Archive for November, 2010
Rome had two approaches to the individuals who challenged them. One (in the case of Alexander the Great) was to rewrite the history just enough that the Empire was known for crushing even the most brilliant of enemies. The other was to try and sweep the name of the people who challenged them under the rug. This is what they tried to do with the name and the memory of one remarkable woman.
Boudicca (also known as Boadicea) was a Briton who was able to fight the Romans effectively enough that she was able to sack their cities, kill a large number of their legions and cause the island to be lost to them. Romans were never known for their love of defeat and found it particularly upsetting that this loss had taken place because of a woman. But who was she, when did she live, and how did she manage to pull off the military victories that she did?
Her name meant “victorious” and she certainly lived up to her name. She was of royal descent and has always been described as a tall, fierce looking woman with tawny hair. She was married to an individual known as Prasutagus, who ruled a tribe known as the Iceni. Prasutagus had long operated as an ally of Rome and al may have continued to go well if Prasutagus had not died. When he died, Rome simply annexed the tribe. This was the practice at the time. Often, tribal leaders were allowed to rule their tribes up to and until the point at which they died. Even if the tribe was left to wives or children, Rome would simply come in and claim that tribe’s land and wealth.
Unlike many individuals, Boudicca did not agree with the transfer of leadership back to Rome. She certainly did not agree with the enslavement of the tribe’s nobles. She protested and, as a result, she was flogged and her daughters were raped. Because of this, the Iceni and other tribes such as the Trinovantes revolted. During this revolt, the city of Camulodunum (where Colchester stands today) was destroyed. The IX Hispana legion was also routed. This did not sit well with the Roman Governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus.
Boudicca was able to successfully attack three different Roman cities during her campaign. After Camulodunum she then attacked Londinium. This city was somewhat easier to take since Suetonius actually abandoned the city. He burned it, and the next target, Verulamium to the ground before abandoning them. These victories, along with the loss of between seventy and eighty thousand soldiers, almost caused Rome to recall all of the troops that were stationed on the island.
Unfortunately, things did not end well for Boudicca. According to two Roman historians (Tacitus and Cassius Dio), Boudicca and her forces were defeated at the Battle of Watling Street. After the battle, Boudicca died. There are conflicting stories about whether she was killed, committed suicide or became ill. Rome continued to be a presence in Britain for many years to come.
When we look at a picture of Cleopatra or a bust of any of the Roman emperors we tend to think that they were physically impressive or attractive. This is all well and good, but how realistic were these images? Archaeologists and historians are beginning to discover that in many cases the rulers that we think we know actually looked very different than their portraits.
Although scientists are doing their best to come up with realistic images of what ancient rulers looked like there is only so much that they can do to figure it out. Part of the problem is because many of the images and portraits that were made of ancient rulers have been lost. In other cases they may have been damaged or disfigured by natural disasters or by invading armies. However, in some cases digital imaging is allowing scientists to use remains and other sources of information to put together educated guesses about what some famous ancients may have actually looked like.
One of the best methods of telling what an ancient ruler looked like is to examine the coins that bore their likeness. Because they were minted during the time that the person was alive there is a better chance that they may look fairly accurate. For example, images of Cleopatra that have been found on the coins of the time actually suggested that she may not have been as beautiful as her legend would have us believe. They depicted her neck as being very large and her facial features as being very birdlike.
It was believed that Alexander the Great may have suffered from scoliosis and that this was one reason why many of his images depict him looking off to the side. It may also have contributed to the peculiar gaze that Alexander was known to have. This comes from sculptures of Alexander that were made during his life and is supported by reports that his father and brother had the same congenital deformities. It is also believed that this may have contributed to his death as well.
The bust of Alexander (right) was carved by Lysippus and is commonly believed to be one of the most accurate. It shows him gazing off to the side.
Julius Caesar also may not have looked quite like the handsome and authoritative person that paintings, money and sculpture have shown him to be. In one sculpture that is believed to be quite accurate, Julius Caesar is depicted as having eyes that are closely set together and a pugilistic nose. He looks far different than the other sculptures that were made of him depicted.
The bust of Caesar shown below was found in France. It had been pulled from the bottom of the Rhone River.
Other rulers have ordered stylized images of themselves as busts, works of art and on the coins that they minted. It was often not in an artist’s best interests to depict an ancient leader in a highly realistic fashion and portraits were often created that glossed over the physical shortcomings of ancient rulers. Ancient literature was also often written so that it painted rulers in a good light as well. It was not uncommon to find that unappealing information was either altered or left out so as to paint the conquerors in a good light or to gloss over details that were not to their credit.
