Campaign advertising is not everything.
- At the presidential level, economic conditions are the most important force.
- In congressional elections, incumbency matters.
- A shift of one or two points can change the outcome of a close election.
- Ads activate and reinforce voters' predispositions, which is important.
- Ads can make a bigger difference in open-seat races (where incumbency is not in play), in primaries and non-partisan races (where partisanship is not in play), and in campaigns where voters lack information or strong beliefs.
Campaign ads: the early years
War, Peace, and the Red Phone
Using the other side's words
Attack and response
Music and Uplift