The thick lava flows comprising the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) in the US
state of Washington, and adjacent parts of the state of Oregon, contain a significant
number of pillow lavas and palagonites—all indicative of subaqueous extrusion.
Individual lava flows invariably show ‘knifesharp’ contacts between
flows, which is consistent with the flows occurring one after the other in rapid
succession. The nature of these contacts is inconsistent with the uniformitarian
time intervals of millions of years indicated by isotopic dating. Claimed ‘weathered
horizons’ and ‘fossil soils’ between individual lava flows are
very uncommon, suggesting they are the product of chemical reactions between the
hot lava and water, not fossil-soil material. The observations are consistent with
the lava flows being extruded catastrophically, emplaced rapidly and cooled quickly,
all during the global Flood recorded in the Bible. Taken together, the features
of the Columbia River basalts suggest that they were mostly extruded and emplaced
during the Late Abative Phase of the Recessive Stage of the Flood.
During the summer of 2001, the authors conducted a field trip to the extreme north-west
part of continental USA (Figure 1). We covered parts of the states of Washington
(WA) and Oregon (OR) and were episodically joined by creationist geologist Dennis
Bukovoy, as well as John Hergenrather and Steven Sparkowich. The rectangular area
studied extended approximately 300 km east to west, and 150 km north to south (bound
by 45o30′ N to 47o30′ N and 117o30′ W to 120o00′
W). Observations of the Channeled Scabland, left over from the Lake Missoula glacial
flood, were a highlight of the trip. In addition, some 50 outcrops of Columbia River
basalt were observed or examined closely, and these are the subject of this report.
General characteristics of the Columbia River basalts
The Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) is one of about a dozen very large continental
flood basalts of various geological ages that exist on planet Earth. The CRBG covers
an area of 163,700 km2 with a volume of about 174,000 km3
in eastern Washington, northern Oregon, and portions of western Idaho (Figure 1).1 The group is composed of about
300 flows, some with volumes as high as 2,000 km3. A few of the flows
advanced up to 750 km.2 Each flow
‘… similar structural characteristics: a) 2–3 tier columnar jointing;
b) nearly planar upper and lower surfaces; c) few surface features suggestive of
pahoehoe or aa flows; d) uniform thicknesses for many miles; e) few if any flow
units or lava tubes.’3
In terms of uniformitarian geology, the Columbia River basalts are believed to span
the Miocene Epoch, having been extruded at intervals from about 17 million years
ago to 6 million years ago on the uniformitarian timescale.4 These thick and widespread extrusives are divided into
a number of time-stratigraphic units.5
Inferred rate of emplacement
Were these lava flows emplaced gradually over many millions of years? Not likely.
To begin with, textural evidence, reported by others, indicates that the lava flows
responsible for the Columbia River basalts have traveled some 750 km without significant
changes in temperature,6 and this
implies ‘extraordinarily rapid emplacement.’ At this speed, the torrents
of advancing lava flows must have overwhelmed and entrapped much of the surface
material that lay before them on the earth. We observed several instances where
material was overlain by the lava flows. Figure 2 shows one such case where a large
mass of fossil wood, shaped like a lens, was entrapped beneath a lava flow. Even
the textural features of the wood are evident.
At another location, Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park at Vantage, WA, we observed
many petrified logs. However, the term ‘petrified forest’ is misleading
because none of the trees appeared to stand in place as if in a forest. Many were
tilted at an angle to the horizontal. It is interesting that over 200 species of
petrified trees have been identified in Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park and these
represent a large climatic range, from cool temperate (spruce and birch) to subtropical
(Eucalyptus and bald cypress).7
The petrified logs have been stripped of limbs and bark8and are found in a basal pillow complex of the Ginkgo Flow, implying that
water preserved the logs from the heat of the lava.9
Scientists researching the CRBG have often commented on the rapidity of eruption.
For instance, Reidel and Tolan state:
‘The important conclusion is that these eruptions were orders of magnitude
larger than have ever been observed.’10
This clearly precludes any actualistic analogies with extant volcanic processes!
