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Processes and ProcessVariables
Process: Any operation or series of operations by which a particular objective is accomplished.
e.g. Operations that cause a physical or chemical change in a substance or mixture.
The material entering a process: input, feedThe material leaving a process: output, product
If there are multiple steps, each will be a process unit with itsown process streams (I,O)
You design (formulation of a flowsheet and specifications) oroperate (day-to-day running of process) a process.
VARIABLES Mass and Volume: Density = mass / volume Specific volume = volume occupied by unit mass = 1/
If = 1.595 g/cm3, volume = 20.0 cm3, mass = 20.0 cm3 1.595 g/cm3 = 31.9 g
Specific gravity = subs. / ref.subs. (at specific conditions) SG = / ref.
ref = H2O(l) (4oC) = 1.000 g/cm3 = 62.43 Ibm/ft3 SG = 0.6 (20o/4o) SG = 0.6 at 20oC with reference to
Example: Calculate the density of mercury in Ibm/ft3, if its
SG=13.546 20o/40o Calculate the volume in ft3 occupied by 215 kg of
mercury.Hg = 13.546 (62.43 Ibm/ft3) = 845.7 Ibm/ft3V = m / Hg= 215 kg (1Ibm / 0.454 kg) (1 ft3 / 845.7 Ibm)= 0.560 ft3For solids and liquids (T,P)For gases it is obviousFor mercury is depended on T:V(T) = Vo (1 + 0.18 x 10-3 T + 0.0018 x 10-6 T2)
3.1.1 Example: m = 215 kg, V = 0.560 ft3 at 20oCV(T) = Vo (1 + 0.18 x 10-3 T + 0.0018 x 10-6 T2)What volume would the mercury occupy at 100oC?(1) If it is contained in a cylinder (D=0.25 in), what change in height would
be observed as the mercury is heated from 20oC to 100oC?
= 0.560 ft3Solving for V0 from the 2nd equation and substituting it into the 1st yields. V(100oC) = 0.568 ft3Vcyl = D2/4H(100oC) H(20oC) = [V(100oC) V(20oC)] / ( D2/4)=23.5 ft
Flow Rate Mass an Volumetric Flow Rate: Material move between process units, between a
production facility and a transportation depot. The rate at which a material is trasported through a process line is theflow rate. Blood flows in the arteries with a specific flow rate.
Mass flow rate (mass/time) Volumetric flow rate (volume/time)
V (m3/s)tnn =
Flow Rate Measurement
Flowmeter: A device that reads continiouslyflow rate in the line.
The larger theflow rate the higher the float rises
Fluid pressuredrops from the upstream to the downstream
Chemical Composition: The properties of a mixture depend on mixture compositions.
Moles and Mole Weight: A g-mole (or mol in SI units) of a species is the amount of that specieswhose mass in grams is numerically equal to itsMW. e.g. CO has a MW of 28.
1 mol of CO contains 28 g 1Ib-mole CO contains 28 Ibm 1 ton-mole CO contains 28 tons e.g. NH3 has a MW of 17. 34 kg of ammonia is;34 kg NH3 (1 kmol NH3/17 kg NH3) = 2 kmol NH3
Example: Conversion between Mass and Moles
How many of each of the following are contained in 100 g CO2 (M=44.01)(a) mol CO2; (b) Ib-moles CO2; ( c ) mol C
100 g (1 mol CO2/44.01 g CO2) = 2.273 mol CO2
2.273 mol CO2 (1 Ib-mol/453.6 mol)=5.011 10-3 Ib-mole CO2
2.273 mol CO2 (1 mol C / 1 mol CO2)=2.273 mol C
Calculate the flow rate in kmol CO2/h if flow rate = 100 kg/h CO2 100 kg CO2 /h (1 kmol CO2 / 44.01 kg CO2) = 2.27 kmol CO2/h
Masses and Mole Fractions andAverage Molecular Weight
Process input or output streams can contain mixtures of liquids or gases, solutions of one or more solutes in a solvent. You need mass fraction and molefraction to define the compositions:
Mass fraction; xA = mass of A / total mass Mole fraction; yA= moles of A / total moles
Example: A solution contains 20% X and 25% Y by mass.
