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LEARNING & MEMORY: Mods 20-27
Transcript of LEARNING & MEMORY: Mods 20-27
“Learning refers to the
relatively permanent change
in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by
in that situation,
provided that the behavior change can not be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject (e.g. fatigue, drugs)”
We learn by association-
Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence:
Aristotle 2000 years ago
John Locke 200 years ago
learning that two events occur together, two stimuli, a response and its consequences...past event and immediate future.
Classical Conditioning (MOD 20) -
we learn to associate two stimuli and thus anticipate events.
Operant Conditioning (MOD 21)-
we learn to associate a response and its consequences and thus repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishment.
Observational Learning (MOD 22)-
learn behaviors merely by observing others perform them.
Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive secretions of dogs
Organism comes to associate two stimuli - a
that signals an
begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned = Learned
Unconditioned = Unlearned
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that unconditionally &
triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring
response to the unconditioned stimulus
...salivation when food is in the mouth.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR)
to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.
the initial stage in classical conditioning
the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response (more to come later)
John B. Watson - 1878-1958:
viewed psychology as
generally agreed-upon consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes
not universally accepted by all schools of thought today
Little Albert Experiment 1920
diminishing of a CR
in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS
in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced
reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar response
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS
Little Albert Experiment
Module 21: operant conditioning
Subjects associate their behaviors with
if followed by
if followed by
Basically, behavior will be
and will be
to be repeated if
Difference between CC & OC:
or actions that occur as an
to some stimulus or behavior
or actions that
consequences in reaction to a stimuli.
association between stimuli
is based on
involuntary reflexive behavior.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
He elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect and
developed behavioral technology
to test his ideas.
Law of Effect (1905)
Thorndike’s principle that
Starting point for Skinner (builds on the "obvious")
Skinner Box (operant chamber)
Was chamber with a bar or key that an animal
obtain a food or water (reinforcer)
The box contained a device to record responses.
Used this with rats and pigeons.
Explored the conditions that foster learning.
-operant conditioning procedure in which
toward closer approximations of a desired goal.
- any event that
the behavior it follows (wide range of things).
Skinner’s concept of reinforcement:
Any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response
Can be a tangible reward like praise, attention, or money (older)
Can be an activity
like borrowing a car, watching TV, or getting a break (younger)
Principles of Reinforcement
innately reinforcing stimulus
i.e., satisfies a biological need
Getting food, relieved of shock
stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer
Light that signals food, money, good grades, words of praise
adds a positive stimulus
remove an averse stimulus
Schedules of Reinforcement
Immediate vs Delayed
Continuous vs Partial
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
aversive event that
the behavior that it follows
(opposite of reinforcement, which strengthens a behavior).
Powerful controller of unwanted behavior!
NOT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT!
often does not guide
one toward more desirable behavior.
Punishment tells you what not to do;
reinforcement tells you what to do
Punishment must be
Most psychologists favor an emphasis on reinforcement instead of punishment
learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
* shows that learning can occur
reinforcement or punishment! *
to perform a behavior for its
and to be effective...work and play seeking enjoyment, interest, self-expression, or challenge.
- desire to perform a behavior due to
threats of punishments
the effect of promising a reward for doing what one
already likes to do
the person may now
see the reward
(extrinsic), rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task
Module 22 : Learning by Observation
Conditioning principles alone do not tell the whole story, we also learn by observing others.
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior: ideas, fashions, habits, traditions, vices, foods, etc...
Recently discovered by neuroscientists
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
9 months infants will imitate novel play behaviors
14 months will imitate acts modeled on television
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately,
most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling
: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977
While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
His theory added a
, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people.
Social Learning Theory
Three Core Concepts
#1. People can learn through observation.
#2. Internal mental states are an essential part of this process. (self-efficacy - self belief)
#3. Just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
Albert Bandura’s Experiments
Bobo Doll (1961)
we look and we learn
Compared with children not exposed to the adult model, those who observed adult models lashing out were more likely to lash out at the doll
Applications of Observational Learning
from one’s family, neighborhood, or TV may have antisocial effects.
