the Origin of the Ancient Jewish Community at Elephantine: A Review
Ibrahim M. Omer
Elephantine is an island in the Nile River, to the
west of Aswan (on the eastern bank of the Nile). In ancient times,
the island has been the southern-most city of Egypt. South of Elephantine,
for a distance of approximately 223 km, extends the Nubian Desert
where even the Nile banks are inhospitable. Beyond this distance
lie the lands of Sudan, homeland of the Nubian civilization, which
to ancient Egypt represented a prominent military threat. Trade
relations between Egypt and Nubia continued active throughout history
and Elephantine was the point where trade routes from Nubia met.
Hence, to the ancient Egyptians, the city represented the 'door
to the South'.
The name Elephantine is Greek meaning 'elephant'
and this expresses the city's function as a gate to the South, since
elephants were brought from the south towards Nubia. Another name
for the city by ancient Egyptians is 'Yebo', which also meant 'elephant'.
A Jewish garrison community that was already settled
in the island by the fifth century B.C., played an essential role
in the interaction between Nubia and Egypt. Some historians and
archeologists directed attention and research towards this Jewish
community for it provides a wide range of evidence for the earliest
Diaspora Jewish settlement.
The task of the Jewish garrison in Elephantine
was to protect the Egyptian border with Nubia (Kush). However, the
garrison was also associated with insuring the safe passage of products
coming from/to Nubia. Adjacent to the Jewish settlement in Elephantine
was the Aramean garrison at Syene (Aswan), on the eastern bank of
the Nile. While less evidence was available for the Armaean garrison
at Syene, extensive records documented life within the Jewish garrison
at Elephantine. In Elephantine the Jews built a temple for 'Yahweh',
which resembled the Salomon's temple in Jerusalem. During the fifth
century B.C., contemporary with the Persian rule of Egypt, the temple
was destroyed by Egyptian rebels and at which time the Jewish settlement
A collection of archives (known as the Elephantine
Papyri) mostly written in Aramaic, and some in Hieratic and Demotic
is found. The archives are concerned with diverse matters of the
community; i.e. political, legal, social, economic, and religious.
Some documents that belonged to members of the Aramean garrison
were also found at Syene.
The collection of the archives has been first
discovered and purchased by Giovanni Belzoni from a local market
in Aswan (Egypt). A.H. Sayce and A.E. Cowley published the first
collection of the papyri in 1906. Later excavations revealed more
Papyri and ostraca. Thereafter, more publications followed such
as those by W. Staerk and A. Ungnad.
Most of the archives associated with the Elephantine
Jewish community date back to the Persian period, i.e. after 525
B.C. Owners of the contracts secured their documents by burying
them under the floors of their houses and keeping them inside pottery
vessels and jars. The Legal documents found are concerned with lawsuits;
sales; marriage, loan, gifts, and other contracts related to property
ownerships. The judicial court to which these contracts were drawn
in accordance is uncertain (i.e., Persian or local Jewish courts).
Although most of the contracts were written in Aramaic, they seem
to have followed the same formula as that of the Egyptian contracts.
It is proven for certain, nonetheless, that members
of this community were Jews. There names, identity, lifestyle, and
religious traditions leave no doubt for their Jewishness. There
is proof that they had observed the Shabbat and the Passover, and
probably most of the other traditional Jewish holidays. Of special
importance is the 'Passover Letter' which dated back to 419 B.C.
The letter was from Hananiah to Jedenaiah of the Jewish garrison
at Elephantine. On his letter, Hennania instructed the Jews to "keep
the Festival of Unleavened Bread" and to "be pure and take heed."(C:21:6)
along with other instructions related to the observance of the festival.
Scholars suspect that this Hennaniah might have been the brother
of the legendary Biblical figure, Nehemiah.
However, the Jews were not living in total isolation
from their pagan environment, which, beside the Arameans, included
Greeks, Babylonians, and Egyptians. Cases of intermarriages are
documented and names bearing both Pagan and Jewish elements existed.
Family archives, on the other hand, provided a
wide range of information with regard to the social structure that
this Jewish community had enjoyed.
p Members of the garrison owned Egyptian slaves
and took handmaidens regularly. Although the living standards at
Elephantine are not well known, the Jewish settlers were certainly
wealthier than the average Egyptian commoners. Some of them seemed
to be real state, owning several houses; many kept more than one
Egyptian slave and purchased expensive gifts for their brides --
10 Shekels on average.
One of the most illustrative documents in the Elephantine
Archives is the marriage contract of Ananiah b. Azariah, who was
a treasury keeper of the Temple, to the Egyptian slave girl Tamut.
Although Tamut was the wife of Ananiah after the contract was drawn,
she still belonged to her original owner Meshullam b. Zaccur.
