Last updated on 2023/05/30
On Beauty 30 min Summary
On Beauty Short Summary
From engraved rocks in ancient caves to sculptures made thousands of years ago and all styles of paintings, humans have been pursuing beauty since the dawn of civilization. We have been making aesthetic explorations since ancient Greece, seeking to define what beauty is. But the definition of beauty is ever-changing. People of different times and places have different ideals of beauty. So, what is beauty, anyway? In this book, On Beauty, the author refers to a wide range of philosophical writings and works of art, guiding us through thousands of years in the history of perfect beauty.
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This book was written by Umberto Eco, an internationally renowned authority on semiotic linguistics, philosopher, historian, and aesthetician. In The Cambridge History of Italian Literature, he was acclaimed as the leading Italian author of the second half of the 20th century. During his lifetime, Eco wrote over 140 books covering diverse subjects. His most famous works include On Beauty, On Ugliness, and the bestselling novels The Name of The Rose, and Foucault's Pendulum.
Exploring the History of Beauty
The concept of beauty has evolved throughout history, influenced by cultural, philosophical, and historical factors. Umberto Eco's book On Beauty delves into this journey, from ancient Greece to the Industrial Age, presenting a vivid account of how humans have sought, defined, and expressed beauty. As perspectives on beauty continue to evolve, understanding its history and diverse manifestations deepens our appreciation for both art and aesthetics.
In ancient Greece, beauty was embodied in the golden ratio, a mathematical ideal present in the proportions of the Parthenon. During the Renaissance, artists like Botticelli and Michelangelo created works that embraced the human form, reflecting a renewed interest in classical ideals. These examples demonstrate how beauty has evolved and been interpreted differently across time and cultures.
Ancient Greek Conception of Beauty
In ancient Greece, beauty had no autonomous existence and was associated with ethical or moral purity. The ancient Greeks had a formative understanding of beauty, bound up with art and not existing separately. Their pursuit involved a psychophysical beauty that harmonized body and soul.
In the story of Helen of Troy, her beauty was admired not only for her physical appearance but also for her wisdom and morality. This aligns with ancient Greek beliefs, where beauty was seen as an expression of psychophysical harmony between the body and soul.
Socrates, Plato, and Aesthetic Categories
Socrates identified three aesthetic categories: Ideal Beauty, Spiritual Beauty, and Useful or Functional Beauty. Plato contributed the concept of beauty as harmonious proportion between parts and beauty as splendor, not necessarily bound to any tangible object.
Ideal Beauty can be seen in a perfectly symmetrical face, while Spiritual Beauty shines through in acts of kindness and selflessness, and Useful or Functional Beauty is observed in a well-designed building that is both visually appealing and practical in its use of space.
Opposites and Dialectic in Greek Beauty
The Greek conception of beauty emerged against unresolved opposites - Apollo representing order and harmony and Dionysus representing chaos and violation of rules. Dialectic has remained a philosophical theme, with Nietzsche exploring Apollonian Beauty and Dionysiac Beauty.
In a dance performance, Apollonian Beauty might be represented by a perfectly synchronized and orderly ballet routine, while Dionysiac Beauty could be represented by a frenetic, passionate, and rule-breaking street dance.
Proportions and Beauty in Architecture
Architecture in ancient Greece and Rome followed rules of proportion that governed the relationships between various parts of structures. These same proportions were also applied to musical intervals and later found in Gothic architecture.
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, demonstrates the use of ideal proportions in its design, with the ratio of height to width and the spacing of columns following specific rules. Similarly, in Roman architecture, the Pantheon in Rome showcases the use of proportions, as its dome's diameter is equal to its height. These proportional relationships were later adopted in Gothic architecture, such as in Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, where the proportions of the nave and the height of the vaults are based on musical intervals.
Proportions in Sculptures and Paintings
Sculptures and paintings depicting the human body also followed principles of proportion in ancient Greece. Precise rules of correct proportion between body parts were exemplified in Polykleitos's masterpieces and later developed by Vitruvius to establish specific fractions of the entire figure.
A well-known example of correct proportion in ancient Greek art is the statue of Doryphoros by Polykleitos. Based on the sculptor's treatise on ideal proportions, the statue exhibits accurate ratios between body parts, including the head, limbs, and torso. This principle of harmonious proportions is observed in many Greek sculptures and paintings, reflecting their pursuit of aesthetic perfection and balance.
Medieval Aesthetics and Importance of Light and Color
Light and vibrant color played a significant role in medieval aesthetics, as seen in illuminated manuscripts and artworks. This focus on illumination can be traced back to ancient European, Egyptian, and Persian cultures where gods were identified with light and sun personifications. In Christian tradition, God's omnipotent good light is reflected in objects representing goodness and beauty.
A renowned example of the use of light and vibrant color in medieval aesthetics is the Book of Kells, an illuminated manuscript created around 800 AD. The intricate designs and vivid hues in this artwork showcase the importance of light and color in reflecting goodness and beauty, echoing the ancient connections of gods with light and sun personifications in various cultures.
Depiction of Female Beauty in Medieval Art
Medieval philosophers, theologians, and mystics rarely addressed female beauty directly due to church discipline. However, in troubadour's poems, women were described as chaste, refined, desired, and unattainable. This development in female beauty ideals and courtly love later evolved during the Renaissance, where beauty became more complex and subjective, as seen in the artworks of Hans Baldung Grien, Leonardo da Vinci, and others.
