|Part of a series on|
|Part of a series on|
Stawinism is de means of governing and powicies which were impwemented in de Soviet Union from 1927 to 1953 by Joseph Stawin. It is based on Marxism–Leninism and incwuded de creation of a one-party totawitarian powice state; rapid industriawization; de deory of sociawism in one country; cowwectivization of agricuwture; intensification of de cwass struggwe under sociawism; a cuwt of personawity; and subordination of de interests of foreign communist parties to dose of de Communist Party of de Soviet Union, deemed by Stawinism to be de weading vanguard party of communist revowution at de time.
Stawin's regime forcibwy purged society of what it saw as dreats to itsewf and its brand of communism (so-cawwed "enemies of de peopwe"), which incwuded powiticaw dissidents, non-Soviet nationawists, de bourgeoisie, better-off peasants ("kuwaks"), and dose of de working cwass who demonstrated "counter-revowutionary" sympadies. This resuwted in mass repression of such peopwe as weww as deir famiwies, incwuding mass arrests, show triaws, executions, and imprisonment in forced wabor and concentration camps known as guwags. The most notabwe exampwes of dis were de Great Purge and de Dekuwakization campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. Stawinism was awso marked by mass rewigious persecution, and ednic cweansing drough forced deportations. Some historians such as Robert Service have bwamed Stawinist powicies for causing famines such as de Howodomor. Oder historians and schowars disagree on de rowe of Stawinism.
Officiawwy designed to accewerate devewopment towards communism, de need for industriawization in de Soviet Union was emphasized because de Soviet Union had previouswy fawwen behind economicawwy compared to Western countries, and dat sociawist society needed industry to face de chawwenges posed by internaw and externaw enemies of communism.:70–1 Rapid industriawization was accompanied by mass cowwectivization of agricuwture and by rapid urbanization, de watter of which converted many smaww viwwages into industriaw cities.:70–9 To accewerate de devewopment of industriawization, Stawin imported materiaws, ideas, expertise, and workers from western Europe and de United States, pragmaticawwy setting up joint-venture contracts wif major American private enterprises such as de Ford Motor Company, which under state supervision assisted in devewoping de basis of de industry of de Soviet economy from de wate 1920s to de 1930s. After de American private enterprises had compweted deir tasks, Soviet state enterprises took over.
Stawinism is used to describe de period during which Joseph Stawin was weader of de Soviet Union whiwe serving as Generaw Secretary of de Centraw Committee of de Communist Party of de Soviet Union from 1922 to his deaf on 5 March 1953.
The term Stawinism came into prominence during de mid-1930s when Lazar Kaganovich, a Soviet powitician and associate of Stawin, reportedwy decwared: "Let's repwace Long Live Leninism wif Long Live Stawinism!" Stawin dismissed dis as excessivewy praisefuw and contributing to a cuwt of personawity.
Whiwe some historians view Stawinism as a refwection of de ideowogies of Leninism and Marxism, some argue dat it stands separate from de sociawist ideaws it stemmed from. After a powiticaw struggwe dat cuwminated in de defeat of de Bukharinists (de "Party's Right Tendency"), Stawinism was free to shape powicy widout opposition, ushering forf an era of harsh audoritarianism dat worked toward rapid industriawization regardwess of de cost.
From 1917 to 1924, dough often appearing united, Stawin, Vwadimir Lenin, and Leon Trotsky had discernibwe ideowogicaw differences. In his dispute wif Trotsky, Stawin de-emphasized de rowe of workers in advanced capitawist countries (e.g. he considered de American working-cwass "bourgeoisified" wabor aristocracy). Stawin awso powemicized against Trotsky on de rowe of peasants as in China, whereas Trotsky's position was in favor of urban insurrection over peasant-based guerriwwa warfare.[dubious ]
Aww oder October Revowution 1917 Bowshevik weaders regarded deir revowution more or wess just as de beginning, wif Russia as de springboard on de road towards de Worwd Wide Revowution, uh-hah-hah-hah. Stawin wouwd eventuawwy introduce de idea of sociawism in one country by de autumn of 1924, a deory not onwy standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky's permanent revowution but to aww earwier sociawistic deses just as weww. The revowution, however, did not spread outside of Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon wouwd. Not even widin oder former territories of de Russian Empire―such as Powand, Finwand, Liduania, Latvia and Estonia―had de revowution been a success. On de contrary, aww of dese countries had returned to capitawist bourgeois ruwe.
Despite dis, by de autumn of 1924, Stawin's notion of sociawism in Soviet Russia was initiawwy considered next to bwasphemy in de ears of oder Powitburo members, incwuding Zinoviev and Kamenev to de intewwectuaw weft; Rykov, Bukharin, and Tomsky to de pragmatic right; and de powerfuw Trotsky, who bewonged to no side but his own, uh-hah-hah-hah. None wouwd even dink of Stawin's concept as a potentiaw addition to communist ideowogy. Stawin's sociawism in one country doctrine couwd not be imposed untiw he, himsewf, had become cwose to being de autocratic ruwer of de Soviet Union around 1929. Bukharin and de Right Opposition expressed deir support for imposing Stawin's ideas, as Trotsky had been exiwed, whereas Zinoviev and Kamenev had been drown out of de party.
Whiwe traditionaw communist dought howds dat de state wiww graduawwy "wider away", as de impwementation of sociawism reduces cwass distinction, Stawin argued dat de prowetarian state (as opposed to de bourgeois state) must become stronger before it can wider away. In Stawin's view, counter-revowutionary ewements wiww attempt to deraiw de transition to fuww communism, and de state must be powerfuw enough to defeat dem. For dis reason, Communist regimes infwuenced by Stawin have been widewy described as totawitarian.
Sheng Shicai, a Chinese warword wif Marxist weanings, invited Soviet intervention and awwowed Stawinist ruwe to be extended to de Xinjiang province in de 1930s. In 1937, Sheng conducted a purge simiwar to de Great Purge, imprisoning, torturing, and kiwwing about 100,000 peopwe, many of whom were Uyghurs.
Stawin bwamed de kuwaks as de inciters of reactionary viowence against de peopwe during de impwementation of agricuwturaw cowwectivisation. In response, de state under Stawin's weadership initiated a viowent campaign against de kuwaks. This kind of campaign wouwd water be known as cwassicide, dough severaw internationaw wegiswatures have passed resowutions decwaring de campaign a genocide. However, some historians dispute dat dese actions constitute genocide.
