The Maurya Empire spread over almost all of what is modern India and Pakistan. Territories as extensive were never possessed by any other dynasty. With its fall, the empire broke up into a number of states ruled by many dynasties, some of which acquired considerable power and fame for varying periods of time. Among these, the Śuṅgas (c. 2nd–1st century bc) in the north and the longer-lived Sātavāhanas in the Deccan and the south are particularly noteworthy. Though these kings were Hindu by religion, Buddhist monuments form the great majority of surviving works.
The disintegration of these two empires toward the close of the 5th and the 6th centuries ushered in what has been called the medieval period (c. 8th–12th centuries), marked by the appearance of a large number of states and dynasties, often at war with each other. Their rise to power and their decline was part of a constantly recurring process, for none of them was able to hold onto a position of even relative paramountcy for any extended period of time. In the north, the great dynasties were the Gurjara-Pratīhāras, whose empire at its greatest equalled that of the Guptas; the Pālas, who ruled chiefly over northeastern India; and various other dynasties, such as the Kalacuris, the Candelas, and the Paramāras of north central India, the Cāhamānas of Rājasthān, the Cālukyas of Gujarāt. In the Deccan, also, several dynasties rose and fell, the most powerful of which were the Cālukyas of Bādāmi, the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, and the Cālukyas of Kalyāṇī. They were often at war not only with their powerful neighbours to the north but also with the great Pallava and Cōḻa kingdoms of southern India. Most of the dynasties of medieval India were Hindu, though some Jaina and a very few Buddhist kings are also known. The various faiths, however, existed in comparative harmony; and Buddhist and Jaina monuments continued to be built, though most of the surviving works are Hindu.
Although the effects of constant struggle were not as devastating as one might expect, largely as a result of the institutionalization of war and its confinement to appropriate castes, the Hindu kingdoms fell easy prey to the Islāmic invasions, which began as early as the 8th century ad but gathered strength only in the 11th century. By the end of the 12th century, almost all of northern India had been conquered. Islāmic advances in the south were checked for a while by the Vijayanagara dynasty, but with its collapse almost all of India fell under various degrees of Islāmic hegemony. Large Hindu kingdoms enjoying differing degrees of independence continued to exist chiefly in Rājasthān and portions of southern India, but overall political supremacy was vested with the Islāmic states. The Muslim powers were also divided into many kingdoms, despite attempts made by the sultanate of Delhi, and later by the Mughals, to achieve paramountcy over large portions of India. These attempts were successful only for short periods of time. Although the initial impact of Islām on Indian art was generally destructive, Islāmic influences entering India were gradually transformed in the new environment and eventually resulted in the flowering of an extremely rich and important aspect of the Indian genius.
The ascendency of the European powers in the 18th century, culminating in the establishment of the British Empire, laid the foundation of modern India’s contacts with the West. As a whole, the European advent was marked by a relative insensitivity to native art traditions, but rising nationalism attempted a conscious revival of Indian art toward the end of the 19th century. In modern times, the absorption of European influence is a more natural, freer process that affects artistic development in a vital and profound way.
The favoured material of early Indian architecture appears to have been wood, but little has survived the rigours of the climate. Wooden forms, however, affected work in other mediums and were sometimes quite literally copied, as, for example, in early cave temples of western India. The principles of wooden construction also played an important part in determining the shape of Indian architecture and its various elements and components.
Baked or sun-dried brick has a history as ancient as that of wood; among the earliest remains are buildings excavated at sites of the Indus Valley civilization. The use of brick is once again evident from about the 6th century bc, and its popularity was undiminished in subsequent centuries. Many brick monuments have been discovered, particularly in areas in which good clay was easily available, such as the Gangetic Basin. Although more durable than wood, few brick buildings from before the 5th century ad have survived in a good state of preservation.
Traditions of stone architecture appear to be more recent than wood or brick, the earliest examples of the use of dressed stone for building purposes not predating the 6th century bc. The Indian architect, however, soon gained great proficiency in its use, and, by the 7th century ad, the use of stone for monumental buildings of considerable size had become quite popular. The preference for stone can also be seen in Islāmic monuments of India, which contrast markedly with the brick and tile structures popular in neighbouring West Asia.
Most surviving examples of Indian architecture before the Islāmic period are of a religious nature, consisting mainly of Buddhist shrines, or stūpas, and temples. Monastic residences give some idea of civil architecture, but, surprisingly, very few examples of palaces and secular dwellings have been found.
Indus Valley civilization (c. 2500–1800 bc)
From excavated remains, it is clear that the Indus Valley civilization possessed a flourishing urban architecture. The major cities associated with the civilization, notably Mohenjo-daro, Harappā, and Kalibangan, were laid out on a grid pattern and had provisions for an advanced drainage system. The residential buildings, which were serviceable enough, were mainly brick and consisted of an open patio flanked by rooms. For monumental architecture, the evidence is slight, the most important being a “sacred” tank (thought to be for ritual ablution) and associated structures. Corbel vaulting (arches supported by brackets projecting from the wall) was known, and, to a limited extent, timber was used together with brick; whatever architectural ornamentation existed must have been of brick or plaster.
The Maurya period (c. 321–185 bc)
The state of Indian architecture in the period between the Indus Valley civilization and the rise of the Maurya Empire is largely unknown since most work was done in such perishable material as wood or brick. Excavations at Rājgīr, Kauśāmbī, and other sites, however, testify to the existence of fortified cities with stūpas, monasteries, and temples of the type found at the later Maurya sites of Nagarī and Vidiśā; and there is evidence of the use of dressed stone in a palace excavated at Kauśāmbī. Considering the power of the Maurya Empire and the extensive territory it controlled, the architectural remains are remarkably few. The most important are stūpas (later enlarged) such as a famous example of Sānchi; the ruins of a hall excavated at the site of Kumrāhar in Patna (ancient Pāṭaliputra), the capital city; and a series of rock-cut caves in the Barābar and Nāgārjunī Ḥills near Gayā, which are interesting because they preserve in the more permanent rock some types of wooden buildings popular at that time.
The stūpa, the most typical monument of the Buddhist faith, consists essentially of a domical mound in which sacred relics are enshrined. Its origins are traced to mounds, or tumuli, raised over the buried remains of the dead that were found in India even before the rise of Buddhism: Stūpas appear to have had a regular architectural form in the Maurya period: the mound was sometimes provided with a parasol surrounded by a miniature railing on the top, raised on a terrace, and the whole surrounded by a large railing consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping (the capping on the top course), all secured by tenons and mortices in a technique appropriate to craftsmanship in wood. The essential feature of the stūpa, however, always remained the domical mound, the other elements being optional.
Along with stūpas were erected roofless, or hypaethral, shrines enclosing a sacred object such as a tree or an altar. Temples of brick and timber with vaulted or domical roofs were also constructed, on plans that were generally elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal (i.e., having an apse, or semicircular plan, at the sanctum end). These structures have not survived, but some idea of their shape has been obtained from the excavated foundations and the few examples imitating wooden originals that were cut into the rock, notably the Sudāmā and the Lomas Ṛṣi caves in the Nāgārjunī and Barābar hills near Gayā. The latter has an intersesting entrance showing an edged barrel-vault roof (an arch shaped like a half cylinder) in profile supported on raked pillars, the ogee arch (an arch with curving sides, concave above and convex toward the top) so formed filled with a trellis to let in light and air. The interiors of most caves are highly polished and consist of two chambers: a shrine, elliptical or circular in plan with a domed roof (Sudāmā cave); and an adjacent antechamber, roughly rectangular and provided with a barrel vault. Remains of structural buildings have been excavated at Bairāt and Vidiśā, where wood and brick shrines with timber domes and vaults once existed. A temple (No. 40) at Sānchi was apsidal in plan and perhaps had a barrel-vault roof of timber.
A hall excavated at Kumrāhar in Patna had a high wooden platform of most excellent workmanship, on which stood eight rows of 10 columns each, which once supported a second story. Only one stone pillar has been recovered, and it is circular in shape and made of sandstone that has been polished to a high lustre. The capitals that topped them must have been similar to others found in neighbouring Lohanipur and almost certainly consisted of one or two pairs of addorsed (set back to back) animals, recalling Persepolitan examples. Indeed, there is much about Maurya architecture and sculpture to suggest Iranian influence, however substantially transformed in the Indian environment.
Early Indian architecture (2nd century bc–3rd century ad)
Except for stūpas, architectural remains from the 2nd century bc (downfall of the Maurya dynasty) to the 4th century ad (rise of the Gupta dynasty) continue to be rare, indicating that most of the work was done in brick and timber. Once again, examples cut into the rock and closely imitating wooden forms give a fairly accurate idea of at least some types of buildings in this period.
The stūpas become progressively larger and more elaborate. The railings continue to imitate wooden construction and are often profusely carved, as at Bhārhut, Sānchi II, and Amarāvatī. These were also provided with elaborate gateways, consisting of posts supporting from one to three architraves, again imitating wooden forms and covered with sculpture (Bhārahut, Sānchi I, III). In the course of time an attempt was made to give height to the stūpas by multiplying the terraces that supported the dome and by increasing the number of parasols on top. In Gandhāra and southeastern India, particularly, sculptured decoration was extended to the stūpa proper, so that terraces, drums, and domes—as well as railing—were decorated with figural and ornamental sculpture in bas-relief. Stūpas in Gandhāra were not provided with railings but, instead, had rows of small temples arranged on a rectangular plan.
Cave temples of western India, cut into the scarp of the Western Ghāts and stretching from Gujarāt to southern Mahāİāshtra, constitute the most extensive architectural remains of the period. Two main types of buildings can be distinguished, the temple proper (caitya) and the monastery (vihāra, saṅghārāma). The former is generally an apsidal hall with a central nave flanked by aisles. The apse is covered by a half dome; and two rows of pillars, which demarcate the nave, support a barrel-vault roof that covers the rest of the building. In the apsidal end is placed the object to be worshipped, generally a stūpa, the hall being meant for the gathered congregation. In front of the hall is a porch, separated from it by a screen wall provided with a door of considerable size, together with an arched opening on top clearly derived from wooden buildings of the Lomas Ṛṣi type and permitting air and dim light to filter into the interior. Other influences of wooden construction are equally striking, particularly in the vaulting ribs that cover the entire ceiling and that are sometimes actually of wood, as at Bhājā, where the pillars are also raked in imitation of the exigencies of wooden construction. The pillars are generally octagonal with a pot-shaped base and a capital of addorsed animals placed on a bell-shaped, or campaniform, lotus in the Maurya tradition. The most significent example is at Kārli, dating approximately to the closing years of the 1st century bc. The Bhājā caitya is certainly the earliest, and important examples are to be found at Beḍsā, Kondane, Pītalkhorā, Ajantā, and Nāsik. Toward the end of the period, a quadrilateral plan appears more and more frequently, as, for example, at Kuda and Sailarwāḍī.
In addition to the caitya, or temple proper, numerous monasteries (vihāras) are also cut into the rock. These are generally provided with a pillared porch and a screen wall pierced with doorways leading into the interior, which consists of a “courtyard” or congregation hall in the three walls of which are the monks’ cells. The surviving rock-cut examples are all of one story, though the facade of the great monastery at Pitalkhorā simulates a building of several stories.
Monasteries carved into the rock are also known from Orissa (Udayagiri-Khandagiri), in eastern India. These are much humbler than their counterparts in western India, and consist of a row of cells that open out into a porch, the hall being absent. At Uparkot in Junāgadh, Gujarāt, is a remarkable series of rock-cut structures dating from the 3rd–4th century ad, which appear to be secular in character and in all probability served as royal pleasure houses.
The large number of representations of buildings found on relief sculpture from sites such as Bhārhut, Sānchi, Mathurā, and Amarāvatī are a rich source of information about early Indian architecture. They depict walled and moated cities with massive gates, elaborate multi-storied residences, pavilions with a variety of domes, together with the simple, thatched-roofed huts that remained the basis of most Indian architectural forms. A striking feature of this early Indian architecture is the consistent and profuse use of arched windows and doors, which are extremely important elements of the architectural decor.
The Gupta period (4th–6th centuries ad)
Dating toward the close of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th century ad is a series of temples that marks the opening phase of an architecture that is no longer content with merely imitating wooden building but initiates a new movement, ultimately leading to the great and elaborate temples of the 8th century onward.
Two main temple types have been distinguished in the Gupta period. The first consists of a square, dark sanctum with a small, pillared porch in front, both covered with flat roofs. This type of temple answers the simplest needs of worship, a chamber to house the deity and a roof to shelter the devotee. Temple No. 17 at Sānchi is a classic example of this flat-roofed type. The plain walls are of ashlar masonry (made up of squared stone blocks), composed of sizable blocks, which are spanned by large slabs that constitute the ceiling. The pillars of the porch have a campaniform lotus capital, one of the last times this form appears in Indian architecture. Another temple of this type is the Kaṅkālī Devī shrine at Tigowā, which has more elaborate pillars, provided with the overflowing vase, or the vase-and-foliage (ghaṭa-pallava), capital that became the basic north Indian order.
It is the second type of temple that points the way to future developments. It also has a square sanctum, or cella, but instead of a flat roof there is a pyramidal superstructure (śikhara). Among the most interesting examples are a brick temple at Bhītargaon and the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, built entirely of stone. The pyramidal superstructure of each consists essentially of piled-up cornice moldings of diminishing size, which are decorated primarily with candraśālā (ogee arch) ornament derived from the arched windows and doors so frequently found in the centuries immediately before and after Christ. The sanctums of both temples are square in plan, with three sides provided with central offsets (vertical buttress-like projections) that extend from the base of the walls right up to the top of the śikhara (spire); the section of the central offset that extends across the wall is conceived in the form of a niche, in which is placed an image. The Deogarh temple is also noteworthy for the large terrace with four corner shrines (now ruined) on which it is placed, prefiguring the quincunx, or pañcāyatana, grouping (one structure in each corner and one in the middle) popular in the later period. The doorway surround, too, is very elaborate, carved with several bands carrying floral and figural motifs. At the base of the surround are rows of worshippers, and in the crossette (projection at the corner) on top are images of graceful river goddesses.
The Pārvatī Devī temple at Nācnā Kuṭthārā, also of this period, is interesting for the covered circumambulatory provided around the sanctum and the large hall in front. When first discovered, the temple had an entire chamber above the sanctum (which subsequently collapsed). Though provided with a door, there seems to have been no access to it; thus, for all practical purposes it constituted a false story and, aside from a symbolic meaning, served no other purpose than to emphasize the importance of the sanctum. The principle of gaining height not by the superimposition of ornamental cornice moldings with candraśālā decoration but by the multiplication of stories, each imitating the story below, also distinguished the later architectural style of southern India.
The great Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya, commemorating the spot where the Buddha attained enlightenment, though burdened with later restorations, is essentially a temple of this period. It has a particularly majestic śikhara, decorated with ornamental niches and candraśālās, rising over a square sanctum to a great height.
Along with temples, stūpas continued to be built. These also aspired to height, which was achieved by multiplication and heightening of the supporting terraces and elongating the drum and dome. A good example of this new form is the Dhamekh stūpa at Sārnāth. Along more conventional lines, but quite elaborate, are the brick stūpas in Sind, notably a fine example at Mīrpur Khās.
The rock-cut temple and monastery tradition also continued in this period, notably in western India, where the excavations—especially at Ajantāțacquire extreme richness and magnificence. The monasteries are characterized by the introduction of images into some of the cells, so that they partake of the nature of temples instead of being simple residences. Temples with an apsidal plan and barrel-vault roofs, however, soon went out of fashion, and are found very rarely in the subsequent period. The early 5th-century cave temples at Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh, are similar to the simple flat-roofed temples with a hall and are not descended from ancient traditions as preserved in western India.
Medieval temple architecture
Architectural styles initiated during the 5th and 6th centuries found their fullest expression in the medieval period (particularly from the 9th to the 11th centuries), when great stone temples were built. Two main types can be broadly distinguished, one found generally in northern India, the other in southern India. To these can be added a third type, sharing features of both and found in Karnataka and the Deccan. These three types have been identified by some scholars with the nāgara, drāviḍa, and vesara classes referred to in some Sanskrit texts, though the actual meaning of these terms is far from clear. In spite of the havoc wrought by the destructive Islāmic invasions, particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, an extremely large number of monuments have survived in almost every other part of India, particularly in the south, and these continue to be discovered and recorded to the present day.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style
North Indian temples generally consist of a sanctum enshrining the main image, usually square in plan and shaped like a hollow cube, and one or more halls (called maṇḍapas), aligned along a horizontal axis. The sanctum may or may not have an ambulatory, but it is invariably dark, the only opening being the entrance door. The doorway surrounds are richly decorated with bands of figural, floral, and geometrical ornament and with river-goddess groups at the base. A vestibule (antarāla) connects the sanctum to the halls, which are of two broad types: the gūḍhamaṇḍapas, which are enclosed by walls, light and air let in through windows or doors; and open halls, which are provided with balustrades rather than walls and are consequently lighter and airier. The sanctum almost invariably, and the maṇḍapas generally, have śikharas; those on the sanctum, appropriately, are the most dominant in any grouping. Internally, the sanctum has a flat ceiling; the śikhara is solid theoretically, though hollow chambers to which there is no access must be left within its body to lessen the weight. The ceilings of the halls, supported by carved pillars, are coffered (decorated with sunken panels) and of extremely rich design.
The sanctum is often set on a raised base, or a plinth (pīṭha), above which is a foundation block, or socle (vedībandha), decorated with a distinct series of moldings; above the vedībandha rise the walls proper (jaṅghā), which are capped by a cornice or a series of cornice moldings (varaṇḍikā), above which rises the śikhara. One, three, and sometimes more projections extend all the way from the base of the temple up the walls to the top of the śikhara. The central offset (bhadra) is the largest and generally carries an image in a niche; the other projections (rathas), too, are often decorated with statuary.
The entire temple complex, including sanctum, halls, and attendant shrines, may be raised on a terrace (jagatī), which is sometimes of considerable height and size. The attendant shrines—generally four—are placed at the corners of the terrace, forming a pañcāyatana, or quincunx, arrangement that is fairly widespread. The temple complex may be surrounded by a wall with an arched doorway (toraṇa).
