by Nazarhayath Khan
To propose a `Water Layer’ addition in the GMM Tool with a justification and working details.
the GMM Mapping Tool was initially developed primarily keeping in view
the needs for the roads and places, it is not suited to handle the
`Water Features’ appropriately and comprehensively.
over the years, the primary focus has been on the roads and places. As
such, some areas such as the water, topology, ecology etc; and the
elements that fall under them, have been neglected and not mapped to the
desired extent and specificity. The oceans, the ocean currents and
their trade routes have not even been touched.
Paper aims to fill these gaps by proposing a dedicated `Water’ Layer
and improvements in the Mapping Tool to make it capable of handling
the required tasks.
proposed `Water’ Layer will enable the Mapper to get an uncluttered
view by choosing only one or more Layers. And, similarly, the Viewer or
the User could select only this Layer if he wishes see/print only the
To recommend a proposal along the existing Map Maker format of `Point of Interest’, `Line Feature’ and `Polygon’.
provide Definitions of the proposed features, for the benefit of
Mapper, based on the international standards (IUCN etc); and where
international standards are not available, use the universally available
public sources such as the Wiki/other. The definitions to provide
distinguishing characteristics to allow discerning among the similar
features. The Definitions also to provide examples of features where
To propose appropriate symbols/colours for display on Map.
To propose mapping attributes (size, shape, grade level etc) associated with features.
Table of ContentsPart 1 : Categories, Sub-categories, Sub-sub-categoriesPart 2 : Definitions (IUCN/Wiki)
Since the Mappers come from diverse backgrounds and with varying
educational background, the Definitions are intentionally kept detailed
in order to provide them a good understanding of features that is to be
Part 1 : Categories, Sub-categories, Sub-sub-categories
covers approximately 70 percent of the Earth’s surface. Only 2.5
percent of the Earth’s water is fresh. Of that 2.5 percent, more than
two-thirds is locked up in the
glaciers. The most abundant and available source of fresh water is
underground water supplies or wellsprings known as `aquifers’. On Earth,
99% of glacial ice is contained within the vast ice sheets in the polar
regions, but glaciers may also be found in mountain ranges of every
continent except Australia. In the tropics, glaciers occur only on high
- Water Line Feature
- Blue line with inbuilt arrows to indicate direction of flow of water. (A to B & B to A like roads)
Water Navigation Route will be applicable to:
Ocean currents (e.g. Gulf Stream)
Black Dashes with arrows to indicate direction of the ocean current.
Water Polygon colour (for rivers, canals, lakes etc)
Light transparent blue shade to make the features below visible.
Points of Interest
High tide zone
Formed by 2 or more small channels
Avg. width 30 M + (Mapper’s discretion)
Avg. width 10 M – (Mapper’s discretion)
Avg. width 10 M + (Mapper’s discretion)
Polygon making techniques
Big polygon (like Dam’s water reservoir)
Mark points to make a small polygon in the centre
Press `Enter’ - left pane appears
Add details like `name’
Now pull the small circles to outwards towards the edges
Each pull will create more small circles
Make finer adjustments
Press `Save’ to finish
Line feature polygon (like River)
Mark points to make a small polygon at the starting point
Press `Enter’ - left pane appears
Add details like `name’
Pull the small circle, in a Left-Right manner, one by one along the route of the line feature
Polygon will keep getting created along the route
Press `Save’ to finish
Presently, there are editing difficulties with polygons like finding the name and place to right-click.
Suggest Text Font size of name should vary with size of polygon. A big polygon should have the Name in bigger Fonts.
A right-click on the polygon name should open up the Edit Menu.
Water Polygon Colour/Map display
Water (nameless water like floods)
Landmass (to create land out of water)
Island (to create island out of water)
Water-related Ecosystem Systems/Areas
Map colour display
Water-logged saline area
Marine Protected Area
Fresh water ecosystem
Water Theme Park
Part 2 - Definitions
is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule
contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds.
Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth
with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state (water vapor or steam).
Water also exists in a liquid crystal state near hydrophilic surfaces.
Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known
forms of life. On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large
water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in
the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles
suspended in air), and precipitation. Oceans hold 97% of surface water,
glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as
rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small amount of the Earth's water
is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products
glacier is a large persistent body of ice. Originating on land, a
glacier flows slowly due to stresses induced by its weight. Many
glaciers store water during one season and release it later as
melt-water, a water source that is especially important for plants,
animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. Glacial ice is
the largest reservoir of freshwater on Earth.
is water frozen into the solid state. It can appear transparent or
opaque bluish-white color, depending on the presence of impurities or
air inclusions. The addition of other materials such as soil may further
alter the appearance. The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs
when liquid water is cooled below 0°C (273.15K, 32°F) at standard
atmospheric pressure. It can also deposit from vapour with no
intervening liquid phase, such as in the formation of frost. Ice appears
in nature in forms of snowflakes, hail, icicles, glaciers, pack ice,
and entire polar ice caps. It is an important component of the global
climate, and plays an important role in the water cycle.
channel is a physical confine of water formed due to run off water. A
channel is also used in generic term like British channel. A major
process of formation of channels is the melt-water from glaciers. Small
channels formed from glacier melt-water combine to make bigger channels
that result in the formation of river. Satellite imagery clearly
displays these channels below the glacier top on each face of the
mountain that looks like a water tree.
river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an
ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply
flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another
body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names,
including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, tributary and rill; there is no
general rule that defines what can be called a river, although in some
countries or communities a stream may be defined by its size. A river is
part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally
collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater
recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and
snowpacks (e.g., from glaciers).
waterway is any navigable body of water. Waterways can include rivers,
lakes, seas, oceans, and canals used for carrying ships, boats, barges
etc for shipping goods and conveying people. In order for a waterway to
be navigable, it must meet several criteria: the waterway must be wide
enough to allow passage for the beam width of the vessels using it; the
waterway must be free of barriers to navigation such as waterfalls and
rapids, or have a way around them (such as canal locks and boat lifts);
the current of the waterway must be mild enough to allow vessels to make
headway.The waterway must be deep enough to allow the draft depth of
the vessels using it.
aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater
can be usefully extracted using a water well. Related terms include
aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and
aquiclude (or aquifuge), which is a solid, impermeable area underlying
or overlying an aquifer. If the impermeable area overlies the aquifer,
pressure could cause it to become a confined aquifer.
sea generally refers to a large body of salt water, but the term is
used in other contexts as well. Most commonly, the term refers to a
large expanse of saline water connected with an ocean, and is commonly
used as a synonym for ocean. It is also used sometimes to describe a
large saline lake that lacks a natural outlet, such as the Caspian Sea.
ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the
hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by
ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into
several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area
is over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around
35 parts per thousand (‰) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a
salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ‰. Scientists estimate that 230,000
marine species are currently known, but the total could be up to 10
times that number.
ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water
generated by the forces acting upon this mean flow, such as breaking
waves, wind, Coriolis force, temperature and salinity differences and
tides caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. Depth
contours, shoreline configurations and interaction with other currents
influence a current's direction and strength.
currents can flow for great distances, and together they create the
great flow of the global conveyor belt which plays a dominant part in
determining the climate of many of the Earth’s regions. Perhaps the most
striking example is the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much
more temperate than any other region at the same latitude. Another
example is the Hawaiian Islands, where the climate is cooler
(sub-tropical) than the tropical latitudes in which they are located,
due to the effect of the California Current.
High Tide Zone
are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of
the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the
rotation of the Earth. The area that falls under water during high tide
is known as high tide zone.
places in the ocean usually experience two high tides and two low tides
each day (semidiurnal tide), but some locations experience only one
high and one low tide each day (diurnal tide). The times and amplitude
of the tides at the coast are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and
Moon, by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean and by the shape of the
coastline and near-shore bathymetry
vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to numerous
influences. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations
measure the water level over time. Gauges ignore variations caused by
waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the
reference (or datum) level usually called mean sea level.
tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level
fluctuations, sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and
barometric pressure changes, resulting in storm surges, especially in
shallow seas and near coasts.
lake is a body of relatively still fresh or salt water of considerable
size, localized in a basin that is surrounded by land. Lakes are inland
and not part of the ocean, and are larger and deeper than ponds. Lakes
can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing.