If you think that modern elections and politics can be confusing, be thankful that you didn’t live in Ancient Rome. Rome was always a place where an unpopular ruler could run into problems but one year in particular was really bad for anyone who wanted to call themselves a Roman Emperor. It has become known as the Year of the Five Emperors and was a tough time for anyone who wanted to rule the Empire.
Picture the scene: the year is 193AD. Commodus, that unpleasant emperor made famous by the movie “Gladiator” has just been assassinated. Since he was just about as bad a fellow as was portrayed in the movie it is no wonder that his reign did not end well. The problem was a simple one: who would take over? The first Emperor was a man by the name of Publius Helvius Pertinax. Pertinax was fairly down to earth and wanted to work with the Senate instead of against them. The politicians loved him. The common people loved him. The problem was that the soldiers did not.
Pertinax had only paid them half of the large sum of 12,000 sesterces that he had promised them for their support following Commodus’ assassination. Unfortunately, when you have underpaid soldiers they tend to react badly. Soldiers burst into the palace on the 28th of March and Pertinax was assassinated. This paved the way for his successor, Marcus Didius Severus Julianus to assume the position of emperor.
The problem with Julianus is that while the soldiers liked him the common people did not. Julianus found that wherever he went, mobs would call out insults and would often throw stones. Although the military that was based in Rome supported Julianus the outlying legions did not do so. They advanced and overthrew Julianus who was later executed. He had been Emperor for three months.
The final three emperors were actually generals who vied for the position. Gaius Pescennius Niger took power next. Although a general named Lucius Septimius Severus actually overthrew Julianus it was Niger that seized the title of Emperor. Severus did not agree and fought Niger. Niger was defeated. In the course of fleeing to Parthia, Niger was killed.
One would assume that Severus would seize power and be the next in line but this was not the case. The fourth Emperor was a man by the name of Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus. Again, Severus did not agree with this and brought his legions to bear against those of Albinus. They met and fought the Battle of Lugdunum. Albinus definitely did not come out on top. He was defeated and was then decapitated and trampled by the horse that Severus rode.
Lucius Septimius Severus was the final Emperor in the Year of Five Emperors. Not only did he manage to hold on for the rest of the year, he actually reigned until the year 211. During this time Severus waged war on the Parthian Empire, fought Picts in Caledonia and was involved with the strengthening of Hadrian’s Wall. He was able to leave the empire to his sons Caracalla and Geta and provided a period of stability following the turbulent Year of Five Emperors.
If you think that hobbits are only found in books and movies you may be surprised by what scientists in Indonesia have discovered. The bones of a three foot tall humanoid female were unearthed on the island of Flores and similar remains have been found on the Palau islands in the South Pacific which are located about 2,000 km away from Flores. Scientists are beginning to believe that this may be an entirely new strain of human and has been named Homo floresiensis.
The first example of this species was a partial skeleton and skull that was found in a site known as Liang Bua. The skull that was connected to the skeleton was approximately the size of a grapefruit. The remains are known to have belonged to a three foot tall humanoid female and was dated to about 18,000 years ago. What is exciting is that the skeletons found on the Palau islands are more recent than this. In fact, this species is known to have lived at the same time as early Homo sapiens, something that is changing the entire way that scientists view human evolution.
This is because in the past human evolution was believed to have followed a single straight path. One species of human was thought to have evolved into the next and that two or more species of humanoids did not coexist at the same time. However the fact that Homo floresiensis lived at the same time as Homo sapiens and that modern humans and Neanderthals were co-existent in Europe approximately 30,000 years ago has caused scientists to review what was previously believed to have been true.
It is known that H. floresiensis was a tool user. This is because stone tools were found alongside the remains discovered on Flores. The tools were extremely delicate but would have been used by these small humans. Remains of six other individuals that belonged to the same species were also discovered on the island. Scientists are looking for more evidence of how they may have lived and the tools that they
The remains of these diminutive humans are new enough that they had not yet become fossilized. Because of this scientists are hoping to be able to extract DNA so that they can study it at length. This discovery may make it possible to get new information on how humans have evolved and how they arrived on the island. There are a number of theories that include land bridges or being washed ashore due to tidal waves.
Although the skeleton found on Flores dated from 18,000 years ago it is believed that these small humans were alive and active on the island until approximately 12,000 years ago. In fact, some people believe that since the island is so isolated that there is always the chance some may still be alive and living in isolated areas and that they simply have not been discovered yet. Some scientists believe that these small humans may also have given rise to some of the folk lore and legends of small people may have been based on these humans.