Nepal - part 2
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|5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
The concept of grassland development through the government sector began in the late nineteen-fifties with the establishment of cheese factories in the northern and mid-hills for processing the milk of yaks and chauries. A temperate cultivar evaluation cum forage production programme was launched at the Livestock Development Farm, Singh Durbar in 1953 by the Agronomy Division of Department of Agriculture. Perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) was tested in mixture with white clover (Trifolium repens) during 1953 - 1959 (Basnet, 1963).In the late nineteen-sixties external assistance projects were initiated, such as FAO's Pasture, Fodder and Livestock Development Project which was implemented in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts, when vegetation survey and small species evaluation trials began. A Pasture and Fodder Development Farm was established at Rasuwa in 1971 - 72 and a Pasture Development Project at Khumaltar in 1978. External assistance continued during the nineteen-eighties including USAID's Resource Conservation and Utilization Projects (RCUP) and Swiss funded forage improvement work in Dolakha and Sindhupalchowk (Basnet, 1995).
Political changes after 1959 between governments of
In 1987, two very important projects started under FAO sponsorship in
collaboration with Department of Livestock Services ( DLS ). The High
Altitude Pasture Development Project (1987 - 1990) was extension supportive
while the Himalayan and Fodder Research Network (1987 - 1990) supported
research. These UNDP financed projects supported regular district level
forage improvement programmes and tried to alleviate the fodder crisis
created by the closure of grazing in the Tibetan pasturelands as well
as restoring the degraded grassland. The interrelationship and interdependency
among forests, grassland and animals (including wildlife) is very close
The wide range of climate and altitudes has given rise to many grassland
situations. The only thing common to all is livestock rearing which is
an integral part of the agricultural system, since time immemorial and
was enriched with the vast experience of migrant pastoral Aryans who initially
settled in the North-Western parts of
Grasslands vary from subtropical at lower elevations, to alpine meadows on ridge tops in the mid-hills and high mountain valleys of the inner Himalayan range in the areas of Manang, Mustang, Dolpa and Mugu. Grasslands are mostly located in the hills and only 4-5 percent is in low areas (Table 31).
Due to extremes in climate, poor management and constant grazing, all type of grassland have degraded to an alarming stage. These lands are found to be less productive than well managed grasslands; still, they are an integral part of various animal rearing systems. Estimated forage production of natural high altitude grazing lands varies from place to place. The dry matter biomass production (t/ha) from various sites amount to 0.65 (Dolpa), 1.53 (Mustang), 2.36 (Sindhupalchowk and Dolakha), 3.2 (Tuten), 3.6 (Terhathum), 0.79 (Dhading) and 1.5 (Myagdi). It has been estimated that the tropical grassland has produced 3-4 ton while the steppe grassland has produced 1-1.5 ton dry matter per ha per year (Table 33).
The carrying capacity of various grasslands, based on their production status is given in Table 34.
Due to enormous grazing pressure, edible species have been replaced by noxious weeds. Tropical and sub-tropical grasslands have lost preferred species which are being replaced by undesirable Imperata cylindrica and Eupatorium adenophorum (weed), Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria cruciata, Eragrostis nigra, Paspalum dilitatum and Sporobolus fertilis. In temperate grassland Andropogon tristis is gradually replaced by Arundinella hookeri, and Danthonia schneideri replaced by Agrostis inaequiglumis and Agrostis pilosa in sub-alpine grassland. However, in steppe pasture in Mustang grasses such as Andropogon tristis, Pennisetum flaccidum and Stipa along with Medicago sativa spp. falcata are found in better managed areas but almost 70 - 80 % of the grasslands are now covered with shrubs like Artemisia, Sophora, Lonicera, Ephedra and Caragana. Regeneration of these plant communities is very poor leading to low annual biomass production and severe environmental degradation. Tremendous soil losses from grassland are observed, ranging from 40- 200 ton ha -1 /year (CBS 1998). Degradation has taken place to such an extent that now many once productive grasslands are rated as wastelands.