It is further observed that two or three basalt flows seem to mix, suggesting that
some flows did not even have enough time to solidify before the successive flow
There is also evidence that basalt flowed onto wet sediments, with incorporation
within the lava. All things considered, the uniformitarians are baffled:
‘Little is known about the processes that produced these flood-basalt flows.’12
The rapid emplacement of basalt in flows up to 750 km in length is especially enigmatic
to conventional geologists.13,14 Even the very high melting rates needed to mobilize
the lava are a challenge to the uniformitarian mindset.15
Naturally, if there is any indication at all of slow flow, some uniformitarian geologists
are bound to highlight it. A number of geologists have done just this, providing
an apparent mechanism for slower flow.16
The main evidence is pahoehoe or ropy lava texture at the top of some flows. Stephen
Reidel, who researched the CRBG for 25 years, does not accept these arguments (although
we believe he would like to, because rapid emplacement poses a major problem for
the uniformitarian viewpoint). In any case, the apparent evidence for pahoehoe lava
is largely restricted to the periphery of the flows, where the rate of advance would
have slowed considerably.17,18 This is also the area where pillow palagonite19 complexes and most interbeds are observed.
Inferred rate of cooling
Entablatures and colonnades are common structural features of basalt. They are named
by analogy to the respective horizontal and vertical architectural structures prevalent
in classical antiquity.20 Entablatures
commonly comprise well over half the thickness of a flow.21 They do not, by themselves, give unambiguous information
about the cooling rate of the lavas.22
However, entablatures can solidify and cool very rapidly by water-steam
convection.11,20,23 The columnar jointing observed in basalts implies rapid
cooling. As described elsewhere,24
water at first only cools the outer ‘skin’ of the lava flow, forming
a thin, solid ‘crust.’ The huge temperature gradient between the crust
above and the still-hot lava below creates tensional stresses that crack the crust.
Water then percolates into the cracks, and the cycle repeats itself. In the end,
this rapid, cyclical cooling process produces a thick slab of rock with columnar
Roughly a quarter of the outcrops we observed showed some degree of columnar jointing.
In extreme cases (Figure 3), giant colonnade ‘chimneys’ stand alone
in eerie silence, having resisted the erosion which removed the surrounding basalt.
In other outcrops, the colonnades resemble organ pipes emplaced within the basalt
(Figure 4). Often, there are several horizons of columnar basalt in a large outcrop,
interlayered with entablatures. Viewed from a distance, these narrow horizons of
colonnades resemble ‘stitchwork’ on the outcrop surface. In other outcrops,
the columns are not fully developed, and resemble superficial vertical ‘slices’
within the basalt.
Subaerial or subaqueous?
Were the Columbia River basalts extruded under Floodwater or onto dry land, perhaps
after the Flood? One obvious indicator of subaqueous extrusion is pillow lava and
palagonite (Figure 5). These features are found mostly near the periphery of the
lava flows, where one would expect the flows to slow down enough to form pillows.
‘Pillow lava-palagonite complexes are widespread along the margins of the
Columbia River basalt … . Such foreset bedded breccias and associated pillow
lava complexes are found at hundreds of localities along the margins of the Columbia
River basalt … .’25
We observed that at least a few pillow lavas occur in one out of ten or fifteen
outcrops. The actual frequency of pillow lavas, however, is probably significantly
greater than this estimate, for at least two reasons. To begin with, most pillows
are small, and most outcrops we observed were from a fair distance. Second, most
pillow lavas occur at the base of individual flows. These would not be readily seen
unless there is some local erosion immediately under the pillow-containing flow,
and the observer happens to be situated at the appropriate angle to see the underside
of the lava flow. For instance, note that in Figure 2 the small pillows resemble
‘elephants toes,’ and can only be seen because there is a slight gap
between them and the underlying fossil-wood layer. One would have to lie on the
ground to get a reasonable view of the pillow lavas.
In most outcrops, pillow structures cover only a few square meters of the outcrop.
However, there are a few outcrops where tens of metres of vertical outcrop and hundreds
of meters of horizontal outcrop consist entirely of interfingered pillow structures.
The entire bottom half of Figure 4 shows an example of this. In other locations,
pillow structures are prominent in all three dimensions (Figure 5). In the figure,
the sand-like material surrounding the pen is palagonite, a greenish-yellow reaction
product of hot lava and water. The arrowed layering immediately underneath the pillow
structure is a series of rapidly-cooled contact layers between the lava and water.
