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Living ON THE EDGE How Deer Survive Winter By Joe Wiley and Chuck Hulsey MDIF&W Wildlife Biologists Programs The white-tailed deer has developed a remarkable set of adaptations that enable the species to survive the deep snow and The Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and cold temperatures that occur in Maine, the northern limit of their Wildlife works with Small Woodlot Owners Associ- range in North America. The white-tailed deer found here in the ation of Maine to offer deer wintering area manag- Northeast is one of the three northernmost of 16 subspecies. It is ing programs through SWOAM chapter events. also the largest of the white-tail subspecies. Deer do not occur in This article appeared as a three-part series in viable numbers north of the St. Lawrence River. SWOAM's newsletter in 2010 and in Maine Fish Northern deer have larger body size than deer further south. and Wildlife magazine Summer 2010 edition, avail- This is true of all mammals, in that body size increases as you able for viewing at www.mefishwildlife.com progress northward. Large body size conserves energy better because of a lower surface to mass ratio. Deer shed their hair coat in the spring and fall. The red summer hair has solid shafts and lacks an undercoat, but the gray-brown winter coat has hollow hair shafts and a dense, wool- like under fur, providing effective insulation. Deer have special muscles that can adjust the angle of their hair shafts to obtain maximum insulation. During the fall, deer accumulate and store body fat under their skin and around internal organs. This serves both as insula- tion and energy reserve for the rigors of the winter ahead. Fat reserves can be up to 30 percent of body mass of adult does in the fall. The natural winter diet is lower in protein and less digestible than the summer diet, requiring more energy to digest and resulting in fewer calories. This translates into a “voluntary” reduction of feed intake through the winter, particularly in late winter. The stored fat is burned during winter to partially com- pensate for the lack of energy in the winter diet. Deer normally lose weight during the winter even when fed a free choice, high protein diet. These adaptations are designed for the conservation of en- ergy. Deer go into the winter with a full tank of gas (fat reserves) not knowing how long the journey will be. If deep snow and bit- ter winds start early or persist late into spring, some deer will run out of gas (fat reserves) and die. The greatest mortality is experienced by fawns, followed by adult bucks and then does. Severe winters can significantly de- plete the fawn crop, resulting in drastically reduced recruitment Photo by Thomas Long, via Flickr; Used with permission. into the population. These effects can be seen for many years in reduced numbers in the age class data. Consecutive severe win- THE VALUE OF LANDFORM ters can reduce recruitment by 90 percent, resulting in drastically Most DWAs are within or near the riparian areas associated reduced summer densities. with lakes, ponds, rivers, or streams. A ‘Reader’s Digest’ defini- Deer behavior also changes in the fall, as family groups tion of a riparian area is an upland or wetland type associated of deer congregate into larger groups made up of mostly adult with a watercourse that is affected by the hydrology of that does and fawns born the previous June (kin groups). These watercourse. Keep in mind that there are many wetland classifi- groups seek protection from wind and reduced snow depths by cations, including forested wetlands where not only could a duck moving to sheltered areas, which comprise 5 to 15 percent of not swim, but you might not even get your sneakers muddy in their summer range. These movements occur in late November the summer. through December. Northern deer are known to travel up to 40 Valley bottoms, landscape depressions, aspect, and lower miles between their summer range and winter range, but 5 to 10 side-slopes provide protection from cold winds. You’ve experi- miles is more typical. Mature bucks seek out these areas after enced firsthand the relief of standing behind a building or big mid-December when their testosterone levels start to drop after tree when the temperature is low and the wind is blowing. Warm the rut. bodies exposed to cold wind lose heat rapidly. Subsequently, like This important winter habitat provides several benefits, such adding wood to a fireplace in a drafty camp, more calories are as dense softwood canopies that intercept more snow, providing burned to maintain a deer’s core temperature when exposed to reduced snow depths. Congregating in these areas also allow wind. In the north the most daunting challenge for deer survival many deer to share the energy cost of maintaining a trail net- is to make it through the wintering period with enough fuel left in work to access cover and food and to escape predation. the tank. Protection from cold wind equates to reducing the rate These and other benefits provide critical “deer yard” habitat at which calories are burned. deer need to survive Maine’s winters. In the northern half of Maine, soils associated with riparian areas are often shallow, stony, poorly