1) The Problem of Sources
2) The Báb
A. Young Adulthood
C. Pilgrimage to Mecca
D. The Shiraz Period
E. The Isfahan Period
F. The Máh-Kú Period
G. The Chihríq Period
H. Trial and Martyrdom
I. Selection of a Successor
3) The Writings of the Báb
1) The Problem of Sources
The availability of historical sources for the study of Babism is far
greater than those for examining the rise of any other major religion, but
there are still major gaps, and these limit our understanding. Some of them are
A. Qájár Iran is still imperfectly studied; there is a vast
amount of work to do on establishing the cultural and social context of
B. The sources on the life of the Báb are still little studied. Many
remain unexamined in Bahá'í archives. Many have been lost because
of neglect or persecution. Some are only partially available; The
is perhaps the best example of this. When Shoghi Effendi
translated the work into English he appears to have extensively edited it and
partially abridged it. The Persian version of The Dawn-Breakers
Persian translation from the English text. Scholars are anxious to examine the
original manuscript. A few non-Bahá'í scholars have even
questioned the reliability of Shoghi Effendi's text in the absence of the
Furthermore, sometimes original sources contradict each other. For example:
all sources say Mullá Husayn accepted the Báb on the night of 23
May 1844. But several sources, which are second-hand accounts of Mullá
Husayn's own account of the night of the Báb's declaration, say that
Mullá Husayn did not accept the Bab until three nights' study; in other
words, that he started his investigation of the Báb's claim not on 23
May, but two or three nights earlier. But The Dawn-Breakers
say Mullá Husayn first met the Báb on the night of
Much work needs to be done to understand Shoghi Effendi's interpretations of
historical events. Apparently Shoghi Effendi did not claim infallibility in
matters of historical fact, only in matters pertaining to theological
interpretation and matters of protection of the Faith. Thus the Guardian's
writings present important challenges for historians.
C. The writings of the Báb have been imperfectly preserved; hence we
have not yet been able to establish an authoritative text in Persian/Arabic for
many of His works. Future scholars will have to study the various manuscripts
and reconcile their variant readings.
D. Further, there is the issue of the accuracy of several extremely early
histories. It is known that Mírzá Jání, a
Bábí who perished in the persecutions that followed the attempt
on the life of the Shah in 1852, wrote a history or part of a history of the
Bábí movement. Such a history would be of great significance to
Bábí Studies because it was written a mere eight years after the
Báb's declaration and only two years after the Báb's death;
furthermore, it would have been written before the split between the
Azalís and Bahá'ís, a split that imposed two rival
theological interpretations on the events of early Babism and raised many
historical issues that have not been settled to this day.
Edward Granville Browne found a manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale in
Paris, which had originally been owned by the Comte de Gobineau, an early
scholar of Iran and Babism. This manuscript bore the curious title of the
"The Book of the Point of K"; it
bore no author's name. Browne believed he had found Mírzá
Jání's manuscript and translated the work into English. Possibly
the work is based on work by Mírzá Jání, but many
of its statements take the Azalí side of disputes between the
Azalí and Bahá'í interpretations of Babism, which suggests
that the work is an Azalí rewriting of a very early work that is still
lost. In reply to this Azalí version of Bábí history,
Mírzá Husayn Hamádání, a
Bahá'í, took up his pen and wrote the
or "New History" about 1880, a generation
after the Báb's execution. This work was also composed based on the lost
history of Mírzá Jání, as well as partly on the
memories of a very old Bahá'í who had been an early
Bábí, named Sayyid Javád Karbalá'í. A
comparison of the Nuqtatu'l-Káf
helps to ascertain that both used the same
original source for much of their text, but that both later works took
liberties with the original. Whether the original work will ever be found
remains to be seen. The Taríkh-i-Jadíd i
undergone considerable editing and expansion by various anonymous scribes,
which makes determining its original text very difficult as well.
2) The Báb
The Báb was born 'Alí-Muhammad on the first day of Muharram,
1235, corresponding to 20 October 1819 on the Gregorian calendar. He was born
in the southern Iranian city of Shiraz to a family of prosperous merchants.
