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1 CN 5 CT Eyewitnessing Genocide A The Prosecutor’s Brief In February 2007, four years after the outbreak of atrocities, the new U.S. Special Envoy to Sudan, Andrew Natsios, corrected the State Department’s low mortality estimate and reaffirmed Sudan’s genocidal responsibility for hundreds of thousands of deaths in Darfur. “Arming the Janjaweed,” Natsios told the U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, “led to the launching of genocide in 2003 and 2004, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of innocent civilians and the destruction of their villages and livelihoods.” 1 Later, on The Nightly Newshour, Natsios confirmed that additional genocidal attacks had occurred within recent months in North Darfur. The interviewer spared Natsios the vexing question of why the United States did not intervene if a genocide was continuing under the watch of President Bush, who had vowed to avoid President Clinton’s neglect of Rwanda. In early 2007, world attention focused instead on the International Criminal Court (ICC) to which the UN Security Council referred the conflict in 2005. After investigating the two-year-old conflict for an additional two years, the ICC Chief Prosecutor, Luis Moreno-Ocampo, “named names” in February 2007. MorenoOcampo, who is both a courageous and calculating prosecutor,2 identified only two individuals in his February news conference: a Sudanese government minister, Ahmad Muhammad Harun, and an Arab militia leader, Ali Muhammad Abd-Al- 2 Rahman, whose nom de guerre is Ali Kushayb. Ocampo asked the Judicial Chambers to issue summons for them to appear before the ICC.3 The Judicial Chambers took the further step of issuing warrants for their arrest. In June 2008, Moreno-Ocampo reported to the UN Security Council that in the following month he would present evidence of involvement of “the whole state apparatus” of Sudan in “the organization, commission, and cover-up of crime in Darfur.”4 The middle-aged Moreno-Ocampo is an affable man with darting eyebrows, a bushy beard, and an engaging smile. He previously headed Transparency International for Latin America, the NGO that specializes in exposing international corporate corruption. Before that, he prosecuted the generals who directed the infamous “disappearances” in his native Argentina. The ICC job is equally challenging, in part because the prosecutor must pursue war criminals without the benefit of police and arrest powers. “I’m a stateless prosecutor,” Moreno-Ocampo laments. “I have 100 states under my jurisdiction and zero policemen.”5 Moreno-Ocampo made his initial Darfur case to the ICC judges in a cautious and circumscribed way, specifying attacks on only four villages in 2003 and 2004. He alleged crimes against humanity and war crimes, rather than specific crimes of genocide: “The conclusions are that many thousands or even hundreds of thousands of civilians have died – either from direct violence or as a result of disease, starvation, and the conditions of life imposed by the attacks.”6 He cited others’ allegations of sexual violence: “Rape is reported in open sources as a common weapon of the conflict.”7 Perhaps most important, although Moreno-Ocampo 3 identified the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa tribes as victims of the violence, he limited consideration of race to a few descriptions of epithets in the attacks, and he did not in 2007 charge the accused with genocide. Still, Moreno-Ocampo’s presentation stipulated that “the prosecutor’s investigation has revealed the underlying operational system that enabled the commission of those massive crimes.”8 This characterization left no doubt that the violence in Darfur was collective rather than individualized violence that was committed as part of an organized enterprise. The prosecutor’s statement represented a theory of liability that explicitly involved a group acting with common purpose: EXT HARUN and KUSHAYB are charged together under Article 25(3)(d) with having contributed to the commission of a crime by a group of persons acting with a common purpose…. Criminal “common purpose” responsibility is demonstrated under the Rome Statute if the contribution is made either: (1) with the aim of furthering the criminal activity or criminal purpose of the group, where such activity and purpose involves the commission of a crime within the jurisdiction of this Court, (2) in the knowledge of the intention of the group to commit crimes. There are reasonable grounds to believe that the requirements of either of these forms of “common purpose” criminal liability have been met.9 The concept articulated in Moreno-Ocampo’s statement – group-based common purpose – is based on ideas about “criminal organization” and “joint criminal enterprise” that are of central importance in the response of contemporary 4 international criminal law to collective violence. These ideas build on social science conceptions of group dynamics and collective action. 10 Their most notable contemporary application was in the aborted (due to his death) prosecution of Slobodan Milosevic for his involvement in a “joint criminal enterprise” to commit genocide in the former Yugoslavia. 11 The concepts of “joint criminal enterprise,” “criminal organization,” and “common purpose” signal the use of laws prosecuting criminal group processes in the collective commission of crimes. This kind of prosecution pursues both the upward and downward reach of the organization of the criminal activities themselves. This focus on organization played an understandably important but sometimes controversial role in the relatively recent American law enforcement pursuit of infamous organized crime figures and their operations, as well as in the earlier prosecution of the Nazi war machine at Nuremberg. This focus is controversial because it is “conspiratorial” in nature. The legal scholar, Mark Osiel, questions the unreflective use of such legal doctrines in international criminal law: “An open mind would begin not by asking what legal doctrines offer precedents to cope quickly with this new challenge (i.e., genocide and crimes against humanity), but rather, what kind of influence do participants in such criminality actually exercise over one another, through what organizational devices and interactional dynamics.” 12 We use the concepts of “collective efficacy” 13 and “collective action” to elaborate our understanding of the criminal organization of the genocidal violence in Darfur. 14 The interviews conducted with Darfur refugees in the Atrocities 5 Documentation Survey (ADS) reveal this organization in remarkable detail. In the next chapter, we discuss the broad organizational dynamics of the large-scale criminal enterprise. To illustrate these concepts, we focus in this chapter on the notorious militia leader, Musa Hilal, and the social and historical context of his role in Darfur’s genocidal violence. First, however, we examine the historical background to the socially constructed and state-instigated politics of collective violence in Darfur. A The Racial Dynamics of Darfur The U.S. charge of genocide in Darfur includes an assertion of racial intent. More specifically, this assertion is that the Sudanese government has intentionally used the divisive force of racism to collectively motivate the death and destruction of a legally “protected” group (or groups) in Darfur. The United States accuses the Sudanese state of joining its air and ground military forces with less formally organized Arab militias, commonly called Janjaweed, to attack racially targeted African farmers and villagers. What complicates this assertion of racism is that the Africans in Darfur – who are predominantly members of the Zaghawa, Fur, and Masalit groups – may be physically indistinguishable from their Arab neighbors, with whom they also share the Muslim religion. However, in support of the race-based genocide claim, Chirot and McCauley insist that, “Some of the worst ethnic genocides of the twentieth century involved targeting groups that were difficult to differentiate on physical or cultural grounds from perpetrators.”15 6 Yet, some NGOs, such as Save Darfur, the academic-activist Eric Reeves, and the widely read New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof insist that the Darfur conflict is racially driven. Kristof describes in a column the case of Halima who was one of seven women recently captured and raped by Janjaweed militia outside a displacement camp. 16 This account details racial epithets like those reported in about one-third of the survey interviews we analyze from the ADS in this and following chapters: EXT “You blacks are not human,” she quotes them as yelling.“We can do anything we want to you. You cannot live here.”