Purges and executions
As head of de Powitburo of de Communist Party of de Soviet Union, Stawin consowidated near-absowute power in de 1930s wif a Great Purge of de party dat cwaimed to expew "opportunists" and "counter-revowutionary infiwtrators." Those targeted by de purge were often expewwed from de party, dough more severe measures ranged from banishment to de Guwag wabor camps to execution after triaws hewd by NKVD troikas.
In de 1930s, Stawin apparentwy became increasingwy worried about de growing popuwarity of de Leningrad party head Sergei Kirov. At de 1934 Party Congress where de vote for de new Centraw Committee was hewd, Kirov received onwy dree negative votes (de fewest of any candidate) whiwe Stawin received at weast over a hundred negative votes.[i] After de assassination of Kirov, which may have been orchestrated by Stawin, Stawin invented a detaiwed scheme to impwicate opposition weaders in de murder, incwuding Trotsky, Lev Kamenev, and Grigory Zinoviev. From dereon, de investigations and triaws expanded. Stawin passed a new waw on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" dat were to be investigated for no more dan ten days, wif no prosecution, defense attorneys or appeaws, fowwowed by a sentence to be executed "qwickwy."
Thereafter, severaw triaws, known as de Moscow Triaws, were hewd, but de procedures were repwicated droughout de country. Articwe 58 of de wegaw code, which wisted prohibited anti-Soviet activities as a counter-revowutionary crime, was appwied in de broadest manner. Many awweged anti-Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuaws as "enemies of de peopwe", starting de cycwe of pubwic persecution, often proceeding to interrogation, torture, and deportation, if not deaf. The Russian word troika dereby gained a new meaning: a qwick, simpwified triaw by a committee of dree subordinated to NKVD troika—wif sentencing carried out widin 24 hours. Stawin's hand-picked executioner Vasiwi Bwokhin was entrusted wif carrying out some of de high-profiwe executions in dis period.
Many miwitary weaders were convicted of treason, and a warge-scawe purge of Red Army officers fowwowed.[ii] The repression of so many formerwy high-ranking revowutionaries and party members wed Leon Trotsky to cwaim dat a "river of bwood" separated Stawin's regime from dat of Lenin, uh-hah-hah-hah. In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had wived in exiwe since January 1937—dis ewiminated de wast of Stawin's opponents among de former Party weadership. Wif de exception of Vwadimir Miwyutin (who died in prison in 1937) and Stawin himsewf, aww of de members of Lenin's originaw cabinet who had not succumbed to deaf from naturaw causes before de purge were executed.
Mass operations of de NKVD awso targeted "nationaw contingents" (foreign ednicities) such as Powes, ednic Germans, and Koreans. A totaw of 350,000 (144,000 of dem Powes) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Powes) were executed.[page needed] Many Americans who had emigrated to de Soviet Union during de worst of de Great Depression were executed, whiwe oders were sent to prison camps or guwags. Concurrent wif de purges, efforts were made to rewrite de history in Soviet textbooks and oder propaganda materiaws. Notabwe peopwe executed by NKVD were removed from de texts and photographs as dough dey never existed. Graduawwy, de history of revowution was transformed into a story about just two key characters, i.e. Lenin and Stawin, uh-hah-hah-hah.
In wight of revewations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate dat nearwy 700,000 peopwe (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in de course of de terror, wif de great mass of victims merewy "ordinary" Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, sowdiers, pensioners, bawwerinas, and beggars.:4 Many of de executed were interred in mass graves, wif some of de major kiwwing and buriaw sites being Bykivnia, Kurapaty, and Butovo.
Some Western experts bewieve de evidence reweased from de Soviet archives is understated, incompwete or unrewiabwe. Conversewy, historian Stephen G. Wheatcroft, who spent a good portion of his academic career researching de archives, contends dat, prior to de cowwapse of de Soviet Union and de opening of de archives for historicaw research, "our understanding of de scawe and de nature of Soviet repression has been extremewy poor" and dat some speciawists who wish to maintain earwier high estimates of de Stawinist deaf toww are "finding it difficuwt to adapt to de new circumstances when de archives are open and when dere are pwenty of irrefutabwe data" and instead "hang on to deir owd Sovietowogicaw medods wif round-about cawcuwations based on odd statements from emigres and oder informants who are supposed to have superior knowwedge."
Stawin personawwy signed 357 proscription wists in 1937 and 1938 dat condemned to execute some 40,000 peopwe, about 90% of whom are confirmed to have been shot. At de time, whiwe reviewing one such wist, he reportedwy muttered to no one in particuwar: "Who's going to remember aww dis riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers de names now of de boyars Ivan de Terribwe got rid of? No one." In addition, Stawin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to Mongowia, estabwished a Mongowian version of de NKVD troika, and unweashed a bwoody purge in which tens of dousands were executed as "Japanese spies", as Mongowian ruwer Khorwoogiin Choibawsan cwosewy fowwowed Stawin's wead.:2
During de 1930s and 1940s, de Soviet weadership sent NKVD sqwads into oder countries to murder defectors and oder opponents of de Soviet regime. Victims of such pwots incwuded Yevhen Konovawets, Ignace Poretsky, Rudowf Kwement, Awexander Kutepov, Evgeny Miwwer, Leon Trotsky, and de Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) weadership in Catawonia (e.g. Andréu Nin Pérez).
Shortwy before, during, and immediatewy after Worwd War II, Stawin conducted a broad-scawe series of deportations dat profoundwy affected de ednic map of de Soviet Union, uh-hah-hah-hah. Separatism, resistance to Soviet ruwe, and cowwaboration wif de invading Germans were cited as de officiaw reasons for de deportations. Individuaw circumstances of dose spending time in German-occupied territories were not examined. After de brief Nazi occupation of de Caucasus, de entire popuwation of five of de smaww highwand peopwes and de Crimean Tatars—more dan a miwwion peopwe in totaw—were deported widout notice or any opportunity to take deir possessions.
As a resuwt of Stawin's wack of trust in de woyawty of particuwar ednicities, ednic groups such as de Soviet Koreans, Vowga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, and many Powes, were forcibwy moved out of strategic areas and rewocated to pwaces in de centraw Soviet Union, especiawwy Kazakhstan in Soviet Centraw Asia. By some estimates, hundreds of dousands of deportees may have died en route. It is estimated dat between 1941 and 1949 nearwy 3.3 miwwion were deported to Siberia and de Centraw Asian repubwics. By some estimates, up to 43% of de resettwed popuwation died of diseases and mawnutrition.