However most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams. Natural
lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas
with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are found in low lying basins or
along the courses of mature rivers. Many lakes are artificial and are
constructed for industrial or agricultural use, for hydro-electric power
generation or domestic water supply, or for aesthetic or recreational
pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is
usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water
are classified as ponds, including water gardens and water features; all
designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural
features, while fish ponds are designed for commercial fish breeding,
and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.
wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either
permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or
completely by shallow pools of water. Wetlands include swamps, marshes,
and bogs, among others. The water found in wetlands can be saltwater,
freshwater, or brackish. The world's largest wetland is the Pantanal
which straddles Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay in South America.
are considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems. In
many locations, such as the United Kingdom, Iraq, South Africa and the
United States, wetlands are the subject of conservation efforts and
Biodiversity Action Plans.
Wetlands also serve as natural wastewater purification systems—e.g., in Calcutta and Arcata.
are an area of water mostly surrounded by land. Bays generally have
calmer waters than the surrounding sea, due to the surrounding land
blocking some waves and often reducing winds. Bays also exist as an
inlet in a lake or pond.
and gulfs were significant in the history of human settlement because
they can provide a safe place for fishing. Later they were important in
the development of sea trade as the safe anchorage they encouraged their
selection as ports. Any bay may contain fish and other sea creatures or
be adjacent to other bays, for example, James Bay is adjacent to Hudson
Bay. Large bays, such as the Bay of Bengal and the Hudson Bay, have
varied marine geology.
A cove is a circular or oval coastal inlet with a narrow entrance; some coves may be referred to as bays.
estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more
rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the
open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments
and ocean environments and are subject to both marine influences, such
as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine
influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflow of
both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of nutrients in both
the water column and sediment, making estuaries among the most
productive natural habitats in the world.
are typically classified by their geomorphological features or by water
circulation patterns and can be referred to by many different names,
such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets, or sounds, although sometimes
these water bodies do not necessarily meet the above criteria of an
estuary and may be fully saline.
are amongst the most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with
about 60% of the world’s population living along estuaries and the
coast. As a result, estuaries are suffering degradation by many factors,
including sedimentation from soil erosion from deforestation;
overgrazing and other poor farming practices; overfishing; drainage and
filling of wetlands.
Coast, Coastal zone
coastline is where the land meets the sea or ocean. A precise line that
can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the dynamic
nature of tides. The term "coastal zone" can be used instead, which is a
spatial zone where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs.
Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic
location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast, or the East
and West Coasts of the United States.
shore, on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin
any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake
shore). Similarly, the somewhat related term "bank" refers to the land
alongside or sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water
smaller than a lake. "Bank" is also used in some parts of the world to
refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a
river or pond. In other places this may be called a levee.
flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land.The EU
Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of
land not normally covered by water. In the sense of "flowing water", the
word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result
from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or
lake, which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the
water escapes its usual boundaries.
the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal
changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood
unless such escapes of water endanger land areas used by man like a
village, city or other inhabited area. Floods can also occur in rivers,
when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at
bends or meanders. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if
they are placed in natural flood plains of rivers. While flood damage
can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies
of water, but since ages, people have lived and worked by the water to
seek sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and
commerce by being near water. That humans continue to inhabit areas
threatened by flood damage is evidence that the perceived value of
living near the water exceeds the cost of repeated periodic flooding.
aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem located in a body of water.
Communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and on their
environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of aquatic
ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.
ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain
approximately 97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the
world's net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater
ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in
the water. Approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are
sodium and chlorine. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per
thousand (ppt) of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine
Marine ecosystems can be divided into the following zones:
Oceanic (the open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live); profundal (bottom or deep water)
Benthic (bottom substrates)
Intertidal (the area between high and low tides)
Hydrothermal vents (where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the food base).
of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae,
dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fish
caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest source of commercial foods
obtained from wild populations.
problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable
exploitation of marine resources (for example overfishing of certain
species), marine pollution, climate change, and building on coastal
Fresh Water Ecosystem
ecosystems cover 0.80% of the Earth's surface and inhabit 0.009% of its
total water. They generate nearly 3% of its net primary production.
Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species.
There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:
Lentic: slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.
Lotic: rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers.
Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time.
Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones:
Pelagic (open offshore waters)
Littoral (nearshore shallow waters)
Riparian (the area of land bordering a body of water).
important subclasses of lakes are ponds, which typically are small
lakes that intergrade with wetlands, and water reservoirs. Many lakes,
or bays within them, gradually become enriched by nutrients and fill in
with organic sediments, a process called eutrophication. Eutrophication
is accelerated by human activity within the water catchment area of the
reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by
corals. Corals are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine
waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony
corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. These
polyps secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect
their bodies. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and
called “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs form some of the most
diverse ecosystems on Earth. They occupy less than one tenth of one
percent of the world ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet
they provide a home for twenty-five percent of all marine species,
including fish, molluscs, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges,
tunicates and other cnidarians. Paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even
though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients.