… She says three men raped her, beat her and stole her clothes. Another of the seven who were caught, Aziza Yakub, 17, confirmed Halima’s story, and added that the Janjaweed told her while raping her: “You blacks are like monkeys. You are not human.” Kristof’s columns in the New York Times regularly refer to such incidents and the larger conflict in Sudan as pitting Arabs against Black Africans. Yet, other reporters for the Times17 and some academics describe the same opposing parties as Arab and non-Arab; in doing so, they implicitly refer to little more than the use or non-use of Arabic as a first language and as the characteristic dividing the opposed groups. This is not a minor editorial difference. The role played by the state in the social and political construction of racial difference is an important part of what makes these war crimes genocide. 7 The varying identification of the victims in this conflict as Black and nonArab suggests that these distinctions are inherently uncertain and socially constructed. Sudanese society is made up of hundreds of tribal entities. Flint and de Waal emphasize that, historically, “Darfurians – like most Africans – were comfortable with multiple identities. Dar Fur was an African kingdom that embraced Arabs as valued equals.” 18 Furthermore, Darfurians often shifted their tribal and racial identities to match their changing social and economic circumstances in a forbidding desert environment. For example, O’Fahey notes that, until the latter part of the last century in Darfur, when a successful Fur farmer obtained a certain number of cattle, he identified with the Arab Baggara, and in a few generations his descendants boasted an “authentic” Arab genealogy. 19 In this earlier era, the growth of Arab-Islamic influence in Darfur sometimes took the benign form of a nationalistic “Sudanization.” 20 However, this era is now history, along with its fluidity of geographical and social movement and identity transformation. The implications of this change are ominous because, as O’Fahey warns, “the Janjaweed … have a fully developed racist ideology, a warrior culture, weapons and plenty of horses and camels – still the easiest way to get around Darfur.”21 Horses and camels play important roles in a region lacking a modern transportation infrastructure. Americans might approve of the assimilation involved in Jewish 22 and Irish23 immigrants becoming “white,” but in Africa, changed identities are often linked to outbreaks of violent conflict. In South Africa, John and Jean Comaroff note that 8 “local relations among the peoples of the region, not to mention the distinctions and conflicts among them, were always much messier, more inchoate…; less black and white, less sharply dualistic, less recalcitrant and clear-cut.”24 Group conflict brought social rigidity, distancing, and separation, with the consequence that, “at moments of crisis, such subtleties… dissolve…. Cleavages, real and imaginary, reassert themselves.” 25 Brubaker calls this process of “unmixing,” which aptly describes Rwanda. 26 The Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda, like the Blacks and Arabs in Darfur, shared a history of intermarriage that defied racial classification and made them sometimes physically indistinguishable. Yet, during the Rwandan genocide, a binary racial divide dominated the thinking of both perpetrators and victims. The state played the central role in creating and maintaining racial cleavages – the Rwandan government mandated the use of identity cards that distinguished Hutu from Tutsi.27 This advanced a process of racially making the case for genocide. In Darfur, as in Rwanda, the state constructed racial and tribal distinctions that empowered the Arab Janjaweed. The Janjaweed are members of Arab pastoral groups with livelihoods built around raising and herding animals. These Arab pastoralists relied historically on seasonal access to grazing land and water on property settled by African agriculturalists. Intertribal traditions of negotiation, cooperation, and dispute resolution made this nomadic lifestyle possible. However, grazing land and water became scarce and contested with the advent of climate change and the intensified desertification of sub-Saharan Africa. Access to arable 9 land now represented the opportunity for life itself in Darfur. Group-linked settlements on this arable land therefore became prominent places of conflict. By the mid-1980s, intertwined processes of desertification and famine aggravated disputes over land and water and contributed to a socially constructed, racially tinged division between Arabs and other Africans. Differences of language and livelihood associated with perceived skin tone were increasingly defined as racial. Traditions of cooperation and accommodation evaporated in a desert terrain that offered up major new scenes of bloodshed. African farmers resented Arab herdsmen who moved intrusively through their pastureland. Group relationships shifted from what Oberschall calls a more “normal” to a “crisis” frame. 28 Race and ethnicity emerged as the driving forces of this conflict. El-Battahani concludes, “The longer a conflict persists, the more these ethnic, religious and cultural factors come into play. In an old conflict, when even the initial causes have petered out or died away, that ‘abstract,’ ideological ethnicity, becomes an active material and social force.” 29 Major clashes led to hundreds and then thousands of deaths in the late 1980s. More Africans than Arabs died in these fever-pitched battles, as if in rehearsal for more one-sided conflicts to come. Indigenous forms of dispute settlement disappeared, and the central government in Khartoum imposed no new or more successful mechanisms to resolve the conflicts. A dismissive Arab supremacist ideology magnified rather than mitigated these bloody, unresolved conflicts. 10 The “Arabization” of the conflict dates in Darfur to the mid-1980s. One source involved the activities of the Libyan strongman, Muammar Qaddafi, who during the famine of 1985 brought food and guns into Darfur as part of his larger ambition to create an “Arab belt” across sub-Saharan Africa. The newly available weapons made intergroup clashes more lethal, and the new import market in weapons kept growing, even when Qaddafi lost enthusiasm for this military adventure. Sadiq al-Mahadi, who was elected prime minister of Sudan in 1986, developed a plan to create an “Arab and Islamic Union.” The al-Mahadi government intensified Arabization policies. These policies became more brutal following the military coup led by al-Mahadi’s successor, Omar al-Bashir, in 1989. Both administrations played on Arab/African tensions and justified their continuing neglect of Darfur with the new racially infused excuse that its problems resulted from insufficient Arabization. A group of Arab intellectuals wrote Prime Minister al-Mahadi a wellpublicized letter in 1987 that celebrated the “Arab race” for the “creation of civilization in the region … in the areas of governance, religion and language.”30 The letter warned, “If this neglect of the participation of the Arab race continues, things will break loose from the hands of the wise men to those of the ignorant, leading to matters of grave consequences.” From this period on, an Arab-Islamic supremacist ideology prevailed, and Arabs replaced Africans in the civil service of Darfur. The extent of this displacement spurred a highly controversial underground report, The Black Book: The Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan. A group called “The 11 Seekers of Truth and Justice” published and distributed the report in 2002. This group opposed Arab domination of the government and evolved into the rebel Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) in Darfur. The Black Book challenged an Arab leadership that excluded Black Africans from government positions. The changed interethnic environment further allowed long-entrenched racist attitudes associated with Sudan’s history of slavery to gain new life. Slavery had persisted largely unchallenged as an institution in Sudan until the 1920s.31 It played a major part in Sudan’s twenty-year North-South war, during which an estimated 10,000 people were enslaved.32 The old racism of slavery, with its roots in the nineteenth-century, gained a furtive foothold through abductions during the Darfur conflict. 33 As discussed in Chapter 6, a Khartoum court received evidence of the abduction of as many as forty women and girls from the Wadi Saleh area of West Darfur. 34 Kwame Appiah, notes, “Because people almost always think of slaves as belonging to a kind – a race, a tribe, a class, a family – that is suited to enslavement, the slave status tends to survive the abandonment of the formal institutions of slavery.”35 References to Blacks as slaves are a mainstay of the racial epithets heard during attacks on African villages in Darfur. Samantha Power rightly warns that depicting the Darfur conflict that began in the mid-1980s as the product of “a racist conspiracy” may not tell the full or complete story. 36 Still, Nicholas Kristof remarks that, although “shorthand descriptions are simplistic, they’re also essentially right.” 