According to officiaw Soviet estimates, more dan 14 miwwion peopwe passed drough de guwags from 1929 to 1953, wif a furder 7 to 8 miwwion being deported and exiwed to remote areas of de Soviet Union (incwuding entire nationawities in severaw cases). The emergent schowarwy consensus is dat from 1930 to 1953, around 1.5 to 1.7 miwwion perished in de guwag system.
In February 1956, Nikita Khrushchev condemned de deportations as a viowation of Leninism and reversed most of dem, awdough it was not untiw 1991 dat de Tatars, Meskhetians, and Vowga Germans were awwowed to return en masse to deir homewands. The deportations had a profound effect on de peopwes of de Soviet Union, uh-hah-hah-hah. The memory of de deportations has pwayed a major part in de separatist movements in de Bawtic states, Tatarstan and Chechnya even today.
At de start of de 1930s, Stawin waunched a wave of radicaw economic powicies dat compwetewy overhauwed de industriaw and agricuwturaw face of de Soviet Union, uh-hah-hah-hah. This came to be known as de Great Turn as Russia turned away from de near-capitawist New Economic Powicy (NEP) and instead adopted a command economy. The NEP had been impwemented by Lenin in order to ensure de survivaw of de sociawist state fowwowing seven years of war (Worwd War I, 1914–1917, and de subseqwent Civiw War, 1917–1921) and had rebuiwt Soviet production to its 1913 wevews. However, Russia stiww wagged far behind de West, and de NEP was fewt by Stawin and de majority of de Communist Party, not onwy to be compromising communist ideaws but awso not dewivering sufficient economic performance as weww as not creating de envisaged sociawist society. It was fewt necessary to increase de pace of industriawization in order to catch up wif de West.
Fredric Jameson has said dat "Stawinism was…a success and fuwfiwwed its historic mission, sociawwy as weww as economicawwy" given dat it "modernized de Soviet Union, transforming a peasant society into an industriaw state wif a witerate popuwation and a remarkabwe scientific superstructure." Robert Conqwest disputed such a concwusion, noting dat "Russia had awready been fourf to fiff among industriaw economies before Worwd War I" and dat Russian industriaw advances couwd have been achieved widout cowwectivization, famine, or terror. According to Conqwest, de industriaw successes were far wess dan cwaimed, and de Soviet-stywe industriawization was "an anti-innovative dead-end." Stephen Kotkin said dose who argue cowwectivization was necessary are "dead wrong", arguing dat such "onwy seemed necessary widin de straitjacket of Communist ideowogy and its repudiation of capitawism. And economicawwy, cowwectivization faiwed to dewiver." Kotkin furder cwaimed dat it decreased harvests instead of increasing dem.
According to severaw Western historians, Stawinist agricuwturaw powicies were a key factor in causing de Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which de Ukrainian government now cawws de Howodomor, recognizing it as an act of genocide. Some schowars dispute de intentionawity of de famine.
Rewationship to Leninism
Stawin considered de powiticaw and economic system under his ruwe to be Marxism–Leninism, which he considered de onwy wegitimate successor of Marxism and Leninism. The historiography of Stawin is diverse, wif many different aspects of continuity and discontinuity between de regimes Stawin and Lenin proposed. Some historians, such as Richard Pipes, consider Stawinism as de naturaw conseqwence of Leninism, dat Stawin "faidfuwwy impwemented Lenin's domestic and foreign powicy programs." Robert Service notes dat "institutionawwy and ideowogicawwy Lenin waid de foundations for a Stawin [...] but de passage from Leninism to de worse terrors of Stawinism was not smoof and inevitabwe." Likewise, historian and Stawin biographer Edvard Radzinsky bewieves dat Stawin was a reaw fowwower of Lenin, exactwy as he cwaimed himsewf. Anoder Stawin biographer, Stephen Kotkin, wrote dat "his viowence was not de product of his subconscious but of de Bowshevik engagement wif Marxist–Leninist ideowogy."
Dmitri Vowkogonov, who wrote biographies of bof Lenin and Stawin, expwained dat during de 1960s drough 1980s an officiaw patriotic Soviet de-Stawinized view of de Lenin–Stawin rewationship (i.e. during de Khrushchev Thaw and water) was dat de overwy-autocratic Stawin had distorted de Leninism of de wise dedushka Lenin, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, Vowkogonov awso wamented dat dis view eventuawwy dissowved for dose wike him who had de scawes faww from deir eyes in de years immediatewy before and after de dissowution of de Soviet Union. After researching de biographies in de Soviet archives, he came to de same concwusion as Radzinsky and Kotkin, i.e. dat Lenin had buiwt a cuwture of viowent autocratic totawitarianism, of which Stawinism was a wogicaw extension, uh-hah-hah-hah. He wamented dat, whiwe Stawin had wong since fawwen in de estimation of many Soviet minds (de many who agreed wif de-Stawinization), "Lenin was de wast bastion" in Vowkogonov's mind to faww and de faww was de most painfuw, given de secuwar apodeosis of Lenin dat aww Soviet chiwdren grew up wif.
Proponents of continuity cite a variety of contributory factors, in dat it was Lenin, rader dan Stawin, whose civiw war measures introduced de Red Terror wif its hostage-taking and internment camps; dat it was Lenin who devewoped de infamous Articwe 58 and who estabwished de autocratic system widin de Communist Party. They awso note dat Lenin put a ban on factions widin de Russian Communist Party and introduced de one-party state in 1921—a move dat enabwed Stawin to get rid of his rivaws easiwy after Lenin's deaf and cite Fewix Dzerzhinsky, who, during de Bowshevik struggwe against opponents in de Russian Civiw War, excwaimed: "We stand for organized terror—dis shouwd be frankwy stated."
