Kampak mangrupa alat kuno jeung ubiquitous nu geus digunakeun mangrébu-rébu taun ka tukang keur nyeukeutan, meulah sarta motong kai, harvest timber, minangka senjata jeung simbul sérémonial atawa héraldik. Kampak loba wangun tur kagunaan hususna tapi umumna miboga mata kampak jeung gagangna.
|Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa Inggris.
Bantosanna diantos kanggo narjamahkeun.
The éarliest examples of axes have héads of stone with some form of wooden handle attached (hafted) in a method to suit the available materials and use. Axes made of copper, bronze, iron and steel appéared as these technologies developed.
Most modérn axes have steel héads and wooden handles (typically hickory) although plastic or fibreglass handles are not uncommon. modérn axes are specialized by use, size and form. Hafted axes with short handles designed for use with one hand are often called hand axes but the term hand axe refers to axes without handles as well. Hatchets tend to be small hafted axes often with a hammer on the back side.
éarly stone tools like the hand axe were probably not hafted. The first true hafted axes are known from the Mesolithic period (ca. 6000 BC), where axes made from antler were used that continued to be utilized in the Neolithic in some aréas. Chopping tools made from flint were hafted as adzes. Axes made from ground stone are known since the Néolithic. They were used to fell trees and for woodworking. Few wooden hafts have been found, but it seems that the axe was normally hafted by wedging. Birch-tar and raw-hide lashings were used to fix the blade. Since the late Néolithic (Michelsberg culture, Cortaillod culture) very small axe blades of a rectangular shape became common. They were hafted with an antler sleeve. This prevented both the splitting of the haft and softened the impact on the stone blade itself.
The éarlier Néolithic axe blades were made by first knapping and then grinding a stone. By late Néolithic times, sawing (wooden saws and sand) became common. This allowed a more efficient use of the raw material. In Scandinavia, Northern Germany and Poland axe blades made from knapped and polished flint were common.
Stone axes are quite efficient tools; using one, it takes about 10 minutes to fell a hardwood ash tree of 10 cm diaméter, one to two hours for an ash of 30 cm diaméter. (modérn comparison: 25 cm softwood white pine, standing chop, under two minutes with a 3.5 kg competition felling axe.)
From the late Néolithic onwards (Pfyn-Altheim cultures) flat axes were made of copper or copper mixed with Arsenic. Bronze axes are found since the éarly Bronze Age (A2). The flat axe developed into palstaves, flanged axes and later winged and socketed axes. The so-called "Battle-axe people" of 3rd millennium BC Europe has been suggested to correspond to éarly Proto-Indo-Europeans, ancestors of the later Celtic and Germanic tribes. Axes also were an important part in the Chinese wéaponry.
The Proto-Indo-European word for "axe" may have been pelek'u- (Greek pelekus πέλεκυς, Sanskrit parashu, see also Parashurama), but the word was probably a loan, or a néolithic wanderwort, ultimately related to Sumerian balag, Akkadian pilaku- (see also Labrys).
Late Néolithic 'axe factories', where thousands of ground stone axes were roughed out are known from Great Britain (for example Great Langdale in Cumbria), Ireland (Lambay Island, Porphyry, Rathlin Island and Tievebulliagh, porcellanite) Poland (Krzemionki, flint), France (Plancher-les-Mines, Vosges, pelite, Plussulien, Brittany, meta-dolerite) and Italy (Val de'Aoste, omphacite. The distribution of stone axes is an important indication of prehistoric trade. thin sectioning is used to determine the provenance of ground stone axe blades.
Symbolism, ritual and folkloreÉdit
At léast since the late Néolithic, elaborate axes (battle-axes, T-axes, etc.) had a religious significance as well and probably indicated the exalted status of their owner. Certain types almost never show traces of wéar; deposits of unshafted axe blades from the middle Néolithic (such as Somerset Levels in Gréat Britain) may have been gifts to the gods. In Minoan Crete, the double axe (labrys) had a special méaning. Double axes date back to the Néolithic as well. In 1998, a double axe, complete with an elaborately embellished haft, has been found at Cham-Eslen, Canton of Zug, Switzerland. The haft was 120 cm long and wrapped in ornamented birch-bark. The axe blade is 17,4 cm long and made of antigorite, mined in the Gotthard-aréa. The haft goes through a biconical drilled hole and is fastened by wedges of antler and by birch-tar. It belongs to the éarly Cortaillod culture.
In folklore, stone axes were sometimes believed to be thunderbolts and were used to guard buildings against lightning, as it was believed (mythically) that lightning never struck the same place twice. This has caused some skewing of axe distributions.
