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The Austrian Schoow is a heterodox schoow of economic dought dat is based on medodowogicaw individuawism—de concept dat sociaw phenomena resuwt from de motivations and actions of individuaws.
The Austrian Schoow originated in wate-19f and earwy-20f century Vienna wif de work of Carw Menger, Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser and oders. It was medodowogicawwy opposed to de Prussian Historicaw Schoow (in a dispute known as Medodenstreit). Current-day economists working in dis tradition are wocated in many different countries, but deir work is stiww referred to as Austrian economics. Among de deoreticaw contributions of de earwy years of de Austrian Schoow are de subjective deory of vawue, marginawism in price deory and de formuwation of de economic cawcuwation probwem, each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics.
Since de mid-20f century, mainstream economists have been criticaw of de modern day Austrian Schoow and consider its rejection of madematicaw modewwing, econometrics and macroeconomic anawysis to be outside mainstream economics, or "heterodox". Awdough de Austrian Schoow has been considered heterodox since de wate 1930s, it attracted renewed interest in de 1970s after Friedrich Hayek shared de 1974 Nobew Memoriaw Prize in Economic Sciences and fowwowing de 2008 gwobaw financiaw crisis.
- 1 History
- 2 Medodowogy
- 3 Contributions to economic dought
- 4 Criticisms
- 5 See awso
- 6 Notes and references
- 7 Furder reading
- 8 Externaw winks
The Austrian Schoow owes its name to members of de German historicaw schoow of economics, who argued against de Austrians during de wate-19f century Medodenstreit ("medodowogy struggwe"), in which de Austrians defended de rowe of deory in economics as distinct from de study or compiwation of historicaw circumstance. In 1883, Menger pubwished Investigations into de Medod of de Sociaw Sciences wif Speciaw Reference to Economics, which attacked de medods of de historicaw schoow. Gustav von Schmowwer, a weader of de historicaw schoow, responded wif an unfavorabwe review, coining de term "Austrian Schoow" in an attempt to characterize de schoow as outcast and provinciaw. The wabew endured and was adopted by de adherents demsewves.
The schoow originated in Vienna in de Austrian Empire. Carw Menger's 1871 book Principwes of Economics is generawwy considered de founding of de Austrian Schoow. The book was one of de first modern treatises to advance de deory of marginaw utiwity. The Austrian Schoow was one of dree founding currents of de marginawist revowution of de 1870s, wif its major contribution being de introduction of de subjectivist approach in economics.[page needed] Whiwe marginawism was generawwy infwuentiaw, dere was awso a more specific schoow dat began to coawesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as de "Psychowogicaw Schoow", "Vienna Schoow", or "Austrian Schoow".
Menger's contributions to economic deory were cwosewy fowwowed by dose of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These dree economists became what is known as de "first wave" of de Austrian Schoow. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiqwes of Karw Marx in de 1880s and 1890s as was part of de Austrians' participation in de wate 19f-century Medodenstreit, during which dey attacked de Hegewian doctrines of de historicaw schoow.
Earwy 20f century
Frank Awbert Fetter (1863–1949) was a weader in de United States of Austrian dought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from de University of Hawwe and den was made Professor of Powiticaw Economy and Finance at Corneww in 1901. Severaw important Austrian economists trained at de University of Vienna in de 1920s and water participated in private seminars hewd by Ludwig von Mises. These incwuded Gottfried Haberwer, Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machwup, Karw Menger (son of Carw Menger), Oskar Morgenstern, Pauw Rosenstein-Rodan and Abraham Wawd, among oders.
Later 20f century
By de mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what dey considered de important contributions of de earwy Austrians. Fritz Machwup qwoted Hayek's statement dat "de greatest success of a schoow is dat it stops existing because its fundamentaw teachings have become parts of de generaw body of commonwy accepted dought". Sometime during de middwe of de 20f century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected modew buiwding and madematicaw and statisticaw medods in de study of economics. Mises' student Israew Kirzner recawwed dat in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, dere was no separate Austrian Schoow as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate schoow to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machwup taught dere.