Opponents of dis view incwude revisionist historians and a number of post-Cowd War and oderwise dissident Soviet historians incwuding Roy Medvedev, who argues dat awdough "one couwd wist de various measures carried out by Stawin dat were actuawwy a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures impwemented under Lenin…in so many ways, Stawin acted, not in wine wif Lenin's cwear instructions, but in defiance of dem." In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stawinism from Leninism in order to undermine de totawitarian view dat de negative facets of Stawin were inherent in communism from de start. Critics of dis kind incwude anti-Stawinist communists such as Leon Trotsky, who pointed out dat Lenin attempted to persuade de Communist Party to remove Stawin from his post as its Generaw Secretary. Lenin's Testament, de document which contained dis order, was suppressed after Lenin's deaf. In his biography of Trotsky, British historian Isaac Deutscher says dat, on being faced wif de evidence, "onwy de bwind and de deaf couwd be unaware of de contrast between Stawinism and Leninism."
A simiwar anawysis is present in more recent works such as dose of Graeme Giww, who argues dat "[Stawinism was] not a naturaw fwow-on of earwier devewopments; [it formed a] sharp break resuwting from conscious decisions by weading powiticaw actors." However, Giww notes dat "difficuwties wif de use of de term refwect probwems wif de concept of Stawinism itsewf. The major difficuwty is a wack of agreement about what shouwd constitute Stawinism." Revisionist historians such as Sheiwa Fitzpatrick have criticized de focus upon de upper wevews of society and de use of Cowd War concepts such as totawitarianism which have obscured de reawity of de system.
Pierre du Bois argues dat de cuwt was ewaboratewy constructed to wegitimize his ruwe. Many dewiberate distortions and fawsehoods were used. The Kremwin refused access to archivaw records dat might reveaw de truf, and key documents were destroyed. Photographs were awtered, and documents were invented. Peopwe who knew Stawin were forced to provide "officiaw" accounts to meet de ideowogicaw demands of de cuwt, especiawwy as Stawin himsewf presented it in 1938 in Short Course on de History of de Aww-Union Communist Party (Bowsheviks), which became de officiaw history. Historian David L. Hoffmann sums up de consensus of schowars: "The Stawin cuwt was a centraw ewement of Stawinism, and as such, it was one of de most sawient features of Soviet ruwe. [...] Many schowars of Stawinism cite de cuwt as integraw to Stawin's power or as evidence of Stawin's megawomania."
However, after Stawin's deaf in 1953, his successor Nikita Khrushchev repudiated his powicies and condemned Stawin's cuwt of personawity in his Secret Speech to de Twentief Party Congress in 1956 as weww as instituting de-Stawinization and rewative wiberawization (widin de same powiticaw framework). Conseqwentwy, some of de worwd's communist parties who previouswy adhered to Stawinism abandoned it, and to a greater or wesser degree adopted de positions of Khrushchev. Oders such as de Chinese Communist Party chose to spwit from de Soviet Union, resuwting in de Sino-Soviet spwit. The ousting of Khrushchev in 1964 by his former party-state awwies has been described as a Stawinist restoration by some, epitomized by de Brezhnev Doctrine and de apparatchik/nomenkwatura "stabiwity of cadres", wasting untiw de period of gwasnost and perestroika in de wate 1980s and de faww of de Soviet Union.
Maoism and Hoxhaism
Mao Zedong famouswy decwared dat Stawin was 70% good, 30% bad. Maoists criticized Stawin chiefwy regarding his view dat bourgeois infwuence widin de Soviet Union was primariwy a resuwt of externaw forces, to de awmost compwete excwusion of internaw forces, and his view dat cwass contradictions ended after de basic construction of sociawism. However, dey praised Stawin for weading de Soviet Union and de internationaw prowetariat, defeating fascism in Germany and his anti-revisionism.
Taking de side of de Chinese Communist Party in de Sino-Soviet spwit, de Peopwe's Sociawist Repubwic of Awbania remained committed at weast deoreticawwy to its own brand of Stawinism (Hoxhaism) for decades dereafter under de weadership of Enver Hoxha. Despite deir initiaw cooperation against "revisionism", Hoxha denounced Mao as a revisionist, awong wif awmost every oder sewf-identified communist organization in de worwd, resuwting in de Sino-Awbanian spwit. This had de effect of isowating Awbania from de rest of de worwd as Hoxha was hostiwe to bof de pro-American and pro-Soviet spheres of infwuence as weww as de Non-Awigned Movement under de weadership of Josip Broz Tito, whom Hoxha had awso denounced.
Trotskyists argue dat de Stawinist Soviet Union was neider sociawist nor communist, but rader a bureaucratized degenerated workers' state—dat is, a non-capitawist state in which expwoitation is controwwed by a ruwing caste which, awdough not owning de means of production and not constituting a sociaw cwass in its own right, accrued benefits and priviweges at de expense of de working cwass. Trotsky bewieved dat de Bowshevik Revowution needed to be spread aww over de gwobe's working cwass, de prowetarians for worwd revowution, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, after de faiwure of de revowution in Germany, Stawin reasoned dat industriawizing and consowidating Bowshevism in Russia wouwd best serve de prowetariat in de wong run, uh-hah-hah-hah. The dispute did not end untiw Trotsky's assassination in his Mexican viwwa by Stawinist assassin Ramón Mercader in 1940.
Max Shachtman, one of de principaw Trotskyist deorists in de United States at de time, argued dat de Soviet Union had evowved from a degenerated worker's state to a new mode of production which he cawwed bureaucratic cowwectivism, whereby ordodox Trotskyists considered de Soviet Union an awwy gone astray. Shachtman and his fowwowers dus argued for de formation of a Third Camp opposed eqwawwy to bof de Soviet and capitawist bwocs. By de mid-20f century, Shachtman and many of his associates such as Sociaw Democrats, USA identified as sociaw democrats rader dan Trotskyists, whiwe some uwtimatewy abandoned sociawism awtogeder and embraced neoconservatism. In de United Kingdom, Tony Cwiff independentwy devewoped a critiqwe of state capitawism dat resembwed Shachtman's in some respects, but it retained a commitment to revowutionary communism.
Some historians and writers such as German Dietrich Schwanitz draw parawwews between Stawinism and de economic powicy of Tsar Peter de Great, awdough Schwanitz in particuwar views Stawin as "a monstrous reincarnation" of him. Bof men wanted Russia to weave de western European states far behind in terms of devewopment. Bof wargewy succeeded, turning Russia into Europe's weading power. Oders[who?] compare Stawin wif Ivan de Terribwe because of his powicies of oprichnina and restriction of de wiberties of common peopwe.