Although pillow lavas clearly indicate underwater deposition, it cannot be overemphasized
that lavas can be extruded subaqeously without producing pillow structures.26 The potential to form pillow lava decreases as the
volume of extruded lava increases. The volume of lava increases as the third power
but surface area only as the second power. Thus, the effective contact area between
lava and water (where pillow lavas can potentially form) becomes proportionately
smaller as the volume of lava extruded becomes larger. So also, for similar reasons,
the probability becomes smaller that a subsequently-formed erosional surface (outcrop)
will happen to expose pillow structures.
There are a variety of additional evidences, which indicate that most, if not all,
of the Columbia River basalts were extruded underwater. These include marine fossils
(such as sponge spicules, diatoms, and dinoflagellates) between lava flows, and
numerous areas of well-rounded, exotic quartzite gravel, cobbles, and boulders locally
interbedded with the flows (but mostly lying above the basalt).27–29 The
quartzite clasts, some of which lie 1,000 m ASL (above sea level) upon lava anticlines
and 2,500 m ASL on ridges of the Wallowa Mountains, north-east Oregon,30 indicate high-energy transport over long distances.
The indicators of much subsequent erosion, such as smoothly eroded lava anticlines
in the Yakima fold belt, and water gaps, are also consistent with a submarine origin
for the basalt flows.29,31
Considering all these evidences, we conclude that the Columbia River basalts were
deposited during the Flood, not after the Flood.
Destroying intervals of ‘geologic time’
We address the question of whether there were appreciable intervals of geologic
time between different layers of Columbia River basalt as claimed by uniformitarian
geologists. Potentially, supportive evidence would be the presence of extensive
valleys or gullies cutting into lava flows, and filled with successive lava flows.
Another would be the presence of thick beds of basalt boulders between successive
layers of basalt. It is almost astonishing to report that both are conspicuously
lacking. To the contrary, in most locations, interbeds between lava flows are essentially
nonexistent, and, when they do occur, they are thin, uniform in their thinness,
and found mainly at the periphery of the flows. The lava flows themselves consist
of monotonously thick layers. Nowhere did we observe anything resembling a valley,
or boulder bed, between successive lava flows.
What about those superposed lava flows, which, according to isotopic dating, are
anywhere from hundreds of thousands to several millions of years apart in time?
One such location is shown in Figure 6.
The top two layers are assigned to the Pomona Member of the Saddle Mountain Basalt.
The lowest layer (just above the road) is the Grande Ronde Basalt. The in-between
Wanapum Basalt, and the few millions of years it supposedly represents, is absent
and there is no undulating erosional surface to mark this supposed ‘missing’
time. James Anderson, referring to the flows in the Columbia River Gorge, concludes:
‘The apparent absence of significant erosion between eruptions suggests little
or no coeval deformation.’32
Is this example from the Columbia River basalt unusual? No! It is common for ‘ghost’
uniformitarian time intervals, and much greater ones than those discussed above,
to be inserted into vertically (and also horizontally33)
contiguous lava flows. For example, the Plio-Pliestocene Rampart beds of California
(USA) yielded isotopic dates ranging from 1.4 Ma to 2.56 Ma, but this range of dates
is admittedly difficult to accept because of the absence of deep erosion or soil
horizons between superjacent lava flows.34
As another example, the Lincoln Porphyry of Colorado (USA), was originally mapped
as a single unit because of the geographic proximity of the outcrops and the mineralogical
and chemical similarity of the igneous body throughout its extent. It is therefore
incongruous to find that parts of the Lincoln Porphyry are 29 million years apart
in time, according to isotopic dating.35
As a final example, consider the Garrawilla Lavas of New South Wales, Australia.
These are bracketed between Upper Triassic and Jurassic sedimentary rock. Yet these
lavas, over a large horizontal scale, grade imperceptibly into lavas which overlie
Lower Tertiary sedimentary rock. Consequently, the latter lavas are considered younger,
on an ad hoc basis.36 Otherwise,
geologists would have to acknowledge that there is actually only one set of lava
flows, and that everything between Jurassic and Early Tertiary is contemporaneous!
Ancient ‘weathered horizons’ and ‘fossil soils’
Although we could not locate convincing field evidence for long periods of time,
we realized we needed to be cautious. We did not want to be guilty of selecting
evidence that supports a young-earth position and overlooking contrary evidence.
