native_language ibrahim ibn sinan
Assyria was a major Mesopotamian East Semitic - speaking kingdom and empire of the ancient Near East . It existed as an independent state from perhaps as early as the 25th century BC in the form of the Assur city - state , until its lapse between 612 BC and 599 BC , spanning the Early to Middle Bronze Age through to the late Iron Age . Mechanics ( ___MASK59___ ) is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements , and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment . The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes ( see History of classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics ). During the early modern period , scientists such as Khayaam , Galileo , Kepler , and Newton , laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics . It is a branch of classical physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light . It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of and forces on objects . Iraq (, or ; '; '), officially known as the Republic of Iraq ('; ') is a country in Western Asia , bordered by Turkey to the north , Iran to the east , Kuwait to the southeast , Saudi Arabia to the south , Jordan to the southwest , and Syria to the west . The capital , and largest city , is Baghdad . The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds ; others include Assyrians , Turkmen , Shabakis , Yazidis , Armenians , Mandeans , Circassians , and Kawliya . Around 95 % of the country ' s 36 million citizens are Muslims , with Christianity , Yarsan , Yezidism , and Mandeanism also present . The official languages of Iraq are ___MASK63___ and Kurdish . Mesopotamia ("[ land ] between rivers "; from Ancient ___MASK21___  ( Mijagetq ); " bild ar - rfidayn " " miyn rodn "; " Beth Nahrain " " land of rivers ") is a name for the area of the Tigris  Euphrates river system , in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq plus Kuwait , the eastern parts of Syria , Southeastern Turkey , and regions along the ___MASK38___ - Syrian and Iran  Iraq borders . Algebra ( from ___MASK63___ "" al - jabr "" meaning " reunion of broken parts ") is one of the broad parts of mathematics , together with number theory , geometry and analysis . In its most general form , algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols ; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics . As such , it includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups , rings , and fields . The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra , the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra . Elementary algebra is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics , science , or engineering , as well as such applications as medicine and economics . Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics , studied primarily by professional mathematicians . Mathematics ( from ___MASK59___  " máthma ",  knowledge , study , learning ) is the study of topics such as quantity ( numbers ), structure , space , and change . There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and definition of mathematics . A city - state is a sovereign state that consists of a city and its dependent territories . Historically , this included cities such as Rome , Athens , Carthage , and the ___MASK25___ city - states during the Renaissance  but today only a handful of sovereign city - states exist , with some disagreement as to which are city - states . A great deal of consensus exists that the term properly applies to Singapore , Monaco , and Vatican City . Archimedes of Syracuse was a ___MASK59___ mathematician , physicist , engineer , inventor , and astronomer . Although few details of his life are known , he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity . Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time , Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems , including the area of a circle , the surface area and volume of a sphere , and the area under a parabola . A hadith ( or plural : ahadith , ) is one of various reports describing the words , actions , or habits of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . The term comes from ___MASK63___ meaning a " report ", " account " or " narrative ". Hadith are second only to the Quran in developing Islamic jurisprudence , and regarded as important tools for understanding the Quran and commentaries (" tafsir ") written on it . Some important elements of traditional Islam , such as the five salat prayers , are mentioned in hadith . Near East is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia . Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles , the term was originally applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire . The term has fallen into disuse in ___MASK41___ and has been replaced by the terms " Middle East " and " West Asia ". The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia , the other being the Euphrates . The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq and empties itself into the ___MASK14___ Gulf . Classical antiquity ( also the classical era , classical period or classical age ) is a term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea , comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome , collectively known as the Greco - Roman world . It is the period in which ___MASK59___ and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe , North Africa and Southwestern Asia . The Quran (; ', literally meaning " the recitation "; also romanized Qur ' an or Koran "') is the central religious text of Islam , which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God (" Allah "). It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical ___MASK63___ literature . The Quran is divided into chapters (" surah " in ___MASK63___ ), which are then divided into verses (" ayah "). A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in his / her work , typically to solve mathematical problems . Turkey , officially the Republic of Turkey ( ___MASK38___ : ), is a transcontinental country in Eurasia , mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia , with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe . Turkey is a democratic , secular , unitary , parliamentary republic with a diverse cultural heritage . Turkey is bordered by eight countries : Greece to the west ; Bulgaria to the northwest ; Georgia to the northeast ; Armenia , the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan and Iran to the east ; and Iraq and Syria to the south . The Aegean Sea is to the west , the Black Sea to the north , and the Mediterranean Sea to the south . The Bosphorus , the Sea of Marmara , and the Dardanelles , which together form the ___MASK38___ Straits , divide Thrace and Anatolia ; they also separate Europe and Asia . Turkey ' s location has given it geopolitical and strategic importance throughout history . A Muslim is someone who follows or practises Islam , a