Here is a compilation of term papers on ‘Industrial Revolution’ for class 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short term papers on ‘Industrial Revolution’ especially written for school and college students.
Term Paper on Industrial Revolution
Term Paper Contents:
- Term Paper on the Introduction to Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on the Nature of Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on Scientific and Technological Background to the Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on the Causes of Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on the Paths that Led to Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on the Second Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on the Spread of Industrial Revolution
- Term Paper on the Effects of Industrial Revolution
Term Paper # 1. Introduction to Industrial Revolution:
The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European scholars—Georges Michelet in France and Friedrich Engels in Germany. It was used for the first time in English by the philosopher and economist Arnold Toynbee (1852-1883) to describe the changes that occurred in British industrial development between 1760 and 1820. There was remarkable economic growth from the 1780s to 1820 in cotton and iron industries, coal mining, building of roads and canals and foreign trade.
The industrial revolution transformed human life by changing methods of manufacturing, the way people made a living and the products available to them.
Term Paper # 2. Nature of Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution took place in England in the late 18th and 19th centuries.
It was made up of four sets of changes:
I. First, the introduction of new Technology.
II. Second, the use of new mineral sources of energy.
III. Third, a concentration of workers in factories.
IV. Fourth, new methods of transportation.
The industrial revolution introduced machines to textile manufacturing, iron, printing, papermaking, and engineering industries. The most significant machines were steam engines and machines used to make cloth.
i. Textile Machinery:
Until the 18th century, the manufacturing of cloth was done by hand. In 1767, James Hargreaves- introduced the spinning jenny, which increased the amount of cotton yarn that could be spun. In 1769, Richard Arkwright introduced the water frame, which produced stronger wrap yarn.
A decade later in 1779, Samuel Crompton combined the jenny and the water frame into one machine called the mule. The mule could produce 300 times as much yarn as a person on a spinning wheel. These machines produced more yarn than the weavers could handle until 1787, when Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom. Because of these machines and improvements made to them, English weavers were working 200 times more cotton in 1850 than they had in 1780.
ii. Steam Engine:
Another key invention of the Industrial Revolution was the steam engine invented by James Watt in 1763 to pump water out of mines. The steam engine was used to raise minerals from mines, provide heat for smelting iron ore, and drive machines in textile mills.
iii. The Growth of Factories:
One of the major developments of the Industrial Revolution was the concept of coming in large factory. In the 16th century, businessmen began employing families in the countryside to spin and weave. This was known as the domestic system, and all members of the family participated in the production.
The businessman provided the materials and was responsible for the marketing. The introduction of machines in the late 18th century led to the development of the factory system. The large factory was more cost effective because it allowed the concentration of machines and workers in one place.
It also reduced transportation costs and allowed for greater quality control. The factory owner had greater control of the work force and enforced much stricter discipline. It also made possible what the economist Adam Smith called the ‘division of labor,’ whereby each person was responsible for one stage of production, allowing for great increase in total production. The workers needed no special skills to operate the machines.
iv. Mineral Sources of Energy:
Until the 18th century, transportation of goods was powered by humans or animals. Organic sources of fuel were wood, charcoal, or water power. Beginning in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution began to rely on coal to produce the high temperatures needed to smelt iron. Eventually it also became a source of heat for the steam engine.
v. New Methods of Transportation:
As industry expanded, so did the transportation network needed to move raw materials and finished products. Thousands of miles of canals and all- weather roads were built in the 18th century. The main innovation in transportation of the 19th century was the rail-road.
The rail-roads were driven by coal-burning, steam-power locomotives and provided quick, cheap transportation to places inaccessible by water. The construction of railroads created a demand for iron and for large numbers of workers and became a large industry in its own right. Unlike manufacturing, rail-road networks usually involved a combination of private and public investment.
Term Paper # 3. Scientific and Technological Background to the Industrial Revolution:
By the end of the 18th century, people of urban middle-class had completely redeemed themselves from feudal dominance. In order to feed the increasing global markets with various products, they could invest capital in industries and earn profit.
Feudal economy was transforming into capitalistic economy. Marvellous technical inventions of that time encouraged the changes. Thus, it is clear by the middle of the 18th century, the gradual technical innovations in the method of production brought about the rapid changes.