The śikhara is the most distinctive part of the North Indian temple and provides the basis for the most useful and instructive classification. The two basic types are called latina and phāmsanā. Curvilinear in outline, the latina is composed of a series of superimposed horizontal roof slabs and has offsets called latās. The edges of the śikhara are interrupted at intervals with grooved discs, each one demarcating a “story.” The surface of the entire śikhara is covered with a creeper-like tracery, or interlaced work, composed of diminutive ornamental candraśālās.
The śikhara is truncated at the top and capped by a shoulder course (skandha), above which is a circular necking (grīvā), carrying a large grooved disc called the āmalasāraka. On it rests a pot and a crowning finial (kalaśa).
Unlike the latina, the phāmsanā śikhara is rectilinear rather than curvilinear in outine, and it is lower in height. It is composed of horizontal slabs, like the latina, but is capped by a bell-shaped member called the ghaṇṭā. The surface of this type of śikhara may have projections, like the latina śikhara, and be adorned with a variety of architectural ornament.
From the 10th century onward, the śekharī type of spire, an elaboration of the latina type, became increasingly popular. In its developed form it consisted of a central latina spire (mūlaśṛṅga) with one or more rows of half spires added on the sides (uraḥ-śṛṅga) and the base strung with miniature spires (śṛṅgas). The corners, too, are sometimes filled with quarter spires, the whole mass of carved masonry recalling a mountain with a cluster of subsidiary peaks.
The latina and śekharī spires are generally found on the sanctum, while the phāmsanā and its variants are usually confined to the maṇḍapas, or halls. The sanctum spires also have a large and prominent projection in front (śukanāsā), generally rising above the vestibule (antarāla). These projections are essentially large ogee arches of complex form, which often contain the image of the presiding deity.
A particularly rich and pleasing variety of North Indian śikhara, popular in Mālwa, western India, and northern Deccan, is the bhūmija type. It has a central projection on each of the four faces, the quadrants so formed filled with miniature spires in vertical and horizontal rows right up to the top.
Although basically reflecting a homogeneous architectural style, temple architecture in northern India developed a number of distinct regional schools. A detailed elucidation of all has yet to be made, but among the most important are the styles of Orissa, central India, Rājasthān, and Gujarāt. The style of Kashmir is distinct from the rest of northern India in several respects, and hardly any examples of the great schools that flourished in modern Uttar Pradesh, Bihār, and Bengal are left standing. The North Indian style also extended for some time into the Karnataka (formerly Karṇāṭa) territory, situated in the southern Deccan, though the architecture of Tamil Nadu was relatively unaffected by it.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style of Orissa
The greatest centre of this school is the ancient city of Bhuvaneśvara, in which are concentrated almost 100 examples of the style, both great and small, ranging in date from the 7th to the 13th century. Among the earliest is the Paraśurāmeśvara temple (7th–8th century), with a heavy, stately latina śikhara, to which is attached a rectangular gūḍhamaṇḍapa with double sloping roofs. The walls are richly carved, but the interiors, as in almost all examples of the style, are left plain. The Mukteśvara temple (10th century), which has a hall with a phāmsanā roof, is the product of the most exquisite workmanship. The enclosing wall and the arched entrance, or toraṇa, are still present, giving a clear idea of a temple with all its parts fully preserved. The Brahmeśvara temple, which is dated on the basis of an inscription to the mid-10th century, is a pañcāyatana, with subsidiary shrines at all of the corners. The most magnificent building, however, is the great Liṅgarāja temple (11th century), an achievement of Orissan architecture in full flower. The latina spire soars to a considerable height (over 125 feet [40 metres]); the wall is divided into two horizontal rows, or registers, replete with statuary; and the attached hall is exquisitely and minutely carved. The most famous of all Orissan temples, however, is the colossal building at Konārak, dedicated to Sūrya, the sun god. The temple and its accompanying hall are conceived in the form of a great chariot drawn by horses. The śikhara over the sanctum has entirely collapsed; and all that survives are the ruins of the sanctum and the gūḍhamaṇḍapa, or enclosed hall, and also a separate dancing hall. Of these, the gūḍhamaṇḍapa is now the most conspicuous, its gigantic phāmsanā śikhara rising in three stages and adorned with colossal figures of musicians and dancers.
Because the Orissan style usually favours a latina śikhara over the sanctum, the śekharī spire of the Rāıİānī temple (11th century) at Bhuvaneśvara (Bhubaneswar) is quite exceptional. Of particular interest as a late survival of early building traditions is the Vaitāl Deul (8th century), the sanctum of which is rectangular in plan, its śikhara imitating a pointed barrel vault. Besides Bhuvaneśvara, important groups of temples are to be found at Khiching and Mukhalingam.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style of central India
The area roughly covered by the modern state of Madhya Pradesh was the centre of several vigorous schools of architecture, of which at least four have been identified. The first flourished at Gwalior and adjacent areas (ancient Gopādri); the second in modern Bundelkhand, known in ancient times as Jejākabhukti; the third in the eastern and southeastern parts in the ancient country of Ḍāhala, of which Tripurī, near modern Jabalpur, was the capital; and the fourth in the west, in an area bordering Gujarāt and Rājasthān in the fertile land of Mālava (Mālwa).
The earliest examples in the Gwalior area are a group of small shrines at Naresar, a few miles from Gwalior proper; dating to the 8th century, the shrines have latina spires and sparsely ornamented walls. In the 9th century a series of magnificent temples was built, including the Mālā-de at Ḍyāraspur, the Śiva temples at Mahḱā and Indore, and a temple dedicated to an unidentified mother goddess at Barwa-Sāgar. The period appears to have been one of experimentation, a variety of plans and spires having been tried. The Mālā-de temple is an early example of the śekharī type in its formative stages; the Indore temple has a star-shaped plan; and the Barwa-Sāgar example has a twin latina spire over a rectangular sanctum. The masonry work is of the finest quality and the architectural ornament is crisply carved. (The figural sculptures are few.) The temple at Umrī, with a latina spire, is small and exquisitely finished; but the largest and perhaps the finest temple is the Telī-kā-Mandir on Gwalior Fort, rectangular in plan and capped by a pointed barrel vault, recalling once again the survival of ancient roof forms. The walls are decorated with niches (empty at present) topped by tall pediments (triangular gable ornament).
The style of this region became increasingly elaborate from the 10th century, during the supremacy of the Kacchapaghāṭa dynasty. The many examples from this period are distinguished by a low plinth and rich sculptural decoration on the walls. Outstanding among them are the Kākan-maḍh at Suhāniā (1015–35) and the Sās-Bahū temple (completed 1093) in Gwalior Fort. The several temples at Surwāyā and Kadwāhā, though smaller in size, are distinguished for their extremely rich and elegant workmanship.
The style is best represented by a large group of temples at Khajurāho, the capital of the Candella dynasty, though examples are also to be found in Mahoba and at several other sites in the Jhānsi district of Uttar Pradesh, notably Chāndpur and Dudhai. All of the distinctive characteristics of the fully developed style can be seen in the Lakṣmaṇa temple at Khajurāho (dated 941), which is a pañcāyatana placed on a tall terrace enclosed by walls. The sanctum has an ambulatory and, facing it, a series of halls, including the gūḍhamaṇḍapa, a porch, and a small intermediate hall. Both the ambulatory and the gūḍhamaṇḍapa are provided with lateral, balconied arms, or transepts, which let in light and air. Each hall has its own pyramidal śikhara, all skillfully correlated to ascend gradually to the main śekharī spire over the sanctum. Extraordinary richness of carving, both in the interior and on the exterior, where the walls carry as many as three rows of sculpture, and a skillful handling of the main spire to suggest ascent are distinguishing features of the style. The largest temple of the group, very similar to the Lakṣmaṇa, is the Kandāriyā Mahāẖeo; and among the most distinguished are the Viśvanātha and the Pārśvanātha temples. The Dūlādeo temple, which does not have an ambulatory, represents the closing phase of the group and probably belongs to the 12th century.
The earliest temples of the Ḍāhala area, dating from the 8th–9th century, are the simple shrines at Bāndhogarh, which consist of a sanctum with latina spire and porch. To the 10th century, when the local Kalacuri dynasty was rapidly gaining power, belong the remarkable Śiva temples at Chandrehe and Masaun, the former being circular in plan, with a latina spire covered with rich candraśālā tracery. The Golā Math at Maihar has the more conventional square sanctum, with a very elegant latina śikhara, the walls of which are adorned with two rows of figural sculpture. There must have existed at Gurgī a large number of temples, though all of them now are in total ruin. Judging from a colossal image of Śiva-Pārvatī and a huge entrance, which have somehow survived, the main temple must have been of very great size. Another important site is Amarkantak, where there are a large group of temples, the most important of which is the Karṇa. Although generally of the 11th century, they are quite simple, lacking the rich sculptural decoration so characteristic of the period. By contrast, the Virāṭeśvara temple at Sohāgpur, with an unusually tall and narrow śekharī spire, is covered with sculptural ornamentation as rich as that of Khajurāho.
The Mālava region, ruled largely by the Paramāra dynasty, appears to have been the first to develop the bhūmija type of śikhara (10th century). The finest and most representative group of these structures is at Un. Though, unfortunately, they are considerably damaged, judging from the remains, they must have been very elegant structures. The best preserved and easily the finest bhūmija temple is the Udayeśvara (1059–82), situated at Udaipur in Madhya Pradesh. The śikhara, based on a stellate plan, is divided into quadrants by four latās, or offsets, each one of which has five rows of aediculae. The large hall has three entrance porches, one to the front and two to the sides, and walls that are richly carved. The whole complex, including seven subsidiary shrines, is placed on a broad, tall platform. The Siddheśvara temple at Nemāwar (early 12th century) is even larger than the Udayeśvara, though the proportions are not as well balanced and the quality of the carving is inferior. Structures in the bhūmija manner continued to be made in Mālava up to the 15th century; the Malvai temple at Alīrājpur is a good example of the late phase.
From Mālava, the bhūmija style spread to the neighbouring regions. To the north in Rājasthān, the Mahānāleśvara temple at Menāl (c. 11th century), the Sun temple at Jhālrapātan (11th century), the Śiva temple at Rāmgarh (12th century), and the Ėṇḍeśvara temple (12th century) at Bījoliān are important examples. To the west, in Gujarāt, are temples at Limkheda and Sarnāl of the 11th and 12th centuries. The style was particularly favoured in Mahārāshtra, to the south. Among surviving examples, the most impressive is the Ambarnāth temple near Bombay (11th century); Balsāṇe and Sinnar also have pleasing temples. The style continued up to the 16th century, many examples having been found in north Deccan and Berār. The bhūmija style also spread to the east of Mālava; the Bhāṇḍ Dewal at Arang (11th century), for example, is a Ḍāhala adaptation.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style of Rājasthān
A group of temples at Osiān, dating to about the 8th century, represents adequately the opening phases of medieval temple architecture in Rājasthān. They stand on high terraces and consist of a sanctum, a hall, and a porch. The sanctum is generally square and has a latina spire. The walls, with one central and two subsidiary projections, are decorated with sculpture, often placed in niches with tall pediments. The halls are generally of the open variety, provided with balustrades rather than walls, so that the interiors are well lit. The surrounds of the doorway sanctum are quite elaborate, with four or five bands of decoration and the usual river-goddess groups at the base. The pillars, with ghaṭa-pallava (vase-and-foliage) capitals, are also decorated, richness of sculpture and architectural elaboration being a characteristic of this group of monuments. The Mahāvīra temple, which is the largest, belongs to the 8th century, though renovated in later times, when the toraṇa (gateway) and the śikhara were added. Other important temples are Harihara Nos. 1, 2, and 3 and two temples dedicated to Vishnu. The ruined Harshat Mātā temple at Ābānerī, of a slightly later date (c. 800), was erected on three stepped terraces of great size and is remarkable for the exquisite quality of the carving. Some of the finest temples of the style date from the 10th century, the most important of which are the Ghaṭeśvara temple at Bāḍolī and the Ambik) M)t) temple at Jagat. The simple but beautiful Bāḍolī temple consists of a sanctum with a latina superstructure and an open hall with six pillars and two pilasters (columns that project a third of their width or less from the wall) supporting a phāmsanā spire. Only the central projections of the sanctum walls are decorated with niches containing sculpture. A large open hall was built in front of the temple at a later date. The Ambikā-Mātā temple at Jagat, of the mid-10th century, is exceptionally fine. It consists of a sanctum, a gūḍhamaṇḍapa, or enclosed hall, and a parapeted porch with projecting eaves. The walls of the sanctum and the hall are covered with fine sculpture, the superstructures being of the śekharī and the phāmsanā types.
Temples, too numerous to mention, dating from the 10th and—to an even greater extent—the 11th century onward, are found throughout Rājasthān. The styles of Rājasthān and neighbouring Gujarāt during these centuries grew closer and closer together until the differences between them were gradually obliterated. This coalescence resulted in the emergence of a composite style found throughout Gujarāt and Rājasthān. Temples situated in the two areas are discussed separately here, but this is for the sake of convenience and does not signify any real stylistic difference.
The temples at Kirāḍu in Rājasthān, dating from the late 10th and 11th centuries, are early examples of the style shared by Rājasthān and Gujarāt. The Someśvara temple (c. 1020) is the most important and clearly shows the movement toward increasing elaboration and ornamentation. Each of the constituent parts became more complex; the moldings of the plinth, for example, are multiplied to include bands of elephants, horses, and soldiers. The walls are covered with sculpture, and the spire is of the rich śekharī type. Situated in Rājasthān, but again in the composite style, are the extraordinarily sumptuous temples known as the Vimala Vasahī (1031) and the Lūṇa Vasahī (1230) at Mt. Ābū. The Vimala Vasahī consists of a sanctum, a gūḍhamaṇḍapa, and a magnificent assembly hall added in mid-12th century. The plain, uncarved exterior walls of the rectangular enclosure of the temple have on the inside rows of cells containing images of divinities. The interiors are very richly carved, the coffered ceilings loaded with a wealth of detail. The Lūṇa Vasahī is even more elaborate, though the quality of the work had begun to decline perceptibly.
Traditional architecture continued even after the Islāmic invasions, particularly during the reign of Rāṇā Kumbhā of ẹḥḳār (c. 1430–69). During this period, the tall nine-storied Kīrttistambha and other temples at Chitor and also the great Chaumukha temple at Ranakpur (1438) were built.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style of Gujarāt
Gujarāt was the home of one of the richest regional styles of northern India. A temple at Gop (c. 600), with a tall terrace and a cylindrical sanctum with high walls capped by a phāmsanā roof, and other temples in Saurāshṭra show the formative phases of the style. Its distinctive features are clear in an interesting group of temples from Roḍā (c. 8th century). The sanctum is square in plan and has latina spires that are weighty and majestic. The walls are relatively plain, with niches, housing images, provided only on the central projection. The masonry work is exceptionally good, a characteristic of Gujarāt architecture throughout its history. The Rāṇakdevī temple at Wadhwān, of the early 10th century, is also characterized by plain walls and a latina spire, while the Śiva temple at Kerākoṭ has a śekharī spire and also a gūḍhamaṇḍapa. The great Sun Temple at Modhera, datable to the early years of the 11th century, represents a fully developed Gujarāt style of great magnificence. The temple consists of a sanctum (now in ruins), a gūḍhamaṇḍapa, an open hall of extraordinary richness, and an arched entrance in front of which was the great tank. The Navalakhā temple at Sejakpur continued this tradition. The Rudramāla at Siddhapur, the most magnificent temple of the 12th century, is now in a much ruined condition, with only the toraṇa (gateway) and some subsidiary structures remaining. Successively damaged and rebuilt, the Somanātha at Prabhāsa Patan was the most famous temple of Gujarāt, its best known structure dating from the time of Kumārapāla (mid-12th century). It has been now dismantled, but a great temple built at the site in recent years testifies to the survival of ancient traditions in modern Gujarāt.
The hills of Satrunjaya and Girnār house veritable temple cities. Most of the shrines, which are of late date, are picturesque but otherwise of little significance. With the Islāmic conquest, the Gujarāt architect adapted his considerable skills to meet the needs of a patron of different religion and quickly produced a totally successful Indian version of Islāmic architecture.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style of Karnataka
The North Indian style was largely confined to India above the Vindhyas, though for a short period it also flourished in a region of southern India known as Karnataka from ancient times and now largely part of Karnataka (formerly Mysore) state. Here, temples of the northern and the southern styles are found next to each other, notably at Aihole and Pattadkal. The earliest appears to be the Lāḍh Khān at Aihole, closely related to the 5th-century temple at Nāchnā Kutharā in northern India. The northern style was also cultivated at Pattadkal, where the most important examples are the Kāśīviśvanātha, the Galaganātha, and the Pāpanātha. Ālampur, now in Andhra Pradesh, has eight temples of the northern style with latina spires. These belong to the late 7th and early 8th centuries and are the finest and among the last examples of the northern style in southern India.
Medieval temple architecture: North Indian style of Kashmir
The architectural style of the Kashmir region is quite distinct: unlike other regions, in which the sanctum usually has a latina or śekharī spire, the roof of the Kashmir sanctum is of the phāmsanā type, with eaves raised in two stages. The greatest example to survive is the ruined Sun Temple at Mārtanḍ (mid-8th century), which, though its śikhara is missing, gives a good idea of the characteristic features of the style. The temple is placed in a rectangular court enclosed by a series of columns. Access to the court is through an imposing entrance hall, the walls of which have doorways with gabled pediments and a trefoil (shaped like a trifoliate leaf) recess. The Avantisvāmī temple of the mid-9th century, now quite ruined, must have been similar, though much more richly ornamented. The style continued up to the 12th century; the Rilhaṇeśvara temple at Pāndrenṭhan is a comparatively well-preserved example of this period.
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style
The home of the South Indian style, sometimes called the drāviḍa style, appears to be the modern state of Tamil Nadu; examples, however, are found all over southern India, particularly in the adjoining regions of Karnataka and Andhradeśa, now largely covered by the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Both Andhradeśa and Karnataka developed variants, particularly Karnataka, which evolved a distinct manner, basically South Indian but with features of North Indian origin. The Karnatic style extended northward into Mahārāshtra, where the Kailasa temple at Ellora is the most famous example.
