

Both definitions are fundamentally the same, why is this? Both fine art and mathematics have the same root- geometry and proportions. After splitting this subject into two disciplines, both were able to explore abstraction independently of each other. Fine art was concerned with how we should represent people and (our place in) the world around us (MORE PHILOSOPHICAL). Mathematics (and later the physical sciences) was concerned with quantifying and modelling the world (MORE ACTION DRIVEN).

Internet art as an interdisciplinary movement, unrecognised by fine art's canon and not really seen at all in computer science- internet artists lack the formal art training that would see them join the art canon. There is also a lack of academics who have written on the history of internet art/the movement more generally. This is because of a lack of people who have both knowledge of computer science/coding as well as fine art/art history due to the splitting of mathematics and fine art into disciplines. If both were taught together, computers might be considered a fundamental medium alongside painting, sculpture etc.

Internet art somewhat mirrors the disposal of representational form in 20th century abstraction, wherein art began to move towards abstract form; internet art moves away from creating art that has a physical form, instead moving towards a purely virtual form.

History of Disciplines: Understanding Consciousness
The study of consciousness can occur at the intersection of neuroscience, pharmacology and philosophy however has seen a lack of development where it could be expected due to fundamental differences between the disciplines.

Different basal philosophies and assumptions:
Neuroscientists and other life scientists often approach the body as a solely mechanical entity, from a materialist standpoint therefore believing that the brain and mind do not exist separately and that consciousness is a purely a function of the brain and mechanical processes.

Philosophers and some psychologists may hold a dualist perspective, that the mind exists independently to the brain.

This means that at where these disciplines and their experts meet, there has often been an inability to aptly merge the fields of expertise and communicate effectively which such different groundings.

Research methods:
Neuroscience methodology is fundamentally quantitative but the philosophical understanding of and observation of consciousness qualitative with consciousness being subjective experience. This means that the translation of observations between these disciplines has been a great barrier to its development. With cognitive neuroscience as a discipline only really gaining momentum since the advent of stronger brain imaging techniques (cognitive science becoming a discipline in 1956 and merging with neuroscience in the 1980s, the philosophy of its methodology recognizes the power of data and processing - computing being very central. However, the nature of philosophy as argument based and qualitative makes the data driven approach of cognitive neuroscience much less compatible.

Interdisciplinary Solutions:
However, researchers such as Dr Robin Carhart-Harris (leader of the Imperial College Psychedelic Research Team) who has an undergraduate degree in psychology and engages in philosophy, as well as a PhD in neuroscience - more specifically neuropsychopharmacology - have been able to take the field further in the research of psychedelics in recent years, as they consider how to meet these disciplines and marry quantitative observations of brain activity and qualitative measures of subjective experience. In particular in the research of alterations in consciousness experience under psilocybin this is aptly done. Brain imaging techniques like fMRI scans are employed alongside questionnaires that attempt to make the subject quantify the qualities of their subjective experience of consciousness, which has allowed some correlations to be made between philosophical revelations in psychedelic consciousness and changes in neural connectivity.

History of Science & Technology as a discipline
As of today, many universities, including UCL, has a Science and Technology Studies Department (STS). Science and Technology Studies (STS) can be defined as "the study of the history of science, philosophy of science, science policy, and sociology of science." according to the UCL STS Department. This appellation, STS, may although be contested in different universities since the emphasis can be both on technology or on science itself.

The study of Science & Technology became more and more relevant with the rise of technological equipment in many developed countries, where a unique knowledge of how technology works and of its goal and ethics seems necessary. However, even if it possible to date the new era of technology in 1833 with the creation of the first computer, looking at technology's evolution throughout the years does not explain how technology became an academic discipline, taught today in higher education courses. Science & Technology studies are also a very interdisciplinary course since it includes subjects as history or sociology combined with technological sciences.