They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but
deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other
reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline
protection. The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been
estimated at $US375 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile
ecosystems, partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature.
They are under threat from climate change, ocean acidification, blast
fishing, cyanide fishing for aquarium fish, overuse of reef resources,
and harmful land-use practices, including urban and agricultural runoff
and water pollution, which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae
Protected Landscape/seascape (IUCN Cat V)
and Seascapes that fall into this category should represent an integral
balance between people and nature, and can sustain activities such as
traditional agricultural and forestry systems on conditions that ensure
the continued protection or restoration of the area.
V is one of the more flexible classifications of protected areas. As a
result, protected Landscapes and Seascapes may be able to accommodate
contemporary developments such as ecotourism at the same time as
maintaining the historical management practices that may procure the
sustainability of agrobiodiversity and aquatic biodiversity.
Marine Protected area MPA
protected areas, like any protected area, are regions in which human
activity has been placed under some restrictions in the interest of
conserving the natural environment, it's surrounding waters and the
occupant ecosystems, and any cultural or historical resources that may
require preservation or management. Marine Protected Areas' boundaries
will include some area of ocean, even if it is only a small fraction of
the total area of the territory. Natural or historic marine resources
are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or
national authorities and may differ substantially from nation to nation.
This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing
practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings, bans on removing
or disrupting marine life of any kind. In some situations (such as with
the Phoenix_Islands_Protected_Area), MPA's also provide revenue for
countries, often of equal size as the income that they would have if
they were to grant companies permissions to fish.
As of 2010, the world hosted more than 6,800 MPAs, encompassing 1.17% of the world's oceans.
Protected Areas are included on the World Database on Protected Areas
(WDPA), which, since 2010 is viewable via Protected Planet, an online
interactive search engine hosted by the United Nations Evironment
Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Center (UNEP-WCMC).
that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of
Florida, the Pantanal of Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del
Ibera in Argentina.They are classified with flooded savannas as the
flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics
water-meadow (also water meadow or watermeadow) is an area of grassland
subject to controlled irrigation to increase agricultural productivity.
Water-meadows were mainly used in Europe from the 16th to the early
20th centuries. Working water-meadows have now largely disappeared, but
the field patterns and water channels of derelict water-meadows remain
common in areas where they were used, such as parts of Italy,
Switzerland and England. Derelict water-meadows are often of importance
as wetland wildlife habitats.
should not be confused with flood-meadows, which are naturally covered
in shallow water by seasonal flooding from a river. "Water-meadow" is
sometimes used more loosely to mean any level grassland beside a river.
flood-meadow (or floodmeadow) is an area of grassland or pasture beside
a river, subject to seasonal flooding. Flood-meadows are distinct from
water-meadows in that the latter are artificially created and
maintained, with flooding controlled on a seasonal and even daily basis.
dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams
generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other
structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used
to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. Hydropower
and hydroelectricity are often used in conjunction with dams to generate
electricity. A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of
water which can be evenly distributed between locations.
barrage is a type of dam which consists of a line of large gates that
can be opened or closed to control the amount of water passing the dam.
The gates are set between flanking piers which are responsible for
supporting the water load. They are often used to control and stabilize
water flow of rivers for irrigation systems.
to the World Commission on Dams, a key difference between a barrage and
a dam is that a dam is built for storing water in a reservoir, which
raises the level of water significantly. A barrage is built for
diverting water, and is generally built on flat terrain across wide
meandering rivers, raising the water level only a few feet.
that are commonly used to dam a lagoon or estuary as a method to
capture tidal power from tidal inflows are known as tidal barrages.
are man-made channels for water. Those connected to existing lakes,
rivers, or oceans. Included are inter-basin canals, such as the Suez
Canal, Erie Canal, and the Panama Canal.