Both his father, Sayyid Muhammad Ridá, and his mother, Fátimih
Bigum, were descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, and their families had lived
in Shiraz for generations. When 'Alí-Muhammad was seven years old His
father died, so responsibility for His upbringing fell to his maternal uncles,
especially Hájí Mírzá Sayyid 'Alí.
The young boy was sent to a local teacher named Shaykh 'Ábid for six or
seven years for a private education (there being no public schools in Shiraz at
the time). The teacher was a Shaykhí, as were the members of the
Báb's family, which suggests that the Báb was exposed to
Shaykhí interpretations of Islam from a young age. The Báb very
much disliked school, apparently acquired little book learning, and regarded
much of the education He received as irrelevant. Some scholars have seen this
dislike of his early education as having colored the Báb's approach to
religion and having influenced His teachings.
All accounts agree that 'Alí-Muhammad was a precocious, intelligent
child, and was devoted to prayer at an early age.
A. Young Adulthood.
While in his teens, 'Alí-Muhammad
began to work in his uncle's business, and by the time he was sixteen or
seventeen he was serving as a commercial agent for the family at their offices
in Bushihr, an Iranian city on the Persian Gulf. Through this city flowed
imports to Shiraz from India and the Arabian peninsula. 'Ali-Muhammad seems to
have been a successful merchant, and His later writings praise business as an
important livelihood, but one which must be carried out with strict honesty and
complete devotion to God. His own life apparently was extremely piousHe is
known to have prayed much of the morning and afternoon on some daysand His
religious interests remained strong. He began to write on religious matters as
well. The fact that He started to write before declaring His mission is not
unusual; Bahá'u'lláh wrote many works before His declaration, and
Muhammad received revelations before declaring His mission. Some of the
Báb's earliest writings have survived; they were commentaries on the
About 1840 or 1841 'Alí-Muhammad left the family business and traveled
to Karbilá in Iraq, where the third Imám, Husayn, is buried.
There He attended a few classes given by Sayyid Kázim-i-Rashtí,
head of the Shaykhí School. Though He remained in Karbilá only
eight months, He made an impression on many Shaykhís there.
The Báb may also have been familiar with Sufism, or the Islamic
mystical movement. Sufism has generally been discouraged or opposed by the
Shí'í 'ulamá (learned), but Sufi writings have long
circulated in Persian and Sufi orders are common in Iran. The Báb is
known to have been in acquaintance with the leading Sufi in Shiraz. The
Báb, however, does not use technical Sufi terminology.
The Báb appears to have been more familiar with esoteric and occult
Islamic ideas. He uses chronograms, offers cabbalistic interpretations of
words, utilizes numerological principles in His writings, and wrote tablets in
the form of talismans. He also alludes to astrological terminology.
The Báb also refers to passages from the New Testamentbut not the Old
Testamentin His writings. This suggests He had access to the latest
translations of the Protestant missionaries of the former book into Persian and
'Alí-Muhammad remained in Karbilá until His uncle, Sayyid
'Alí, journeyed there and implored Him to return to Shiraz. This He did
in 1842. He married Khadíjih Khánum in August of that year and
resumed His business. Unable to devote His time to religious study in
Karbilá, 'Alí-Muhammad turned again to writing. His extended
periods of prayer and His pious acts further developed His reputation as a
mystic. Some time before His declaration to Mullá Husayn, the Báb
had a dream where He saw the severed head of the Imám Husayn and was
privileged to drink seven drops of the Imáms precious blood; this dream
may have symbolically marked the beginning of His prophetic consciousness. He
privately made some sort of messianic claim to family members and it was
accepted by His wife and His uncle, Sayyid 'Alí. There are also some
suggestions that word of His claim began to spread.