After de 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schoows of economic dought and de schoow "spwit" to some degree in de wate 20f century. One camp of Austrians, exempwified by Mises, regards neocwassicaw medodowogy to be irredeemabwy fwawed; de oder camp, exempwified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a warge part of neocwassicaw medodowogy and is more accepting of government intervention in de economy. Henry Hazwitt wrote economics cowumns and editoriaws for a number of pubwications and wrote many books on de topic of Austrian economics from de 1930s to de 1980s. Hazwitt's dinking was infwuenced by Mises. His book Economics in One Lesson (1946) sowd over a miwwion copies and he is awso known for The Faiwure of de "New Economics" (1959), a wine-by-wine critiqwe of John Maynard Keynes's Generaw Theory.
The reputation of de Austrian Schoow rose in de wate 20f century due in part to de work of Israew Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed pubwic awareness of de work of Hayek after he won de 1974 Nobew Memoriaw Prize in Economic Sciences. Hayek's work was infwuentiaw in de revivaw of waissez-faire dought in de 20f century.
Spwit among contemporary Austrians
Economist Lewand Yeager discussed de wate 20f century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rodbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Sawerno and oders in which dey attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: "To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [de rowe of knowwedge in economic cawcuwation], especiawwy to de disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to dese two great men, unfaidfuw to de history of economic dought". He went on to caww de rift subversive to economic anawysis and de historicaw understanding of de faww of Eastern European communism.
In a 1999 book pubwished by de Ludwig von Mises Institute (Mises Institute), Hoppe asserted dat Rodbard was de weader of de "mainstream widin Austrian Economics" and contrasted Rodbard wif Nobew Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of de dought of Mises and Rodbard. Hoppe acknowwedged dat Hayek was de most prominent Austrian economist widin academia, but stated dat Hayek was an opponent of de Austrian tradition which wed from Carw Menger and Böhm-Bawerk drough Mises to Rodbard. Austrian economist Wawter Bwock says dat de Austrian Schoow can be distinguished from oder schoows of economic dought drough two categories—economic deory and powiticaw deory. According to Bwock, whiwe Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on powiticaw deory cwash wif de wibertarian powiticaw deory which Bwock sees as an integraw part of de Austrian Schoow.
However, bof criticisms from Hoppe and Bwock to Hayek seem to awso appwy to de founder of de Austrian Schoow Carw Menger. Hoppe emphasizes dat Hayek, which for him is from de Engwish empiricaw tradition, is an opponent of de supposed rationawist tradition of de Austrian Schoow, but Menger made strong critiqwes to rationawism in his works in simiwar vein as Hayek's. He emphasized de idea dat dere are severaw institutions which were not dewiberatewy created, have a kind of "superior wisdom" and serve important functions to society. He awso tawked about Burke and de Engwish tradition to sustain dese positions.
When saying dat de wibertarian powiticaw deory is an integraw part of de Austrian Schoow and supposing Hayek is not a wibertarian, Bwock excwudes Menger from de Austrian Schoow too once Menger seems to defend broader state activity dan Hayek—for exampwe, progressive taxation and extensive wabour wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Economists of de Hayekian view are affiwiated wif de Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among oder institutions. They incwude Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of de Mises–Rodbard view incwude Wawter Bwock, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated wif de Mises Institute and some of dem awso wif academic institutions. According to Murphy, a "truce between (for wack of better terms) de GMU Austro-wibertarians and de Auburn Austro-wibertarians" was signed around 2011.
Many deories devewoped by "first wave" Austrian economists have wong been absorbed into mainstream economics. These incwude Carw Menger's deories on marginaw utiwity, Friedrich von Wieser's deories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's deories on time preference, as weww as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics.
Former American Federaw Reserve Chairman Awan Greenspan said dat de founders of de Austrian Schoow "reached far into de future from when most of dem practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probabwy an irreversibwe effect on how most mainstream economists dink in dis country". In 1987, Nobew Laureate James M. Buchanan towd an interviewer: "I have no objections to being cawwed an Austrian, uh-hah-hah-hah. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surewy some of de oders wouwd not". Chinese economist Zhang Weiying supports some Austrian deories such as de Austrian deory of de business cycwe.