are man-made Bridges, Overpass, Underpasses, Tunnel or similar
structures that enable water channels, rivers or canals to cross
over/under another feature that is on surface. An aqueduct is a water
supply or navigable channel (conduit) constructed to convey water. In
modern engineering, the term is used for any system of pipes, ditches,
canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. In a more
restricted use, aqueduct (occasionally water bridge) applies to any
bridge or viaduct that transports water—instead of a path, road or
railway—across a gap. Large navigable aqueducts are used as transport
links for boats or ships. Aqueducts must span a crossing at the same
level as the watercourses on each side.
are adjustable gates used to control water flow in flood barriers,
reservoir, river, stream, or levee systems. They may be designed to set
spillway crest heights in dams, to adjust flow rates in sluices and
canals, or they may be designed to stop water flow entirely as part of a
levee or storm surge system. Since most of these devices operate by
controlling the water surface elevation being stored or routed, they are
also known as crest gates. In the case of flood bypass systems,
floodgates sometimes are also used to lower the water levels in a main
river or canal channels by allowing more water to flow into a flood
bypass or detention basin when the main river or canal is approaching a
hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the force
or energy of moving water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes.
Prior to the development of electric power, hydropower was used for
irrigation, and operation of various machines, such as watermills,
textile machines, sawmills, dock cranes, and domestic lifts.
is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the
production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational
force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of
renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the
project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output
level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel
powered energy plants.
weir is a small overflow dam used to alter the flow characteristics of a
river or stream. In most cases weirs take the form of a barrier across
the river that causes water to pool behind the structure (not unlike a
dam), but allows water to flow over the top. Weirs are commonly used to
alter the flow regime of the river, prevent flooding, measure discharge
and to help render a river navigable.
allow hydrologists and engineers a simple method of measuring the
volumetric flow rate in small to medium-sized streams, or in industrial
discharge locations. Since the geometry of the top of the weir is known,
and all water flows over the weir, the depth of water behind the weir
can be converted to a rate of flow. The calculation relies on the fact
that fluid will pass through the critical depth of the flow regime in
the vicinity of the crest of the weir. If water is not carried away from
the weir, it can make flow measurement complicated or even impossible.
fishing weir, or fish weir, is an obstruction placed in tidal waters or
wholly or partially across a river, which is designed to hinder the
passage of fish. Traditionally they were built from wood or stones. They
can be used to trap fish. For example, salmon and other fish can be
trapped when they attempt to swim upstream, or eels can be trapped when
they attempt to migrate downstream.
Alternatively, fish weirs can be used to redirect fish elsewhere, such as to a fish ladder.
watermill is a structure that uses a water wheel or turbine to drive a
mechanical process such as flour, lumber or textile production, or metal
shaping (rolling, grinding or wire drawing).
water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of free-flowing or
falling water into useful forms of power. A water wheel consists of a
large wooden or metal wheel, with a number of blades or buckets arranged
on the outside rim forming the driving surface. Most commonly, the
wheel is mounted vertically on a horizontal axle, but the tub or Norse
wheel is mounted horizontally on a vertical shaft. Vertical wheels can
transmit power either through the axle or via a ring gear and typically
drive belts or gears; horizontal wheels usually directly drive their
wheels were still in commercial use well into the 20th century, but
they are no longer in common use. Prior uses of water wheels include
milling flour in gristmills and grinding wood into pulp for paper
making, but other uses include foundry work and machining, and pounding
linen for use in the manufacture of paper.
water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a
flowing stream is dammed. A channel for the water flowing to or from a
water wheel is called a mill race (also spelled millrace) or simply a
"race", and is customarily divided into sections. The race bringing
water from the mill pond to the water wheel is a headrace; the one
carrying water after it has left the wheel is commonly referred to as a
main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water,
which limits where they can be located. Modern hydroelectric dams can be
viewed as the descendants of the water wheel as they too take advantage
of the movement of water downhill.
are structures constructed on coasts as part of coastal defence or to
protect an anchorage from the effects of weather and longshore drift.
harbor or harbour (see spelling differences), or haven, is a place
where ships, boats, and barges can seek shelter from stormy weather, or
else are stored for future use. Harbors can be natural or artificial. An
artificial harbor has deliberately-constructed breakwaters, sea walls,
or jettys, or otherwise, they could have been constructed by dredging,
and these require maintenance by further periodic dredging. An example
of the former kind is at Long Beach Harbor, California, and an example
of the latter kind is San Diego Harbor, California, which was, under
natural conditions, too shallow for modern merchant ships and
warships. In contrast, a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides
by prominences of land. An example of this kind of harbor is San
Francisco Bay, California.
port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors
where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land. Port
locations are selected to optimize access to land and navigable water,
for commercial demand, and for shelter from wind and waves. Ports with
deeper water are rarer, but can handle larger, more economical ships.
