country cross of justin ii
The ___MASK24___ ( Koine and Medieval Greek :    , tr . ) was the post - ___MASK2___ period of the ancient Roman civilization , characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe , Africa and Asia . The city of Rome was the largest city in the ___MASK49___ BC AD , with Constantinople ( New Rome ) becoming the largest around 500 AD , and the Empire ' s populace grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants ( roughly 20 % of the ___MASK49___ ' s population at the time ). The 500 - year - old republic which preceded it was severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict , during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC . Civil wars and executions continued , culminating in the victory of Octavian , Caesar ' s adopted son , over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of ___MASK48___ . Octavian ' s power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title " Augustus ", effectively marking the end of the ___MASK2___ . Rome is a city and special " comune " ( named " Roma Capitale ") in ___MASK53___ . Rome is the capital of ___MASK53___ and of the ___MASK37___ region . With 2 , 870 , 336 residents in , it is also the country ' s largest and most populated " comune " and fourth - most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits . The Metropolitan City of Rome has a population of 4 . 3 million residents . The city is located in the central - western portion of the Italian Peninsula , within ___MASK37___ ( Latium ), along the shores of Tiber river . The ___MASK52___ is an independent country geographically located within the city boundaries of Rome , the only existing example of a country within a city : for this reason Rome has been often defined as capital of two states . The Cross of Justin II or Crux Vaticana ( Latin for Vatican Cross ) in the Treasury of Saint Peter ' s in St . Peter ' s Basilica , is a processional cross and also a reliquary of the True Cross , one of the oldest surviving , if not the oldest . It is a crux gemmata or jewelled cross , silver - gilt and adorned with jewels in gold settings , dating from the sixth century , given to the people of Rome by the Roman Emperor Justin II , who reigned from 565 to 578 , and his co - ruler and wife , the Empress Sophia . The cross bears a Latin inscription reading : `` ligno quo Christus humanum subdidit hostem dat Romae Iustinus opem et socia decorem '' which is commonly mistranslated as `` For the wood ( of the cross ) with which human Christ was overcome by the enemy , Justin ( and his consort ? ) give Rome this wealth and decoration '' A more accurate reading is : `` With the wood with which Christ conquered man ' s enemy , Justin gives his help to Rome and his wife offers the ornamentation . '' To mark the end of restoration and conservation work on the cross , it was placed on display in the main Basilica of Saint Peter ' s from November 2009 to April 12 , 2010 . The original portion of the cross , which is now mounted on a much later stand , is 15 . 75 inches high and 11 . 81 inches wide , excluding the spike at the bottom for fitting into its stand . The cross was restored in 2009 ; it has been altered and restored at several points in its history , including reducing its size . The front of the cross has no figurative images : in the centre is a medallion containing the relic , which is itself displayed as cross - shaped . The centres of the arms carry the inscriptions , and the edges of the arms jewels in set in gold , with four jewels hanging from the arms as pendilia . The reverse side is decorated in repoussé silver , and shows an interesting transitional stage in the decoration of the cross . At the period the church was starting to encourage representation of the human figure of Christ on the cross , making a crucifix , which had previously not been usual . The central medallion shows the Lamb of God , a common older formula . Above and below this are images in medallions of Christ ( the lower one may be John the Baptist instead ) . The upper one shows Christ holding a book , representing the Gospels , which was to become a standard feature of the image of Christ Pantocrator ; in the lower one Christ or John has a blessing gesture . At the ends of the arms , where the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Evangelist would often be found in later crucifixes , are instead portraits in medallions of Justin and his empress Sophia . Between the medallions there are decorative foliage scrolling motifs , on the upright centred on onion - like plants probably intended as palm - trees . In 569 , Justin and Sophia together reportedly sent a relic of the True Cross to the Frankish princess Radegund , who founded a monastery at Poitiers to house it . The event was commemorated in Vexilla Regis by Venantius Fortunatus . They are also recorded as sending relics to Pope John III ( reigned 561 - 574 ) in an attempt to improve relations -- the Crux Vaticana very likely dates from John ' s reign , perhaps around 568 or 569 . Older scholars thought , mainly on the basis of imperial head - dress , that Justin I ( r . 518 - 27 ) and his empress Euphemia were the donors , but this view seems now rejected . Lamb of God (" Amnos tou Theou ") is a title for Jesus that appears in the Gospel of John . It appears at , where John the Baptist sees Jesus and exclaims , " Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the ___MASK49___ ." The Pontifex Maximus ( Latin , literally : " greatest pontiff " or " greatest bridge - builder ") was the high priest of the College of Pontiffs (" Collegium Pontificum ") in ___MASK31___ . This was the most important position in the ancient Roman religion , open only to patricians until 254 BC , when a plebeian first occupied this post . A distinctly religious office under the early ___MASK2___ , it gradually became politicized until , beginning with Augustus , it was subsumed into the Imperial office . Its last use with reference to the emperors is in inscriptions of Gratian ( reigned 375  383 ) who , however , then decided to omit the words " pontifex maximus " from his title . Although the most influential office within Roman priesthood , the " pontifex maximus " was ranked the fifth in the ranking of the highest Roman priests (" ordo sacerdotum "), behind the " rex sacrorum " and the " flamines maiores " (" Flamen Dialis ", " Flamen Martialis ", " Flamen Quirinalis "). Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ , who serves as the focal point for the religion . It is the ___MASK49___ ' s largest religion , with over 2 . 4 billion followers , or 33 % of the global population , known as Christians . Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah ( the Christ ) was prophesied in the Old Testament . Islam (' ;) is a religion articulated by the Quran , a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God ('), and , for the vast majority of adherents , the teachings and normative example ( called the " sunnah ", composed of accounts called " hadith ") of Muhammad ( 570  8 June 632 CE ). It is the ___MASK49___ ' s second - largest religion and the fastest - growing major religion in the ___MASK49___ , with over 1 . 7 billion followers or 23 % of the global population , known as Muslims . Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion that upholds that God is one and incomparable and that the purpose of existence is to worship God . Muslims consider Muhammad to be the last prophet of God . A processional cross is a crucifix or cross which is carried in Christian processions . Such crosses have a long history : the Gregorian mission of Saint Augustine of Canterbury to ___MASK13___ carried one before them " like a standard ", according to Bede . Other sources suggest that all churches were expected to possess one . They became detachable from their staffs , so that the earliest altar crosses were processional crosses placed on a stand at the end of the procession . In large churches the " crux gemmata ", or richly jewelled cross in precious metal , was the preferred style . Notable early examples include the Cross of Justin II ( possibly a hanging votive cross originally ), Cross of Lothair , and Cross of Cong . The Papal Basilica of St . Peter in the Vatican , or simply St . Peter ' s Basilica , is an Italian Renaissance church in ___MASK52___ , the papal enclave within the city of Rome . The Italian Renaissance was the earliest manifestation of the general European Renaissance , a period of great cultural change and achievement that began in ___MASK53___ during the 14th century and lasted until the 16th century , marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe . The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the 19th century , in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt . Although the origins of a movement that was confined largely to the literate culture of intellectual endeavor and patronage can be traced to the earlier part of the 14th century , many aspects of Italian culture and society remained largely Medieval ; the Renaissance did not come into full swing until the end of the century . The French word " renaissance " (" Rinascimento " in Italian ) means " Rebirth ", and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages . The Latin word imperator was originally a title roughly equivalent to " commander " under the ___MASK2___ . Later it became a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as part of their cognomen . The English word " emperor " derives from " imperator " via Old French " Empereür ". The Roman emperors themselves generally based their authority on multiple titles and positions , rather than preferring any single title . Nevertheless , " imperator " was used relatively consistently as an element of a Roman ruler ' s title throughout the principate ( derived from " princeps ," from which " prince " in English is derived ) and the dominate . The Indo - European languages are a language family of several