For this reason, we asked local creationist geologists, very familiar with the geology
of the area, to show us any apparent field evidence for ancient soils. On an earlier
field trip, Harold Coffin had shown Mike Oard the location shown in Figure 7. During
the present field trip, Dennis Bukovoy called our attention to the area shown in
First of all, it is interesting that these supposed laterites become an extreme
type of laterite called bauxite near the west coast of Washington and Oregon.37 Based on present-day occurrences, bauxites are interpreted
to form in a hot, wet equatorial climate. However, this does not square with the
much-cooler paleoclimate in Washington and Oregon during the Miocene,38 also inferred from standard uniformitarian thinking.
It is more reasonable that bauxites, as well as laterites, formed by processes not
observed today, most likely during the Flood.
Black and white photography does not do justice to these ‘weathered’
surfaces. Consider Figure 7. In color, the overlying basalt is the usual gray-black,
but the underlying ‘laterite’ layer, occurring below the grass-covered
basalt layer, is a bright, fire-truck red. When broken by the hammer, the allegedly-weathered
basalt displays a somewhat-friable, dull pink-orange texture. The vertical grass-free
zone near the hammer (contact zone) represents the unsuccessful attempt by Woodmorappe
to excavate enough talus to show the exact point of contact and reveal whether or
not a conglomerate is present. Consequently, for now, the only evidence suggestive
of long periods of time is the altered state of the subjacent basalt layer.
Even more visually impressive is Figure 8. The ‘soil’ is reddish-pink
and crumbles into a powder when handled. Under magnification, some small quartz
and feldspar crystals can be seen. The remainder of the material is too fine to
be identified in hand sample and has been sent to a lab for analysis. We suggest
that the material is a palagonite-like product of a reaction between hot lava and
water, not fossil-soil material. In other words, it is likely a product of hydrothermal
What are we to make of these alleged indicators of long periods of time between
basalt flows? Pending a detailed investigation of the composition of these ‘laterite’
and ‘soil’ features, and an understanding of all of the processes
that can lead to their origin, we must put them in perspective. In spite of their
visual prominence, even at a distance, which makes them difficult to miss, they
are the only such features that we have seen, out of some 50 outcrops visited
on this field trip, and then only because we were deliberately led to them. By any
standard, they are very uncommon. It stands to reason that, if long intervals of
time had elapsed between the supposedly-episodic lava flows, weathered horizons,
and fossil soils should be common. At least one such ‘soil’ should occur
in every tall (tens of meters high) outcrop. To the contrary they are rare and were
most probably caused bylocalized processes as
the basalts extruded.
Flood depositional history
We will now attempt to place the CRBG within the Flood model of Walker.40 Much evidence indicates that the CRBG was extruded
from remarkably consistent N to NNW feeder dikes in south-east Washington, north-east
Oregon, and adjacent Idaho during the orogeny that produced the Cascade Mountains
of Washington and Oregon, the Idaho batholith of western Idaho,41 and the Blue Mountains of Oregon.42 These fissures are parallel to the uplifted mountains
and we suggest that they are tension cracks caused by vertical tectonics. Carlson
agrees that the CRBG was extruded during extension:
‘Columbia River volcanism is part of the region-wide volcanism accompanying
extension in the northern Basin and Range Province … .’43
Thick gravel deposits are frequently found between flows of the Columbia River basalts
(Figure 9). Most of the gravel is comprised of rounded basalt clasts, but the deposits
also contain large exotic quartzite clasts from the Rockies. The basalt flows and
gravel deposits were lifted to high altitudes by continuing upward tectonics. This
is believed to explain the occurrence of quartzite gravel on top of the Wallowa
Mountains of northeast Oregon. Some quartzite boulders in central Oregon are several
mountain ranges west of their assumed source in the Rocky Mountains. We place this
vertical tectonics mostly within the Abative Phase (sheet flow) of the Recessive
Stage of the Flood in Walker’s39 model (see
Oard44). A Late Abative Phase for
the emplacement of practically all the CRBG is consistent with the exotic gravel
boulders and the fact that the basalt flows are practically all sheet flows.
It was after the vast majority of the lava was emplaced that the deep canyons
were cut, but this would have been mostly during the Dispersive Phase (channelized
flow) of the Recessive Stage. For example, the Snake River dissects the basalt flows
to a depth of up to 600 m. Intracanyon lava flows can be found in this valley, together
with deposits of quartzite gravel (Figure 10). These intracanyon flows are quite
patchy, indicating that after the canyon was cut through the basalt sheets, smaller
volumes of basalt flowed into the canyons, locally trapping the gravel. These intracanyon
flows make up a very small amount of the total volume of the CRBG and would be from
the Dispersive Phase. It is possible that that these intracanyon flows could represent
basalt that extruded from the middle of the various voluminous sheets of lava before
it had time to completely solidify. In other words, the deep canyon was cut so quickly
during the Dispersive Phase that the middle of the basalt flows had not yet consolidated.