In the twentieth century appears a real need for knowledge on how to use and implement technologies in modern businesses. This need will impulse some universities to create a new relevant course, which will later be named STS. Science & Technology studies have initially been founded according to already-existing principles in various scientific and non-scientific disciplines, focusing first on the history of technologies themselves, then taking a more philosophical approach throughout the years. For instance, as Thorstein Veblen first developed at the beginning of the twentieth century, technological determinism, the theory which claims that technological progress in a society can be used to analyse its development, was taught in the first STS courses. This theory, even if it is today considered as an economical and sociological theory, was founded according to a philosophical principle, determinism and was used in early-STS courses. History and the role of society were also two notions that were important in the development of STS as a discipline. History allowed to understand how different philosophical and ethical theories evolved and were conflicting with each other regarding technology and our society throughout the years, while sociology was used in STS to highlight the relationships that people, industries, communities, and services had with technology. Since 1960, STS was recognised by scholars and teachers as a scientific discipline alongside any others. This is mainly explainable since numerous STS programs were initiated in many universities across the globe, especially in the United Kingdom and in the United States, with a new emphasis on the correlation of STS with engineering and public policies.

The first university to explain or discuss these subjects was the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1972, with a special effort made to analyse the impact of technology and science on history, philosophy, sociology, economy and even anthropology. These same disciplines were also used to explore the evolution and goals of science and technology on society itself. This course served as a model for other STS courses. The study of science and technology, therefore, emerged as a discipline according to already-existing principles in other disciplines, which makes STS a very interdisciplinary course.

History of Animal Rights and Medical/Technological Advancements
Animals have been used throughout history for scientific purposes, in experiments such as determining how blood circulates and demonstrating how insects as well as other animals react and behave in an environment of reduced pressure in the 17th century. As we move toward more recent history, the industrial and technological revolutions have led to the rapid growth of medicine as a science and despite the 1876 Cruelty to Animals act being passed, the use of animals in research expanded hugely in the 20th century. In medicine, animal testing is used to ensure drugs are safe and effective, and to determine their dosage as well as any possible side effects. This led to the discovery of vaccinations for polio, smallpox, meningitis, and developments in insulin and penicillin.

However, the objections to animal testing have existed just about as long as the practice itself. This may be due simply to human compassion, but there are other radical ideas suggesting that animals and the feelings of animals should be considered as equal to those of humans. For example the practice of hedonism and hedonic calculus made prominent by Jeremy Bentham states that all beings, regardless of identity, should have their pleasures and pains considered equally when deciphering the welfare of a community as a whole. Whilst other thinkers, and the basis of the reason on testing on animals, conform to the idea that animals cannot feel in the same way humans do; that the feelings of humans are more important and we should save our own pain before the pain of animals, hedonism places all beings on the same level. An idea first introduced in the late 18th century, this way of thinking was very progressive in terms of equality.

Hedonism is also an idea that is still celebrated today, with organisations such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) stating that "Like humans, animals are capable of suffering and have interests in leading their own lives", directly comparable with Bentham's explanation of animal equality, "The question is not, can they reason? Nor, can they talk? But, can they suffer?". It is in this way that this particular school of philosophical thought interferes with the biological development of medicine and in the same way, medical development disregards the idea of hedonism in pursuit of ameliorating the human life.

The History of Mathematical Economics
The modern economics was first introduced as "history and political economics" in 1805. The early economists studied the market by using the philosophical deduction and logic. Adam Smith was the first economists to deploy numerical methods, although only as a means of qualitatively assessing government policies such as legislated grain prices and their impact, in explaining economics.

The first groundbreaking economics textbook to use graphs and equations was Principle of Economics(1890) by Alfred Marshall, whose student, John Maynard Keynes, had furthered the quantifying economics by mathematically linking income and expenditure and how government policy could impact this. Keynes’ General Theory (1936) would serve as a blueprint for 20th-century economic policy as more scientific methods of economics gained favor in the coming decades.

There also exists a lot in economics which is not measurable. The Solow-Swan growth model is a perfect example of quantifying economics. It claims to explain long-run economic growth based on productivity, capital accumulation, and other variables. It is unquestionable that these factors impact growth, however, it oversimplifies the complex interactions between various qualitative factors, which are not easily quantified and measured by current academic techniques. For example, the fundamental assumption of economics is that humans act rationally. However, humans often make irrational decisions based on fear or love. These two factors cannot be accounted for in an economic model.