The important fact is that common man had started adopting new techniques introduced by the experimental science during 16th and 17th centuries. Advanced techniques introduced by the experimental science brought about stupendous changes in the processes of production. It is known as Industrial Revolution.
One should understand that science did not play a direct role in the Industrial Revolution but industrial technology played an important role. However, technological knowledge and design depended upon science for example, Newton’s theories about speed, velocity, energy and power made a great contribution towards technological innovations and development. Without the theories of experimental science, the steam engine, which became the vital force in Industrial Revolution, might have not been invented.
Term Paper # 4. Causes of Industrial Revolution:
Brief reviews of the major causes of industrial revolution have been given below:
i. Enormous Expansion in Overseas Trade of Britain:
Enormous expansion in Britain’s trade in overseas markets was one of the major causes of technological revolution. During the 17th and 18th centuries Britain had carved out an extensive colonial empire and successfully excluded the other powers like Spain, Holland and France from their markets. As a result, Britain acquired a sort of monopoly in these markets.
The growing demand for the British goods in these markets gave a stimulus to the British manufacturers to adapt machine methods. It is well known that the mechanical inventions of the 18th century such as spinning, jenny of Hargreaves, the water-frame of Arkwright, the mule of Crompton and the power-loom of Cartwright etc. were invented to increase the production of cotton cloth which was in great demand in India. According to Birnie, ‘These inventions are sometimes spoken of as the primary cause of the Industrial Revolution’.
In reality, these were a secondary cause only. Machines for turning out cheap goods in large quantities are useless unless there is a market capable of absorbing the increased output. The market must come first; the inventions follow. Mechanical discoveries have often the appearance of being due to accident, but unconsciously the successful inventor works within limits laid down for him by the changing needs of society.
ii. Availability of Capital:
The vast amount of capital which England had accumulated out of profits of her growing trade enabled her to make large outlays on machinery and buildings, which in turn contributed to new technological developments. In addition England also possessed a large amount of loanable capital obtained by the Bank of England from the rich trade of other countries. This capital also helped England to steal a march over other European countries.
iii. Practical Bent of Mind of the English Researchers:
Another factor which contributed to England’s lead in the technological revolution was that the English scientists and engineers had a very practical bent of mind. They made inventions keeping in view the needs of the time. They concentrated mainly on those inventions of science which had practical utility. This was in complete contrast to the continental scientists who concentrated on research in electricity; chemicals etc. which were not of immediate applied relevance.
iv. Small Population:
The small size of England’s population, which could not cope with England’s growing trade, also necessitated that new devices should be found out to keep production in line with the growing demand. This is best exemplified by the changes in the textile industry as well as the coal industry. The shortage of the labour force compelled; the owners to encourage and apply new mechanical devices.
v. Social and Political Stability:
Britain not only enjoyed complete freedom of trade but also an insular position which saved her from the disastrous consequences of war, which ravaged the countries of Europe. This social stability prevailing in England encouraged the people to invest in sectors where they could hope to receive high dividend in future. This led to adoption of new techniques and promotion of new industries.
vi. The Availability of Coal and Iron Mines Close to Each Other:
The location of the coal and iron mines close to each other encouraged the English to evolve new techniques for the manufacture of iron and utilization of the coals. It is well known that the availability of coal and iron ores in large quantities greatly helped the growth of numerous industries in England.
The needs for large quantities of coal for smelting of iron ores, transportation etc. necessitated improvement in the techniques of coal mining. Metal cages and tubs were used to lift coal. Even the use of wire ropes for lifting of coal was started a little later. Engines were invented to pump out the water from the mines.
vii. The Agricultural Revolution:
In Britain the agricultural revolution had already taken place which greatly transformed the English society. It not only made available necessary raw materials to run the new industries but also provided a large number of agricultural labourers for employment in the new factories.
viii. Presence of Enterprising People:
Finally, the technological changes in England were made possible because of the presence of a sizable section of people who possessed enterprising spirit and requisite technical qualities. Further this class of people also possessed organizing abilities and was accustomed to the handling of large enterprises and labour force. These people were willing to invest money for the discovery of new techniques and give a fair trial to these techniques.
ix. Risk-Taking Private Sector:
The presence of a sizable private sector in the country with great capacity of the individual businessmen to take risks also greatly contributed to the industrial revolution. These business men were willing to take a chance on new things. In this way they were also supported by the government.