'Alí-Muhammad's writings before His declaration, however, do not
demonstrate a prophetic consciousness. Todd Lawson noted this in his doctoral
dissertation about the Tafsír-i-súrih-i-baqarih
"Commentary on the Surih of the Cow," a work the Báb wrote on a chapter
of the Qur'án. This Qur'án commentary was started by the
Báb in November or December 1843, some six months before declaring His
mission. The first half was completed by February or March 1844; the second
half was revealed after the Báb's declaration. It is the only work of
the Báb's revealed before His declaration that has survived intact, and
thus it is quite important. It also sheds light on the Báb's attitude
toward Shí'í beliefs.
About 2 January 1844 Sayyid
Kázim-i-Rashtí died in Karbalá without naming a successor.
Since the Shaykhís believed that there was always a Perfect
Shí'í on the earth, it immediately occurred to Rashtí's
followers that they had to find the new Perfect Shí'í.
Furthermore, the year 1260 was about to begin, and many Shaykhís
expected that year to usher in the coming of the Qá'im, "He who arises,"
whom many Shí'ís expected to come. Among the prominent
Shaykhís who initiated a search for the Qá'im was Mullá
Husayn-i-Bushrú'í, and in May 1844 his travels took him to
According to The Dawn-Breakers
and to a lesser extent God Passes By,
Mullá Husayn encountered the Báb by chance on the afternoon
of 22 May, accompanied Him to His house, and had dinner with Him. After dinner
the subject of Mullá Husayn's search came up and the Báb proposed
that He Himself fulfilled all the requirements for being the Qá'im.
After several hours of discussion, Mullá Husayn was convinced, and
became the first official follower of the Báb. The Báb then began
to reveal a commentary on the Súrih of Joseph (the
Other primary historical sources give a slightly more complicated account of
the beginnings of the Bábí dispensation. It seems very likely
that 'Alí-Muhammad and the Mullá Husayn had met in
Karbilá, because Mullá Husayn was the most prominent disciple of
Sayyid Kázim, and the Báb had met the sayyid on several occasions
and had made quite an impression on some of the Shaykhís there. The
Báb's family were active Shaykhís and Mullá Husayn had
been in Bushihr immediately before going to Shiraz, so it seems possible
Mullá Husayn would have been in touch with relatives of the Báb
in Bushihr. None of this precludes the encounter between the two men as being
purely fortuitous, but it makes it much more likely their meeting was planned.
Furthermore, several primary historical sources state that Mullá Husayn
investigated 'Alí-Muhammad's claim for three days before accepting it;
one source even quotes Mullá Husayn berating himself for having taken so
long. All the sources agree that the Báb's declaration occurred on the
evening of 22 May 1844, including the Báb Himself, hence it is possible,
even likely, that Mullá Husayn first met the Báb on 20 May
instead. If this is true it raises important questions about the accuracy of
both The Dawn-breakers
and God Passes By
; but there is no
guarantee of infallibility conferred on either work, and the Guardian
specifically eschewed infallibility on matters of science and economics, so
presumably he did not claim infallibility on matters of history either. Only
future historians, with complete access to all the courses, will be able to
assess all the sources and come to a consensus about these differing facts.
also states that the Báb told Mullá
Husayn not to mention His claim to others, because it was important for others
to accept the Báb spontaneously, without previous knowledge of His
claims. Over the next few months an additional seventeen individuals accepted
the Báb; with Mullá Husayn they were given the title the "Letters
of the Living." Scholars have questioned whether the additional declarations of
belief were truly spontaneous; some of them were close companions of
Mullá Husayn, and all of them were Shaykhís and thus were part of
a network of friends who shared a common set of beliefs.
The Báb's claim is another important issue to consider. The title of
"the Báb" suggests that He was claiming not to be the Hidden
Imám, but merely the gate to the Hidden Imám. A few scholars have
emphasized this point strongly and have argued that the Báb changed His
mind about His claim; that first He merely claimed Báb-hood, but that
after a few months His success led Him to elevate His claim to Imám-hood
instead. The Bahá'í reply is that the title "the Báb"
should be understood in the context of the principle of gradualism; that had
the Báb immediately made public His claim to be the Imám He would
have been fiercely opposed, so that by using the title of the Báb He
implied a lesser claim and thereby bought precious time to strengthen His
movement. The latter approach has much to support it. The Báb Himself
says He gradually unveiled His claim to the public, so as not to shock it.