37 “Thus was racial polarity constructed,” the journalist Sebastian Mallaby observes, “where none had previously 12 existed.” 38 Prunier argues that the 1984 famine sharpened the divide between the nomadic herders and farmers and that now this dichotomy is superimposed on an Arab versus African dichotomy. He concludes, “This marked the beginning of years of low-intensity racial conflict and harassment, with the ‘Arab’ Centre almost automatically siding against the ‘African Periphery.’”39 The Sudanese government defined “Arab” as good, and “African” as bad. Section 1.01 A The Racial Dynamics of Contemporary Sudan The Sudanese state socially constructed and intensified the Arab/Black African divide in Darfur over a period of at least twenty years. During this time, some African groups in Darfur slowly organized a resistance effort. By early 2003, the Fur had organized a small-scale Darfur Liberation Front (DLF) that joined with the Zaghawa and renamed itself the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLA/SMA). The SLA/SMA formed links with the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) in South Sudan, where the United States played a major role in brokering a peace agreement between them and the government of Sudan. U.S. Christian evangelical groups, who had worked in this region of Sudan for years, converting large numbers of Africans, successfully prevailed on the Bush administration to advance a major peace agreement for South Sudan. 40 The contesting North and South parties signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in early 2003 with the hope of ending a twenty-year conflict that had its own genocidal dimensions. Meanwhile, the conflict escalated in the Darfur region of western Sudan, probably in part because the United States focused its 13 attention on the North-South agreement, but also because of the U.S. preoccupation with the oncoming war in Iraq. In 2003, the other prominent and previously noted rebel group in Darfur – the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), which had published The Black Book – joined the conflict. Rebel groups drew members from the Zaghawa, Fur, and Masalit tribes, although the rebel forces remained relatively small and the Zaghawa and Fur were more involved than the Masalit in this initial rebel activity. These still modest-sized rebel groups mounted organized attacks against government forces in Darfur during the early months of 2003, including a surprisingly successful ground attack that destroyed a number of planes at a government air base in April 2003. Flint and de Waal report that, as a result, “the security cabal in Khartoum was fired by rage: its instinctive response was to crush the rebels who had done this, along with anyone else who sympathized with them. Military Intelligence took the Darfur file.” 41 This security cabal included Salah Gosh (introduced in Chapter 4), Abduraheem Hussein (Minister of Interior), and Ahmad Harun, introduced in the ICC brief described earlier. Figure 5.1 goes well beyond the 2007 brief in locating organizationally a number of individuals identified in the ADS survey and discussed in this and following chapters. In 2008, the Prosecutor asked the ICC to charge President al-Bashir with genocide. Insert Figure 5.1 about here The security and military intelligence sector of the Sudanese government is a powerful residual product of President al-Bashir’s military coup. This group likely 14 reasoned that the government could shift its military assets from southern Sudan to Darfur and attack with impunity, given the focus of the Americans and the international community elsewhere. The ruling Arab-Islamists in Khartoum used the Arab militias as their allies and proxies in Darfur. They proceeded to eliminate the prospects of African rebellion by not only killing but also removing Blacks from their farms and villages and resettling their lands with nomadic Arab tribes. This plan, in the words of the Genocide Convention, involved “deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part.” We conceive the genocide charge is as follows: The government of Sudan knowingly mobilized and collectivized a racially constructed division between the Arab and Black African groups to intentionally motivate the death, destruction, and displacement of the latter groups from their farms and villages in Darfur. We assume authorization from the highest levels of the Sudanese government, as implied in Figure 5.1, for the coordination of Government of Sudan (GoS) military forces with Arab militias in attacks on African farms and villages. As one refugee respondent surmised, “They come together, they fight together and they leave together.” 42 The Sudanese government used Arab militias to crush African tribes in Darfur much as they did in southern Sudan. Numerous writers about genocide, beginning with Raphael Lemkin43 who coined the term, emphasize the energizing role of race or related ethnic, national, and religious constructs in conjunction with more material motivations for genocide. As 15 Hinton notes in the context of the Cambodian genocide, although sociopolitical changes create an environment in which genocide occurs, “for genocide to take place … these changes must be accompanied by a violent ideology that adapts traditional cultural knowledge to its lethal purposes.” 44 Similarly, Scheper-Hughes and Bourgois observe, in their analysis of the material and symbolic origins of genocidal violence, that “conflict between competing groups over material resources – land and water – can sometimes also escalate into mass slaughters when combined with social sentiments that question or denigrate the basic humanity of the opposing group.”45 Brannigan and Hartwick cogently conclude, “What are required are techniques of provocation and incitement.”46 Essential but perhaps underemphasized in some of these accounts is that such “ideologies, sentiments, provocations, and incitements” require a collective organizational force that rises above simple individualized expression. In the case of Darfur, this collective expression is distinctively racial, although it is also powerfully associated with ethnicity and the settlement of land and property claims. Prunier concludes, “Since Darfur had been in a state of protracted racial civil war since the mid-1980s, the tools were readily available; they merely needed to be upgraded. It was done and the rest is now history.” 47 Demonstrating the application of such tools and their upgrading in a joint genocidal criminal enterprise, however, requires conceptualization of a collectively organized racial intent. Past and more recent theoretical contributions of sociological criminology provide the required concepts. 16 Section 1.02 A The Criminal Organization of Collective Action One of America’s most famous criminologists, Edwin Sutherland, understood the need for a theory of crime that explained how and why individuals who were subjected to differing group influences often engaged in quite distinctive forms of criminal behavior. These crimes could be as distinctive as the “street” and “suite” crimes committed under quite different collective or group influences: in the former case, in some of America’s most desperately disadvantaged urban neighborhoods, and in the latter case, in America’s most ethically segregated corporate boardrooms. 48 Thus, Sutherland created a highly versatile theory that explained a wide range of criminal behaviors, from common law crimes to corporate crimes. Yet, it was not until the recent work of Robert Sampson and his development of the concept of collective efficacy that sociological criminology’s theories and methods strongly emphasized group processes while simultaneously and systematically taking conventional individual-level processes into account.49 The concept of collective efficacy builds on the foundation of the psychologist Albert Bandura’s conception of self-efficacy, but it differs in emphasizing that individuals are collectively organized in neighborhoods that have their own distinctive qualities. Sampson and his colleagues observe, “Just as individuals vary in their capacity for efficacious action, so too do neighborhoods vary in their capacity to achieve common goals.”50 The community and surrounding society value this communal capacity, even if or because subgroups might rebel against them. The point is that these evaluations are socially shared. For example, 17 shared goals can promote a “neighborhood efficacy” based on the communal supervision of children and the collective maintenance of social order. Sampson emphasizes that efficacy occurs not just as a result of the actions of individuals within families but also as a consequence of processes at the level of neighborhoods. His research demonstrates that, even when individual-level factors are held constant or removed, some neighborhoods can still be seen as enhanced in their capacity to perform monitoring and order-maintaining tasks in ways that prevent and reduce crime. Sampson’s work on collective neighborhood efficacy supports the well-known African aphorism that “it takes a village.” Sutherland (1943) would regard this neighborhood-level process as a form of “differential social organization” among citizens that is mobilized to counteract organization around criminal opportunities within communities. Recently, Matsueda added the concept of social efficacy to refer to the capacity of particular individuals to mobilize others in realizing shared goals such as collective efficacy.51 Thus, the concept of social efficacy is a linking mechanism highlighting the acts of individual initiative or “agency” that inspire others to join together in collectively organized communal action; for example, mobilizing individuals within a neighborhood for the joint supervision of children and the collective maintenance of public order. Social and collective efficacy are powerful concepts that explain how some communities are well organized to control crime. This discussion leads to parallel questions of whether similar but opposing processes can socially organize crime itself, again as part of a versatile and 18 generalized theory of crime, and whether collective genocidal violence can be explained by collective processes. In the next section, we explore whether Musa Hilal, an infamous Arab militia leader, acted as an agent of social efficacy in the collective organization of genocidal violence in Darfur. At a theoretical level, the question is whether the protection and destruction of village life are both collective processes, despite their diametrically opposed purposes. Section 1.03 A Victimization The Differential Social Organization of Genocidal Matsueda advances the use of the concepts of social and collective efficacy,52 collective action,53 and frame analysis54 in explaining both group-based patterns of crime and its control. To do so, he borrows from a prominent collective action theory that (i) defines key processes collectively or as group based, rather than simply as actions of individuals; (ii) defines opposing organized groups of actors as “us” and “them”; and (iii) emphasizes the perception and definition of injustices caused by “them” that can be corrected or altered through the organized actions of “us.”55 This formulation incorporates a premise common in classical American structural and cultural theories of delinquent gangs and crime. This premise is that disadvantaged American youth often confront shared problems of status frustration that they organize to solve together.56 These theories argue that, when these youth “frame” their shared frustrations as following from a status system that is unjustly stacked against them – as an “us” versus “them” framing of injustice –they often 19 begin to collectively pursue socially organized solutions to reduce their frustrations by illegal means, for example, through organized gangs. A parallel conceptualization informs our understanding of the socially organized perpetration of genocide. Scheper-Hughes and Bourgois similarly note that, in genocidal contexts, “extreme forms of ‘us’ versus ‘them’ can result in a social self-identity predicated on a stigmatized, devalued notion of the other as enemy.”57 This kind of framing can instigate and organize large-scale collective violence in a manner analogous to smaller group conflicts involving fights between youth gangs. Thus, we suggest that a “joint criminal enterprise” – to use the language of international criminal law – is also a socially framed collective action or solution that encompasses an “us” and “them” ideology. Although this enterprise is often a process pursued outside formal institutional settings, such as in street gangs, it can also be instigated through the agency of state-supported groups and actors. Statesupported groups and agents can provide the social efficacy that Matsueda describes as leading from individual initiative to collective action. As criminologists emphasize, these collective actions often are the product of intertwined, legitimate (e.g., national or local governments) and illegitimate (e.g., gangs or militias) opportunity structures. 58 Social actors work with the opportunities immediately available to them, whether they are gang members or politicians and military officers. This point is as important in understanding international war crimes in Darfur as it is for domestic street crimes in Chicago or Stockholm. 59 In Darfur, the Sudanese state worked with 20 its military and through its government security apparatus to mobilize the leadership of a genocidal criminal organization that most notably involved Janjaweed militias. Sutherland anticipated how such criminally organized processes can be fostered by governments, for example, even in the more familiar wartime environments of developed countries like the United States. Think for a moment about a familiar American historical context described by Sutherland. Writing about theft in America during World War II, 60 Sutherland explained, “The meaning of property ownership and of property rights was confused by governmental appropriation of private property, by radical departures from the previous system of determining values and distributing property, and by general use of public property with little attention to its ownership.” The American government used its special powers to seize private property to mobilize for the war effort. Sutherland emphasized in this context the role of the state in using definitional language – through what would later be called “techniques of neutralization”61 and “vocabularies of motives”62 – to redefine the seizing of citizens’ property. The U.S. government redefined private property as collectively available for the war effort. Sutherland reasoned that individuals also now felt freer to take property for their own purposes, and therefore, property crime increased. 63 In Darfur, the Sudanese state and its agents went much further in generating a genocidal process, redefining not only property norms but also the holders of the settled property – the racially identified Black African farmers and villagers – as appropriate targets for displacement and death. The settlements of African farmers 21 and villagers constituted occupied “lands of opportunity” and, as such, presented a potential solution to the shared impoverished circumstances of landless Arab tribes. Matsueda writes of crime more generally that “such social organization is the result of collective action and entails building consensus over a problematic situation, and then translating that consensus into action.” 64 In Darfur, the problem of the Arab pastoralists was that they needed to graze their herds on the arable land settled by the Black African agriculturalists. The state-instigated solution authorized the victimization of the settled Black African groups that farmed and thereby controlled the land. The Sudanese state used the social efficacy of its agents to collectively define the Black African groups and settlements in “us” and “them” racial terms. This definition of the situation encouraged taking African villagers’ property, destroying their villages, raping their women, killing their men, and displacing their people. Section 1.04 A Racializing Collective Violence in Darfur Analysts trace the recent conflict in western Sudan to the rebel attacks against government forces in the early months of 2003 that we briefly described earlier. Yet, the roots of this conflict ran deeper, as illustrated by the example of the agency and social efficacy of the militia leader, Musa Hilal. Hilal is one of the Sudanese state’s principal agents in North Darfur. Several other important militia leaders, named in Figure 5.1 and discussed in the next chapter, participated in the organization of this genocide. 22 Recall that Prosecutor Moreno-Ocampo’s 2007 brief to the ICC judges named only one militia leader, Ali Kushayb. We identify four militia leaders active in Darfur in Figure 5.1, but they are not the only leaders; our goal is nonetheless to describe the criminal organization and the role of race in the genocide in Darfur. To begin, it is important to point out that Hilal’s leadership role probably was limited to the nomadic Arab groups called the Abbala in North Darfur; he was not involved with the Arab groups called the Baggara in South Darfur. Four of the large Arab Baggara tribes in South Darfur own land and probably, as a result did not participate in the recent Darfur conflict. In contrast, a number of the smaller Abbala Arab tribes in North Darfur – who historically relied on seasonal access to the Black African farmers’ lands – became increasingly impoverished as desertification, drought, and famine diminished their herds, restricted their access to grass and water, and generally undermined their nomadic lifestyles. “To this day,” Flint and de Waal report, “many Abbala Arabs explain their involvement in the current conflict in terms of this 250-year-old search for land, granted to the Baggara but denied to them.” 65 This was and is a shared source of collectively framed injustice. It is important to locate Musa Hilal within this context. Musa Hilal is the son of Sheikh Hilal, an important leader among the proud but increasingly poor Arab nomadic groups in North Darfur. Until recently, the Arab nomadic groups traversed a changing landscape of diminished life chances and opportunities, in ways analogous to classical criminology’s emphasis on differential opportunity and limited mobility prospects. Yet, Musa Hilal, as their leader, today 23 exploits the enhanced opportunities he enjoys as a newly empowered agent of the Sudanese state. Hilal insists that he is “a big sheikh … not a little sheikh.”66 He is as well a reputed leader in the semi-secret and supremacist pan-Islamic organization called the “Arab Gathering.” Yet, Hilal also makes no secret of being an agent of the Sudanese government. He boasts that beginning in the summer of 2003, “when the government put forward a program of arming all the people, I will not deny I called our sons and told them to become armed, and our sons acquiesced…. Those who became armed were no less than 3,000.” 