occupation robert briggs 
Cryptography or cryptology ( from Greek " kryptós ", " hidden , secret "; and " graphein ", " writing ", or "- logia ", " study ", respectively ) is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries . More generally , cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages ; various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality , data integrity , authentication , and non - repudiation are central to modern cryptography . Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics , ___MASK68___ science , and electrical ___MASK36___ . Applications of cryptography include ATM cards , ___MASK68___ passwords , and electronic commerce . In cryptography , the so - called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers , where the ( de -) ciphering of data is done in " rounds ". The ___MASK44___ setup of each round is the same , except for some hard - coded parameters and a part of the cipher key , called a subkey . A key schedule is an algorithm that , given the key , calculates the subkeys for these rounds . Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth , development , functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses . DNA and RNA are nucleic acids ; alongside proteins , lipids and complex carbohydrates ( polysaccharides ), they are one of the four ___MASK91___ types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life . Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix . In biology , cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria , insects or plants reproduce asexually . Cloning in ___MASK24___ refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments ( molecular cloning ), cells ( cell cloning ), or organisms . The term also refers to the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software . Thomas J . ___MASK17___ ( June 4 , 1921  October 25 , 2000 ) was an American ___MASK13___ . The byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits . Historically , the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a ___MASK68___ and for this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many ___MASK68___ architectures . The size of the byte has historically been hardware dependent and no definitive standards existed that mandated the size . The " de facto " standard of eight bits is a convenient power of two permitting the values 0 through 255 for one byte . The international standard IEC 80000 - 13 codified this common meaning . Many types of applications use information representable in eight or fewer bits and processor designers optimize for this common usage . The popularity of ___MASK91___ ___MASK98___ computing architectures has aided in the ubiquitous acceptance of the 8 - bit size . Robert Briggs ( December 10 , 1911 -- March 4 , 1983 ) was a ___MASK88___ who , in 1952 , together with Thomas Joseph King , cloned a frog by nuclear transfer of embryonic cells . The same technique , using somatic cells , was later used to create Dolly the Sheep . Their experiment was the first successful nuclear transplantation performed in metazoans . He was a ___MASK88___ of the American Institute for Cancer Research when the work was conducted . Upon the death of his mother when he was two years old , Briggs was raised by his grandparents in Epping , New Hampshire . Inspired by a high school science teacher , Briggs became interested in the biological sciences . However , he began Boston University in the business school , concerned with earning a living during the depression . Business courses could n ' t maintain his interest and he turned to the sciences . He graduated from Boston University in 1934 with a BS degree and enrolled at Harvard for graduate study . He earned a PhD degree in 1938 while studying metabolism in frog embryos . For four years , he served as a fellow in the Department of Zoology at McGill University where he studied tumors in frogs . In 1942 , he joined the Lankenau Hospital Research Institute ( now the Fox Chase Cancer Center ) in Philadelphia . He worked on amphibian embryos for the rest of his life . In cryptography , FROG is a block cipher authored by Georgoudis , Leroux and Chaves . The algorithm can work with any block size between 8 and 128 bytes , and supports key sizes between 5 and 125 bytes . The algorithm consists of 8 rounds and has a very complicated key schedule . Nuclear transfer is a form of cloning . The steps involve removing the DNA from an oocyte ( unfertilised egg ), and injecting the nucleus which contains the DNA to be cloned . In rare instances , the newly constructed cell will divide normally , replicating the new DNA while remaining in a pluripotent state . If the cloned cells are placed in the uterus of a female mammal , a cloned organism develops to term in rare instances . This is how Dolly the Sheep and many other species were cloned . Cows are commonly cloned to select those that have the best milk production . A ___MASK13___ , is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of biology , the scientific study of life . Biologists involved in fundamental research attempt to explore and further explain the underlying mechanisms that govern the functioning of living matter . Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve more specific processes and understanding , in fields such as medicine , industry and agriculture .