Proto-Awgonqwian (commonwy abbreviated PA) is de proto-wanguage from which de various Awgonqwian wanguages are descended. It is generawwy estimated to have been spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, but on de qwestion of where it was spoken, dere is wess agreement. The Awgonqwian famiwy, which is a branch of de warger Awgic wanguage famiwy, is usuawwy divided into dree subgroups: Eastern Awgonqwian, which is a genetic subgroup, and Centraw Awgonqwian and Pwains Awgonqwian, bof of which are areaw groupings. In de historicaw winguistics of Norf America, Proto-Awgonqwian is one of de best studied, most doroughwy reconstructed proto-wanguages. It is descended from Proto-Awgic.
History of research
Most Awgonqwian wanguages are simiwar enough dat deir rewatedness has been recognized for centuries and was commented on by de earwy Engwish and French cowonists and expworers. For exampwe, in 1787 (over a decade before Sir Wiwwiam Jones' famous speech on Indo-European), de deowogian and winguist Jonadan Edwards Jr. deduced dat de Awgonqwian wanguages of de eastern and centraw United States were "radicawwy de same" ('radicawwy' meaning having a common 'root', since radix is Latin for 'root'), and contrasted dem wif de neighboring Iroqwoian wanguages. The earwiest work on reconstructing de Awgonqwian proto-wanguage was undertaken by de winguists Truman Michewson and Leonard Bwoomfiewd. In 1925 Bwoomfiewd reconstructed what he cawwed "Primitive Centraw Awgonqwian", using what were at de time de four best-attested Awgonqwian wanguages: Fox, Ojibwe, Menominee, and Pwains Cree. Fowwowing his initiaw reconstructions, investigations of oder wanguages reveawed dat his "Primitive Centraw Awgonqwian" was essentiawwy eqwivawent to Proto-Awgonqwian, uh-hah-hah-hah. Bwoomfiewd wrote a refinement and expansion of his reconstruction in 1946, and his two papers remain de starting point for aww research and reconstructions of Proto-Awgonqwian, uh-hah-hah-hah. In de years since dere has been an enormous amount of comparative work undertaken on de Awgonqwian famiwy.
There remains some disagreement over de Awgonqwian Urheimat (homewand of de protowanguage). The initiaw deory, first put forf by Frank T. Siebert, Jr. in 1967 based on examining of de ranges of numerous species of pwants and animaws for which rewiabwe Awgonqwian cognates existed, howds dat Proto-Awgonqwian was spoken between Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario, in Ontario, Canada, and at weast as far souf as Niagara Fawws. Research a generation water suggests dat in fact it was spoken farder west dan dis, perhaps "somewhere immediatewy west of Lake Superior."
Proto-Awgonqwian had four basic vowews, *i, *e, *a, *o, each of which had a wong counterpart (commonwy written *i·, *e·, *a·, *o·), for a totaw of eight vowews. The same inventory of eight vowews was found in Proto-Awgic, but Proto-Awgonqwian did not inherit its inventory directwy from Proto-Awgic. Rader, severaw sound changes weft pre-Proto-Awgonqwian widout short *i and *o. It is not cwear dat dey had redevewoped by de time of Proto-Awgonqwian, uh-hah-hah-hah. Aww instances in which Bwoomfiewd reconstructed *o can now be reconstructed as *we based on evidence from some of de Eastern wanguages (for exampwe, Bwoomfiewd's *nekotwi "one" is now reconstructed as *nekwetwi based on forms wike Munsee nkwúti). There are stiww a handfuw of instances where *o can be reconstructed, usuawwy as de resuwt of a morphophonowogicaw process of vowew shortening. Goddard concwudes dat "an independent phoneme *o is of no great antiqwity in Proto-Awgonqwian", but recommends continuing to use it in reconstructions. Likewise, Berman states dat "PA *i is probabwy awso of recent origin", derived from earwier (pre-Proto-Awgonqwian) *ye seqwences and morphophonowogicaw shortening.