A typical South Indian temple consists of a hall and a square sanctum that has a superstructure of the kūṭina type. Pyramidal in form, the kūṭina spire consists of stepped stories, each of which simulates the main story and is conceived as having its own “wall” enclosed by a parapet. The parapet itself is composed of miniature shrines strung together: square ones (called kūṭas) at the corners and rectangular ones with barrel-vault roofs (called śālās) in the centre, the space between them connected by miniature wall elements called hārāntaras. (Conspicuous in the early temples, these stepped stories of the superstructure with their parapets became more and more ornamental, so that in the course of time they evolved into more or less decorative bands around the pyramidal superstructure.) On top of the stepped structure is a necking that supports a solid dome, or cupola (instead of the North Indian grooved disc), which in turn is crowned by a pot and finial. The walls of the sanctum rise above a series of moldings, constituting the foundation block, or socle (adhiṣṭhāna), that differ from North Indian temples; and the surface of the walls does not have the prominent offsets seen in North Indian temples but is instead divided by pilasters. In the Karnatic version, particularly from the late 10th century onward (sometimes called the vesara style), this arrangement of the superstructure is loaded with decoration, thus considerably obscuring the component elements. At the same time, these elements—particularly the central offset with its subsidiaries that carry candraśālā motifs—are so manipulated that they tend to form distinct vertical bands, in this respect closely recalling the śikharas of northern India.
The design of the hall-temple roofed by a barrel vault, popular in the centuries before and after Christ, was adopted in southern India for the great entrance buildings, or gopuras, that give access to the sacred enclosures in which the temples stand. Relatively small and inconspicuous in the early examples, they had, by the mid-12th century, outstripped the main temple in size.
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style of Tamil Nadu (7th–18th century)
The early phase, which, broadly speaking, coincided with the political supremacy of the Pallava dynasty (c. 650–893), is best represented by the important monuments at Mahābalipuram. Besides a fine group of small cave temples (early 7th century), among the earliest examples of their type in southern India, there are here several monolithic temples carved out of the rock, the largest of which is the massive three-storied Dharmarāja-ratha (c. 650). The finest temple at this site and of this period is an elegant complex of three shrines called the Shore Temple (c. 700), not cut out of rock but built of stone. The Tālapurīśvara temple at Panamalai is another excellent example. The capital city of Kānchipuram also possesses some fine temples—for example, the Kailāsanātha (dating a little later than the Shore Temple), with its stately superstructure and subsidiary shrines attached to the walls. The enclosure wall has a series of small shrines on all sides and a small gopura. Another splendid temple at Kānchipuram is the Vaikuṇtha Perumāl (mid-8th century), which has an interesting arrangement of three sanctums, one above the other, encased within the body of the superstructure.
The 9th century marked a fresh movement in the South Indian style, revealed in several small, simple, but most elegant temples set up during the ascendancy of the Cōḻa and other contemporary dynasties. Most important of a large number of unpretentious and beautiful shrines that dot the Tamil countryside are the Vijayālaya Cōḻīśvara temple at Nārttāmalai (mid-9th century), with its circular sanctum, spherical cupola, and massive, plain walls; the twin shrines called Agastyīśvara and Cōḻīśvara, at Kīḻaiyūr (late 9th century); and the splendid group of two temples (originally three) known as the Mūvarkovil, at Koḍumbāḷūr (c. 875).
These simple beginnings led rapidly (in about a century) to the mightiest of all temples in the South Indian style, the Bṛhadīśvara, or Rājarājeśvara, temple, built at the Cōḻa capital of Thanjāvūr. A royal dedication of Rājarāja I, the temple was begun around 1003 and completed about seven years later. The main walls are raised in two stories, above which the superstructure rises to a height of 190 feet (60 metres). It has 16 stories, each of which consists of a wall with a parapet of shrines carved in relatively low relief. The great temple at Gaṅgaikoṇḍacōḻapuram, built (1030–40) by the Cōḻa king Rājendra I, is somewhat smaller than the Bṛhadīśvara; but the constituent elements of its superstructure, whose outline is concave, are carved in bolder relief, giving the whole a rather emphatic plasticity. The Airāvateśvara (1146–73) and Kampahareśvara (1178–1223) temples at Dārāsuram and Tribhuvanam follow the tradition of the 11th century but are smaller and considerably more ornate. They bring to a close a great phase of South Indian architecture extending from the 11th to the 13th century.
From the middle of the 12th century onward, the gopuras, or entrance buildings, to temple enclosures began to be greatly emphasized. They are extremely large and elaborately decorated with sculpture, quite dominating the architectural ensemble. Their construction is similar to that of the main temple except that they are rectangular in plan and capped by a barrel vault rather than a cupola, and only the base is of stone, the superstructure being made of brick and plaster. Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pāndya gopura (13th century) of the Jambukeśvara temple at Tiruchchirāppalli and the gopuras of a great Śiva temple at Chidambaram, built largely in the 12th–13th century (see photograph). Even larger gopuras, if not of such fine quality, continued to be built up to the 17th century. Such great emphasis was placed on the construction of gopuras that enclosure walls, which were not really necessary, were especially built to justify their erection. In the course of time several walls and gopuras were successively built, each enclosing the other so that at the present day one often has to pass through a succession of walls with their gopuras before reaching the main shrine. A particularly interesting example is the Ranganātha temple at Srīrangam, which has seven enclosure walls and numerous gopuras, halls, and temples constructed in the course of several centuries. The gopuras of the Mīnākṣī temple at Madurai are also good representative examples of this period.
In addition to the gopuras, temples also continued to be built. Although they never achieved colossal size, they are often of very fine workmanship. The Subrahmaṇya temple of the 17th century, built in the compound of the Bṛhadīśvara temple at Thanjāvūr, indicates the vitality of architectural traditions even at this late date.
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style of Karnataka
The early phase, as in Tamil Nadu, opens with the rock-cut cave temples. Of the elaborate and richly sculptured group at Bādāmi, one cave temple is dated 578, and two cave temples at Aihole are early 8th century. Among structural temples built during the rule of the Cālukyas of Bāẖāmi are examples in the North Indian style; but, because the Karnataka region was more receptive to southern influences, there are a large number of examples that are basically South Indian with only a few North Indian elements. The Durgā temple (c. 7th century) at Aihole is apsidal in plan, echoing early architectural traditions; the northern latina śikhara is in all probability a later addition. The Mālegitti Śivālaya temple at Bāẖāmi (early 8th century), consisting of a sanctum, a hall with a parapet of śālās and kūṭas (rectangular and square miniature shrines), and an open porch, is similar to examples in Tamil Nadu. The Virūpākṣa at Pattadkal (c. 733–746) is the most imposing and elaborate temple in the South Indian manner. It is placed within an enclosure, to which access is through a gopura; and the superstructure, consisting of four stories, has a projection in the front, a feature inspired by the prominent projections, or śukanāsā, of North Indian temples. Belonging to the 9th century is the triple shrine (the three sanctums sharing the same maṇḍapa, or hall) at Kambaḍahalli and the extremely refined and elaborately carved Bhoganandīśvara temple at Nandi. The Chāvuṇḍarāyabasti (c. 982–995) at Śravaṇa-Beḷgoḷa is also an impressive building, with an elegant superstructure of three stories.
With the 10th century, the Karnatic idiom begins to show an increasing individuality that culminates in the distinctive style of the 12th century and later. The Kalleśvara temple at Kukkanūr (late 10th century) and a large Jaina temple at Lakkundi (c. 1050–1100) clearly demonstrate the transition. The superstructures, though basically of the South Indian type, have offsets and recesses that tend to emphasize a vertical, upward movement. The Lakkundi temple is also the first to be built of chloritic schist, which is the favoured material of the later period and which lends itself easily to elaborate sculptural ornamentation. With the Mahādevā temple at Ittagi (c. 1112) the transition is complete, the extremely rich and profuse decoration characteristic of this shrine being found in all work that follows. Dating from the reign of the Hoysaḷa dynasty (c. 1141) is a twin Hoysaḷeśvara temple at Halebīd, the capital city. The sanctums are stellate in form but lack their original superstructures. The pillars of the interior are lathe-turned in a variety of fanciful shapes. The exterior is almost totally covered with sculpture, the walls carrying the usual complement of images; the base, or socle, is decorated with several bands of ornamental motifs and a narrative relief. Among other temples that were constructed in this style, the most important are the Chenna Keśava temple at Belūr (1117), the Amṛteśvara temple at Amritpur (1196), and the Keśava temple at Somnāthpur (1268).
Medieval temple architecture: South Indian style of Mahārāshtra, Andhradeśa, and Kerala
The traditions of cave architecture are stronger in Mahārāshtra than in any other part of India; there, great shrines were cut out of rock right up to the 9th century ad and even later. Of those belonging to the early phase, the most remarkable is a temple at Elephanta (early 6th century); equally impressive are numerous temples at Ellora (6th–9th centuries). The Karnatic version of the South Indian style extended northward into Mahārāshtra, where the Kailasa temple at Ellora, erected in the reign of the Rāṣṭrakūṭā Krishna I (8th century), is its most stupendous achievement. The entire temple is carved out of rock and is over 100 feet (30 metres) high. It is placed in a courtyard, the three sides of which are carved with cells filled with images; the front wall has an entrance gopura. The tall base, or plinth, is decorated with groups of large elephants and griffins, and the superstructure rises in four stories. Groups of important temples in the southern style are also found in the Andhra country, notably at Biccavolu, ranging in date from the 9th to the 11th centuries. The 13th-century temples at Palampet are the counterparts of the elaborate Karnatic style of the same period, but without its overpowering elaboration. The temples of Kerala represent an adaptation of the South Indian style to the great main fall of this region and are provided with heavy sloping roofs of stone that imitate timber originals required for draining away the water.
Islāmic architecture in India: period of the Delhi and provincial sultanates
Although the province of Sind was captured by the Arabs as early as 712, the earliest examples of Islāmic architecture to survive in the subcontinent date from the closing years of the 12th century; they are located at Delhi, the main seat of Muslim power throughout the centuries. The Qūwat-ul-Islām mosque (completed 1196), consisting of cloisters around a courtyard with the sanctuary to the west, was built from the remains of demolished temples. In 1198 an arched facade (maqṣūrah) was built in front to give the building an Islāmic aspect, but its rich floral decoration and corbelled (supported by brackets projecting from the wall) arches are Indian in character. The Quṭb Mīnār, a tall (238 feet high), fluted tower provided with balconies, stood outside this mosque. The Aṛhāi-dīn-kā-jhompṛā mosque (c. 1119), built at Ajmer, was similar to the Delhi mosque, the maqṣūrah consisting of engrailed (sides ornamented with several arcs) corbel arches decorated with greater restraint than the Quṭb example. The earliest Islāmic tomb to survive is the Sultān Gharī, built in 1231, but the finest is the tomb of Iltutmish, who ruled from 1211 to 1236. The interior, covered with Arabic inscriptions, in its richness displays a strong Indian quality. The first use of the true arch in India is found in the ruined tomb of Balban (died 1287). From 1296 to 1316 ʿAlāʾ-ud-Dīn Khaljī attempted to expand the Qūwat-ul-Islām mosque, which already had been enlarged in 1230, to three times its size; but he was unable to complete the work. All that has survived of it is the Alai Darḳāzah, a beautiful entrance.
In contrast to this early phase, the style of the 14th century at Delhi, ushered in by the Tughluq dynasty, is impoverished and austere. The buildings, with a few exceptions, are made of coarse rubble masonry and overlaid with plaster. The tomb of Ghiyās-ud-Dīn Tughluq (c. 1320–25), placed in a little fortress, has sloping walls faced with panels of stone and marble. Also to be ascribed to his reign is the magnificent tomb of Shāh Rukn-e ʿĀlam at Multān in Pakistan, which is built of brick and faced with exquisite tile work. The Koṭla Fīrūz Shāh (1354–70), with its mosques, palaces, and tombs, is now in ruins but represents the major building activity of Fīrūz Shāh, who took a great interest in architecture. Many mosques and tombs of this period and of the 15th century are found in Delhi and its environs; the most notable of them are the Begampur and Khiṛkī mosques and an octagonal tomb of Khān-e Jahān Tilangānī. In the early 16th century, Shēr Shāh Sūr refined upon this style, the Qalʿah-e Kuhnah Masjid and his tomb at Sasarām (c. 1540) being the finest of a series of distinguished works that were created during his reign.
The provinces, which gradually became independent sultanates, did not lag behind in architectural activity. In West Bengal, at Pandua, is the immense Ādīna Masjid (1364–69), which utilized remains of Indian temples. In Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, are a group of elegant mosques, notably the Aṭalā Masjid (1377–1408) and the Jāmiʿ Masjid (c. 1458–79), characterized by maqṣūrahs that have the aspect of imposing gateways. The sultans of Mālwa built elegant structures at Māndu and at Chanderi in the middle of the 15th century. The sultanate of Gujarāt is notable for its great contribution to Islāmic architecture in India. The style, which is basically indigenous, reinterprets foreign influences with great resourcefulness and confidence, producing works notable for their integrity and unity. The city of Ahmadābād (Ahmedabad) is full of elegant buildings; the Jāmiʿ Masjid (c. 1424), for example, is a masterly exposition of the style. Fine examples dating from the second half of the 15th century are the small but exquisite mosques of Muḥāfiz Khān (1492) and Rānī Sabraʾi (1514) at Ahmadābād and the handsome Jāmiʿ Masjid at the city of Chāmpāner.
The Deccan was another great centre, but in contrast to Gujarāt it took little from the indigenous building traditions. Among the earliest works is the Jāmiʿ Masjid at Gulbarga (1367), with its extraordinary cloisters consisting of wide arches on low piers, producing a most solemn effect. The city of Bīdar possesses many remains, including a remarkable series of 12 tombs, the most elaborate of which is that of ʿAlā-ud-Dīn Aḥmad Bahmanī (died 1457), which has extremely fine decorations in coloured tile. Some of the finest examples of Islāmic architecture in the Deccan, however, are in Bijāpur. The most important buildings of this city are the great Jāmiʿ Masjid (begun in 1558) with its superb arched cloisters; the ornate Ibrāhīm Rawẕa; and the Ḍōl Gunbad (built by Muḥammad ʿĀdil Shāh), a tomb of exceptional size and grandeur, with one of the largest domes in existence.
The Hindu kingdoms that managed to retain varying degrees of independence during the period of Islāmic supremacy also produced important works. These structures naturally bore the imprint of what survived of traditional Indian architecture to a greater extent than did those monuments patronized by Muslims. Among the Hindu structures of this period are the extensive series of palaces, all in ruin, built by Rāṇā Kumbhā ąc. 1430–69) at Chitor, and the superb Mān Mandir palace at Gwalior (1486–1516), a rich and magnificent work that exerted considerable influence on the development of Mughal architecture at Fatehpur Sīkrī.
Islāmic architecture in India: Mughal style
The advent of the Mughal dynasty marks a striking revival of Islāmic architecture in northern India: Persian, Indian, and the various provincial styles were successfully fused to produce works of unusual refinement and quality. The tomb of Humāyūn, begun in 1564, inaugurates the new style. Built entirely of red sandstone and marble, it shows considerable Persian influence. The great fort at Āgra (1565–74) and the city of Fatehpur Sīkri (1569–74) represent the building activities of the emperor Akbar. The former has the massive so-called Delhi gate (1566) and lengthy and immense walls carefully designed and faced with dressed stone throughout. The most important achievements, however, are to be found at Fatehpur Sīkri; the Jāmiʿ Masjid (1571), with the colossal gateway known as the Buland Darwāza, for example, is one of the finest mosques of the Mughal period. Other notable buildings include the palace of Jodhā Bāl, which has a strongly indigenous aspect; the exquisitely carved Turkish Sultānā’s house; the Pānch-Maḥal; the Dīvān-e ʿĀmm; and the so-called hall of private audience. Most of the buildings are of post and lintel construction, arches being used very sparingly. The tomb of the emperor, at Sikandarā, near Āgra, is of unique design, in the shape of a truncated square pyramid 340 feet (103 metres) on each side. It consists of five terraces, four of red sandstone and the uppermost of white marble. Begun about 1602, it was completed in 1613, during the reign of Akbar’s son Jahāngīr. Architectural undertakings in this emperor’s reign were not very ambitious, but there are fine buildings, chiefly at Lahore. The tomb of his father-in-law Iʿtimāẖ-ud-Dawla, at Āgra, is small but of exquisite workmanship, built entirely of delicately inlaid marble. The reign of Shāh Jahān (1628–58) is as remarkable for its architectural achievements as was that of Akbar. He built the great Red Fort at Delhi (1639–48), with its dazzling hall of public audience, the flat roof of which rests on rows of columns and pointed, or cusped, arches, and the Jāmiʿ Masjid (1650–56), which is among the finest mosques in India. But it is the Tāj Mahal (c. 1632–c. 1649), built as a tomb for Queen Mumtāz Maḥal, that is the greatest masterpiece of his reign. All the resources of the empire were put into its construction. In addition to the mausoleum proper, the complex included a wide variety of accessory buildings of great beauty. The marble mausoleum rises up from a tall terrace (at the four corners of which are elegant towers, or minārs) and is crowned by a graceful dome. Other notable buildings of the reign of Shāh Jahān include the Motī Masjid (c. 1648–55) and the Jāmiʿ Masjid at Āgra (1548–55).
Architectural monuments of the reign of Aurangzeb represent a distinct decline; the tomb of Rābīʿah Begam at Aurangābād, for example (1679), is a poor copy of the Tāj Mahal. The royal mosque at Lahore (1673–74) is of much better quality, retaining the grandeur and dignity of earlier work; and the Motī Masjid at Delhi (1659–60) possesses much of the early refinement and delicacy. The tomb of Ṣafdar Jang at Delhi (c. 1754) was among the last important works to be produced under the Mughal dynasty and had already lost the coherence and balance characteristic of mature Mughal architecture.
European traditions and the modern period
Buildings imitating contemporary styles of European architecture, often mixed with a strong provincial flavour, were known in India from at least the 16th century. Some of this work was of considerable merit, particularly the baroque architecture of the Portuguese colony of Goa, where splendid buildings were erected in the second half of the 16th century. Among the most famous of these structures to survive is the church of Bom Jesus, which was begun in 1594 and completed in 1605.