Stawinism has been considered by some reviewers as a form of "red fascism". Awdough fascist regimes were ideowogicawwy opposed to de Soviet Union, some of dem positivewy regarded Stawinism as evowving Bowshevism into a form of fascism. Benito Mussowini himsewf positivewy reviewed Stawinism as having transformed Soviet Bowshevism into a Swavic fascism.
Michaew Ewwman has stated dat mass deads from famines are not a "uniqwewy Stawinist eviw" and compared de behavior of de Stawinist regime vis-à-vis de Howodomor to dat of de British Empire (towards Irewand and India) and even de G8 in contemporary times, arguing dat de watter "are guiwty of mass manswaughter or mass deads from criminaw negwigence because of deir not taking obvious measures to reduce mass deads" and dat a possibwe defense of Stawin and his associates is dat "deir behaviour was no worse dan dat of many ruwers in de nineteenf and twentief centuries".
David L. Hoffmann raised de issue of wheder Stawinist practices of state viowence derived from sociawist ideowogy. Pwacing Stawinism in an internationaw context, Hoffman argued dat many forms of state interventionism used by de Stawinist government, incwuding sociaw catawoguing, surveiwwance and concentration camps, predated de Soviet regime and originated outside of Russia. Hoffman furder argued dat technowogies of sociaw intervention devewoped in conjunction wif de work of 19f-century European reformers and were greatwy expanded during Worwd War I, when state actors in aww de combatant countries dramaticawwy increased efforts to mobiwize and controw deir popuwations. According to Hoffman, de Soviet state was born at dis moment of totaw war and institutionawized practices of state intervention as permanent features of governance.
In writing The Mortaw Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and de Threat to America, anti-communist and Soviet dissident Aweksandr Sowzhenitsyn argued dat de use of de term Stawinism is an excuse to hide de inevitabwe effects of communism as a whowe on human wiberties. He wrote dat de concept of Stawinism was devewoped after 1956 by Western intewwectuaws so as to be abwe to keep awive de communist ideaw. However, de term Stawinism was in use as earwy as 1937 when Leon Trotsky wrote his pamphwet Stawinism and Bowshevism.
Writing two The Guardian articwes in 2002 and 2006, British journawist Seumas Miwne said dat de impact of de post-Cowd War narrative dat Stawin and Hitwer were twin eviws, derefore communism is as monstrous as Nazism, "has been to rewativize de uniqwe crimes of Nazism, bury dose of cowoniawism and feed de idea dat any attempt at radicaw sociaw change wiww awways wead to suffering, kiwwing and faiwure."
In modern Russia, pubwic opinion of Stawin and de former Soviet Union has increased in recent years. According to a 2015 Levada Center poww, 34% of respondents (up from 28% in 2007) say dat weading de Soviet peopwe to victory in Worwd War II was such a great achievement dat it outweighed his mistakes. A 2019 Levada Center poww showed dat support for Stawin, who is seen by many Russians as de victor in de Great Patriotic War, reached a record high in de post-Soviet era, wif 51% regarding Stawin as a positive figure, and 70% saying his reign was good for de country.
Lev Gudkov, a sociowogist at de Levada Center, said dat "Vwadimir Putin's Russia of 2012 needs symbows of audority and nationaw strengf, however controversiaw dey may be, to vawidate de newwy audoritarian powiticaw order. Stawin, a despotic weader responsibwe for mass bwoodshed but awso stiww identified wif wartime victory and nationaw unity, fits dis need for symbows dat reinforce de current powiticaw ideowogy."
Some positive sentiment can awso be found ewsewhere in de former Soviet Union, uh-hah-hah-hah. A 2012 survey commissioned by de Carnegie Endowment found 38% of Armenians concurring dat deir county "wiww awways have need of a weader wike Stawin". A 2013 survey by Tbiwisi University found 45% of Georgians expressing "a positive attitude" to Stawin, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Deutscher, Isaac (1961). "7–9". Stawin: A Powityicaw Biography (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
- Pwamper, Jan (2012). The Stawin Cuwt: A Study in de Awchemy of Power. Yawe University Press.
- Bottomore, Thomas (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Wiwey-Bwackweww. p. 54.
- Kotkin, Stephen (1997). Magnetic Mountain: Stawinism As a Civiwization (1st paperback ed.). Berkewey: University of Cawifornia Press. pp. 71, 81, 307. ISBN 9780520208230.
- Rossman, Jeffrey (2005). Worker Resistance Under Stawin: Cwass and Revowution on de Shop Fwoor. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674019261.
- Pons, Siwvo; Service, Robert, eds. (2012). A Dictionary of 20f Century Communism. Princeton University Press. p. 307.
- Service, Robert (2007). Comrades!: A History of Worwd Communism. Harvard University Press. pp. 3–6.
- Greewey, Andrew. Rewigion in Europe at de End of de Second Miwwennium. Transaction Pubwishers, 2009. p.89
- Pons (2012), pp. 308–310.
- Sawicky, Nichowas D. (December 20, 2013). The Howodomor: Genocide and Nationaw Identity (Education and Human Devewopment Master's Theses). The Cowwege at Brockport: State University of New York. Retrieved October 6, 2020 – via Digitaw Commons.
Schowars awso disagree over what rowe de Soviet Union pwayed in de tragedy. Some schowars point to Stawin as de mastermind behind de famine, due to his hatred of Ukrainians (Hosking, 1987). Oders assert dat Stawin did not activewy cause de famine, but he knew about it and did noding to stop it (Moore, 2012). Stiww oder schowars argue dat de famine was just an effect of de Soviet Union's push for rapid industriawization and a by-product of dat was de destruction of de peasant way of wife (Fischer, 1935). The finaw schoow of dought argues dat de Howodomor was caused by factors beyond de controw of de Soviet Union and Stawin took measures to reduce de effects of de famine on de Ukrainian peopwe (Davies & Wheatcroft, 2006).
- Kotkin, Stephen (1997). Magnetic Mountain: Stawinism As a Civiwization (1st paperback ed.). Berkewey: University of Cawifornia Press. ISBN 9780520208230.
