WORLD’S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE
Vocabulary, Popular Phrases and Expressions, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives & More
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F O X
G P Y
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Distance 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 foot = 12 inches= 0.3048 meter 1 yard = 3 feet 1 mile = 5,280 feet 3 miles = 4.83 kilometers 1 acre = 43,560 square feet
Weight 1 ounce = 1/16 of a pound 1 pound = 16 ounces Liquid 1 pint = 0.5505 liter 1 quart = 2 pints 1 gallon = 4 quarts
DAYS OF THE WEEK
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday the weekend = Saturday, Sunday
MONTHS OF THE YEAR
January February March April May June
July August September October November December
THE SEASONS spring
• “What day is it?” • “Today is January 1st, 2001, a new century! ”
21- twenty-one 22- twenty-two 23- twenty-three 30- thirty 31- thirty-one 32- thirty-two 40- forty 41- forty-one 42- forty-two 50- fifty 51- fifty-one 60- sixty 70- seventy 80- eighty 90- ninety 100- one hundred 200- two hundred 1000- one thousand 10,000- ten thousand 1,000,000 - 1 million 1,000,000,000 - 1 billion
QB RC S D
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 100th 124th
A J S
0- zero 1- one 2- two 3- three 4- four 5- five 6- six 7- seven 8- eight 9- nine 10- ten 11- eleven 12- twelve 13- thirteen 14- fourteen 15- fifteen 16- sixteen 17- seventeen 18- eighteen 19- nineteen 20- twenty
There are twen ty-s ix letters in the English a l p habe t:
TIME The Past: - last week - the day before yesterday - yesterday
DIRECTIONS north south east west northeast northwest southeast southwest
The Present: - today The Future: - tomorrow - the day after tomorrow - next week
“How’s the weather?” “It’s sunny.” “What’s the temperature outside?”
The Time: “What time is it?” “It is a quarter of two.”
“It’s cold, it’s 20 degrees.” 1. It’s cloudy.
morning – AM (before noon) afternoon – PM (after noon) evening – after 7PM night 12 PM – noon 12 AM – midnight 2:10 AM – two ten (in the morning) 3:15 PM – three fifteen or quarter past three (in the afternoon) 4:30 PM – four thirty or half past four (in the evening) 5:35 AM – five thirty-five or twentyfive of six (in the morning) 11:45 PM – eleven forty-five or quarter of twelve (in the evening)
A FEW GREETINGS
first second third fourth fifth sixth seventh eighth ninth tenth one hundredth one hundred and twenty-fourth
HOW ARE YOU?
“How are you?” “What’s your name?” “Thank-you.” “Let me introduce you to Mary.” “Speak slowly, please.” “Goodbye.”
“I am fine, thank-you, and you?” “My name is Peter.” “You are welcome.” “Hello Mary, delighted to meet you.” “I am sorry.” GOODBYE “Goodbye, it was nice meeting you.”
NICE DAY! WHAT’S UP? Good morning GOOD EVENING Good evening 1
2. It’s freezing. 3. It’s cold. 4. It’s raining. 5. It’s snowing. 6. It’s stormy. 7. It’s sunny. 8. It’s hot. 9. It’s thundering. 10. It’s windy.
PLURAL NOUNS mouse, mice child, children
-Following are some irregular plurals:
Nouns are names for:
foot, feet ox, oxen louse, lice tooth, teeth man, men woman, women -Some nouns in English come from other languages and have foreign plurals: analysis, analyses hypothesis, hypotheses appendix, appendices, index, indices, indexes PLURAL appendixes medium,NOUNS media bacterium, bacteria memorandum, memoranda basis, bases oasis, oases cactus, cacti, cactuses parenthesis, parentheses crisis, crises phenomenon, phenomena criterion, criteria stimulus, stimuli curriculum, curricula syllabus, syllabi, syllabuses datum, data thesis, theses formula, formulae, vertebra, vertebrae formulas
Pronouns take the place of a noun; they are noun substitutes:
Common Nouns: building, planet, boy Proper Nouns: White House, Earth, George
There are two types of nouns:
Count Noun Noncount Noun a book, a store water, honesty Count Noncount [singular & plural] [no plural] two books some water some books some water a lot of books a lot of water many books much water a few books a little water -In grammar, noncount nouns cannot be counted. -The verb following a noncount noun is always singular. A lot of water passes under the bridge. -A noncount noun never takes the indefinite article a/an. -Here are a few common noncount noun categories and examples:
Whole groups mail food traffic
Big masses ice smoke paper
beauty luck music
hair salt sugar
French Arabic Spanish
weather heat soccer
Expressions of quantity come before a noun: -Some are used with only count nouns. -Some are used with only noncount nouns. -Some are used with both.