The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the erection of several buildings deeply indebted to Neoclassic styles; these buildings were imitated by Indian patrons, particularly in areas under European rule or influence. Subsequently, attempts were made by the British, with varying degrees of success, to engraft the neo-Gothic and also the neo-Saracenic styles onto Indian architectural tradition. At the same time, buildings in the great Indian metropolises came under increasing European influence; the resulting hybrid styles gradually found their way into cities in the interior. In recent years an attempt has been made to grapple with the problems of climate and function, particularly in connection with urban development. The influence of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier, who worked on the great Chandīgarh project, involving the construction of a new capital for Punjab, in the early 1950s, and that of other American and European masters has brought about a modern architectural movement of great vitality, which is in the process of adapting itself to local requirements and traditions.
On the Indian subcontinent, sculpture seems to have been the favoured medium of artistic expression. Even architecture and the little painting that has survived from the early periods partake of the nature of sculpture. Particularly is this true of rock-cut architecture, which is often little more than sculpture on a colossal scale. Structural buildings are also profusely adorned with sculpture that is often inseparable from it. The close relationship between architecture and sculpture has to be taken into account when considering individual works that, even if complete in themselves, are also fragments belonging to a larger context. Indian sculpture, particularly from the 10th century onward, thus cannot be studied in isolation but must be considered as part of a larger entity to the total effect of which it contributes and from which it in turn gains meaning.
The subject matter of Indian sculpture is almost invariably religious. This does not mean that it cannot be understood as a work of art apart from its religious significance; but, at the same time, an understanding of its motivation and intent enriches one’s appreciation. Much of what is represented is the recounting of legend and myth, particularly in the two centuries before Christ, when narrative relief was much in vogue. The work at this time, didactic and edificatory in intent, generally expresses itself in forms that are surprisingly earthy and sensuous. The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha is avoided, and the subsidiary gods and goddesses are very much creatures of this earth. The Buddha image formulated around the 1st century ce is not what one would expect of the meditative, compassionate, Master of the Law; he is presented rather as an energetic, earthy being radiating strength and power.
The foundations of traditional Hindu imagery were also laid about the same time that the Buddha image was first formulated: images with several arms, and sometimes heads, representing the Indian mind’s attempt to define visually the infiniteness of divinity. In subsequent periods the image with many arms became a commonplace in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina iconography. Although the various pantheons expanded, they continued to share features of common derivation, expressing the belief that beyond the phenomenal multiplicity of forms lay the unity of the Godhead.
In addition to the major religions, there has always existed in India a substratum of folk beliefs and cults dedicated to the worship of powers that preside over the operation of the life processes of nature. These fertility cults, best expressed in the worship of the male and female divinities yakshas and yakshis, played an important part in the development of Indian art. Among the perennial motifs that spring from the cults, those expressing life and abundance—such as the lotus, the pot overflowing with vegetation, water, or the like, the tree, the amorous couple, and above all the yakshas and yakshis themselves—are most significant. The images of these divinities, in particular, are the source of a great deal of artistic imagery and played a leading part in the development of iconographic types such as the images of the Buddha, the goddess Shri, and other divinities. The maternal as the ideal of female beauty, which is manifested artistically in the emphasis on full breasts and wide hips, can be traced to the same beliefs. The very richness and exuberance of much Indian art is an expression of the view of life that equates beauty with abundance.
It is difficult to generalize about the style of a sculptural tradition that extended over a period of almost 5,000 years, but it is nevertheless clear that the distinguishing quality of Indian sculpture is its emphatic plasticity so obvious in Sanchi I and Mathura sculpture from the 1st–3rd century ce. Forms are seen as swelling from within in response to the power of an inner life, the sculptor’s function being to make these more manifest. At the same time a vision of form that is carved from without rather than modelled from within is also present, as for example at Bharhut. The history of much of Indian sculpture, marked by periods of high achievement bursting with creativity followed by periods in which the potentialities so postulated are gradually worked out, is essentially the interaction of these two dominant tendencies.
Indus valley civilization (c. 2500–1800 bce)
Sculpture found in excavated cities consists of small pieces, generally terra-cotta objects, soapstone, or steatite, seals carved for the most part with animals, and a few statuettes of stone and bronze. The terra-cotta figurines are summarily modelled and provided with elaborate jewelry, which was fashioned separately and applied to the surface of the piece. Most of the work is simple, but a small group of human heads with horns are very sensitively modelled. Animal figures are common, particularly bulls, which are often carved with a sure understanding of their bulky, massive form. This plastic quality is also found in the humped bulls engraved on steatite seals, where the modelling is more refined and sensitive. A humpless beast, generally called a “unicorn,” is another favourite animal, but it is frequently quite stylized. In addition to bisons, elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers, seals are carved with images of apparent religious significance, often strongly pictographic.
The terra-cotta sculpture and the seals both show two clear and distinct stylistic trends, one plastic and sensuous, the other linear and abstract. These appear during the same period and are also seen in the small group of stone and bronze sculptures that date from this period (National Museum, New Delhi). Of extraordinarily full and refined modelling is a fragmentary torso from Harappa, barely four inches (10 cm) high but of imposing monumentality; the same feeling for massive form is present in a lesser known bronze buffalo. A jaunty bronze dancing girl with head tilted upward (about 4.5 inches [11 cm] high), from Mohenjo-daro, and a headless figure of a male dancer from Harappa, shoulders twisted in a circular movement, clearly demonstrate, in the attenuated and wiry tension of their forms, the second component of Indus valley art. Of great interest is a famous bearded figure from Mohenjo-daro wearing a robe decorated with a pattern composed of trefoil motifs. The tight, compressed shape of the body and the expansive modelling of the head demonstrate that the two aspects of form revealed in Indus valley art were not compartmentalized but interacted with each other. This can also be seen in the interplay of modelled form and textured surface frequently found in works produced by this civilization.
Mauryan period (c. 3rd century bce)
Little is known of Indian art in the period between the Indus valley civilization and the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. When sculpture again began to be found, it was remarkable for its maturity, seemingly fully formed at birth. The most famous examples are great circular stone pillars, products of Ashoka’s imperial workshop, found over an area stretching from the neighbourhood of Delhi to Bihar. Made of fine-grained sandstone quarried at Chunar near Varanasi (Benares), the monolithic shafts taper gently toward the top. They are without a base and, in the better preserved examples, are capped by campaniform lotus capitals supporting an animal emblem. The entire pillar was carefully burnished to a bright lustre commonly called the “Maurya polish.” The most famous of these monuments is the lion capital at Sarnath, consisting of the front half of four identical animals joined back to back. There is a naturalistic emphasis on build and musculature, and the modelling is hard, vigorous, and energetic, stressing physical strength and power. Very similar, if not at the same level of achievement, is the quadruple lion capital at Sanchi. Single lions are found at Vaishali (Bakhra), Rampurva, and Lauriya Nandangarh. The Vaishali pillar is heavy and squat, and the animal lacks the verve of the other animals—features, according to some, designating it as an early work, executed before the Mauryan style attained its maturity. By contrast, the Rampurva lion, finished with painstaking and concise artistry, represents the style at its best. His smooth, muscled contours, wiry sinews, rippling, flamboyant mane, and alert stance reveal the work of a superior artist. An example at Lauriya Nandangarh is interesting because the pillar and the lion are both complete and in their original place, giving a clear idea of the column as it appeared to its contemporaries.
The lion was the animal most often represented, but figures of elephants and bulls are also known. At Dhauli in Orissa, the fore part of an elephant is carved out of rock on a terrace above a boulder that carries several of Ashoka’s edicts. The modelling here is soft and gentle, and the plump, fleshy qualities of the young animal’s body, seen as emerging from the rock, are suffused with warmth and natural vitality. Since the contrast with the rather formal, heraldic lions could not be more complete, the sculpture clearly testifies to the simultaneous existence of a style different from that of the lion capitals. The style might very well represent the indigenous tradition of plastic form that appears consistently in later art and also in some of the animal capitals made in the imperial atelier, notably the damaged elephant that once crowned the pillar at Sankisa and, above all, the splendid bull from Rampurva. In this great work of art, the two opposing concepts of form merge in a work of harmonious power. The pronounced naturalism comes from the same source as do the lions, but the tense line and hard modelling yield to a form that wells from within and at the same time is given stability and strength by a vision imposed from without.
The sudden appearance of Mauryan art with seemingly no tradition behind it has led to speculation that it was the creation of foreign artists, either Achaemenian or Hellenistic. Persian influence, particularly in the lotus capitals and the figures of lions can hardly be denied, but what is remarkable is the drastic reinterpretation of alien forms by Indian artists. This is a process that is repeatedly seen in the history of Indian art.
Besides the animal sculpture, some human figures, more or less life size, can also be assigned to the Mauryan period, though scholarly opinion is by no means unanimous on the point. Among the most important are three images discovered at Patna (ancient Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital), two of which are representations of yakshas, the popular male divinities associated with cults of fertility, and the third, found at Didarganj (a section of Patna), a representation of a yakshi, or female divinity. Stylistically the images are very similar. The standing yakshas (Indian Museum, Kolkata) are powerful creatures; the ponderous weight of their bodies, together with a certain refined appreciation of the soft flesh, is admirably rendered. The Didarganj yakshi (Patna Museum), a masterpiece, displays the Indian ideal of female beauty, the heavy hips and full breasts strongly emphasizing the maternal aspect. In a nude torso discovered at Lopanipur, the sophisticated and sensitive treatment of the surfaces and the gentle blending planes that avoid all harsh accents produce a work of much refinement.
Small stone discs (also called ring stones because several of them are perforated in the centre), found from Taxila to Patna, are clearly connected with the cult of a nude mother goddess. They represent Mauryan sculpture on a smaller and more intimate scale but characterized by the same refined and exquisite workmanship. They are executed in bas-relief, which became the favourite form of sculpture in the subsequent period.
The terra-cotta art of the Mauryan period is best represented by a substantial group of figurines, modelled for the most part, the clay sculptor performing work in his medium at the same level as the artist working in stone. Patna has yielded a large number of such works, but examples are found throughout the Gangetic Plain. The clothing and jewelry on the figurines are heavy and elaborate, the modelling, particularly of the head, is sensitive, and the expression is often one of great charm and refinement. There are also more archaic examples, distinguished by flat bodies, enormous hips, and modelled heads and breasts.
Indian sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce
The Mauryan empire collapsed in the early years of the 2nd century bce, and with it passed the art with which it was intimately related. The sculpture that is found throughout India from the middle of the 2nd century bce is startlingly different, but the process by which this change took place in a relatively short period of time is not fully understood. Several schools, sharing common features but nevertheless possessing distinct individual characteristics, are known to have existed. The history of the schools of northern India is somewhat obscure, largely due to the great destruction wrought in the Gangetic heartland; but there appears to have flourished there and in adjacent areas a school of great importance represented by the remains discovered at Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura, and Buddh Gaya. Western India had its own school, as revealed in the sculptures decorating the cave temples, notably those of Bhaja, Pitalkhora, and Karli. In the southeast, the important school of Andhradesha flourished in the Krishna River valley at Amaravati, Jaggayyapeta, and associated sites; and in eastern India, what is now the modern state of Orissa, made its contribution in the rock-cut sculptures at Udayagiri-Khandagiri. The distinctive schools, though spread over a subcontinent, were not isolated from each other. The contacts fostered by a flourishing trade and by the constant movement of pilgrims were always very close, and it was never long before developments in one part of India were echoed in another.
Judging from extant remains, artists of the earlier period (c. 3rd century bce) preferred figures carved in the round, relief sculpture being quantitatively quite insignificant. By contrast, it was sculpture in low relief that was favoured in the first two centuries before Christ; the earlier tradition was not quite forgotten, but figures carved in the round are relatively few. Although there is no stylistic difference, relief sculpture is here considered first according to the various regional schools, and sculpture in the round is treated separately.
Indian sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce: relief sculpture of northern and central India
Among the most important, and perhaps the earliest, remains in northern India are reliefs from the great stupa at Bharhut, dating approximately to the middle of the 2nd century bce. The work, suggesting a style imitating wooden sculpture, is characterized by essentially cubical forms, flat planes that meet at sharp angles, and very elaborate and precisely detailed ornamentation of surfaces. Most of the sculpture was confined to the railing of the stupa. Some of the supporting posts bear large image of yakshas and yakshis of popular religion, now clearly pressed into the service of Buddhism, while most of the others are decorated with medallions in the centre and crescent-shaped motifs, or lunates, at the top and bottom, all filled with lotus motifs. Some medallions contain amorous couples, the overflowing pot, the goddess Shri standing on lotuses while being ceremonially bathed by elephants and other symbols of abundance; still others contain the earliest illustrations of events in the Buddha’s life and of narratives of his former incarnations as related in the Jataka tales (a collection of tales about the Buddha). Although compositions are crowded, great economy of expression is evident because the artist confines himself to the representation of essentials. Figures are often carved in horizontal rows, sometimes asymmetrically, adapting themselves awkwardly to the circular space of the medallion. Continuous narrative, in which events succeeding in time are shown in the same space, is often resorted to—the first occurrence of what was to become a favourite narrative technique. There is no attempt at establishing any interrelationship, psychological or compositional, between the various figures, each of which is strictly confined within its own space. The faces are masklike, without trace of emotion, lending a solemn and hieratic quality to their expression. Trapped between the background and a frontal plane beyond which they are not allowed to project, the figures are in a sense strictly two-dimensional, more so than in any other style of Indian sculpture. Often, however—particularly in the treatment of animals—the artist is more relaxed, giving glimpses of intimate observation and a natural rendering that anticipates the direction of future development. Like the posts, the top part, or coping, of the stone rail is also carved on both faces; on one of them is a continuous creeper bearing lotus flowers, leaves, and buds; on the other, again the winding stem of a creeper, but bearing other good things of life—such as clothes, jewelry, and fruits—and also scenes illustrating Jataka stories.
Bharhut is an extremely important monument inasmuch as it seems to mark a new beginning after the refined and naturalistic art of the Mauryan empire. The sophistication, in spite of the archaic, hieratic manner, would indicate that a considerable body of sculptural tradition, particularly in wood, preceded it; but of this no traces have survived. Be that as it may, Bharhut states for the first time, and at some length, themes and motifs that would henceforth remain a part of Indian sculpture.
Stray finds of sculpture at Mathura and other sites in modern Uttar Pradesh indicate that the Bharhut style was spread over a large part of northern India, particularly the region roughly between that city and Varanasi and Buddh Gaya in the east. A closely related style is also found at Sanchi in eastern Malava, where a representative example is the sculpture of the railing of Stupa II. Although the themes and motifs found at Bharhut occur here, narrative representations are all but absent. The style is almost identical; the stiff and rigid contours are a little softer, but both the scale and richness of Bharhut are missing.
It is the sculpture of the four gateways (toranas) of the Great Stupa (Stupa I) at Sanchi, however, that is the principal glory of that site, carrying the promise of the Bharhut style to its fulfillment. The toranas, four in number, were attached to the plain railing around the middle of the 1st century bce. They consist of square posts with capitals supporting a triple architrave, or molded band, with voluted (turned in the shape of a spiral, scroll-shaped ornament) ends and a top crowned with Buddhist symbols. Bracket figures, in the form of yakshis, serve as additional supports. All parts of these gates, strongly reminiscent of wooden construction, are covered from top to bottom with the most exquisite sculpture. Subjects and motifs found at Bharhut are also found here, the same profusely flowering lotus stem and associated motifs, the same compositions with figures basically arranged in horizontal rows, the same love for clear detail; but to all of these are added a truly voluminous sense of form, a smoother and more energetic movement, and a keen appreciation for the forms of nature, all of which endow the sculpture with a naïve and sensuous beauty unparalleled in Indian art.
Departures from the Bharhut style are particularly striking in the narrative reliefs. Their greater depth, taken together with their crowded composition, results in the background, visible at Bharhut, being submerged in shadow. The figures, in all their richness and abundance, flow out from the dark ground, secured in place by the frame of the panels. The Bharhut angular silhouette and the rigid, severe outline of the body yields at Sanchi to a gently swelling plasticity, animated by a soft, breathing quality that molds the contours without strain or tension. There is a pronounced concern with the organization of composition, and the narration is often leisurely and discursive; the artist does not just tell the basic story but also lingers over the details, amplifying them to give a vivid picture of everyday life. The emotional monotone of Bharhut survives in some Sanchi sculptures, but in others it is superseded by joyous faces and the emotional impact of vivid gesture and movement. Dejection is written large on the faces of the soldiers of Mara’s army, who had tried to disturb the Buddha’s meditation, as they stagger away from the scene of defeat, and the sensuousness of the amorous scenes is successfully evoked by the tender and intimate gestures of the couples. No longer transfixed in their own space, they turn to look at each other lovingly, responding to each other with a deeply felt understanding.
Long and elaborate bas-reliefs carved on the architraves of the toranas are the summit of the Sanchi sculptor’s art. Among the finest are representations of the wars for the relics, the defeat of Mara, the Vishvantara Jataka, and the Shaddanta Jataka. The compositions are rich and crowded with figures, and are arranged with great skill. Particularly striking is the masterly handling of animals, notably the elephant, whose fleshy body and graceful movement are captured unerringly. Deer, water buffaloes, bulls, monkeys—all of the beasts and birds of the forests—are rendered with a sense of intimacy indicating the artist’s sense of the fellowship of man and animal in the world of nature. The lush Indian landscape is often carved with ornamental trees, waterfalls, pools, mountains, and rivers. The Sanchi sculptor also shows a marked preference for architectural settings, filling his compositions with numerous buildings that often provide the spatial context for the action. Entire cities, with surrounding walls, elaborate gate houses, and palatial mansions, are depicted. Depth is achieved by rendering side views, and multiple perspective continues to be the rule.
The several large images of yakshis serving as brackets supporting the lowermost architraves of the toranas are unique achievements. Like the same goddesses at Bharhut, they are shown in association with a tree to which they cling, but the style is remarkably different. The modelling shows a concern for the charms of the body, stressing the tactile nature of its flesh. The heavy jewelry and clothing that conceal the body are drastically reduced, revealing its nudity. The soft, melting sensuousness of the female form is so greatly emphasized that the belly and the folds of flesh at the waist are almost flabby, redeemed only by the smooth, firm breasts and the tender arms and limbs.
