has_part glycated hemoglobin
Glycosylation ( see also chemical glycosylation ) is the reaction in which ___MASK10___ carbohydrate , i . ___MASK93___ . ___MASK10___ glycosyl donor , is attached to ___MASK10___ ___MASK29___ or other functional group of another molecule ( ___MASK10___ glycosyl acceptor ). In biology glycosylation mainly refers in particular to the enzymatic process that attaches glycans to proteins , lipids , or other organic molecules . This enzymatic process produces ___MASK18___ of the fundamental biopolymers found in cells ( along with DNA , RNA , and proteins ). Glycosylation is ___MASK10___ form of co - translational and post - translational modification . Glycans serve ___MASK10___ variety of structural and functional roles in membrane and secreted proteins . The majority of proteins synthesized in the rough ER undergo glycosylation . It is an enzyme - directed site - specific process , as opposed to the non - enzymatic chemical reaction of glycation . Glycosylation is also present in the cytoplasm and nucleus as the O - GlcNAc modification . Aglycosylation is ___MASK10___ feature of engineered antibodies to bypass glycosylation . Five classes of glycans are produced : The circulatory ___MASK99___ , also called the cardiovascular ___MASK99___ or the vascular ___MASK99___ , is an organ ___MASK99___ that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients ( such as amino acids and electrolytes ), oxygen , ___MASK20___ dioxide , hormones , and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases , stabilize temperature and pH , and maintain homeostasis . The study of the blood flow is called hemodynamics . The study of the properties of the blood flow is called hemorheology . Cellular respiration is ___MASK10___ ___MASK48___ of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ), and then release waste products . The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions , which break large molecules into smaller ones , releasing energy in the process , as weak so - called " high - energy " bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products . Respiration is ___MASK18___ of the key ways ___MASK10___ cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity . Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat . The overall reaction occurs in ___MASK10___ series of biochemical steps , most of which are redox reactions themselves . Although technically , cellular respiration is ___MASK10___ combustion reaction , it clearly does not resemble ___MASK18___ when it occurs in ___MASK10___ living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions . Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts . Enzymes accelerate , or catalyze , chemical reactions . The molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules , called products . Almost all metabolic processes in the ___MASK36___ need enzymes in ___MASK39___ to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life . The set of enzymes made in a ___MASK36___ determines which metabolic pathways occur in that ___MASK36___ . The study of enzymes is called " enzymology ". The ___MASK1___ sugar concentration or ___MASK1___ ___MASK90___ level is the amount of ___MASK90___ ( sugar ) present in the ___MASK1___ of a human or animal . The body naturally tightly regulates ___MASK1___ ___MASK90___ levels as a ___MASK49___ of metabolic homeostasis . Photosynthesis is ___MASK10___ process used by plants and other organisms to convert ___MASK37___ energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( energy transformation ). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from ___MASK20___ dioxide and water  hence the name " photosynthesis ", from the Greek  , " phs ", " ___MASK37___ ", and  , " synthesis ", " putting together ". In most cases , oxygen is also released as ___MASK10___ waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth ' s atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth . ___MASK61___ is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth ' s streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is HO , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . ___MASK61___ strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its ___MASK12___ state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ). It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . ___MASK27___ is a chemical ___MASK80___ with symbol O and atomic number 8 . It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as other compounds . By mass , oxygen is the third - most abundant ___MASK80___ in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the ___MASK80___ bind to form dioxygen , a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula . This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20 . 8 % of the Earth ' s atmosphere . Additionally , as oxides the ___MASK80___ makes up almost half of the Earth ' s crust . Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata ( chordates with backbones ). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata , with currently about 64 , 000 species described . Vertebrates include the jawless ___MASK73___ and the jawed vertebrates , which include the cartilaginous ___MASK73___ ( sharks and rays ) and the bony ___MASK73___ . In biology , lipids comprise ___MASK10___ group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats , waxes , sterols , ___MASK50___ - soluble vitamins ( such as vitamins A , D , E , and K ), monoglycerides , diglycerides , triglycerides , phospholipids , and others . The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy , signaling , and acting as structural components of cell membranes . Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology . Sugar is the generalized name for sweet , short - chain , soluble carbohydrates , many of which are used in food . They are composed of ___MASK20___ , hydrogen , and oxygen . There are various types of sugar derived from different sources . Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose ( also known as dextrose ), fructose , and galactose . The table or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose , a disaccharide . ( In the body , sucrose hydrolyses into fructose and glucose .) Other disaccharides include maltose and lactose . Longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides . Chemically - different substances may also have a sweet taste , but are not classified as sugars . Some are used as lower - calorie food substitutes for sugar , described as artificial sweeteners . Proteins ( or ) are large biomolecules , or macromolecules , consisting of ___MASK18___ or more long chains of amino acid residues . Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms , including catalysing metabolic reactions , DNA replication , responding to stimuli , and transporting molecules from ___MASK18___ location to another . Proteins differ from ___MASK18___ another primarily in their sequence of amino acids , which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes , and which usually results in protein folding into a specific three - dimensional structure that determines its activity . Hemoglobin ; also spelled haemoglobin ( ___MASK13___ spelling ) and abbreviated Hb or Hgb , is the ___MASK15___ - containing oxygen - transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates ( with the exception of the ___MASK73___ family Channichthyidae ) as well as the tissues of some invertebrates . Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs ( lungs or gills ) to the rest of the body ( i . e . the tissues ). There it releases the oxygen to permit aerobic respiration to provide energy to power the functions of the ___MASK2___ in the process called metabolism . The ___MASK51___ icefish or white - blooded ___MASK73___ ( Channichthyidae ) comprise a family of notothenioid ___MASK73___ found in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica and southern ___MASK58___ , where water temperatures remain relatively stable ( generally ranging from - 1 . 8 to + 2 . 0 ° C ). Sixteen species of ___MASK51___ icefish are currently recognized . Post - translational modification ( PTM ) refers to the covalent and generally enzymatic modification of proteins during or after ___MASK98___ biosynthesis . Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes translating mRNA into polypeptide chains , which may then undergo PTM to form the mature ___MASK98___ product . PTMs are important components in ___MASK36___ signaling . Fructose , or ___MASK57___ sugar , is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants , where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose . It is ___MASK18___ of the three dietary monosaccharides , along with glucose and galactose , that are absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion . Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin - Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847 . The name " fructose " was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Miller . Pure , dry fructose is a very sweet , white , odorless , crystalline ___MASK12___ and is the most water - soluble of all the sugars . Fructose is found in honey , tree and vine fruits , flowers , berries , and most root vegetables . ___MASK47___ or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds . This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store . It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes , wheat , maize ( corn ), rice , and cassava . ___MASK1___ is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and ___MASK27___ to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells . An ion is an ___MASK52___ or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons , giving the ___MASK52___ or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge . Ions can be created , by either chemical or physical means , via ionization . ___MASK10___ gill is ___MASK10___ respiratory ___MASK79___ found in many aquatic organisms that extracts dissolved oxygen from ___MASK61___ and excretes ___MASK20___ dioxide . The gills of some species , such as hermit crabs , have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are kept moist . The microscopic structure of ___MASK10___ gill presents ___MASK10___ large surface area to the external environment . Glycated hemoglobin ( hemoglobin A1c , HbA1c , A1C , or Hb1c ; sometimes also HbA1c or HGBA1C ) is ___MASK10___ form of hemoglobin that is measured primarily to identify the average plasma ___MASK90___ concentration over prolonged periods . It is formed in ___MASK10___ non - enzymatic glycation pathway by hemoglobin ' s exposure to plasma ___MASK90___ . HbA1c is ___MASK10___ measure of the beta - N - ___MASK100___ - deoxy fructosyl component of hemoglobin . Normal levels of ___MASK90___ produce ___MASK10___ normal amount of glycated hemoglobin . As the average amount of plasma ___MASK90___ increases , the fraction of glycated hemoglobin increases in ___MASK10___ predictable way . This serves as ___MASK10___ marker for average blood ___MASK90___ levels over the previous 3 months before the measurement as this is the lifespan of red blood cells . In diabetes mellitus , higher amounts of glycated hemoglobin , indicating poorer control of blood ___MASK90___ levels , have been associated with cardiovascular disease , nephropathy , and retinopathy . Monitoring HbA1c in type ___MASK100___ diabetic patients may improve outcomes . ___MASK20___ ( from " coal ") is a chemical element with symbol ___MASK89___ and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent  making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , ___MASK89___ and ___MASK89___ being stable , while ___MASK89___ is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half - life of about 5 , 730 years . ___MASK20___ is one of the few elements known since antiquity . ___MASK10___ molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds . Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge . However , in quantum physics , organic ___MASK44___ , and biochemistry , the term " molecule " is often used less strictly , also being applied to polyatomic ions . Glycogen is ___MASK10___ multibranched polysaccharide of ___MASK90___ that serves as ___MASK10___ form of energy storage in humans , animals and fungi . The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage form of ___MASK90___ in the body . ___MASK10___ ___MASK22___ ( Greek " poly -", " many " + "- mer ", " parts ") is a large molecule , or macromolecule , composed of many repeated subunits . Because of their broad range of properties , both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life . Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function . Polymers , both natural and synthetic , are created via polymerization of many small molecules , known as monomers . Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds produces unique physical properties , including toughness , viscoelasticity , and a tendency to form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals . Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop ___MASK10___ vertebral column ( commonly known as ___MASK10___ " backbone " or " spine "), derived from the notochord . This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata . Familiar examples of invertebrates include insects ; crabs , lobsters and their kin ; snails , clams , octopuses and their kin ; starfish , sea - urchins and their kin ; and worms . The globins are ___MASK10___ superfamily of heme - containing globular proteins , involved in binding and / or transporting ___MASK27___ . These proteins all incorporate the globin fold , ___MASK10___ series of eight ___MASK66___ helical segments . Two prominent members include myoglobin and hemoglobin . Both of these proteins reversibly bind ___MASK27___ via ___MASK10___ heme prosthetic group . They are widely distributed in many organisms . ___MASK90___ is a simple sugar with the molecular formula CHO . ___MASK90___ circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar . It is made during photosynthesis from ___MASK61___ and ___MASK20___ dioxide , using energy from sunlight . The reverse of the photosynthesis reaction , which releases this energy , is an important source of power for cellular respiration . ___MASK90___ is stored as a polymer , in plants as starch and in animals as glycogen , for times when the organism will need it . Metalloprotein is ___MASK10___ generic term for ___MASK10___ ___MASK98___ that contains ___MASK10___ ___MASK83___ ion cofactor . A large number of all proteins are ___MASK49___ of this category . Glycation ( sometimes called non - enzymatic glycosylation ) is the result of the typically covalent bonding of ___MASK10___ sugar molecule , such as ___MASK90___ or fructose , to ___MASK10___ protein or ___MASK77___ molecule , without the controlling action of an enzyme . Glycation may occur either inside the body ( endogenous glycation ) or outside the body ( exogenous glycation ). It is ___MASK10___ haphazard process that impairs the functioning of biomolecules , and does not require the expenditure of ATP . Glycosylation , in contrast , is the enzyme - mediated ATP - dependent attachment of sugars to protein or ___MASK77___ molecules at defined sites on the target molecule . It is an important form of post - translational modification of proteins and is required for the functioning of the mature molecule . ___MASK15___ is a chemical ___MASK80___ with symbol Fe ( from ) and atomic number 26 . It is a metal in the first transition series . It is by mass the most common ___MASK80___ on Earth , forming much of Earth ' s outer and inner core . It is the fourth most common ___MASK80___ in the Earth ' s crust . Its abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production by fusion in high - mass stars , where it is the last ___MASK80___ to be produced with release of energy before the violent collapse of a supernova , which scatters the iron into space . ___MASK25___ ( from " metabol ", " change ") is the ___MASK48___ of life - sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms . The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food / fuel to energy to ___MASK31___ cellular processes , the conversion of food / fuel to building blocks for proteins , lipids , nucleic acids , and some carbohydrates , and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes . These enzyme - catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce , maintain their structures , and respond to their environments . The ___MASK78___ metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms , including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells , in which case the ___MASK48___ of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism . Red ___MASK1___ cells ( RBCs ), also called erythrocytes , are the most common type of ___MASK1___ ___MASK36___ and the vertebrate ' s principal means of delivering oxygen ( O ) to the body tissues  via ___MASK1___ flow through the circulatory ___MASK99___ . RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs , or gills of fish , and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body ' s capillaries . The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in humans and many other animals including ___MASK10___ few ___MASK73___ and some snails . In mammals and most other vertebrates , two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart . Their function in the respiratory ___MASK99___ is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream , and to release ___MASK20___ dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere , in ___MASK10___ process of gas exchange . Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species . Mammals , reptiles and birds use their musculoskeletal systems to support and foster breathing . In early tetrapods , air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping , ___MASK10___ mechanism still seen in amphibians . In humans , the primary muscle that drives breathing is the diaphragm . The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible .