is a popular style of Latin American music
. Because most of the basic musical componentes predates the labeling of salsa, there have been many controversies regarding its origin. Most songs considered as salsa are primarily based on son montuno
with elements of mambo
, Latin jazz
All of these elements are adapted to fit the basic son montuno template when performed within the context of salsa.
Tumbadoras (conga drums), one of the basic instruments of salsa music
Originally the name salsa was used to label commercially several styles of Latin dance music, but nowadays it is considered a musical style on its own and one of the staples of Latin American culture
Origins of the term Salsa
The word Salsa
in the Spanish language
. The origin of the connection of this word to a style of music is disputed by various music writers and historians.
The musicologist Max Salazar
believes the origin of the connection lies in 1930 when Ignacio Piñeiro
composed the song Echale salsita
(put some sauce in it).
The phrase is seen as a cry from Piñeiro to his band, telling them to increase the tempo to "put the dancers into high gear".
Later on, while based in Mexico City
, the musician Beny Moré
would shout salsa
during a performance to acknowledge a musical moment's heat, making a connection with the hot salsa (sauce)
made in the country.
Latin music promoter Izzy Sanabria claims he was the first to use the word salsa to denote a music genre
In 1973, I hosted the television show Salsa
which was the first reference to this particular music as salsa
. I was using [the term] salsa
, but the music wasn't defined by that. The music was still defined as Latin music. And that was a very, very broad category, because it even includes mariachi music. It includes everything. So salsa defined this particular type of music ... It's a name that everyone could pronounce.
Sanabria's Latin New York
magazine was an English language
publication. Consequently, his promoted events were covered in The New York Times
, as well as Time
Sanabria confessed the term salsa was not developed by musicians: "Musicians were busy creating the music but played no role in promoting the name salsa."
For this reason the use of the term salsa has been controversial among musicians. Some have praised it's unification element. Celia Cruz
said, "salsa is Cuban music with another name. It's mambo, chachachá, rumba, son ... all the Cuban rhythms under one name." Willie Colón
described salsa not as a precise musical style but a power to unite in the broadest terms: "Salsa was the force that united diverse Latino and other non-Latino racial and ethnic groups ...Salsa is the harmonic sum of all Latin culture ".
On the other hand, even some New York based artists were originally against the commercialization of music under that name; Machito
said: "There's nothing new about salsa, it is just the same old music that was played in Cuba for over fifty years."
Similarly, Tito Puente
stated: "The only salsa I know is sold in a bottle called ketchup. I play Cuban music." Cuban musicologist Mayra Martínez wrote that "the term salsa obscured the Cuban base, the music's history or part of its history in Cuba. And salsa was a way to do this so that Jerry Masucci, Fania and other record companies, like CBS, could have a hegemony on the music and keep the Cuban musicians from spreading their music abroad."
Izzy Sanabria responded that Martínez was likely giving an accurate Cuban viewpoint, "but salsa was not planned that way".
The marketing potential from the name was so big, that eventually both Machito, Puente and even musicians in Cuba embraced the term as a financial necessity.
The instrumentation in salsa bands is mostly based on the son montuno
ensamble developed by Arsenio Rodriguez
, who added a horn section, as well as tumbadoras (congas)
to the traditional Son cubano
ensamble; which typically contained bongos
, one trumpet, smaller hand-held percussion instruments (like claves
, or maracas
) usually played by the singers, and sometimes a piano
's band was the first to experiment with the timbales
These three drums (bongos, congas and timbales) became the standard percussion instruments in most salsa bands and function in similar ways to a traditional drum ensemble. The timbales play the bell pattern, the congas play the supportive drum part, and the bongos improvise, simulating a lead drum. The improvised variations of the bongos are executed within the context of a repetitive marcha, known as the martillo
('hammer'), and do not constitute a solo. The bongos play primarily during the verses and the piano solos. When the song transitions into the montuno section, the bongo player picks up a large hand held cowbell called the bongo bell. Often the bongocero
plays the bell more during a piece, than the actual bongos. The interlocking counterpoint of the timbale bell and bongo bell provides a propelling force during the montuno. The maracas
sound a steady flow of regular pulses (subdivisions) and are ordinarily clave-neutral.
Nonetheless, some bands instead follow the Charanga
format, which consists of a string section (of violins
, and cello
), tumbadoras (congas)
. Bongos are not typically used in charanga bands. Típica 73
, Orquesta Broadway
, Orquesta Reve and Orquesta Ritmo Oriental where popular Salsa bands with charanga instrumentation. Johnny Pacheco
, Charlie Palmieri
, Mongo Santamaria
and Ray Barretto
also experimented with this format.
Throughout its 50 years of life, Los Van Van
have always experimented both ensembles. The first 15 the band was a pure charanga, but later a trombone section was added. Now a days the band could be considered a hybrid.
Most salsa compositions follow the basic son montuno model based on a clave rhythm and composed of a verse section, followed by a coro-pregón
(call-and-response) chorus section known as the montuno
. The verse section can be short, or expanded to feature the lead vocalist and/or carefully crafted melodies with clever rhythmic devices. Once the montuno section begins, it usually continues until the end of the song. The tempo may gradually increase during the montuno in order to build excitement. The montuno section can be divided into various sub-sections sometimes referred to as mambo
, and especial
1930s and 1940s: Origins in Cuba
Many musicologists find many of the components of salsa music in the Son Montuno
of several artists of the 30s and 40s like Arsenio Rodriguez
, Conjunto Chappottin
(with Felix Chappottin
and Lili Martinez
) and Roberto Faz
. Salsa musician Eddie Palmieri
once said "When you talk about our music, you talk about before, or after, Arsenio.....Lili Martinez was my mentor".
Several songs of Arsenio's band, like Fuego en el 23
, El Divorcio
, Hacheros pa un palo
, Bruca manigua
, No me llores
, Alto songo
, El reloj de pastora
, were later covered by many salsa bands (like Sonora Ponceña
and Johnny Pacheco
1950s-1960s: Cuban music in New York City
The Palladium Ballroom, home of the mambo, c. 1950s.
Ethnomusicologist Ed Morales notes that the interaction of Afro-Cuban and jazz
music in New York was crucial to the innovation of both forms of music. Musicians who would become great innovators of mambo, like Mario Bauzá
and Chano Pozo
, began their careers in New York working in close conjunction with some of the biggest names in jazz
, like Cab Calloway
, Ella Fitzgerald
, and Dizzy Gillespie
, among others. Morales noted that: "The interconnection between North American jazz and Afro-Cuban music was taken for granted, and the stage was set for the emergence of mambo music in New York, where music fans were becoming accustomed to innovation."
He later notes that Mambo helped pave the way for the widespread acceptance of salsa years later.
The traditional Cuban son
(of the 1920s and 1930s) was never popular in New York City (possibly not until the introduction of the Buena Vista Social club concept in the 90s). In 1952, Arsenio Rodriguez
moved for a short period to New York City taking with him his modern son montuno
. During that period his success was limited (NYC was more interested in Mambo), but his guajeos
(who influenced on musicians he shared the stage as Chano Pozo
, and Mario Bauzá
), together with the piano tumbaos
of Lili Martinez
, the trumpet of Felix Chappottin
and the fast pace of Roberto Faz
, would become very relevant in the region a decade later.
1970s: Songo in Cuba, salsa in NYC
The 1970s was witness to two parallel modernizations of the Cuban son
and in New York
. During this period the term salsa was introduced in New York, and songo
was developed in Havana.
integrated several elements of North American styles like jazz, rock and funk in many different ways than mainstream salsa. Whereas salsa would superimpose elements of another genre in the bridge
of a song, the songo
was considered a rhythmic and harmonic hybrid (particularly regarding funk and clave-based Cuban elements). The music analyst Kevin Moore stated: "The harmonies, never before heard in Cuban music, were clearly borrowed from North American pop [and] shattered the formulaic limitations on harmony to which Cuban popular music had faithfully adhered for so long."
During the same period, Cuban super group Irakere
with batá drums
and other Afro-Cuban folkloric elements; Orquesta Ritmo Oriental created a new highly syncopated, rumba-influenced son
in the charanga ensemble; and Elio Revé developed changüí
hosted a very popular Las Vegas radio show featuring salsa.
On the other hand, New York saw in the 1970s the first use of the term salsa to commercialize several styles of Latin dance music. However, several musicians believe that salsa took on a life of its own, organically evolving into an authentic pan-Latin American cultural identity. Music professor and salsa trombonist Christopher Washburne wrote:
This pan-Latino association of salsa stems from what Felix Padilla labels a 'Latinizing' process that occurred in the 1960s and was consciously marketed by Fania Records: 'To Fania, the Latinizing of salsa came to mean homogenizing the product, presenting an all-embracing Puerto Rican, Pan-American or Latino sound with which the people from all of Latin America and Spanish-speaking communities in the United States could identify and purchase.' Motivated primarily by economic factors, Fania's push for countries throughout Latin America to embrace salsa did result in an expanded market. But in addition, throughout the 1970s, salsa groups from Colombia, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela, among other Latin American nations, emerged, composing and performing music that related to their own specific cultural experiences and affiliations, which posited salsa as a cultural identity marker for those nations as well.
In 1971, the Fania All-Stars sold out Yankee Stadium
By the early 1970s, the music's center moved to Manhattan and the Cheetah
, where promoter Ralph Mercado
introduced many future Puerto Rican salsa stars to an ever-growing and diverse crowd of Latino audiences. The 1970s also brought new semi-known Salsa Bands from New York City, Bands like Angel Canales, Andy Harlow, Chino Rodriguez
y su Consagracion (Chino Rodriguez
was one of the first Chinese Puerto Rican artist that cued the eye of Fania Record's owner Jerry Masucci and later became the Booking Agent for many of the Fania Artists.), Wayne Gorbea, Ernie Agusto y la Conspiracion, Orchestra Ray Jay, Orchestra Fuego, and Orchestra Cimarron, amongst other bands that were performing in the Salsa market in the East Coast of the USA.
, who had a successful career in Cuba, was able to transition well into the salsa movement, and eventually became known as the Queen of Salsa
stretched out from the typical salsa record formula with his opera Hommy
(1973), inspired by The Who
's Tommy album
, and also released his critically acclaimed La Raza Latina, a Salsa Suite
In 1975, Roger Dawson
created the "Sunday Salsa Show" over WRVR FM, which became one of the highest-rated radio shows in the New York market with a reported audience of over a quarter of a million listeners every Sunday (per Arbitron Radio Ratings). Ironically, although New York's Hispanic population at that time was over two million, there had been no commercial Hispanic FM. Given his jazz and salsa conga playing experience and knowledge (working as a sideman with such bands as salsa's Frankie Dante's Orquesta Flamboyan and jazz saxophonist Archie Shepp
), Dawson also created the long-running "Salsa Meets Jazz" weekly concert series at the Village Gate
jazz club where jazz musicians would sit in with an established salsa band, for example Dexter Gordon
jamming with the Machito band. Dawson helped to broaden New York's salsa audience and introduced new artists such as the bi-lingual Angel Canales who were not given play on the Hispanic AM stations of that time. His show won several awards from the readers of Latin New York magazine, Izzy Sanabria's Salsa Magazine
at that time and ran until late 1980 when Viacom changed the format of WRVR to country music
Despite an openness to experimentation and a willingness to absorb non-Cuban influences, such as jazz
, and already existing mambo-jazz, the percentage of salsa compositions based in non-Cuban genres during this period in New York is quite low, and, contrary to songo, salsa remained consistently wedded to older Cuban templates.
Some believe the pan-Latin Americanism of salsa was found in its cultural milieu, more than its musical structure.
An exception of this is probably found in the work of Eddie Palmieri
and Manny Oquendo
, who were considered more adventurous than the highly produced Fania records artists. The two bands incorporated less superficially jazz elements as well as the contemporary Mozambique (music)
. They were known for its virtuous trombone soloists like Barry Rogers
(and other "Anglo" jazz musicians who had mastered the style). Andy Gonzalez
, a bass player who performed with Palmieri and Oquendo recounts: "We were into improvising ... doing that thing Miles Davis
was doing—playing themes and just improvising on the themes of songs, and we never stopped playing through the whole set."
Andy and his brother Jerry González
started showing up in the DownBeat Reader's Poll, and caught the attention of jazz critics.
1980s: Salsa expansion in Latin America and the birth of timba
Oscar D'Leon (2011).
During this period Cuba received international salsa musicians for the first time.
Venezuelan salsa star Oscar D'León's 1983 tour of Cuba is mentioned prominently by every Cuban I've ever interviewed on the subject. Rubén Blades' album Siembra
was heard everywhere on the island throughout the mid-80s and has been quoted extensively in the guías and coros of everyone from Van Van's Mayito Rivera (who quotes [Blades'] 'Plástico' in his guías on the 1997 classic Llévala a tu vacilón
), to El Médico de la Salsa (quoting another major hook from 'Plástico'—'se ven en la cara, se ven en la cara, nunca en el corazón'—in his final masterpiece before leaving Cuba, Diós sabe
Prior to D'León's performance, many Cuban musicians rejected the salsa movement, considering it a bad imitation of Cuban music. Some people say that D'León's performance gave momentum to a "salsa craze" that brought back some of the older templates and motivitaed the development of timba
Before the birth of timba
, Cuban dance music lived a period of high experimentation among several bands like the charangas: Los Van Van
, Orquesta Ritmo Oriental, and Orquesta Revé; the conjuntos: Adalberto Alvarez
y Son 14, Conjunto Rumbavana
and Orquesta Maravillas de Florida; and the jazz band Irakere
was created by musicans of Irakere
who later formed NG La Banda
under the direction of Jose Luis "El Tosco" Cortez. Many timba
songs are more related to main-stream salsa than its Cuban predecessors earlier in the decade. For example, the song "La expresiva" (of NG La Banda
) uses typical salsa timba/bongo bell combinations. The tumbadoras (congas) play elaborate variations on the son montuno-based tumbao, rather than in the songo style. For this reason some Cuban musicians of this period like Manolito y su Trabuco
, Orquesta Sublime, and Irakere
referred to this late-80s sound as salsa cubana
, a term which for the first time, included Cuban music as a part of salsa movement.
In the mid-1990s California-based Bembe Records released CDs by several Cuban bands, as part of their salsa cubana series
Nonetheless, this style included several innovations. The bass tumbaos were busier and more complex than tumbaos typically heard in NY salsa. Some guajeos
were inspired by the "harmonic displacement" technique of the Cuban jazz pianist Gonzalo Rubalcaba
. Curiously, it was in Cuba where hip hop
and salsa first began to meet. For example, many breakdown sections in NG La Banda
's album En la calle
are a combination of guaguancó
and hip hop rhythms.
During this period, Cuban musicians had more of an impact on jazz than salsa in the United States. Even though the Mariel boatlift
took hundreds of Cuban musicians to the US, many of them were astonished to hear what sounded to them like Cuban music from the 1950s. Cuban conguero Daniel Ponce summarized this sentiment: "When the Cubans arrived in New York, they all said 'Yuk! This is old music.' The music and the feelings and arrangements [haven't] changed."
Nonetheless, there was an awareness of the modern Cuban styles in the US. Tito Puente recorded the Irakere composition "Bacalao con pan" (1980), and Rubén Blades covered Los Van Van's "Muevete" (1985). While the Puerto Rican bands Batacumbele (featuring a young Giovanni Hidalgo
) and Zaperoko fully embraced songo music
under the mentorship of Changuito
During the 80s other variants of salsa like salsa romantica
and salsa erotica
evolved. With lyrics dwelling on love and romance. Salsa romantica can be traced back to Noches Calientes
, a 1984 album by singer José Alberto "El Canario"
with producer Louie Ramirez. Some viewed salsa romantica as a rhythmically watered-down version of the genre. Critics of salsa romántica
, especially in the late 80s and early 90s, called it a commercialized, diluted form of Latin pop, in which formulaic, sentimental love ballads were simply put to Afro-Cuban rhythms—leaving no room for classic salsa's brilliant musical improvisation, or for classic salsa lyrics that tell stories of daily life or provide social and political commentary. Some artists of these styles include Omar Alfann, Palmer Hernandez and Jorge Luis Piloto.
1990s: Pop salsa and timba explosion
Marc Anthony performing at the White House (2009)
The 1990s was marked by "pop salsa" in the US, and the "timba explosion" in Cuba.
produced sevveral albums that mixed salsa with contemporary pop styles with Puerto Rican artists like Tito Nieves
, La India
, and Marc Anthony
. George also produced the Japanese salsa band Orquesta de la Luz
. Brenda K. Starr
, Son By Four
, Víctor Manuelle
, and the Cuban-American singer Gloria Estefan enjoyed crossover success within the Anglo-American pop market with their Latin-influenced hits, usually sung in English.
More often than not, clave was not a major consideration in the composing or arranging of these hits. Sergio George is up front and unapologetic about his attitude towards clave: "Though clave is considered, it is not always the most important thing in my music. The foremost issue in my mind is marketability. If the song hits, that's what matters. When I stopped trying to impress musicians and started getting in touch with what the people on the street were listening to, I started writing hits. Some songs, especially English ones originating in the United States, are at times impossible to place in clave."
As Washburne points out however, a lack of clave awareness does not always get a pass:
Marc Anthony is a product of George's innovationist approach. As a novice to Latin music, he was propelled into band leader position with little knowledge of how the music was structured. One revealing moment came during a performance in 1994, just after he had launched his salsa career. During a piano solo he approached the timbales, picked up a stick, and attempted to play clave on the clave block along with the band. It became apparent that he had no idea where to place the rhythm. Shortly thereafter during a radio interview in San Juan Puerto Rico, he exclaimed that his commercial success proved that you did not need to know about clave to make it in Latin music. This comment caused an uproar both in Puerto Rico and New York. After receiving the bad press, Anthony refrained from discussing the subject in public, and he did not attempt to play clave on stage until he had received some private lessons.
In Cuba, what came to be known as the "timba explosion" began with the debut album of La Charanga Habanera
, Me Sube La Fiebre
, in 1992. Like NG La Banda, Charanga Habanera used several new techniques like gear changes and song-specific tumbaos, but their musical style was drastically different and it kept changing and evolving with each album. Charanga Habanera underwent three distinct style periods in the 90s, represented by the three albumsManolín "El Médico de la salsa"
, an amateur songwriter discovered and named by El Tosco (NG La Banda
) at med school, was another superstar of the period. Manolín's creative team included several arrangers, including Luis Bu and Chaka Nápoles. As influential as Manolín was from a strictly musical point of view, his charisma, popularity and unprecedented earning power had an even more seismic impact, causing a level of excitement among musicians that had not been seen since the 1950s. Reggie Jackson referred to Manolin as "the straw that stirs the drink."—Moore (2010: v. 5: 18)
The term salsa cubana
which had barely taken hold, again fell out of favor, and was replaced with timba
. Some of the other important timba bands include Azúcar Negra, Manolín "El Médico de la salsa"
, Havana d'Primera, Klimax, Paulito FG
, Salsa Mayor, Tiempo Libre, Pachito Alonso y sus Kini Kini, Bamboleo
, Los Dan Den, Alain Pérez, Issac Delgado
, Tirso Duarte, Klimax, Manolito y su Trabuco
, Paulo FG, and Pupy y Los que Son Son.
Cuban timba musicians and New York salsa musicians have had positive and creative exchanges over the years, but the two genres remained somewhat separated, appealing to different audiences. Nonetheless, in 2000 Los Van Van
were awarded the first ever Grammy Award for Best Salsa Album
In Colombia, salsa remained a popular style of music producing popular bands like Sonora Carruseles
, Carlos Vives
, Orquesta Guayacan, Grupo Niche
, Kike Santander
, and Julian Collazos. The city of Cali
became known as Colombia's "capital of salsa".
, Cabijazz was playing a unique modern blend of timba-like salsa with a strong jazz influence.
2010s: Timba-fusion hits
The style known as Cubaton
, that was also popular during this period, was mostly based on reggaeton with only some hints of salsa/timba.
Cuban music has been popular in sub-Saharan Africa since the mid twentieth century. To the Africans, clave-based Cuban popular music sounded both familiar and exotic. The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1
Beginning in the 1940s, Afro-Cuban [son] groups such as Septeto Habanero and Trio Matamoros gained widespread popularity in the Congo region as a result of airplay over Radio Congo Belge, a powerful radio station based in Léopoldville (now Kinshasa DRC). A proliferation of music clubs, recording studios, and concert appearances of Cuban bands in Léopoldville spurred on the Cuban music trend during the late 1940s and 1950s.