Since ports throughout history handled every kind of traffic, support
and storage facilities vary widely, may extend for miles, and dominate
the local economy. Some ports have an important military role.
Warm water port
jetty is any of a variety of structures used in river, dock, and
maritime works that are generally carried out in pairs from river banks,
or in continuation of river channels at their outlets into deep water;
or out into docks, and outside their entrances; or for forming basins
along the sea-coast for ports in tideless seas. The forms and
construction of these jetties are as varied as their uses (directing
currents or accommodating vessels), for they are formed sometimes of
high open timber-work, sometimes of low solid projections, and
occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their object. The term
derived from the French word jetée, "thrown", and signifies something
thrown out. Jetties at the coast that have been raised and extended,
help prevent long shore drift, so therefore slowing down beach erosion.
watercraft is a vessel or craft designed to move across or through
water. The name is derived from the term "craft" which was used to
describe all types of water going vessels. The term craft has since been
expanded to include all types of vessels which travel on water
(watercraft), in air (aircraft) and in space (spacecraft).
watercraft would be described as either a ship or a boat. However,
there are a number of craft which many people would consider neither a
ship nor a boat, such as: canoes, kayaks, rafts, barges, catamarans,
hydrofoils, windsurfers, surfboards (when used as a paddle board), jet
skis, underwater robots, seaplanes, and torpedoes.
Although ships are typically larger than boats, the distinction between those two categories is not one of size per se.
Ships typically are large ocean-going vessels. Boats are smaller and travel most often on inland or coastal waters.
ship is a large vessel that floats on water. Ships are generally
distinguished from boats based on size and cargo or passenger capacity.
Ships may be found on lakes, seas, and rivers and they allow for a
variety of activities, such as the transport of people or goods,
fishing, entertainment, public safety, and warfare. Historically, a ship
referred to a vessel with sails rigged in a specific manner.
boat is a watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane, to
provide passage across water. Usually this water will be inland (lakes)
or in protected coastal areas. However, boats such as the whaleboat were
designed to be operated from a ship in an offshore environment. In
naval terms, a boat is a vessel small enough to be carried aboard
another vessel (a ship). Another less restrictive definition is a vessel
that can be lifted out of the water.
barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal
transport of heavy goods. Some barges are not self-propelled and need to
be towed by tugboats or pushed by towboats. Canal barges, towed by
draft animals on an adjacent towpath, contended with the railway in the
early industrial revolution, but were outcompeted in the carriage of
high-value items due to the higher speed, falling costs, and route
flexibility of rail.
trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways
and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. Allowing goods
to reach distant markets, a single trade route contains long distance
arteries which may further be connected to several smaller networks of
commercial and non commercial transportation.
the period from 1250 BCE–153 CE saw the Western Asian, Mediterranean,
Chinese and Indian societies develop major transportation networks for
trade. Europe's early trading routes included the Amber Road, which
served as a dependable network for long distance trade. Maritime trade
along the Spice route became prominent during the Middle Ages; nations
resorted to military means for control of this influential route. During
the Middle Ages organizations such as the Hanseatic League, aimed at
protecting interests of the merchants and trade, also became
levee, levée, dike (or dyke), embankment, floodbank or stopbank is a
natural or artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels. It is
usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river or the
seawall (also written as sea wall) is a form of coastal defence
constructed where the sea impacts directly upon the landforms of the
coast. Its prime purpose is to modify the potentially destructive action
of tides and waves such that areas of human habitation, conservation,
leisure and economic activities, are protected in the long term from the
effects of erosion and / or flooding.
the destructive natural forces that seawalls are constantly subjected
to, maintenance (and eventually replacement) is an ongoing requirement
if they are to provide effective long term defence. The many types of
seawall in use today reflects both the varying physical forces they have
to withstand, and location-specific aspects (e.g. local climate,
coastal position, wave regime and value of landform being protected).
once considered a wide-ranging 'hard' coastal management solution,
their effect on adjacent areas of the coast, (particularly in terms of
sediment movement) and their high cost has led to the increasing use of
other 'softer' coastal management options such as beach replenishment.