monotheistic Abrahamic religion . Muslims consider the Quran ( Koran ), their holy book , to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet and messenger Muhammad . They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad (" sunnah ") as recorded in traditional accounts (" hadith "). " Muslim " is an ___MASK63___ word meaning " one who submits ( to God )". Harran (,) was a major ancient city in Upper Mesopotamia whose site is near the modern village of Altnbaak , Turkey , 44 kilometers southeast of anlurfa . The location is in a district of anlurfa Province that is also named " Harran ". Ibn Qurra made important discoveries in algebra , geometry , and astronomy . In astronomy , Thabit is considered one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system , and in mechanics he was a founder of statics . An empire is defined as " an aggregate of nations or people ruled over by an emperor or other powerful sovereign or government , usually a territory of greater extent than a kingdom , as the former British Empire , ___MASK34___ Empire , Brazilian Empire , ___MASK50___ Empire , Ottoman Empire , Byzantine Empire or Roman Empire ." An empire can be made solely of contiguous territories such as the Austro - Hungarian Empire , or of territories far remote from the homeland , such as a colonial empire . Kuwait ('), officially the State of Kuwait ('), is a country in Western Asia . Situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the ___MASK14___ Gulf , it shares borders with Iraq and Saudi Arabia . , Kuwait has a population of 4 . 2 million people ; 1 . 3 million are Kuwaitis and 2 . 9 million are expatriates . Expatriates account for 70 % of the population . The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East : Mesopotamia ( modern Iraq , southeast Turkey , southwest Iran , northeastern Syria and Kuwait ), ancient Egypt , ancient Iran ( Elam , Media , Parthia and Persia ), Anatolia / Asia Minor and ___MASK21___ Highlands ( Turkey ' s Eastern Anatolia Region , Armenia , northwestern Iran , southern Georgia , and western Azerbaijan ), the Levant ( modern Syria , Lebanon , Palestine , Israel , and Jordan ), Cyprus and the Arabian Peninsula . The ancient Near East is studied in the fields of Near Eastern archaeology and ancient history . A sphere ( from ___MASK59___   " sphaira ", " globe , ball ") is a perfectly round geometrical object in three - dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball , ( viz ., analogous to a circular object in two dimensions ). Calculus ( from ___MASK12___ " calculus ", literally " small pebble used for counting ") is the mathematical study of continuous change , in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations . It has two major branches , differential calculus ( concerning rates of change and slopes of curves ), and integral calculus ( concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under and between curves ); these two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus . Both branches make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well - defined limit . Generally , modern calculus is considered to have been developed in the 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz . Today , calculus has widespread uses in science , engineering and economics . The Tigris and Euphrates , with their tributaries , form a major river system in Western Asia . From sources in the Taurus mountains of eastern Turkey they flow by / through Syria through Iraq into the ___MASK14___ Gulf . The system is part of the Palearctic Tigris  Euphrates ecoregion , which includes Iraq and parts of Turkey , Syria , Iran , Saudi Arabia , Kuwait and Jordan . Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thbit ibn Qurra ( born : 295 - 296 A . H / 908 A . D in Baghdad , died : 334 - 335 A . H / 946 A . D in Baghdad , aged 38 ) was a Syriac speaking Muslim from Harran in northern Mesopotamia / Assyria , the grandson of Thbit ibn Qurra . He was mathematician and astronomer who studied geometry and in particular tangents to circles . He also made advances in the quadrature of the parabola and the theory of integration , generalizing the work of Archimedes , which was unavailable at the time . He is often referenced as one of the most important mathematicians of his time . The Euphrates ( Sumerian : : " Buranuna ", : " Purattu ", : " al - Furt ", : " Prt ", : " Yeprat ", : " Perat ", ) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia . Together with the Tigris , it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia . Originating in eastern Turkey , the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in the Shatt al - Arab , which empties into the ___MASK14___ Gulf . Beth Nahrain or Bet Nahrain or (" house ( of the ) rivers ") is the Assyrian name for the region known as Mesopotamia in the Syriac language ( ___MASK59___ " land between the rivers ") as well as its surrounding periphery . Geographically , it refers to the areas around the Euphrates and Tigris rivers ( as well as their tributaries ). The ___MASK68___ name loosely describes the area of the rivers , not between the rivers , as the literal ___MASK59___ term does , but both names refer to the same region . In mathematics , infinitesimals are things so small that there is no way to measure them . The insight with exploiting infinitesimals was that entities could still retain certain specific properties , such as angle or slope , even though these entities were quantitatively small . The word " infinitesimal " comes from a 17th - century Modern ___MASK12___ coinage " infinitesimus ", which originally referred to the " infinite - th " item in a sequence . It was originally introduced around 1670 by either Nicolaus Mercator or Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz . Infinitesimals are a basic ingredient in the procedures of infinitesimal calculus as developed by Leibniz , including the law of continuity and the transcendental law of homogeneity . In common speech , an infinitesimal object is an object that is smaller than any feasible measurement , but not zero in size  or , so small that it cannot be distinguished from zero by any available means . Hence , when used as an adjective , " infinitesimal " means " extremely small ". To give it a meaning , it usually must be compared to another infinitesimal object in the same context ( as in a derivative ). Infinitely many infinitesimals are summed to produce an integral . anlurfa , , often simply known as Urfa or Al - Ruha ( Kurdish : Riha , ___MASK63___ :  " ar - Ruh ", Syriac :  " Urhoy "), in ancient times Edessa (  in Greek ), is a city with 561 , 465 inhabitants in south - eastern Turkey , and the capital of anlurfa Province . It is a city with a primarily ___MASK63___ , Kurdish and Turkmen population . Urfa is situated on a plain about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River . Urfa ' s climate features extremely hot , dry summers and cool , moist winters .