Congolese bands started doing Cuban covers and singing the lyrics phonetically. Soon, they were creating their own original Cuban-like compositions, with lyrics sung in French or Lingala, a lingua franca of the western Congo region. The Congolese called this new music rumba
, although it was really based on the son. The Africans adapted guajeos to electric guitars, and gave them their own regional flavor. The guitar-based music gradually spread out from the Congo, increasingly taking on local sensibilities. This process eventually resulted in the establishment of several different distinct regional genres, such as soukous
Cuban popular music played a major role in the development of many contemporary genres of African popular music. John Storm Roberts states: "It was the Cuban connection, but increasingly also New York salsa, that provided the major and enduring influences—the ones that went deeper than earlier imitation or passing fashion. The Cuban connection began very early and was to last at least twenty years, being gradually absorbed and re-Africanized."
The re-working of Afro-Cuban rhythmic patterns by Africans brings the rhythms full circle.
The re-working of the harmonic patterns reveals a striking difference in perception. The I IV V IV harmonic progression, so common in Cuban music, is heard in pop music all across the African continent, thanks to the influence of Cuban music. Those chords move in accordance with the basic tenets of Western music theory. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, performers of African popular music do not necessarily perceive these progressions in the same way: "The harmonic cycle of C-F-G-F [I-IV-V-IV] prominent in Congo/Zaire popular music simply cannot be defined as a progression from tonic to subdominant to dominant and back to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer's appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchical order as in Western music."
The largest wave of Cuban-based music to hit Africa was in the form of salsa. In 1974 the Fania All Stars performed in Zaire
(known today as the Democratic Republic of the Congo
), Africa, at the 80,000-seat Stadu du Hai in Kinshasa. This was captured on film and released as Live In Africa
in the UK). The Zairean appearance occurred at a music festival held in conjunction with the Muhammad Ali
/George Foreman heavyweight title fight
. Local genres were already well established by this time. Even so, salsa caught on in many African countries, especially in the Senegambia and Mali. Cuban music had been the favorite of Senegal's nightspot in the 1950s to 1960s.
The Senegalese band Orchestra Baobab
plays in a basic salsa style with congas and timbales, but with the addition of Wolof and Mandinka instruments and lyrics.
According to Lise Waxer, "African salsa points not so much to a return of salsa to African soil (Steward 1999: 157) but to a complex process of cultural appropriation between two regions of the so-called Third World."
Since the mid-1990s African artists have also been very active through the super-group Africando
, where African and New York musicians mix with leading African singers such as Bambino Diabate, Ricardo Lemvo
, Ismael Lo
and Salif Keita
. It is still common today for an African artist to record a salsa tune, and add their own particular regional touch to it.
Salsa lyrics range from simple dance numbers, and sentimental romantic songs, to risque and politically radical subject matter. Music author Isabelle Leymarie
notes that salsa performers often incorporate machoistic bravado
) in their lyrics, in a manner reminiscent of calypso
, a theme she ascribes to the performers' "humble backgrounds" and subsequent need to compensate for their origins. Leymarie claims that salsa is "essentially virile, an affirmation of the man's pride and identity". As an extension of salsa's macho stance, manly taunts and challenges (desafio
) are also a traditional part of salsa.
Salsa lyrics often quote from traditional Cuban sones and rumbas. Sometimes there are references to Afro-Cuban religions, such as Santeria
, even by artists who are not themselves practitioners of the faith.
Salsa lyrics also exhibit Puerto Rican influences. Hector LaVoe, who sang with Willie Colón for nearly a decade used typical Puerto Rican phrasing in his singing.
It's not uncommon now to hear the Puerto Rican declamatory exclamation "le-lo-lai" in salsa.
Politically and socially activist composers have long been an important part of salsa, and some of their works, like Eddie Palmieri's "La libertad - lógico", became Latin, and especially Puerto Rican anthems. The Panamanian-born singer Ruben Blades
in particular is well known for his socially-conscious and incisive salsa lyrics about everything from imperialism
, which have resonated with audiences throughout Latin America.
Many salsa songs contain a nationalist theme, centered around a sense of pride in black Latino identity, and may be in Spanish, English or a mixture of the two called Spanglish.
- 1979 - Salsa: Latin Music in the Cities. Directed by Jeremy Marre.
- 1988 - Salsa. Former Menudo member Robi Draco Rosa plays a teenager who wants to win a dance contest. Celia Cruz, Wilkins and Tito Puente also appear.
- 2007 - El Cantante. El Cantante is a biographical film which stars singers Marc Anthony and Jennifer Lopez. The film is based on the life of the late salsa singer Héctor Lavoe, who is portrayed by Anthony.
- 2014 - Sex, Love & Salsa. Directed by Adrian Manzano. Choreographer: Julie L Tuttlebee. Legendary Salsa dancer Julie Tuttlebee also features in several scenes.
- ^ a b c Waxer 2002, pp. 91–94
- ^ Gerard 1989, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Salazar, Max (January 26, 1985). "Salsa Losing Popularity To Ballads On City Airwaves". Billboard. 97 (4): 58. ISSN 0006-2510.
- ^ Salazar, Max (2001). Vladimir Bogdanov; Chris Woodstra; Stephen Thomas Erlewine (eds.). All Music Guide: World Music (4th ed.). Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 884. ISBN 978-0-87930-627-4.