By comparison, reliefs adorning the railing around the Mahabodhi temple at Buddh Gaya (of about the same date or a little earlier) are in a somewhat impoverished idiom, lacking the rich proliferation both of Bharhut and Sanchi. The posts have the usual medallions, lunates filled with lotuses, and reliefs depicting the familiar scenes of Buddhist myth and legend. The artistry of Buddh Gaya, however, is of a lower level of achievement than that at either Bharhut or Sanchi: the relief is deeper than that at Bharhut but shallower than that at the Great Stupa of Sanchi; and crowded compositions are lacking, as are the clear and precise ornament and the rich floral motifs. The Buddh Gaya sculptor, however, though abbreviating even further the iconography of Bharhut, breaks up, as does the Sanchi sculptor, the spatial isolation that so uncompromisingly separated each individual figure at that site.
The great school of Mathura, also, seems to have come into existence about the 2nd century bce, though its period of greatest activity falls in the first two centuries after Christ. The city was repeatedly sacked in the course of the centuries, which may account for the paucity of materials, but enough has been discovered to reveal that the style, in its early stages, was very similar to that of Bharhut, characterized by flat two-dimensional sculpture decorated with abundant and precise ornament. Several fragments discovered at the site show the gradual stages by which this style evolved, leading to the sculpture of the Great Stupa at Sanchi on the one hand and to Buddh Gaya on the other.
Indian sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce: relief sculpture of Andhradesha
Besides the schools of northern India, a very accomplished style also existed in southeast India; the most important sites are Jaggayyapeta and Amaravati, activity at the latter site extending well into the 2nd century ce. The early remains are strikingly similar to those at Bharhut, the relief generally even shallower and the modelling comparatively flat. In contrast to those found in northern India, the proportions of the human body are elongated; but in its flat, cubical modelling, angular, halting contours, and precise, detailed ornamentation, the style is essentially similar to contemporary work elsewhere, right down to the same conventional clothing and jewelry. The nervous, fluid treatment of surfaces, so characteristic of subsequent Andhra sculpture, is already present here. The preferred material is marble rather than the sandstone invariably used in the north.
The style of the Andhradesha school developed in a manner consistent with other regions of India, becoming more voluminous and shedding the early rigidity fairly rapidly. A group of sculptures at Amaravati are characterized by the same qualities that distinguish the work at the Great Stupa of Sanchi: full and lissome forms, modelling that emphasizes mass and weight, and sensuously rendered surfaces.
Indian sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce: relief sculpture of western India
The numerous rock-cut cave temples in the Western Ghats are, comparatively speaking, much less profusely adorned with sculpture than remains from other parts of India. The earliest works are undoubtedly the bas-reliefs on a side wall of the porch of a small monastery at Bhaja. They are commonly interpreted as depicting the god Indra on his elephant and the sun god Surya on his chariot but are more probably illustrations of the adventures of the mythical universal emperor Mandhata. What is immediately evident is that these sculptures are not imitations of wooden prototypes, like those at Bharhut, but, rather, reflect a tradition of terra-cotta sculpture, abundant examples of which are found in northern India and Bengal, where this medium was very popular because of the easy availability of fine clay. The terra-cotta tradition is reflected in the amorphous, spreading forms of Bhaja and in the fine striations used in depicting ornaments and pleated cloth, techniques natural and appropriate to the fashioning of wet clay. The fact that there are some similarities to the Bharhut style—the stilted postures of the figures and the flat contours of the body, for example—indicates that the beginnings of the western Indian school would also have to be placed about the middle of the 2nd century bce.
The next major group of sculptures in western India have been found at Pitalkhora. The colossal plinth of a monastery decorated with a row of elephants, the large figures of the door guardians, and several fragments recovered during the course of excavations are among the more important remains. A great proportion of the work represents an advance over the style of Bhaja, though features derived from terra-cotta sculpture continue to be found: the figures are carved in greater depth and volume, but the texture of the drapery, the soft contours of the body, and the high relief of the jewelry, which sometimes gives the impression of having been fashioned separately and then applied, testify to the continuing strength of the terra-cotta tradition. Although the hard line and sharp cutting of some sculpture is reminiscent of the earlier, wood-carving tradition as seen at Bharhut, the forms are more appropriate to the stone medium. Moreover, the expression is more explicit; and for the first time, both gently smiling and boldly laughing figures of yakshas appear, as well as the figure of a lover blissfully drunk on wine offered to him by his beloved. These features are also found in the later sculpture of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and, to a more pronounced extent, in the sculpture of the Mathura school of the 1st centuries ce—for example, in the happily smiling yakshis from Bhutesar.
The cave temple at Kondane has, above the entrance hall, four beautiful panels depicting pairs of dancers. The forms retain the robust and full modelling of the more developed sculpture at Pitalkhora, but to this is added an ease of movement and considerable rhythmic grace. Traces of the terra-cotta tradition are now totally absent; nor do they occur in the next phase, best represented by a group of sculptures found in the rock-cut temples and monasteries at Bedsa and Nasik and in the caitya, or temple proper, at Karli. Sculpture at all these sites shows many affinities to the Great Stupa at Sanchi and should be approximately contemporary or a little earlier. Easily the most outstanding achievements of this region and period, and for that matter one of the greatest achievements of the Indian sculptor, are the large panels, depicting amorous couples, located in the entrance porch of the Karli caitya. Here the promise of early work achieves its fulfillment, the full weighty forms imbued with a warm, joyous life and a free, assured movement. The resemblance to work at the Great Stupa of Sanchi is obvious, though these figures at Karli are on a much larger scale and possess a massiveness and monumentality that is a characteristic of the distinct western Indian idiom.
Indian sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce: relief sculpture of Orissa
Sculpture decorating the monasteries cut into the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa represents yet another early Indian local idiom. The work is not of one period but extends over the first two centuries before Christ; the stages of development roughly parallel the styles observed at Sanchi Stupa No. II, Buddh Gaya, and the Great Stupa at Sanchi, but they possess, like other regional schools, fairly distinct and individual features. The earliest sculptures are the few simple reliefs found in the Alakapuri cave, humble works that recall the bas-reliefs of Sanchi Stupa II. The Mancapuri, Tatoka Gumpha, and Ananta cave sculptures—particularly the image of Surya riding a chariot—are more advanced and resemble work at Buddh Gaya. The forms are heavy and solid and lack the accomplished movement of the later cave sculpture adorning the Rani Gumpha monastery. These, like other sculptures here, are in a poor state of preservation, but they represent the finest achievements at the site. Most remarkable is a long frieze, stretching between the arched doorways of the top story, representing a series of incidents that have not yet been identified. The work parallels that of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, with the same supple modelling and crowded compositions. At the same time there is a nervous agitation, a fluid, agile movement together with a decided preference for tall, slender human figures. The reliefs on the guard rooms of Rani Gumpha are also quite remarkable, depicting forested landscapes filled with rocks from which waterfalls flow into lakes that are the sporting grounds of wild elephants. The fine work of this cave strikes a romantic and lyrical note seldom found in Indian art.
Indian sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries bce: sculpture in the round and terra-cotta
The most important sculpture in the round are the life-size or colossal images of yakshas and yakshis, which reinterpret forms established by the two Patna yakshas and the Didarganj yakshi of the Mauryan period—very much as a few animal capitals, particularly the makaras (a crocodile-like creature) from Kaushambi and Vidisha (Besnagar), echo the tradition of the superb Mauryan animal capitals. It is the yaksha figures, however, that deserve special attention, for they played a significant part in the iconographic developments of the 1st century ce and later and contributed substantially to the imagery of the anthropomorphic Buddha icon.
The most famous of the yaksha images is a colossal figure recovered from the village of Parkham, near Mathura (Archaeological Museum). It is about 8.7 feet (2.7 metres) in height, and, though the two hands are broken and the head is considerably damaged, it is an image of great strength. Its squat neck, its head set close to the body, which tends toward corpulence, its swelling belly restrained by a flat band, and a broad chest adorned with necklaces—all of these features contribute to an image turgid with earthy power. The back is flat and cursively finished, so that the figure has the appearance more of a bifacial relief than of an image carved in the round. Although the forms retain some of the cubical modelling of Bharhut, the swelling limbs and torso have a massive weightiness that makes the image an appropriate representation of a divinity that presides over the productive processes of nature and endows plenty and abundance on his worshippers.
The Mathura region seems to have been an important centre of yaksha worship, for several images, most of them fragmentary, have been discovered there. Some images have also been found from the ancient city of Vidisha (Vidisha Museum), one of which is even larger than the Parkham example and is in a better state of preservation. The god holds a bag in one hand (the other was held below the chest), and the hair is tied in a large top knot over the forehead. The image is accompanied by a female consort (yakshi), wide-hipped and full-breasted, who also emphasizes and personifies the powers of fertility.
The widespread nature of the cult is evidenced by the occurrence of yaksha images throughout India. Fragments in the round (not to speak of the relief representations in a Buddhist context) of the 2nd to 1st centuries bce have been found from Madhyadesha, Orissa, Rajasthan, Andhradesha, and Maharashtra. At Pitalkhora there is an exceptionally fine image of a yaksha conceived as a potbellied dwarf carrying a shallow bowl on his head; the features, with a gently laughing mouth, are suffused with good humour. Similar yakshas, employed as atlantes (male figures used as supporting elements), are also found on the western gateway of the Great Stupa at Sanchi and at other sites, notably Sarnath.
The latest in the series of cult images is the image of the Yaksha Manibhadra, from Pawaya (Gwalior Museum). The sculpture is at present headless, but the rest of the body is well preserved. The right hand holds a fly whisk that flares over the shoulder; the modelling of the legs and torso is sensitive, and the folds of the garment wrapped around the body are full and voluminous, recalling the style of sculpture at Sanchi.
The terra-cotta sculpture of the period consists mainly of relief plaques made from molds found at numerous sites in northern India. These generally depict popular divinities; a richly dressed female figure loaded with profuse jewelry, obviously a mother goddess, is the favoured subject. Scenes from daily life also abound—as well as what appear to be illustrations of current myths and stories. Superb examples have been found from Mathura, Ahichhatra, Kaushambi, Tamluk, and Chandraketugarh. The workmanship is often of the most exquisite clarity and delicacy, the style paralleling that of contemporary stone sculpture.
Indian sculpture from the 1st to 4th centuries ce
This period is characterized by the dominance in northern India of the ancient school of Mathura. Other schools, such as those that flourished at Sarnath and Sanchi in the first two centuries before Christ, for example, were markedly restricted in their artistic output. Much of their sculpture was imported from Mathura, and the few images they produced locally were strongly influenced by Mathura work. The narrative bas-relief tradition, consisting of elaborate compositions of edificatory character, was on the wane, and the emphasis was on carving individual figures, either in high relief or in the round. For the first time, images appear of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, and various other divinities including specifically Hindu images representing the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Varaha, and Devi slaying the buffalo demon; some of these figures begin to feature several arms, a characteristic of later iconography. There are also many images of yakshis, often in most alluring attitudes and gestures. Their enticing bodies are now presented as unified organic entities, lacking all traces of the stiff, puppetlike aspect that had not been entirely overcome even at the Great Stupa of Sanchi. During this period, also, a fresh incursion of foreign influence by way of western Asia was received, quickly assimilated, and transformed in the characteristic manner of Indian art.
The school of Gandhara, with Taxila in Pakistan as its centre and stretching into eastern Afghanistan, flourished alongside the Kushan school of Mathura. It is of a startlingly different aspect, stressing a relatively naturalistic rendering of form, ultimately of Greco-Roman origin. The school evolved a distinct type of Buddha image and was also rich in relief sculptures depicting Buddhist myth and legend. Drawing largely on Indian traditions of composition, it nevertheless reinterpreted them in its own manner. The schools of Mathura and Gandhara were in close proximity and undoubtedly influenced each other, but essentially each adheres to its own concept of style.
The ancient Indian relief style found its fullest expression and development at neither Mathura nor Gandhara but in Andhradesha, notably at the great sites of Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda. Railing pillars and other parts of stupas decorated with Jataka tales and scenes from the Buddha’s life are found in great number and are of the most exquisite quality. Free-standing images of the Buddha, on the other hand, are relatively rare, being found only toward the close of the period.
Indian sculpture from the 1st to 4th centuries ce: Mathura
One of the most important contributions of the school of Mathura was the development of the cult image of the Buddha, who had been previously represented by aniconic (not made as a likeness) symbols. There is a certain amount of controversy about whether Mathura or Gandhara originated the Buddha image, which appears to be insoluble in view of the circumstantial nature of the evidence. It is possible that the two schools independently developed their own separate types of images; but, at least as far as the Mathura image is concerned, it is clear that it is a natural development from the tradition of large yaksha sculptures found in this region. The development can easily be seen in a famous image (discovered at Sarnath and now in the Sarnath Museum) of Mathura manufactured and dedicated by the monk Bala. Carved in the round, the image is shown in a pose of strict frontality, the left hand held at the waist and the right arm, now damaged, originally raised to the shoulder—a posture immediately recalling that of the yaksha images. The jewelry, however, is appropriately omitted, and the body is clothed in simple monastic garments. The modelling throughout is strong and sensuous, and the radiant energy of the body, its affirmative, outgoing movement, is more appropriate to the personality of a yaksha than to that of the Buddha. This standing Buddha image, as seen in the Bala statue, is the standard Mathura type, several examples of which are known. Along with this one, a similar, seated type developed, of which the best example is the splendid image known as the Katra Buddha (Archaeological Museum). The modelling of the body is refined, the breasts characteristically heavy and prominent, and the flesh of the torso, with its subtle modulations, as convincingly rendered as the Bala image.
The new trends formulated early by the Mathura school do not indicate a sharp break from the traditions of the earlier schools. This is clear in a series of magnificent ayagapatas, or stone tablets originally set up outside stupas to receive worship and offerings. They are usually square or rectangular and richly decorated with auspicious and religious symbols as well as angelic and mythical beings. The extremely decorative, lavish surface treatment gives the immediate impression of a great profusion of multiple forms, akin in feeling to the sculpture of the Great Stupa of Sanchi. The organization of these forms, however, has none of the easy freedom of Sanchi. The figures, for example, are often cast in a regular, winding shape imitating the movement of the undulating lotus creeper. The same movement is seen in rows of animals depicted with haunches raised and chests touching the ground, features seen in earlier art but now much more emphatically stylized. The bodies of the animals also begin to be overpowered by vegetal forms, the tails, for example, terminating in foliate tips; in a later age, this tendency results in the almost total disintegration of animal shapes under the pressure of the floral.
It is not to these bas-reliefs, however, that one turns for the most delightful creations of the Mathura school (for they are in fact the last vestiges of a style rapidly passing out of favour) but to the large number of railing pillars usually carved with representation of yakshis engaged in playful and enticing activities such as plucking blossoms from trees or leaning on its branches, dancing, bathing under a waterfall, and adorning themselves. Among the most beautiful of these is a group that was recovered from Kankali Tila and now in the State Museum at Lucknow. The modelling of the figures is generally heavy, the soft, plump bodies suffused with a slow, languorous movement. What is important, however, is the emotion, which is no longer expressed in the face alone but in the whole attitude of the body. The pensive mood of a woman holding a lamp, for instance, is evoked not only by the serene features of the face but by the gentle sway of the relaxed body. Present throughout is a fresh movement of life, a marked striving for diverse and varied effects of posture, movement, expression, and even dress and ornament that brings about vital changes in the nature of Indian sculpture. A remarkable group of railing posts decorated with yakshi images, which were recovered from Bhutesar near Mathura (Archaeological Museum), represent an even more refined achievement than the Kankali Tila figures. The heavy proportions, in spite of the full breasts and the wide hips, have been overcome; the happy faces express carefree joy, and the postures of the body are so alive with rhythm as to give the impression of a dancing figure.
Mathura, during this period, was ruled by the Kushan (Kushana) dynasty. A group of portrait sculptures of these rulers (Archaeological Museum), recovered from a village called Mat in the environs of Mathura, gives an interesting glimpse of the foreign influences entering India at the time. One of them (unfortunately lacking the head) represents the emperor Kaniska wearing heavy boots, a tunic, and a coat, and leaning on a mace. The image is quite different not only in dress but also in style from other contemporary works, being essentially linear, with the forms entirely set into the surface. The surfaces have little ornamentation and are marked by extreme simplicity; they are also uncompromisingly stiff and rigid. It is possible that these images represent attempts by a Mathura artist to imitate a style preferred by his imperial masters; but it was not long before the foreign elements were assimilated into the Mathura style proper, for later images of Kushan chiefs have the same expanding and voluminous form that characterizes other sculptures of this school. A large number of ornamental motifs that now appear in India for the first time undergo a similar process of transformation.
The extent of Mathura influence on Indian art of this period can be gauged by the sculpture of the school found at several sites in different parts of northern India, notably Ahichhatra, Kaushambi, Sarnath, and Sanchi. Most of these sites had been flourishing centres earlier, but only a very limited amount of sculpture was produced during the ascendancy of the Mathura school; and whatever local sculpture was produced at this time was heavily influenced by the Mathura style. At Sarnath, for example, both the Bala Buddha imported from Mathura and its local imitations have been found.
Ivory plaques discovered at Bagrām (Begrām) in Afghanistan are closely related to the school of Mathura. These are of great importance; for, though ivory must have been a favourite medium of sculpture, little has been preserved of the early work. Most of it is in very low engraved relief, with fluent, sweeping outlines. The figures are depicted in easy and elegant postures, and the workmanship often attains considerable virtuosity.
