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The Persian Factor Medes and Persians burst on the world scene to confront the Greeks Rise of the Medes In 700 the Assyrian Empire was at its height. The Assyrians controlled both Babylonia and northern Persia, or Media. Deioces led the Medes in a successful rebellion against their Assyrian overlords and is made king. His successor Phraortes conquers the area south of Media known as Persia. The Rise of Babylon Babylonia revolted against their Assyrian overlords, joining forces with Medes in doing so. The combined forces of the Babylonians under Nabopolassar and Medes defeated the Assyrian army and Ninevah fell in 612. The Assyrian Empire was divided between Media and Babylonia. Nebuchadnezzar succeeds to the Babylonian throne and brings that Empire to its greatest height, 604-562. Babylon now thought to be the greatest city in the world—its Hanging Gardens one of the world’s seven wonders. Meanwhile…in Ionia The greatest polis of Ionia in western Asia Minor was Miletus. There lived a Greek named Thales who had studied astronomy in Egypt. He was the first European to successfully predict an eclipse to occur during May of 585. We know him as the first Greek philosopher who was also the first scientist: he believed water was the common substance that explained the variety and unity of natural phenomena. The Medes and Lydia Medes now controlled eastern Asia Minor to the banks of the Halys River—the border with Lydia. To conquer Lydia was the Median objective and they went to war for six years. But…in the midst of battle on May 28, 585, the eclipse occurred! Warriors of both armies were stunned. Both sides laid down their arms and concluded a peace. The Lydian king Alyattes gave his daughter in marriage to the Median king Astyages. Croesus, 560-546 Freed from Median threat, Lydia now turned to conquest of the Greek cities of Ionia and Aeolia. Alyattes’ son Croesus was able to subdue all the poleis except Miletus, which had signed a peace treaty with his father. Croesus adopted Greek religion, language, dress, and culture. He consulted Delphi. He built the world famous Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. His incredible wealth became proverbial. He introduced coins of pure gold and silver. Fall of the Medes and Lydia Croesus brother-in-law Astyages was ousted from the throne by the Persian Cyrus the Great. Croesus consulted Delphi about a pre-emptive attack. The oracle said, “if you cross the Halys you will destroy a mighty empire.” Cyrus turned him back and captured Sardis in 546. Croesus foolish attack had destroyed a mighty empire—his own. The fall of Lydia removed an important buffer between Greek mainland and the eastern empires. The Persians inherited Greek lands in western Asia Minor—and would look longingly to the Greek mainland. A Story About Croesus According to Herodotus, Cyrus built a great pyre and placed Croesus along with 14 Lydian youths on the top. While awaiting burning, Croesus recalled a conversation with the Athenian Solon about happiness. He had been offended that Solon thought only poorer men truly happy, but now he recognized Solon’s wisdom. He cried aloud, moaning the name of Solon. The fire was lit when Cyrus heard what Croesus had been crying about and ordered him spared—too late. Apollo heard Croesus’ prayer and sent a rain shower out of a clear sky to quench the flames. Croesus was carried into exile in Media. This story became as popular to the Greeks as “The Three Bears” is to us! Handwriting on the Wall The Persians conquered Babylon in 538 and killed the king Belshazzar. “Mene Mene Tekel Peres— Weighed in the balances and found wanting, your kingdom will be handed over to the Medes and Persians.” Darius succeeded Cambyses, Cyrus’ son and turned his attention to Greece, beginning with the campaign against Scythia and the conquest of Thrace. Darius ruled from 522-486 B.C. after he killed a usurper to the throne who claimed to be Cambyses’ brother. The Persian Machinery of Rule Darius centralized the Persian government at Persepolis. Darius divided the empire into satrapies. Satraps ruled them as a governor does a province. The title is from old Farsi for “protector.” Satraps were appointed by the king and were assessed an annual tribute. Persian king was viewed much like a demigod whose orders to labor or perform military service were unquestioned by his subjects. This was a hard pill for Greeks, who were used to more independence than Persian subjects. Ionian Rebellion Greeks were Persian subjects in western Asia Minor, or Ionia. Ionia and Lydia were two satrapies ruled by a single satrap at Sardis. Persians at first were content to allow tyrants to rule in Ionia, one of them was Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus. With the king’s blessing, Aristagoras attempted to annex the island of Naxos, but he was betrayed by the admiral of the Persian navy in the Aegean. Disillusioned with the Persians, Aristagoras led a failed revolt in 499 that overthrew tyrants in Ionia and enlisted the aid of Athens and Eretria. Revenge of the Persians In the Ionian rebellion, Athenians and Eretrians not only helped the rebels…they accidentally burned down Sardis, capital of the satrapy. The mainland Greeks left the city and marched to Ephesus. There they were met by a Persian force that defeated them. After the battle at Ephesus the mainland Greeks went home, but they were now on Darius’ radar. When told that the Athenians burned Sardis, Darius remarked, “Athenians? Who are they?” In 494, Miletus was defeated by the Persian navy. Aristagoras got away; Miletus’ men were carried off to the mouth of the Tigris; wives and kids enslaved. Athens braces for the Persians The defeat of Miletus depressed the Athenians. Athenians elected Themistocles archon and he adopted a policy of building defenses and fortifying harbors. In 492 the Persians conquered Thrace, Macedonia, and Thasos. In 490 the Persian navy landed a force in Greece, first burning Eretria and carrying off her people to central Asia. The Persians then sailed to the