67 Hilal explains, “Our job is to mobilize people – the government has told us to mobilize people .” 68 This role is further confirmed by Salah Abdallah Gosh, the head of the National Security and Intelligence Service discussed in Chapter 4 and identified in Figure 5.1, who reports that Hilal “was invited by the government to back the government Army, and he gave the people guns and leadership.” 69 In this way, the Sudanese state provided Hilal with the opportunity to build a militia that capitalized on his own past exploits. For Hilal is not merely an authorized agent of the Sudanese state; he is also a convicted repeat criminal with a lengthy record that extends from robbery to murder. Hilal is an imposing figure in his late forties and is well over six feet in height. By 2002, he was already a powerful and well-armed militia leader associated with widespread killing and looting in Darfur. Hilal is a personal embodiment of the kind of mobility that can follow from the integration of legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures.70 24 A New York Times account reported that a past governor of North Darfur, Ibrahim Suleiman, summoned Hilal during this period and warned him, “If I decide to kill you, I will kill you, and nothing will happen to me.” Hilal is reported to have simply smiled in response, thinking that he was untouchable.71 The governor nonetheless arrested Hilal, reportedly for tax evasion, and sent him to a prison in faraway Port Sudan. Four months later, however, the government in Khartoum removed Suleiman from office and brought Hilal back to the Sudanese capital under “house arrest.” In June 2003, Hilal flew back to Darfur and organized the Janjaweed with government support, reportedly due to the intervention of Vice President Ali Osman Taha (see Figure 5.1), a known supporter of Hilal.72 The deposed governor of North Darfur later cited the decision to bring Hilal back to Darfur as a turning point: “When the problems with the rebels started in Darfur, we in the government of Sudan had a number of options. We chose the wrong one. We chose the very worst one.”73 In the past, the Sudanese government recruited young men from the Black African groups of Darfur, including the Masalit tribe, for their campaigns of death, destruction, and displacement in southern Sudan. Now, the government excluded these same Black African groups from militia recruitment in western Sudan and targeted them as victims. Flint and de Waal 74 describe the revised racial order of the Darfur conflict: EXT Darfur’s new army … closed its doors to the “African” tribes who were traditionally its mainstay. But in everything else it was undiscriminating, accepting – even seeking out – the criminal element that 25 was a defining feature of the pre-war Janjawiid. Musa Hilal set the example. Shortly after returning to North Darfur, he visited Kutum jail, and ordered the staff to bring all prisoners before him. One of the wardens remembers him saying, “Why are Arabs in prison?“ and ordering that they be released. Many such men found a safe haven in the Janjawiid, whose own behavior was defined by its unbound criminality. The Janjawiid stole, burned, mutilated, killed, and raped – subjecting tiny communities to unimaginable horrors. Musa Hilal rallied his recruits to attack Black African villages with a vocabulary framed around racially inspired exhortations and justifications Section 1.05 A Genocide Hilal’s Place in the Criminal Organization of As already noted, Hilal frequently emphasized in interviews with reporters that the government authorized his mobilization and recruitment work in Darfur. Ahmad Harun served as Deputy Minister of the Interior in charge of the “Darfur Security Desk” and has been identified by the ICC Prosecutor as the intermediary between the leadership of the Sudanese government and Arab militia leaders such as Musa Hilal (see Figure 5.1). Harun is in his early to mid-forties and is a former judge with a degree from Cairo University. Perhaps more significantly, before assuming responsibility for Darfur, Harun mobilized local tribes in response to an insurgency during the 1990s in the Kordofan area to the east of Darfur in Sudan. Julie Flint summarizes the well-known strategy the Sudanese government used repeatedly in such areas: 26 EXT The strategy is the same as used in the twenty-one years of war in southern Sudan and the Nuba Mountains: (1) finding an ethnic militia with existing rivalries with the targeted group (the ethnic group related to the rebels); (2) arming and supporting that militia, and giving it impunity for any crimes; (3) encouraging and helping it to attack the civilians of the targeted group, with scorched earth tactics often backed up by government ground troops and air power; (4) killing, raping, abducting, or forcibly displacing the targeted group and destroying its economy; and (5) denying humanitarian access to needy civilians. This pattern of attack has been used, again and again, in southern Sudan. 75 In Darfur, Harun mobilized local tribal militias that included the Janjaweed and integrated them into the Public Defense Forces (PDF), a citizen paramilitary and reserve component of the Sudanese Armed Forces. 76 Harun directed civilian and military activity in Darfur in mid-2003, at or about the same time as Hilal returned to North Darfur and Khartoum removed Ibrahim Suleiman, Hilal’s nemesis, as governor of North Darfur. Harun spearheaded a major recruitment effort implemented through local leaders like Hilal, explaining that “practically speaking the GoS [i.e., Government of Sudan] can never have sufficient numbers of soldiers.” 77 Harun offered this judgment after a period of several months in early 2003 when the Sudanese military was losing several hit-andrun battles with small rebel groups. The rebels capitalized on the element of surprise, but they also benefited from the unwillingness of some Government of Sudan forces 27 to carry out “scorched-earth” attacks on African farmers and villagers. Some of these government soldiers came from Black African tribes in Darfur and therefore refused to join in attacks on their own groups. Harun needed a more readily motivated group for local purposes, and this led him to form the Arab Janjaweed militias. Harun energetically pursued his Darfur mission. He visited Darfur at least six times in July and August 2003 for meetings,78 including one attended by a refugee interviewed in the ADS. The refugee recalled, “I was at the meeting where he announced that those that disrespected the government should be ‘cleansed away’ by the government.” This refugee served as a representative to the West Darfur Council before fleeing the violence. He reported that the meeting was part of a government program of propaganda “which tried to show that all blacks are rebels and should be fought.” Harun spent more than four months altogether in Darfur. 79 At another meeting near Nyla, Harun listened as a militia/Janjaweed leader boasted that the Arab tribes “can wipe out the areas of the Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit in a matter of one month.” In a July meeting in Al Geneina, Harun said that he held the power “to kill or forgive whoever” in Darfur. His speech encouraged attacks on civilian populations he associated with rebels, rather than the rebels themselves, and he said they were ready “to kill three-quarters of Darfur in order to allow one quarter to live.” When asked about the indiscriminateness of this policy of killing, his defense was that the “rebels infiltrate the villages,” and thus, the villages “are like water to fish.” Harun regularly encouraged taking from “all the Fur and what they had,” which he characterized as 28 “booty,” and further identified the primary targets of attacks as the Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit. 80 Harun repeated most if not all of the previous statements in a July 2003 speech in Al Geneina, in the company of Musa Hilal and another local militia leader, Hamid Dawai, whom we introduce in Chapter 6 (and see Figure 5.1): EXT On that day, Harun’s speech was preceded by that of the notorious Militia/Janjaweed leader Musa Hilal. Hilal’s speech was characterized by the witness who heard it as “very racist.” Hilal was enthusiastic about unifying to fight the enemy and characterized the conflict as a “holy war.” Hilal’s remarks were followed by Harun’s announcement that the President had handed him the Darfur Security Desk and that he had the power and authority to kill and forgive whoever in Darfur. It was shortly after the meeting in Al Geneina that Harun travelled together with Hamid Dawai. 