- De Basiwy, N. (2017) . Russia Under Soviet Ruwe: Twenty Years of Bowshevik Experiment. Routwedge Library Editions: Earwy Western Responses to Soviet Russia. Abingdon, Oxon: Routwedge. ISBN 9781351617178. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
[...] vast sums were spent on importing foreign technicaw 'ideas' and on securing de services of awien experts. Foreign countries, again - American and Germany in particuwar - went de U.S.S.R. active aid in drafting de pwans for aww de undertakings to be constructed. They suppwied de Soviet Union wif tens of dousands of engineers, mechanics, and supervisors. During de first Five-Year Pwan, not a singwe pwant was erected, nor was a new industry waunched widout de direct hewp of foreigners working on de spot. Widout de importation of Western European and American objects, ideas, and men, de 'miracwe in de East' wouwd not have been reawized, or, at weast, not in so short a time.
- LTC Roy E. Peterson (2011). Russian Romance: Danger and Daring. AudorHouse. p. 94. "As described in one account: 'In May 1929 de Soviet Union signed an agreement wif de Ford Motor Company…de Soviets agreed to purchase $13 miwwion worf of Automobiwes and parts, whiwe Ford agreed to give technicaw assistance untiw 1938 to construct an integrated automobiwe-manufacturing pwant at Nizhny Novgorod."
- "Communism". Encycwopædia Britannica Onwine. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
- Montefiore 2004, p. 164.
- Giwbert, Fewix; Large, David Cway (2008). The End of de European Era: 1890 to de Present (6f ed.). New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 213. ISBN 978-0393930405.
- Jones, Jonadan (August 29, 2012). "The fake photographs dat predate Photoshop". The Guardian. Retrieved August 27, 2016.
In a 1949 portrait, de Soviet weader Joseph Stawin is seen as a young man wif Lenin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Stawin and Lenin were cwose friends, judging from dis photograph. But it is doctored, of course. Two portraits have been sutured to sentimentawise Stawin's wife and cwoseness to Lenin, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Suny, Ronawd (1998). The Soviet Experiment: Russia, de USSR, and de Successor States. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 221.
- On Finwand, Powand etc., Deutcher, chapter 6 "Stawin during de Civiw War", (p. 148 in de Swedish 1980 printing)
- Deutscher, Isaac.  1961. "The Generaw Secretary." Pp. 221–29 in Stawin, A Powiticaw Biography (2nd ed.).
- "Stawinism." Encycwopædia Britannica.  2020.
- Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warwords and Muswims in Chinese Centraw Asia: a powiticaw history of Repubwican Sinkiang 1911-1949. Cambridge, Engwand: CUP Archive. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
- Rudewson, Justin Jon; Rudewson, Justin Ben-Adam; Ben-Adam, Justin (1997). Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationawism Awong China's Siwk Road. Cowumbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10786-0.
- Zuehwke, Jeffrey. 2006. Joseph Stawin. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 63.
- Sémewin, Jacqwes, and Stanwey Hoffman. 2007. Purify and Destroy: The Powiticaw Uses of Massacre and Genocide. New York: Cowumbia University Press. p. 37.
- Davies, Robert; Wheatcroft, Stephen (2009). The Industriawisation of Soviet Russia Vowume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agricuwture 1931–1933. Pawgrave Macmiwwan UK. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-230-27397-9. Retrieved September 20, 2020.
- Tauger, Mark B. (2001). "Naturaw Disaster and Human Actions in de Soviet Famine of 1931–1933". The Carw Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies (1506): 1–65. doi:10.5195/CBP.2001.89. ISSN 2163-839X. Archived from de originaw on June 12, 2017.
- Getty, J. Arch (2000). "The Future Did Not Work". The Atwantic. Retrieved September 20, 2020.
- Figes, Orwando. 2007. The Whisperers: Private Life in Stawin's Russia. ISBN 0-8050-7461-9.
- Gewwatewy 2007.
- Kershaw, Ian, and Moshe Lewin. 1997. Stawinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56521-9. p. 300.
- Kuper, Leo. 1982. Genocide: Its Powiticaw Use in de Twentief Century. Yawe University Press. ISBN 0-300-03120-3.
- Brackman 2001, p. 204.
- Brackman 2001, pp. 205–206.
- Brackman 2001, p. 207.
- Overy 2004, p. 182.
- Tucker 1992, p. 456.
- Snyder, Timody. Bwoodwands: Europe Between Hitwer and Stawin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Basic Books, 2010. ISBN 0-465-00239-0 p. 137.
- "Newseum: The Commissar Vanishes". Retrieved Juwy 19, 2008.
- Tucker, Robert C. 1999. Stawinism: Essays in Historicaw Interpretation, (American Counciw of Learned Societies Pwanning Group on Comparative Communist Studies). Transaction Pubwishers. ISBN 0-7658-0483-2. p. 5.
- Overy 2004, p. 338.
- Montefiore 2004.
- Tzouwiadis, Tim. August 2, 200.) "Nightmare in de workers paradise." BBC.
- Tzouwiadis, Tim. 2008. The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stawin's Russia. Penguin Press, ISBN 1-59420-168-4.
- McLoughwin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin, eds. (2002). Stawin's Terror: High Powitics and Mass Repression in de Soviet Union. Pawgrave Macmiwwan. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4039-0119-4.
- McLoughwin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin, eds. (2002). Stawin's Terror: High Powitics and Mass Repression in de Soviet Union. Pawgrave Macmiwwan. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4039-0119-4.
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki. 2007. The Voices of de Dead: Stawin's Great Terror in de 1930s. Yawe University Press. ISBN 0-300-12389-2.
- Snyder, Timody (2010) Bwoodwands: Europe Between Hitwer and Stawin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-00239-0 p. 101.
- Rosefiewde, Stephen (1996). "Stawinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Kiwwings, Forced Labour and Economic Growf in de 1930s" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (6): 959. doi:10.1080/09668139608412393.
- Comment on Wheatcroft by Robert Conqwest, 1999.
- Pipes, Richard (2003) Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicwes), p. 67. ISBN 0-8129-6864-6.
- Appwebaum 2003, p. 584.
- Keep, John (1997). "Recent Writing on Stawin's Guwag: An Overview". Crime, Histoire & Sociétés. 1 (2): 91–112. doi:10.4000/chs.1014.
- Wheatcroft, S. G. (1996). "The Scawe and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Kiwwings, 1930–45" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (8): 1319–53. doi:10.1080/09668139608412415. JSTOR 152781.
- Wheatcroft, S. G. (2000). "The Scawe and Nature of Stawinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conqwest" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 52 (6): 1143–59. doi:10.1080/09668130050143860. PMID 19326595. S2CID 205667754.
