had a great need for a powerful military. Not only were armies needed
to control the vast territories of China and to defeat internal
rivals, but ancient China was also surrounded by potential enemies.
Different Ethnic groups within ancient China such as the Qiang and
Di vied for power. The settled nations around China resented the
subordination, or outright annexation, that the Chinese attempted
to thrust on them causing wars with groups like the Vietnamese and
the Koreans. However it was the nomadic tribes to the West and North
of China that caused the most problems.
A seemingly endless stream of tribal
confederations and ethnic tribal groups invaded china from the heart
of Asia since the founding of the civilization. At first the Chinese
considered these “dog people” to be poor and week barbarians,
using their dogs to trek meager supplies around a vast, endless
wilderness. This all changed when Aryan invaders arrived on spoke
wheeled chariots from the Eurasian Steppes (c 1700 BC). The strange
warriors carried with them bronze weapons and a new form of mobility.
The early settled Chinese Empires became proficient with the chariot;
however, the nomads had dumped the humble dog for the new form of
transportation. The horse and the steppe nomads would form a close,
symbiotic bond. Once the nomadic tribes learned to ride the horses
their mobility and martial powers would give the Emperors of China
nightmares. The steppe tribes consisted of a variety of ethnicities,
Caucasian, Asian, Turkic and countless mixtures of them. They frequently
warred against themselves, but occasionally a great confederation
was formed and they would turn their horses towards the settled
world. From the West came the Tibetans, Göktürks and Xionites.
From the North and Northeast came the Xianbei, Donghu, Xiongnu,
Jie, Khitan, Mongols, and later the Jurchens (manchu).
Early Chinese Armies &
Xia Dynasty Warfare
Earliest Chinese armies consisted of conscripted peasants armed
with simple bows, spears and stone maces. Eventually, a single family
was able to dominate a portion of the Yellow River Valley. The history
of the first of these dynasties, the Xia (2200 BCE-1600 BCE) is
largely unknown and wrapped in mythology. In fact their existence
is disputed by some, considered to be nothing more than a traditional
legend. The regardless, the Chinese of the first steps of what would
be a great civilization. Militarily they were the first in the Far
East to use chariots and copper weapons, ideas brought by the steppe
nomads from the Near East and Eurasian Steppes.
The Xia, and the following Shang and Zhou dynasties ruled territories
that were much smaller than China today, equivalent to the size
of a state in modern China. The armies created by these dynasties
were comparatively small and unprofessional. A core of warrior elites
dominated battles from their Chariots; however, the early Chinese
dynastic armies were poorly equipped and couldn’t manage long
Shang Dynasty Military
The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC -1046 BC) is said to have amassed a thousand
chariots to overthrow the Xia, this is certainly a greatly exaggerated
figure. Perhaps 70 would be more appropriate. However, Chinese society
was becoming stratified and the warrior elites who made up the chariot
core had become an aristocracy. The chariots carried three people,
an archer, warrior and driver. The archer had become equipped with
the new and deadly but expensive compound bow. Another innovation
borrowed from the derided steppe nomads, now called the Horse Barbarians
and actively campaigned against. The warrior used a dagger-axe,
a long handled axe with a dagger blade mounted on it. Chariots served
as mobile command centers, firing platforms and shock forces. However,
the bulk of the army was made up of agricultural laborers conscripted
by nobles who were under the ruling dynasty. The feudal system that
developed required these subservient lords to provide supplies,
armor and weapons for the conscripts. The Shang king kept a force
of around a thousand troops that he personally led in battle. A
Shang king could muster an army of about five thousand for in border
campaigns or call all his forces up in a grand army numbering around
13,000 to face down serious threats such as insurrection and invasion.
Shang infantry were armed with an assortment of stone or bronze
weapons, including spears, pole-axes, long handled dagger-axes and
simple bows. For defense they used shields and occasionally bronze
or leather helmets.
The infantry fought in massed formations under the banner of their
noble or the Shang king himself. A rudimentary military bureaucracy
was established in order to organize and supply these troops. The
Shang rulers demanded a lot of bronze weapons and ceremonial vessels,
required a lot of labor and expertise. This in turn spurred the
economy as vast efforts were required for mining, refining, and
the transportation of copper, tin, and lead ores.
The Zhou Dynasty Military
The Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC - 256 BC) followed the overthrew the Shang
dynasty, proclaiming they had become corrupt and hedonistic. The
mandate from heaven that gave a ruling dynasty its power was revoked
when the Zhou defeated the Shang in battle. The Zhou dynasty is
China’s longest lasting dynasty. During the Zhou advancements
were made in writing and iron was introduced to China.
Early Zhou kings were true commanders-in-chiefs; constantly at war
with barbarians on behalf of their subordinate the fiefs, principalities
and mini states. Militarily the early Zhou army was split into two
major field armies, “The Six Armies of the west” and
“The Eight Armies of Chengzhou”. The Zhou armies didn’t
just campaigning against barbarian invasions though; they also extended
their rule over China and rival power Chinese powers. The Zhou reached
their peak under King Zhao, conquering the central plains of China.