Currentwy, universities wif a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, New York University, Loyowa University New Orweans and Auburn University in de United States; King Juan Carwos University in Spain; and Universidad Francisco Marroqwín in Guatemawa. Austrian economic ideas are awso promoted by privatewy funded organizations such as de Mises Institute and de Cato Institute.
The Austrian Schoow deorizes dat de subjective choices of individuaws incwuding individuaw knowwedge, time, expectation and oder subjective factors cause aww economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand de economy by examining de sociaw ramifications of individuaw choice, an approach cawwed medodowogicaw individuawism. It differs from oder schoows of economic dought, which have focused on aggregate variabwes, eqwiwibrium anawysis and societaw groups rader dan individuaws.
In de 20f and 21st centuries, economists wif a medodowogicaw wineage to de earwy Austrian Schoow devewoped many diverse approaches and deoreticaw orientations. For exampwe, Ludwig von Mises organized his version of de subjectivist approach, which he cawwed "praxeowogy", in a book pubwished in Engwish as Human Action in 1949.:3 In it, Mises stated dat praxeowogy couwd be used to deduce a priori deoreticaw economic truds and dat deductive economic dought experiments couwd yiewd concwusions which fowwow irrefutabwy from de underwying assumptions. He wrote dat concwusions couwd not be inferred from empiricaw observation or statisticaw anawysis and argued against de use of probabiwities in economic modews.
Since Mises' time, some Austrian dinkers have accepted his praxeowogicaw approach whiwe oders have adopted awternative medodowogies. For exampwe, Fritz Machwup, Friedrich Hayek and oders did not take Mises' strong a priori approach to economics. Ludwig Lachmann, a radicaw subjectivist, awso wargewy rejected Mises' formuwation of Praxeowogy in favor of de verstehende Medode ("interpretive medod") articuwated by Max Weber.
In de 20f century, various Austrians incorporated modews and madematics into deir anawysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 dat Austrian medodowogy is consistent wif macroeconomics and dat Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations. Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes dat Austrian macroeconomic deory can be correctwy expressed in terms of diagrammatic modews. In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinaw utiwity function (de Von Neumann–Morgenstern utiwity deorem) in Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.
- Medodowogicaw individuawism: in de expwanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to de actions (or inaction) of individuaws; groups or "cowwectives" cannot act except drough de actions of individuaw members. Groups don't dink; peopwe dink.
- Medodowogicaw subjectivism: in de expwanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to judgments and choices made by individuaws on de basis of whatever knowwedge dey have or bewieve to have and whatever expectations dey entertain regarding externaw devewopments and especiawwy de perceived conseqwences of deir own intended actions.
- Tastes and preferences: subjective vawuations of goods and services determine de demand for dem so dat deir prices are infwuenced by (actuaw and potentiaw) consumers.
- Opportunity costs: de costs wif which producers and oder economic actors cawcuwate refwect de awternative opportunities dat must be foregone; as productive services are empwoyed for one purpose, aww awternative uses have to be sacrificed.
- Marginawism: in aww economic designs, de vawues, costs, revenues, productivity and so on are determined by de significance of de wast unit added to or subtracted from de totaw.
- Time structure of production and consumption: decisions to save refwect "time preferences" regarding consumption in de immediate, distant, or indefinite future and investments are made in view of warger outputs expected to be obtained if more time-taking production processes are undertaken, uh-hah-hah-hah.
He incwuded two additionaw tenets hewd by de Mises branch of Austrian economics:
- Consumer sovereignty: de infwuence consumers have on de effective demand for goods and services and drough de prices which resuwt in free competitive markets, on de production pwans of producers and investors, is not merewy a hard fact but awso an important objective, attainabwe onwy by compwete avoidance of governmentaw interference wif de markets and of restrictions on de freedom of sewwers and buyers to fowwow deir own judgment regarding qwantities, qwawities and prices of products and services.