Additional research may help to demonstrate the speed of deposition and erosion
of the CRBG.
It is not likely that the intracanyon lava flows continued into the immediate post-Flood
period. Too much erosion is evident for it to have occurred under ‘normal’
geologic conditions. The extent of erosion is illustrated in Figure 9, which shows
a thick erosional remnant of an intracanyon flow on top of a thick gravel deposit
containing quartzite boulders near Lower Monument Dam.
Field studies of the Columbia River basalts reveal a variety of evidences that point
to rapid extrusion, rapid cooling, and rapid succession of lava flows. Field evidences
also indicate that the lavas were extruded under water.
Some features that have been claimed to indicate long periods of time between basalt
flows, such as ‘weathered horizons’ and ‘fossil soils,’
are very rare. This suggests that these features did not develop over long periods
of time but would be better explained by nontemporal processes.
The evidence is consistent with the Columbia River basalts being extruded en masse
during the global Flood recorded in the Bible. In fact, the field relationships
and landforms suggest that the majority of the Columbia River basalts were emplaced
during the Late Abative Phase of the Recessive Stage of the Flood.
This, and earlier, studies should be extended to other larger basalt flows found
on planet Earth such as Karoo of South Africa, Deccan Traps of India, Parana Basalts
of Brazil, and the Siberian basalts. Attention should be focused on indicators of
rapid vs. prolonged extrusion and on interpreting the flows within a biblical flood
Tolan et al., Revisions to the estimates of the area extent
and volume of the Columbia River Basalt Group; in: Reidel, S.P. and Hooper, P.R.
(Eds), Volcanism and Tectonism in the Columbia River Flood-Basalt Province,
Geological Society of America Special Paper 239, The Geological
Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 1–20, 1989. Return to text.
Reidel et al., The Grand Ronde Basalt, Columbia River
Basalt Group; stratigraphic descriptions and correlations in Washington, Oregon,
and Idaho; in: Reidel and Hooper, Ref. 1, pp. 21–52. Return to text.
Shaw, H.R. and Swanson, D.A., Eruption and flow rates of flood
basalts; in: Gilmour, E.H. and Stradling, D. (Eds), Proceedings of the Second Columbia
River Basalt Symposium, Eastern Washington State College Press, Cheney,
Washington, p. 272, 1969. Return to text.
Swanson et al., Revisions in stratigraphic nomenclature
of the Columbia River Basalt Group, United States Geological Survey Bulletin1457-G, 1979. Return to text.
These divisions consist of four main subgroups, starting with the
lowest: Imnaha, Grande Ronde, Wanapum, and Saddle Mountains (see Swanson et al.,
Ref. 4). The Grande Ronde Basalt subgroup comprises about 85% of the total volume
of the CRBG. Individual flows are claimed to be similar, but distinctive enough
from other flows, to correlate over most of the area. The CRBG averages 1.1 km deep
with a maximum depth of 3.5 km in the Pasco Basin, generally the center of the area.
The CRBG thins towards the periphery, where most of the evidence for water contact
exists. Interbeds within the CRBG are mainly found along the periphery of the flow
(see Reidel et al., Ref. 2, p. 18). Return to text.
Snelling, A.A. and Woodmorappe, J., The
cooling of thick igneous bodies on a young earth; in: Walsh, R.E. (Ed.), Proceedings
of the 4th International Conference on Creationism, Technical
Volume, p. 541, 1998. For primary source, see: Ho, A.M. and Cashman, K.V., Temperature
constraints on the Ginkgo flow of the Columbia River Basalt Group, Geology25(5):403–406, 1997. For further evidences and discussions
concerning rapid emplacement of these basalts, see: Cashman, K., Pinkerton, H. and
Stephenson, J., Introduction to special section: long lava flows, J. Geophysical
Research103(B11):27281–27289, 1998. See also:
Oard, M.J., Very rapid emplacement of Columbia River basalts in non-turbulent
flow, CEN Tech. J.13(2):8–9, 1999. Return to text.
Coffin, H.G. with Brown, R.H., Origin by Design, Review
and Herald Publishing Association, Washington, p. 213, 1983. Return to text.
