The Very Model
of a Medieval General:
A Website Dedicated to the
Career of Matilda of Tuscany
by Valerie Eads
Matilda of Tuscany is one of the few women whose
place in history rests
on military accomplishments. The details of her career have to be
gleaned from sources such as monastic chronicles, saints' lives and
polemics that were not intended to record military actions in a
logical or systematic manner. Despite their
deficiencies by modern standards, these
sources allow a reconstruction of the measures taken by Matilda of
Tuscany on the pope's behalf when used in conjunction with other
tools, especially maps, and a working knowledge of the now-accepted
paradigms of medieval warfare.
above for a larger image
In 1080, a dispute between Henry IV of Germany and
Pope Gregory VII escalated into open war. The war between the pope and
the emperor was part of a larger series of events that came to be called
the Investiture Controversy, one of the most-studied topics in medieval
European history. The literature of the Investiture Controversy is vast.
A general textbook of medieval European history will give a broad
overview, but will not give any feeling for the complexity of the issues
and how questions of religious reform could lead to war.
Blumenthal, Uta-Renate. The Investiture
Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century.
Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1991.
Tellenbach, Gerd. Church, State and
Christian Society at the Time of the Investiture Contest. Trans. R.F.
Bennett. New York: Harper & Row, 1959._
Church in Western Europe from the Tenth to the Early Twelfth Century.
Translated by T. Reuter. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.
Tierney, Brian. The Crisis of Church and
State, 1050-1300. Englewood
Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964.
A number of introductory books on medieval warfare
are listed in the Medieval Warfare syllabus.
MGH: Monumenta Germaniae Historica.
The numerous subseries of the Monumenta are the standard editions
of many medieval sources. Latin texts with Latin or German commentary.
RIS2: Rerum Italicarum Scriptores nuova
edizione riveduta, ampliata e corretta, con
la direzione di Giosuœ Carducci, Vittorio Fiorini, Pietro Fedele.
This new series of Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Writers of
Italian Affairs) began in 1918. The first series was published in the
18th century. Latin texts with Italian commentary.
Benzo of Alba. Ad Heinricum IV imperatorem
libri VII. Ed. K. Pertz. MGH Scriptores 11.
Hanover, 1854. Pp. 591-681.
[Translation of relevant sections will be posted.]
Bishop Benzo was one of Henry IV's most
enthusiastic supporters. His writing style in these Seven Books to
Emperor Henry IV is notable for scatological punning at the expense
of Henry's enemies. He gives invaluable information about the actions
taken against Matilda of Tuscany. Benzo describes Matilda trapped in
Canossa wringing her hands and weeping for the losses she has suffered.
In his effort to paint Gregory's supporters in as poor a light as
possible, Benzo tells how Matilda and Anselm of Lucca stripped the
monasteries to send gold and silver to Pope Gregory in Rome. There is
corroboration for much of Benzo's information. A possible
interpretation of the events he narrates is that Matilda raided the
possessions of Henry's supporters in order to draw him from Rome while
needed supplies of hard cash were sent to the pope.
In 1081, Henry had removed Matilda from all her
imperial offices--besides the marquisate of Tuscany, she held the
counties of Reggio, Modena, Mantua, Brescia and Ferrara--and confiscated
her property. It was in his interest to enforce his judgement, but
because he was dependent on his Italian allies, and they expected to be
rewarded from the same territory, he had to refrain from the kind of
destructive warfare that he could have waged under other circumstances.
Despite Benzo's efforts to make Henry look militarily effective, it is
quite clear that the situation is the reverse.
There is a more recent edition of Benzo.
Bernold of St. Blasien. Chronicon. Ed. G.H.
Pertz. MGH Scriptores 5. Hanover, 1844. Pp. 400-467.
Berthold of Reichenau. Annales. Ed. G.H.
Pertz. MGH Scriptores 5. Hanover, 1844. Pp. 264-326.
Bonizo of Sutri. Liber ad amicum. Ed. Ernst
Dummler. MGH Libelli 1. Hanover, 1891. Pp. 598-620.