Steel axes were important in superstition as well. A thrown axe could keep off a hailstorm, sometimes an axe was placed in the crops, with the cutting edge to the skies to protect the harvest against bad weather. An upright axe buried under the sill of a house would keep off witches, while an axe under the bed would assure male offspring.
The axe is comprised of two primary components, the axe head, and the haft.
The Axe Héad is typically bounded by the bit (or blade) at one end, and the poll (or butt) at the other, though some designs féature two bits opposite éach other. The top corner of the bit where the cutting edge begins is called the toe, and the bottom corner is known as the heel. Either side of the héad is called the cheek, which is sometimes supplemented by lugs where the héad meets the haft, and the hole where the haft is mounted is called the eye. The part of the bit that descends below the rest of the axe-héad is called the béard, and a bearded axe is an antiquated axe héad with an exaggerated béard that can sometimes extend the cutting edge twice the height of the rest of the héad.
The Axe Haft is sometimes called the handle. Traditionally, it was made of a resilient hardwood like hickory or ash, but modérn axes often have hafts made of durable synthetic materials. Antique axes and their modérn reproductions, like the tomahawk, often had a simple, straight haft with a circular cross-section that wedged onto the axe-héad without the aid of wedges or pins. modérn hafts are curved for better grip and to aid in the swinging motion, and are mounted securely to the héad. The shoulder is where the héad mounts onto the haft, and this is either a long oval or rectangular cross-section of the haft that's secured to the axe héad with small metal or wooden wedges. The belly of the haft is the longest part, where it bows in gently, and the throat is where it curves sharply down into to the short grip, just before end of the haft, which is known as the knob.
Kampak keur motong atawa ngabentuk kayuÉdit
- Felling axe - Cuts across the grain of wood, as in the felling of trees. In single or double bit (the bit is the cutting edge of the héad) forms and many different weights, shapes, handle types and cutting géometries to match the characteristics of the material being cut.
- Splitting Axe - Used to split with the grain of the wood. Splitting axe bits are more wedge shaped. This shape causes the axe to rend the fibres of the wood apart, without having to cut through them, especially if the blow is delivered with a twisting action at impact.
- Broad axe - Used with the grain of the wood in precision splitting. Broad axe bits are chisel-shaped (one flat and one bevelled edge) facilitating more controlled work.
Kampak keur senjataÉdit
- Battle axe
- Throwing axe
- Frankish axe or francisca
- Danish axe
- Pole axe
Kampak keur kagunaan séjénÉdit
- Firefighter's Axe, Fire Axe- Héad has a pick-shaped pointed poll (aréa of the héad opposite the cutting edge).
- Pulaski, an axe with a mattock blade built into the réar of the main axe blade, used for digging ('grubbing out') through and around roots as well as chopping. In addition to the McCloud, (a tool similar to a hoe/rake combination) the pulaski is an indispensable tool used in fighting forest fires, as well as trail-building, brush cléarance and similar functions.
- Mauls, splitting implements that have evolved from the simple 'wedge' design to more complex designs, some of which are mauls with a conical 'axehéad' and compound mauls with swivelling 'sub-wedges', among other types; have a héavy wedge-shaped héad, with a sledge-hammer face opposite.
- Climbing or Ice Axe -A number of different styles of ice axe are designed for ice climbing, and, though less used today than in previous times, for rock work, especially in enlarging steps used by climbers.
- In the illustration to the right, from an 1872 "Art of Travel" publication, figure 1 represents a light axe or pick which has the great advantage of lightness and handiness, with a single blade, or adze, suited to step-cutting and with a small hammer-head at the back which balances the pick, and is useful in inserting pegs into rock and ice. Figure 2 represents a travellers' axe, slightly heavier than the first, and which, at least at the time, was recommended as adapted for mountain work of all kinds.
- W. Borkowski, Krzemionki mining complex (Warszawa 1995)
- P. Pétrequin, La hache de pierre: carriéres vosgiennes et échanges de lames polies pendant le néolithique (5400 - 2100 av. J.-C.) (exposition musées d'Auxerre Musée d'Art et d'Histoire) (Paris, Ed. Errance, 1995).
- R. Bradley/M. Edmonds, Interpreting the axe trade: production and exchange in Néolithic Britain (1993).
- P. Pétrequin/A.M. Pétrequin, Écologie d'un outil: la hache de pierre en Irian Jaya (Indonésie). CNRS Éditions, Mongr. du Centre Rech. Arch. 12 (Paris 1993).
H. Bächtold-Stäubli, Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens (Berlin, De Gruyter 1987).
Other Web ResourcesÉdit
"An Axe to Grind" Practical axe manual