Treatment for H1N1 infection consists of administration of the antiviral drugs oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza). However, there is some evidence that H1N1 viruses can develop resistance to oseltamivir, which commonly is used as first-line treatment for infection. In October 2009 an intravenously administered antiviral known as peramivir, though not formally approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), was given emergency-use authorization for the treatment of hospitalized H1N1 patients who had not responded to oral or inhaled antivirals or who had life-threatening illness.
The spread of the virus can be controlled through basic sanitary practices, including washing hands, wearing face masks, and disinfecting potentially contaminated surfaces. However, the most effective method of prevention for high-risk persons, including young children, women who are pregnant, and individuals with compromised immune systems, is vaccination. When the H1N1 virus emerged, there were no vaccines available that could provide immunity against infection. However, the severity of the outbreak prompted the rapid development of a novel vaccine, which was tested in clinical trials beginning in early August 2009. Because the first vaccine tested required two doses, there was immediate concern that not enough vaccine could be manufactured before a potential second wave of illness arrived in the fall in the Northern Hemisphere. The vaccine also required a three-week wait between doses, introducing the possibility that it would not have time to take effect prior to the emergence of another period of high disease activity.
By September, pilot tests of novel single-dose vaccines—developed independently by Chinese biotechnology company Sinovac and Swiss pharmaceutical manufacturer Novartis AG—indicated that sufficient protection could be provided by one injection. Sinovac received approval from the Chinese government in early September to begin mass production of the vaccine, with the goal of generating enough of the agent to vaccinate 5 percent of the Chinese population by 2010. Efforts to increase the global supply of single-dose vaccines being developed by pharmaceutical companies around the world, as well as efforts to distribute these vaccines to countries affected by the pandemic, were considered vitally important to successfully stemming the spread of illness. To aid these efforts, WHO set a goal of obtaining some 200 million donated doses for allocation to 95 low- and middle-income countries. The first stocks of donated vaccine were scheduled for delivery to those countries between November 2009 and February 2010.
In late 2009 two types of H1N1 vaccines were made available: one that could be injected and one that could be inhaled. Whereas a single dose of vaccine was presumed to be sufficient for adolescents and adults, two doses were recommended for children between the ages of six months and nine years. An example of an injectable vaccine that was used against H1N1 was Pandemrix, which was developed by GlaxoSmithKline and was approved for use in September 2009 by the European Commission. Pandemrix was used widely, with doses administered in 47 countries worldwide and with some 30 million doses used in Europe alone.
In the postpandemic period, which began on Aug. 10, 2010, vaccination remained an important means of protection against H1N1 infection for high-risk populations, which included young children, pregnant women, and persons affected by underlying respiratory diseases or chronic illness. Many people, however, were wary of vaccination, primarily because of concerns of side effects. Such concerns were reinforced in 2011 when the Pandemrix vaccine was linked to an increase in incidence of narcolepsy, a disorder characterized by sudden uncontrollable spells of sleep. In Finland, for example, the risk of narcolepsy was found to be nine times higher in Pandemrix-vaccinated persons aged 4 to 19 compared with unvaccinated persons of the same age group. A review of Finland’s cases revealed that the Pandemrix vaccine increased the risk of narcolepsy primarily in persons who carried a genetic variation predisposing them to the disorder. Similar outbreaks of vaccine-associated narcolepsy in 11 other countries were under investigation. Despite the link to narcolepsy, health officials maintained that the benefits of H1N1 vaccination outweighed the risks of possible side effects.