The Letter of Aristeas
There are only two documents that relate to dating
the settlement of the Jewish garrison at Elephantine. The first
one is the Letter of Aristeas, which scholars believe to have been
written in the second century B.C. The letter documents the Greek
translation of the Pentateuch in Alexandria. Also documented are
historic events and circumstances that relate to the emigrations
of Jews into Egypt. It is mentioned on a certain part of the letter
that Jews "had been sent to Egypt to help it's king Psammetichus
in his campaign against the king of the Ethiopians (Nubians)."(The
Letter Of Aristeas: 13). Note: 'Ethiopia' in ancient literature
referred to Nubia in modern Sudan, not modern Ethiopia. Since the
Egyptian king Psammetichus II is known to have carried campaigns
into Nubia, it's most likely that the Letter of Aristeas meant Psammetichusis
II, not Psammetichus I. '
The second document was written by the Elephantine
Jews on 410 B.C., which claims that when "Cambyses came into Egypt
he found this Temple [Jewish Temple at elephantine] built."(C 30:
Most scholars support the suggestion that the Jews
settled in Elephantine during the reign of Psammetichusis I. Out
of three succeeding Judean kings, contemporary with Psammetichusis
I, Manasseh is thought most likely to have been the Judean king
who dispatched the Jewish troops that settled at Elephantine. It
must be noted that Psammetichusis I was the first Egyptian ruler
after the periods of Assyrian and Nubian rule. Psammetichusis I
and the Nubian king Taharqa were allies at a time when Assyria represented
a common enemy. After Assyira was expelled from Egypt, Psammetichusis
I was cautious to secure his position on the thrown of Egypt. His
most dangerous threat were certainly his former allies, the Nubians.
Contemprary with this Egyptian king it was recorded Egyptian soldiers
from Elephantine left Egypt and departed to Nubia for a better life.
Psammetichusis I would have needed troops to fill in the positions
of the Egyptian soldiers who departed. Hence, Manasseh may have
aided the Egyptian king by sending him soldiers.
Information related to the campaign of Psammetichusis
II campaign into Nubia is found inscribed on the colossi of Ramses
II at Abu Simbel. As indicated on the inscription, the Nubian campaign
of the Egyptian pharaoh started from Elephantine. The Pharaoh's
military was composed of Egyptian as well as foreign troops. The
later included Phonecians, Carians, Ionians, and Rhodianss.
In southwest Asia, Judea had been paying tribute
to Babylonia. During the reign of king Jehoiakim, Judea rebelled
from the Babylonian superiority and stopped paying the tribute.
Soon, Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon, who was recently crowned
after the death of his father Nebopolassar, marched to reinsure
his rule on the Levant. When the Babylonian king reached Jerusalem
he found king Jehoiachin, son of the deceased king Jehoiakim, on
the thrown of Judah. Jehoiakim surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar in
597 BC. On his place, Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah whose original
name was Mattianiah. However, Zedekiah also rebelled. Contemporary
with this period, the Biblical prophet Jeremiah warned the people
of Judah that rebelling against the Babylonian supremacy would lead
the Jews into captivity. He also warned against migration to foreign
lands and doomed the Jews of foreign lands for abandoning the Holy
Land. However, the warnings of Jeremiah went unheeded.
During these events, on 591 BC, Psammetichusis II
carried his Nubian campaign. If indeed Jewish mercenaries were sent
to Egypt during the reign of Psammetichusis II, then King Zedekiah
would have been responsible for the act. This is because king Zedekiah
was the only ruler of Judah contemporary with Psammetichusis II.
Since, Egypt would have been most likely to support anti-Babylonian
rebels, the presence of Jewish mercenaries in Egypt might have been
viewed as an act cooperation against a common enemy.
Examining other ancient sources
On 589 B.C. Apries succeeded Psammetichusis II as
the king of Egypt. Contemporary, Nebuchadnezzar marched with his
troops to put down the rebels in Judeah. Soon, the Babylonian troops
captured and devastated the Holy City. On August 587 BC the Holly
temple of Solomon, was destroyed and the first Diaspora of the Jewish
people has begun. Thousands of Jews were exiled to Babylon leaving
Apries was well known for supporting the anti-Babylonian
movements in the Levant. He supported king Zedekiah on his anti
Babylonian policy. However, when the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem,
the Egyptian king did not intervene. Escaping the Babylonian captivity,
thousands of Jews from Judea flooded into Egypt.
Thus, is written in the Bible in regard to Jewish
migration to Egypt:
"At this, all the people [remainder of Jews in Judah]
from the least to the greatest, together with the army officers,
fled to Egypt for fear of the Babylonians."(2 Kings 25:26).