hundred related languages and dialects . There are about 445 living Indo - European languages , according to the estimate by " Ethnologue ", with over two - thirds ( 313 ) of them belonging to the Indo - Iranian branch . The most widely spoken Indo - European languages by native speakers are Spanish , English , Hindustani ( ___MASK96___ and Urdu ), Portuguese , Bengali , Russian , Persian and Punjabi , each with over 100 million speakers . Today , 46 % of the human population speaks an Indo - European language natively , by far the highest of any language family . Bede ( 672 / 3  26 May 735 ), also known as Saint Bede , Venerable Bede , and Bede the Venerable , was an English , Roman Catholic monk at the monastery of St . Peter and its companion monastery of St . Paul in the Kingdom of Northumbria of the Angles ( contemporarily Monkwearmouth  Jarrow Abbey in Tyne and Wear , ___MASK13___ ). He is well known as an author and scholar , and his most famous work , " Ecclesiastical History of the English People " gained him the title " The Father of English History ". John the Baptist (" Ioánnes ( h ) o baptistés " or    , " Ioánnes ( h ) o baptízon ", known as the prophet " Yahya " in the Quran ), also known as John the Baptizer , was a Jewish itinerant preacher in the early first century AD . John is revered as a major religious figure in Christianity , Islam , the Bahá ' í Faith , and Mandaeism . He is called a prophet by all of these traditions , and is honoured as a saint in many Christian traditions . A reliquary ( also referred to as a " shrine " or by the French term " châsse ") is a container for relics . These may be the purported or actual physical remains of saints , such as bones , pieces of clothing , or some object associated with saints or other religious figures . The authenticity of any given relic is often a matter of debate ; for that reason , some churches require documentation of the relic ' s provenance . The Justinian Dynasty is a family who ruled over the ___MASK6___ from 518 to 602 . It originated with Justin I and ended with Maurice . Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople ( term c . 715  730 ), whose father was named Justinian , might have been a descendant of the dynasty . The names Justin , Justinian and Germanus were common among dynasty members . Justin II ( c . 520  5 October 578 ) was Eastern Roman Emperor from 565 to 574 . He was the husband of Sophia , nephew of Justinian I and the Empress Theodora , and was therefore a member of the Justinian Dynasty . His reign is marked by war with Sasanian ___MASK29___ and the loss of the greater part of Italy . He presented the Cross of Justin II to Saint Peter ' s , Rome . The Roman emperor was the ruler of the ___MASK24___ during the imperial period ( starting in 27 BC ). The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history . Often when a given Roman is described as becoming " emperor " in English , it reflects his taking of the title " Augustus " or " Caesar ". Another title often used was " imperator ", originally a military honorific . Early Emperors also used the title " princeps " ( first citizen ). Emperors frequently amassed republican titles , notably " Princeps Senatus ", " Consul " and " Pontifex Maximus ". Justinian I ( 482 14 November 565 ), traditionally known as Justinian the Great and also Saint Justinian the Great in the Eastern Orthodox Church , was a Byzantine ( East Roman ) emperor from 527 to 565 . During his reign , Justinian sought to revive the empire ' s greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical ___MASK24___ . Justinian ' s rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Later ___MASK24___ , and his reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized " renovatio imperii ", or " restoration of the Empire ". Latin ( Latin : ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo - European languages . The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . The Catholic Church , also known as the Roman Catholic Church , is the largest Christian church , with more than 1 . 27 billion members ___MASK23___ . As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world , it has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilisation . Headed by the Bishop of Rome , known as the pope , its doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed . The Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments . ___MASK53___ , officially the ___MASK22___ , is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe . Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea , ___MASK53___ shares open land borders with France , Switzerland , ___MASK83___ , Slovenia , San Marino and ___MASK52___ . ___MASK53___ covers an area of and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate ; due to its shape , it is often referred to in ___MASK53___ as " lo Stivale " ( the Boot ). With 61 million inhabitants , it is the fourth most populous EU member state . Silver - gilt or gilded / gilt silver , sometimes known in American English by the French term vermeil , is silver gilded with gold . Most large objects made in goldsmithing that appear to be gold are actually silver - gilt ; for example most sporting trophies , medals ( such as " gold medals " in all Olympic Games after 1912 ), and many crown jewels . Apart from being much cheaper than gold , large silver - gilt objects are also much lighter if required to be lifted , and stronger . Compared to plain silver , for delicate objects like the Nef ( illustrated ), or those with much intricate detail like monstrances , gilding greatly reduced the need for cleaning and polishing , and so reduced the risk of damage to them . The " gold " threads used in embroidered goldwork are normally also silver - gilt . The modern Olympic Games or Olympics are leading international sporting events featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the ___MASK49___ participate in a variety of competitions . The Olympic Games are considered the ___MASK49___ ' s foremost sports competition with more than 200 nations participating . The Olympic Games are held every four years , with the Summer and Winter Games alternating by occurring every four years but two years apart . The medieval art of the Western ___MASK49___ covers a vast scope of time and place , over 1000 years of art in Europe , and at times the ___MASK64___ and ___MASK54___ . It includes major art movements and periods , national and regional art , genres , revivals , the artists crafts , and the artists themselves . A shrine (" case or chest for books or papers "; Old French : " escrin " " box or case ") is a holy or sacred place , which is dedicated to a specific deity , ancestor , hero , martyr , saint , daemon , or similar figure of awe and respect , at which they are venerated or worshipped . Shrines often contain idols , relics , or other such objects associated with the figure being venerated . A shrine at which votive offerings are made is called an altar . Shrines are found in many of the ___MASK49___ ' s religions , including Christianity , Islam , Hinduism , Buddhism , Chinese folk religion , Shinto , and Asatru as well as in secular and non - religious settings such as a war memorial . Shrines can be found in various settings , such as churches , temples , cemeteries , or in the home , although portable shrines are also found in some cultures . The Cross of Cong (" the yellow baculum ") is an early 12th - century Irish Christian ornamented cusped processional cross , which was , as an inscription says , made for Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair ( d . 1156 ), King of Connacht and High King of ___MASK91___ to donate to the Cathedral church of the period that was located at Tuam , County Galway , ___MASK91___ . The cross was subsequently moved to Cong Abbey at Cong , County Mayo , from which it takes its name . It was designed to be placed on top of a staff and is also a reliquary , designed to hold a piece of the purported True Cross . This gave it additional importance as an object of reverence and was undoubtedly the reason for the object ' s elaborate beauty . A crux gemmata ( Latin for : jewelled cross ) is a form of cross typical of Early Christian and Early Medieval art , where the cross , or at least its front side , is principally decorated with jewels . In an actual cross , rather than a painted image of one , the reverse side often has engraved images of the Crucifixion of Jesus or other subjects . The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which , by a Catholic Church tradition , are believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified . ___MASK52___ , officially ___MASK52___ State or the State of ___MASK52___ , is a walled enclave within the city of Rome . With an area of approximately 44 hectares ( 110 acres ), and a population of 842 , it is the smallest State in the ___MASK49___ by both area and population , but formally it is not sovereign , sovereignty being held by the Holy See , the only entity of public international law that has diplomatic relations with almost every country in the ___MASK49___ . The Cross of Lothair or Lothair Cross is a " crux gemmata " ( jewelled cross ) processional cross dating from about 1000 AD , though its base dates from the 14th century . It was made in ___MASK4___ , probably at Cologne . It is an outstanding example of medieval goldsmith ' s work , and " an important monument of imperial ideology ", forming part of the Aachen Cathedral Treasury , which includes several other masterpieces of sacral Ottonian art . The measurements of the original portion are 50 cm height , 38 . 5 cm width , 2 . 3 cm depth . The cross comes from the period when Ottonian art was evolving into Romanesque art , and the engraved crucifixion on the reverse looks forward to the later period . Augustus ( 23 September 63 BC  19 August 14 AD ) was the founder of the Roman Principate and considered the first Emperor , controlling the ___MASK24___ from 27 BC until his death in AD 14 .