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. both drew on principles of modeling non-violent behavior
Best models are
consistent in actions and words
TV and Observational Learning
During their first
, most children in developed countries spend
watching TV than they spend in school.
9 in 10
teens watch TV daily; someone who lives to 75 will spend
sitting home watching television.
of homes have
three or more
Parent reports of what their children watch hardly correlates with children’s reports of what they watch.
Does the reel world reflect the real world?
TV’s greatest effect may stem from what it displaces.
What could we all do with our extra time if we never watched television/ social media?
Don't Forget -
Correlation does not prove causation!
learning over time
- a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
is very similar to that of an information processor of a
To name the 7 Dwarfs correctly we use:
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s
3 Stages of Processing Memory
1 - Encoding
- the processing of information into the memory system.
2 - Storage
- the retention of encoded information over time.
3 - Retrieval
- process of getting information out of memory.
of sensory information in the memory system.
- focuses more on the
- activated memory that holds a few items briefly.
~ Clive Wearing Study ~
~ Memento ~ Chris Nolan film
- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Simplified memory model
Introduction to Memory
Module 24 Encoding:
Getting Information In
Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful, Sleepy,
Smiley, Jumpy, Hopeful, Shy, Droopy, Dopey, Sniffy, Wishful, Puffy, Dumpy, Sneezy, Lazy, Pop, Grumpy, Bashful, Cheerful, Teach, Shorty, Nifty, Happy, Doc, Wheezy, and Stubby
unconscious encoding of incidental information (can’t switch on or off at will)
Space (remember textbook page during test)
Time (remember days events to find something)
Frequency (third time you passed a friend)
hear or read familiar word (native language)
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards (students of Hebrew)
Effortful Processing -
requires attention and conscious effort to encode info for storage.
Rehearsal - conscious repetition of information...
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
“practice makes perfect”
“Next in line effect”- poorest memory of person before us.
Focused on own performance.
Information seconds before falling asleep seldom remembered.
Hour before is well remembered.
used nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
compared with learning nonsense material,
learning meaningful material required
We have excellent recall of information we can relate to ourselves.
You will profit from taking the extra time to find personal meaning in what you are studying.
distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice
(long term vs Cram!)
Quickly learn = quickly forget
Serial position effect
- 1st and last names or items on lists (primacy, recently)
What Do We Encode
Serial Position Effect Activity
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
“1492 Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue”
encoding of picture images
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
- recalling high points while forgetting low points (Disney trip, etc.)
Mnemonics (greek word for memory)
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.
Module 25: Storage - Retaining Information
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.
focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information.
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli (fleeting photographic memory)
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.
encode or rehearse information, it quickly disappears.
, short term memories have a
limited in duration and capacity
Did our "Matrix Activity" Work?
Memories do not reside in specific spots
Short term recall slightly better for random digits than random letters.
Slightly better for info heard than seen.
At any given moment, we can consciously process only a very limited amount of information.
Lets test it out...
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Neural basis for learning and remembering
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Arousal sears events onto the brain
Prolonged stress (combat) can corrode memories
the loss of memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
also called declarative memory
--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
retention independent of conscious recollection
also called procedural memory
Important Reminders for Memory:
shown active in brain scans of people using memory.
Damage to left or right can produce different results
Left= verbal information
Right= visual designs and locations
Memories are not in one place!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Many brain regions are active as we encode, store, and retrieve different information.
Cerebellum involved in implicit memory (procedures)
Module 26 Retrieval: Getting Information Out
To most people, memory is recall.
To a psychologist, memory is any sign that something learned has been retained.
So recognizing or more quickly relearning information also indicates memory.
measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a
fill-in-the blank test
- Measure of memory in which the person has
to identify items previously learned
(as on a multiple-choice test)
- memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time.