Early forage development work dates back to the nineteen-fifties, when
improved temperate pasture species were introduced to the upper mid-hills
and mountains. In the lower mid-hills, sub-tropical and tropical grasses
were introduced. Winter in most of
Grass production on terrace risers is traditionally from indigenous species which have grown spontaneously. The timing of harvesting of these grasses depends on their growth stage, livestock needs, alternative fodder sources and labour availability. Farmers frequently use off-farm fodder before their privately-owned reserves, conserving close supplies for later and for use during the busy planting seasons when labour is short. In some areas preferred indigenous species such as Chrysopogon gryllus are propagated and planted on terrace edges (Elliott, 1996). Thysanolaena latifolia (photo) is another indigenous grass cultivated on terrace risers; its mature stems are used for broom making and the leaves are good quality fodder. Some exotic grasses have been used on terrace risers. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and Setaria (Setaria anceps) have been used in different parts of the hills. There has been greater adoption of Napier grass and Napier grass hybrid (NB-21) at lower altitudes while Napier mott and Napier dhus are planted in the upper mid-hills. The cultivation of improved grasses has been stimulated by the increased demand for milk and milk products.
Performance of a large number of summer forages has been evaluated at different locations for improved yield and availability over a longer period. In a broad range of locations, Napier grass was found to produce almost double the amount of green matter (GM) (30.5 t/ha) compared with native grasses (16.1 t/ha). From lower elevations to 1500 masl; molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora) was identified as the most promising grass to address the shortage of green fodder during the winter months. A comparison of six perennial summer forages conducted in Lumle command areas found that Seteria was the most productive species (50.1 kg GM/ha/day) followed by Napier grass (31.2 kg GM/ha/day) (LAC, 1987).
The cultivation of winter fodders on Bari
and Khet land is gaining in popularity with most
dairy farmers, in response to growing milk markets. Forage oats (Avena
sativa) are grown from the terai to the high hills on land with sufficient
moisture. Production from different cultivars of oats, grown at a range
of locations, shows considerable variation from 28-54 ton/ha GM (Adhikari,
2005). Significant increases in milk production, ranging from 1-2 litres/day
were achieved by feeding 10-15 kg of green oats daily to buffalo. Oats
are by far the most important winter fodder throughout the country; the
introduction of modern, multi-cut cultivars a decade ago has greatly increased
their popularity and this may have been assisted by improved milk marketing.
The area of fodder oats in
Fodder oat improvement and extension has been the subject of an FAO assisted project in Nepal (TCP/NEP/2901) which has been the focus of fodder activity throughout the Himalayan region; many new cultivars have been introduced; a workshop on fodder oats, and other fodders was held in Kathmandu in March 2005 and has been reported by Pariyar et al. (2005) [click here to view].
A variety of leguminous fodders have been introduced into
Tropical legumes have also been introduced in
Perennial fodders are less common than annuals but at high altitudes the indigenous yellow-flowered lucerne (Medicago sativa var. falcata) known as kote is traditionally grown for hay; Napier Grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is often grown around holdings on field edges and other spare ground. Annual fodders are common. Summer fodders are mainly coarse annual grasses, notably jowar (Sorghum bicolor) and teosinte (Zea mays L. subsp. mexicana).
The productivity of natural pastures depends on many factors, and varies greatly within and between years from one area or region to another in the same agro-ecological zone. Productivity of native grassland ranges from 0.5-1 ton DM/ha in the steppes; 2-2.5 ton DM/ha in alpine, sub-alpine and temperate areas and 3-4 ton DM/ha in tropical regions. Estimates of the carrying capacity of different grasslands have been made using these values, and are lower than current actual stocking rates. For example, a grassland dominated by Heteropogon contortus, Eragrostis pilosa, Imperata cylindrica and Pogonatherum paniceum in Bhumisthan VDC is estimated to have a carrying capacity of 0.31 LU/ha, whereas the current actual stocking rate is 4.08 LU/ha (Pariyar and Shrestha, 1992).