In medieval times, a troubadour's poem might describe a lady as possessing grace, virtue, and radiant beauty, but with her love remaining forever unrequited. This idea was later developed during the Renaissance where artists like Leonardo da Vinci portrayed female beauty with subtle expressions, soft features, and a more well-rounded portrayal of individuality.
Aesthetic Shift from Renaissance to Baroque and Beyond
As beauty became increasingly subjective and multifaceted during the Renaissance, it led to the development of various art movements, such as Mannerism, Baroque, and Rococo. Artists like Giuseppe Arcimboldo transcended traditional notions of beauty, proportion, and form by appealing to the imagination over intellect and making their own rules. This shift allowed for the exploration of more complex and unconventional representations of beauty in art.
A painting called 'Vertumnus' by Giuseppe Arcimboldo showcases the complexity and unconventionality of beauty during the Renaissance period. It features a portrait composed of various fruits, vegetables, and flowers to create the face, proving that the artist had transcended traditional concepts of proportion and form, while appealing to the imagination.
18th Century Aesthetics
The 18th century was known for its emphasis on reason, logic, and emotional restraint. New concepts in beauty, such as Neoclassicism and Naturalism in architecture, emerged, while the contemplation of ruins grew popular. This century also saw the development of subjective and indeterminable aspects of taste, such as those discussed in Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment. Kant proposed characteristics of beauty, including disinterested pleasure, universality without concept, and regularity without law.
Imagine an architect in the 18th century designing a building with clean lines, simple shapes, and minimal decoration, inspired by ancient Roman and Greek architecture. This Neoclassical style reflects the period's emphasis on reason and logic. Additionally, the architect finds beauty in the contemplation of old, crumbling ruins, as it represents the passage of time and the power of nature. In this context, the architect's sense of beauty aligns with Immanuel Kant's ideas of disinterested pleasure and universality without concept, as he appreciates the aesthetics without any personal gain or specific reason behind it.
Beauty vs. The Sublime
In the Age of Reason, the world of aesthetic pleasure was divided between the beautiful and the sublime. The sublime is an expression of grand and noble passions, an effect of art, rather than a natural phenomenon. It connects with tragedy, evoking fear and compassion in spectators. Notable works discussing the sublime include Edmund Burke's A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, David Hume's Of the Standards of Taste, and Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth.
A powerful painting of a stormy landscape with crashing waves and towering cliffs could evoke feelings of fear and awe, showcasing the concept of the sublime. This emotional response aligns with the ideas presented in Edmund Burke's A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful.
Kant's Sublime Categories
According to Immanuel Kant, there are two kinds of sublime: the mathematical and the dynamic. The mathematical sublime refers to perceptions of infinity, such as the sight of the starry sky, while the dynamic sublime refers to impressions of infinite power, such as a storm.
The mathematical sublime can be illustrated by standing on a vast open beach at night, gazing at the seemingly endless horizon under a blanket of countless stars. The dynamic sublime, on the other hand, can be exemplified by witnessing a powerful thunderstorm, with lightning illuminating the dark sky and booming thunder shaking the earth around you.
Following the Age of Reason, romanticism emphasized free beauty, connecting beauty with reason and sentiment. Romantic beauty can be seen in literature, such as Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, and in art, such as Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People. It also encompasses the vague and indescribable beauty of 'je ne sais quoi.' Romanticism influenced many subsequent artistic movements, including Symbolism, Surrealism, and modern and postmodern kitsch.
In Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein, the romantic beauty is observable through the powerful, emotional scenes and the exploration of human nature amid the awe-inspiring natural settings. This literary work embodies the romantic movement's emphasis on free beauty, reason, and sentiment.
Industrial Age Aesthetics
During the Industrial Age, cities expanded with machinery and factories dominating the landscape. Artists, feeling threatened by this new world, began an aesthetic movement to assert their 'difference' and detach from everyday society. Life could aspire to beauty through the doctrine of 'Art for Art's sake.' However, this led to the rise of Decadentism, Dandyism and even Satanism.
A painter in the midst of the Industrial Age, feeling overwhelmed by the factories and machines around him, turned to creating art purely for the sake of aesthetics. He painted vibrant scenes of nature and abstract compositions that had no connection to the industrial society. As a result, he gained popularity among like-minded artists and contributed to the rise of Decadentism in his community, distancing themselves from the chaotic world they lived in.
In the Industrial Age, machines were celebrated for their efficiency and rationality. The awe inspired by inventions such as the steam engine defined an aesthetic appreciation for machinery. From decorated weapons to impressive structures like the Eiffel Tower, society has shown its fascination with well-fashioned metal and artistry.
Picture the Eiffel Tower, a grand monument that captivates people from around the world with its intricate metalwork and towering presence. Such impressive structures demonstrate society's fascination with artistry, metal, and machinery, and how these elements were celebrated during the Industrial Age for their efficiency and rational elements. The sense of awe emanating from the Eiffel Tower is similar to the admiration for inventions like the steam engine.
Contemporary artists recognize the significance and creative potential of the physical materials that constitute a work of art. They understand that aesthetics do not rely solely on the spiritual world but also involve material things. Consequently, artists experiment with releasing control of materials, liberating raw materials, and finding the hidden beauty within them.
A sculptor chooses to work with a large, rough block of marble, allowing the natural textures and patterns within the stone to guide their creative process. As they chip away at the piece, they reveal the inherent beauty of the raw material and create a unique artwork that is both visually striking and connected to the physical world.