During the reign of Apries there was a large garrison
of foreigners stationed at Elephantine who also sought to depart
from Egypt and seek refuge into Nubia. Neshor, the governor of Elephantine,
was able to convince the mercenaries to cancel their plan. Among
these foreign mercenaries, 'Asiatics' are mentioned. Perhaps the
term 'Asiatics' referred to Jews and/ or Arameans.
Still later, an inscription dating to the reign
of Amasis mentions an expedition into Nubia that included 'Palestinians'
During the last years of king Apries reign; civil
wars in Egypt divided the country into North and South. The rebels
from Upper Egypt were objecting to the policies of king Apries,
which favored the foreigner troops over the Egyptian. These rebels
crowned Amasis as king of Egypt. On the other hand, the foreign
troops from Lower Egypt fought for king Apries, only to be defeated.
Hence, Amasis became the king of Egypt.
The question would remain; If Jewish mercenaries
had indeed settled at Elephantine during the reign of Apreis, what
role did they play in the civil war?
Egypt has always been a source of refuge for the
people of Judea starting from the Great Biblical Patriarch of the
Bible, Abraham. After the Diaspora, Jews flooded into Egypt and
established the largest Jewish communities there; perhaps, since
the time of Moses. During the Persian period they were Jewish garrisons
posted at Tahpanhes and Migdol.
During the sixth century B.C., 'First Isaiah' prophesized
return of the Jews "from Assyria, from Lower Egypt, from Upper Egypt,
from Kush [Nubia], from Elam, from Babylonia, from Hamath and from
the islands of the sea."Isaiah 11:11)
As indicated in the passage, Isaiah probably knew
about Jews residing in Nubia at the time. 'Deutero-Isaiah' (second
Isaiah), who supposedly lived during the exile in the fourth century
B.C., prophesized the restoration of Israel. On one passage he mentions
the return of Jews from the region of Aswan as follows:
"See, they will come from afar,
some from the north, some from the west,
some from the region of Aswan [Syene]."
Note the statement, "some from the region of Aswan."
clearly indicates that the prophet was well aware of Jewish presence
in the region of Aswan or Syene. In any case Elephantine is and
was certainly not excluded from the region of Syene.
The presence of a Jewish garrison at Elephantine
clearly does not predate the period of Assyrian conquest of the
sixth century B.C. The archeological evidence and the documents
discovered for this Jewish community at Elephantine suggests a time
of settlement that is, by far, not prior to the Assyrian conquest.
It was also after the Assyrian expansion that the use of foreign-paid-mercenaries
became wide-use in the Near East.
The story of Onias IV might hint the origin of the
Elephantine Jewish community
Evidence for the Jewish temple at Elephantine comes
from the local archives of the settlement. As quoted before, it
is mentioned that the Jews of Elephantine in the third century B.C.
wrote that when "Cambyses came into Egypt he found this Temple [Jewish
Temple at Elephantine] built."(C 30: 13f). The Jews of this community
regarded their temple as no less holier than the temple of Solomon
in Jerusalem, and their settlement as no less blessed than the land
of Israel. For example, reference was made in one of the archives
to "Yahweh the God who dwells in the fortress of Elephantine."-K
12:2. Holocausts, meal offering, and most of the other traditional
sacrificial ceremonies performed at the Temple of Solomon were performed
at the temple of Elephantine alike.
The site of the temple at Elephantine has not been
located yet; however, geometric calculations based on houses that
are known to have neighbored the temple, indicate that the dimensions
of the temple resembled that of the Solomon Temple in Jerusalem.
Also descriptions of the temple as known from the archives prove
the later as true.
As known, Jewish religion prohibits the building
of temples outside of Israel; rather, the building of Synagogues
is sanctioned. This law stems from the Jewish devotion to the land
of Israel; that the sacredness and holiness of it's soil is unmatched
anywhere else on earth. Hence, in accordance to the Jewish laws
and traditions, erecting a Temple on foreign soil; such as that
of Elephantine, should have been considered unlawful and contradictory
to the Jewish cause.
The only other Jewish temple that was indeed built
to resemble the temple of Solomon was the Temple of Onias IV. This
Onias belonged to prominent family in Jerusalem and his fathers
held positions of priesthood in the temple of Solomon. He lived
during the first half of the century B.C., when Judea was ruled
controlled by the Maccabees. Onias expected to be appointed as High
Priest, however Judas Maccabees refused to place him on the position.