Expression of quantity:
Count noun: one book each/every book two/both/a couple of books three, etc. books a few/several books many/a number of books Noncount nouns: a little water much water a great deal of water For both count and noncount nouns: not any/no book/water some books/water a lot of/lots of/plenty of books/water most books/water books/water all
PLURALS OF NOUNS -For most regular plurals, add an -s to the word: (coins, apples)
Other Noun Plurals -When the singular ends in s, sh, ch, x, z; add -es (classes) -When the singular ends in o, add -s exceptions: tomatoes, potatoes, echoes, heroes -When the singular ends in y (preceded by a vowel), only -s is added (toys) by a consonant) -When the singular endsPLURAL in y (precededNOUNS -ies is added (babies)
Nouns that end in -f or -fe change to -ves endings: calf, calves half, halves knife, knives leaf, leaves
life, lives loaf, loaves self, selves scarf, scarves
shelf, shelves thief, thieves wolf, wolves
Exceptions: beliefs, chiefs, cliffs, roofs
PLURAL PLURAL NOUNS ARTICLES -Articles are words that modify nouns. -There are two types of articles:
People: boy, woman, Mary Places: New York, Paris, home, store Animals: dog, horse, worm Things: car, book, computer Ideas: honesty, beauty
DEFINITE ARTICLES (THE) Definite articles are used with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, and noncount nouns. -When the noun is known to the speakers: The car I have is very expensive. The question they want to ask is about homework. -When the noun is “the only one” of its kind: The sun rises in the east. The moon is full. The door is locked. (There is only one door.) -When the noun is a representative of a general class of items. The computer is the most important invention. The piano is a beautiful instrument.
INDEFINITE ARTICLES (A, AN)
-Indefinite articles are used with singular count nouns only: a bird, a boy, a book, a dictionary, a piece of cake. -Use an with a noun that begins with a vowel sound: an apple, an examination, an hour; (a university, a hotel because “university” and “hotel” begin with a consonant pronunciation). -When the noun is unknown to the speakers: I have a car. Mary has a test tomorrow. They want to ask a question. -When the noun is being introduced for the first time: A banana is usually yellow. A book is a good friend on a long trip.
NO ARTICLE Plural count nouns and noncount nouns do not need definite articles when they are referring to ALL of the items. Plural count nouns:
I love apples. The apples in this box are bad. Books are expensive. The books in that store are cheap. That store has computers. The computers they have are old.
(apples, in general) (specific apples) (books, in general) (specific books) (computers, in general) (specific computers)
I love coffee. The coffee in this cup is cold. Japanese enjoy rice. The rice I ate last night was good. Water is necessary. The water here isn’t good to drink.
(coffee, in general) (specific coffee) (rice, in general) (specific rice) (water, in general) (specific water)
REMEMBER: A singular count noun CANNOT appear alone. It must have; -an article: a book, the car, an uncle -a demonstrative: this TV, that radio, this newspaper OR -a possessive: my pen, her key, Mary’s room 2
boy = he book = it Mary = she
-Subject pronouns: (refer to the subject) I (I speak English) we you you he, she, it they -Object pronouns: (refer to the object of the verb) me (Jan called me.) us you you him, her, it them -Possessive Pronouns: (indicate ownership) mine (This book is mine.) ours yours yours his, hers, its theirs -Reflexive pronouns: (refer to the subject, sometimes used for emphasis) myself (I like to drive myself.) ourselves yourself yourselves himself, herself, itself themselves -The expression by + a reflexive pronoun usually means “alone” (He lives by himself.) -Indefinite pronouns (non-specific): everyone (Everyone has his or her idea.) everybody everything someone somebody something (Did I leave something on the table?) anyone anybody (Anybody is welcome.) anything no one (No one attended the meeting.) nobody nothing
-One means “any person, people in general.” (One should always be on time.) -You means “any person, people in general.” (I am lost; how do you get to the train station from here?)
ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES Adjectives give more information about nouns: -The following are called descriptive adjectives; they describe the noun. good student, bad student, intelligent student, hot day, hot food, cold day, cold food. -The following endings are often found on adjectives: -y (milky), -ous (joyous), -ful (hopeful), -able (workable), -less (helpless) Example: He is a joyous child.
COMPARISONS Two nouns with adjectives can be compared: -In most cases, add -er to an adjective to make a comparison. Earth is big. Uranus is bigger (than earth). Sugar is sweet. Honey is sweeter (than sugar). -In adjectives with more than two syllables, use more to compare. John is handsome. Peter is more handsome. Algebra is difficult. Calculus is more difficult.
When comparing more than two nouns with adjectives, use the superlative: ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES -Add the and -est to adjectives which use -er. Use ADJECTIVE the most with adjectives with more than two syllables. -Earth is big. Uranus is bigger. Jupiter is the biggest of all planets. -Algebra is difficult. Calculus is more difficult. Nuclear physics is the most difficult of all subjects.
-Describe ownership: my (My car is blue.) your his her its
our your their their their
-Prepositions are words that show a special relationship between two things. -Prepositions also answer such questions as where? when? and how? The students are in the library. (Where are they?) John is coming by bus. (How is he coming?) She leaves at 8:00 a.m. (When does she leave?)
against beside[s] from
-A sentence usually has a subject [S] and a verb [V]. People eat. Fish swim. Boys run. S V S V S V -Some sentences also have an object [O]. People eat food. S V O Mary enjoyed the movie. V O S They need passports. S V O -Some sentences also have an indirect object [IO]. John gave a present to me. IO John gave me a present. [no preposition] IO
Common Prepositions: about
-Singular this book (CLOSE to speaker) This book is red. that car (FAR from speaker) That book is blue. -Plural these houses (CLOSE to speaker) These books are red. those chairs (FAR from speaker) Those books are blue.
-Adverbs give information about verbs, adjectives and adverbs. -Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective: He spoke quickly. (adjective=quick) Adv They are extremely intelligent. Adv Adj She opened the box very carefully. Adv Adv -Adverbs often answer questions: Adverb Answer “How?” She opens the present quickly. “Where?” She opens the present inside. “When?” She opened the present yesterday. “To what extent?” She opens the present very quickly. -Adverbs express time (tomorrow, yesterday, today, early, late, etc.): John arrives tomorrow. -Frequency Adverbs (sometimes, usually, often, never, etc.) tell “how often” some action happens: “How often do you smoke?” “I never smoke.” 100% always
<=> usually often
50% => sometimes occasionally
0% <=> rarely never seldom not ever hardly ever
-Adverbs of frequency come BEFORE verbs [simple present & past] (usually comes, never ate, often do, never had): She usually comes at 8 PM. -They come AFTER the verb “be” [simple present & past] (is usually, are never, was often, were rarely): She is usually on time. -Frequency adverbs come BETWEEN an auxiliary and main verb (has always been, will never eat, had often come:) She has always been on time.