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
“wakening of associations”
Tastes, smells, and sights often evoke our recall of associated episodes
-put yourself back in the context where you experienced something.
Return to old house or old school and flooded
Even taking an exam in the same room you were taught can help.
Do you think we should take the AP exam in this room?
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
of people report experiencing
Current situation may be loaded with cues that unconsciously retrieve earlier experiences.
"I've experienced this before."
Think back to the 4x6 Sleep Experiment
- tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood. Memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues.
State-Dependent Memory -
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state.
Mood influences how we interpret other’s behavior:
Bad mood- read someone’s look as a glare
Good mood- same look as interest
Effects on retrieval helps explain why moods persist:
When happy, we recall the world as a happy place which helps prolong the good mood.
When depressed, you recall sad events.
Those suffering from depression this is a viscous cycle
Module 26: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory
Daniel Schacter’s 7 Sins of Memory (1999)
Three Sins of Forgetting
1. Absent Mindedness
- inattention to details produces encoding failure
(mind elsewhere when you put your keys down)
- storage decay over time
(unused information fades)
- inaccessibility of stored information
Three Sins of Distortion
- confusing the source of information
(putting words in someone’s mouth/ attributing a story to someone else)
- effects of misinformation
(“Did Mr. Jones touch you?”)
- belief-colored recollections
(someone’s current feeling recalls initial feelings)
- unwanted memories
(being haunted by images of painful memories)
Forgetting as encoding failure -
Information never enters long-term memory
can result from
2 Important AP Terms...
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
New phone number or locker and old one interferes with new
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
New students’ names interfere with recall of old
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose
How many times have you brushed your teeth in the past two weeks?
- defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
We filter information and fill in missing pieces
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memories of Abuse
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Most psychologists can agree on the following:
Injustice happens (life is not fair to all)
Forgetting happens (sometime we cannot remember events or people)
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Ways Improve Your Memory
to boost recall
Spend more time
about the material
--mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are
-- before you encounter misinformation
Test your own knowledge
Memory Capacity activity
You have 30 seconds to memorize the numbers on the next slide...good luck!
Music Volunteers - 4 of you!
- the ability to remember to do something in the future. (remembering to return someone's phone call, or the time and day of your dentist appointment next week).
*** AP TEST ***
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
18 19 20 21 22/24 23 25
27 28 29
37 38 39
41 42 43 44 45
2 1 6 9 6 4 6 1 5 1 9 9 7 2 5 8 6 0 9 4 4 7 1 9 7 2 4 6 8 0 3 5 4 5 1 2 7 7 8 3
False Memory Activity
- any event that
the behavior it follows (wide range of things).
- occurs when something already present is
(taken away) as a result of a person's behavior,
creating a favorable
outcome for that person.
Not a form of punishment!
Work with a partner to create a scenario that demonstrates
cup, CAN, lime, CAN, dish, girl, chalk, can, dish, CAN, key, screen, ran, CAN, desk, CAN, knob, bag, tape, CAN, dish, clip, CAN, air, ban, cheese, CAN, door, can, box, dish, hair, CAN, ring, nail, CAN, boat, cap, dish, CAN, crane, wheel, fire, CAN, take, call, brick, pair, CAN, spin, chair, CAN, camp, CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn, disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish, van, can, card, stand, meat, pad, can, dish, set, can, tree, ice, plum, can, cost, bird, glass, can, light, can, sword, juice, can, dish, rock, smoke, grease, dish, keep, kid, tan, dice, hole, set, dish, eye, friend, wax, bill, bulb, dish, class, mine, mark, work, can, dish, can, bus, dish, phone, can, smart, first, can, crack, feet, can, tub, bowl, can, van, day, can, rake, dish, CAN, bluff, risk, CAN, salt, dish, CAN, ball, stack, CAN, rain, hat, food, can, van, disk, tree, can
With a partner...create an original scenario that highlights:
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)