|Possibwe Lateraw||θ or ɬ|
|Approximant||w||r or w||y [j]|
The phoneme given in de tabwe as ⟨r⟩ was reconstructed by Bwoomfiewd as *w, but Goddard has more recentwy argued dat it shouwd be reconstructed as *r, wargewy because de earwiest attestations of de majority of wanguages show some sort of rhotic as its refwex, which in many wanguages subseqwentwy changed to a wateraw widin de historicaw period. The precise pronunciation of de phoneme written ⟨θ⟩ is unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. It has merged wif de refwex of *r in aww Awgonqwian wanguages except for Cree and de Arapahoan wanguages. Leonard Bwoomfiewd originawwy suggested dat it couwd have been eider an interdentaw fricative or a wateraw fricative. One piece of evidence for de interdentaw fricative is dat dis is de refwex it has in Arapaho. However, oder researchers have argued for its reconstruction as a wateraw fricative, */ɬ/, in part because of de aforementioned merger in most wanguages wif de phoneme traditionawwy reconstructed as *w.
As wif *i and *o, it is uncwear wheder *č was an independent phoneme in Proto-Awgonqwian, uh-hah-hah-hah. Awmost aww instances where *č is reconstructed are before *i, *i·, or *y, where it does not contrast wif *t (see bewow), or are cases of diminutive consonant symbowism. However, Goddard recommends continuing to write it in reconstructions, since it seems to have been present in de cwusters *čp and *čk; since it can be reconstructed before *a in de term *čapo·nk- "spwash"; and since *t does appear before *i· in some reconstructions of de onomatopoeic noun ti·nti·wa "bwue jay" (however, see Wiktionary for more).
Reconstruction of de consonant cwusters has been rewativewy difficuwt, and de pads de cwusters take in deir evowutions to de daughter wanguages have been compwex. The current view is dat de permissibwe consonant cwusters were (first member on de weft, second member across de top):
In severaw cases de actuaw phonetic identity of de first member of de cwusters was unknown, and Bwoomfiewd's choice of symbows to represent dem was purewy arbitrary. Thus, ⟨x⟩ does not represent *[x], ⟨ç⟩ does not represent *[ç], and ⟨ʔ⟩ does not necessariwy represent *[ʔ]. Goddard argues dat Bwoomfiewd's arbitrary symbow ⟨x⟩ be reconstructed as *s, and Bwoomfiewd's ⟨ç⟩ be reconstructed as *r. Whiwe a gwottaw stop phoneme is not oderwise reconstructed, given dat Bwoomfiewd's ⟨ʔ⟩ in cwusters seems to represent de neutrawization of *p and *k and its reawization in Menominee and Cheyenne is a gwottaw stop, it probabwy was indeed phoneticawwy [ʔ]. The cwuster written ⟨Hm⟩ shows up as p or m in most of de daughter wanguages, but as hm in Munsee (for exampwe, PA *wi·kiwa·Hmi "house" becomes Ojibwe wiigiwaam, Fox wîkiyâpi, and Munsee wíikwahm). The first member of de cwuster may have been eider *h or *ʔ.
The cwusters *št and *hr are each reconstructed on de basis of onwy a singwe correspondence set (*št in *weštikwa·ni, "his/her head"; and *hr in *re·hre·wa, "s/he breades") and may not have been part of Proto-Awgonqwian, uh-hah-hah-hah. David Pentwand, for exampwe, argued dat Ojibwe oshtigwaan, cwaimed as de onwy form reqwiring de reconstruction of *št, is a borrowing from Cree. However, evidence from Munsee and Bwackfoot seem to awso point toward *št as a vawid separate cwuster in PA (Munsee wìiwùshtíikan, Bwackfoot mo’tokááni, "head, hair").
Finawwy, aww consonants and consonant cwusters couwd be fowwowed by *w or *y (awdough de seqwences *čw and *hy did not occur; and *t and *θ were reguwarwy repwaced before *y, for which see bewow).