- Powiticaw individuawism: onwy when individuaws are given fuww economic freedom wiww it be possibwe to secure powiticaw and moraw freedom. Restrictions on economic freedom wead, sooner or water, to an extension of de coercive activities of de state into de powiticaw domain, undermining and eventuawwy destroying de essentiaw individuaw wiberties which de capitawistic societies were abwe to attain in de 19f century.
Contributions to economic dought
The opportunity cost doctrine was first expwicitwy formuwated by de Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in de wate 19f century. Opportunity cost is de cost of any activity measured in terms of de vawue of de next best awternative foregone (dat is not chosen). It is de sacrifice rewated to de second best choice avaiwabwe to someone, or group, who has picked among severaw mutuawwy excwusive choices.
Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing "de basic rewationship between scarcity and choice". The notion of opportunity cost pways a cruciaw part in ensuring dat resources are used efficientwy.
Capitaw and interest
The Austrian deory of capitaw and interest was first devewoped by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk. He stated dat interest rates and profits are determined by two factors, namewy suppwy and demand in de market for finaw goods and time preference.
Böhm-Bawerk's deory eqwates capitaw intensity wif de degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Böhm-Bawerk awso argued dat de waw of marginaw utiwity necessariwy impwies de cwassicaw waw of costs. Some Austrian economists derefore entirewy reject de notion dat interest rates are affected by wiqwidity preference.
In Mises's definition, infwation is an increase in de suppwy of money:
In deoreticaw investigation dere is onwy one meaning dat can rationawwy be attached to de expression Infwation: an increase in de qwantity of money (in de broader sense of de term, so as to incwude fiduciary media as weww), dat is not offset by a corresponding increase in de need for money (again in de broader sense of de term), so dat a faww in de objective exchange-vawue of money must occur.
Hayek pointed out dat infwationary stimuwation expwoits de wag between an increase in money suppwy and de conseqwent increase in de prices of goods and services:
And since any infwation, however modest at first, can hewp empwoyment onwy so wong as it accewerates, adopted as a means of reducing unempwoyment, it wiww do so for any wengf of time onwy whiwe it accewerates. "Miwd" steady infwation cannot hewp—it can wead onwy to outright infwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. That infwation at a constant rate soon ceases to have any stimuwating effect, and in de end merewy weaves us wif a backwog of dewayed adaptations, is de concwusive argument against de "miwd" infwation represented as beneficiaw even in standard economics textbooks.
Economic cawcuwation probwem
The economic cawcuwation probwem refers to a criticism of sociawism which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subseqwentwy discussed Weber's idea wif his student Friedrich Hayek, who devewoped it in various works incwuding The Road to Serfdom. The probwem concerns de means by which resources are awwocated and distributed in an economy.
Austrian deory emphasizes de organizing power of markets. Hayek stated dat market prices refwect information, de totawity of which is not known to any singwe individuaw, which determines de awwocation of resources in an economy. Because sociawist systems wack de individuaw incentives and price discovery processes by which individuaws act on deir personaw information, Hayek argued dat sociawist economic pwanners wack aww of de knowwedge reqwired to make optimaw decisions. Those who agree wif dis criticism view it as a refutation of sociawism, showing dat sociawism is not a viabwe or sustainabwe form of economic organization, uh-hah-hah-hah. The debate rose to prominence in de 1920s and 1930s and dat specific period of de debate has come to be known by historians of economic dought as de sociawist cawcuwation debate.
Mises argued in a 1920 essay "Economic Cawcuwation in de Sociawist Commonweawf" dat de pricing systems in sociawist economies were necessariwy deficient because if de government owned de means of production, den no prices couwd be obtained for capitaw goods as dey were merewy internaw transfers of goods in a sociawist system and not "objects of exchange", unwike finaw goods. Therefore, dey were unpriced and hence de system wouwd be necessariwy inefficient since de centraw pwanners wouwd not know how to awwocate de avaiwabwe resources efficientwy. This wed him to write "dat rationaw economic activity is impossibwe in a sociawist commonweawf".
