In Canada, as in several parts of the world, many children grow up in multiple linguistic contexts. They often live, learn, and interact in different languages at home, at school, and in other contexts.
A number of research studies have demonstrated that it is beneficial for children to grow up bilingual from their earliest years (see Ellen Bialystok’s work for example). A summary of the research is available here. Bilingual children are better able to understand others’ perspectives and adapt their communication accordingly. They achieve higher scores than monolingual children on a number of cognitive ability tests – including mental flexibility and problem-solving. Some of these cognitive benefits can be seen as early as 7 months of age in babies who were exposed to two languages since birth (Kovacs & Mehler, 2009). Some of the most important cognitive benefits enjoyed by bilingual children are in the area of executive function – such as cognitive flexibility, attention, and control. These skills are critical for cognitive functioning. Bilingualism also seems to have protective effects against the onset of cognitive decline in old age (Bialystok, Craik, & Luk, 2012). So, early bilingualism can be a significant cognitive advantage for lifelong development.
The challenge for early bilingualism, however, arises when there is no apparent overlap between the home language(s) and the language(s) of schooling. In these contexts, when children enter the school system, the adjustment process for them and their families can be rough. Children and families need to acquire the language of schooling, while at the same time maintaining their home language:
- Children’s – and their families’ – successful acquisition of the language of schooling is critical for children’s transition to the schooling environment, for their ability to participate and learn at school, and for their parents’ involvement and engagement in their schooling and education. All of these (transition to school, participation at school, and parent engagement) are critical determinants for children’s long-term academic and social success.
- At the same time, it is important to support the family’s maintenance of the home language, which is valuable for a myriad of reasons, including the ability to benefit from and participate in the richness of the family’s cultural and linguistic heritages, the cognitive advantages of bilingualism described earlier, and the lifelong capacity to interact with and learn from others in an increasingly interconnected multi-cultural and multi-lingual world.
Schools and communities play an important role in supporting both the home language and the language of schooling at this critical transition point. If children and families are not well supported in their dual language learning, there can be detrimental effects.
So, in a context where there is no overlap between the home language(s) and the language(s) of schooling, how do we support children’s and families’ acquisition of the language of schooling while maintaining their home language?
Last week I sent an email to the Exploring Childhood Studies list-serv, asking for information, ideas, and resources on this very topic. (If you are interested in being connected with a diverse group of helpful childhood studies scholars, I recommend you join this list-serv.) I received a number of helpful suggestions and connections from the group, and thought I would share them here so that they would reach a wider audience. I have also added to this list resources that I have found myself over the past few weeks.
Resources for second language learning / early bilingualism / dual language learning / supporting the multilingual development of minority-language children:
- Mela Sarkar at the Department of Integrated Studies at McGill University
- Jim Cummins at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (University of Toronto) and his web resource ESL and Second Language Learning Web
- Antonella Sorace at the University of Edinburgh and her web resource Bilingualism Matters
- Patton Tabors of the Harvard Graduate School of Education
- Tove Skutnabb-Kangas
- Roma Chumak-Horbatsch at Ryerson University and her web resource MyLanguage.ca
- Linguistically Appropriate Practice: A Guide for Working With Young Immigrant Children (2013). By Roma Chumak-Horbatsch. University of Toronto Press. Summary here.
- Welcoming Linguistic Diversity in Early Childhood Classrooms: Learning from International Schools (2011). In the introductory chapters, the book reviews some of the recent literature on second-language acquisition and best practices.
- One Child, Two Languages: A Guide for Early Childhood Educators of Children Learning English as a Second Language (2nd edition, 2008). By Patton O. Tabors.
- Bialystok, E. (2008). Second-language acquisition and bilingualism at an early age and the impact on early cognitive development (pdf). Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development.
- Bialystok, E., & Viswanathan, M. (2009). Components of executive control with advantages for bilingual children in two cultures. Cognition, 112(3), 494–500.
- Brock, C. (2001). Serving English language learners: placing learners learning on center stage. Language Arts, 78(5), 467–475.
- Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., Lively, T. J., et al. (2008). Closing the gap: addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(2), 188–215.
- Castro, D. C., Pa, M. M., Dickinson, D. K., & Frede, E. (1998). Promoting language and literacy in young dual language learners: research, practice, and policy. Child Development Perspectives, 5(1), 15–21.
- Chen, J. J., & Shire, S. H. (2011). Strategic teaching: fostering communication skills in diverse young learners. Young Children, 66(2).
- Chumak-Horbatsch, R. (2008). Early bilingualism: children of immigrants in an English-language childcare center. Psychology of Language and Communication, 12(1), 3–27.
- De Houwer, A. (1999). Two or more languages in early childhood: some general points and practical recommendations. Center for Applied Linguistics Digest.
- Geva, E. (2006). Learning to read in a second language: research, implications, and recommendations for services (pdf). Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development.
- Gillanders, C., & Castro, D. C. (2011). Storybook reading for young dual language learners. Young Children, 66(1), 91.
- Oral language and early literacy in preschool: talking, reading, and writing. (2004). Reading Today, 21(6), 31.
- Pascopella, A. (2011). Successful strategies for English language learners. District Administration, 29–44.
- Roessingh, H. (2011). Family treasures: a dual-language book project for negotiating language, literacy, culture, and identity. Canadian Modern Language Review, 67(1), 123–148.
- Tabors, P. O. (1998). What early childhood educators need to know: developing effective programs for linguistically and culturally diverse children and families. Young Children, November, 20–26.
- Zepeda, M., Castro, D. C., & Cronin, S. (2011). Preparing early childhood teachers to work with young dual language learners. Child Development Perspectives, 5(1), 10–14.
- What Does the Research Say about Dual Language Learners? – Illinois Early Learning Project
- Second Language: What Do We Know? – Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development
- Strategies for Supporting All Dual Language Learners (pdf) – Head Start USA
- Dual Language Learners in the Early Years: Getting Ready to Succeed in School (pdf) – National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition
- Language Castle: a resource for those teaching young children who speak different languages
- Multilingual books – list of websites
Thanks to everyone who has sent information and resources my way. Please feel free share thoughts, ideas, and additional resources in the comments section.