Severaw awwophonic processes, morphophonemic processes, and phonowogicaw constraints can be reconstructed. Among de most significant of dese processes was dat *t and *θ became *č and *š respectivewy before *i, *i·, and *y. For exampwe, de initiaw *went- "from dere" (as in *wentenamwa "s/he takes it from dere") is reawized as *wenč- in de word *wenči·wa "s/he comes from dere", since it precedes *i·.
There were severaw restrictions on phonotactics and de shape of de PA word dat can be reconstructed. Aww words began wif a singwe consonant (oder dan *h) or vowew, or wif a consonant pwus *w or *y; dere were no seqwences of consecutive vowews; and de word awways ended in a short vowew. The vowews *i and *o never occurred in initiaw sywwabwes. A seqwence of consonant+semivowew couwd not be fowwowed by *o or *o·. There was awso a restriction which prevented two-sywwabwe nouns from ending in a seqwence of short vowew + consonant + short vowew.
In most cases, when de pronominaw prefixes *ne- (first person), *ke- (second person), and *we- (dird person) were added to a vowew-initiaw stem, an ependetic *-t- was inserted between de prefix and de stem. Thus, de prefixes became *net-, *ket-, and *wet- respectivewy. For exampwe, *ne- + *-ehkwa- = *netehkwa- "my wouse". This feature goes back to Proto-Awgic (compare Wiyot du- + híkw = dutíkw "my wouse"). There were a handfuw of irreguwar exceptions to dis pattern, however. For exampwe, de prefixes wost deir vowews before severaw kinship terms, as in *ne- + *-o·hkomehsa = *no·hkomehsa "my grandmoder."
Severaw ruwes for internaw sandhi in morpheme combinations can be reconstructed. The most basic was de insertion of a "connective i" between two consonants. For exampwe, *po·n- "cease" + *-m "act by speech on an animate object" = *po·nime·wa "s/he stops tawking to him/her."  In a few idiosyncratic cases, however, dis ruwe did not operate, and instead de consonants were changed in various ways. For instance, de combination θ+p produced when de root *eθ- "dider, dus" was added to de finaw *-pahto· "run" simpwified to *xp: *expahta·wa "s/he runs dider." One reguwar exception to de "connective i" ruwe was when de conjunct suffix *-ki was added to a verb stem ending in a consonant, for exampwe *ki·šekat- "be day" + *-ki = *ki·šekaxki "when it is day."  Note dat Bwoomfiewd here actuawwy reconstructed dis word as *ki·šekaθki, but evidence from oder Awgonqwian wanguages has shown dat de cwuster shouwd be reconstructed as *xk. When two vowews became contiguous, if one was a wong vowew and one was short, de short vowew dropped: *naka·- "stop" + *-en "by hand" = *naka·ne·wa "s/he stops him/her by hand." If bof were wong, an ependetic *y was inserted between de two.
Proto-Awgonqwian nouns had an animate/inanimate contrast: nouns representing animate beings (and some traditionaw items viewed as having spirituaw powers) were cwassed as animate, whiwe aww oder nouns were inanimate. The pwuraw marker differed in form depending on wheder de noun was animate or inanimate: animate nouns took a pwuraw suffix *-aki, whiwe inanimate nouns took a pwuraw suffix *-ari. Anoder important distinction invowved de contrast between nouns marked as proximate and dose marked as obviative. Proximate nouns were dose deemed most centraw or important to de discourse, whiwe obviative nouns were dose wess important to de discourse. When two dird person participants appeared in a sentence, one was marked as proximate and de oder as obviative, in order to distinguish which one was de subject and which was de object (since verbs infwected for wheder dey had a proximate or obviative subject and a proximate or obviative object). In a given stretch of discourse, dere wiww not be two proximate or two obviative participants.
There were personaw pronouns which distinguished dree persons, two numbers (singuwar and pwuraw), incwusive and excwusive first person pwuraw, and proximate and obviative dird persons. Demonstrative pronouns have been more difficuwt to reconstruct, as many of de daughter wanguages have innovated a great deaw.
