publisher optik 
Web of Science ( previously known as Web of Knowledge ) is an online subscription - based scientific citation indexing service originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ), now maintained by Clarivate Analytics ( previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of ___MASK96___ ), that provides a comprehensive citation search . It gives access to multiple databases that reference cross - disciplinary research , which allows for in - depth exploration of specialized sub - fields within an academic or scientific discipline . Infrared radiation , or simply infrared or IR , is electromagnetic radiation ( EMR ) with longer wavelengths than those of visible light , and is therefore invisible , although it is sometimes loosely called infrared light . It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible ___MASK7___ at 700 nanometers ( frequency 430 THz ), to 1000000 nm ( 300 GHz ) ( although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments ). Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared . Like all EMR , IR carries radiant energy , and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle , the photon . In particle physics , an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a whose substructure is ___MASK73___ ; thus , it is ___MASK73___ whether it is composed of other particles . Known elementary particles include the fundamental fermions ( quarks , leptons , antiquarks , and antileptons ), which generally are " matter particles " and " antimatter particles ", as well as the fundamental bosons ( gauge bosons and the Higgs boson ), which generally are " force particles " that mediate interactions among fermions . A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a " composite particle ". The electromagnetic ___MASK7___ is the collective term for all known frequencies and their linked wavelengths of the known photons ( electromagnetic radiation ). The " electromagnetic ___MASK7___ " " of an object " has a different meaning , and is instead the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object . The Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) was founded by Eugene Garfield in 1960 . It was acquired by Thomson Scientific & Healthcare in 1992 , and became known as Thomson ISI . It is now a part of the Intellectual Property & Science business of ___MASK96___ . In the classical physics observed in everyday life , if something has mass and takes up space , it is said to be composed of matter ; this includes atoms ( and thus molecules ) and anything made up of these , but not other energy phenomena or waves such as light or sound . More generally , however , in ( modern ) physics , matter is not a fundamental concept because a universal ___MASK79___ of it is elusive : elementary constituents of atoms may not take up space individually , and massless particles may be composed to form objects that have mass ( even when at rest ). Research comprises " creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the ___MASK57___ of knowledge , including knowledge of humans , culture and society , and the use of this ___MASK57___ of knowledge to devise new applications ." It is used to establish or confirm facts , reaffirm the results of previous work , solve new or existing problems , support theorems , or develop new theories . A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field . Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic , or in the example of a school research project , they can be used to further a student ' s research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports . To test the validity of instruments , procedures , or experiments , research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole . The primary purposes of basic research ( as opposed to applied research ) are documentation , discovery , interpretation , or the research and development ( R & D ) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge . Approaches to research depend on epistemologies , which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences . There are several forms of research : scientific , humanities , artistic , economic , social , business , marketing , practitioner research , life , technological , etc . X - radiation ( composed of X - rays ) is a form of electromagnetic radiation . Most X - rays have a wavelength ranging from 0 . 01 to 10 nanometers , corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz ( 3 × 10 Hz to 3 × 10 Hz ) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV . X - ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays . In many languages , X - radiation is referred to with terms meaning Röntgen radiation , after the German ( German - ___MASK76___ to be precise ) scientist Wilhelm Röntgen , who usually is credited as its discoverer , and who had named it " X - radiation " to signify an ___MASK73___ type of radiation . Spelling of " X - ray ( s )" in the ___MASK78___ language includes the variants " x - ray ( s )", " xray ( s )", and " X ray ( s )". Optik -- International Journal for Light and Electron Optics , or simply Optik ( German for Optics ) is a scientific journal , specializing in the optics of light and electrons . It is included in the Web of Science and other standard indexes . Despite its low impact factor ( 0 . 769 as of 2013 , ranking it 52 out of 64 in the Journal Citation Reports , category `` Optics '' ) , Optik has published a number of highly cited papers , one having as many as 1250 citations according to the Web of Science ( 2008 ) . The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena , acquiring new knowledge , or correcting and integrating previous knowledge . To be termed scientific , a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning . The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as " a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th ___MASK71___ , consisting in systematic observation , measurement , and experiment , and the formulation , testing , and modification of hypotheses ". Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses . The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment . A citation index is a kind of bibliographic index , an index of citations between publications , allowing the user to easily establish which later documents cite which earlier documents . A form of citation index is first found in 12th - ___MASK71___ Hebrew religious literature . Legal citation indexes are found in the 18th ___MASK71___ and were made popular by citators such as Shepard ' s Citations ( 1873 ). In 1960 , Eugene Garfield ' s Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) introduced the first citation index for papers published in academic journals , first the " Science Citation Index " ( SCI ), and later the " Social Sciences Citation Index " ( SSCI ) and the " Arts and Humanities Citation Index " ( AHCI ). The first automated citation indexing was done by CiteSeer in 1997 . Other sources for such data include Google Scholar and ___MASK55___ ' s Scopus . A ___MASK7___ ( plural " spectra " or " spectrums ") is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary , without steps , across a continuum . The word was first used scientifically in optics to describe ___MASK82___ of colors in visible light after passing through a prism . As scientific understanding of light advanced , it came to apply to the entire electromagnetic ___MASK7___ . Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter ; with frequencies between and . This broad ___MASK79___ includes both UHF and EHF ( millimeter wave ) bands , and various sources use different boundaries . In all cases , microwaves include the entire SHF band ( 3 to 30 GHz , or 10 to 1 cm ) at minimum , with RF engineering often restricting the range between 1 and 100 GHz ( 300 and 3 mm ). Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations : S , C , X , K , K , or K band , or by similar NATO or EU designations . In academic publishing , a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science , usually by reporting new research . There are thousands of scientific journals in publication , and many more have been published at various points in the past ( see list of scientific journals ). Most journals are highly specialized , although some of the oldest journals such as " Nature " publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields . Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed , in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal ' s standards of quality , and scientific validity . If the journal ' s editor considers the paper appropriate , at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument , and must agree to publish it . Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines , they are actually quite different . Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually , as one would read a magazine . The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method . If they are describing experiments or calculations , they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results . Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record . ___MASK96___ Corporation is a multinational mass media and information firm with operational headquarters at 3 Times Square in Manhattan , New York City . The firm was founded in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , where its legal domicile offices are located at 333 Bay Street in Downtown Toronto . ___MASK96___ shares maintain a dual listing on the New York ___MASK57___ Exchange ( NYSE : TRI ) and the Toronto ___MASK57___ Exchange ( TSX : TRI ). The electron is a subatomic particle , symbol or , with a negative elementary electric charge . Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family , and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure . The electron has a mass that is approximately 1 / 1836 that of the proton . Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum ( spin ) of a half - integer value , expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant , "  ". As it is a fermion , no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state , in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle . Like all matter , electrons have properties of both particles and waves : they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light . The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a larger De Broglie wavelength for a given energy . Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light , including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it . Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible , ultraviolet , and infrared light . Because light is an electromagnetic wave , other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X - rays , microwaves , and radio waves exhibit similar properties . Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic ___MASK7___ longer than infrared light . Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz , though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves , or include waves of any lower frequency . At 300 GHz , the corresponding wavelength is , and at 3 kHz is . Like all other electromagnetic waves , they travel at the speed of light . Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning , or by astronomical objects . Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic ___MASK7___ . The word usually refers to visible light , which is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight . Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400  700 nanometres ( nm ), or 4 . 00 × 10 to 7 . 00 × 10 m , between the infrared ( with longer wavelengths ) and the ultraviolet ( with shorter wavelengths ). This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430  750 terahertz ( THz ).