There is considerable evidence that the Báb claimed to be the
Qá'im from the first night of His mission; Mullá Husayn seems to
have understood the Báb to be the Qá'im immediately. Only a few
months after the Báb's declaration, one of the Letters of the Living,
Mullá 'Alí Bastámí, preached that the Báb
was the Qá'im to his Shaykhí friends in Iraq and was tried for
heresy and imprisoned as a result.
The Báb also disguised His claim to some extent by writing
or Qur'án commentary. Qur'án commentary was
a highly respected and ancient literary form, and not something expected from a
Prophet. The Báb used tafsír as His way to declare His station as
well as to define His theology and to state His basic differences with
traditional Shí'í interpretations of Islam. Thus He used a
venerable old literary medium in a radically new way.
A unique aspect of the Báb's commentaries is that He offered the
meaning of the text not sentence by sentence or word by word, but letter by
letter. In this manner the Báb wrote entire, lengthy books on short
chapters of the Qur'án. Such an approach to commentary was not
altogether new in Islam, but the extent the Báb did it was unique. It
allowed the Báb maximal freedom in using the Qur'án as His point
of departure for any teachings He sought to give to the Bábís.
Only the first chapter of the Qayyumu'l-Asmá was revealed by the
Báb on the evening of His declaration to Mullá Husayn. The entire
work, which is several hundred pages in length, required forty days to reveal;
it is one of the Báb's longer Arabic works. It was widely distributed in
the first year of the Bábí movement, functioning as something of
a Bible for the Bábís. In the book the Báb states His
claim to be a Manifestation of God, though the claim is disguised with other
statements that He is the servant of the hidden imám.
Another important early work of the Báb was the
It was revealed before His departure
for Mecca in September 1844, and consists of a collection of fourteen prayers,
mostly to be recited on specific Muslim Holy Days and festivals. Thus its
content remained within the expectations of Islam.
C. Pilgrimage to Mecca.
On 10 September 1844 the Báb
departed for Mecca to join the annual pilgrimage. In Mecca He declared His
claim publicly at the Kaaba and to the Sharif of Mecca, the custodian of the
Kaaba. But the Báb was not accepted.
The pilgrimage trip lasted nine and a half months, ending in mid June 1845,
when the Báb reached Bushihr in southern Iran again. During this period
He wrote extensively. Some of His more important works were the following:
: A work composed by the Báb on His sea
journey back to Bushihr after His pilgrimage, which listed some regulations to
be followed by the Bábí community. A copy of the manuscript
probably still exists in Iran.
("Book of the Spirit"): This book contains
700 or 900 verses and was revealed while the Báb was sailing back to
Bushihr from pilgrimage. The original was nearly destroyed when the Báb
was arrested. Several manuscript copies are extant.
("Treatise between the Two
Sanctuaries"): This Arabic work was revealed while the Báb traveled from
Mecca to Medina in early 1845 and is in response to questions posed to Him by a
prominent Shaykhí leader.
("The Book of the Catalogue"): A list of the
Báb's works, composed by the Báb Himself after He returned from
pilgrimage to Mecca, 21 June 1845. It is an invaluable bibliography of His
D. The Shiraz Period.
Returning to Bushihr on 15 May 1845, the
Báb proceeded to Shiraz, but was arrested because of the excitement His
followers had created in that city. He was kept under house arrest for some
time. Notwithstanding His confinement, the Báb wrote very prolifically
during this period:
: The Báb wrote this treatise to an
unknown correspondent in 1845. Over a hundred pages in length, it states many
of His basic teachings, especially in relation to some Shaykhí
("Commentary on the Chapter on
Abundance"): The Báb wrote this commentary for Vahíd while He was
in Shiraz; it is the most important work He revealed during the Shiraz period.
Though the súrih is only a few lines in length, being one of the
shortest in the Qur'án, the commentary on it is over two hundred pages
in length. The work was widely distributed, and at least a dozen early
manuscripts are extant.