plains of Marathon in order to make a run at Athens. The Battle of Marathon August 490 How different the world would be today if the Athenians had suffered the same fate as the Eretrians! Preparing for the battle Marathon was a Peisistradid fortress about 26 miles northwest of Athens near the Aegean coast. Athens decided to meet the Persians rather than wait for them to come to Athens. They sent a runner, Philippides, to Sparta who ran the 140 miles in one day to ask for help. The Spartans would come as soon as possible, at the new moon. About 1000 Plataeans did come to Athens’ aid. The Athenians may have had 9000 of their own to face a Persian force of more than 20,000. The Battlefield The Battle Callimachus was the elected strategos who was advised by the brilliant Miltiades. The Athenians were in perfect position to engage the Persians. The Persians attempted to slip by on a southern route to Athens. The Athenians attacked their flank from the west, thin in the middle and strong on the sides (let me demonstrate…) According to Herodotus (who is probably right) the Greeks lost 192, the Persians 6400. The surviving Persians escaped to the fleet which tried to make a run at Piraeus. The Athenian army left a regiment to clean up and quick marched back to Athens and stared down the Persians. Athenian Soul Searching The Spartans arrived during the clean-up. The Persians were not done by a long shot. How best to fight the Persians in the future? Themistocles wanted to use a windfall silver strike from Laurium to build a navy, but Aristides opposed him. Aristides was “ostracized” and the navy built in 482. A Persian Comeback? Persians soon began to prepare for another invasion try. Darius died in 485 and was succeeded by Xerxes. After putting down rebellion in Egypt, he began to prepare to invade Greece. He built a canal in Chalcedon around Mt. Athos— strange to us, but necessary for his army and navy. In 484 Xerxes began to rebuild the navy. The Hellenic League 481 Thirty-one poleis met at Corinth to discuss the Persian problem. Athens, Aegina, and the Peloponnesian League cities formed an alliance. Sparta was given military command with the Athenian navy under their direction. The League decided to make a stand in central Greece at Thermopylae. Attica’s populace was evacuated to Salamis. The Battle of Thermopylae July 480 Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, That here, obeying their commands, we lie. A Place to Stand The Peloponnesians were most concerned with a defense of the Corinthian isthmus, but contributed soldiers to a defense of Attica. To protect eastern Greece the most feasible place of defense was Thermopylae (hot springs), a pass between the Malian Gulf and the Callidromus mountains in central Greece. Its only weakness was a mountainous bypass south of the pass that had to be secured. Spartan King Leonidas led the Greek army, which numbered about 7000 from a number of areas, including 300 Spartans. The Battle Begins The Greek fleet hovered nearby as did the Persian fleet, but the Persians lost hundreds of ships in two storms and this emboldened the natives, mostly Athenian. Leonidas dispatched 1000 Phocians to guard the mountain bypass. Xerxes arrived with his army, but waited four days, expecting a Greek retreat, then attacked on the fifth and sixth days. The Greeks’ spearmen were superior to the Persian archers and beat them back. Betrayal and Tragedy Xerxes decides to try the mountain bypass and a Malian Greek named Epialtes shows the way around the native armies to the “Immortals,” Xerxes’ personal guard. Phocians flee higher seeing Persian strength and stragglers report news to Leonidas. Leonidas dismisses all but 1400 of his forces to take up a new position. 300 Spartans guard the west end of the pass, 1100 Thebans and Thespians guard the east end. Leonidas charges oncoming Persians with his soldiers and is killed. A battle of Homeric proportions results to protect his body. All the Spartans are slain, Greek total losses in the thousands. The Battle of Salamis September 480 A heavy blow to the naval power of the Persians The Battle Begins When the Greek fleet heard of the fall of Thermopylae, they retreated to the shores of Attica. People of Attica had been removed to the island of Salamis. Persians marched into Athens and burned the Acropolis. Persian fleet thought they had the Greeks bottled up in a sound called the Bay of Eleusis between Attica and the island of Salamis. Persian fleet decided to go through to the bay by way of an entrance bisected by an island into two narrow straits on morning of September 20. The Battle Ends The Greeks divided the Persian fleet and drove their unwieldy ships into the shore. It was a disaster for the Persians under the view of Xerxes, enthroned on the Attican shore watching. The awful strategy of the Persian navy may actually have been invited by Themistocles, to force his Greeks to fight and not be tempted to withdraw to Corinth. Persian fleet retreats to the Hellespont. Xerxes leaves with 60,000 troops for Hellespont rendezvous. Platea: Spring 479 The last battle with the Persians in Europe took place near Platea, a city in extreme southeastern Boeotia. A Greek force of Spartans, Athenians, and Tegeans opposed a huge force of Persians and their Theban allies. Persian forces misperceived a weakness in the Spartan forces and attacked. The Spartans saw positive omens and attacked fiercely and crushed the Persians against a hillside. The battle was over before any Athenians could get involved. Persians fled to the Hellespont, the Greeks besieged Thebes. Mycale, Spring 479 The Greek fleet was positioned at the island of Delos. A message came from Greeks of the island of Samos, asking for liberation from the Persians. The Greek fleet under Xanthippus sailed to Samos, then pursued the retreating Persian navy to Cape Mycale where an army of Ionians and some Persians was camped. The Greeks blocked the Persians, then destroyed the land base when Ionian troops deserted the Persians. Ionia was free!
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