How History Caused Incompatibility Between Fields of Academia
The courses that Academic subjects have taken has largely resulted in a conflict between some fields of study. For instance, neuroscientists would disagree to a large extent with philosophers of mind, employing different methods of research - the former with a more scientific research method, and the latter using thought experiments to a large extent. These to fields are largely occupied with the subject matter of consciousness, a subject field that lacks a clear theory, perhaps due to the fact that no widely accepted way to ‘measure’ consciousness has been found thus far. On the other hand, in Physics, for instance, there is a generally accepted method of research which can verify research to the vast majority of physicists. In both Neuroscience and Philosophy, great advancements have been made in their respective fields, particularly throughout the 19th and 20th century. Unfortunately they've been on diverging trajectories during this advancement, resulting in Philosophy creating ideas such as 'dualism', and neuroscientists opposing this with the idea of 'materialism' (although this does not strictly mean that all members of these respective fields support such theories). The method of materialism uses physical tests and scans to see brain activity, monitoring it and creating a map on the brain and thus basing their model of consciousness off of this. Dualism, on the other hand, largely relies on Philosophical reasoning and human intuition, claiming that consciousness cannot/is not reduced to material. This is akin to many Physicists disagreement with 'creationists', who believe in a 'divine creator' of the universe, with the two ideals being completely incompatible. The method employed by Physicists is one supposedly showing empirical evidence of how the universe was created, whereas creationists use ancient literary scripts to derive an origin of the universe. Thus, again, the research methods used to come to a conclusion about a largely unsolved problem have differed over the course of history, resulting in incompatibility between research fields.

Clash between Economics and Psychology
- Economics (as a discipline) : social science focusing on the economic agents, analysis of quantitative data concerning the production, distribution and consumption of goods and servies in a local or international market

- Psychology (as a discipline) : scientific study of the human mind + behavior, understanding the cognitive processes of the human mind + social reactions

When studying a consumption tendency for example, using psychology and economics is essential. But : psychology encompasses the human mind through social experiences and focuses on the analysis of qualitative data, in this case how do people think when they feel the need to buy something. Whereas economics focuses on rational facts, in this case the evolution of prices... And numbers + is based on mathematical thinking when human mind isn't. -> clash because of how we study Economics and Psychology since they became disciplines, interdisciplinary researches are complex

Introduction
Geography as a discpline seeks to understand the way human socities interact with their natural environment. It is therefore fundamentally interdisciplinary. However, its sub-disciplines have been divided in the past to assert the current interests of the past. Physical Geography and Human Geography thus became increasingly irreconcilable and specialised. Due to current global challenges like climate change, there might be a good reason for the two disciplines to be merged again.

History of Geography
Emergence of Geography Geography emerged as a discipline at the beginning of the 20th century when it was used to understand the physical environment needed for the understanding of empires in politics. During the middle of the century it went on to focus on regional conditions of the environment e.g. on landscapes. Maps increasingly played a crucial role to this geographical vision. Scholars like Gottman believed that changing international relations also give geographical conditions new meanings.

The divide of the disciplines
The divide of human and physical geography started with new advances acurring in the physical geography e.g. new technologies to assess the environment. Physical geography started to set itself off human geography and moved closer towards the classical natural sciences, especially physics. A better reputation and more fundings for physical geography supported that divide.

Reuniting the two disciplines?
The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) gathered geographical scolars across the disciplines in 2004 to discuss the issues and future of geography. Their outcome was that in order to understand problems like climate change and the use of natural resources it is not sufficient to focus merely on physical geography. Especially in the age of the Anthropocene when humankind alters the climate and the earth’s environment, taking into consideration socities, politics, and economics as well as the physical conditions can help to find sustainable solutions.

History of Disciplines - Public Health and the Conflict between Medicine and Economics
Public Health is a discipline concerned with the maintenance and protection of health in the general public. There are 3 main domains of public health, namely health protection, health improvement and healthcare public health, the latter of which involves ensuring that health services are effective, efficient and accessible. Public health is an interdisciplinary field, the core disciplines being health education, biostatistics, environmental health, epidemiology and health services administration.