COMPARISON WITH ADVERBS -With one syllable adverbs, use -er when two persons or two things are compared: He came later than I did. She wakes up earlier than the rest of us do. Mary types faster than I do. -With three or more nouns add -est ( latest, earliest, slowest, etc.). Alice types fastest of all of us. -Most adverbs that end in -ly use the word more when comparing two verbs + adverbs: He runs more quickly (than his brother). She speaks more clearly (than her classmates). -When comparing more than two verbs and adverbs, use the most: He runs more quickly than his brother, but his cousin runs the most quickly (of the three). -Some adverbs change their forms completely when they are used in comparisons: well better best badly worse worst most more much less least little
THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
-Another way to show possession is with ’s. This book belongs to John. (John has a book.) ADJECTIVES This is John’s book. (It’s his book.) -If a noun is singular, use only ’s. the boy’s book the dog’s food the girl’s hat the man’s car -If a noun is plural, use only ’. the boys’ books the dogs’ food the girls’ hats -If a noun has an irregular plural with no s, then use ’s. the men’s cars the children’s toys -If a noun or name has an “s”, use either ’or ’s. Thomas’ book or Thomas’s book
at -Many verbs are followed by prepositions. -It is important to learn both the verb and the preposition. -The meaning of a verb will change depending on the preposition which follows it.
Verb and Preposition Combinations: get on
CONNECTING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES -An independent clause is a sentence [Subj + Vb] that has meaning when it stands by itself. I need help. S V She likes soccer. S V -Independent clauses can be combined with “connectors” or conjunctions which show the relationship between the first and second clause. -The first clause in all the examples below is the same; however, the second clauses are different. -AND signals an addition of equal importance: John is sick, and he is not going to school today. -BUT (YET) signals a contrast: John is sick, but he is going to school today. -OR signals choice: John is sick, or he is a very good actor. -SO signals a result: John is sick, so he is not going to school today. -FOR signals a reason: John is sick, for he got a cold in the rain. -Use a comma between the first independent clause and the second.
-When two subjects are connected, the subject closer to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural. (not only + noun + but also + noun): Not only my brother but also my sister is in Europe. (either + noun + or +noun): Either my brother or my sister will be in Europe. (neither + noun + nor + noun): Neither my brother nor my sister is in Europe. Neither my brothers nor my sisters are in Europe. -When two subjects are connected by both, they take a plural verb: both + noun + and + noun: Both my brother and my sister are in Europe. 3
-Basically, a sentence is a “clause.” -A clause has a subject and a verb. -There are two basic clauses in English: independent and dependent clauses. I’m going to the store because I need milk. [independent] [dependent] -The dependent clause needs the independent clause for complete meaning. -There are THREE types of DEPENDENT clauses in English. -Each of them has a name which describes what each does in a sentence: adjective clauses, noun clauses, and adverb clauses. -Adjective clauses work like adjectives; they give more information about nouns they are describing. -WHO is used for persons. -WHICH is used for things. -THAT is used for both. Examples: Which girl? Which doctor? Which actor died? Which book?
The girl who is talking is my cousin. I have a doctor who is very famous. The actor who was in that movie died last month. The book which you borrowed is my sister’s. The flight which we were taking was canceled.
-WHOSE is used for possession: My friend whose car was stolen went to the police. (his car) I met a girl whose mother is a pilot. (her mother is a pilot)
-Noun clauses are used like nouns. A noun can be a subject or an object in a sentence. A noun clause can also be a subject or an object of a sentence. Subjects of Sentence Lateness
Your coming late
That you came late
That he didn’t do his work
makes me angry.
His absence -When a noun clause is used as a subject, the word that must be used. -The subject it can also be used by placing the noun clause at the end of the sentence: It makes me angry that you came late. It makes me angry that he didn’t do his work. Objects of Sentence
Possession with ’s
*[that] your birthday is tomorrow.
*[that] Washington was the first president. *[that] is optional.
Question with auxiliary
They speak English.
DO they speak English?
Tomorrow. Two weeks ago. Now.
-They answer questions like when?, why?, how long?
DOES he smoke?
At home. Here. In New York.
-Adverb clauses show relationships between two sentences:
I am doing well.
AM I doing well?
Because I’m sick. To eat lunch.
-Time I’ve been here since I was young. They came after we had eaten dinner. The student stood when the teacher entered.
She is listening.
IS she listening?
Mary’s book. The man’s car.
We are leaving now.
ARE we leaving now?
She cooked dinner.
DID she cook dinner?
The math homework.
They arrived late.
DID they arrive late?
Quickly. By bus. Very well.
-Future Time Clauses
It was raining.
WAS it raining?
person [subject] The boy. Mary and John.
-When talking about the future:
They were working.