81 Harun not only recruited Janjaweed but also distributed weapons and money for training camps. He controlled an “unlimited and unaudited budget” for these purposes. 82 Section 1.06 A Interviews Eyewitnesses of Hilal’s Role from the ADS ADS interviews confirm the role of Hilal in carrying out Harun’s initiatives by establishing and operating training camps, making speeches in market settings, and leading violent attacks. There are at least eight eyewitness and six hearsay accounts 29 of Hilal’s activities in the ADS surveys, beginning with descriptions of the training camp operations. Two of the training camp accounts are from the area near Kebkabiya. Both date from the time of Harun’s July 2003 Al Geneina speech given in the presence of Hilal.The first respondent drew a map (see Illustration 5.1) of Hilal’s training camp in North Darfur near Masteria, locating the camp in relation to nearby Fur and Arab villages. The second respondent described how she feared the threat the training camp posed to her safety. The interviewer recorded the following racially explicit account of this women’s experience: EXT She lived in a village, within walking distance from the Arab village of Midop, where Musa Hilal trained his men. They trained for twentyfive days with weapons…. Musa Hilal is the Sheikh of Midop…. During the training, the Arabs shopped at the market in the black villages and said they were going to kill all the blacks. She didn’t see the training, but she saw the bullets and fragments from the shooting. People were not hurt during the training period. On the twenty-sixth day of the training, someone spoke over the microphone. He said that you have trained for twenty-five days and now should kill the people in the nine villages nearby. The speaker spoke Arabic; she doesn’t know Arabic, but others told her what the speaker said. She heard the announcement over the microphone herself. She fled after hearing the announcement, so she didn’t see the attack on the village that followed. She has been told that all nine villages were attacked with camels, horses, 30 vehicles, and that people were killed…. While she was fleeing, she was chased and caught by men with green uniforms. Their animals were taken. Clothes were taken from the women and men were killed. They said, “We killed all your men and will kill you too.” Everyone began to weep…. The women were raped. It happened at night so they couldn’t see individual perpetrators…. When she escaped she went to Karnoi, then to Tine, and finally to Chad. The interviewer indicated this respondent clearly was traumatized and appeared much older than her reported 35 years of age. Insert Illustration 5.1 about here Another respondent confirmed the description of the training camp and provided a second map of its location near the Wadi and Midop area. He confirmed that the training lasted about a month and that “they trained in shooting, including with … a shoulder-fired weapon (i.e., a bazooka) that makes a terrible sound.” Militia leaders prohibited villagers from traveling or grazing their animals in the shooting range during this period. Journalists who reported on the training camps recounted the salience of race in Hilal’s training regime for new Arab recruits. Hilal alleged that the Black Africans settled land originally belonging to Arabs. Wax reported that before an attack on April 27, 2004, Hilal and the troops sang war songs proclaiming, “We go to the war. We go to defeat the rebels. We are not afraid of war. We are the original people of 31 this area.” 83 Another journalist wrote from Darfur that “The Guardian has spoken to a deserter from a training camp run by Mr. Hilal, who said the Janjaweed commander whipped up racial hatred among his fighters. When the recruits first arrived at the camp…, Mr. Hilal made a speech in which he told them that all Africans were their enemies.” 84 Another interview with a defector reported that men paraded around a training camp singing songs parodying the local Africans and teasing the spurned African recruits with claims that “we are lords of this land. You blacks do not have any rights here.” 85 Hilal did not just convert individuals to his cause; he built militias around a collective will – a common purpose and shared intent to attack and kill Black Africans. Hilal incited his recruits and terrorized his victims with racist speech. Two eyewitnesses saw Hilal in the marketplace of nearby Misteriha in August 2003, where he delivered public warnings with explicit racial messages. Both eyewitnesses described the events in detail. One appearance occurred on a Tuesday market day in June 2003. Hilal arrived in a white four-wheel drive car with tinted black windows that the respondent had seen in the village on at least five previous occasions carrying men and sometimes equipped with a doska – a large, mounted machine gun used in attacks. Hilal appeared as part of a group and spoke to a mixed crowd of Arab and African villagers, as described in this account: EXT The first time he saw Musa Hilal in the market … was a Tuesday. Musa Hilal spoke first. Musa Hilal said he was sent by the Government of Sudan, and he told the people that we are going to kill all 32 blacks in this area, and that if you kill people, nobody will be prosecuted. Also if you burn (i.e., homes and buildings), nobody will prosecute or “question” you. Animals you find are yours. But if you find a … a big machine gun, it belongs to the government. He said we will clear the land until the desert begins. Musa Hilal spoke Arabic, which the respondent understands. He also said, “I have come to give the Arab people freedom.” The respondent further indicated that an official accompanied Hilal and explained his recent arrest and subsequent return to North Darfur: EXT From his accent, he wasn’t from the area. He said Musa Hilal had been arrested, “but we brought him back for your safety.”’ He instructed the people to “understand” what Musa Hilal said, to “obey his orders,“ and to use him as a “reference.” The speeches demoralized the Black African listeners: “The Arabs were happy with the speeches …. No Arabs objected. The Fur and Zaghawa didn’t speak and were sad.” This eyewitness provided accounts of subsequent attacks and burnings not only of his own village but also of surrounding villages that he observed while fleeing. He also reported that the Janjaweed did not attack Arab villages. Another respondent confirmed Hilal’s identity, noting that he knew him from school and took care of his family’s household. This respondent recalled, “I was standing in the middle of the market” when Hilal entered the market with armed men at his sides and announced that “the government gave me the order and I came here. 33 The government gave me cars and uniforms. The government gave me the order to start killing the people here – all the blacks from here to Karnoi and Tine and up.” Hilal indicated that he was told to “kill all the blacks in this area” and that his forces should “give the Arab people freedom” by “clear[ing] the land.” Combined Sudanese and Janjaweed forces attacked nearby towns in the area of Kebkabiya numerous times, conducting particularly vicious attacks in August 2003 (recounted in ADS interviews analyzed in the next chapter) following Hilal’s earlier appearance in the Misteriha market. One of the respondents quoted earlier described the attack on his own village. He returned from his farm work to see from a short distance away the “shooting and killing … There were horses and cars with machine guns … They had cars with machine guns and they started killing people.” He continued, EXT They had a big truck to put all the things in from the houses. It was a green army truck. There were many trees where I was hiding and I got up in the tree to see what was happening. The machine gun was mounted on the car and someone was guiding the gun. The gun had three legs (i.e., a tripod) on the top of the car. It was a Toyota (khaki colored). There was someone driving and some soldiers on the cars and someone shooting. I could not hear them except yelling like frightening [them]. All of them had uniforms on. I couldn’t see if they had markings because I was too far, but they had army caps. They came from four directions. I saw there was one man who had a horse who arrived and led the attack – he just waved his arm to 34 attack. He had a uniform, a white horse, with a red