King Zhao then invaded Southern China at the head of the Six Armies.
However, he was killed when the Six Armies where wiped out by the
Chu, a Southern Chinese state. The Zhou period saw the use of massed
chariots in battle to an extent far exceeding the Shang Dynasty.
The power of the Zhou court gradually diminished due to internal
rivalry and the growing ambition of the nobles. The kingdom fragmented
into smaller states as leading nobles decided to create dynasties
of their own. They no longer considered themselves vassals or dukes,
but instead the heads of each dynastic family referred to himself
as king. The Zhou dynasty persisted in a much reduced state through
the turmoil of the following periods, Spring and Autumn Period and
the Warring States Period, until finally dropping the title King
of China after Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor was successful conquering
the different warring states.
Warfare in China had become endemic during the Spring and Autumn
Period (722 BC – 481 BC) as states broke away from the Zhou
and consolidated their power. Zuo zhuan describes the wars and battles
among these feudal lords turned kings. Warfare continued to be stylized
and ceremonial even as it grew more violent and decisive. Massive
pitched battles were fought between the four major states as they
struggled for control of the others and the minor states. However,
this was just a prelude to the even bloodier period that would follow.
Warring States Period Warfare
The Warring States Period (476 BCE - 221 BC), the former vassals
of the Zhou began a long, bloody war for supremacy. Seven states
now fought in a complex game of grand strategy as war became more
intense, ruthless and much more decisive. The nature of war in China
would never be the same. In this crucible of fire every aspect of
Chinese warfare would be improved. Unlike the Spring and Autumn
Period, armies in the Warring States Period used combined arms tactics
where infantry, archers and cavalry all work in unison. Iron became
widespread and replaced bronze in much of the weapons and armor
of the era.
The first official native Chinese
cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC by King Wuling of Zhao. But
the war chariot still retained its prestige and importance, despite
the tactical superiority of cavalry. King Wuling declared the adoption
of "nomads attire with galloping marksmanship", fitting
his cavalry with trousers instead of traditional Chinese robes and
equipping them with bows.
The seven warring states fielded massive armies, sometimes with
over almost two hundred thousand men, well beyond the size of the
proceeding periods. Complex logistics were needed for such large
forces, creating efficient government bureaucracies.
The Chinese probably borrowed the idea of the crossbow from the
hill tribes they encountered in Vietnam. They then adapted it to
their specifications, creating the preferred long range weapon during
the Warring States Period. Crossbows could be easily produced and
it was simple to train levy troops to use them.
Infantrymen continued to employ a variety of ancient
weapons, now made of iron. The most popular continued to be
the strange dagger-axe. Dagger-axes came in various lengths from
9–18 ft and were now used as thrusting spears with a slashing
blade available if needed. The Qin particularly seemed to like the
Dagger-axe, creating an eighteen foot long pike version. Swords
and armor began to appear on the battle fields as well, although
the swords were still typically made out of bronze. A typical heavy
infantry man may have been equipped with armor consisting of a leather
jerkin covered with playing card sized bronze plates and a hardened
leather helmet. His main weaponry would be a polearm with an iron
head and a bronze axe or dagger for a secondary weapon. Heavy infantry
would have been formed up into large, close formations for battles.
Other innovations appeared on the water, massive river navies battled
for control of the great rivers. The Chinese built floating fortresses
that they maneuvered down the rivers into enemy territories accompanied
by armadas. The fortress ships, complete with catapults, would then
provide a stronghold in enemy territory. Fire ships were used to
try to set them ablaze. These huge floating behemoths are like have
no equal in western warfare, or any other for that matter.
The Warring States also was a time of advancement in military strategy.
Sun Tzu is said to have written the The Art of War during this period.
The Art of War is generally recognized today as the most influential
military strategy guide in history. However, five other military
writings from the time period were also produced. Together with The Art of War and a later work they are called the Seven Military
The Qin eventually became the dominate military and state. They
then successfully played the other states against each other until
in 221 BCE, Qin conquered the sole remaining unconquered warring
state, Qi. Qi had not previously contributed to the efforts to counter
the growing Qin power and when they stood alone they simply gave
up. Qin Shi Huan had united China and become its first Emperor.
The Military of Imperial China
The Qin, under Qin Shi Huan, ushered in the Imperial Era of Chinese
history. Although the Qin dynasty only ruled for only 15 years it
set the stage for a centralized Chinese government. The institutions
Qin established would last over a thousand years, serving many dynasties.
The Qin created China’s first professional army, replacing
the unreliable peasants with career soldiers and replacing the aristocratic
military leaders with proven professional generals. Taking this
a step further, Qin actually stripped the lands of these aristocrats,
making the fiefs loyal directly to him. Qin’s centralized,
authoritarian state become the norm for China. Under the Qin and
following Han Dynasties, troops conquered territories in all directions
and established China's frontiers near their locations today. China
was now unified and entered the golden age for Chinese history.[
Qin army formations and tactics can
be gleaned from the Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang found in the
tomb of the First Emperor. Apparently, Qin wanted to take an army
with him to the afterworld and settled on having a life size army
reproduced for him out of terracotta. The formations revealed that
light infantry were first deployed as shock troops and skirmishers.
