languages_spoken_or_written aenesidemus
Pyrrhonism , or Pyrrhonian skepticism , was a school of skepticism founded by Pyrrho in the fourth century BC . The school ' s existence was brief . It was revived by Aenesidemus in the first century BC and recorded by Sextus Empiricus in the late second century or early third century AD . A revival of the use of " Pyrrhonism " as a synonym for " skepticism " occurred during the seventeenth century . Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl ( 8 April 1859  27 April 1938 ) was a ___MASK73___ philosopher who established the school of phenomenology . In his early work , he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality . In his mature work , he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so - called phenomenological reduction . Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge , Husserl re - defined phenomenology as a transcendental - idealist philosophy . Husserl ' s thought profoundly influenced the landscape of twentieth - century philosophy , and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond . Knossos (" Knsós "), also Latinized as Cnossus or Gnossus , is the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete and is considered Europe ' s oldest city . Aenesidemus ( ___MASK36___ :  Ainsidmos ) was a ___MASK36___ sceptical philosopher , born in Knossos on the island of Crete . He lived in the 1st century BC , taught in Alexandria and flourished shortly after the life of Cicero . He was probably a member of Plato ' s Academy , but due to his rejection of their theories he revived the principle of epoché (  ) , or suspended judgement , originally proposed by Pyrrho and Timon , as a solution to what he considered to be the insoluble problems of epistemology . His school is most commonly referred to as Pyrrhonism , but also as the third sceptic school . His chief work , the Pyrrhoneia (  ó ) discussed four main ideas : the reasons for scepticism and doubt , arguments against causality and truth , a physical theory and an ethical theory . Of these , the former are the most significant and his reasons for the suspension of judgment were organized into ten `` tropes '' , or modes . Very little is known about him as none of his works have survived , though he has been mentioned and discussed in detail by Photius ( in his Myriobiblion ) and Sextus Empiricus , and also to a lesser extent by Diogenes Laertius and Philo of Alexandria . René Descartes ( Latinized : Renatus Cartesius ; adjectival form : " Cartesian "; 31 March 159611 February 1650 ) was a ___MASK10___ philosopher , mathematician , and scientist . Dubbed the father of modern western philosophy , much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings , which are studied closely to this day . He spent about 20 years of his life in the ___MASK83___ Republic . Sextus Empiricus ( c . AD 160  c . 210 ), was a physician and philosopher , and has been variously reported to have lived in Alexandria , Rome , or Athens . His philosophical work is the most complete surviving account of ___MASK45___ and Roman skepticism . Corsica ( ___MASK15___ and ___MASK1___ : " Corsica " ) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 13 regions of France . It is located west of the ___MASK1___ Peninsula , southeast of the ___MASK10___ mainland , and north of the ___MASK1___ island of Sardinia . Mountains make up two - thirds of the island , forming a single chain . A politician ( from " politics " + "- ian ", from the ___MASK36___ title of Aristotle ' s book  " Politika ", meaning " Civic Affairs ") is a person active in party politics , or a person holding or seeking office in government . In democratic countries , politicians seek elective positions within a government through elections or , at times , temporary appointment to replace politicians who have died , resigned or have been otherwise removed from office . In non - democratic countries , they employ other means of reaching power through appointment , bribery , revolutions and intrigues . Some politicians are experienced in the art or science of government . Politicians propose , support and create laws or policies that govern the land and , by extension , its people . Broadly speaking , a " politician " can be anyone who seeks to achieve political power in any bureaucratic institution . A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy , which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theology or science . The term " philosopher " comes from the ___MASK45___ (" philosophos ") meaning " lover of wisdom ". The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras ( 6th century BC ). Alexandria ( or ; ___MASK70___ : '; '; "") is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt , extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country . Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it highly vulnerable to rising sea levels . Alexandria is Egypt ' s largest seaport , serving approximately 80 % of Egypt ' s imports and exports . It is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez . Alexandria is also an important tourist destination . ___MASK70___ (' or ' ) is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the " lingua franca " of the Arab world . ___MASK70___ also is a liturgical language of 1 . 7 billion Muslims . It is one of six official languages of the United Nations . It is named after the Arabs , a term initially used to describe peoples living from Mesopotamia in the east to the Anti - Lebanon mountains in the west , and from northwestern Arabia to the Sinai in the south . Philosophy ( from ___MASK36___ , " philosophia ", literally " love of wisdom ") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence , knowledge , values , reason , mind , and language . The term was probably coined by Pythagoras ( c . 570  c . 495 BC ). Philosophical methods include questioning , critical discussion , rational argument and systematic presentation . Classic philosophical questions include : Is it possible to know anything and to prove it ? What is most real ? However , philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as : Is there a best way to live ? Is it better to be just or unjust ( if one can get away with it )? Do humans have free will ? Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge . Sardinia ( / , Sassarese : " Sardhigna ", Gallurese : " Saldigna ", ___MASK53___ : " Sardenya ", Tabarchino : " Sardegna ") is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea ( after Sicily and before Cyprus ) and an autonomous region of Italy . It is located in the Western Mediterranean , just south of the French island of Corsica . Classical antiquity ( also the classical era , classical period or classical age ) is a term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea , comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome , collectively known as the Greco - Roman world . It is the period in which ___MASK36___ and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe , North Africa and Southwestern Asia . Pyrrho (" Pyrrn ", c . 360 BC  c . 270 BC ), was a ___MASK36___ philosopher of Classical Antiquity and is credited as being the first ___MASK36___ skeptic philosopher . Crete ("" ; ___MASK45___ : , " Krt ") is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands , 88th - largest island in the world and the fifth - largest island in the Mediterranean Sea , after Sicily , Sardinia , Cyprus , and Corsica . Crete and a number of surrounding islands and islets constitute the region of Crete , one of the 13 top - level administrative units of Greece . The capital and the largest city is Heraklion . , the region had a population of 623 , 065 . Epoché (  " epokh ", " suspension ") is an ___MASK45___ term which , in its philosophical usage , describes the state where all judgments about non - evident matters are suspended . This concept was developed by the Pyrrhonist school of philosophy . It plays an implicit role in subsequent skeptical thought , as in René Descartes ' epistemic principle of methodic doubt . The term was popularized in philosophy by Edmund Husserl . Husserl elaborates the notion of ' phenomenological epoché ' or ' bracketing ' in " Ideas I ". Through the systematic procedure of ' phenomenological reduction ', one is thought to be able to suspend judgment regarding the general or naive philosophical belief in the existence of the external world , and thus examine phenomena as they are originally given to consciousness . Causality ( also referred to as causation , or cause and effect ) is the agency or efficacy that connects one process ( the " cause ") with another process or state ( the " effect "), where the first is understood to be partly responsible for the second , and the second is dependent on the first . In general , a process has many causes , which are said to be causal factors for it , and all lie in its past . An effect can in turn be a cause of many other effects . Although retrocausality is sometimes referred to in thought experiments and hypothetical analyses , causality is generally accepted to be temporally bound so that causes always precede their dependent effects ( although in some contexts such as economics they may coincide in time ; see Instrumental variable for how this is dealt with econometrically ). ___MASK45___ includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD . It is often roughly divided into the Archaic period ( 9th to 6th centuries BC ), Classical period ( 5th and 4th centuries BC ), and Hellenistic period ( 3rd century BC to the 6th century AD ). It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek . Marcus Tullius Cicero ( " Kikern "; 3 January 106 BC  7 December 43 BC ) was a Roman philosopher , politician , lawyer , orator , political theorist , consul , and constitutionalist . He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order , and is considered one of Rome ' s greatest orators and prose stylists . Economics (, ) is a social science concerned with the factors that determine the production , distribution , and consumption of goods and services . The term " economics " comes from the ___MASK45___ from (', pronounced " eekos ", " house ") and (', " custom " or " law "), hence " rules of the house ( hold for good management )". ' Political economy ' was the earlier name for the subject , but economists in the late 19th century suggested " economics " as a shorter term for " economic science " to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences . Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It constitutes an autonomous Region of Italy , along with surrounding minor islands , officially referred to as " Regione Siciliana " ( in ___MASK1___ , Sicilian Region ). Rome is a city and special " comune " ( named " Roma Capitale ") in Italy . Rome is the capital of Italy and of the Lazio region . With 2 , 870 , 336 residents in , it is also the country ' s largest and most populated " comune " and fourth - most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits . The Metropolitan City of Rome has a population of 4 . 3 million residents . The city is located in the central - western portion of the ___MASK1___ Peninsula , within Lazio ( Latium ), along the shores of Tiber river . The Vatican City is an independent country geographically located within the city boundaries of Rome , the only existing example of a country within a city : for this reason Rome has been often defined as capital of two states . The Nile ( " en - Nl ", " an - Nl " " P ( h ) iaro "; Ancient ___MASK44___ : "  ' p " and " Iteru "; Biblical Hebrew :  , " Ha - Ye ' or ") is a major north - flowing river in northeastern Africa . It is generally regarded as the longest river in the world , however other conflicting sources cite a 2007 study that gave the title to the Amazon River in South America . The Nile , which is 6 , 853 km ( 4 , 258 miles ) long , is an " international " river as its water resources are shared by eleven countries , namely , Tanzania , Uganda , Rwanda , Burundi , Congo - Kinshasa , Kenya , Ethiopia , Eritrea , South Sudan , Sudan and Egypt . In particular , the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt and Sudan .