is_a_list_of list of countries by prevalence of cocaine use
Norepinephrine ( NE ), also called noradrenaline ( NA ) or noradrenalin , is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as a hormone and neurotransmitter . The ___MASK25___ " noradrenaline ," derived from Latin roots meaning " at / alongside the kidneys ," is more commonly used in the United Kingdom ; in the United States , " norepinephrine ," derived from Greek roots having that same meaning , is usually preferred . " Norepinephrine " is also the international nonproprietary ___MASK25___ given to the ___MASK4___ . Regardless of which ___MASK25___ is used for the substance itself , parts of the body that produce or are affected by it are referred to as noradrenergic . Myocardial infarction ( MI ) or acute myocardial infarction ( AMI ), commonly known as a heart attack , occurs when blood flow stops to a part of the heart causing damage to the heart muscle . The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder , arm , back , neck , or jaw . Often it is in the center or left side of the chest and lasts for more than a few minutes . The discomfort may occasionally feel like heartburn . Other symptoms may include shortness of breath , nausea , feeling faint , a cold sweat , or feeling tired . About 30 % of ___MASK35___ have atypical symptoms , with women more likely than men to present atypically . Among those over 75 years old , about 5 % have had an MI with little or no history of symptoms . An MI may cause heart failure , an irregular heartbeat ( including serious types ), cardiogenic shock , or cardiac arrest . Most MIs occur due to coronary artery ___MASK59___ . Risk factors include high blood pressure , smoking , diabetes , lack of exercise , obesity , high blood cholesterol , poor diet , and excessive alcohol intake , among others . The mechanism of an MI often involves the complete blockage of a coronary artery caused by a rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque . MIs are less commonly caused by coronary artery spasms , which may be due to cocaine , significant emotional stress , and extreme cold , among others . A number of tests are useful to help with diagnosis , including electrocardiograms ( ECGs ), blood tests , and coronary angiography . An ECG may confirm an ST elevation MI if ST elevation is present . Commonly used blood tests include troponin and less often creatine kinase MB . Aspirin is an appropriate immediate treatment for a suspected MI . Nitroglycerin or opioids may be used to help with chest pain ; however , they do not improve overall outcomes . Supplemental oxygen should be used in those with low oxygen levels or shortness of breath . In ST elevation MIs treatments which attempt to restore blood flow to the heart are typically recommended and include angioplasty , where the arteries are pushed open , or thrombolysis , where the blockage is removed using medications . People who have a non - ST elevation myocardial infarction ( NSTEMI ) are often managed with the blood thinner heparin , with the additional use of angioplasty in those at high risk . In ___MASK35___ with blockages of multiple coronary arteries and diabetes , bypass surgery ( CABG ) may be recommended rather than angioplasty . After an MI , lifestyle modifications , along with long term treatment with aspirin , beta blockers , and statins , are typically recommended . Worldwide , about 8 . 6 million myocardial infarctions occurred in 2013 . More than 3 million ___MASK35___ had an ST elevation MI and more than 4 million had an NSTEMI . STEMIs occur about twice as often in men as women . About one million ___MASK35___ have an MI each year in the United States . In the developed world the risk of death in those who have had an STEMI is about 10 %. Rates of MI for a given age have decreased globally between 1990 and 2010 . Peruvians are the citizens of the Republic of Peru or their descendants abroad . Peru is a multiethnic ___MASK10___ formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries , so people in Peru usually treat their nationality as a citizenship rather than an ethnicity . Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th century ; according to historian David N . Cook their population decreased from an estimated 5  9 million in the 1520s to around 600 , 000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases . Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule , mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples . During the Republic , there has been a gradual immigration of European people ( specially from Spain and Italy , and in a less extent from France , the Balkans , Great Britain and Germany ). Japanese and Chinese arrived in large numbers at the end of nineteenth century . Stroke is when poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death . There are two main types of stroke : ischemic , due to lack of blood flow , and hemorrhagic , due to bleeding . They result in part of the brain not functioning properly . Signs and symptoms of a stroke may include an inability to move or feel on one side of the body , problems understanding or speaking , feeling like the world is spinning , or loss of vision to one side . Signs and symptoms often appear soon after the stroke has occurred . If symptoms last less than one or two hours it is known as a transient ischemic attack ( TIA ) or mini - stroke . A hemorrhagic stroke may also be associated with a severe headache . The symptoms of a stroke can be permanent . Long - ___MASK16___ complications may include pneumonia or loss of bladder control . The main risk factor for stroke is high blood pressure . Other risk factors include tobacco smoking , obesity , high blood cholesterol , diabetes mellitus , previous TIA , and atrial fibrillation . An ischemic stroke is typically caused by blockage of a blood vessel , though there are also less common causes . A hemorrhagic stroke is caused by either bleeding directly into the brain or into the space between the brain ' s membranes . Bleeding may occur due to a ruptured brain aneurysm . Diagnosis is typically with medical imaging such as a CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan along with a physical exam . Other tests such as an electrocardiogram ( ECG ) and blood tests are done to determine risk factors and rule out other possible causes . Low blood sugar may cause similar symptoms . Prevention includes decreasing risk factors , as well as possibly aspirin , statins , surgery to open up the arteries to the brain in those with problematic narrowing , and warfarin in those with atrial fibrillation . A stroke or TIA often requires emergency care . An ischemic stroke , if detected within three to four and half hours , may be treatable with a medication that can break down the clot . Aspirin should be used . Some hemorrhagic strokes benefit from surgery . Treatment to try recover lost function is called stroke rehabilitation and ideally takes place in a stroke unit ; however , these are not available in much of the world . In 2013 approximately 6 . 9 million ___MASK35___ had an ischemic stroke and 3 . 4 million ___MASK35___ had a hemorrhagic stroke . In 2010 there were about 33 million ___MASK35___ who had previously had a stroke and were still alive . Between 1990 and 2010 the number of strokes which occurred each ___MASK66___ decreased by approximately 10 % in the developed world and increased by 10 % in the developing world . In 2013 , stroke was the second most frequent cause of death after coronary artery ___MASK59___ , accounting for 6 . 4 million deaths ( 12 % of the total ). About 3 . 3 million deaths resulted from ischemic stroke while 3 . 2 million deaths resulted from hemorrhagic stroke . About half of ___MASK35___ who have had a stroke live less than one ___MASK66___ . Overall , two thirds of strokes occurred in those over 65 years old . Stimulants ( also referred to as psychostimulants ) is an overarching ___MASK16___ that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the body , drugs that are pleasurable and invigorating , or drugs that have sympathomimetic effects . Due to their rendering a characteristic " up " feeling , stimulants are also occasionally referred to as " uppers ". Depressants or " downers ", which decrease mental and / or physical function , are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be the functionally opposite ___MASK4___ class . Stimulants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines as well as without a prescription ( either legally or illicitly ) as performance - enhancing or recreational drugs . The most frequently prescribed stimulants as of 2013 were lisdexamfetamine , methylphenidate , and amphetamine . It is estimated that the percent of the population that has abused amphetamines , cocaine and MDMA combined is between . 8 % and 2 . 1 %. Cocaine , also known as coke , is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational ___MASK4___ . It is commonly snorted , inhaled , or injected into the veins . Mental effects may include loss of contact with reality , an intense feeling of happiness , or agitation . Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate , sweating , and large pupils . High doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature . Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes . Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery . Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the reward pathway in the brain . After a short period of use , there is a high risk that dependence will occur . Its use also increases the risk of stroke , myocardial infarction , lung problems in those who smoke it , blood infections , and sudden cardiac death . Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics , cornstarch , quinine , or sugar which can result in additional toxicity . Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure and be very physically tired . Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine . This results in greater concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain . It can easily cross the blood  brain barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier . Cocaine is made from the leaves of the " coca " plant which are mostly grown in South America . In 2013 , 419 kilograms were produced legally . It is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to 500 billion USD each year . With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine . After cannabis , cocaine is the most frequently used illegal ___MASK4___ globally . Between 14 and 21 million people use the ___MASK4___ each year . Use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America . Between one and three percent of people in the developed world have used cocaine at some point in their life . In 2013 cocaine use directly resulted in 4 , 300 deaths , up from 2 , 400 in 1990 . The leaves of the " coca " plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times . Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860 . Since 1961 the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime . Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a ___MASK10___ in western South America . It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia , in the east by Brazil , in the southeast by Bolivia , in the south by Chile , and in the west by the Pacific Ocean . Peru is an extremely biodiverse ___MASK10___ with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains vertically extending from the north to the southeast of the ___MASK10___ to the tropical Amazon Basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon river . Epinephrine , also known as adrenalin or adrenaline , is a hormone , neurotransmitter and medication . Epinephrine is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and certain neurons . It plays an important ___MASK15___ in the fight - or - flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles , output of the heart , pupil dilation , and blood sugar . Epinephrine does this by its effects on alpha and beta receptors . It is found in many animals and some one cell organisms . Jokichi Takamine first isolated epinephrine in 1901 . As a medication it is used to treat a number of conditions , including anaphylaxis , cardiac arrest , and superficial bleeding . Inhaled epinephrine may be used to improve the symptoms of croup . It may also be used for asthma when other treatments are not effective . It is given intravenously , by injection into a muscle , by inhalation , or by injection just under the skin . Common side effects include shakiness , anxiety , and sweating . A fast heart rate and high blood pressure may occur . Occasionally it may result in an abnormal heart rhythm . While the safety of its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding is unclear , the benefits to the mother must be taken into account . This is a list of countries ( and some territories ) by the annual prevalence of cocaine use as percentage of the ___MASK11___ aged 15 -- 64 ( unless otherwise indicated ) . The primary sources of information are the World ___MASK4___ Report 2014 ( WDR 2014 ) , and the World ___MASK4___ Report 2006 ( WDR 2006 ) , published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime ( UNODC ) . The indicator is the `` annual prevalence '' rate which is the percentage of the youth and adult ___MASK11___ who have consumed the ___MASK4___ at least once in the past year . The blood  brain barrier ( BBB ) is a highly selective semipermeable membrane barrier that separates the circulating blood from the brain extracellular fluid in the central nervous ___MASK81___ ( CNS ). The blood  brain barrier is formed by brain endothelial cells , which are connected by tight junctions . The blood  brain barrier allows the passage of water , some gases , and lipid - soluble molecules by passive diffusion , as well as the selective transport of molecules such as glucose and amino acids that are crucial to neural function . Furthermore , it prevents the entry of lipophilic potential neurotoxins by way of an active transport mechanism mediated by P - glycoprotein . Astrocytes have been claimed to be necessary to create the blood  brain barrier . A few regions in the brain , including the circumventricular organs , do not have a blood  brain barrier . Crack cocaine , also known simply as crack , is a free base form of cocaine that can be smoked . It offers a short but intense high to smokers . The Manual of Adolescent Substance Abuse Treatment calls it the most " addictive " ( effective ) form of cocaine . Crack cocaine is commonly used as a recreational ___MASK4___ . Crack first saw widespread use in primarily impoverished inner city neighborhoods in New York , Los Angeles , and Miami in late 1984 and 1985 ; its rapid increase in use and availability is sometimes termed as the " crack epidemic ". In ordinary ___MASK80___ , a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a ___MASK44___ or other authority . The term " crime " does not , in modern criminal law , have any simple and universally accepted definition , though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes . The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law ; in other words , something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law . One proposed definition is that a crime or offence ( or criminal offence ) is an act harmful not only to some individual or individuals but also to a community , society or the ___MASK44___ (" a public wrong "). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law . The ___MASK79___ Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 is an international treaty to prohibit production and supply of specific ( nominally narcotic ) drugs and of drugs with similar effects except under licence for specific purposes , such as medical treatment and research . As noted below , its major effects included updating the Paris Convention of 13 July 1931 to include the vast number of synthetic opioids invented in the intervening thirty years and a mechanism for more easily including new ones . From 1931 to 1961 , most of the families of synthetic opioids had been developed , including drugs in whatever way related to methadone , pethidine , morphinans and dextromoramide and related drugs ; research on fentanyls and piritramide was also nearing fruition at that point . Neurotransmitters , also known as chemical messengers , are endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission . They transmit signals across a chemical synapse , such as a neuromuscular junction , from one neuron ( nerve cell ) to another " target " neuron , muscle cell , or gland cell . Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in synapses into the synaptic cleft , where they are received by receptors on the target cells . Many neurotransmitters are synthesized from simple and plentiful precursors such as amino acids , which are readily available from the diet and only require a small number of biosynthetic steps for conversion . Neurotransmitters play a major ___MASK15___ in shaping everyday life and functions . Their exact numbers are unknown , but more than 100 chemical messengers have been uniquely identified . Cannabis is a ___MASK89___ of flowering ___MASK58___ that includes three ___MASK45___ ( and seven taxa ) or subspecies , " sativa ", " indica ", and " ruderalis ". The ___MASK58___ is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent . A pen ( Latin : " penna ", feather ) is a writing implement used to apply ink to a surface , such as paper , for writing or drawing . Historically , reed pens , quill pens , and dip pens were used , with a nib dipped in ink . Ruling pens allow precise adjustment of ___MASK42___ width , and still find a few specialized uses , but technical pens such as the Rapidograph are more commonly used . Modern types also include ballpoint , rollerball , ___MASK20___ , and felt or ceramic tip pens .