E. The Isfahan Period.
Because of a cholera outbreak, the
Báb moved to Isfahan, where the governor, Manuchihr Khán,
protected Him and allowed Him to live in secret. The need to maintain some
secrecy about the Báb's whereabouts greatly decreased His literary
output, especially in reply to letters from followers. Nevertheless, He
revealed two major works:
: This work, of fifty pages' length, was
revealed in two hours in response to a question by Manúchihr
Khán. The work discusses the prophethood of Muhammad.
("Commentary on the Chapter on
Time and Age"): This is one of the two important works the Báb penned in
Isfahan, between September 1846 and March 1847. It was revealed spontaneously
in response to a request by Mír Sayyid Muhammad, the chief cleric of the
city; much of it was revealed in a few hours, to the astonishment to those
F. The Máh-Kú Period.
The death of Manuchihr
Khán in March 1847 ended the Báb's protection and He was
arrested; He was transported to Tehran, then to Tabriz, and finally to the
mountain fortress of Máh-Kú, near the border of Turkey and
Russia, where few of His followers could reach Him. He reached
Máh-Kú in the late summer of 1847. At first the conditions of
confinement were severe, but gradually the Báb's captors gave Him
greater freedom of movement and the right to receive guests.
In both Máh-Kú and in the later prison of Chihríq the
Báb had the time and opportunity to write extensively. He penned works
that announced His station as a Manifestation of God openly, abrogated Islamic
law, and ordered His works proclaimed widely. The result were some of His most
important and influential works:
: This is undoubtedly the most important work of the
Báb and contains the mature summary of His teachings. It was composed in
Máh-Kú in late 1847 or early 1848. The work consists of nine
chapters titled váhids
or "unities," which in turn are usually
subdivided into nineteen bábs
or "gates"; the one exception is
the last unity, which has only ten bábs. The Báb explained that
it would be the task of "Him Whom God Would Make Manifest" to complete the
work; Bahá'ís believe the Kitáb-i-Iqán to be the
completion of the Bayán. Each unity begins with an Arabic summary of its
contents, which makes it easier to read than many of the Báb's works.
Extracts of this work are published in Selections from the Writings of the
; A. L. M. Nicholas translated the entire work into French, in
four 150-page volumes.
: This is the shorter and less important of the two
Bayáns composed by the Báb. It consists of eleven
or "unities," each with nineteen bábs
"gates." It offers a succinct summary of the Báb's teachings and laws.
It was composed at Máh-Kú in late 1847 or early 1848.
("Seven Proofs"): There are two works by this
name, the longer one in Persian, the shorter one in Arabic; both were composed
in Máh-Kú in late 1847 or early 1848. Nicholas called the Persian
Seven Proofs "the most important of the polemical works that issued from the
pen of Sayyid 'Alí Muhammad" (MacEoin, Sources of Early Bab Doctrine
85). The work was written to either a non-Bábí
or to a follower whose faith had been shaken, but we do not know the person's
identity. The Arabic text summarizes the seven proofs found in the Persian
text. An interesting historical question is whether the Arabic or the Persian
text was written first.
G. The Chihríq Period.
After seven months, because of
pressure from the Russian government the Báb was moved to another fort,
Chihríq, which was farther from the Russian border. Confinement was
again severe for a time. His stay in Chihríq ran from early May 1848
through July 1850, except for three months when He was taken to Tabriz.
While in Chihríq the writings of the Báb took another turn. The
works He produced were more esoteric or mystical and less thematically
organized. Two major books were produced, in addition to many minor works:
("The Book of Names"): This is an extremely
long book about the names of God. It was penned during the Báb's last
days at Chihríq before His execution. The various manuscript copies
contain numerous variations in the text; this book will require considerable
work to determine its original text.
("Book of Five Grades"): This is one of the
Báb's last works, having been composed in March and April of 1850. The
work consists of eighty-five sections. These are arranged in seventeen groups,
each under the heading of a different name of God. Within each group are five
"grades," that is, five different sorts of sections: verses, prayers, homilies,
commentaries, and Persian language pieces. Each group was sent to a different
person and was composed on a different day. Thus the work is a kind of
miscellany of unrelated material. Some of the sections represent further
exposition of basic themes in the Báb's teachings; others consist of
lengthy iterations of the names of God, and variations on their roots.