PA had four cwasses of verbs: transitive verbs wif an animate object (abbreviated TA), transitive verbs wif an inanimate object (TI), intransitive verbs wif an animate subject (AI), and intransitive verbs wif an inanimate subject (II). Transitive verbs had two paradigms, termed objective and absowute. Objective verbs were used when de object of de verb was not present as an overt noun ewsewhere in de sentence, whiwe absowute verbs were used when de object of de verb was marked wif an overt noun in de sentence. Objective verbs couwd awso be used when an object was present, and in such cases indicated dat de object was definite, as opposed to indefinite.
- Awgonqwian wanguages
- Awgic wanguages
- Awgonqwian sound waws
- Goddard 1978, p. 587. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1978 (hewp)
- Campbeww 2004, p. 185. Harv error: no target: CITEREFCampbeww2004 (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, p. 70. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Campbeww 1997, pp. 29-30. Harv error: no target: CITEREFCampbeww1997 (hewp)
- Thomason 2006, pp. 190-191. Harv error: no target: CITEREFThomason2006 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, pp. 85-86. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, p. 70-71. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Goddard 1990, p. 99. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1990 (hewp)
- Goddard 1994, p. 207. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1994 (hewp)
- Pauw Prouwx, Proto-Awgic VI: Conditioned Yurok refwexes of Proto-Awgic vowews, Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics 27:124–138 (2004)
- Goddard 1979, p. 75. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Berman 1982, p. 414. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBerman1982 (hewp)
- Thomason 2006, p. 191. Harv error: no target: CITEREFThomason2006 (hewp)
- Goddard 1994, p. 204-205. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1994 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, p. 87. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Pentwand 2006, p. 163. Harv error: no target: CITEREFPentwand2006 (hewp)
- Picard 1984. Harv error: no target: CITEREFPicard1984 (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, pp. 73-74. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, p. 88. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Goddard 1994b, pp. 205-206. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1994b (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, pp. 77-78. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Goddard 1967, p. 87. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1967 (hewp)
- Goddard 1974b, pp. 326-327. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1974b (hewp)
- Goddard 1974b, pp. 322. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1974b (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, pp. 71-72. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Pentwand 1977. Harv error: no target: CITEREFPentwand1977 (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, p. 107. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Berman 2006, p. 282. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBerman2006 (hewp)
- Goddard 1979, p. 72. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1979 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, p. 92. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, pp. 86, 89, 92. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Goddard 1974a. Harv error: no target: CITEREFGoddard1974a (hewp)
- Berman 1992. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBerman1992 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, p. 95. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Campbeww & Poser 2008, p. 178. Harv error: no target: CITEREFCampbewwPoser2008 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, pp. 91, 96. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, pp. 90-91. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Thomason 2006, p. 192. Harv error: no target: CITEREFThomason2006 (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, p. 91. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Prouwx 1984a, p. 168, note 2. Harv error: no target: CITEREFProuwx1984a (hewp)
- Bwoomfiewd 1946, p. 93. Harv error: no target: CITEREFBwoomfiewd1946 (hewp)
- Hockett 1966, p. 60. Harv error: no target: CITEREFHockett1966 (hewp)
- The verb system is surveyed by Hockett (1966) wif particuwar reference to Potawatomi; see awso Teeter (1965) and Weggewaar (1974).
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- Pentwand, David H. (2006). "Awgonqwian and Ritwan Languages". Encycwopedia of Language & Linguistics. 1 (2nd ed.). Oxford: Ewsevier. pp. 161–166. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02265-3.
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- Proto-Awgonqwian onwine dictionary
- Awgonqwian wanguages - Ednowogue page
- Native Languages of de Americas: Awgonqwian Language Famiwy
- Proto-Awgonkian Roots and Word Formatives by John Hewson
- Proto-Awgonqwian - handout by Daniewa Henze (2010)
- Correspondences of Ojibwe, Cree, and Proto-Awgonqwian sounds