- Ewwman, Michaew (2007). "Stawin and de Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–93. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. S2CID 53655536.
- Vowkogonov, Dmitri. 1991. Stawin: Triumph and Tragedy. New York. p. 210. ISBN 0-7615-0718-3.
- Ewwman, Michaew (2005). "The Rowe of Leadership Perceptions and of Intent in de Soviet Famine of 1931–1934" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 57 (6): 826. doi:10.1080/09668130500199392. S2CID 13880089.
- Buwwock 1962, pp. 904–906.
- Boobbyer 2000, p. 130.
- Pohw, Otto, Ednic Cweansing in de USSR, 1937–1949, ISBN 0-313-30921-3.
- "Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Deaf Rates". Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- Conqwest, Robert (1997). "Victims of Stawinism: A Comment". Europe-Asia Studies. 49 (7): 1317–1319. doi:10.1080/09668139708412501.
We are aww incwined to accept de Zemskov totaws (even if not as compwete) wif deir 14 miwwion intake to Guwag 'camps' awone, to which must be added 4–5 miwwion going to Guwag 'cowonies', to say noding of de 3.5 miwwion awready in, or sent to, 'wabour settwements'. However taken, dese are surewy 'high' figures.
- Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). "Victims of Stawinism and de Soviet Secret Powice: The Comparabiwity and Rewiabiwity of de Archivaw Data. Not de Last Word" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 51 (2): 315–345. doi:10.1080/09668139999056.
- Rosefiewde, Steven. 2009. Red Howocaust. Routwedge, 2009. ISBN 0-415-77757-7. pg. 67: "[M]ore compwete archivaw data increases camp deads by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"; pg 77: "The best archivawwy based estimate of Guwag excess deads at present is 1.6 miwwion from 1929 to 1953."
- Heawey, Dan. 2018. "Gowfo Awexopouwos. 'Iwwness and Inhumanity in Stawin’s Guwag'" (review). American Historicaw Review 123(3):1049–51. doi:10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049.
- Fredric Jameson. Marxism Beyond Marxism (1996). p. 43. ISBN 0-415-91442-6.
- Robert Conqwest. Refwections on a Ravaged Century (2000). p. 101. ISBN 0-393-04818-7.
- Kotkin, Stephen. 2015. Stawin: Paradoxes of Power 1878-1928. ISBN 0143127861. p. 724–25.
- "Genocide in de 20f century". History Pwace.
- Davies, Robert; Wheatcroft, Stephen (2009). The Industriawisation of Soviet Russia Vowume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agricuwture 1931–1933. Pawgrave Macmiwwan UK. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-230-27397-9.
- Tauger, Mark B. (2001). "Naturaw Disaster and Human Actions in de Soviet Famine of 1931–1933". The Carw Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies (1506): 1–65. doi:10.5195/CBP.2001.89. ISSN 2163-839X. Archived from de originaw on 12 June 2017.
- Pipes, Richard. Three Whys of de Russian Revowution. pp. 83–4.
- "Lenin: Individuaw and Powitics in de October Revowution". Modern History Review. 2 (1): 16–19. 1990.
- Edvard Radzinsky Stawin: The First In-depf Biography Based on Expwosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives, Anchor, (1997) ISBN 0-385-47954-9.
- Anne Appwebaum (October 14, 2014). "Understanding Stawin". The Atwantic. Retrieved Apriw 4, 2015.
- Pipes, Richard (2001). Communism: A History. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-8129-6864-4.
- George Leggett, The Cheka: Lenin's Powiticaw Powice.
- Roy Medvedev, Leninism and Western Sociawism, Verso, 1981.
- Moshe Lewin, Lenin's Last Testament, University of Michigan Press, 2005.
- Deutscher, Isaac (1959). Trotsky: The Prophet Unarmed. pp. 464–5.
- Giww 1998.
- Giww 1998, p. 1.
- Geyer, Michaew; Fitzpatrick, Sheiwa (2009). Beyond Totawitarianism: Stawinism and Nazism Compared. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511802652. ISBN 978-0-521-72397-8.
- Pierre du Bois, "Stawin – Genesis of a Myf," Survey. A Journaw of East & West Studies 28#1 (1984) pp. 166–181. See abstract in David R. Egan; Mewinda A. Egan (2007). Joseph Stawin: An Annotated Bibwiography of Engwish-Language Periodicaw Literature to 2005. Scarecrow Press. p. 157. ISBN 9780810866713.
- Carow Strong and Matt Kiwwingsworf, "Stawin de Charismatic Leader?: Expwaining de ‘Cuwt of Personawity’ as a wegitimation techniqwe." Powitics, Rewigion & Ideowogy 12.4 (2011): 391-411.
- N. N. Maswov, "Short Course of de History of de Aww-Russian Communist Party (Bowshevik)—An Encycwopedia of Stawin's Personawity Cuwt". Soviet Studies in History 28.3 (1989): 41–68.
- David L. Hoffmann, "The Stawin Cuwt' The Historian (2013) 75#4 p. 909.
- "Mao's Evawuations of Stawin". MassLine. Retrieved August 3, 2014.
- Faria, MA (January 8, 2012). "Stawin, Communists, and Fataw Statistics". Retrieved September 5, 2012.
- Cwiff, Tony (1948). "The Theory of Bureaucratic Cowwectivism: A Critiqwe". In Cwiff, Tony (1988) . State Capitawism in Russia. London: Bookmarks pp. 333–353. ISBN 9780906224441. Retrieved 23 Apriw 2020.
- Schwanitz, Dietrich. Biwdung. Awwes, was man wissen muss: "At de same time, Stawin was a kind of monstrous reincarnation of Peter de Great. Under his tyranny, Russia transformed into a country of industriaw swaves, and de gigantic empire was gifted wif a network of working camps, de Guwag Archipewago."
- Fried, Richard M. (1991). Nightmare in Red: The McCardy Era in Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-19-504361-7.
- MacGregor Knox. Mussowini Unweashed, 1939-1941: Powitics and Strategy in Itawy's Last War. pp. 63–64.
- Ewwman, Michaew (November 2002). "Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments". Europe-Asia Studies. Taywor & Francis. 54 (7): 1152–1172. doi:10.1080/0966813022000017177. JSTOR 826310.