x. Better Means of Transport:
England possessed a far better network of means of transportation than any other country of Europe which greatly helped the industrial revolution. In this task the government played an important role which spent considerable amount on the improvement of roads and construction of canals.
xi. Geographical Location:
The geographical location of England also greatly helped in industrial revolution. Being cut off from the mainland of Europe, England remained immune from wars and upheavals of Napoleonic conflicts and conditions remained quite stable in the country. These stable conditions enabled England to develop their industrial capacity without fear of battle, damage or loss of life.
xii. Flexibility of English Social and Political System:
Above all the flexibility of the English social and political system also greatly contributed to industrial revolution in England. The members of the upper classes in Britain, unlike their counterparts in the continent, pursued their wealth in the new industrial framework with great enthusiasm. They worked in close co-operation with the middle classes and artisans which greatly facilitated the industrial revolution.
In short, we can say that in comparison to other European countries England was more favourably placed in many respects and no wonder stole lead over them in the field of technological revolution and industrialization.
Term Paper # 5. Paths that Led to Industrial Revolution:
To begin with, there is no exaggeration in saying that Industrial Revolution would not have occurred without agricultural revolution. Even by the end of the 17th century, generally the same techniques, apparatuses and tools were used in the agricultural field as had been used for many centuries.
There were no changes in the agricultural technique because the demand for agricultural tools did not exceed their consumption in the state. The population in cities increased in proportion to the development of workshop system and the majority of people lost their self-dependence.
Under those circumstances, village farmers had to grow more food-grannies and produce more cotton for the urban people. Owing to the steady increase in the demand for these commodities, it became imperative to apply scientific techniques in agriculture and manufacture special machines for this purpose.
Other reason, which caused important change in the field of agriculture, was that till then people cultivated the fields to meet their domestic requirements but now they had started investing money in agriculture to earn profit. It was not possible to earn profit from the cultivation by using old and conventional methods.
Therefore, a number of scientific method and more advanced apparatuses were discovered. Primarily, the rich farmers made progress because only they had money as well as time to conduct experiments. In this way, investment of capital in the field of agriculture paved the way for an agricultural revolution.
i. Drill Machine:
First of all, a British landlord of Workshire J. Tull invented a machine called ‘Drill’ by which, seed could be sown in fixed rows in adequate quantity. The job of sowing seeds could be done more systematically and properly by using that machine. After that, another British landlord Townshand pointed out to farmers the advantages of growing crops in rotation.
By adopting that technique, it was not necessary now to leave one third of land fallow every time. That process doubled the yield in each area of land and the soil also yielded fodder for animals.
ii. Conversion of Animal Husbandry:
Around 1770, an Englishman called Robert Bakewell converted animal husbandry into a profitable occupation. In order to improve the breed of sheep and cows, he made many experiments. By means of new scientific method of artificial insemination, he got success in breeding the sheep, which had treble weight than the ordinary sheep.
He succeeded in breeding cattle, which yielded enough milk and meat as well as sheep, which yielded enough wool and meat. Charles Colling working upon Bakewell’s system reared a new breed of sheep.
iii. Enclosure Acts:
In order to introduce scientific technique, assimilating several small fields created large agricultural farms and ‘an enclosure’ was put around them. And for that purpose 956 Enclosure Acts were passed in England between 1792 and 1815. In consequence of that Act, enclosure put around one lakh acres of arable land.
On the one hand, the Enclosure Act accounted for an increase in the agricultural produce and on the other, it constrained poor farmers to surrender their small fields and they were relegated to the miserable position of landless labourers. Hence, the Act proved advantageous in view of long-term effects on economy in as much as a large number of people who were evicted from their land under the Enclosure Act, were compelled to work in factories. It is needless to reiterate that the Act paved the way for Industrial Revolution.
iv. New Technique of Farming:
A rich English farmer Arthur Young visited England, Ireland and France to make an intensive study of contemporary agricultural systems. After that, he disseminated the ‘New technique’ of farming. Under the new technique of farming, he described the technique of making large agricultural farms out of small fields and the details of profit accruing from such farms.