History of Public Health
Modern public health as a discipline began in 19th century England, as a movement towards sanitary reform in the 19th century that eventually resulted in the formation of public health institutions, as a result of the Industrial Revolution and its adverse effects on health in England. Rapid population growth and inadequate housing due to urbanisation in major English cities such as London, Leeds and Bristol led to widespread disease and poor health. In the early 19th century, English humanitarians and philanthropists began educating the population and population on health-related issues. For example, British physician Thomas Southwood Smith published reports on quarantine, cholera, yellow fever and sanitation, and also founded the Health of Towns Association in 1839.

In 1834, the Poor Law Commission was created to investigate community health problems and propose solutions for such. The 1938 report argued that the expenditures necessary to adopt and maintain preventive measures would ultimately amount to less than the cost of diseases. Sanitary surveys also demonstrated the existence of a relationship between communicable diseases and filthy environmental conditions, and that engineers also had a role to play in safeguarding public health.

The Public Health Act of 1848 led to the establishment of a General Board of Health to guide and aid local authorities in sanitary matters. The board was also granted the authority to establish local boards of health to investigate sanitary conditions in particular districts. Since then, more public health acts have been passed to regulate sewage and refuse disposal, animal housing, water supply, disease prevention and control, private nursing home and hospital registration and inspection, birth notification and maternity and child welfare service provision.

History and Conflict between Medicine and Economics in Public Health
As public health concerns health maintenance and protection, it draws several elements from the field of medicine. On the other hand, as public health also concerns maintaining effectiveness and efficiency of health resource usage, it also draws several elements from the field of economics. To understand the conflicts in public health regarding differences in ethical principles between Medicine & Economics, it is important to understand the history and moral principles involved in both fields.

Medicine as a discipline traces its roots back to ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. Hippocrates is widely regarded as the father of medicine to this day, having taught and practised medicine in Cos and other parts of Greece. Works attributed to Hippocrates marked a turning point in medical history where disease began to be regarded as a natural phenomenon rather than supernatural phenomenon, and investigating physical causes of illness were encouraged. Apart from diagnostic reasoning and broadening understanding on the aetiology of disease, Hippocrates is most renowned for the Hippocratic Oath, an ethical code that has dictated professional and moral principles that doctors should abide by, many of such principles are still valid to this day, through modernised adaptations such as the Declaration of Geneva in 1948. Through the long tradition of medical ethics tracing back to the roots of Hippocratic Greek medicine, 4 moral principles suggested by Beauchamp and Childress have emerged dominant, namely non-maleficence (do no harm), beneficence (do good), respect for autonomy and justice.

Economics became a discipline in its own right by separating from the broader field of philosophy in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution. Among the pioneers of this new economic field was Adam Smith, a Scottish economist. Smith was inspired by and adopted ideas from French physiocrats who were dissatisfied with mercantilism, and expanded them into a thesis about how economies should operate. Smith believed that competition was self-regulating and governments should not interfere in business by means of tariffs or taxes except in the case of protecting free market competition. To this day, many contemporary economic theories still reference and adopt concepts from Smith's pivotal work in economics. One of the leading moral philosophies in the field of economics is utilitarianism, which promotes the maximisation of general utility or social welfare. As of the present day, economic theory has not yet decisively moved beyond utilitarianism.

The main conflict between the disciplines of medicine and economics in public health is the conflict between the principle of justice in medicine and the principle of utilitarianism in public health. The principle of justice advocates for the fair treatment of patients, as well as respect for their human and legal rights. On the other hand, utilitarianism advocates for courses of action that benefit the greatest number of people, and in the process minorities may not benefit from this. For example, given a limited budget, investing the money in the prevention of common diseases such as upper respiratory tract infections is likely to benefit more people than investing the same amount of money in the treatment of rare diseases. According to utilitarianism, this would be justified as the number of people benefiting from this action would be significantly greater, but this would breach the principle of justice as those suffering from rare diseases would be deprioritised. In conclusion, the conflict between economics and medicine lies in their differences in ethical principles.