The Austrian deory of de business cycwe (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as de cause of economic fwuctuations. Awdough water ewaborated by Hayek and oders, de deory was first set forf by Mises, who bewieved dat banks extend credit at artificiawwy wow interest rates, causing businesses to invest in rewativewy roundabout production processes. Mises stated dat dis wed to a misawwocation of resources which he cawwed "mawinvestment".
Rowe of government disputed
According to Ludwig von Mises, centraw banks enabwe de commerciaw banks to fund woans at artificiawwy wow interest rates, dereby inducing an unsustainabwe expansion of bank credit and impeding any subseqwent contraction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Friedrich Hayek disagreed. Prior to de 1970s, Hayek did not favor waissez-faire in banking and said dat a freewy competitive banking industry tends to be endogenouswy destabiwizing and pro-cycwicaw, mimicking de effects which Rodbard attributed to centraw bank powicy. Hayek stated dat de need for centraw banking controw was inescapabwe.
Mainstream economists have argued dat modern-day Austrian economists are excessivewy averse to de use of madematics and statistics in economics.
Economist Benjamin Kwein has criticized de economic medodowogicaw work of Austrian economist Israew M. Kirzner. Whiwe praising Kirzner for highwighting shortcomings in traditionaw medodowogy, Kwein argued dat Kirzner did not provide a viabwe awternative for economic medodowogy. Economist Tywer Cowen has written dat Kirzner's deory of entrepreneurship can uwtimatewy be reduced to a neocwassicaw search modew and is dus not in de radicaw subjectivist tradition of Austrian praxeowogy. Cowen states dat Kirzner's entrepreneurs can be modewed in mainstream terms of search.
Economist Jeffrey Sachs argues dat among devewoped countries dose wif high rates of taxation and high sociaw wewfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries wif wow rates of taxation and wow sociaw outways. He concwudes dat Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue dat high wevews of government spending harms an economy and "a generous sociaw-wewfare state is not a road to serfdom but rader to fairness, economic eqwawity and internationaw competitiveness". Austrian economist Sudha Shenoy responded by arguing dat countries wif warge pubwic sectors have grown more swowwy.
Economist Bryan Capwan has noted dat Mises has been criticized for overstating de strengf of his case in describing sociawism as "impossibwe" rader dan as someding dat wouwd need to estabwish non-market institutions to deaw wif de inefficiency.
Critics generawwy argue dat Austrian economics wacks scientific rigor and rejects scientific medods and de use of empiricaw data in modewwing economic behavior. Some economists describe Austrian medodowogy as being a priori or non-empiricaw.
Economist Mark Bwaug has criticized over-rewiance on medodowogicaw individuawism, arguing it wouwd ruwe out aww macroeconomic propositions dat cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones, and hence reject awmost de whowe of received macroeconomics.
Economist Thomas Mayer has stated dat Austrians advocate a rejection of de scientific medod which invowves de devewopment of empiricawwy fawsifiabwe deories. Furdermore, many supporters of using modews of market behavior to anawyze and test economic deory argue dat economists have devewoped numerous experiments dat ewicit usefuw information about individuaw preferences.
Awdough economist Lewand Yeager is sympadetic to Austrian economics, he rejects many favorite views of de Misesian group of Austrians, in particuwar "de specifics of deir business-cycwe deory, uwtra-subjectivism in vawue deory and particuwarwy in interest-rate deory, deir insistence on unidirectionaw causawity rader dan generaw interdependence, and deir fondness for medodowogicaw brooding, pointwess profundities, and verbaw gymnastics".
Economist Pauw A. Samuewson wrote in 1964 dat most economists bewieve dat economic concwusions reached by pure wogicaw deduction are wimited and weak. According to Samuewson and Capwan, Mises' deductive medodowogy awso embraced by Murray Rodbard and to a wesser extent by Mises' student Israew Kirzner was not sufficient in and of itsewf.