H. Trial and Martyrdom.
The trial of the Báb is another
controversial event in His life, because His enemies later claimed that He had
recanted His beliefs under the pressure of interrogation. There is no evidence
of this, however, except their statements.
The Báb's execution for His claims is perhaps the most dramatic event
connected with His life. All accountsthose of neutral European observers and
enemies of the Bábagree that the first volley of bullets from a firing
squad of 750 Christian Georgian soldiers harmed neither the Báb nor His
companion, but cut their ropes and freed them. Bábí accounts
state that the Bab had been conversing with a disciple of His when the guards
came for Him, that the Báb said He had to finish the conversation, and
that after the first volley missed the Báb returned His cell to complete
the conversation. The guards found Him there and led Him back to the square; a
second firing squad of Muslims succeeded in shooting Him, though even their
bullets spared His face.
I. Selection of a Successor.
Before His death, the Báb
selected an honorary successor or titular head of the Bábí Faith,
Mírzá Yahyá, to whom He gave the honorific Sub-i-Azal
("Morning of Eternity"). At the time Mírzá Yahyá was still
a teenager, had never demonstrated leadership in the Bábí
movement, and was still living in the house of his older brother,
Bahá'u'lláh. All of this lends credence to the
Bahá'í claim that the Báb had appointed
Mírzá Yahyá the head of the Bábí Faith so as
to divert attention away from Bahá'u'lláh, while allowing
Bábís to visit Bahá'u'lláh and consult with Him
freely, and allowing Bahá'u'lláh to write Bábís
easily and freely. Furthermore, there is a long history in Shí'ism of
hidden leaders, with their deputies wielding the true power (the four
bábs themselves are the first examples of this, as is
'Alí-Muhammad's choice of the title "the Báb").
3) The Writings of the Báb
Unfortunately, most of the writings of the Báb have been lost. The
Báb Himself says they exceeded five hundred thousand verses in length;
the Qur'án, in contrast, is 6300 verses in length. If one assumes 25
verses per page, that would equal 20,000 pages of text. Shoghi Effendi mentions
nine complete commentaries on the Qur'án, revealed during the
Báb's imprisonment at Máh-Kú, which have been lost without
a trace. Establishing the true text of the works that are still extant, as
already noted, is not always easy, and some texts will require considerable
work. Others, however, are in good shape; for example, several of the
Báb's major works are available in the handwriting of His trusted
Most works were revealed in response to specific questions by
Bábís; this was also true of Bahá'u'lláh's later
writing. This is not unusual; the genre of the letter has been a venerable
medium for composing authoritative texts as far back as the Apostle Paul. Three
quarters of the chapters of the New Testament are letters, were composed to
imitate letters, or contain letters within them. Sometimes the Báb
revealed works very rapidly by chanting them in the presence of a secretary and
eye-witnesses; here again, Bahá'u'lláh followed the same practice
Dozens of works by the Báb have survived; some in many manuscripts,
others in only one. Denis MacEoin, in his Sources for Early Bab Doctrine and
gives a description of many of them. In addition to major works,
the Báb revealed numerous letters to His wife and followers, many
prayers for various purposes, numerous commentaries on verses or chapters of
the Qur'án, and many khutbihs
or sermons (most of which were
never delivered). Many of these have been lost; others have survived in
 Cf. Abbas Amanat,
Resurrection and Renewal, 114-21, where he discusses the Báb's
education. Bahá'ís tend to assume that the question of the
education of a Manifestation is irrelevant. But one can imagine God using the
Manifestation's education as part of the instrument through which revelation is
given. Furthermore, neither the Báb nor Bahá'u'lláh
referred to materials to which they did not have ordinary access; for example,
Bahá'u'lláh never comments at all about Chinese religious ideas
and philosophy, even though they were highly developed and sophisticated. It
appears that revelation only rarely drew on information not otherwise available
to the Manifestation through books.