History -The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines
some 30,000 years ago from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans
followed in successive waves. These people belonged to a primitive epoch
of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among
certain groups such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later
had more highly developed material cultures.
the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into
the southern islands and extended their influence as far north as Luzon.
The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were those in the
Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
Magellan. Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New
Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos, who in 1542 named the islands
for the infante Philip, later Philip II.
Spanish Control - The conquest
of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when
another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel López de Legaspi,
arrived. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent
communities that previously had known no central rule. By 1571, when
López de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site
of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish foothold
in the Philippines was secure, despite the opposition of the Portuguese,
who were eager to maintain their monopoly on the trade of East Asia.
Manila repulsed the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574.
For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had traded with
the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands
until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance
in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came
to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603
the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres
of the Chinese).
The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the advice
of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the
Filipinos, who resented the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th
cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying
on a flourishing trade with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines
supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly laden
galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked
by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters,
and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the
Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East
Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the
Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Moros. Intermittent campaigns
were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the
middle of the 19th cent. As the power of the Spanish Empire waned, the
Jesuit orders became more influential in the Philippines and acquired
great amounts of property.
Revolution, War, and U.S. Control - It was
the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought
about the rising sentiment for independence. Spanish injustices, bigotry,
and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired
by the brilliant writings of José Rizal. In 1896
revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution
of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The
Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before
a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however,
for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was brewing
when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.
After the U.S. naval victory in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Commodore
George Dewey supplied Aguinaldo with arms and urged him to rally the
Filipinos against the Spanish. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived,
the Filipinos had taken the entire island of Luzon, except for the old
walled city of Manila, which they were besieging. The Filipinos had
also declared their independence and established a republic under the
first democratic constitution ever known in Asia. Their dreams of independence
were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the
United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American
In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule.
Defeated on the battlefield, the Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare,
and their subjugation became a mammoth project for the United States—one
that cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish-American
War. The insurrection was effectively ended with the capture (1901)
of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick Funston, but the question of Philippine
independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United
States and the islands. The matter was complicated by the growing economic
ties between the two countries. Although comparatively little American
capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked larger
and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon
the American market. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was
expanded in 1913.
When the Democrats came into power in 1913, measures were taken to
effect a smooth transition to self-rule. The Philippine assembly already
had a popularly elected lower house, and the Jones Act, passed by the
U.S. Congress in 1916, provided for a popularly elected upper house
as well, with power to approve all appointments made by the governor-general.
It also gave the islands their first definite pledge of independence,
although no specific date was set.
When the Republicans regained power in 1921, the trend toward bringing
Filipinos into the government was reversed. Gen. Leonard Wood, who was
appointed governor-general, largely supplanted Filipino activities with
a semimilitary rule. However, the advent of the Great Depression in
the United States in the 1930s and the first aggressive moves by Japan
in Asia (1931) shifted U.S. sentiment sharply toward the granting of
immediate independence to the Philippines.
The Commonwealth - The Hare-Hawes
Cutting Act, passed by Congress in 1932, provided for complete independence
of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S.
supervision. The bill had been drawn up with the aid of a commission
from the Philippines, but Manuel L. Quezon, the leader of the dominant
Nationalist party, opposed it, partially because of its threat of American
tariffs against Philippine products but principally because of the provisions
leaving naval bases in U.S. hands. Under his influence, the Philippine
legislature rejected the bill. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act
(1934) closely resembled the Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, but struck the
provisions for American bases and carried a promise of further study
to correct “imperfections or inequalities.”
The Philippine legislature ratified the bill; a constitution, approved
by President Roosevelt (Mar., 1935) was accepted by the Philippine people
in a plebiscite (May); and Quezon was elected the first president (Sept.).
When Quezon was inaugurated on Nov. 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the
Philippines was formally established. Quezon was reelected in Nov.,
1941. To develop defensive forces against possible aggression, Gen.
Douglas MacArthur was brought to the islands as military adviser in
1935, and the following year he became field marshal of the Commonwealth
World War II - War came suddenly to the Philippines
on Dec. 8 (Dec. 7, U.S. time), 1941, when Japan attacked without warning.
