Avicennia germinans L.
Syn: Avicennia nitida Jacq.
Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. unpublished.
- Folk Medicine
- Yields and Economics
- Biotic Factors
Information on Avicennia species is confused, due to the difficulty,
historically at any rate, of distinguishing the species. Regarding the timber
useage, Burkill quotes Foxworthy, "altogether it a very unsatisfactory
woodthe least useful of the mangrove-swamp woodsand the tree is usually
considered as a weed in the swamps." Little (1983) says it is used for
crossties, marine construction, piers, posts, utility poles, and wharves.
Ashes are added to water as a soap substitute. Bark is used for tanning.
Smoke from the wood is said to constitute an effective mosquito smudge (Duke,
1972). Flowers are a major source of honey.
According to Hartwell (19671971), the resin is used in folk remedies for
tumors in the West Indies. Reported to be astringent, insect repellent,
rubefacient, and tonic, black mangrove is a folk remedy for diarrhea,
dysentery, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, swellings, throat ailments,
tumors, and wounds (Duke and Wain, 1981; Garcia-Barriga, 1975). Salvadorans
use the resin for chest complaints and sore throat. Bahamans believe it
restores lost vitality (Morton, 1981) and use it in baths for rheumatism.
Colombians say gargling with the bark decoction alleviates cancer of the larynx
and malignant ulcers of the throat (Garcia-Barriga, 1975).
Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 354 calories, 9.8 g H2O, 5.6 g
protein, 0.5 g fat, 81.3 g total carbohydrate, 4.0 g fiber, 2.8 g ash, 207 mg
Ca, and 117 mg P. Leaves contain on a zero-moisture basis, 10.7% protein, 4.0%
fat, 69.2% total carbohydrate, 23.9% fiber, and 15.7% ash (Duke and Atchley,
Fruits, though edible after processing, are said to be toxic raw (Little, 1983).
Evergreen shrub or small tree 312(-25) m high; trunk 3060 dm in diameter.
Masses of small air roots 1545 cm long sometimes hang from upper part of large
trunks. Pneumatophores often rise 510 cm from the long horizontal roots.
Bark dark gray or brown and smooth on small trunks, becoming dark brown,
fissured, scaly, and thick. Leaves opposite, lanceolate or narrowly
elliptical, 511 cm long, 24 cm wide, acute or blunt at tip, entire, thick,
leathery. Fine hairs giving a grayish hue to foliage; both surfaces often with
scattered salt crystals and salty taste. Petiole 315 mm long. Spikes or
panicles headlike, upright at and near ends of twigs. Flowers several,
crowded, sessile, 6 mm long, 10 mm across. Calyx cup-shaped, deeply 5-lobed;
corolla tubular, hairy, white but yellowish at base, with 4 slightly unequal
spreading, rounded, or notched lobes, stamens 4, 5 mm long in notches of
corolla tube near base; pistil with imperfectly 4-celled ovary, slender style,
and 2-forked stigma. Capsule elliptical, flattened, 2.53 cm long, often
splitting into 2 parts. Seed 1, large, flattened, often germinating on tree
Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, black
mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, insects, pests,
salt, and waterlogging. Seems to tolerate prolonged flooding.
Along coasts of tropical America. Atlantic Coast; Bermuda, Bahamas, West
Indies, southeastern US, northern Florida, southeastern Texas, northern Mexico
southward on Atlantic Coast to Brazil and on Pacific Coast to Ecuador including
Galapagos Islands and northwestern Peru. The same or very closely related
species on coasts of western Africa. Not widely planted or introduced
elsewhere (Little, 1983).
Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet
Forest Life Zones, black mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation
of 8.7 to 20.6 dm (mean of 4 cases = 14.1) and annual temperature of 25.3 to
26.6°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.9). Common in mangrove swamp forests, mainly
on the landward side in brackish water in mud flats of tidal zones of protected
silty shores and at the mouths of rivers.
According to the NAS (1980a), planting is usually not needed because natural
regeneration is so successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding
result in ca 90% survival.
Since this mangrove can regrow rapidly from buds beneath the bark along the
trunk and branches, it is said to suffer little from removal of much of the
branchwood (NAS, 1980a).
Good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of 1020(-25) MT/ha/yr, but
for firewood purposes, I would reduce that to 1020(-25) m3/ha/yr,
figuring that at optimal rather than average. Litterfall may account for 1/3
1/2 of above ground productivity. Because of the heaviness of the wood, a cubic
meter of mangrove is generally more valuable than other species.
Generalizing about the genus Avicennia, Burkill (1966) notes that when
freshly cut, the heartwood floats, but the sapwood sinks. "It gives
indifferent firewood...not liked because it cannot be split. It is used,
however, when better is not easily procurable. It burns smoulderingly. The
fisher-folk like it for smoking fish, to which it is said to give an agreeable
flavor. It is used, also, for smoking rubber" (Burkill, 1966). Still in Latin
America the wood is valued "mainly for fuel, charcoal" (Morton, 1981). "Wood
used for fuel and charcoal, burning with intense heat" (Little, 1983).
No data available.
Complete list of references for Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops
- Burkill, J.H. 1966. A dictionary of economic products of the Malay peninsula.
Art Printing Works, Kuala Lumpur. 2 vols.
- Duke, J.A. 1972. Isthmian ethnobotanical dictionary. Publ. by the author.
Harrod & Co., Baltimore.
- Duke, J.A. and Atchley, A.A. 1984. Proximate analysis. In: Christie, B.R.
(ed.), The handbook of plant science in agriculture. CRC Press, Inc., Boca
- Duke, J.A. and Wain, K.K. 1981. Medicinal plants of the world. Computer index
with more than 85,000 entries. 3 vols.
- Garcia-Barriga, H. 1975.Flora medicinal de Colombia. Botanica Medica. Talleres
Editoriales de la Imprenta Nacional. Bogota.
- Hartwell, J.L. 19671971. Plants used against cancer. A survey. Lloydia 3034.
- Little, E.L. Jr. 1983. Common fuelwood crops: a handbook for their
identification. McClain Printing Co., Parsons, WV.
- Morton, J.F. 1981. Atlas of medicinal plants of middle America. Bahamas to
Yucatan. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
- N.A.S. 1980a. Firewood crops. Shrub and tree species for energy production.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
Last update December 29, 1997