[Translation of relevant sections will be
Gregory's supporter, Bishop Bonizo is a fire
breather like Benzo of Alba and, like Benzo, he must be used carefully
by historians. Although he gives information for his own purposes,
Bonizo is the only source for several points in Matilda's life. On a
few points, such as the date of the battle at Volta in October 1080, he
is more correct that the usually reliable Bernold.
Donizone. Vita Mathildis Comitissae. Ed. L.
Bethmann. MGH Scriptores 12. Hanover, 1856. Pp. 348-409.
Mathildis celeberrimae principis Italiae: Carmine scripta a Donizone
presbytero. Ed. Luigi Simeoni. RIS2 5.2. Bologna:
N. Zanichelli, 1930-40; repr. Turin: Bottega d'Erasmo, 1973.
[Translations of relevant sections will be
posted. Book 2, chaps. 4, 6, 7 and 9.]
These are two editions of the Life of Matilda
written by Donizone who became a monk at Canossa around 1086. Donizone
was an eyewitness to a number of the events in Matilda's later life,
including the rout of Henry IV's army in the battle before Canossa in
1092. Despite the obviously laudatory purpose of the work and a number
of glaring inaccuracies, such as a failure to note the existence of
either of Matilda's husbands, he is the only source for many of these
events. Obviously he must be used carefully and checked against maps and
other sources. Donizone has been translated into Italian.
Gregory VII. Das Register Gregors VII., 2
vols. Ed. E. Caspar. MGH Epistolae Selectae 2. Berlin:
________. The Epistolae Vagantes of Pope
Gregory VII. Edited and translated by H.E.J. Cowdrey. Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1972.
The letters of Pope Gregory VII are an invaluable
source for the life of Matilda of Tuscany. There is a partial
translation by Ephraim Emerton (1932) and a new edition and translation
is in preparation by H.E.J. Cowdrey.
John of Mantua. Iohannis Mantuani in Cantica
Canticorum et de Sancta Maria tractatus ad comitissam Mathildam.
Ed. Bernard Bischoff and Burkhard Taeger. Spicilegium Friburgense 19.
Freiburg: UniversitØtsverlag, 1973.
[About 40 pp. of translation from these works
will be posted.]
John of Mantua's Treatise on the Song of Songs
was long known to exist, but about 10% of the text was first published
in 1947, and the complete text was made available in 1973. It has been
largely ignored since publication. John gives no information on specific
actions of Matilda's long career, but he makes clear that she was seen
as a military power by contemporaries. The treatise, an exhortation on
perseverance in war addressed to a woman, is a unique source.
Lambert of Hersfeld. Annales. Ed. V. Cl.
Hesse. MGH Scriptores 5. Hanover, 1844. Pp. 134-263.
[Translation of relevant sections will be
Hans Delbr™ck wrote his doctoral dissertation on
Lambert. Like most scholars of his time, Delbr™ck concentrated on the
mistakes made by medieval writers. Archaeology has since proven that
some of Lambert's seemingly fanciful statements are accurate.
Rangerius of Lucca. Vita Anselmi Lucensis
episcopi auctore Rangerio Lucensi. Ed. Ernest Sackur, Gerhard
Schwartz and Bernhard Schmeidler. MGH Scriptores 30.2. Hanover, 1934.
_____. Sancti Anselmi episcopi Lucensis vita, a
Rangerio successore suo, sÚculo XII ineunte, latino carmine scripta.
Ed. Vincentio de la Fuente. Madrid: Typis ViduÚ et Filii E. Aguado,
These are two editions of the life of Anselm II,
bishop of Lucca, written by his successor, Bishop Rangerius. The older
edition of de la Fuente is of interest only because it was used by
scholars until the Monumenta edition was finally published in 1934.
There is only one copy in the U.S. Anselm was a strong supporter of Pope
Gregory VII, and was driven from Lucca, also the seat of the marquises
of Tuscany, late in 1080, after the defeat of Matilda of Tuscany at the
battle of Volta. He fled first to the shelter of Moriana, a castle only
a few miles upriver from Lucca, and then took refuge with Matilda. His
uncorrupt body can still be seen today in Mantua where he died in 1086.