Foliage from trees and shrubs is used widely during the dry winter in smallholder farming systems, specifically in the mid-hills. Trees and shrubs are often the only source of green material of relatively high protein content used by sedentary farmers to supplement low protein diets based on crop residues. Their contribution varies with the agro-ecological zone but, in the mid-hills, this ranges from 8-60% of total fodder supply depending on management. The importance of trees and shrubs as a feed resource has encouraged research workers to identify those species in use and develop feeding systems that will improve the contribution of these plants to the livelihood of smallholder farmers. Well over 200 species have been identified to date in the different agro-ecological zones (Shrestha and Pradhan, 1995). Results of feeding trials have been encouraging (Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989), but uptake by farmers has not been consistent (Joshi and Thapa, 1992) for a variety of reasons. Part of the problem is that the complexities associated with the use of tree fodder in real farming situations have not always been considered adequately during the planning and execution of research work. These do not permit the straightforward introduction of new species into a diverse and fluctuating feed resource base. Furthermore, the multiple objectives that farmers must balance in planning all of their agricultural activities not only limits the acceptability of tree species, but may also lead them to specify desirable characteristics that emphasis gut fill rather than nutritive value.
Common fodder tree species on farm holdings have yielded from 20 - 86 kg fresh leaves and twigs/tree/year, with a dry matter content of between 100 and 600 g/kg (Malla and Fisher, 1997). In this study, Gogan (Sauraria nepalensis) and Nebharo (Ficus roxburghii) were amongst the highest yielding species. Pandey (1975) reported an average yield of 70 kg/tree/year from 24 species. It is suggested that an average tree may be expected to produce between 50 and 90 kg of fodder in a year, but the highest yielders such as Ficus lacor may produce as much as 150 kg/year. In F. auriculata, yield increased with age. At four years of age trees yielded a total of 25 kg fodder/tree compared to 210 kg fodder/tree and 145 kg/tree fuel wood at 25 years of age. Some 40 kg of green leaf could be harvested daily through the scarce period of October to May; enough to meet the nutritional requirements of a lactating buffalo. It should be noted that the estimates of fodder yields vary depending on the stage of growth and season of cut.
It is clear that fodder yields from trees are highly variable. Amatya and Lindley (1992) found that the coefficient of variation in yields from species such as Bauhinia purpurea, B. variegata, Ficus semicordata var. Montana, Guazuma ulmifolia and Ficus glaberrima ranged from 38.6 to 69.7%. The sources of this variation are diverse. It is reported that trees produce their full fodder-yielding capacity at between 5 and 10 years of age, depending on species. Other major factors influencing yields include climate, soil type, lopping regimes and other management practices and their interactions. Amatya and Lindley (1992), working at lower altitudes in the Terai, observed higher biomass production from Ficus semicordata in March. On the other hand, F. glaberrima and Guazuma ulmifolia yielded most during November, and exhibited considerably lower leaf biomass yields during March. However, absolute yield is not the only factor determining the timing of lopping: many farmers postpone lopping of trees that retain foliage in a palatable form to the period March to May, as this is the period when fodder supplies are restricted.
Rapid tree growth is another important selection criterion for farmers. Growth data are not available for all fodder trees. However, Ficus species have been found to have a higher growth rate than Bauhinia purpurea and B. variegata. Other species, such as Grewia optiva, have high rates of survival and reach a height of about 0.5 m in one season. Some fodder trees are planted, notably Leucaena leucocephala, often as hedges or on waste areas.
|6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE
Factors like terrain, scanty vegetation cover, moisture stress, erratic rainfall, extremes of climate, poor land, low soil fertility, short growing period, rain shadow, constant neglect and an ever increasing animal and human population have almost destroyed the grasslands. Revegetating depleted grasslands without correcting the management errors which led to their degradation can aggravate the fragility and this valuable and enormous ecosystem is likely to be lost forever. Proper management and an integrated approach can convert the degraded grassland into a potential source of herbage production (Basnet, 1995, Singh, 1996). Since grazing by animals and livestock production are interlinked, grasslands cannot be considered in isolation. Depending upon the animal management system despite scarcity of feed from grazing, considerable forage / feed resources are available through cultivated fodder, crop residues and concentrates. Where livestock depend entirely on grazing (migratory system) in well defined grasslands only, forage availability is not so encouraging. However, the importance of grassland cannot be underestimated in a country where it contributes 36 % of the total feed.
The use of the grassland is seasonal as the climate governs the growth. In the humid temperate hills grass only grows in summer when temperature is high and monsoon rain and high radiation regimes result in rapid pasture growth. In the arid steppe, grass growth is much less and lack of moisture and low temperatures are major constraints. Issues and constraints related to grassland ecosystem are so diverse that the answers to them are not so simple despite their greater capabilities and bigger potential impacts.
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