- Lava, gas, and other hazards
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991
Earthquakes and steam explosions announced the reawakening of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, surprising many geologists because Pinatubo was not even listed in catalogs of world volcanoes. This mountain (at that time having an elevation of 1,745 metres, or 5,725 feet) lacked the classic conical shape of a volcano because erosion had carved its summit into a ragged ridge with steep jungle-covered slopes, and there was no written record of any eruptions. Nevertheless, scientists at the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) took the awakening of Pinatubo very seriously, knowing that the longer the repose between eruptions, the more dangerous a volcano may be. The area surrounding the volcano included densely populated regions. Clark Air Base, a major U.S. Air Force base in the Philippines, also abutted the volcano.
The eruption developed in several stages. On March 15, 1991, a swarm of small, locally discernible earthquakes began on the northwest side of Pinatubo. On April 2, steam explosions opened up three large steam and sulfur-gas vents, or fumaroles, along a fissure 3 km (1.9 mile) in length located high on the north flank of the volcano. Evacuation of residents living within a 10-km (6-mile) radius of the summit was recommended. Through April and May, a network of seismometers set up by PHIVOLCS recorded between 30 and 180 small earthquakes per day. In late April the seismic network was expanded in conjunction with the U.S. Geological Survey to provide better determination of the ongoing earthquakes’ epicentres and depths. Airborne measurements of sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas from the fumaroles were started on May 13, and the measurements showed the SO2 emissions increasing from 500 metric tons (551 short tons) per day to more than 5,000 metric tons (5,511 short tons) per day by May 28.
On June 1 a new swarm of earthquakes began at shallow depths about 1 km (0.6 mile) northwest of the summit, indicating that magma was creating fractures as it forced open a conduit toward the surface from the magma chamber beneath the volcano. On June 3 a small explosion signaled the beginning of a new stage of activity. Minor, intermittent eruptions of ash began at the summit area, and a tiltmeter high on the volcano’s east side began to lean outward. On June 7 an eruption of steam and ash reached a height of 7 to 8 km (4.3 to 5 miles), and the next morning an observer in a helicopter confirmed that magma had indeed reached the surface. From June 8 to June 12, ash eruptions and shallow earthquakes increased. The alert level was raised to “eruption in progress,” and the evacuation radius was extended to 20 km (12 miles) from the summit. About 25,000 residents left, and Clark Air Base evacuated 14,500 people.
The first major explosive eruption occurred the morning of June 12; it lasted about an hour and generated a column of volcanic gas and ash 20 km (12 miles) high. The danger radius was increased to 30 km (19 miles), and the total number of evacuees increased to about 60,000 people. Another major explosion occurred during the night on June 12, followed by five more over the next two days. The character of the eruptions changed on June 14, with increasing production of pyroclastic flows. Observation of the volcano was greatly hindered by the arrival of a major typhoon on June 15. Ten closely spaced explosive eruptions occurred during the night and morning of that day, but little could be seen.
The climactic eruption began in the early afternoon of June 15. Visible observations were impossible because of winds and rain brought by the typhoon, but seismograph, barograph, and satellite observations recorded the second largest eruption of the 20th century—exceeded only by the giant 1912 eruption of Novarupta near Mount Katmai in Alaska. The huge Plinian-type eruption of Pinatubo lasted about nine hours. By mid-afternoon, conditions around the volcano included pitch darkness, falling ash and pumice lumps as large as 4 cm (1.6 inches) in diameter, high winds and heavy rain, lightning flashes, and earthquakes. Major ground tremors were felt about every 10 to 15 minutes. Satellite images showed that a giant, umbrella-shaped eruption cloud had formed that was 400 km (250 miles) in diameter and 34 km (21 miles) high at its apex. The ash fall from this cloud covered an area of 7,500 square km (2,900 square miles) to a depth of 1 cm (0.4 inch) or more with wet, gray ash and pumice; the maximum thickness was about 50 cm (20 inches) a few kilometres southwest of the vent area. The volume of ash was about 5 cubic km (1.2 cubic miles). Most of the 300 deaths caused directly by the eruption were the result of roofs and buildings collapsing from the weight of wet ash.
During the giant eruption, huge pyroclastic flows—mixtures of hot ash and gases denser than air—swept down the flanks of Pinatubo as far as 16 km (10 miles) from its old summit. These intensely hot ash flows sterilized 400 square km (154 square miles) of land around the volcano, filling valleys with high-temperature deposits as much as 200 metres (660 feet) thick. Floods from the typhoon rains churned up the loose volcanic ash and pyroclastic deposits and poured thick mudflows down all the streams and river valleys around the mountain. For years after the eruption, as heavy rainfall and flooding eroded the thick pyroclastic deposits, recurring mudflows buried towns and farm fields, destroyed roads and bridges, and displaced more than 100,000 people.
An estimated 17 million tons of SO2 gas were injected into the stratosphere by Pinatubo’s high eruption cloud. This formed an aerosol of tiny sulfate droplets that, with the extremely fine volcanic dust, circled the globe in about three weeks and reduced solar radiation reaching Earth’s surface. This stratospheric haze layer diminished during the next three years and apparently caused an average cooling of 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) of Earth’s climate during 1992–93.