Beck, G.F., Ancient forest trees of the Sagebrush area in Central
Washington, J. Forestry43(5):334–338, 1945. Return to text.
Carson, R.J., Tolan, T.L. and Reidel, S.P., Geology of the Vantage
area, south-central Washington: an introduction to the Miocene flood basalts, Yakima
Fold Belt, and the Channeled Scabland; in: Hill, M.L. (Ed.), Geological Society
of America Centennial Field Guide-Cordilleran Section, Geological Society
of America, Boulder, Colorado, pp. 357–362, 1987. Return to text.
Reidel, S.P. and Tolan, T.L., Eruption and emplacement of flood
basalt: an example from the large-volume Teepee Butte member, Columbia River Basalt
Group, Geological Society of America Bulletin104:1670,
1992. Return to text.
Reidel, S.P. and Fecht, K.R., The Huntzinger flow: evidence of
surface mixing of the Columbia River Basalt and its petrogenetic implications, Geological
Society of America Bulletin98:664–677, 1987. See
also: Reidel, S.P., Emplacement of the Columbia River flood basalt, J. Geophysical
Research103(B11):27393–27410, 1998. Return to text.
Kerr, R.A., Throttling back the great lava floods?, Science
264:662–663, 1994. Return to text.
Carlson, R.W., Physical and chemical evidence on the cause and
source characteristics of flood basalt volcanism, Australian J. Earth Sciences38:525, 1991. Return to text.
Self et al., A new model for the emplacement of Columbia
River basalts as large, inflated pahoehoe lava flow fields, Geophysical Research
Letters23(19):2689–2692, 1996. Thordarson, T. and
Self, S., Sulfur, chlorine and fluorine degassing and atmospheric loading by the
Roza eruption, Columbia River Basalt Group, Washington, J. Volcanology and Geothermal
Research74:49–73, 1996. Thordarson, T. and Self,
S., The Roza member, Columbia River Basalt Group: a gigantic pahoehoe lava flow
field formed by endogenous processes?, J. Geophysical Research103(B11):27411–27445,
1998. Return to text.
Palagonite is a reaction product of hot lava and water, commonly
replacing glass forming in subaqueous environments, such as rinds on pillows. Palogonite
consists of poorly crystalline montmorillonite (clay), is greenish-yellow to orange-brown
and is commonly concentrically banded. Return to text.
In terms of architecture, colonnades are the vertical columns
(e.g. pillars), and entablatures are the horizontal structural features, which span
multiple pillars and are supported by them. In geologic usage, entablatures are
the horizontal slabs of lava, which rest upon the vertically-jointed lavas (the
colonnades). Return to text.
Degraff, J.M., Long, P.E. and Aydin, A., Use of joint growth directions
and rock textures to infer thermal regimes during solidification of basaltic lava
flows, J. Volcanology and Geothermal Research38:314,
1989. Return to text.
Oard, M.J., Vertical tectonics and the
drainage of Floodwater: a model for the middle and late Diluvian period–Part
II, CRSQ38(2):79–95, 2001. Return to text.
Anderson, J.L., Pomona member of the Columbia River Basalt Group:
an intracanyon flow in the Columbia River Gorge, Oregon, Oregon Geology42(12):195, 1980. Return to text.
Lava flows can have different ages horizontally as well as vertically,
just as sedimentary strata can (e.g. part of the same sandstone formation can be
Cambrian and part can be Ordovician). Because lava can overlap a previous flow,
the same horizontal ‘level’ traced laterally can be younger than the
identical stratigraphic level at another location. Return to text.
Walker, T., A biblical geologic model;
in: Walsh, R.E. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Creationism,Technical Symposium Sessions, Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh,
pp. 581–592, 1994. Return to text.
Camp, V.E. and Hooper, P.R., Geologic studies of the Columbia
Plateau: Part I. Late Cenozoic evolution of the southeast part of the Columbia River
Basalt Province, Geological Society of America Bulletin92:659–668,
1981. Return to text.
Reidel et al., The geologic evolution of the Central
Columbia Plateau; in: Reidel and Hooper, Ref. 1, pp. 247–264. Return to text.
Oard, M.J., Vertical tectonics and the
drainage of floodwater: a model for the middle and late Diluvian period–Part
I, CRSQ38(1):3–17, 2001. Return to text.
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