drained; or all three. Trees WHAT IS A DEER WINTERING AREA? are aggressive life-forms that have evolved to exploit specific Deer Wintering Areas (DWAs) or “deer yards” are a critical conditions associated with soils (site), water, and sunlight. Suc- habitat for white-tailed deer living at the northern end of their cess is not measured just in rings of growth per inch, but more range. A DWA is the habitat where deer go to avoid harsh winter important to the species, the ability to occupy and dominate a winds and deep snow. During a winter of average severity, a site. deer living in southern Maine will require this shelter for 20-60 Regenerating one’s own kind may be the ultimate measure days. In far northern Maine dependency is usually 90-125 days. of a tree’s success. Cedar, spruce, fir, and to a lesser degree Quality winter shelter occurs where certain landforms and hemlock, are species that are very successful competitors on forest stands meet. The former is less understood and under- poorer soils often occurring in and adjacent to riparian habitat. appreciated, but equally important as the type of conifer trees The foliage structure of these trees is also superior to others in growing on a site. Let’s look at each separately. intercepting wind and snowfall. (Above) Photo by Chuck Hulsey Former Plum Creek forester Kirk MacDonald walking in a cedar-dominated Primary Winter Shelter stand within the Pierce Pond Stream DWA. This stand was lightly commercially thinned about 12 years before this picture was taken. In the foreground are stumps from a much older harvest. THE CONTRIBUTION OF FOREST COVER cess browse and avoid predators. Probably because of the value A forest stand is a group of trees of same or similar spe- of trails, larger DWAs with inherent higher number of winter cies, age, height, or canopy closure. Stands dominated by cedar, inhabitants equates to a higher rate of survival. spruce, fir, or hemlock are by far the best at intercepting snow, The best DWAs have a minimum of half their area in stands when they are over 35 feet tall and have canopy or crown clo- providing high quality conifer shelter for the tough months of sure over 50 percent. Snow depths under such stands can be 40 January and February. Some of the DWA should be in younger percent lower than under hardwood stands with similar charac- stands to replace older shelter stands through time. A repre- teristics. This is because their leaves (needles) intercept falling sentation of mixed softwood-hardwood stands provides a winter snowflakes. Three things can happen to snow caught in the food source by way of hardwood browse. During the start and treetops. Some snow will still come down to the ground. Some end of the wintering period (December and March) these stands snow will melt, coming down as a liquid and reduce the snow can meet minimal shelter requirements, and at the same time be profile. Last, some snow held in the canopy goes directly back to a source of natural food. the atmosphere as a vapor. Managing the spatial relationship of these stands over time The behavior of “yarding” or congregating in large over- is vital, as deer cannot survive if they use more calories in transit wintering groups results in each deer contributing towards the than they gain in the meal. development of a network of trails. Using a trail vs. traversing alone through the snow is a major energy savings. Think back to MANAGING DEER WINTERING AREAS when you have trudged or snowshoed solo through deep snow. Maintaining sufficient winter shelter for deer is primarily It can range from tough to exhausting, depending on your condi- an exercise in forest management. A deer wintering area is the tion. Compare that to when you were with a group, at the back habitat where deer go to find protection from deep snow and of the line and easing along a trail beaten down by others. For cold wind. When the right landform meets the right assemblage deer, this is the difference between life and death. In addition of forest stands, the majority of deer can survive a typical Maine to conserving energy, adult deer know their network of trails like winter. Landowners large and small can and do play an essential you know the streets in your neighborhood. So in addition to role in providing, maintaining, and managing this critical winter energy conservation, the network of beaten trails helps deer ac- wildlife habitat. Before jumping into "Forestry-For-Deer 101," let’s acknowl- edge that Maine is a geographical mixing zone for our two members of the deer family. We sit where the southern end of Learn the moose’s range and the northern end of the white-tail’s meet. There are biological, environmental, even evolutionary reasons More! why the range of these species does not extend farther. A basic ecological principle comes into play in that similar species will not Due to many factors, compete for the exact same resource. Because Maine happens Maine has experienced to be near the terminus of each range, moose are a bit over- a decline in the amount engineered and deer under-engineered for Maine winters. They and quality of DWA hab- generally do not coexist over the majority of each other’s range. itat, especially in north- To cope with winter, deer assemble in groups (yarding) with- ern, western and east- in forests dominated by stands of spruce, fir, cedar or hemlock. ern Maine. It has become difficult to achieve deer Such stands must be tall enough and dense enough to intercept population levels desired by the public. the snowfall and wind. The best DWAs include sufficient quality To that end, MDIF&W, the Maine Forest Prod- conifer cover and a component of mixed hardwood-softwood ucts Council and SWOAM have collaborated to de- stands, either as inclusions among cover stands or adjacent velop DWA management guidelines and make them to cover stands. Hardwood browse and canopy litterfall are available to all forest landowners. important natural foods, however they are low in nutritional value The 9-page publication Guidelines for Wildlife: compared to food available during the spring, summer, and fall. Managing Deer Wintering Areas in Northern, West- Deer cannot increase or even maintain body weights ern, and Eastern Maine is available on our website throughout a typical Maine winter. Browse intake is important to at www.mefishwildlife.com or by writing to us at: survival and serves to slow down the rate of weight loss. Shelter Maine Department of and the use of trails created and maintained by numbers of deer Inland Fisheries and Wildlife serve to conserve calories. The juxtaposition of cover and food is 284 State St., SHS 41 important simply because deer cannot burn more calories getting Augusta, ME 04333 to food than the calories provided by that food. To that end, the spatial relationship of new harvests, current shelter, future shelter, and browse availability are important considerations in long-term forest management planning. The best DWAs have at least 50 percent of the acreage in pine), whereas hardwood species reproduce both by seed and stands comprised of what we call Primary Winter Shelter (PWS) vegetatively by sprouting off stumps and root systems. In my and Secondary Winter Shelter (SWS). PWS stands are domi- experience managing DWAs I find that hardwood browse is a nated by spruce, fir, cedar, or hemlock and are ≥35 feet in height nearly automatic by-product any time a deciduous tree is cut, with crown closures ≥ 70 percent. Crown closure is the percent- whereas regenerating species like spruce, cedar, and hemlock age of the sky blotted out by limbs and leaves when you look requires close attention to details, such as the timing of cone up through the canopy. These stands provide shelter during the crops, volume removals, and some good luck. most severe winter conditions. Unless overmature, a common There is no one-size-fits-all harvest prescription for DWAs. stand treatment would be a light commercial thinning, applied as The starting point should be to assess what percentage of your an improvement cut to increase stand growth, quality, and vigor. land within the DWA provides PWS and SWS. Stand age, vigor, SWS stands are similar except the crown closure is 50 composition, and condition are important considerations. It is percent to 70 percent. They provide shelter for all but the most desirable to have a broad representation of stand age-classes, severe conditions typical of the early and latter part of the however the options available to an owner of 50 acres are dif- wintering period. A PWS stand may become a SWS stand after ferent than an owner of 500 acres. If at the lower acreage end a light commercial thinning, solely because the crown closure it would be good to know the condition of the DWA beyond your falls below 70 percent. If applied as an improvement cut, these ownership. If less than half the DWA has PWS and SWS stands, stands can return to a PWS stand during the course of a typi- maintaining such stands on your property longer via light thin- cal cutting interval of 15 years. There is also the opportunity to nings, might be best. maintain a high conifer component or increase the percentage of If a DWA has a lot more than 50 percent in older PWS or conifers over time. SWS, a harvest geared towards regenerating new stands would With at least 50 percent of a DWA in PWS and SWS stands, ensure that sufficient shelter comes on line in the near future. the remaining stands can be in younger age-classes and/or About one foot of growth per year of sites typical of DWAs is stands with a mixture of hardwoods. Young stands may be the common, so it requires about 35 years for trees to reach the product of past land use or a prescribed regeneration treatment. shelter stage. These Non-Mature/Future Shelter Stands provide a source of Travel corridors serve to connect cover stands within a DWA, winter browse. They can be managed to increase their shelter and often occur along watercourses. Check your municipal rules attributes if the soil type favors conifers. Thinning over time can for harvesting near these areas. Generally, light thinning or us- increase the softwood component of such stands. It is generally ing the single-tree or group selection method to 1) maintain the more challenging to regenerate conifers within a mixed-wood overstory, and 2) establishing conifer regeneration, is desirable as stand because conifers can only reproduce by seed (except pitch long as connectivity values are maintained.
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