A part of the land remained uncultivated in small fields and machines could not be used properly in small open fields. In order to diffuse his ideas, Arthur Young contributed many articles and wrote several books. He also published a journal called ‘Annals of Agriculture’.
v. Changes in Manure Pattern:
By the end of 1840, farmers manured their fields according to old system. But in the same year, a German Chemist Juston Von Leebing proved that the fundamental diet for plants is potash, nitrogen and phosphorus. The fertility of soil increases as a result of mixing a sufficient quantity of those ingredients with manure. After that, fertilizers were used on a large scale and this augmented production enormously.
vi. Use of Machines:
Growth of population, need for more agricultural produce for industrial machines, and desire to save human labour inspired people to use machines in agriculture. Scarcity of wage earners in America prompted people to use machines and soon America became a leader for other countries in using machines on a large scale for agricultural purpose.
In 1793, an American citizen called Whitney invented a threshing machine. In 1834, Cyrus H. Machormic invented a mowing machine. Later on F. Appleby made the mowing machine more useful by attaching a double garnering binder to it. During that period, other inventors introduced several machines like the horse drawn rake disc harrow etc.
By and by, the use of machines in agricultural field increased without stop. The inventions of power-operated machines brought revolution in agriculture. Between 1760 and 1860, there was a tremendous increase in agricultural produce because of improvements in the field of agriculture.
vii. Beginning with Textile Industry:
Industrial Revolution started chiefly from the Textile Industry. In the middle of 18th century, Europe had two methods of producing yarn: spinning wheel and distaff. But old industries failed to satisfy the increasing demand for cloth. By 1750, industries began to use a new type of staple cotton. Earlier, England imported cotton cloth from India.
Undoubtedly, enormous opportunities and possibilities cropped up when machines in Textile Industries replaced the use of manpower. The manual work system decreased to a great extent. As a matter of fact, the idea of planting spinning and weaving machines took a concrete form due to technical innovations, which had been made for many decades in the past.
viii. Invention of Flying Shuttle:
In 1733, a weaver called John Kay invented a ‘Flying Shuttle’ by which the work of weaving cloth could be done quickly. By that machine a weaver would now use as much yarn as ten workers produced in a day because earlier a weaver had to use both his hands in order to throw woof through wrap on the hand looms.
The flying shuttle was a technical device to do so. A weaver could now weave wider cloth and could use more yarn because he did not need to throw woof through the wrap. This raised production. In 1764, James Hargreaves invented ‘Spinning Jenny’. Eight yarns could now be spun at a time by means of ‘Spinning Jenny’.
In 1769, Richard Arkwright improved ‘Spinning Jenny’ and made a weaving machine called the ‘Water-Frame’, which worked with waterpower. It was the first spinning machine, which used waterpower in place of manpower. According to scholars, Industrial Revolution actually started in 1769.
They maintained that Arkwright’s invention laid the foundation of massive cotton cloth industry and introduced factory system. In 1779, Samuel Crompton combined the mechanism of spinning jenny and water-frame and made a new machine called the ‘Mule’. It could spin fine yarn very rapidly.
As a result of those inventions, huge stock of fine yarn came into the market and weaving machines came into use in proportion to the availability of yarn. In 1785, Edmund Catwright invented ‘Power-loom’. It could be operated both by steam-power and water-power. Because of the use of power-loom, the price of fine cloth dropped too low to believe. After a few years, power-loom became an integral part of every factory.
ix. Cotton Gin Invented:
For spinning machines, the supply of cotton fell short because the process of ginning was very slow at that time. In 1793, Elly Whitley invented a cotton ginning machine called ‘Cotton gin’. That machine brought revolution in the cotton industry. It could separate cotton fibers from the seeds as quickly as 50 workers would do.
The chain of inventions also continued in the 19th century. In 1825, Richard Roberts made the first automatic spinning machine. After 1846, fine ready-made clothes were sold in the market on a large scale because an American citizen Alias Hobbe had invented the sewing machine.
x. Water Power and Wind Power:
New machines were being invented. The need for new sources of power to run the newly invented machines was increasing day by day. Water power and wind powers were used to operate machines but they had limitations. Factories had to be constructed near the place where strong current of water flew.
The strong currents of water were not only few but located very far from the reach of workers, raw materials and markets. Therefore, several people discovered the method of using steam power. In 1712, an Englishman Thomson Newcomen, first of all, invented a steam engine to drain water from trenches but that engine consumed too much fuel and was too bulky to carry to several places.