WERE they working?
person [object] The boy. Mary and John.
-The verb in the TIME CLAUSE is always present tense.
He will understand.
WILL he understand?
He will be leaving soon.
WILL he be leaving soon ?
He has been sick.
HAS he been sick?
They have eaten.
HAVE they eaten?
You have been eating well.
HAVE you been eating well?
-The main verb is future tense: When I get home, I will call you. Mary will be here when she finishes her work. When you press this button, the police will come. -Cause & Effect We can’t go swimming because it’s raining. It’s raining so we can’t go swimming. -Opposition Although it’s cold, I’m going swimming. She got a good grade even though she didn’t study. -Condition If it rains, we will cancel the picnic. I would have gone if I had known about the party. -Purpose She came early so that she could get a good seat.
-You can make a sentence negative by putting the word not with the auxiliary form of the verb. Verb Tense simple present
past continuous simple future
do not/does not
am not/is not/are not am not/aren’t/isn’t
was not/were not
have not/has not
pastperf continuous had been
had not been
will not have
futperf continuous will have been will not have been
won’t have been
-Do not use DOUBLE NEGATIVES, they are always incorrect. Correct: Don’t touch anything. Incorrect: Don’t touch nothing.
There are two kinds of questions:
? ? ?
1.Yes/No Questions (Require either a “yes” or “no” answer.) Subject
you and I
Has Mary eaten yet? -Remember that the auxiliary carries tense information and sometimes “number” information about the subject.
make sure the information is correct or to seek agreement: Mary can go, can’t she? Robert can’t come, can he?
you like coffee, don’t you? = yes, I do
-Negative sentence + affirmative tag = negative answer you don’t like coffee, do you? = no I don’t
-When asking a negative question, use not with the auxiliary and follow the same procedure for asking
Answers No, I didn’t.
Why weren’t you in class?
I was sick.
Hasn’t the mail come?
Yes, it has.
Didn’t you go last night?
Who didn’t come yesterday? [subject]John & I didn’t.
*Who in this sentence is asking a question about the
presperf continuous have/has been have not/has not been hadn’t/hasn’t been had
The dog. The car. The radio.
either “yes/no” or “WH“ questions.
questions, except the first word in a Wh-question is the WH-word, not the auxiliary.
2. “WH” Questions (To ask for specific information.) -“WH” questions follow the same pattern as yes/no
will not be
You will have been living here WILL you have been living here one year tomorrow. one year tomorrow?
-Affirmative sentence + negative tag = affirmative answer
HAD she been eating?
HAD they come early?
She had been eating.
HAS it been snowing a lot?
present continuous am/are/is simple past
It has been snowing a lot.
-Tag questions are added to the end of a sentence to
They had come early.
MAKING SENTENCES NEGATIVE
-Adverb clauses are used like adverbs.
SUBJECT of the sentence. When you are asking any kind of WH-question about the SUBJECT of the sentence, do not use an auxiliary in your question. Three children have been injured. [subject] HOW MANY CHILDREN have been injured? [no auxiliary] She has three children. [object] HOW MANY CHILDREN does she have? [auxiliary needed] The blue car has more power. [subject] WHICH CAR has more power? [no auxiliary] We prefer the blue car. [object] WHICH CAR do you prefer? [auxiliary needed] **Whom is used when asking a question about the
Be sure to further your knowledge of ESL with our
“ESL: VERBS” NEW!NEW!NEW! guide.
CREDITS Edited By: Liliane Arnet, M.A.
NOTE TO STUDENTS NOTE TO STUDENT: This QUICKSTUDY® guide is an outline of the major topics taught in ESL courses. Keep it handy as a quick reference source in the classroom, while doing homework, and as a memory refresher when reviewing prior to exams. Due to its condensed format, use it as a ESL guide, but not as a replacement for assigned class work.
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OBJECT of a sentence. -It is often very FORMAL. -Today, many people do not use the form whom; instead, they use “who.” -There is one exception: Whom are you talking to? TO whom are you talking?
-When a preposition comes before who, you must use WHOM, such as, for whom, by whom, with whom, against whom, etc. 4
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