flag/cloth that he was waving. The respondent cried when the interviewer asked about his family, expressing anguish and dismay that the government supported the Janjaweed. The interviewer reported his exact words about going back to the village to look for his family after the attack: EXT I went back and nothing was there. [Respondent begins to cry.] I looked under everything, and I looked for my family and for my house. I didn’t find [them]. I have five children with their mother who were gone and the other wife and three children and they were gone. Until now I don’t know what happened to them. Maybe they were in the fire – I don’t know. [Begins to cry again.] When asked about the fate of surrounding Arab villages, he replied, “The people who were in the villages around us were the ones who were killing us, so how can they kill themselves?” Section 1.07 A Musa Hilal and the Specific Role of Race The ground attacks on African villages characteristically started with forces shouting racial epithets, which are extensively recorded in the ADS. Refugees often reported hearing the incoming forces shouting racial slurs, such as “This is the last day for blacks,” “We will destroy the black-skinned people,” “Kill the slaves,” “Kill all the 35 blacks,” as well as references to “Nuba, Nuba” (in this context, a derogatory term used for Black Africans). The epithets shouted in the attacks that were specifically linked to Musa Hilal usually referred to “slaves.” Their uniformity suggests a common source and theme. Six of the additional hearsay interviews further reported use of racial epithets, and three of these also included explicit references to slaves. There was thus extensive evidence of “specific racial intent” in the interviews linking Musa Hilal to attacks in Darfur. Often, the attacks involving Musa Hilal followed a similar pattern: repeated bombings, ground attacks led by Janjaweed and GoS forces, yelling of racial epithets, killing of the men who did not flee, and raping the remaining women. A woman refugee from Tine heard the attackers say, “We don’t like black men or women in this area.” Her account continued as follows: EXT They attacked the village three times. By the last attack, her house was destroyed. There were eight days of bombing. They brought reinforcements. After the first bombing, the men ran and left their families. They took the cars and left. The Arabs took women – they take the pretty ones. They killed any men they found behind. She saw twenty women taken. She was taken. Although this woman did not report being raped, the interviewer thought that she was raped. In Chapter 7, we statistically link racial epithets as measures of racial intent to 36 Sudanese and Janjaweed involvement in the death, rape, destruction, and displacement reported in Darfur. There are allegedly documents confirming the state instigation of the racialized attacks and the specific role of Musa Hilal: EXT As a communiqué to the commander of the “Western military area” from Musa Hilal’s headquarters in Misteriha said, citing orders from the president of the Republic, “You are informed that directives have been issued … to change the demography of Darfur and empty it of African tribes” through burning, looting and killing “of intellectuals and youths who may join the rebels in fighting.”86 Another account reported the following: EXT Hilal appears to have unlimited power in Darfur. A statement from local authorities in February instructed “security units in the locality” to “allow the activities of the mujahideen and the volunteers under the command of Sheikh Musa Hilal to proceed” in North Darfur and “to secure their vital needs.” The document stressed the “importance of non-interference” and directed local authorities to “overlook minor offences … against civilians who are suspected members of the rebellion.”87 However, as we see next, the links between Hilal and the government of Sudan are perhaps most vividly reflected in the joining of the Janjaweed attacks with Sudanese bombing attacks. 37 Thus, one of the ADS interviews described how villagers in the Kebkabiya area early in 2004 listened to FM radio frequencies used in government communications and heard government pilots giving “orders to Janjaweed as to where to attack.” Radio communications of this kind are reported elsewhere in the ADS interviews and in interviews conducted by Human Rights Watch. The latter included a man from Kebkabiya who heard a conversation involving Hilal prior to an attack in the Tawila area, on February 27, 2004: “I heard them on Thurayas [satellite phones distributed by the government to militia leaders] with someone in Khartoum, to arrange the point where the planes should land to bring the required ammunition.”88 Racial epithets heard during the air-to-ground communications and interviews by Human Rights Watch further linked these communications (see the left side of Figure 5.1) to GoS military leaders, such as General Gadal: EXT We heard the names of [government army] pilots and conversations…. That is how we know some of the pilots. One was Egyptian, because of the way he spoke in clear Egyptian Arabic…. We heard him on the radio organizing the attacks. They called him Janabo Gadal or Officer Gadal. Also, Afaf Segel, who is a woman pilot from Sudan. She said things like “Nas Karnoi na dikim fatuur” which means, “I am going to give breakfast to the peasants from Karnoi,” before Karnoi was bombed. Captain Khalid was another pilot. In their communications on the radio they called us “Nuba, 38 abid,” and said things like, “I am going to give those slaves a lesson they will not forget.” 89 Gadal also was reported in the ADS interviews to be in the Kutum area where Hilal was active, as well as elsewhere: EXT MIGs came first but didn’t bomb – they buzzed the village. Then the Antonovs came. When you listened to the radio on FM you could hear … I heard them say “Move! Move! Gadal Move!” (Interviewer’s note: respondent speaks fluent Arabic.)…. We were in the wadi and saw the army come and the Janjaweed were circling the village. Those who could run well survived and others were killed. I took the way through the mountains to Abilina. Human Rights Watch interviews reported Hilal’s presence during several other attacks in North Darfur. He reportedly traveled by government helicopter and was present during instances of torture: “He gives orders to both soldiers and Janjaweed.” 90 Section 1.08 A Specific Individual and Collective Racial Intent Musa Hilal and the government of Sudan deny all charges of war crimes. As of this writing, investigators from the International Criminal Court have not filed charges against Musa Hilal. It was not until July of 2008 that the Prosecutor asked the ICC judges to charge President al-Bashir with genocide. The charge filed in 2007 by the ICC Prosecutor were of a more limited nature and involved only the former Deputy 39 Minister of Interior, Ahmad Harun, and the less well-known militia leader discussed in the next chapter, Ali Kushayb. In a recent article in the New York Times91 based on an interview given near the town of Kebkabiya, Hillal elaborates his denial of committing war crimes: EXT He said there were no tensions here between Arabs and non- Arabs. By way of demonstration, he ordered one of his soldiers to round up a group of market women. When the women arrived, cowering under their bright robes as Mr. Hilal hovered over them, one by one [they] said there were no tensions here. Hilal then proclaimed, “See! We have no problems here. We live together in peace.” In another interview, Hilal exhibited the same sense of unwavering inevitability he displayed when Governor Suleiman warned him years earlier of the potential consequences of his actions. On this occasion, he confidently told the interviewer, “The government call to arms is carried out through tribal leaders…. Every government comes and finds us here. When they leave, we will still be here. When they come back, we will still be here. We will always be here.” 92 Of course, for sociological or criminological purposes, it is not necessary to establish the individual legal responsibility of Musa Hilal or any other specific person for acts of genocide. We use Hilal here as an example to illustrate the roles played with social efficacy by militia leaders in mobilizing and organizing genocidal violence as a joint criminal enterprise. The broader interest for the sociological 40 criminology of genocide is to explain the involvement of state actors as joint perpetrators in criminally organized action that – with an individually and collectively framed racial intent – resulted in the death, destruction, and displacement of Black Africans in Darfur. Our focus is on group processes, rather than on individuals. Our premise is that a collective explanation is needed for collective violence. We noted at the outset of this chapter that international criminal law prosecutions increasingly refer to collective processes involving criminal organization, common purpose, and joint criminal enterprise. The challenge is to develop a fully elaborated collective understanding of the genocidal violence in Darfur. To this end, in the following chapters, we further analyze the unique data in the State Department’s ADS survey. 