occupation cliff shaw
Applied ___MASK35___ is a discipline of ___MASK35___ that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications , like technology or inventions . ___MASK10___ science is the study of the theory , experimentation , and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers . It is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications and the systematic study of the feasibility , structure , expression , and mechanization of the methodical procedures ( or algorithms ) that underlie the acquisition , representation , processing , storage , communication of , and access to information . An alternate , more succinct definition of ___MASK10___ science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale . A ___MASK10___ scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems . ___MASK93___ is the implementation of government policy and also an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for working in the ___MASK71___ . As a " field of inquiry with a diverse scope " its " fundamental goal ... is to advance management and policies so that government can function ." Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are : " the management of public programs "; the " translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day "; and " the study of government decision making , the analysis of the policies themselves , the various inputs that have produced them , and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies ." A ___MASK10___ scientist is a scientist who has acquired the knowledge of ___MASK10___ science , the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their application . A ___MASK10___ is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically . The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations , called a " program ", make computers very flexible and useful . Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices . This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls , factory devices such as industrial robots and ___MASK10___ assisted design , but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones . The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers . Operations ___MASK18___ , or operational ___MASK18___ in British usage , is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions . Further , the term ' operational analysis ' is used in the British ( and some British Commonwealth ) ___MASK44___ , as an intrinsic part of capability development , management and assurance . In particular , operational analysis forms part of the Combined Operational Effectiveness and Investment Appraisals ( COEIA ), which support British defence capability acquisition decision - making . A think tank , policy institute , or ___MASK18___ institute is an organization that performs ___MASK18___ and ___MASK58___ concerning topics such as social policy , political strategy , economics , military , technology , and culture . Most policy institutes are non - profit organizations , which some countries such as the United States and Canada provide with tax exempt status . Other think tanks are funded by governments , ___MASK58___ groups , or businesses , or derive revenue from consulting or ___MASK18___ work related to their projects . ___MASK87___ ( Carnegie Mellon or CMU ; or ) is a private research university in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . A ___MASK86___ is a professional who evaluates and studies behavior and mental processes ( see also psychology ). Typically , psychologists must have completed a university degree in psychology , which is a ___MASK46___ ' s degree in some countries and a doctorate in others . This definition of ___MASK86___ is non - exclusive ; in most jurisdictions , members of other professions ( such as counselors and psychiatrists ) can also evaluate , diagnose , treat , and study mental processes . Some psychologists , such as clinical and counseling psychologists , provide mental health care , and some psychologists , such as social or organizational psychologists conduct research and provide consultation services . Herbert Alexander Simon ( June 15 , 1916  February 9 , 2001 ) was an American ___MASK29___ , economist , sociologist , psychologist , and ___MASK10___ scientist whose research ranged across the fields of cognitive psychology , cognitive science , ___MASK10___ science , public administration , economics , management , philosophy of science , sociology , and political science , unified by studies of decision - making . With almost a thousand highly cited publications , he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century . For many years he held the post of Richard King Mellon ___MASK2___ at Carnegie Mellon University John Clifford Shaw ( 1922 -- 1991 ) was a systems ___MASK83___ at the RAND Corporation . He is a coauthor of the first artificial intelligence program , the Logic Theorist , and was one of the developers of Information Processing Language , a ___MASK32___ language of the 1950s . It is considered the true `` father '' of the JOSS language . One of the most significant events that occurred in the ___MASK32___ was the development of the concept of list processing by Allen Newell , Herbert A . Simon and Cliff Shaw during the development of the language IPL - V . He invented the linked list , on which almost all of computer technology now depends . Richard ___MASK81___ Mellon ( June 19 , 1899  June 3 , 1970 ), commonly known as R . K ., was an American ___MASK73___ , general , and philanthropist from the Pittsburgh suburb of