Rangerius regarded Matilda's military successes as proof of the power
of Anselm's prayers, and is thus a good source for events that
happened before the bishop's death. He is the only source for such
events as the failed sieges of Moriana and a further corroboration for
the hit-and-run warfare waged by Matilda against King Henry's
supporters. He appears is several of her charters, and may have gotten
some of the information directly from her.
Die Urkunden und Briefe der MarkgrØfin Mathilde
von Tuszien. Ed. Elke Goez and Werner Goez.
MGH Diplomata Laienf™rsten 2. Hanover, 1998.
An invaluable tool. Prior to this edition of
Matilda's surviving charters and letters, these documents had to be
looked up in collections dating as early as the sixteenth century. While
visiting rare book collections and using such early editions is fun,
this edition not only makes the documents conveniently available, but
also brings to bear all the tools of modern scholarship.
Die Urkunden Heinrichs IV.
Edited by Dietrich von Gladiss and Alfred Gawlik. MGH Diplomata
6:1-3. Weimar and Hanover, 1941, 1959, 1978.
The letters and charters of Henry IV. In addition
to giving information as to his movements in Italy, the documents allow
identification of Henry's supporters.
Vita S. Anselmi Lucensis episcopi a Bardone
scripsit. Ed. Roger Wilmans. MGH
Scriptores 12. Hanover, 1856. Pp. 13-35.
[Translation of relevant sections will be
Written by a priest who accompanied bishop Anselm
into exile from Lucca. This vita is also a source for Rangerius and
Donizone. The writer conveyed Anselm's blessing to Matilda's troops
before the battle at Sorbara in 1084 and may have been an eyewitness to
the battle. He doubtless knew her, and clearly admired her. She was, he
writes, very devout and religious in private, but in the world she
openly led the life of a soldier.
Bertolini, M[argherita] G[iuliana]. "Enrico
IV e Matilde di Canossa di Fronte alla Cittù di Lucca." In Sant'Anselmo
Vescovo di Lucca (1073-1086) nel Quadro delle Transformazioni Sociali e
della Riforma Ecclesiastica. Ed. Cinzio Violante. Rome: Sede
dell'Instituto Palazzo Borromini, 1992. Pp. 331-389.
Discussion of the charters and judicial actions
taken by Matilda at Lucca. Especially interesting for the transfer of
several castles to Anselm of Lucca in the years 1077-79. They were
positioned to support the episcopal castle at Moriana that later became
Anselm's refuge and the center of resistance to Henry IV.
Cowdrey, H.E.J. Pope Gregory VII: 1073-1085.
Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998.
This is probably the next best thing to a
biography of Matilda. It has the added advantage that Cowdrey is one of
the few scholars who has an appreciation for the military implications
of events. A real gift for students who read only English.
Duff, Nora. Matilda of Tuscany: la gran donna
d'Italia. London: Methuen, 1909.
Although the book shows its age, it was a solid
biography when written, and is still worth reading. It is the best
available in English. Although Duff is careful to specify the sources of
her information, it should probably be pointed out to students that much
of the biographical detail in this book comes from historians who wrote
centuries later. The fact is that large chunks of Matilda's life are
Eads, Valerie. Mighty in War: The Campaigns of
Matilda of Tuscany. Ph.D. Dissertation: City University of New York,
The only detailed study in any language of Matilda
of Tuscany as a military leader. Concentrates on the campaign of 1080-84
with only passing references to the rest of Matilda's life. Like all
doctoral dissertations, it is dense! Those who want a more substantial
bibliography will find it here. Outline
________. "The Geography of Power: Matilda of
Tuscany and the Strategy of Active Defense." In Crusaders,
Condottieri and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the Mediterranean, edited by
L. J. Andrew
Villalon and Donald Kagay. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
It has long been recognized that the key to
Matilda of Tuscany's military power was her the large landed
possessions. This article puts her control of the Apennine routes into
the context of earlier campaigns in the region from the Romans through
Emperor Henry III. During the campaign of 1081-84, Henry IV did not have
use of the trans-Apennine routes. Also discusses the means by which
Matilda of Tuscany kept her large holdings.