Defining Architecture as a discipline in terms of its History
Architecture as a discipline emerged out of the fundamental necessity to find shelter. Architecture has progressed through time in an aesthetic sense (periods of architecture) and techniques (building tools and materials). Prehistoric architecture (11,600 to 3,500 B.C) uses the most primitive tools (mud, unprocessed stone and materials) of all waves of architecture. It focuses on structural integrity (use as shelter against wind and rain) rather than design features or immediate aesthetic value. As material manufacturing progressed in time, buildings became able to bear loads more effectively. Modern skyscrapers exemplify the utility of modern technology to build more impressive, taller and thinner buildings that were previously impossible to build, such as the 828 m tall Burj Khalifa in Dubai. The Taj Mahal, commissioned in 1632 and designed by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri demonstrates technological innovation to produce a physically impressive monument, with a higher resource demand than previously utilised in architecture. Scaffolding made of bricks was used, while a 9-mile long earth ramp was used to carry materials.

Architecture is defined as the art or practice of designing and constructing buildings. The history of architecture analyses how building structures and styles have evolved over the years. Through the study of the history of architecture, we can see that specific periods typically have specific styles that serve as a reflection of the contemporary society and culture of the building. Not only this, but the style of building is influenced by its setting (i.e. if it is natural or man-made), the cultural traditions and ideas of beauty in the culture that built it (culturally relative and subjective perceptions of beauty), construction methods (limitations and enablers of architectural design which have evolved with technological advances throughout history), and the purpose of the building (for example, a church is purpose built and stylised in a different way to many of the other buildings in a town or society). Of course, as in art, buildings do not necessarily have to be designed in the same way as is typical for the culture on the individual level, but it is likely that many buildings in a country will have a similar set of cultural references and regions of influence, even if from different time periods.

Tim Adams sees architecture at the intersection of art, science and building and states that the history of architecture involves the abstraction of mental tools from architectural practice. These mental tools are concepts that architects flexibly apply to new projects with different requirements to find the best solution. The first to develop such a conceptualisation was the Roman engineer Vitruvius.

Architecture intersecting with Theology/Politics
In post-World War 2 Germany, the idea of political transparency influenced the architecture of the time. "Democratic" architecture appeared to reflect the ideology of 'transparency' through the increased use of glass such as in the Reichstag (parliament) building in Berlin. Buildings in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR) reflected in a similar way the communist ideology in its uniform, grey structure. Resources were managed in the "Plattenbau" style effectively to ensure the right of all DDR citizens to property.

Architecture in a global world and environment
The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen two major trends in architecture, globalisation and the search for architectural solutions to sustainable living. Whereas different countries and regions developed distinct architectural styles for many centuries, the modern architecture of cities across the world shows more similarities than differences. Globalisation has happened throughout architectural history as a result of global interaction and accelerated between the late 18th and early 20th century with colonisation, industrialisation and large waves of international migration of workers. While early humans built the first buildings to protect themselves from the elements, such as through mud houses, and strangers (formulation of towns and cities the city walls) architecture is now becoming increasingly focused instead on minimising the effect of human dwellings on the natural environment by designing eco-friendly buildings and towns such as Freiburg’s Vauban District in Germany. Global environmental consciousness has therefore begun to impact and evolve the discipline of architecture in a modern context.

Architectural styles as demonstrations of power, authority and wealth
Architectural styles, far from being restricted to purpose building, can be very potent demonstrations of power, authority and wealth. Architecture develops through and reflects development of political and theological thought and power structures. Religious buildings, particularly Catholic cathedrals such as the St Marco Basilica in Venice and St Peter's Basilica in Rome are demonstrative of the power of religion in a catholic society as well as the ideological force of Catholicism in Europe. This institutionalised power, or the power of the state is also demonstrated generally in the grandeur of palaces, in its extreme form such as the Palace of Versailles built for King Louis XIV in the 17th century. It's exorbitant cost and lavish design led to it being referenced as a symbol of grievance over the power of the monarchy over the people of France and the inequality of peasants to the nobility in the lead up to the French Revolution. However, although architecture is sometimes politicised, it also can straightforwardly denote wealth such as in the Trump tower in New York City (20th Century). The impressive façades for modest houses built by wealthy merchants in Amsterdam in the 17th and 18th century, however demonstrate that the appearance of a building intentionally indicates more than just wealth alone (these houses were not altogether grand) but class to others. Power in architecture also has a political sense, such as in Fascist and Stalinistic architecture of the 20th century. Throughout the centuries architecture has been used to demonstrate religious or secular authority, power and wealth.