Indian sculpture from the 1st to 4th centuries ce: Gandhara
Contemporary with the school of Mathura, and extending almost into the 6th century, is the Gandhara school, whose style is unlike anything else in Indian art. It flourished in a region known in ancient times as Gandhara, with its capital at Taxila in the Punjab, and in adjacent areas including the Swāt Valley and eastern Afghanistan. The output of the school was very large; numerous images, mostly of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and narrative reliefs illustrating scenes from the Buddha’s life and legends have been found. The favoured material is gray slate or blue schist and, particularly during the later phases, stucco. Except for objects excavated at a few well-known sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar, and the Swāt Valley, in Pakistan, and Jalālābād, Hadda, and Bamiyan, in Afghanistan), most of the finds have been the result of casual discovery or clandestine treasure hunts and plunder, so their correct provenance is not known. If to this are added the large variety of idioms that appear to have existed simultaneously and the total absence of securely dated images, the wide divergence of scholarly opinion with regard to the schools’ evolution can be understood. In the present day, there is general agreement, however, that its most flourishing period probably coincided with Kushan rule, particularly the reigns of the emperor Kaniska and his successors, and that the school did not long outlast the growth of the Gupta school in the 5th century.
The origins of the Gandhara style are ultimately Greco-Roman, though, recently, emphasis has been placed on Roman art as the more immediate source. It has also been suggested that the school was created by foreign craftsmen imported into India and by their Indian pupils.
The Gandhara school is also credited by some scholars with the invention of the anthropomorphic Buddha image. Whether this is correct or not, the Gandhara image is quite different from that of Mathura and illustrates the difference between the two schools. Instead of the powerful images directly descended from yaksha prototypes, the Gandhara version is an adaptation of an Apollo figure, with rather sweet and sentimental features. The definite volume and substance given to the pleated folds of the monastic robes make this image more naturalistic than anything found in Indian art. At the same time, the iconographical features are of Indian origin. Large numbers of bodhisattva images conceived in the image of royalty, some with strongly individualized facial features, have also been found.
In contrast to Mathura, narrative relief sculpture was very popular in Gandhara art. Again, in composition and iconography these reliefs are largely dependent on the earlier Indian schools, but the style is quite distinct. Instead of continuous narrative, incidents separated in time are separately represented, though often arranged in sequence. Violent emotions are realistically rendered. The compositions range from simple horizontal placement of figures to rich and complex arrangements, which often attempt to render space illusionistically.
In the course of time, Indian influence was increasingly felt in the art of Gandhara, and an abstract vision began to obscure the Greco-Roman naturalism of the earlier forms. In spite of the new influence (and the many graceful but cloying stucco sculptures that are representative of this late phase) the style shows no signs of vital change. This conservatism, together with the large artistic production, gives an overall impression of considerable monotony. Without any real roots in India and with marked foreign features, the avenues of natural development seem to have been closed to the school, which thus finally disappeared. Nevertheless it made vital contributions to the art of Central and eastern Asia, and several features, drastically transformed, were incorporated in Gupta art.
Indian sculpture from the 1st to 4th centuries ce: Andhradesha
Besides the schools of Mathura and Gandhara, a most accomplished school of sculpture flourished in Andhradesha during the three centuries after Christ, the most important centres being Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. The remains consist mainly of carved railings and rectangular slabs that decorated the great Buddhist stupas, which have largely disappeared. The finds are thus fragmentary and belong to several phases of construction or to separate monuments spanning the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries ce.
Unlike the school of Mathura, which concentrates on the carving of single figures, the Amaravati school carried to the fullest limit of its development the ancient tradition of relief sculpture, which flourished in the two centuries before Christ at sites such as Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati itself. The marble railing posts are decorated with central medallions and lunates at the top and bottom, all filled with lotus flowers of a very rich design. Often the medallions also contain reliefs illustrating scenes from the Buddha’s life and from the Jataka stories, and these are the principal glory of the site.
Two broad phases in the development of narrative relief can be distinguished. In the first, the artist builds on the achievements of early relief sculpture as seen on the Great Stupa of Sanchi. The forms are still comparatively heavy, the figures increasingly soft and fleshy, the movement freer but still pervaded by a sense of calm repose. This type of work, represented by relatively few examples, is followed by a phase in which the compositions achieve an extraordinary elaboration and complexity. Most striking is the restless, energetic movement, often nervous and flurried, that possesses the participants in any given scene. Complex relationships and patterns are established between the figures; and space is so articulated that the eye participates in the swirling inner movement of the composition that effectually dissolves the ground on which the figures are carved, while the figures themselves flow out in an endless movement from the ground. The setting is dramatic in the extreme. The loving workmanship, reminiscent of ivory carving, and the superb technical proficiency mark the Amaravati reliefs as the culminating point of the entire relief style.
The figures, of both men and women, are of unprecedented suppleness and plasticity, the forms rendered in every variety of torsion and flexion. A fluent, gliding line, often more appropriate to painting than to sculpture, encloses the figures, and pervading the whole is a subtle voluptuousness. The reliefs are often only nominally religious, a pretext for the sculptor’s pleasure in representing the leisured and sophisticated life of the time.
Nagarjunakonda sculpture marks the last phase of the relief style. The figures become stiffer and puppetlike, the patterns of movement frozen and mechanical but still possessing the energy and richness that always characterize this style.
The Buddha is represented in Andhradesha by both symbolic and anthropomorphic forms. The iconographic formula developed shows him clad in a rather thick garment with stylized folds, and the postures are not as formal and hieratic as the Mathura. This type of Buddha exercised considerable influence in the development of the Buddha image in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). In several other features as well, the Andhra style also contributed to the development of early sculpture in Southeast Asia.
Indian sculpture from the 1st to 4th centuries ce: terra-cotta
The quality of terra-cotta figurines of this period is generally inferior to work produced in the first two centuries bce. Many heads of crude workmanship, with protruding eyes, apparently representing foreigners, were found at sites such as Mathura, Ahichhatra, and Kaushambi. At the same time, there are some well-modelled heads that imitate the style of stone sculpture and are equally expressive.
Gupta period (c. 4th–6th centuries ce)
During the 4th and the 5th centuries, when much of northern India was ruled by the Gupta dynasty, Indian sculpture entered what has been called its classic phase. The promise of the earlier schools was now fully realized, and at the same time new forms and artistic ideals were formulated that served as the source for development in succeeding centuries. The more or less sensuous and earthy rendering of form was drastically transformed, so that artistic expression closely conformed to the religious vision. The forms are refined and treated with sure and unsurpassed elegance. The volumes, impelled by an inner life, still swell from within but are restrained and controlled, made to flow in smooth and abstract rhythms in an organic and unified concept in which the sensual and the spiritual are inextricably blended. The edificatory, didactic intent of early relief sculpture is abandoned; instead, the works produced are pronouncedly meditative; and the repose and calm that settles on the images of the Buddha, the master of the inner contemplative life, is also seen on images of other divinities. Decorative ornament is in perfect harmony with the volumes it adorns, each emphasizing the other, so that in every respect this classic style of the Gupta period is one of great composure and perfect balance.
Gupta period: Mathura
The impetus for the new schools seems to have come from Mathura, which is hardly surprising in view of the preponderant role played by the city in the preceding period. The transformation into the new idiom is best illustrated by a splendid image of the Buddha which is dated 384 ce (Indian Museum, Kolkata). Memories of the rather massive and ponderous weight of the earlier style are present, but the calm face no longer looks out at the world; rather, the vision is turned within, the mood being one of serene contemplation. The style, which consistently uses the local red sandstone, undergoes further refinement, seen in a series of magnificent life-size Buddha images of the 5th century (now scattered in museums throughout the world). The more delicate face radiates a feeling of calm inner bliss, and the body is most subtly modelled by smoothly flowing planes that both suggest the swelling force of life and subordinate it to the spiritual vision of the whole. Mathura images generally show the Buddha wearing a diaphanous robe, the folds of which are rendered by stringlike ridges in a reinterpretation of a Gandhara convention. The gestures of the hand are delicate and varied. The hair is usually rendered by rows of small curls that conceal the conical protuberance. These Mathura images established an iconographical type that became the norm for the Buddha image.
In addition to the Buddha figure, Mathura has yielded large numbers of images of the various Hindu divinities, particularly Vishnu-Krishna. This is in keeping with the increasing strength of the various Hindu cults and the intimate association of Mathura with the god Krishna. The famous image of Vishnu from Katra Keshavadeva in Mathura is one of the finest (National Museum, New Delhi). The god is conceived as a royal figure, wearing a crown and appropriate jewelry, his features imbued with a dignified calm that is suitable to his function as the preserver and is also characteristic of most Gupta art.
Gupta period: Sarnath
This famous centre of Indian art developed a sweeter and more elegant version of the Buddha image than Mathura’s. Instead of the rather strict frontal posture, the weight of the body is thrown more on one leg, resulting in a very subtle contrapposto position, in which the hips, shoulders, and head are turned in different directions. This lends a certain movement to the figure, so that it does not quite possess the static, steadfast quality of Mathura. The robes are no longer ridged with folds but are plain, and the surface of the stone is even more abstractly handled than is the Mathura. The faces are heart-shaped, the transitions from one part of the body to another smoother, so that the images have great refinement even if they do not possess the strength of Mathura. The characteristic Sarnath style, the preferred material of which is the local buff Chunar sandstone, seems to have developed in the late 5th century, the few earlier works being closer to the Mathura school. The most famous image from the site and one of the masterpieces of Indian art is that of the seated Buddha preaching (Sarnath Museum). It is exceptionally well preserved and delicately carved. The face, with serene features and a gentle smile playing on the lips, suggests the joy of supreme spiritual achievement. The halo behind the Buddha is also very beautifully carved, with exquisite floral patterns. Large numbers of Buddha and bodhisattva images have been excavated at Sarnath and are to be found in the museum at the site and in major collections throughout the world.
Gupta period: central India
In addition to the major schools of Sarnath and Mathura, important sculpture of the 5th and 6th centuries is found at several sites in central India. The sculptures here are often in their original locations, surviving not as isolated images torn from their architectural context but in association with the temples of which they formed a part. At Udayagiri, near Vidisha, are a series of simple rock-cut caves of the opening years of the 5th century. The sculpture, made of soft stone, has suffered greatly, but whatever has survived reveals a style that stresses strength and power. Perhaps the most magnificent work is a great relief panel depicting the boar incarnation of Vishnu lifting the earth goddess from the watery deeps into which she had been dragged by a demon. The massive figure of the god, with the body of a man and the head of a boar, is carved in a surging movement across the face of the rock, the goddess resting easily on his shoulder, while a host of beings, human and divine, celebrate this great triumph.
The Shiva temple at Bhumara has also yielded some sculpture of fine quality. The stone is carved with great precision and skill, nowhere more evident than in the handling of exuberant floral ornament. Little in Indian decorative sculpture can match the brilliance of the large panels filled with lotus stems and floriated scrolls discovered at this site and at Nachna Kuthara.
Some of the finest Gupta sculpture adorns the walls of the Vishnu temple at Deogarh. Particularly striking are three large relief panels depicting Vishnu lying on the serpent Shesha, the elephant’s rescue, and the penance of Nara-Narayana. The compositions tend to be dramatic; the carving and decoration, sumptuous, the sturdy forms recalling Mathura rather than the attenuated grace of Sarnath. The doorframe of the sanctum of this temple is an especially fine example of architectural decoration popular in this period. Bands of floral scrolls, amorous couples, and flying angels of great elegance are carved around the entrance. Particularly impressive are groups of worshippers at the base, their swaying bodies related to each other with an easy rhythm.
Gupta period: Maharashtra
A great revival of artistic activity seems to have taken place in this region during the reign of the Vakataka dynasty and its successors, best expressed in the splendid sculpture decorating the cave temples of Ajanta and Elephanta. The idioms established in the North were adapted here to the needs of a style that conceived figures on a massive scale, as determined by the demands of the great expanses of rock out of which they were carved. Although the sculpture at Ajanta (mostly of the late 5th century) combines the old weightiness with the new restraint and elegance, the style finds its supreme expression in the magnificent cave temple at Elephanta. The central image of this great temple is of immense size and in deep relief. It represents Shiva in his cosmic aspect, the central head clam, introspective, self-sufficient, and transcending time, the heads to the sides, in their sensuous beauty and awesome terror, reflecting the creative and the destructive aspects of the supreme divinity.
Gupta period: other regions
The impact of the Gupta style of the 5th and 6th centuries was felt in many parts of India, though actual remains thus far discovered are more abundant in some parts than in others. There appears to have been, in Bihar, a distinct school characterized by rather heavy, compact forms; and Gujarat and southern Rajasthan developed an individual style of considerable voluptuousness and plasticity. Among the notable sculpture of the Idar region are groups of mother goddesses whose massive forms are rendered with an easy grace and intimacy. In the Karnataka country, to the south, the cave temples of Badami reveal yet another distinct idiom, somewhat direct and elemental but nevertheless belonging to the same general style, with local variations, that prevailed over the greater part of India.
Gupta period: terra-cotta
Terra-cotta sculpture, like art in other mediums, was greatly developed. Fairly large and elaborate plaques were used to adorn brick stupas and Hindu temples from Sind to Bengal. The polychrome relief images of the Buddha from Mirpur Khas are delicate and slender, with traces of Gandhara feeling. Representations of divinities and mythological scenes from temples in Bikaner, Ahichhatra, Bhitargaon, and Shravasti are works on a more popular level, possessing an earthy ponderousness. A large number of figurines, particularly fragments of heads with elaborate coiffures and delicate, smiling features, have been found at Rajghat in Varanasi (Benares) and at other sites.
Medieval Indian sculpture
Indian sculpture from the 7th century onward developed, broadly speaking, into two styles that flourished in northern and southern India, respectively. In each of these regions there also developed additional local idioms, so that there was a wide variety of schools. All, however, evolved in a consistent manner, the earlier phase marked by relatively plastic forms, the later phase by a style that emphasizes a more linear rendering. The sculpture was used mainly as a part of the architectural decor, and the quantity required was vast. This often entailed a mechanical production, with the result that works of quality are few in proportion to the numbers.
Besides the two main idioms, the local schools of Maharashtra and Karnataka are of particular interest because they possess considerable individuality and often show both northern and southern features.
Sculpture in bronze was also produced in fairly large quantities in this period. Again, several local schools can be distinguished, the most important of which are those of eastern and southern India.
Medieval Indian sculpture: North India
The history of North Indian sculpture from the 7th to the 9th centuries is one of the more obscure periods in Indian art. Two trends, however, are clear: one exhibits the decline and disintegration of classical forms established during the 5th and 6th centuries; and the other, the evolution of new styles that began to possess overall unity and stability only in the 10th century.
A breakdown of the Gupta formula is observable from at least the 7th century onward, if not a little earlier: harmonious proportion, graceful movement, and supple modelling begin to yield to squat proportions, a halting movement, and a more congealed form. Toward the 8th century, signs of a new movement become evident in a group of sculptures that departs from the progressively lifeless working out of the Gupta idiom. The modelling emphasizes breadth but with a pronounced feeling for rhythm, and the delineation of decorative detail is fairly restrained. In the 9th century, particularly during the second half, a distinct change came over the styles of all of northern India. A new elegance, a richer decorativeness, and a staccato rhythm so characteristic of the medieval styles of the 10th and 11th centuries begin to be clearly seen and felt. Sculpture of this period reaches a standard of elegance never surpassed in the medieval period: the grace and voluminousness of earlier work are modified but not lost; the harsh angularity of later work, avoided. An idea of the style can be formed from an important group of sculptures at Abaneri, the Shiva temple at Indore, and the Teli-ka-Mandir temple at Gwalior, as well as from individual works in various North Indian museums.
With the 10th century, the conventions of North Indian sculpture became fairly well established. The style is represented by examples from such monuments as the Laksmana temple at Khajuraho (dated 941), the Harasnath temple at Mt. Harsha (c. mid-10th century), in Rajasthan, and numerous other sites scattered all over northern India. These works are executed in a style that has become harder and more angular, the figures covered with a profusion of jewelry that tends to obscure the forms it decorates. These features are further accentuated in the 11th century, when many temples of great size, adorned with prodigious amounts of sculpture, were erected all over northern India. There is a decline in the general level of workmanship: the carving is often entirely conventional and lifeless, the features rigid and masklike, and the contours stiff and unyielding. The ornamentation, consisting of a profusion of beaded jewelry, is for the most part as dull, repetitive, and lifeless as the rest of the sculpture. This phase of artistic activity is represented at important centres from Gujarat to Orissa; one of them is Khajuraho, with a vast amount of sculpture, all in a good state of preservation but conceived and executed as perfunctory architectural ornamentation. Not all sculpture, however, is of inferior quality; the hard, metallic carving and angular, stylized line sometimes result in works possessing a cold brilliance.
The 12th century marks the end of traditional sculpture all over northern India, except for a few pockets not yet penetrated by the Islamic invasions. A rigid line imposed itself on the forms, which in turn became desiccated and hard, so that whatever unity of surface may have existed was entirely shattered. A brief revival took place in parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan in the 15th century, but the sculpture merely imitated the work of the late medieval phase. The pure geometry of their forms, however, sometimes results in works possessing a curious archaistic power.
Sculpture in eastern India (consisting of Bangladesh and the modern Indian states of Bihar, West Bengal, and Orissa), though sharing in the broad pattern of development of the rest of northern India, nevertheless represents a distinct idiom. The flatness of planes and angularity of contours are less pronounced, the figures retaining a sense of mass and weight for a greater period of time and to a greater degree. This can be clearly seen in sculpture from Konarak, in Orissa. Dating to the 13th century, the style retains a considerable semblance of plasticity at a period when sculpture in other parts of northern India had assumed a very wooden appearance. In Bihar and Bengal a flourishing school of bronze sculpture also developed, as evidenced by the large number of finds, notably from the sites of Nalanda and Kurkihar. The style generally parallels works in stone, emphasizing plastic values to a great degree. The most flourishing period was the 9th century, when a series of magnificent images representing the gods and goddesses of the Buddhist pantheon were made at Kurkihar and Nalanda. The work of the 10th and 11th centuries is more decorative and often very skillfully and elaborately cast. Of relatively small size and therefore easily transportable, bronze sculpture from this area played an important part in the diffusion of Indian influence in Southeast Asia.