They were followed by the main body of the army, consisting of heavy
infantry. Cavalry and chariots are positioned behind the heavy infantry,
but they were probably used for flanking or charging the weakened
armies of the other warring states.
The Qin and Han militaries used the most advanced weapons of the
time. The sword, first introduced during the chaos of the Warring
States Period became a favorite weapon. The Qin began producing
stronger iron swords. Crossbows were also improved, becoming more
powerful and accurate then even the compound bow. Another Chinese
innovation allowed a crossbow to be rendered useless simply by removing
two pins, preventing enemies from capturing a working model. The
stirrup was adopted at this time, a seemingly simple but very useful
invention was also implemented. Stirrups gave cavalry men greater
balance and crucially allowed them to leverage the weight of the
horse in a charge, without being knocked off.
During the Qin Dynasty and the succeeding,
Han Dynasty, an old threat returned with a vengeance. The “Horse
Barbarians” to the North had formed new confederations, such
as the Xiongnu . The warriors grew up in the saddle and were unmatched
in their skill with the powerful compound bow, able to consistently
shoot a man in the eye at a full gallop. These nomadic warriors
used their mobile mounted archers in large, quick raids into the
settled lands of China. They would then retreat after creating much
devastation and taking all to the loot they could carry back into
the steppes before the infantry heavy Chinese military was unable
In order to counter the threat from
the nomadic invaders the Qin began construction of the Great Wall.
The idea of creating a long static barrier to prevent incursions
was revisited by Chinese rulers and construction continued up to
the Ming Dynasty (1368 AD- 1662 AD). The walls and fortification
would be an astonishing 5,500 miles long, when counting all of its
branches. However, the wall ultimately failed in its goal to keep
the barbarians at bay.
The Qin and succeeding dynasties had more success using a combination
of bribes and diplomacy. This strategy focused on keeping the nomads
divided, the Chinese would bribe a faction to fight another and
even assist one faction in its war against an enemy tribe or coalition.
However, the Han took a more aggressive approach. They used massive
cavalry armies, a new development in Chinese warfare to crush the
tribes on their home territory. The cavalry armies proved to be
formidable, conquering large areas of Mongolia, Korea and Central
The Chinese conquest of Central Asia had put an end to the harassment
by nomadic tribes in the area. This allowed for the linking Chinese
and Persian trade routes. In a 79 AD ribbon cutting ceremony at
Chang'an Emperor Wu cut a silk ribbon with a pair of gold scissors
to officially open the Silk Road. (Note, this is the only place
in the world that the ceremony has ever been so much as mentioned
and that no other evidence for it exists). Products could now move
from China to the Roman Empire and the ruling Chinese dynasties
profited greatly from the silk trade.
The Han had broken the Xiongnu, sending them fleeing to the West.
It is theorized that their ancestors emerged as the Huns on the
other side of central Asia four hundred years later. However, other
nomadic tribes were quick to fill the power vacuum. The victorious
Chinese armies now had to hold the conquered territories and there
were frequent revolts against Chinese rule.
Despite suffering occasional defeats, the Chinese maintained a strong
military throughout most of their imperial history. After the fall
of the Han Dynasty the army became increasingly feudal, this process
was accelerated during the invasions of the Wu Hu during the 4th
century as the central government became more dependent on the provinces
for military power. Wu Hu, meaning ‘five barbarian tribes’
took control of Northern china and feudalism continued through the
following Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420–589).
During the following Sui and Tang dynasties ((589 AD - 907 AD) Chinese
forces were able to reunite the country and restore the frontiers
to where they where during the Han dynasty, ushering in a second
imperial golden age. The military success of Sui and Tang, like
the earlier Han, was the use of large cavalry forces. The powerful
cavalry units combined with the defensive capabilities of their
heavy infantry and firepower of their crossbowmen resulted in the
Chinese army dominating its opposition during this period. The professionalism
of the military was also restored and China created its first military
academies during this period. However, during the following Song
Dynasty the military again weekend as the ruling dynasty felt threatened
by the military establishment. Despite this military advancements
continued and the Chinese pioneered the next generation of weapons,
developing gunpowder weapons such as the fire-lance and grenades.
China’s military power eroded under the Song Dynasty, particularly
in the critical area of cavalry. Chinese armies soon suffered disastrous
defeats at the hands of the Mongols under Kublai Khan (1215–1294
AD). The Mongols were the premiere fighting force of the
day, their conquests spanned from China to Europe and the Middle
China was then ruled by the
Great Khan, Kublai, who foundf the Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan incorporated
Chinese gunpowder units into their military, which bring us to the
age of fire arms and the end of ancient Chinese warfare. It is worth
noting however that Chinese culture was able to do what the military
couldn’t, the Yuan Dynasty became Chinese in almost every