41 Section 1.09 A Figure Captions Figure 5.1 Sudan-Darfur Chain of Command, 2003–04 Illustration 5.1. Janjaweed Militia Training Camp Section 1.015. Eyewitnessing Genocide 1 Andrew S. Natsios, The President’s Special Envoy to Sudan, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, February 8, 2007. 2 3 Elizabeth Rubin, “If Not Peace, Then Justice,” New York Times Magazine, April 2, 2006, p. 42. Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court, Situation in Darfur, the Sudan, Prosecutor’s Application under Article 58 (7), February 27, 2007. 5 6 7 8 9 10 Situation in Darfur ., p. 43. Ibid., p. 30. Ibid., p. 30. Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court, Fact Sheet, The Situation in Darfur, February 27, 2007. Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court, Situation in Darfur, op cit., p. 66, italics added. Jens Meierhenrich, “Conspiracy in International Law,” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 2 (2006): 341–357. 11 John Hagan, Justice in the Balkans: Prosecuting War Crimes in The Hague Tribunal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). 12 Mark J. Osiel, “The Banality of Good: Aligning Incentives against Mass Atrocity,” Columbia Law Review 105 (2005): 1751–1862. 13 Robert Sampson, “Neighborhood and Community: Collective Efficacy and Community Safety,” New Economy 11 (2004): 106–113. 14 Ross Matsueda, “Differential Social Organization, Collective Action, and Crime,” Crime, Law & Social Change 46: 1–2 (2006): 3–33. 15 Daniel Chirot and Clark McCauley, Why Not Kill Them All? The Logic and Prevention of Mass Murder (Princeton: Princeton University Press), p. 89. 16 17 Nicholas Kristof, “The Face of Genocide,” New York Times, November 19, 2006, p. 13. For example, Jeffrey Gettleman, “In a Calm Corner of Darfur, Villagers Rebuild Fragile Ties with Former Enemies,” New York Times, November 8, 2006, p. A14 and Somini Sengupta, “From Rare Glimpse inside Militia Camp, Clear ties to Sudan,” New York Times, October 21, 2004, p.A1. 18 Julie Flint and Alex de Waal, Darfur: A Short History of a Long War (London: Zed Books, 2005), p. 3. 42 19 R.S. O’Fahey, “A Complex Ethnic Reality with a Long History; Darfur,” International Herald Tribune, May 15, 2004, p. 8. 20 Paul Doornbos, “On Becoming Sudanese,” in Tony Barnett and Abbas Abdelkarim, eds., Sudan: State, Capital and Transformation (London: Croom Helm, 1988). Ibid. Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998). 21 22 23 24 Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995). John Comaroff and Jean Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: The Dialectics of Modernity on a South African Frontier, Vol. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), p. 406. 25 Ibid., p. 406. 26 Roger Brubaker and David Laitin, “Ethnic and Nationalist Violence,” Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998). 27 Scott Straus, The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006). 28 Anthony Oberschall, “The Manipulation of Ethnicity: From Ethnic Cooperation to Violence and War in Yugoslavia,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 23 (2000): 982–1001. 29 Atta El-Battahani, “Towards a Typology and Periodization Schema of Conflicts in Darfur Region of Sudan,” in Abdel Ghaffar M. Ahmed and Leif Manger, eds., Understanding the Crisis in Darfur: Listening to Sudanese Voices (Bergen: BRIC, 2006); see also Mohamed Suliman, Sudan: Resources, Identity and War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 30 31 32 33 34 35 Atta El-Battahani, op cit., p. 37. R.S. O’Fahey, State and Society in Dar Fur (London: Hurst, 1980). Joseph Winter, “Probe of Darfur ‘Slavery’ Starts,” BBC News, March 21, 2007. R.S. O’Fahey, op cit., p. 39. Joseph Winter, op cit. Kwame Anthony Appiah, “A Slow Emancipation,” New York Times Magazine, March 18, 2007, p. 17; see also David Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (London: Oxford University Press, 2006). 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 Samantha Power, “Dying in Darfur,” New Yorker, August 30, 2004, pp.1–18. Nicholas Kristof, “Genocide in Slow Motion,” New York Review of Books 53 (2006), p. 2. Sebastian Mallaby, “Darfur: Origins of a Catastrophe,” Washington Post, February 19, 2006, p. BW04. G Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), p. 162. rard See Samantha Power, op cit. Julie Flint and Alex de Waal, op cit., p. 101. Julie Flint, Testimony to United States Committee on Foreign Relations Hearing, “Sudan: Peace, But at What Price?” (Washington, DC: June 15, 2004), p. 3. 43 Ralph Lemkin, “Genocide,” American Scholar 15 (April 1946): 227–230. 43 44 Alexander Laban Hinton, “Why Did You Kill? The Cambodian Genocide and the Dark Side of Face and Honor,” Journal of Asian Studies 57 (1998): 117. 45 Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Philippe Bourgois, Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology (London: Basil Blackwell, 2004), p. 14. Augustine Brannigan and Kelly Hardwick, “Genocide and General Theory,” in Chester Britt and Michael Gottfredson, eds., Control Theories of Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 12 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 2003), p. 122. 46 47 48 49 Prunier, op cit., p. 165. Edwin Sutherland and Karl Schuessler, On Analyzing Crime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973). Robert Sampson, Jeffrey Morenoff, and Felton Earls, “Beyond Social Capital: Spatial Dynamics of Collective Efficacy for Children,” American Sociological Review 64 (1999): 633–660; Robert Sampson, Stephen Raudenbush, and Felton Earls, “Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy,” Science 277 (1997): 918–924. 50 51 52 53 Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls, op cit., p. 918. Matsueda, op cit., fn. 13. Ibid. Herbert Blumer, “Collective Behavior,” in R.E. Park (ed.), An Outline of The Principles of Sociology (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1939); William Gamson, Strategy of Social Protest (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishers, 1990). 54 Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis (New York: Harper & Row, 1974); David Snow and Pamela Oliver, “Social Movements and Collective Behavior: Social Psychological Dimensions and Considerations,” in Karen Cook, Gary Fine, and James House, eds., Sociological Perspectives on Social Psychology (Boston: Allyn and Bacon,1995), pp. 571–599. 55 56 This formulation borrows heavily from Gamson, op cit., p. 155. Albert Cohen, Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1955); Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Juvenile Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1960). 57 58 59 Scheper-Hughes and Bourgois, op cit., p. 14. Cloward and Ohlin, op cit. Per-Olof Wikstrom and Robert Sampson, “Social Mechanisms of Community Influences on Crime and Pathways in Criminality,” in Benjamin Lahey, Terrie E. Moffitt, and Avshalom Caspi, eds., The Causes of Conduct Disorder and Juvenile Delinquency (New York: Guilford Press, 2003). 60 Edwin Sutherland, “Wartime Crime,” in Edwin Sutherland and Karl Schuessler, eds., On Analyzing Crime (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), pp. 120–128. 61 Gresham Sykes and David Matza, “Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency,” American Sociological Review 22 (1957): 664–670. 62 C. Wright Mills, “Situated Actions and Vocabularies of Motive,” American Sociological Review 5 (1940): 904– 913. 63 Matsueda, op cit., p. 8. 44 64 65 66 67 68 Matsueda, op cit., p. 9. Flint and de Waal, op cit., p. 9. Emily Wax, “In Sudan: ‘A Big Sheik’ Roams Free,” Washington Post, July 18, 2004, p. A1. Ibid., p. A1. Human Rights Watch, “Video Transcript: Exclusive Video Interview with Alleged Janjaweed Leader, March 2, 2005. 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 Power, op cit., p. 58. Cloward and Ohlin, op cit. Scott Anderson, “How Did Darfur Happen?” New York Times Magazine, October 17, 2004, p. 52. Flint and de Waal, p. 98. Scott Anderson, op cit., p. 55. Flint and Alex de Waal, op cit., pp. 103–104. Julie Flint, op cit., p. 5. Office of the Prosecutor, p. 32. Ibid., pp. 37–38. Ibid., p. 53. Ibid., p. 53. Ibid., pp. 53–60. Ibid., pp. 60–61. Ibid., p. 55. Emily Wax, op cit., p. A1. Jeevan Vasagar, “Militia Chief Scorns Slaughter Charge,” Guardian, July 16, 2004. Samantha Power, op cit., p. 9. Flint and de Waal, op cit., p. 106. Samantha Power, op cit., p. 8. Human Rights Watch, “Entrenching Impunity: Government Responsibility for International Crimes in Darfur,” December 2005, Vol 17(17), p. 18. 89 90 91 92 Ibid., p. 17. Ibid., p. 19. Lydia Polgreen, “Over Tea, Sheik Denies Stirring Darfur’s Torment,” New York Times, June 12, 2006, p. A1. Samantha Power, op cit., p. 18.
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