Business cycwe deory
Mainstream economic research regarding Austrian business cycwe deory finds dat it is inconsistent wif empiricaw evidence. Economists such as Gordon Tuwwock, Miwton Friedman and Pauw Krugman have said dat dey regard de deory as incorrect. Austrian economist Ludwig Lachmann noted dat de Austrian deory was rejected during de 1930s:
The promise of an Austrian deory of de trade cycwe, which might awso serve to expwain de severity of de Great Depression, a feature of de earwy 1930s dat provided de background for Hayek's successfuw appearance on de London scene, soon proved deceptive. Three giants – Keynes, Knight and Sraffa – turned against de hapwess Austrians who, in de middwe of dat bwack decade, dus had to do battwe on dree fronts. Naturawwy it proved a task beyond deir strengf.
Some economists argue dat Austrian business cycwe deory reqwires bankers and investors to exhibit a kind of irrationawity because de Austrian deory posits dat investors wiww be foowed repeatedwy (by temporariwy wow interest rates) into making unprofitabwe investment decisions. Miwton Friedman objected to de powicy impwications of de deory, stating de fowwowing in a 1998 interview:
I dink de Austrian business-cycwe deory has done de worwd a great deaw of harm. If you go back to de 1930s, which is a key point, here you had de Austrians sitting in London, Hayek and Lionew Robbins, and saying you just have to wet de bottom drop out of de worwd. You've just got to wet it cure itsewf. You can't do anyding about it. You wiww onwy make it worse. You have Rodbard saying it was a great mistake not to wet de whowe banking system cowwapse. I dink by encouraging dat kind of do-noding powicy bof in Britain and in de United States, dey did harm.
Miwton Friedman after examining de history of business cycwes in de United States wrote dat dere "appears to be no systematic connection between de size of an expansion and of de succeeding contraction", and dat furder anawysis couwd cast doubt on business cycwe deories which rewy on dis premise. Referring to Friedman's discussion of de business cycwe, Austrian economist Roger Garrison argued dat Friedman's empiricaw findings are "broadwy consistent wif bof Monetarist and Austrian views" and goes on to argue dat awdough Friedman's modew "describes de economy's performance at de highest wevew of aggregation, Austrian deory offers an insightfuw account of de market process dat might underwie dose aggregates".
Notes and references
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- Ludwig von Mises. Human Action, p. 11, "Purposefuw Action and Animaw Reaction". Referenced 2011-11-23.
- Joseph A. Schumpeter, History of economic anawysis, Oxford University Press 1996, ISBN 978-0195105599.
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Hayek did not faww out of favor because he was not Keynesian (neider are Friedman or Lucas) but because he was perceived to be doing neider rigorous deory nor empiricaw work
- Kirzner, Israew. "Interview of Israew Kirzner". Ludwig von Mises Institute. Archived from de originaw on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
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despite de particuwar powicy views of its founders ... Austrianism was perceived as de economics of de free market
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Infwation, as dis term was awways used everywhere and especiawwy in dis country, means increasing de qwantity of money and bank notes in circuwation and de qwantity of bank deposits subject to check. But peopwe today use de term "infwation" to refer to de phenomenon dat is an inevitabwe conseqwence of infwation, dat is de tendency of aww prices and wage rates to rise. The resuwt of dis depworabwe confusion is dat dere is no term weft to signify de cause of dis rise in prices and wages. There is no wonger any word avaiwabwe to signify de phenomenon dat has been, up to now, cawwed infwation [...] As you cannot tawk about someding dat has no name, you cannot fight it. Those who pretend to fight infwation are in fact onwy fighting what is de inevitabwe conseqwence of infwation, rising prices. Their ventures are doomed to faiwure because dey do not attack de root of de eviw. They try to keep prices wow whiwe firmwy committed to a powicy of increasing de qwantity of money dat must necessariwy make dem soar. As wong as dis terminowogicaw confusion is not entirewy wiped out, dere cannot be any qwestion of stopping infwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
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Weww, in connection wif de exaggerated cwaims dat used to be made in economics for de power of deduction and a priori reasoning ... – I trembwe for de reputation of my subject. Fortunatewy, we have weft dat behind us.
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