Ligonier , Pennsylvania . In mathematics and ___MASK10___ science , an algorithm is a self - contained sequence of actions to be performed . Algorithms perform calculation , data processing , and / or automated reasoning tasks . JOSS ( an acronym for JOHNNIAC Open Shop System ) was one of the very first interactive , time - sharing ___MASK32___ languages . JOSS I , developed by J . Clifford Shaw at RAND was first implemented , in beta form , on the JOHNNIAC computer in May 1963 . The full implementation was deployed in January 1964 , supporting five terminals and the final version , supporting ten terminals , was deployed in January 1965 . Artificial intelligence ( AI ) is intelligence exhibited by machines . In ___MASK10___ science , an ideal " intelligent " machine is a flexible rational agent that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some goal . Colloquially , the term " artificial intelligence " is applied when a machine mimics " cognitive " functions that humans associate with other human minds , such as " learning " and " problem solving ". As machines become increasingly capable , mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition . For example , optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an exemplar of " artificial intelligence ", having become a routine technology . Capabilities currently classified as AI include successfully understanding human speech , competing at a high level in strategic game systems ( such as Chess and Go ), self - driving cars , and interpreting complex data . Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly . Optical character recognition ( also optical character ___MASK91___ , OCR ) is the mechanical or electronic conversion of images of typed , handwritten or printed text into machine - encoded text , whether from a scanned document , a photo of a document , a scene - photo ( for example the text on signs and billboards in a landscape photo ) or from subtitle text superimposed on an image ( for example from a television broadcast ). It is widely used as a form of information entry from printed paper data records , whether passport documents , invoices , bank statements , computerised receipts , business cards , mail , printouts of static - data , or any suitable documentation . It is a common method of digitising printed texts so that they can be electronically edited , searched , stored more compactly , displayed on - line , and used in machine processes such as cognitive computing , machine translation , ( extracted ) text - to - speech , key data and text mining . OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition , artificial intelligence and ___MASK10___ vision . Cognitive ___MASK35___ is the interdisciplinary , scientific study of the mind and its processes . It examines the nature , the tasks , and the functions of cognition . Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior , with a focus on how nervous systems represent , process , and transform information . Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language , perception , memory , attention , reasoning , and emotion ; to understand these faculties , cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as ___MASK24___ , psychology , artificial intelligence , philosophy , neuroscience , and anthropology . The typical analysis of cognitive ___MASK35___ spans many levels of organization , from learning and decision to logic and planning ; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization . The fundamental concept of cognitive ___MASK35___ is that " thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures ." Logic Theorist is a ___MASK10___ program written in 1955 and 1956 by Allen Newell , Herbert A . Simon and Cliff Shaw . It was the first program deliberately engineered to mimic the problem solving skills of a human being and is called " the first artificial intelligence program ". It would eventually prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Whitehead and Russell ' s " Principia Mathematica ", and find new and more elegant proofs for some . Economics (, ) is a social ___MASK35___ concerned with the factors that determine the production , distribution , and consumption of goods and services . The term " economics " comes from the Ancient Greek from (', pronounced " eekos ", " house ") and (', " custom " or " law "), hence " rules of the house ( hold for good management )". ' Political economy ' was the earlier name for the subject , but economists in the late 19th century suggested " economics " as a shorter term for " economic ___MASK35___ " to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political ___MASK35___ and other social sciences . A ___MASK32___ language is a formal computer language designed to communicate instructions to a machine , particularly a computer . ___MASK32___ languages can be used to create programs to control the behavior of a machine or to express algorithms . RAND Corporation (" ___MASK18___ and development ") is an American nonprofit global policy think tank originally formed by Douglas Aircraft Company to offer ___MASK18___ and analysis to the United States Armed Forces . It is financed by the U . S . government and private endowment , corporations including the health care industry , universities and private individuals . The organization has expanded to work with other governments , private foundations , international organizations , and commercial organizations on a host of non - defense issues . RAND aims for interdisciplinary and quantitative problem solving via