Kashmir sculpture tends to be weightier and more massive than works in other parts of India. Some Gandhara memories survive, particularly in the fleshy rendering of the body and the drapery, but the sculpture is very much a part of the stylistic developments in northern India. Representative examples of the style, dating to around the mid-9th century, have been found from Avantipura. A flourishing school of bronze sculpture also existed, numerous examples having come to light in recent years. One of the finest, discovered at Devsar (Sir Pratap Singh Museum, Srinagar), is a large 9th-century ornamental frame, 6.5 feet (2 metres) high, decorated with various incarnations of Vishnu, all filled with great energy and movement. A good number of ivory images of Kashmir workmanship have also been preserved. These are generally of miniature size, polychromed, and of extremely fine and delicate workmanship. Influences of the Kashmir style of sculpture were strongly felt in the neighbouring Himalayan region, including both Tibet and Nepal.
Medieval Indian sculptures: southern India
The medieval phase in southern India opened with elegant 7th-century sculptures at Mahabalipuram, by far the most impressive of which is a large relief depicting the penance of Arjuna (previously identified as an illustration of the mythical descent of the Ganges). It is carved on the face of a granite boulder with a deep cleft in the centre, representing a river, down which water actually flowed from a reservoir situated above. On both sides are carved numerous figures of divinities, human beings, and animals that crowd the hermitage where Arjuna, practicing penance, is visited by Shiva. The tall, slender figures, with supple tubular limbs, remotely recall the proportions of Amaravati, now greatly transformed; and the numerous animals, including the elephant herd with its young, show the same intimate feeling for animal life that characterizes all Indian sculture, but in a manner that has seldom been surpassed.
The light, aerial forms gained stability and strength in subsequent centuries, culminating in superb sculptures adorning small, elegant shrines built during the late 9th century when the Chola dynasty was consolidating its power. The temples at Tiruvalishvaram, Kodumbalur, Kilaiyur, Shrinivasanalur, Kumbakonam, and a host of other sites of this period are only sparingly adorned with sculpture, but it is of superb quality. With the 10th and 11th centuries, South Indian sculpture, like its counterpart in the north though to a lesser degree, was carved in flatter planes and more angular forms, and the fresh, blooming life of earlier work is gradually lost. This can be seen, for example, in the sculpture of the numerous temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The subsequent phase, extending up to the 13th century, is represented by work at Darasuram and Tribhuvanam; although the forms become increasingly congealed, brittle works of fine quality—often capturing outer movement with great skill—continue to be produced. Sculpture in southern India continued when artistic activity was interrupted in the north by the Islamic invasions but, in spite of technical virtuosity, became progressively lifeless. Artistic activity continued in the south into the 17th century, the elaborately sculptured halls at Madura and the masses of stucco sculpture adorning the immense entrances, or gopuras, testifying to the prodigious output and the undistinguished quality of the work produced.
South Indian bronze sculpture has a special place in the history of Indian art. A large number of images were made (some of them still in worship in the mid-20th century and others unearthed from the ground by chance), but examples before the 8th century are quite rare. In bronze, as in stone, the 9th and 10th centuries were periods of high achievement, and many images of excellent quality have survived. They are all cast by the lost-wax, or cire perdue, process (in which a wax model is used) and technically are very accomplished. In the early stages the forms were smooth and flowing, with a fine balance maintained between the body and the complex jewelry, the lines of which follow and reinforce every movement of the plastic surface. The bronzes of the later period lose this cohesiveness, the ornament, by virtue of its hardness, tending to divide and fragment the body it covers. The modelling also became flatter and sharper, though not quite as rapidly in bronze sculpture as in stone. Ancient traditions of workmanship survive to the present day, and a few guilds of craftsmen continue to make competent if somewhat lifeless images.
Most South Indian bronze images are representations of Hindu divinities, notably Vishnu and Shiva. One particular form deserves special notice as a striking southern contribution to Indian iconography. It is that of a four-armed Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), shown within a flaming halo, or aureole, one hand holding the doubleheaded drum symbolizing sound, or creation, and the other holding the fire that puts an end to all that is created. The palm of the third hand faces the devotee, assuring him of freedom from fear, while the fourth hand points to the raised foot, the place of refuge from ignorance and delusion, which are symbolized by the dwarf demon crushed beneath the other foot. Several splendid images are known, the finest being, perhaps, the great image still worshipped in the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur.
Medieval Indian sculpture: Maharashtra and Karnataka
The Karnataka country possessed a flourishing school of sculpture in the 7th and 8th centuries, as seen in examples from Aihole, Pattadkal, and Alampur. As in architecture, influences from the north are discernible, but the style is basically southern, emphasizing rugged strength and power compared to the more elegant and delicate forms of the Tamil country. In Maharashtra, cave temples at Ellora carry the most important examples of this phase of sculpture. Here the tradition is continued of images of great size that, in their primitive strength, partake of the nature of the rock out of which they are carved. A series of large, splendid panels (6th century ce) depicting incidents from Hindu mythology in high relief are to be found in the Rameshvara cave; notable among them is a fearsome representation of the dancing Kali, goddess of death. The Kailasa temple (c. 757–783) has a remarkable group of elephants struggling with lions all around the plinth. Of the several large reliefs, also at Kailasa, the depiction of Ravana shaking Kailasa is a composition of considerable grace and charm.
Toward the 13th and 14th centuries, a very distinctive style developed in the Karnataka country, which was then largely ruled by kings of the Hoysala dynasty. The materials employed are varieties of stone that are soft when freshly quarried but harden on exposure, which may account partially for the extreme richness of the work. The sculpture is in very high relief, often undercut and literally covered with the most elaborate ornaments and jewelry from top to toe. This unrestrained extravaganza is unique even for Indian art, which shows a preference for intricate and elaborate ornament at all stages of its history.
Literary works testify to the eminence of painting as an art form in India, particularly in the decoration of walls, but climate has taken a devastating toll, leaving behind only a few tantalizing examples. By far the bulk of the preserved material consists of miniature painting, initially done on palm leaf but later on paper. The subject matter is generally religious (illustrating divinities, myths, and legends) and literary (illustrating poetry and romances, for example), though the Mughal school was also concerned with historical and secular themes. The styles were rich and varied, often closely connected with one another and sometimes developing and changing rapidly, particularly from the 16th century onward. The work also shows a surprising vitality under strained circumstances, surviving up to the very eve of the modern period when the other arts had deteriorated greatly.
Prehistoric and protohistoric periods
Painting in India should have a history stretching as far back as any of the other arts but, because of its perishable nature, little has survived. None of the examples found in rock shelters over almost all of India, and chiefly representing scenes of hunting and war, appears to be earlier than the 8th century bc, and all may be as late as the 10th century ad. A faint idea of the painter’s art in the Indus Valley civilization can be had from the pottery, elaborately decorated with leaf designs and geometrical patterns.
Ancient wall painting
The earliest substantial remains are those found in rock-cut cave temples at Ajantā, in western India. They belong to the 2nd or 1st century bc and are in a style reminiscent of the relief sculpture at Sānchi. Also found at Ajantā are the most substantial remains of Indian painting of about the 5th century ad and a little later, when ancient Indian civilization was in full flower. The paintings, the work of several ateliers, decorate the walls and ceilings of the numerous cave temples and monasteries at the site. They are executed in the tempera technique on smooth surfaces, prepared by application of plaster. The themes, nominally Buddhist, illustrate the major events of the Buddha’s life, the Jātaka tales, and the various divinities of the expanding Buddhist pantheon. The ceilings are covered with rich motifs, based generally upon the lotus stem and the world of animals and birds. The style is unlike anything seen in later Indian art, expansive, free, and dynamic. The graceful figures are painted by a sweeping and accomplished brush; and they are given body and substance by modelling in colour and by a schematic distribution of light and shade that has little to do with scientific chiaroscuro. The narrative compositions, handled with utmost dexterity, are a natural outgrowth of the long traditions of relief sculpture and reflect the splendour and maturity of contemporary sculpture. The large images of the bodhisattvas in Cave 1, combining rich elegance with spiritual serenity, reflect a vision that sees the shifting world of matter and the transcendental calm of Nirvāṇa as essentially one.
Except for a large and magnificent painting of a dance scene found at the rock-cut cave at Bāgh—a painting executed in a style closely resembling Ajantā—hardly any other work of this great period survives. Cave temples at Bādāmi, in the Karnataka country, and Sittānavāsal, in Tamil Nadu, probably of the late 6th and 7th centuries ad are already but echoes of the style of the 5th century, which appears to have died out around this time.
Eastern Indian style
Small illustrations on palm leaf, chiefly painted at the great Buddhist establishments of eastern India, appear to have conserved some elements of this ancient style; but they have lost its dramatic impact, which is replaced by a studied preciosity and an inhibited meticulousness. The surviving paintings date from the 11th and 12th centuries and are conventional icons of the numerous Buddhist gods and goddesses, narrative representations having largely disappeared. With the destruction of these Buddhist centres by the Islāmic invader, the east Indian style seems to have come to an end.
Western Indian style
The style of Ajantā is succeeded in western India by what has been appropriately named the western Indian style. Among the earliest examples are a few surviving wall paintings of the Kailāsa temple (mid-8th century) at Ellora and the Jaina temples, built at the same site a hundred years later. The plastic sense of form, so evident at Ajantā, is emphatically replaced by a style that even at this early stage is heavily dependent on line. The contours of the figures are sharp and angular, the forms dry and abstract; and the fluent, stately rhythms of Ajantā have become laboured and halting.
The most copious examples of this style, however, have survived not on the walls of temples but in the large number of illustrated manuscripts commissioned by members of the Jaina community. The earliest of these are contemporary with eastern Indian manuscripts and are also painted on palm leaf; but the style, instead of attempting to cling to ancient traditions, moves steadily in the direction already established at Ellora. It is a perfect counterpart of contemporary sculpture in western India, relying for its effect on line, which progressively becomes more angular and wiry until all naturalism has been deliberately erased. The figures are almost always shown in profile, the full-face view generally reserved for representations of the tīrthaṅkaras, or the Jaina saviours. A convention that appears unfailingly for the duration of the western Indian style is the eye projecting beyond the face shown in profile, meant to represent the second eye, which would not be visible in this posture. The colours are few and pure: yellow, green, blue, black, and red, which was preferred for the background. In the beginning, the illustrations are simple icons in small panels; but gradually they become more elaborate, with scenes from the lives of the various Jaina saviours as told in the Kalpa-sūtra and from the adventures of the monk Kālaka as related in the Kālakāḫāryakathā the most favoured.
Even greater elaboration was possible with the increasing availability of paper from the late 14th century; with larger surfaces to paint on, by the middle of the 15th century artists were producing opulent manuscripts, such as the Kalpa-sūtra in the Devasanopaḍā library, Ahmadābād. The text is written in gold on coloured ground, the margins gorgeously illuminated with richest decorative and figural patterns, and the main paintings often occupying the entire page. Blue and gold, in addition to red, are used with increasing lavishness, testifying to the prosperity of the patron. The use of such costly materials, however, did not necessarily produce works of quality, and one is often left with the impression of cursive and hasty workmanship. With some variations—but hardly any substantial departures from the bounds that it had set for itself—the style endured throughout the 16th century and even extended into the 17th. The political subjugation of the country by the forces of Islām may have contributed to the conservatism of the style but did not result in its total elimination, as seems to have been the case in eastern India. Indeed, in the course of its long life, the western Indian school became a national style, painting at other centres in India interpreting and elaborating its forms in their own individual manner. In the province of Orissa, painting on palm leaf and in a manner entirely dependent on the western Indian style has continued up to the present day.
Transition to the Mughal and Rajasthani styles
The belief held earlier by scholars that the new Islāmic rulers of India did not patronize any painting until the rise of the Mughal dynasty in the 16th century is being abandoned in the face of the literary testimony and the discovery or recognition of illustrated manuscripts that were painted at Indian courts. Nor should this be surprising, as the Muslim kings of India had before them the example of other rulers of the Islāmic world who were great patrons of painting in spite of the injunctions of orthodox Islām against the portrayal of living beings. The taste of these Indian rulers, however, did not turn to the western Indian style but to the flourishing traditions of Islāmic painting abroad, notably neighbouring Iran. As many painters as architects had in all probability been invited from foreign countries; and illustrated manuscripts, handily transported, must have been easily available. As a result there appears to have developed what can only be called an Indo-Persian style, based essentially on the schools of Iran but affected to a greater or lesser extent by the individual tastes of the Indian rulers and by the local styles. The earliest known examples are paintings dating from the 15th century onward. The most important are the Khamseh (“Quintet”) of Amīr Khosrow of Delhi (Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.), a Bostān painted in Mandu (National Museum, New Delhi), and, most interesting of all, a manuscript of the Neʿmat-nāmeh (India Office Library, London) painted for a sultan of Mālwa in the opening years of the 16th century. Its illustrations are derived from the Turkmen style of Shīrāz but show clear Indian features adapted from the local version of the western Indian style.
Though the western Indian style was essentially conservative, it was not unfailingly so. It began to show signs of an inner change most notably in two manuscripts from Mandu, a Kalpa-sūtra and a Kālakāḫāryakathā of about 1439, and a Kalpa-sūtra painted at Jaunpur in 1465. These works were done in the opulent manner of the 15th century, but for the first time the quality of the line is different, and the uncompromisingly abstract expression begins to make way for a more human and emotional mood. By the opening years of the 16th century, a new and vigorous style had come into being. Although derived from the western Indian style, it is clearly independent, full of the most vital energy, deeply felt, and profoundly moving. The earliest dated example is an Āraṇyaka Parva of the Mahābhārata (1516; The Asiatic Society, Mumbai), and among the finest are series illustrating the Bhāgavata-Purāṇa and the Caurapañcāśikā of Bilhaṇa, scattered in collections all over the world. A technically more refined variant of this style, preferring the pale, cool colours of Persian derivation, a fine line, and meticulous ornamentation, exists contemporaneously and is best illustrated by a manuscript of the ballad Candāmyana by Mullā Dāūd (c. first half of the 16th century; Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Mumbai). The early 16th century thus appears to have been a period of inventiveness and set the stage for the development of the Mughal and Rājput schools, which thrived from the 16th to the 19th century.
Mughal style: Akbar period (1556–1605)
Although the Mughal dynasty came to power in India with the great victory won by Bābar at the Battle of Pānīpat in 1526, the Mughal style was almost exclusively the creation of Akbar. Trained in painting at an early age by a Persian master, Khwāja ʿAbd-uṣ-Ṣamad, who was employed by his father, Humāyūn, Akbar created a large atelier, which he staffed with artists recruited from all parts of India. The atelier, at least in the initial stages, was under the superintendence of Akbar’s teacher and another great Persian master, Mīr Sayyid ʿAlī; but the distinctive style that evolved here owed not a little to the highly individual tastes of Akbar himself, who took an interest in the work, inspecting the atelier frequently and rewarding painters whose work was pleasing.
The work of the Mughal atelier in this early formative stage was largely confined to the illustration of books on a wide variety of subjects: histories, romances, poetic works, myths, legends, and fables, of both Indian and Persian origin. The manuscripts were first written by calligraphers, with blank spaces left for the illustrations. These were executed largely by groups of painters, including a colourist, who did most of the actual painting, and specialists in portraiture and in the mixing of colours. Chief of the group was the designer, generally an artist of top quality, who formulated the composition and sketched in the rough outline. A thin wash of white, through which the initial drawing was visible, was then applied and the colours filled in. The colourist’s work proceeded slowly, the colour being applied in several thin layers and frequently rubbed down with an agate burnisher, a process that resulted in the glowing, enamel-like finish. The colours used were mostly mineral but sometimes consisted of vegetable dyes; and the brushes, many of them exceedingly fine, were made from squirrel’s tail or camel hair.
The earliest paintings (c. 1560–70) of the school of Akbar are illustrations of Ṭūṭī-nāmeh (“Parrot Book; Cleveland Museum of Art) and the stupendous illustrations of the Dāstān-e Amīr Ḥamzeh (“Stories of Amīr Ḥamzeh”; Österreichisches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, Vienna), which originally consisted of 1,400 paintings of an unusually large size (approximately 25 inches by 16 inches [65 by 40 centimetres]), of which only about 200 have survived. The Ṭūṭī-nāmeh shows the Mughal style in the process of formation: the hand of artists belonging to the various non-Mughal traditions is clearly recognizable, but the style also reveals an intense effort to cope with the demands of a new patron. The transition is achieved in the Dāstān-e Amīr Ḥamzeh, in which the uncertainties are overcome in a homogeneous style, quite unlike Persian work in its leaning toward naturalism and filled with swift, vigorous movement and bold colour. The forms are individually modelled, except for the geometrical ornament used as architectural decor; the figures are superbly interrelated in closely unified compositions, in which depth is indicated by a preference for diagonals; and much attention is paid to the expression of emotion. One of the last manifestations of this bold and vigorous early manner is the Dārāb-nameh (c. 1580) in the British Museum.
Immediately following were some very important historical manuscripts, including the Tārīkh-e Khāndān-e Tīmūrīyeh (“History of the House of Timūr,” c. 1580–85; Khuda Baksh Library, Patna) and other works concerned with the affairs of the Tīmūrid dynasty, to which the Mughals belonged. Each of these manuscripts contains several hundred illustrations, the prolific output of the atelier made possible by the division of labour that was in effect. Historical events are recreated with remarkable inventiveness, though the explosive and almost frantic energy of the Dāstān-e Amīr-Ḥamzeh has begun to subside. The scale was smaller and the work began to acquire a studied richness. The narrative method employed by these Mughal paintings, like that of traditional literature, is infinitely discursive; and the painter did not hesitate to provide a fairly detailed picture of contemporary life—both of the people and of the court—and of the rich fauna and flora of India. Like Indian artists of all periods, the Mughal painter showed a remarkable empathy for animals, for through them flows the same life that flows through human beings. This sense of kinship allowed him to achieve unqualified success in the illustration of animal fables such as the Anwār-e Suhaylī (“Lights of Caropus”), of which several copies were painted, the earliest dated 1570 (School of Oriental and African Studies, London). It was in the illustrations to Persian translations of the Hindu epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, that the Mughal painter revealed to the full the richness of his imagination and his unending resourcefulness. With little precedent to rely on, he was nevertheless seldom dismayed by the subject and created a whole series of convincing compositions. Because most of the painters of the atelier were Hindus, the subjects must have been close to their hearts; and, given the opportunity by a tolerant and sympathetic patron, they rose to great heights. It is no wonder, therefore, that the Razm-nāmeh (City Palace Museum, Jaipur), as the Mahābhārata is known in Persian, is one of the outstanding masterpieces of the age.