Calculate the mass of X in 220 kg of solution: 220 kg solution 0.20 kg X / kg solution = 44 kg X
Calculate the mass flow rate of A in streamflowing at a rate of 53 Ibm/h:53 Ibm/h 0.20 Ibm X/Ibm solution = 10.6 Ibm X/h
The Average Molecular Weight
1 .........1allcomp i
xi = Mass fraction
yi = Mole fraction
Mi = Molecular weight of component
Concentration Mass concentration = mass of a component / volume of the mixture
Molar concentration = moles / volume
Molarity = molar concentrationof solute / volume of solution
Parts per million (ppm), and parts per Billion (ppb) are used to express the concentration of trace
ppmi = yi x 106 ppbi = yi x 109
Example: In normal living cells, the nitrogen requirement for thecells is provided from protein metabolism. When individual cellsare commercially grown, (NH4)2SO4 is usually used as the sourceof nitrogen. Determine the amount of (NH4)2SO4 consumed in a fermentation medium in which the final cell concentration is 35 g/L in a 500 L volume of the fermentation medium. Assume cellscontain 9 wt% N, and that (NH4)2SO4 is the only N source.
Basis: 500 L solution containing 35 g/L cell concentration,
= 14,850 g (NH4)2SO4
A solution of HNO3 in water has a specificgravity of 1.10 at 25oC. The concentration of HNO3 is 15 g/L of solution. What is the; a) Mole fraction of HNO3 in the solution?b) ppm of HNO3 in the solution? (Take 1 L and 100
g of solution)Basis: 1 L (15 g HNO3/1 L solution) (1 L/1000 cm3) (1 cm3/1.10
g solution)= 0.01364 g HNO3/g solution(Assume SG = solution)
15.55018.01699.986H2O3.9 x 10-52.164 x 10-463.021.364HNO3
b)Mass fraction is 0.01364 or
= 13,640/106 or
= 13,640 ppm
Basis: 100 g solution;The mass of water in the solution is: 100 1.364 = 99.986 g H2O
Pressure A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on
which the force acts. Units are N/m2 (Pa), dynes/cm2, Ibf/in2
Pressure is defined as the normal (perpendicular) force per unit area
Atmospheric Pressure 0PhgAFP +==
P = static pressure
= density of fluid
g = gravity
P0 = pressure at the top of the fluid
F (N)P (N/m2)
F (N) : minimum force thatwould be exerted in thehole to keep the fluid fromemerging
A pressure may be expressed as a head of a particularfluid; the height of a hypothetical column of this fluidexerting the same pressure at its base if the pressure at the top were zero. e.g. 76 cm of mercury (76 cm Hg). Theequivalence between a pressure (P) and its correspondinghead Ph is given as;
P (force/area) = fluid g Ph (head of fluid)
Example: Express 2.0 x 105 Pa in terms of mmHg.Hg = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3 = 13600 kg/m3
g = 9.807 g/s2
Ph (mmHg) = P0 (mmHg) + h (mm Hg)
Atmospheric, Absolute, and GaugePressure
Atmospheric pressure at sea level, 760 mmHg = 1 atm.
The fluid pressures are absolute pressures if a zero pressure corresponds to a perfect vacuum. Many devices measure the gauge pressure of a fluid or the pressure relative to theatmospheric pressure.
Pgauge = 0 Pabsolute = Patmospheric Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric psia and psig are commonly used to denote
absolute and gauge pressures in Ibf/in2
Open end monometer
Relative (gauge) PressureAbsolute Pressure
Fluid Pressure Measurement Elastic-element method-Bourden tubes
7000 atm < P
P2 = 0
Fluid 1, 1
Fluid 2, 2
General manometer equation: P1 + 1 g d1 = P2 + 2 g d2 + F g h
If 1 = 2 = ; P1 P2 = (F - ) g h (Differential manometerequation)If both fluids are gases F >> P1 P2 = F g h
Small animals like mice can live at reduced air pressures down to 20 kPa absolute. In a test, a mercury manometer attached to a tank, reads64.5 cm Hg and the barometer reads 100 kPa. Will mice survive?
P=100 kPa 64.5 cmHg (101.3 kPa76 cmHg)
= 100 86 = 14 kPa absolute
MICE WILL DIE!64.5 cm Hg
Temperature It is a measure of energy (mostly kinetic) of the
molecules in a system. Since kinetic energycannot be measured directly, T must be determined indirectly by measuring somephisical property of the substance whose valuedepends on T.
Electrical resistance of a conductor (resistancethermometer), voltage at the junction of twodissimilar metals (thermocouple), spectra of emitted radiation (pyrometer), and volume of a fixed mass of a fluid (thermometer)
Rankine-Fahrenheit Scale F = R Kelvin-Celcius Scale C = K C / F = 1.8 K / R = 1.8 T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 T(R) = T(F) + 459.67 T(R) = 1.8 T(K) T(F) = 1.8 T(C) + 32