translating theoretical concepts from formal economics and the physical sciences into novel applications in other areas , that is , via applied science and operations ___MASK18___ . Michael D . Rich is ___MASK61___ of the RAND Corporation . In ___MASK10___ science , a linked list is a linear collection of data elements , called nodes , each pointing to the next node by means of a pointer . It is a data structure consisting of a group of nodes which together represent a sequence . Under the simplest form , each node is composed of data and a reference ( in other words , a " link ") to the next node in the sequence . This structure allows for efficient insertion or removal of elements from any position in the sequence during iteration . More complex variants add additional links , allowing efficient insertion or removal from arbitrary element references . Information Processing Language ( IPL ) is a ___MASK32___ language created by Allen Newell , Cliff Shaw , and Herbert A . Simon at RAND Corporation and the Carnegie Institute of Technology at about 1956 . Newell had the job of language specifier - application programmer , Shaw was the system programmer , and Simon took the job of application programmer - user . In ___MASK10___ ___MASK32___ , codice_1 ( or ) is a fundamental function in most dialects of the Lisp ___MASK32___ language . codice_1 " constructs " memory objects which hold two values or pointers to values . These objects are referred to as ( cons ) cells , conses , non - atomic s - expressions (" NATSes "), or ( cons ) pairs . In Lisp jargon , the expression " to cons " x " onto " y "" means to construct a new object with codice_3 . The resulting pair has a left half , referred to as the codice_4 ( the first element , or content of address register ), and a right half ( the second element , or content of decrement register ), referred to as the codice_5 . Michael Rich is the ___MASK61___ of the RAND Corporation , the institution ' s highest - ranking position , which he has held since November 2011 . Rich became the fifth president and CEO of the Santa Monica , Calif .,- based research institution , succeeding James A . Thomson , who led RAND since 1989 . His father , Ben Rich , was a prominent aeronautical ___MASK31___ with the Lockheed Martin Skunk Works , most famous for developing the F - 117A Nighthawk stealth fighter . The Douglas Aircraft Company was an American aerospace ___MASK22___ based in Southern California . It was founded in 1921 by Donald Wills Douglas , Sr . and later merged with McDonnell Aircraft in 1967 to form McDonnell Douglas . Douglas Aircraft Company largely operated as a division of McDonnell Douglas ( MD ) after the merger . MD later merged with Boeing in 1997 . Philosophy of ___MASK35___ is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations , methods , and implications of ___MASK35___ . The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as ___MASK35___ , the reliability of scientific theories , and the ultimate purpose of ___MASK35___ . This discipline overlaps with metaphysics , ontology , and epistemology , for example , when it explores the relationship between ___MASK35___ and truth . The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States . They consist of the ___MASK12___ , Marine Corps , Navy , Air Force , and ___MASK92___ . The President of the United States is the military ' s overall head , and helps form military policy with the U . S . Department of Defense ( DoD ), a federal executive department , acting as the principal organ by which military policy is carried out . From the time of its inception , the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States . A sense of national unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War . Even so , the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force . It played an important role in the American Civil War , where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military . Not until the outbreak of World War II did a large standing army become officially established . The National Security Act of 1947 , adopted following World War II and during the Cold War ' s onset , created the modern U . S . military framework ; the Act merged previously Cabinet - level Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment ( renamed the Department of Defense in 1949 ), headed by the Secretary of Defense ; and created the Department of the Air Force and National Security Council . In ___MASK10___ science , a data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a ___MASK10___ so that it can be used efficiently . Psychology is the study of behavior and mind , embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought . It is an ___MASK68___ discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing ___MASK60___ principles and researching specific cases . In this field , a professional or ___MASK65___ is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social , behavioral , or cognitive ___MASK5___ . Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior , while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors . Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes , including perception , cognition , attention , emotion ( affect ), intelligence , phenomenology , motivation ( conation ), brain functioning , and personality . This extends to interaction between people , such as interpersonal relationships , including psychological resilience , family resilience , and other areas . Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind . Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables . In addition , or in opposition , to employing empirical and deductive methods , some  especially clinical and counseling psychologists  at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques . Psychology has been described as a " hub science ", with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences , natural sciences , medicine , humanities , and philosophy . While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems , it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity . By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society . The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role , practicing in clinical , counseling , or school settings . Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior , and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other ___MASK68___ settings ( e . g ., medical schools , hospitals ). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings , or in other areas such as human development and aging , sports , health , and the media , as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law . Chess is a two - player strategy board ___MASK50___ played on a chessboard , a checkered gameboard with 64 squares arranged in an eight - by - eight grid . Chess is played by millions of people worldwide , both amateurs and professionals . ___MASK60___ Problem Solver or G . P . S . was a ___MASK10___ program created in 1959 by Herbert A . Simon , J . C . Shaw , and Allen Newell intended to work as a universal problem solver machine . Any problem that can be expressed as a set of well - formed formulas ( WFFs ) or Horn clauses , and that constitute a directed graph with one or more sources (" viz .", axioms ) and sinks (" viz .", desired conclusions ), can be solved , in principle , by GPS . Proofs in the predicate logic and Euclidean geometry problem spaces are prime examples of the domain the applicability of GPS . of predicate logic theorems . It was based on Simon and Newell ' s theoretical work on logic machines . GPS was the first ___MASK10___ program which separated its knowledge of problems ( rules represented as input data ) from its strategy of how to solve problems ( a generic solver engine ). GPS was implemented in the third - order ___MASK32___ language , IPL . Political ___MASK35___ is a social ___MASK35___ which deals with systems of government , and the analysis of political activities , political thoughts and political behaviour . It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics which is commonly thought of as determining of the distribution of power and resources . Political scientists " see themselves engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions , and from these revelations they attempt to construct ___MASK60___ principles about the way the world of politics works ." In economics , ___MASK50___ theory , decision theory , and artificial intelligence , a rational ___MASK7___ is an ___MASK7___ that has clear preferences , models uncertainty via expected values of variables or functions of variables , and always chooses to perform the action with the optimal expected outcome for itself from among all feasible actions . A rational ___MASK7___ can be anything that makes decisions , typically a person , firm , machine , or software . A chief executive ___MASK23___ ( CEO ) describes the position of the most senior corporate ___MASK23___ , executive , ___MASK42___ or administrator in charge of managing an organization . CEOs lead a range of organizations , including public and private corporations , non - profit organizations and even some government organizations ( e . g ., Crown corporations ). The CEO of a corporation or company typically reports to the board of directors and is charged with maximizing the value of the entity , which may include maximizing the share price , market share , revenues , or another element . In the non - profit and government sector , CEOs typically aim at achieving outcomes related to the organization ' s mission , such as reducing poverty , increasing literacy , etc . Titles also often given to the holder of CEO position include president , chief executive ( CE ) and managing director ( MD ). An ___MASK20___ is a practitioner in the social science discipline of economics . Allen Newell ( March 19 , 1927  July 19 , 1992 ) was a ___MASK65___ in ___MASK10___ science and cognitive psychology at the RAND Corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University  s School of ___MASK10___ Science , Tepper School of Business , and Department of Psychology . He contributed to the Information Processing Language ( 1956 ) and two of the earliest AI programs , the Logic Theory Machine ( 1956 ) and the General Problem Solver ( 1957 ) ( with Herbert A . Simon ). He was awarded the ACM ' s A . M . Turing Award along with Herbert A . Simon in 1975 for their basic contributions to artificial intelligence and the psychology of human cognition . The JOHNNIAC was an early ___MASK10___ built by the RAND Corporation ( not to be confused with Remington Rand , maker of the contemporaneous UNIVAC I ___MASK10___ ) that was based on the von Neumann architecture that had been pioneered on the IAS machine . It was named in honor of von Neumann , short for John v . Neumann " Numerical Integrator and Automatic ___MASK10___ ". JOHNNIAC is arguably the longest - lived early ___MASK10___ , being used almost continuously from 1953 for over 13 years before finally being shut down on February 11 , 1966 , logging over 50 , 000 operational hours .