Ghirardini, Lino Lionello. Bibliografia della
¹ta matildico-gregoriana. Modena: Aedes Muratoriana, 1970.
The bibliography is useful, contains some errors,
and is now outdated.
__________. "Madonna della Battaglia': lo
scontro decisivo della lotta per le investiture (ottobre 1092)." Bolletino
Storico Reggiano, 11 (April 1971) pp. 36-56.
________. "San Polo nel sistema
strategico-difensivo dell' appenino canossiana." In Milleni
Sampolesi: Atti del Convegno di Studi Storici (San Polo d'Enza 4-5-6
Maggio 1984), edited by Gino Badini, pp. 99-115. Reggio Emilia:
__________. "La battaglia de Volta Mantovana
(ottobre 1080)." In Sant'Anselmo, Mantova e la Lotta per le
Investiture. Atti del convegno internationale di studi (Mantova,
23-24-25 Maggio, 1986). Ed. Paolo Golinelli. Bologna: Pùtron, 1987.
Despite the titles of these three papers, they are
not useful to the military historian.
Goez, Elke. Beatrix von Canossa und Tuszien:
Eine Untersuching zur Geschichte des 11. Jahrhunderts. Sigmaringen:
Jan Thorbecke, 1995.
A thoughtful scholarly biography of Matilda's
mother, Beatrice of Lorraine, written by a first-rate scholar. Very
useful for the background.
Huddy, Mary. Matilda, Countess of Tuscany.
Like Duff, this book shows its age, but is more
burdened with fanciful descriptions of personal matters that obviously
cannot be substantiated from the sources.
Morretta, Rocco. "L'Apparato difensivo dei
signori di Canossa nell'Appennino Reggiano." Atti e memorie
della Deputazione di storia patria per le antiche provincie modenesi,
ser. 9, vol. 4 (1965) pp. 489-500.
Discusses the network of castles held by Matilda
of Tuscany on the north face of the Apennines. They were positioned to
cover access to all major trans-Apennine routes and to communicate with
and mutually support one another. One of the few papers on Matilda that
is of any use to military historians.
Overmann, Alfred. Grafin Mathilde von Tuscien: Ihre Besitzungen, Geschichte ihres Gutes von 1115-1230 und ihre
Regesten. Innsbruck, 1895; rpt. Frankfurt am Main, 1965.
For students who have just a bit of German, this is a great place to start work on Matilda's career. The last part of the book is a chronological outline of her life, inlcuding the military actions, with sources! There have been changes in the last century and more, but relatively few. Also, citations are to the editions that were then current which could confuse even grad students who have not yet been introduced to the dustier sections of the stacks.
Robinson, Ian S. Henry IV of Germany, 1056-1106.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999.
A detailed study of Henry IV and, especially for
those who do not read German or Latin, a valuable source of information
on the role of Matilda of Tuscany in the failure of Henry's Italian
Settia, Aldo A. "Castelli e villaggi nelle
terre canossiane tra X e XIII secoli." Studi Matildici: Atti e
memorie del III Convegno di studi matildici, Modena - Reggio Emilia,
7-8-9 ottobre 1977. Modena: Aedes Muratoriana, 1978. Pp. 281-307.
Locates and gives the earliest sources for castles
held by Matilda of Tuscany. Corrects and updates older writers such as
Overmann. Shows that her father, Marquis Boniface undertook a program of
land acquisition to unify his holdings on both sides of the Apennines.
Zema, Demetrius. "The Houses of Tuscany and
of Pierleone in the Crisis of Rome in the Eleventh Century." Traditio
2 (1944) pp. 155-175.
Fr. Zema was not a military historian, but he had
a grasp of the subject. A decade before Verbruggen, he realized that
there was much of interest to military historians in the Investiture
Controversy and recognized the key role of Matilda of Tuscany. And it's