part_of klippe
An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as an effect of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas of differing elevations . Usually " escarpment " is used interchangeably with scarp ( from the Italian " scarpa ", ___MASK61___ ). But some sources differentiate the two terms , where " escarpment " refers to the margin between two landforms , while " scarp " is synonymous with a cliff or steep slope . The surface of the steep slope is called a scarp face . This ( escarpment ) is a ridge which has a gentle ( dip ) slope on one side and a steep ( scarp ) slope on the other side . A thrust fault is a type of fault , or break in the ___MASK73___ ' s crust across which there has been relative movement , in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and over higher strata . They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger . Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces . Igneous ___MASK33___ ( derived from the Latin ___MASK30___ " ignis " meaning ___MASK66___ ), or magmatic ___MASK33___ , is one of the three main ___MASK33___ types , the others being sedimentary and metamorphic . Igneous ___MASK33___ is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava . The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet ' s mantle or crust . Typically , the melting is caused by one or more of three processes : an increase in temperature , a decrease in pressure , or a change in composition . Solidification into ___MASK33___ occurs either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks . Igneous ___MASK33___ ___MASK9___ form with crystallization to form granular , crystalline rocks , or without crystallization to form natural glasses . Continental collision is a ___MASK97___ of the plate ___MASK75___ of Earth that occurs at convergent boundaries . Continental collision is a variation on the fundamental process of subduction , whereby the subduction zone is destroyed , mountains produced , and two continents sutured together . Continental collision is known only to occur on Earth . ___MASK62___ ( from the Ancient Greek  , " g ", i . e . " ___MASK73___ " and - o , "- logia ", i . e . " study of , discourse ") is an ___MASK73___ science comprising the study of ___MASK34___ Earth , the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which they change . ___MASK62___ can also refer generally to the study of the ___MASK34___ features of any terrestrial planet ( such as the geology of the ___MASK58___ or Mars ). Sedimentary rocks are types of ___MASK33___ that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the ___MASK73___ ' s surface and within bodies of water . Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and / or organic particles ( detritus ) to settle in place . The particles that form a sedimentary ___MASK33___ by accumulating are called sediment . Before being deposited , the sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area , and then transported to the place of deposition by water , wind , ice , ___MASK90___ movement or glaciers , which are called agents of denudation . Sedimentation ___MASK9___ also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension . A landform is a natural feature of the ___MASK34___ surface of the Earth or other planetary body . Landforms together make up a given terrain , and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography . Typical landforms include hills , mountains , plateaus , canyons , valleys , as well as shoreline features such as bays , peninsulas , and seas , including submerged features such as mid - ocean ridges , volcanoes , and the great ocean basins . Chalk is a soft , white , porous , sedimentary carbonate ___MASK33___ , a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite . Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO . It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of ___MASK77___ calcite shells ( coccoliths ) shed from micro - organisms called coccolithophores . Flint ( a type of chert unique to chalk ) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk . It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction . Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which ___MASK9___ be silicified ( i . e . replaced molecule by molecule by flint ). A ___MASK22___ is a natural flowing ___MASK59___ , usually freshwater , flowing towards an ___MASK24___ , ___MASK32___ , lake or another ___MASK22___ . In some cases a ___MASK22___ flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water . Small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream , creek , brook , rivulet , and rill . There are no official definitions for the generic term ___MASK22___ as applied to geographic features , although in some countries or communities a stream is defined by its size . Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location ; examples are " run " in some parts of the United States , " burn " in Scotland and northeast England , and " beck " in northern England . Sometimes a ___MASK22___ is defined as being larger than a creek , but not always : the language is vague . Basalt (, , , or ) is a common extrusive igneous ( volcanic ) ___MASK33___ formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or ___MASK58___ . Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of lava basalt flows . ___MASK79___ ( from Greek , " geographia ", literally " ___MASK73___ description ") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands , the features , the inhabitants , and the phenomena of ___MASK73___ . The first person to use the word "  " was Eratosthenes ( 276  194 BC ). ___MASK79___ is an all - encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the ___MASK73___ and its human and natural complexities  not merely where objects are , but how they have changed and come to be . It is often defined in terms of the two branches of human geography and physical geography . The four historical traditions in geographical research are : spatial analyses of natural and the human phenomena , area studies of places and regions , studies of human - land relationships , and the ___MASK73___ sciences . ___MASK79___ has been called " the world discipline " and " the bridge between the human and the physical sciences ". Sandstone ( sometimes known as arenite ) is a clastic sedimentary ___MASK33___ composed mainly of sand - sized minerals or ___MASK33___ grains . For the style of coin , see Klippe ( coin ) . A klippe ( ___MASK94___ for cliff or crag ) is a geological feature of thrust fault terrains . The klippe is the remnant portion of a nappe after erosion has removed connecting portions of the nappe . This ___MASK51___ results in an outlier of exotic , often nearly horizontally translated strata overlying autochthonous strata . Examples of klippes include : Chief Mountain , Montana Mount Yamnuska , Alberta The ___MASK33___ of Gibraltar Klippes ___MASK9___ also be found in the Pre - Alps of Switzerland and some of the isolated mountains in Assynt , Sutherland , in NW Scotland . Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous ___MASK33___ that is granular and phaneritic in texture . Granites can be predominantly white , pink , or gray in color , depending on their mineralogy . The ___MASK30___ " granite " comes from the Latin " granum ", a grain , in reference to the coarse - grained structure of such a holocrystalline ___MASK33___ . By definition , granite is an igneous ___MASK33___ with at least 20 % quartz and up to 65 % alkali feldspar by volume . A coastline or a seashore is the area where land meets the ___MASK32___ or ocean , or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake . A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox . In ___MASK79___ and geology , a cliff is a vertical , or nearly vertical , rock exposure . Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by the processes of weathering and erosion . Cliffs are common on coasts , in mountainous areas , escarpments and along rivers . Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to weathering and erosion . Sedimentary rocks most likely to form cliffs include sandstone , limestone , chalk , and dolomite . Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs . In ___MASK62___ , a nappe or thrust sheet is a large sheetlike body of ___MASK33___ that has been moved more than or above a thrust fault from its original position . Nappes form in compressional tectonic settings like continental collision zones or on the overriding plate in active subduction zones . Nappes form when a ___MASK90___ of ___MASK33___ is forced ( or " thrust ") over another ___MASK33___ ___MASK90___ , typically on a low angle fault plane . The resulting structure ___MASK9___ include large - scale recumbent folds , shearing along the fault plane , imbricate thrust stacks , fensters and klippe . In ___MASK73___ science , erosion is the action of surface processes ( such as water flow or wind ) that remove soil , rock , or dissolved material from one location on the ___MASK73___ ' s crust , then transport it away to another location . The particulate breakdown of rock or soil into clastic sediment is referred to as " physical " or " mechanical " erosion ; this contrasts with " chemical " erosion , where soil or rock material is removed from an area by its dissolving into a solvent ( typically water ), followed by the flow away of that solution . Eroded sediment or solutes ___MASK9___ be transported just a few millimetres , or for thousands of kilometres . A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area , usually in the form of a peak . A mountain is generally steeper than a hill . Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism . These forces can locally raise the surface of the ___MASK73___ . Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers , weather conditions , and glaciers . A few mountains are isolated summits , but most occur in huge mountain ranges . In ___MASK60___ , a force is any interaction that , when unopposed , will change the motion of an object . In other words , a force can cause an object with ___MASK90___ to change its velocity ( which includes to begin moving from a state of rest ), i . e ., to accelerate . Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull . A force has both magnitude and direction , making it a vector quantity . It is measured in the SI unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F . Subduction is a geological ___MASK51___ that takes place at convergent boundaries of tectonic plates where one plate moves under another and is forced or sinks due to ___MASK78___ into the mantle . Regions where this ___MASK51___ occurs are known as " subduction zones ". Rates of subduction are typically in centimeters per year , with the average rate of convergence being approximately two to eight centimeters per year along most plate boundaries . Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the ___MASK73___ ' s atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs " in situ " ( on site ), that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Limestone is a sedimentary ___MASK33___ , composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral , forams and molluscs . Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO ).