instance_of glycogen branching enzyme
Glycogen branching ___MASK12___ is an ___MASK12___ that adds branches to the growing glycogen ___MASK96___ during the synthesis of glycogen , a storage form of glucose . More specifically , during glycogen synthesis , a glucose 1 - phosphate ___MASK96___ reacts with uridine triphosphate ( UTP ) to become UDP - glucose , an activated form of glucose . The activated glucosyl unit of UDP - glucose is then transferred to the hydroxyl group at the C - 4 of a terminal residue of glycogen to form an  - 1 , 4 - glycosidic linkage , a reaction catalyzed by glycogen synthase . Importantly , glycogen synthase can only catalyze the synthesis of  - 1 , 4 - glycosidic linkages . Since glycogen is a readily mobilized storage form of glucose , the extended glycogen ___MASK98___ is branched by glycogen branching ___MASK12___ to provide glycogen breakdown enzymes , such as glycogen phosphorylase , with a large number of terminal residues for rapid degradation . Branching also importantly increases the solubility and decreases the osmotic strength of glycogen . Modern ___MASK91___ (" ___MASK21___ sapiens ", primarily ssp . " ___MASK21___ sapiens sapiens ") are the only extant members of Hominina ___MASK80___ ( or human ___MASK80___ ), a branch of the ___MASK80___ Hominini belonging to the ___MASK6___ of great apes . They are characterized by erect posture and bipedal locomotion ; manual dexterity and increased tool use , compared to other animals ; and a general trend toward larger , more complex brains and societies . A ___MASK98___ ( Greek " poly -", " many " + "- mer ", " parts ") is a large molecule , or macromolecule , composed of many repeated subunits . Because of their broad range of properties , both synthetic and natural polymers ___MASK37___ an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life . Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function . Polymers , both natural and synthetic , are created via polymerization of many small molecules , known as monomers . Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds produces unique physical properties , including toughness , viscoelasticity , and a tendency to form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals . Animals are multicellular , eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia ( also called Metazoa ). The ___MASK35___ kingdom emerged as a basal ___MASK68___ within Apoikozoa as a sister of the choanoflagellates . Sponges are the most basal ___MASK68___ of animals . Animals are motile , meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives . Their body ___MASK78___ eventually becomes fixed as they develop , although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives . All animals are heterotrophs : they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance . Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen ( n ) to glucose - 6 - ___MASK16___ and glycogen ( n - ___MASK10___ ). Glycogen branches are catabolized by the sequential removal of glucose monomers via phosphorolysis , by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase . Glycogen phosphorylase is one of the phosphorylase enzymes . Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the rate - limiting step in glycogenolysis in animals by releasing glucose - ___MASK10___ - phosphate from the terminal alpha - ___MASK10___ , 4 - glycosidic bond . Glycogen phosphorylase is also studied as a model ___MASK42___ regulated by both reversible phosphorylation and allosteric effects . Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts . Enzymes accelerate , or catalyze , ___MASK41___ reactions . The molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes ___MASK38___ act are called substrates and the ___MASK12___ converts these into different molecules , called products . Almost all metabolic processes in the ___MASK22___ need enzymes in ___MASK5___ to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life . The set of enzymes made in a ___MASK22___ determines which metabolic pathways occur in that ___MASK22___ . The study of enzymes is called " enzymology ". Phosphorylases are enzymes that catalyze the ___MASK52___ of a ___MASK16___ group from an inorganic ___MASK16___ ( ___MASK16___ + hydrogen ) to an acceptor . They include allosteric enzymes that catalyze the production of glucose - ___MASK10___ - ___MASK16___ from a glucan such as glycogen , starch or maltodextrin . Phosphorylase is also a common name used for glycogen phosphorylase in honor of Earl W . Sutherland Jr . who in the late 1930s discovered the first phosphorylase . Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages and on hydrolysis give the constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides . They ___MASK2___ in ___MASK81___ from linear to highly branched . Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen , and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin . Glycogenesis is the ___MASK39___ of glycogen synthesis , in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage . This ___MASK39___ is activated during rest periods following the Cori ___MASK70___ , in the liver , and also activated by insulin in response to high glucose levels , for example after a carbohydrate - containing ___MASK88___ . In biochemistry , a metabolic pathway is a linked ___MASK3___ of ___MASK41___ reactions occurring within a ___MASK22___ . The reactants , products , and intermediates of an enzymatic reaction are known as metabolites , which are modified by a sequence of ___MASK41___ reactions catalyzed by enzymes . In a metabolic pathway , the product of one enzyme acts as the substrate for the next . These enzymes often require dietary minerals , vitamins , and other cofactors to function . Glycosyltransferases ( abbre . GTFs , Gtfs ) are enzymes ( EC 2 . 4 ) that establish natural glycosidic linkages . They catalyze the transfer of saccharide moieties from an activated nucleotide sugar ( also known as the " glycosyl donor ") to a nucleophilic glycosyl acceptor ___MASK96___ , the nucleophile of which can be oxygen - carbon -, nitrogen -, or sulfur - based . Phosphorylation is the ___MASK52___ of a ___MASK16___ group ( PO ) to a ___MASK96___ . In biology , phosphorylation and its counterpart , dephosphorylation , are critical for many cellular processes . A large fraction of proteins are at least temporarily phosphorylated , as are many sugars , lipids , and other molecules . Phosphorylation is especially important for ___MASK42___ function as this modification activates ( or deactivates ) many enzymes , thereby regulating their function . ___MASK42___ phosphorylation is one type of post - translational modification . The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose ( sugar ) present in the blood of a ___MASK4___ or animal . The body naturally tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a ___MASK48___ of metabolic homeostasis . In ___MASK28___ , energy is the ___MASK11___ that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on  or to heat  the object , and can be converted in form , but not created or destroyed . The SI unit of energy is the joule , which is the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton . Sugar is the generalized ___MASK93___ for sweet , short - ___MASK79___ , soluble carbohydrates , many of which are used in ___MASK74___ . They are composed of carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen . There are various types of sugar derived from different sources . Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose ( also known as dextrose ), fructose , and galactose . The ___MASK18___ or granulated sugar most customarily used as ___MASK74___ is sucrose , a disaccharide . ( In the body , sucrose hydrolyses into fructose and glucose .) Other disaccharides include maltose and lactose . Longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides . Chemically - different substances may also have a sweet taste , but are not classified as sugars . Some are used as lower - calorie ___MASK74___ substitutes for sugar , described as artificial sweeteners . A ___MASK96___ is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds . Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge . However , in quantum physics , organic chemistry , and biochemistry , the term " ___MASK96___ " is often used less strictly , also being applied to polyatomic ions . Glycogen synthase ( UDP - glucose - glycogen glucosyltransferase ) is a ___MASK76___ ___MASK12___ in glycogenesis , the conversion of glucose into glycogen . It is a glycosyltransferase that catalyses the reaction of UDP - glucose and ( ___MASK10___ , 4 -  - D - glucosyl ) to yield UDP and ( ___MASK10___ , 4 -  - D - glucosyl ). In other words , this ___MASK12___ combines excess glucose residues one by one into a polymeric chain for storage as glycogen . Photosynthesis is a ___MASK39___ used by plants and other organisms to convert light ___MASK84___ into chemical ___MASK84___ that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( ___MASK84___ transformation ). This chemical ___MASK84___ is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and ___MASK9___  hence the name " photosynthesis ", from the Greek  , " phs ", " light ", and  , " synthesis ", " putting together ". In most cases , oxygen is also released as a waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth ' s atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the ___MASK84___ necessary for life on Earth . Carbon ( from " coal ") is a ___MASK41___ element with ___MASK31___ C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent  making four electrons available to form covalent ___MASK41___ bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half - life of about 5 , 730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Cellular respiration is a ___MASK7___ of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical ___MASK84___ from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ), and then ___MASK1___ waste products . The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions , which break large molecules into smaller ones , releasing ___MASK84___ in the process , as weak so - called " high - ___MASK84___ " bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products . Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical ___MASK84___ to fuel cellular activity . Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat . The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps , most of which are redox reactions themselves . Although technically , cellular respiration is a combustion reaction , it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow ___MASK1___ of ___MASK84___ from the series of reactions . ___MASK9___ is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth ' s streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is HO , meaning that its ___MASK96___ contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . ___MASK9___ strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water ___MASK29___ ). It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . Glycogen is a multibranched ___MASK13___ of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in humans , animals and fungi . The ___MASK13___ structure represents the main storage form of glucose in the body . Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular ___MASK43___ CHO . Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar . It is made during photosynthesis from ___MASK9___ and carbon dioxide , using energy from sunlight . The reverse of the photosynthesis reaction , which releases this energy , is an important source of power for cellular respiration . Glucose is stored as a ___MASK98___ , in plants as starch and in animals as glycogen , for times when the organism will need it . Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large ___MASK47___ of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds . This ___MASK13___ is produced by most green plants as an energy store . It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes , wheat , maize ( corn ), rice , and cassava .