- ^ Catapano 2011. "Although a great number of New York's stars and sidemen in the 1970s were Cuban and Puerto Rican, the basic musical elements of salsa were derived mainly from Cuba."
- ^ Morales 2003, p. 33. Morales writes that "While many Afro-Cuban music purists continue to claim that salsa is a mere variation on Cuba's musical heritage, the hybridizing experience the music went through in New York from the 1920s on incorporated influences from many different branches of the Latin American tradition, and later from jazz, R&B, and even rock." Morales' claim is confirmed by Unterberger's and Steward's analysis.
- ^ Mauleón 1993, p. 215. Mauleón codifies this approach with examples of bomba, plena, and merengue arrangements for salsa ensemble. When adapting these non-Cuban rhythms to salsa it is common to alter them in order to fit into the Cuban template. For example, Mauleón's merengue chart includes clave, which is essential to Cuban popular music, although it is not a component of the traditional Dominican rhythm.
- ^ Gerard 1989, pp. 8–9. "From jazz came a harmonic vocabulary based on extended harmonies of altered and unaltered ninths, elevenths and thirteenths, as well as quartal harmony—chords built on fourths. These harmonic devices entered salsa in the piano styles of Eddie Palmieri and the Puerto Rican Papo Lucca. They would take traditional piano figures based on simple tonic-dominant harmony and elaborate them with modern harmonies. These modern harmonies are now a staple of salsa arrangers such as Marty Sheller and Oscar Hernández."
- ^ "Origins of Salsa Music". Pimsleur.com.
- ^ Boggs 1992, pp. 187-193
- ^ Hutchinson 2004, p. 116. Hutchinson says salsa music and dance "both originated with Cuban rhythms that were brought to New York and adopted, adapted, reformulated, and made new by the Puerto Ricans living there."
- ^ Unterberger, p. 50
- ^ Salazar 1991; Waxer 2002, p. 6; Morales 2003, pp. 56–59. Morales dates the song to 1932.
- ^ a b Morales 2003, p. 56
- ^ Manuel 1990, "salsa is to Latinos as 'soul' is to blacks; salsa—literally, 'hot sauce'"
- ^ Boggs 1992, p. 190
- ^ Boggs 1992, p. 192. Izzy Sanabria: "In Santo Domingo ... they told me that they don't recognize a Dominican artist as having made it in New York City unless a photograph and something written on this artist appears in Latin New York. I said 'but why?' And what he said: 'Because we consider Latin New York a North American publication.' You see what I mean? In other words, it's an American publication. It was in English. So because it was in English, because it was from America, then it's legitimate. That in a sense, was the major impact of Latin New York."
- ^ a b Izzy Sanabria 2005
- ^ Steward 2000, p. 488. Celia Cruz said, "salsa is Cuban music with another name. It's mambo, chachachá, rumba, son ... all the Cuban rhythms under one name."
- ^ Fuentes 2003, p. 59
- ^ a b Boggs 1992, p. 189
- ^ In 1983, Machito won a Grammy Award in the Best Latin Recording category for Machito and his Salsa Big Band '82 Timeless CD 168.
- ^ Izzy Sanabria 2005. "Years later, [Tito] Puente told me, 'Izzy you remember how much I hated and resisted the term salsa? Well I've had to accept it because wherever I travel, I find my records under the category of salsa.'"
- ^ a b Mauleón 1999, p. 80
- ^ Bobby Sanabria 2008 Latinjazz.
- ^ Bobby Sanabria 1998 Latinjazz.
- ^ "Lili Martinez y la improvisación". Retrieved 15 April 2021.
- ^ Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal: Música cubana, del Areyto a la Nueva Trova, Ediciones Universal, Miami Florida, 1993. p. 194.
- ^ Morales, Ed (2003). The Latin Beat: Rhythms and Roots of Latin Music from Bossa Nova to Salsa and Beyond. Da Capo Press. pp. 41. ISBN 978-0306810183.
- ^ a b Steward, Sue 1999. Salsa: the musical heartbeat of Latin America. Thames & Hudson, London. p. 60
- ^ Boggs 1991 p. 247.
- ^ Boggs 1991 p. 246. Tito Puente quote.
- ^ Quintana, José Luis "Changuito". History of Songo. Warner Brothers VHS video (1996). Quintana, José Luis "Changuito" (1998) Changuito: A Master's Approach to Timbales. Alfred Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-7692-1435-1.
- ^ Moore, Kevin (2011). ""The Roots of Timba, Part II; Juan Formell y Los Van Van."". Timba.com. Archived from the original on 2011-04-08. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Lapidus, Ben (2008) Origins of Cuban Music and Dance; Changüí p. 114-116. Lanham, MA: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6204-3
- ^ Washburne 2008, p. 105
- ^ Steward 2000, pp. 488–489
- ^ Pareles, Jon (14 December 1992). "Review/Pop; The Queen of Latin Music Takes It From the Top". Retrieved January 27, 2014.
- ^ "Celia Cruz's Shoes". National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
- ^ "The Life and Music of Celia Cruz". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
- ^ Manuel 1990, p. 48
- ^ Gerard 1989, p. 7. The popularity of Puerto Rican típica music peaked in New York City in 1957, more than a decade before the emergence of salsa. "It is ironic that in a music dominated by Nuyorican and Puerto Rican musicians, the use of the folk music of Puerto Rico has never been very popular. According to Frankie Malabe, 'In a live performance ... you'll rarely get any bombas and plenas.'"
- ^ Fuentes, Leonardo (2003). Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-1588340801.
- ^ Washburne 2008, p. 40. Washburne.
- ^ Boggs 1992 p. 290. Andy Gonzalez quote.
- ^ Steward 2000, pp. 379, 502
- ^ Washburne 2008 p. 182-183.
- ^ Moore, Kevin 2011 p. 73. Beyond Salsa Piano v. 11. César "Pupy" Pedroso: The Music of Los Van Van, Part 2. Santa Cruz, CA: Moore Music/Timba.com.ISBN 1460965426
- ^ "Roots of timba". Retrieved 16 April 2021.
- ^ Gerard 1989 p. 6. Daniel Ponce quote
- ^ Steward 2000, pp. 488–499
- ^ Washburne 2008 p. 191. Sergio George quote.
- ^ Washburne 2008 p. 192
- ^ Moore (2010: v. 5: 16).
- ^ Moore (2010: v. 5: 18).
- ^ Steward 2000, p. 504
- ^ Sullivan, Al (16 October 2016). "Trash truck worker competes for a Latin Grammy: Local Cuban exile fulfills dream as musician"Archived 22 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The Hudson Reporter.
- ^ van Boeckel, Rik (19 September 2006). "Reggaeton a lo Cubano: From Cuba to the Rest of the World" Archived 22 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine. 'LA'Ritmo.com: Latin American Rhythm Magazine. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- ^ Nigerian musician Segun Bucknor: "Latin American music and our music is virtually the same"—quoted by Collins 1992 p. 62
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1. 2010 p. 407.
- ^ Roberts, John Storm. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music. Original Music cassette tape (1986).
- ^ Roberts 1986. 20: 50. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music.
- ^ Kubik 1999 p. 105.
- ^ Stapleton 1990 116-117.
- ^ Waxer 2002 p. 12.
- ^ a b Leymarie, pp. 268-269
- ^ Steward, pp. 495-496 Steward mentions Celia Cruz as not being an adherent of Santeria, yet who refers to the goddess Yemaya in her performances.
- ^ Gerard 1989 p. 7
- ^ Manuel, Caribbean Currents, p. 74
- ^ Manuel, Caribbean Currents, pg. 80
- Aparicio, Frances R. (1998). Listening to Salsa: Gender, Latin Popular Music, and Puerto Rican Cultures. Hanover, New Hampshire: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6308-8.
- Agawu, Kofi 2006. "Structural Analysis or Cultural Analysis? Comparing Perspectives on the 'Standard Pattern' of West African Rhythm" Journal of the American Musicological Society v. 59, n. 1.
- Amira, John and Cornelius 1992. The Music of Santeria; Traditional Rhythms of the Batá Drums. Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs. ISBN 0-941677-24-9
- Boggs, Vernon W., ed. (1991). Salsiology: Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
- Catapano, Peter. "A Blending of Latin Sounds". Talking Music. The New York Times. Retrieved August 12, 2011.
- Centro de Investigación de la Música Cubana 1997. Instrumentos de la música folclórico-popular de Cuba v. 1, v. 2. Havana: CIDMUC
- Gerard, Charley (1989). Salsa! The Rhythm of Latin Music. Crown Point, Indiana: White Cliffs.
- Collins, John 1992. West African Pop Roots. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
- Grenet, Emilio 1939. tr. R. Phillips. Popular Cuban Music. New York: Bourne.
- Hartigan, Royal 1995. West African Rhythms for Drumset, ed. Dan Thress. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing.
- Hutchinson, Sydney (2004). "Mambo On 2: The Birth of a New Form of Dance in New York City" (PDF). Centro Journal. 16 (2): 109–137. Retrieved August 12, 2011.
- Jones, A.M. 1959. Studies in African Music. London: Oxford University Press. 1978 edition: ISBN 0-19-713512-9
- Jones, Alan; Kantonen, Jussi (1999). Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco. A Cappella Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-411-0.
- Kubik, Gerhard 1999. Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-145-8.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1979). "Latin Jazz, the Best of Both Worlds". Jazz Spotlite News. New York.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1985). "Salsa and Latin jazz". In Quill (ed.). Hot Sauces: Latin and Caribbean Pop. New York. pp. 94–115. ISBN 978-0-688-02193-1.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1993). La Salsa et le Latin jazz. Paris: PUF. ISBN 978-2130453178.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1995). Du tango au reggae: Musiques noires d'Amérique latine et des Caraïbes. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 978-2082108133.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1997). "Du boogaloo à la salsa". In Gallimard (ed.). La musique sud-américaine: rythmes et danses d'un continent. Paris. pp. 82–85. ISBN 978-2-07-053391-6.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1998). "La salsa". In Ediciones Akal (ed.). Músicas del Caribe. Madrid. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-84-460-0894-1.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (1998). "Du tango à la salsa: le bal sous influence latino-américaine". In Cité de la Musique (ed.). Histoires de bal. Paris. pp. 115–122. ISBN 978-2-906460-69-0.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (2000). "La salsa". In Editions Autrement (ed.). Danses Latines. Paris. pp. 113–123. ISBN 978-2-7467-0118-2.