Japanese troops invaded the islands in many places and launched a pincer
drive on Manila. MacArthur’s scattered defending forces (about 80,000
troops, four fifths of them Filipinos) were forced to withdraw to Bataan
Peninsula and Corregidor Island, where they entrenched and tried to
hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding the entrance
to Manila Bay and denying that important harbor to the Japanese. But
no reinforcements were forthcoming. The Japanese occupied Manila on
Jan. 2, 1942. MacArthur was ordered out by President Roosevelt and left
for Australia on Mar. 11; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.
The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally crumbled on Apr.
9, 1942. Wainwright fought on from Corregidor with a garrison of about
11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on May 6, 1942. After his capitulation,
the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining defending units in
the islands by threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor
troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers refused to surrender, however,
and guerrilla resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine
army officers, continued throughout the Japanese occupation.
Japan’s efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment
(Oct. 14, 1943) of a “Philippine Republic,” with José P. Laurel, former
supreme court justice, as president. But the people suffered greatly
from Japanese brutality, and the puppet government gained little support.
Meanwhile, President Quezon, who had escaped with other high officials
before the country fell, set up a government-in-exile in Washington.
When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president.
Osmeña returned to
the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the
Japanese by landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands,
after months of U.S. air strikes against Mindanao. The Philippine government
was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on Oct. 23.
The landing was followed (Oct. 23–26) by the greatest naval engagement
in history, called variously the battle of Leyte Gulf and the second
battle of the Philippine Sea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively destroyed
the Japanese fleet and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands.
Luzon was invaded (Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On
July 5, 1945, MacArthur announced “All the Philippines are now liberated.”
The Japanese had suffered over 425,000 dead in the Philippines.
The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since
its election in 1941. It faced enormous problems. The land was devastated
by war, the economy destroyed, the country torn by political warfare
and guerrilla violence. Osmeña’s leadership was challenged (Jan., 1946)
when one wing (now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party nominated
for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated Osmeña in April.
The Republic of the Philippines - Manuel
Roxas became the first president of the Republic of the Philippines
when independence was granted, as scheduled, on July 4, 1946. In Mar.,
1947, the Philippines and the United States signed a military assistance
pact (since renewed) and the Philippines gave the United States a 99-year
lease on designated military, naval, and air bases (a later agreement
reduced the period to 25 years beginning 1967). The sudden death of
President Roxas in Apr., 1948, elevated the vice president, Elpidio
Quirino, to the presidency, and in a bitterly contested election in
Nov., 1949, Quirino defeated José Laurel to win a four-year term of
The enormous task of reconstructing the war-torn country was complicated
by the activities in central Luzon of the Communist-dominated Hukbalahap
guerrillas (Huks), who resorted to terror and violence in their efforts
to achieve land reform and gain political power. They were finally brought
under control (1954) after a vigorous attack launched by the minister
of national defense, Ramón Magsaysay. By that time Magsaysay was president
of the country, having defeated Quirino in Nov., 1953. He had promised
sweeping economic changes, and he did make progress in land reform,
opening new settlements outside crowded Luzon island. His death in an
airplane crash in Mar., 1957, was a serious blow to national morale.
Vice President Carlos P. García succeeded him and won a full term as
president in the elections of Nov., 1957.
In foreign affairs, the Philippines maintained a firm anti-Communist
policy and joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954. There
were difficulties with the United States over American military installations
in the islands, and, despite formal recognition (1956) of full Philippine
sovereignty over these bases, tensions increased until some of the bases
were dismantled (1959) and the 99-year lease period was reduced. The
United States rejected Philippine financial claims and proposed trade
Philippine opposition to García on issues of government corruption
and anti-Americanism led, in June, 1959, to the union of the Liberal
and Progressive parties, led by Vice President Diosdado Macapagal, the
Liberal party leader, who succeeded García as president in the 1961
elections. Macapagal’s administration was marked by efforts to combat
the mounting inflation that had plagued the republic since its birth;
by attempted alliances with neighboring countries; and by a territorial
dispute with Britain over North Borneo (later Sabah), which Macapagal
claimed had been leased and not sold to the British North Borneo Company
Marcos and After - Ferdinand E.
Marcos, who succeeded to the presidency after defeating Macapagal in
the 1965 elections, inherited the territorial dispute over Sabah; in
1968 he approved a congressional bill annexing Sabah to the Philippines.