In 1769, James Watt removed the defects of Newcomen’s engine and made a new steam engine, which was cheap and very useful. In 1775, James Watt established a factory in partnership with an industrialist for manufacturing steam engine. James Watt’s steam engine was planted in all the textile mills of England.
xi. Revolutionary Changes in Transportation:
The field of transport was influenced by the revolutionary changes, which occurred in the world of textile and steel industries. Owing to the increase in trade and industry, necessary improvements were carried out in the means of transport. A Scottish engineer Mc Adam (1756-1836) invented the process of making roads.
He put a thick layer of heavy stones under the lower part of the road and after that he deposited another layer of small, broken stones and covered those layers with tar and asphalt. Roads built with the Mc Adam process proved to be very durable and useful. He became famous not only in England but also in Canada and America where he built roads.
xii. Iron and Steel:
But after a few years, the source of charcoal started depleting day by day. Hence, other sources of fuel were discovered. Around 1750, it was discovered that coke might be used in place of charcoal. The credit for discovering coal as substitute for charcoal goes to Abraham Derby and John Roebuck. Extreme heat of coal smelted and refined the iron more rapidly and easily. The demand for coal also increased.
Consequently, the number of coal mines increased. By and by, new types of furnaces were prepared and modified, and hard steel was manufactured. In 1784, Henry Court discovered the technique of puddling by which very pure and standard quality of steel was manufactured.
The discovery of puddling brought about revolutionary changes in the production of steel and it became very easy to manufacture various types of machines with fine quality of iron. By and by, steel became a substitute for iron. Prior to 1856, the manufacturing process of steel was very costly. And English engineer Henry Bessemer discovered the process of making steel rapidly and economically, which became popular as the ‘Bessemer Process’.
Under the ‘Bessemer Process’ steel was made by blasting air through molten pig iron in a large container. Steel was produced on a large scale by means of the ‘Bessemer process’ and other refined processes.
xiii. Changes in Water Transport:
Attention was now focused on inventing faster means of water transport. An American engineer Robert Fulton invented in 1807 the first steamboat-Clermont. When his steam-boat-Clermont sailed through the Hudson River, a few persons made fun of Fulton’s invention.
Some people called it ‘A tool of demon’. When he successfully crossed the Hudson River in his steamboat, the grudging rivals filed suits against Fulton. But the scientific progress defeated superstition. Although, ‘Clermont’ was a small vessel, it marked the beginning and steamers (steam-ships) were built based on the technique of steam-boat.
In 1838, the steam-boat ‘Serious’ crossed the Atlantic Ocean for the first time in eighteen days. During the first decade of 1850, screw propellers were fitted in steam-boats in place of paddle-wheel and this greatly increased their speed.
xiv. Invention of Railway Engine:
The invention of railway engine brought a revolution in the field of road transport. An English engineer George Stephenson invented his famous steam engine ‘Rocket’ in 1814. The engine could run automatically with steam power on iron rails and drag wagons loaded with various goods.
As a result of that invention, the first railway train ran between Manchaster and Liverpool in 1830. The train hauled carriages loaded with goods at a speed of 39 miles an hour and surprised the world. Coal steel and other Industrial products were transported over distant places in a short time and at very low cost.
xv. Improvements in Communication Systems:
Significant improvements were made in the field of communication system. A blind English man Rolland Hill started a system in 1840, through which anybody could send a letter at any place in Great Britain by affixing a one-pence stamp on the letter. Other countries followed the system soon. In 1844, Samuel Morse invented a practical telegraph machine.
Telegraphy was used to establish immediate contacts among the continents of the world. In order to establish a connection between two continents, under water telegraphy was introduced, first of all, between North America and Europe and was called ‘Atlantic Cable’. It was promoted in 1866 by an American Industrialist Cyrus Field.
In 1876, Graham Bell invented telephone which proved to be the culmination point in communication at that time. Thus, in the beginning of the 19th century, a close connection was established between science and Industrial advancement. During the past years, a lot of researches had been made in various branches of science. On the basis of scientific researches, a lot of new experiments were carried out in the Industrial field.
xvi. Petrol Engine:
The inventions of petrol engine, in about 1880, brought another revolution in the field of transport. With its success, several companies opened in America to manufacture motorcars. Here, Henry Ford manufactured motor-cars at a low cost and popularized them. Motor-car manufacturing factories were established in France, Germany and England also.