- Leymarie, Isabelle (2002). Cuban Fire: The Story of salsa and Latin jazz. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0826455864.
- Mauleón, Rebeca (1993). Salsa: Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music.
- Mauleón, Rebeca (2005). 101 Montunos. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 978-1-883217-07-5.
- Manuel, Peter (1990). Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: an introductory survey. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506334-9.
- Manuel, Peter (1995). Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-56639-338-6.
- Manuel, Peter (2006). Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae (2 ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-59213-463-2.
- Morales, Ed (2003). The Latin Beat. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81018-3.
- Moore, Kevin 2010. Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Revolution. v. 1 The Roots of the Piano Tumbao. Santa Cruz, CA: Moore Music/Timba.com. ISBN 978-1-4392-6584-0.
- Moore, Kevin 2010. Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Revolution. v. 3 Cuban Piano Tumbaos (1960-1979). Santa Cruz, CA: Moore Music/Timba.com. ISBN 145054553X
- Moore, Kevin 2011 p. 73. Beyond Salsa Piano v. 11. César "Pupy" Pedroso: The Music of Los Van Van, Part 2. Santa Cruz, CA: Moore Music/Timba.com.ISBN 1460965426
- Moore, Kevin 2011. Understanding Clave and Clave Changes. Santa Cruz, CA: Moore Music/Timba.com. ISBN 1466462302
- Pérez, Alian 2001. Interview. Timba.com. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304193521/http://www.timba.com/musician_pages/3
- Peñalosa, David 2010. The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3
- Roberts, John Storm. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music. Original Music cassette tape (1986).
- Roberts, John Storm (1972). Black Music of Two Worlds. New York: Praeger.
- Rondón, César Miguel (1980). El libro de la salsa: crónica de la música del Caribe urbano (in Spanish). Caracas: Editorial Arte.
- Salazar, Max (November 1991). "What Is This Thing Called Salsa?". Latin Beat Magazine. Retrieved April 4, 2012.
- Sanabria, Bobby 1986. "The Songo," Modern Drummer Magazine. April p. 76.
- Sanabria, Bobby 2008. Posting to the Latinjazz discussion. http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/latinjazz/
- Sanabria, Izzy (2005). "What is Salsa? Where and How Did it Start?". Salsa Magazine. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved April 4, 2012.
- Santos, John 1986. "The Clave: Cornerstone of Cuban Music" Modern Drummer Magazine p. 32 Sept.
- Stapleton, Chris, and Chris May 1990. African Rock: The Pop Music of a Continent. New York: Dutton.
- Steward, Sue (2000). "Salsa: Cubans, Nuyoricans and the Global Sound". In Broughton, Simon; Ellingham, Mark; McConnachie, James; Duane, Orla (eds.). World Music: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific. 2. London: Rough Guides. pp. 488–506. ISBN 978-1-85828-636-5.
- Unterberger, Richie (1999). Music USA. The Rough Guide. ISBN 978-1-85828-421-7.
- Washburne, Christopher (2008). Sounding Salsa: Performing Latin Music in New York City. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-59213-315-4.
- Waxer, Lise A. (2002). The City of Musical Memory: Salsa, Record Grooves, and Popular Culture in Cali, Colombia. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6442-9.
Waxer, Lise 2002. Situating Salsa: Global Markets and Local Meanings in Latin Popular Music
. Routledge. ISBN 0815340206
- Arteaga, José (1990). La Salsa (in Spanish) (2 ed.). Bogotá: Intermedio Editores.
- Baéz, Juan Carlos (1989). El vínculo es la salsa (in Spanish). Caracas: Fondo Editorial Tropykos.
- Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis ISBN 1138053562
- García, David F. (2006). Arsenio Rodríguez and the transnational flows of Latin popular music. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-59213-386-4.
- Kent, Mary (2005). Salsa Talks!: A Musical Heritage Uncovered. Digital Domain. ISBN 978-0-9764990-0-8.
- Loza, Steven (1999). Tito Puente and the Making of Latin Music. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
- Manuel, Peter, ed. (1991). Essays on Cuban Music: North American and Cuban Perspectives. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.
- Marre, Jeremy; Hannah Charlton (1985). Beats of the Heart: Popular Music of the World. New York: Pantheon.
- Roberts, John Storm (1979). The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Rondón, César Miguel, The Book of Salsa: A Chronicle of Urban Music from the Caribbean to New York City, translated by Frances R. Aparicio with Jackie White, University of North Carolina Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8078-5859-2
- Salazar, Max (March 2000). "Gabriel Oller: Aguinaldos de Salsa". Latin Beat Magazine (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2005-03-31.
- Santana, Sergio (1992). ¿Que es la salsa? Buscando la melodía (in Spanish). Medellín: Ediciones Salsa y Cultura.
- Washburne, Christopher (Fall 1995). Clave: The African Roots of Salsa. Kalinda!, newsletter for the Center for Black Music Research.
- Waxer, Lise, ed. (2002). Situating Salsa: Global Markets and Local Meanings in Latin Popular Music. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8153-4019-5.
- Gerard, Charley (1998). Salsa! The Rhythm of Latin Music. Arizona: White Cliffs Media. ISBN 0-941677-35-4.
Last edited on 29 April 2021, at 16:49
Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0
unless otherwise noted.