Malaysia suspended diplomatic relations (Sabah had joined the Federation
of Malaysia in 1963), and the matter was referred to the United Nations.
(The Philippines dropped its claim to Sabah in 1978.) The Philippines
became one of the founding countries of the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The continuing need for land reform fostered
a new Huk uprising in central Luzon, accompanied by mounting assassinations
and acts of terror, and in 1969, Marcos began a major military campaign
to subdue them. Civil war also threatened on Mindanao, where groups
of Moros opposed Christian settlement. In Nov., 1969, Marcos won an
unprecedented reelection, easily defeating Sergio Osmeña, Jr., but the
election was accompanied by violence and charges of fraud, and Marcos’s
second term began with increasing civil disorder.
In Jan., 1970, some 2,000 demonstrators tried to storm Malacañang Palace,
the presidential residence; riots erupted against the U.S. embassy.
When Pope Paul VI visited Manila in Nov., 1970, an attempt was made
on his life. In 1971, at a Liberal party rally, hand grenades were thrown
at the speakers’ platform, and several people were killed. President
Marcos declared martial law in Sept., 1972,
charging that a Communist rebellion threatened. The 1935 constitution
was replaced (1973) by a new one that provided the president with direct
powers. A plebiscite (July, 1973) gave Marcos the right to remain in
office beyond the expiration (Dec., 1973) of his term. Meanwhile the
fighting on Mindanao had spread to the Sulu Archipelago. By 1973 some
3,000 people had been killed and hundreds of villages burned. Throughout
the 1970s poverty and governmental corruption increased, and Imelda
Marcos, Ferdinand’s wife, became more influential.
Martial law remained in force until 1981, when Marcos was reelected,
amid accusations of electoral fraud. On Aug. 21, 1983, opposition leader
Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila airport, which incited a new,
more powerful wave of anti-Marcos dissent. After the Feb., 1986, presidential
election, both Marcos and his opponent, Corazon Aquino (the widow of
Benigno), declared themselves the winner, and charges of massive fraud
and violence were leveled against the Marcos faction. Marcos’s domestic
and international support eroded, and he fled the country on Feb. 25,
1986, eventually obtaining asylum in the United States.
Aquino’s government faced mounting problems, including coup attempts,
significant economic difficulties, and pressure to rid the Philippines
of the U.S. military presence (the last U.S. bases were evacuated in
1992). In 1990, in response to the demands of the Moros, a partially
autonomous Muslim region was created in the far south. In 1992, Aquino
declined to run for reelection and was succeeded by her former army
chief of staff Fidel Ramos. He immediately launched an economic revitalization
plan premised on three policies: government deregulation, increased
private investment, and political solutions to the continuing insurgencies
within the country. His political program was somewhat successful, opening
dialogues with the Marxist and Muslim guerillas. However, Muslim discontent
with partial rule persisted, and unrest and violence continued throughout
the 1990s. In 1999, Marxist rebels and Muslim separatists formed an
alliance to fight the government.
Several natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
on Luzon and a succession of severe typhoons, slowed the country’s economic
progress. However, the Philippines escaped much of the economic turmoil
seen in other East Asian nations in 1997 and 1998, in part by following
a slower pace of development imposed by the International Monetary Fund.
Joseph Marcelo Estrada, a former movie actor, was elected president
in 1998, pledging to help the poor and develop the country’s agricultural
sector. In 1999 he announced plans to amend the constitution in order
to remove protectionist provisions and attract more foreign investment.
Late in 2000, Estrada’s presidency was buffeted by charges that he
accepted millions of dollars in payoffs from illegal gambling operations.
Although his support among the poor Filipino majority remained strong,
many political, business, and church leaders called for him to resign.
In Nov., 2000, Estrada was impeached by the house of representatives
on charges of graft, but the senate, controlled by Estrada’s allies,
provoked a crisis (Jan., 2001) when it rejected examining the president’s
bank records. As demonstrations against Estrada mounted and members
of his cabinet resigned, the supreme court stripped him of the presidency,
and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada’s
Macapagal-Arroyo was elected president in her own right in May, 2004, but the balloting was marred by violence and irregularities as well as a tedious vote-counting process that was completed six weeks after the election.
Source: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.