Since Onias IV was also a friend to the king of Egypt (Ptolemy Philometor),
he built his own temple at Leontopolis (modern Tell-el-Yahudya)
on the eastern Delta, few kilometers north of Heliopolis. He justified
that the Maccabees have unpurified the Jerusalem Temple and that
his temple was the only sanctioned one. Since Onias was popular
among the Jews, he was accompanied to Egypt by a large number of
followers. His followers later constituted a large garrison near
Memphis. Their settlement was known as the "Country of Onias"
Is it possible that Onias IV was merely following
an example of an earlier Jewish leader who might have established
the Jewish community at Elephantine?
Fate of the Elephantine Jewish Community
During the reign of Darius II Egyptian rebels threatened
the security of Upper Egypt. First, The Jews of Elephantine sent
a letter to some Persian official in which they complained against
the Egyptian priests of the temple of Khnub and some other military
personnel named Vidranga for committing some acts of destruction
in their fortress and for burying a well where the Jews were used
to drink. The other document dealt with the final destruction of
the temple in 410 B.C. According to the document, the Egyptian priests
of Khnub cooperated with Vidranga who sent his son Nefayan in command
of an Egyptian army and ordered "the temple of the God Yahweh in
the Fortress of Elephantine to be destroyed"(C 30: 4ff)
The Jews of Elephantine greatly lamented the destruction
of their temple, just as the Jews did when the temple of Solomon
at Jerusalem was destroyed more than a century before. They wore
sackcloth, went into fasting, refrained from sexual intercourse,
stopped anointing themselves with oil, and prohibited themselves
from drinking wine.
The reason for the Egyptian violence towards the
Jews is probably social as well as religious. For centuries the
Egyptians were suppressed under foreigner rule. People from other
lands, including Judea, have emigrated and settled in Egypt occupying
prestigious positions. The Egyptians felt that they were being downplayed,
not only by their direct conquerors, but also by other foreigners.
Religious reasons too might have encouraged the
Egyptians to take action against the Jews. Elephantine was known
as land of the god Khnub. Originally Nubian, this god is represented
as a ram-headed man. The sacrifices of the Jews on religious holidays
at the temple, which probably included rams, would have caused hatred
on part of the Egyptian priests.
Soon, the Persians interfered and captured and punished
the Egyptian rebels; however, not much attention was paid to the
Jews. The Jewish leaders of the community pleaded and begged before
the authority of Jerusalem to interfere on their behalf by requesting
from the Persians to rebuild their temple at Elephantine. When their
letters went unanswered, they begged for a response.
408 BCE. Yedoniah's copy of his letter to Bagoas, Governor of Samaria
and Judah, requesting the order to be given to rebuild the Temple
of Yahweh in Elephantine.
Then they turned to the Persian satrap for support,
and promised to stop the offering of Holocausts, which included
sacrificing sheep, oxes, and goats, if their temple was rebuilt.
As mentioned the sacrificing of rams in the temple was clearly a
major cause in the rebelling of the Egyptians.
Yet, there is no evidence to indicate that the temple
was rebuilt sometime later. Although, many of the houses belonging
to Jews adjacent to the temple show signs of reconstruction, the
situation at the time remains mysterious. The last letter was dated
to 399 B.C., which was written to Islah. Unfortunately, the content
of the letter is unclear.
The unknown fate of the Jewish community at Elephantine
can be variously interpreted. One possibility is that they may have
immigrated to Nubia, just like the Egyptian soldiers did during
the time of Psammetichus.
The tragic encounter of the Jews with the natives
of Elephantine or elsewhere is not the only one in history of the
Jewish nation; however, the absence of reference to the Jews of
this community in the ancient sources is particularly odd.
The fact that the Jews of Elephantine were devoted
the land of their settlement, almost, the same way the other Jews
were devoted to Israel, is particularly unique in the history of
the Jewish nation.
The attempt of the Jews of this community to recreate
an artificial environment of Jerusalem in their settlement doomed
failure. I think the fact that the Jewish members of this community
did not return to live at Elephantine may return to their conviction
that there is no land for which they can build and occupy with pride
and confidence, but their own land.
- Modrzejewski, Joseph M., and Shayne J.D. Cohen. The Jews
of Egypt. Trans. Robert Cornman. Princeton UP, 1997.
- Porten, Bezalel. Archives From Elephantine: the Life of
an Ancient Jewish Military Colony. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California P, 1968.
- Comay, Joan. The Diaspora Story: the Epic of the Jewish
People Among the Nations. Random House Inc (T), 1983.
- Lindenberger, James M., and Kent H. Richards, eds. Ancient
Aramaic and Hebrew Letters. Scholars P, 1994.
- Kraeling, Emil, ed. Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Paryri: New
Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. From the Jewish Colony At
Elephantine. Brooklyn Museum Bookshop, 1969.
- Pritchard, James. Collins Atlas of the Bible. Borders
On the contemporary Jewish community of Sudan see The
Ottoman Jewish Community of Sudan.