composting toilet, also called biological toilet or dry toilet, waterless sewage-treatment system that decomposes human excreta into an inert nitrogen-rich material similar to humus. Because they eliminate the water use associated with typical toilets, composting toilets circumvent the costs associated with traditional sewage treatment. Composting toilets hold and process waste material to capture the nutrients in human waste, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, for local reuse. In addition to being well suited to rural areas and water-scarce regions, composting toilets are being increasingly used in institutional and suburban settings. Urban use is limited because of the more stringent health regulations and the lack of space required for compost storage. Users are often environmentally conscious and seek to decrease their impact on water resources, or they may be in areas where water and sewer infrastructure is at capacity or otherwise limited.
In traditional household systems, the dirty water from sinks, showers, and washing machines (gray water) is combined with wastewater from toilets (black water) and discharged to a sewer or on-site septic tank. Since composting toilets do not use water to move waste from the toilet to the next stage of waste treatment, they do not produce black water or discharge wastewater. Whereas waste in a privy or outhouse is typically covered with lye and buried or removed for traditional sewage treatment elsewhere, composting toilets biologically process waste on-site, allowing it to be used as a soil nutrient. If properly maintained, a composting toilet can reduce waste down to 30 percent of its original volume.
Composting toilets vary in complexity of design, energy requirements for optimal operation, and capacity. The simplest form is a “humanure” system, which can be built with a large bucket, some pieces of wood, and a pile of hay. Self-contained units within households can have mechanical batch stirrers, electrically powered rotating chambers, and heating elements to drive off excess moisture. Site-built and single-chamber systems can be built with few moving parts. In remote areas, for example, a solar-powered fan connected to an aeration chimney is all that is needed to ensure effective year-round processing of waste. The common goal is to ensure safe aerobic conditions for bacterial decomposition in the compost. A bulking agent such as sawdust or coir is usually required after each use, and some systems allow for the addition of food scraps as well. All systems have a method to remove exhaust from the compost reactor or catchment basin, often using a small fan, and manage leachate with gravity or a heating element. They must also provide a means to easily remove the finished product. In addition to the bulking agent, ash and soda lime can be added to make the compost more alkaline and facilitate pathogen die-off. Although very basic systems may have an odour, well-designed systems are ventilated and promote decomposition by aerobic bacteria and thus do not have an offensive smell if they are maintained properly.
Commercially built composting toilets can be grouped into two types by size and intended use. Small all-in-one systems process waste in a small reactor below the toilet bowl. Models resemble a flush toilet and are popular in residences because they require little modification to existing bathrooms. Larger, centralized systems use gravity or a small amount of water (a microflush) to direct waste to the compost reactor. These systems are ideal in high-use settings, as well as in off-the-grid applications where solar energy may be the only available source of power. They can be multistory and often require subfloor or basement space to accommodate their larger compost reactors.
Both the smaller and larger systems can have single or multiple chambers. Single-chamber (or continuous) systems rely on gravity and little additional energy to operate. New material is added at the top of the reactor pile and processed as it moves downward. Finished compost is removed from a small opening at the base of the chamber. Urine introduced to the system maintains moisture, and the weight of the material helps ensure the right temperature for bacterial activity. By contrast, multiple-chamber (or batch) systems have rotating or removable chambers that produce individual batches of compost. These systems often feature heating elements to evaporate moisture and are better suited to intermittent use. By dividing waste into smaller batches, it is easier to ensure that the finished compost is fully processed, as no new waste is added to the chamber once it is full.
Although composting-toilet technology is high-maintenance and disrupts the easy convenience of the “flush-and-forget” systems, composting toilets can save energy, material, and infrastructure costs associated with traditional sewage systems. In daily use, composting toilets have been shown to decrease household water use by one-third or more; institutional applications can save up to 60 percent of water consumed. Though they have clear environmental benefits, they present different risks from those of traditional flush toilets, as pathogenic bacteria and viruses may remain present in compost material if it is not fully processed.
Although regulations continue to develop to reflect the increased use of composting toilets, overlapping and sometimes confusing regulatory policies complicate decisions on installation and use. Some localities have banned composting toilets outright, whereas others require certification and professional installation. Most home-built composting toilets are not permitted. Many policies, particularly those concerning the use or disposal of finished compost, remain precautionary to protect both public and ecosystem health.