In addition to large books containing numerous illustrations, which were the products of the combined efforts of many artists, the imperial atelier also cultivated a more intimate manner that specialized in the illustration of books, generally poetic works, with a smaller number of illustrations. The paintings were done by a single master artist who, working alone, had ample scope to display his virtuosity. In style the works tend to be finely detailed and exquisitely coloured. A Dīvān (“Anthology”) of Anwarī (Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts), dated 1589, is a relatively early example of this manner. The paintings are very small, none larger than five inches by 21/2 inches (12 by 6 centimetres) and most delicately executed. Very similar in size and quality are the miniatures illustrating the Dīvān of Ḥāfeẓ (Reza Library, Rāmpur). On a larger scale but in the same mood are the manuscripts that represent the most delicate and refined works of the reign of Akbar: the Bahāristān of Jāmī (1595; Bodleian Library, Oxford), a Khamseh of Neẓāmī (1593; British Museum, London), a Khamseh of Amīr Khosrow (1598; Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore and Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), and an Anwār-e Suhaylī (1595–96; Bharat Kala Bhavan, Vārānasī).
Also prepared in the late 1590s were magnificent copies of the Akbar-nāmeh (“History of Akbar”; Victoria and Albert Museum, London) and the Kitāb-e Changīz-nāmeh (“History of Genghis Khan”; Gulistan Library, Tehrān). These copiously illustrated volumes were produced by artists working jointly, but the quality of refinement is similar to that of the poetic manuscripts.
Of the large number of painters who worked in the imperial atelier, the most outstanding were Dasvant and Basāvan. The former played the leading part in the illustration of the Razm-nāmeh. Basāvan, who is preferred by some to Dasvant, painted in a very distinctive style, which delighted in the tactile and the plastic, and with an unerring grasp of psychological relationships.
Mughal style: Jahāngīr period (1605–27)
The emperor Jahāngīr, even as a prince, showed a keen interest in painting and maintained an atelier of his own. His tastes, however, were not the same as those of his father, and this is reflected in the painting, which underwent a significant change. The tradition of illustrating books began to die out, though a few manuscripts, in continuation of the old style, were produced. For Jahāngīr much preferred portraiture; and this tradition, also initiated in the reign of his father, was greatly developed. Among the most elaborate works of his reign are the great court scenes, several of which have survived, showing Jahāngīr surrounded by his numerous courtiers. These are essentially large-scale exercises in portraiture, the artist taking great pains to reproduce the likeness of every figure.
The compositions of these paintings have lost entirely the bustle and movement so evident in the works of Akbar’s reign. The figures are more formally ordered, their comportment in keeping with the strict rules of etiquette enforced in the Mughal court. The colours are subdued and harmonious, the bright glowing palette of the Akbarī artist having been quickly abandoned. The brushwork is exceedingly fine. Technical virtuosity, however, is not all that was attained, for beneath the surface of the great portraits of the reign there is a deep and often spiritual understanding of the character of the person and the drama of human life.
Many of the paintings produced at the imperial atelier are preserved in the albums assembled for Jahāngīr and his son Shāh Jahān. The Muraqqah-e Gulshan is the most spectacular. (Most surviving folios from this album are in the Gulistan Library in Tehrān and the Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; a section is temporarily housed in Tübingen.) There are assembled masterpieces from Iran, curiosities from Europe, works produced in the reign of Akbar, and many of the finest paintings of Jahāngīr’s master painters, all surrounded by the most magnificent borders decorated with a wide variety of floral and geometrical designs. The album gives a fairly complete idea of Jahāngīr as a patron, collector, and connoisseur of the arts, revealing a person with a wide range of taste and a curious, enquiring mind.
Jahāngīr esteemed the art of painting and honoured his painters. His favourite was Abū al-Hasan, who was designated Nādir-uz-Zamān (“Wonder of the Age”). Several pictures by the master are known, among them a perceptive study of Jahāngīr looking at a portrait of his father. Also much admired was Ustād Manṣūr, designated Nādir-ul-ʿAṣr (“Wonder of the Time”), whose studies of birds and animals are unparalleled. Bishandās was singled out by the emperor as unique in the art of portraiture. Manohar, the son of Basāvan, Govardhan, and Daulat are other important painters of this reign.
Mughal style: Shāh Jahān period (1628–58)
Under Shāh Jahān, attention seems to have shifted to architecture, but painting in the tradition of Jahāngīr continued. The style, however, becomes noticeably rigid. The portraits resemble hieratic effigies, lacking the breath of life so evident in the work of Jahāngīr’s time. The colouring is jewel-like in its brilliance, and the outward splendour quite dazzling. The best work is found in the Shāhjahānnāmeh (“History of Shāh Jahān”) of the Windsor Castle Library and in several albums assembled for the emperor. Govardhan and Bichitra, who had begun their careers in the reign of Jahāngīr, were among the outstanding painters; several works by them are quite above the general level produced in this reign.
Mughal style: Aurangzeb and the later Mughals (1659–1806)
From the reign of Aurangzeb (1659–1707), a few pictures have survived that essentially continue the cold style of Shāh Jahān; but the rest of the work is nondescript, consisting chiefly of an array of lifeless portraits, most of them the output of workshops other than the imperial atelier. Genre scenes, showing gatherings of ascetics and holy men, lovers in a garden or on a terrace, musical parties, carousals, and the like, which had grown in number from the reign of Shāh Jahān, became quite abundant. They sometimes show touches of genuine quality, particularly in the reign of Muḥammad Shāh (1719–48), who was passionately devoted to the arts. This brief revival, however, was momentary, and Mughal painting essentially came to an end during the reign of Shāh ʿĀlam II (1759–1806). The artists of this disintegrated court were chiefly occupied in reveries of the past, the best work, for whatever it is worth, being confined to copies of old masterpieces still in the imperial library. This great library was dispersed and destroyed during the uprising of 1857 against the British.
Rising British power, which assumed political supremacy in the 19th century, resulted in a radical change of taste brought about by the Westernization of important segments of the population. Heavily influenced by Western ideas, a style emerged that represented the adjustment of traditional artists to new fashions and demands. Rooted at Delhi and the erstwhile provincial Mughal capitals of Murshidābād, Lucknow, and Patna, it ultimately spread all over India. Most of the works produced were singularly impoverished, but occasionally there were some fine studies of natural life.
In mood and manner, Deccani painting, which flourished over much of the Deccan Plateau from at least the last quarter of the 16th century, is reminiscent of the contemporary Mughal school. Again, a homogeneous style evolved from a combination of foreign (Persian and Turkish) and Indian elements, but with a distinct local flavour. Of the early schools, the style patronized by the sultans of Bijāpur—notably the tolerant and art-loving Ibrāhīm ʿĀdil Shāh II of Bijāpur, famous for his love of music—is particularly distinguished. Some splendid portraits of him, more lyrical and poetic in concept than contemporary Mughal portraits, are to be found. A wonderful series depicting symbolically the musical modes (rāgamālā) also survives. Of illustrated manuscripts, the most important are the Nujūm-ul-ʿulūm (“The Stars of the Sciences,” 1590; Chester Beatty Library, Dublin) and the Tārīf-e Ḥuseyn-Shāhī (Bharata Itihasa Samshodhaka Mandala, Pune), painted around 1565 in the neighbouring state of Ahmadnagar. The sultanate of Golconda also produced work of high quality—for example, a manuscript of the Dīvān of Muḥammad Qulī Quṭb Shāh in the Salar Jang Library, Hyderābād, and a series of distinguished portraits up to the end of the 17th century (dispersed in various collections). The state of Hyderābād, founded in the early 18th century and headed by a grandee of the Mughal Empire, was a great centre of painting. The work that was produced there reflects both Golconda traditions and increasing Mughal and Rajasthani influences.
This style appears to have come into being in the 16th century, about the same time the Mughal school was evolving under the patronage of Akbar; but, rather than a sharp break from the indigenous traditions, it represented a direct and natural evolution. Throughout the early phase, almost up to the end of the 17th century, it retained its essentially hieratic and abstract character, as opposed to the naturalistic tendencies cultivated by the Mughal atelier. The subject matter of this style is essentially Hindu, devoted mainly to the illustration of myths and legends, the epics, and above all the life of Krishna; particularly favoured were depictions of his early life as the cowherd of Vraja, and the mystical love of Vraja’s maidens for him, as celebrated in the Bhāgavata-Purāṇa, the Gītagovinda of Jayadeva, and the Braj Bhasha verses written by Sūrdās and other poets. The style of the painting, no less than the literature, is a product of the new religious movements, all of which stressed personal devotion to Krishna as the way to salvation. Related popular themes were pictorial representations of the musical modes (rāgamālā) and illustrations of poetical works such as the Rasikapriyā of Keśavadāsa, which dealt with the sentiment of love, analyzing its varieties and endlessly classifying the types of lovers and beloveds and their emotions. Portraits, seldom found in the early phase, became increasingly common in the 18th century—as did court scenes, scenes of sporting and hunting events, and other scenes concerned with the courtly life of the great chiefs and feudal lords of Rājasthān.
The Rajasthani style developed various distinct schools, most of them centring in the several states of Rājasthān, namely Mewār, Būndi, Kotah, Mārḳār, Bīkaner, Kishangarh, and Jaipur (Amber). It also had centres outside the geographical limits of present-day Rājasthān, notably Gujarāt, Mālwa, and Bundel Khand. The study of Rajasthani painting is still in its infancy, for most of the material has been available for study only since the mid-1940s.
The Mughal and Rajasthani styles were always in contact with each other, but in general the Rajasthani schools were not essentially affected by the work produced at the Mughal court during the greater part of the 17th century. This became less true in the 18th century, when the sharp distinction between the two became progressively obscured, though each retained its distinctive features right up to the end.
Rajasthani style: Mewār
The Mewār school is among the most important. The earliest dated examples are represented by a rāgamālā series painted at Chawand in 1605 (Gopi Krishna Kanoria Collection, Patna). These simple paintings, filled with bright colour, are only a step removed from the pre-Rajasthani phase. The style became more elaborate in the first quarter of the 17th century when another rāgamālā, painted at Udaipur in 1628 (formerly in the Khajanchi Collection, Bīkaner; now dispersed in various collections), showed some superficial acquaintance with the Mughal manner. This phase, lasting until around 1660, was one of the most important for the development of painting all over Rājasthān. Ambitious and extensive illustrations of the Bhāgavata, the Rāmāyaṇa, the poems of Sūrdās, and the Gītagovinda were completed, all full of strength and vitality. The name of Sāhabadī is intimately connected with this phase; another well-known painter is Manohar. The intensity and richness associated with their atelier began to fade toward the close of the 17th century, and a wave of Mughal influence began to affect the school in the opening years of the 18th century. Portraits, court scenes, and events in the everyday world of the ruling classes are increasingly found. Although the emotional fervour of the 17th century was never again attained, this work is often of considerable charm. The 19th century continued to create work in the tradition of the 18th, one of the most important centres being Nāthdwāra (Rājasthān), the seat of the Vallabha sect. Large numbers of pictures, produced here for the pilgrim trade, were spread over all parts of Rājasthān, northern India, Gujarāt, and the Deccan.
Rajasthani style: Būndi and Kotah
A school as important as that of Mewār developed at Būndi and later at Kotah, which was formed by a partition of the parent state and ruled by a junior branch of the Būndi family. The earliest examples are represented by a rāgamālā series of extraordinarily rich quality, probably dating from the end of the 16th century. From the very beginning the Būndi style seemed to have found Mughal painting an inspiring source, but its workmanship was as distinctively Rajasthani as the work of Mewār. The artists of this school always displayed a pronounced preference for vivid movement, which is unique in all of Rājasthān. Toward the second half of the 17th century, work at Būndi came unmistakably under the influence of Mewār; many miniatures, including several series illustrating the Rasikapriyā, indicate that this was a period of prolific activity. The sister state of Kotah also appears to have become an important centre of painting at this time, developing a great fondness for hunting and sport scenes, all filled with great vigour and surging strength. This kind of work continued well into the 19th century, and if the workmanship is not always of the highest quality, the style maintained its integrity against the rapidly increasing Western influence right up to the end.
Rajasthani style: Mālwa
It has been suggested but not definitely determined that the school itself does not belong to Mālwa but to some other area, probably Bundelkhand. In contrast to the Būndi school, miniatures generally thought to have been painted in Mālwa are quite archaistic, with mannerisms inherited from the 16th century retained until the end of the 17th. The earliest work is an illustrated version of the Rasikapriyā (1634), followed by a series illustrating a Sanskrit poem called the Amaru Śataka (1652). There are also illustrations of the musical modes (rāgamālā), the Bhāgavata-Purāṇa, and other Hindu devotional and literary works. The compositions of all of these pictures is uncompromisingly flat, the space divided into registers and panels, each filled with a patch of colour and occupied by figures that convey the action. This conservative style disappeared after the close of the 17th century. The course of Mālwa painting in the 18th century and later is not known.
Rajasthani style: Mārwār
A rāgamālā series dated 1623 reveals that painting in this state shared features common to other schools of Rājasthān. Miniatures of the second half of the 17th century are distinguished by some splendid portraits that owe much to the Mughal school. A very large amount of work was done in the 19th century, all of which is highly stylized but strong in colour and often of great charm.
Rajasthani style: Bīkaner
Of all Rajasthani schools, the Bīkaner style, from its very inception in the mid-17th century, shows the greatest indebtedness to the Mughal style. This is due to the presence in the Bīkaneratelier of artists who had previously worked in the Mughal manner at Delhi. They and their descendants continued to paint in a style that could only be classed as a provincial Mughal manner had it not been for the quick absorption of influences from the Rajasthani environment and a sympathy for the religious and literary themes favoured by the royal Hindu patrons. Delicacy of line and colour are consistent characteristics of Bīkaner painting even when, toward the end of the 18th century, it assumed stylistic features associated with the more orthodox Rajasthani schools.
Rajasthani style: Kishangarh
The Kishangarh school, which came into being toward the mid-18th century, was also indebted to the contemporary Mughal style but combined a rich and refined technique with deeply moving religious fervour. Its inspiring patron in the formative phase was Sāvant Singh, more of a devotee and a poet than a king. The style established by him, characterized by pronounced mystical leanings and a distinctive facial type, continued to the middle of the 19th century, though at a clearly lower level of achievement.
Rajasthani style: Jaipur (Amber)
The rulers of the state were closely allied to the Mughal dynasty, but paintings of the late 16th and early 17th centuries possessed all of the elements of the Rajasthani style. Little is known about the school until the opening years of the 18th century, when stiff, formal examples appear in the reign of Savāī Jai Singh. The finest works, dating from the reign of Pratāp Singh, are sumptuous in effect and include some splendid portraits and some large paintings of the sports of Krishna. Although the entire 19th century was extremely productive, the work was rather undistinguished and increasingly affected by Western influences. Of the Rajasthani styles of this period, the Jaipur school was the most popular, examples having been found all over northern India.
Closely allied to the Rajasthani schools both in subject matter and technique is the Pahari style, so-named because of its prevalence in the erstwhile hill states of the Himalayas, stretching roughly from Jammu to Gaṛhwāl. It can be divided into two main schools, the Basohlī and the Kāngra, but it must be understood that these schools were not confined to the centres after which they are named but extended all over the area. Unlike Rājasthān, the area covered by the Pahari style is small, and the probability of artists travelling from one area to another in search of livelihood was much greater. Thus, attempts to distinguish regional schools are fraught with controversy, and it has been suggested that a classification based upon ateliers and families is likely to be more tenable than those presently current among scholars. Because the Basohlī and the Kāngra schools show considerable divergences, scholars have postulated the existence of a transitional phase, named the pre-Kāngra style.
Pahari style: Basohlī school
The origins of this remarkable style are not yet understood, but it is clear that the style was flourishing toward the close of the 17th century. The earliest dated paintings are illustrations to the Rasamañjarī of Bhānudatta (a Sanskrit work on poetics), executed for a ruler of Basohlī (1690; Boston Museum of Fine Arts). Bold colour, vigorous drawing, and primitive intensity of feeling are outstanding qualities in these paintings, quite surpassing the work of the plains. In addition to other Hindu works such as the Gītagovinda and the Bhāgavata-Purāṇa, a fairly large number of idealized portraits have also been discovered.
Pahari style: Kāngra school
The Basohlī style began to fade by the mid-18th century, being gradually replaced by the Kāngra style, named after the state of Kāngra but, like the Basohlī style, of much wider prevalence. A curvilinear line, easy flowing rhythms, calmer colours, and a mood of sweet lyricism easily distinguish the work from that of the Basohlī style. The reasons for this change are to be sought in strong influences from the plains, notably the Mughal styles of Delhi and Lucknow. These influences account for the more refined technique; but whatever was borrowed was transmuted and given a fresh and tender aspect. Among the greatest works are large series illustrating the Bhāgavata-Purāṇa (National Museum, New Delhi), the Gītagovinda, and the Satsaī of Bihārī (both in the collection of the maharaja of Tehrī-Garhwāl), all painted in 1775–80. The corpus of work produced is very large and, although it seldom fails to please, works of high achievement are rare. The school flourished from about 1770 to almost the end of the 19th century, but the finest work was produced largely around 1775–1820.
Toward the late 19th century traditional Indian painting was rapidly dying out, being replaced by feeble works in a variety of idioms, all strongly influenced by the West. A reaction set in during the early 20th century, symbolized by what is called the Bengal school. The glories of Indian art were rediscovered, and the school consciously tried to produce what it considered a truly Indian art inspired by the creations of the past. Its leading artist was Abanindranath Tagore and its theoretician was E.B. Havell, the principal of the Calcutta School of Art. Nostalgic in mood, the work was mainly sentimental though often of considerable charm. The Bengal school did a great deal to reshape contemporary taste and to make Indian artists aware of their own heritage. Amrita Sher-Gil, who was inspired by the Postimpressionists, made Indian painters aware of new directions. Mid-20th-century Indian painting is very much a part of the international scene, the artists painting in a variety of idioms, often attempting to come to terms with their heritage and with the emergence of India as a modern culture.