In 1839, Charles Good Year discovered that the process of vulcanization hardens rubber. This invention played a remarkable role in all the success of motor industry. Rubber tyres made travelling very comfortable.
Term Paper # 6. Second Industrial Revolution:
The machines of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and early 19th centuries were simple, mechanical devices compared with the industrial technology that followed. Many new products were devised, and important advances were made in the system of mass production.
Changes in industry were so great that the period after 1860 has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. New scientific knowledge was applied to industry as scientists and engineers unlocked the secrets of physics and chemistry.
Great new industries were founded on this scientific advance: steel, chemicals, and petroleum benefited from new understandings of chemistry; breakthroughs in the study of electricity and magnetism provided the basis for a large electrical industry. These new industries were larger and more productive than any industries existing before. Germany and the United States became the leaders, and by the end of the 19th century they were challenging Great Britain in the world market for industrial goods.
The age of electricity began in 1882 when Thomas A. Edison introduced a system of electric lighting in New York City. Electricity was later applied to driving all kinds of machinery as well as powering locomotives and streetcars. Electric lighting quickly spread across the United States and was soon adopted in Europe.
The electrical industry was dominated by large companies that developed new products and then manufactured and marketed them. These companies were based in Germany and the United States but sold their goods all over the world. They were the first multinational companies. Companies like Westinghouse and General Electric helped to electrify cities in Europe, Africa, and South America.
The steel and chemical industries used new technology that greatly increased production. The size of factories increased rapidly, employing more workers and using more machinery. These industries integrated all stages of production under a single corporate structure. They bought out competitors and acquired sources of raw materials and retail outlets.
The larger size of business presented great challenges to managers who administered enormous organizations with many branches and subsidiaries. Advances in communications and transportation helped decision makers to maintain control. The electric telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse in 1844 and was used to relay commercial information about prices and markets.
It was used in the stock exchanges and on the railway systems. Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone in 1876, and networks of telephone lines were built quickly across the United States. The telephone became a useful tool for managers to keep in contact with the widely dispersed parts of their businesses.
New methods of management were devised that stressed central control, planning, and efficient production methods. One of the leading advocates of ‘scientific management’ was Frederick Winslow Taylor.
Term Paper # 7. Spread of Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution spread to the rest of Europe and North America over the course of several decades after it developed in Britain.
i. Great Britain and the Continent:
Part of the reason for the delay in the start of the Industrial Revolution in the rest of Europe was the political situation in individual countries. Germany, for example, was politically fragmented into many states, each with its own tariffs and taxes, which hindered the free passages of resources and goods across the country.
Local privileges in France also hindered the free economic passage. By contrast, all of Britain was a single market. Another factor in delaying industrialization was protectionism. While it protected the local economy from competition, it also hindered the importation of necessary resources.
Another factor in hindering industrialization was the aristocracy in continental Europe, who drew their wealth from land. They lacked a capitalist spirit and were more cautious about investing in the new enterprises. Finally, parts of the continent lacked the availability of the needed natural resources.
ii. Features of Continental Industrialization:
After 1830, Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Germany began to imitate the English industrialization process by introducing machinery into the production process, concentrating workers in factories, and beginning to build their transportation network. However, the industrialization process in the European continent differed from the British in a number of ways.
First, the governments played a greater role providing capital as active partners in industrialization process. Governments built rail-road systems, which facilitated the beginnings of industrialization. Second, the banks were also major partners in financing industry. Third, the development of the rail-road system helped begin industrialization. It helped stimulate other industries to meet its needs by the markets it created.
iii. Industrialization in the United States:
The Industrial Revolution began in the United States in the 1820s with the textile industry of the northeast. It then continued with the development of heavy industry in the Pittsburgh and Cleveland regions. U.S. industrialization followed patterns borrowed from England and Europe.
Most of the machinery was modeled on that of England. Like England, it also had a vast supply of raw materials. The relatively short supply of labor helped avoid the awful conditions suffered by the English working class. After 1865, U.S. industry began to expand rapidly. The major American contribution to the industrial process was the assembly line.
iv. Industrial Regionalism:
The industrialization process was regional in character. Different regions of the various countries developed different branches of industry. For example, the French textile industry developed in the northeast, near the Belgian border, and the east-central region around Lyons. In Germany, the iron industry was concentrated in the Ruhr valley. Some areas of the country remained engaged only in agriculture.
Term Paper # 8. Effects of Industrial Revolution:
Industrialization affected every aspect of human life.
i. Population and Economic Growth:
One of the most important changes was the continuous expansion of the population and the economy. Most observers in the 18th century did not believe that expansion of the population and the economy could be sustained indefinitely. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) argued that population naturally grows faster than the food supply, and therefore malnutrition, famine, and disease will correct the imbalance.
Malthus’s cycle of expansion and contraction did not take place. The population had consistently expanded as the greater agricultural productivity permitted maintaining an adequate food supply. The industrial economy had been able to employ large numbers of workers. Despite economic swings, industrialized nations continued to experience an increase in the gross national product and per capita income.
ii. Standards of Living:
There has been much debate about the impact of industrialization on the working class. The optimists have pointed to the long-term effects of industrialization, which have helped avoid Malthus’s predictions, such as the rise of individual income. Pessimists have emphasized the fact that improvements did not appear for several decades after the beginning of industrialization.
Pessimists blame the system of industrial capitalism for the laboring population’s hardships. In an effort to reduce costs and maximize profits, employers kept wages low and utilized labor-saving devices. Pessimists also point to the early decades of industrialization, when people were forced to live in decrepit housing around the factories. The monotonous, demeaning, and exhausting nature of factory work adds to the pessimists’ argument against the positive effects of the Industrial Revolution.
iii. Women, Children and Industry:
During the early Industrial Revolution, large numbers of women and children were part of the workforce. They were willing to accept lower wages and were more easily disciplined. The factory system changed family life. In the early years of the Industrial Revolution many families worked together in the factories and mines.
As mothers found it impossible to care for their small children while working, they began to leave the factory. The British Factory Act of 1833 enforced restrictions against child labor. Eventually, the trend was that the man earned a living outside of the home while the woman stayed home to care for their children.
iv. Class and Class Consciousness:
Writers began to describe industrial society as divided into three classes based on the type of property they owned. The aristocracy owned land. The bourgeoisie owned capital enterprises and gained their wealth from profits. The working class owned only their labor and received wages.
There is great debate over the extent to which the people of the 19th century were conscious of their class status. Some historians argue that worker exploitation and conflicts between capital and labor over wages led to the formation of class identity. Others argue that workers were more conscious of their trade, ethnic, or local identity than they were of their class identity.
v. Industrial Landscape:
The Industrial Revolution changed the landscape. Small towns grew into huge cities. In the countryside, bridges, viaducts, rail-road lines, and canals were built to improve transportation. The destruction of the natural beauty of the landscape triggered a nostalgic reaction in art and literature.
Some of the new industrial architecture, such as the new bridges, were romanticized and thought to be architectural marvels.
vi. Industry, Trade and Empire:
By the middle of the 19th century, Britain produced 66% of the world’s coal, 50% of the cotton cloth and iron, and 40% of the hardware. In the search for raw materials and markets, the interests of industry, trade, and empire worked closely together.
vii. East Asia: The Opium War, 1839-1842:
For three centuries after the arrival of the Europeans, China maintained a tight control over trade with Europeans. In the 1830s conflict broke out between China and the British over the trade of opium, which was causing severe problems in Chinese society. When the Chinese authorities began seizing and destroying chests of opium, the English declared war.
The British, with their superior technology, attacked and defeated China. In the aftermath, the Chinese were forced to open several ports to English merchants and allow the ports to be governed by British consuls who were not subject to Chinese law.
viii. India: Annexation and Trade:
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Britain gained control of India. Political control of India served British merchants’ interests. British merchants controlled the trade between India and the rest of Asia. India also became a market for British textile goods, which destroyed India’s own textile industry. India also became a major source of revenue for the British government.
ix. Latin America: An Empire of Trade:
In Latin America, Britain was an ardent supporter of the movements to gain independence from Spain and Portugal. Once independent, these countries became markets for British goods and capital. While these countries remained politically separate from Britain, they became economically dependent on the British in the same way India had become. Latin America’s village artisan economies were destroyed and Latin America became a market for British finished goods.