- Hoffmann, David (2011). Cuwtivating de Masses: Modern State Practices and Soviet Sociawism, 1914-1939. Idaca, New York: Corneww University Press. pp. 6–10. ISBN 978-0-8014-4629-0.
- "Leon Trotsky: Stawinism and Bowshevism (1937)". Marxists.org, 28 August 1937. Retrieved 12 Juwy 2013.
- Miwne, Seumas (12 September 2002). "The battwe for history". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
- Miwne, Seumas (16 February 2006). "Communism may be dead, but cwearwy not dead enough". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 Apriw 2020.
- "In Russia, nostawgia for Soviet Union and positive feewings about Stawin". Pew Research Center. June 29, 2017. Retrieved Juwy 23, 2018.
- "Pubwic opinion of Stawin improves over past few years – poww resuwts". RT Internationaw. January 14, 2016. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
- "Joseph Stawin: Why so many Russians wike de Soviet dictator". BBC News. Apriw 18, 2019.
- Arkhipov, Iwya (Apriw 16, 2019). "Russian Support for Stawin Surges to Record High, Poww Says". Bwoomberg. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
- "Poww Finds Stawin's Popuwarity High Archived 20 March 2017 at de Wayback Machine". The Moscow Times. 2 March 2013.
- "The Stawin Puzzwe: Deciphering Post-Soviet Pubwic Opinion Archived 2 Apriw 2017 at de Wayback Machine". Carnegie Endowment for Internationaw Peace. 1 March 2013.
- "Georgia divided over Stawin 'wocaw hero' status in Gori". BBC News. 5 March 2013. Archived from de originaw on 19 Juwy 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- An exact number of negative votes is unknown, uh-hah-hah-hah. In his memoirs, Anastas Mikoyan writes dat out of 1,225 dewegates, around 270 voted against Stawin and dat de officiaw number of negative votes was given as dree, wif de rest of bawwots destroyed. Fowwowing Nikita Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" in 1956, a commission of de centraw committee investigated de votes and found dat 267 bawwots were missing.
- The scawe of Stawin's purge of Red Army officers was exceptionaw—90% of aww generaws and 80% of aww cowonews were kiwwed. This incwuded dree out of five Marshaws; 13 out of 15 Army commanders; 57 of 85 Corps commanders; 110 of 195 divisionaw commanders; and 220 of 406 brigade commanders, as weww as aww commanders of miwitary districts. Careww, P.  1974. Hitwer's War on Russia: The Story of de German Defeat in de East (first Indian ed.), transwated by E. Osers. Dewhi: B.I. Pubwications. p. 195.
- Appwebaum, Anne (2003). Guwag: A History. Doubweday. ISBN 978-0-7679-0056-0.
- Boobbyer, Phiwwip (2000). The Stawin Era. Routwedge. ISBN 978-0-415-18298-0.
- Brackman, Roman (2001). The Secret Fiwe of Joseph Stawin: A Hidden Life. Frank Cass Pubwishers. ISBN 978-0-7146-5050-0.
- Buwwock, Awan (1962). Hitwer: A Study in Tyranny. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0.
- Conqwest, Robert (1991). Stawin: Breaker of Nations. New York: Penguin Random House.
- Gewwatewy, Robert (2007). Lenin, Stawin, and Hitwer: The Age of Sociaw Catastrophe. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4005-6.
- Giww, Graeme J. (1998). Stawinism. Pawgrave Macmiwwan, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 978-0-312-17764-5. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
- Kotkin, Stephen (2014). Stawin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878-1928. New York: Penguin Random House.
- —— (2017). Stawin: Waiting for Hitwer, 1929-1941. New York: Penguin Random House.
- Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2004). Stawin: The Court of de Red Tsar. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4230-2.
- Overy, Richard J. (2004). The Dictators: Hitwer's Germany and Stawin's Russia. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1992). Stawin in Power: The Revowution from Above, 1928–1941. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30869-3.
- Economic Probwems of Sociawism in de USSR, written in 1951.
- Barnett, Vincent. 2006. "Understanding Stawinism: The 'Orwewwian Discrepancy' and de 'Rationaw Choice Dictator'." Europe-Asia Studies 58(3):457–66. doi:10.1080/09668130600601982.
- Buwwock, Awan. 1998. Hitwer and Stawin: Parawwew Lives (2nd ed.). London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686374-8.
- Campeanu, Pavew. 2016. Origins of Stawinism: From Leninist Revowution to Stawinist Society. Routwedge.
- Conqwest, Robert. 2008. The Great Terror: A Reassessment (40f anniversary ed.). Oxford University Press.
- Deutscher, Isaac. 1961. Stawin: A Powiticaw Biography (2nd ed.); awso 1st edition 1949 onwine free
- Figes, Orwando. 2008. The Whisperers: Private wife in Stawin's Russia. New York: Picador.
- Fitzpatrick, Sheiwa. Everyday Stawinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in de 1930s. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505000-2. Preview via The New York Times.
- Groys, Boris. 2014. The totaw art of Stawinism: Avant-Garde, aesdetic dictatorship, and beyond. Verso Books.
- Hoffmann, David. 2008. Stawinism: The Essentiaw Readings. New York: John Wiwey & Sons.
- ________. 2018. The Stawinist Era. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-18837-1
- Khapaeva, Dina. 2016. "Triumphant memory of de perpetrators: Putin's powitics of re-Stawinization, uh-hah-hah-hah." Communist & Post-Communist Studies:61–73.
- Kotkin, Stephen. 1997. Magnetic Mountain: Stawinism as a civiwization. Berkwey: University of Cawifornia Press.
- Newson, Todd H. 2015. "History as ideowogy: The portrayaw of Stawinism and de Great Patriotic War in contemporary Russian high schoow textbooks." Post-Soviet Affairs 31(1):37–65.
- Nove, Awec. 1993. An Economic History of de USSR, 1917–1991. (3rd ed.).
- Service, Robert. 2002. Lenin: A Biography. Bewknap Press. ISBN 0-330-49139-3.
- ——— 2005. Stawin: A Biography, Bewknap Press. ISBN 0-674-01697-1.
- Ree, Erik Van, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2002. The Powiticaw Thought of Joseph Stawin, A Study in Twentief-century Revowutionary Patriotism. RoutwedgeCurzon, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 0-7007-1749-8.
- Stawin, Joseph.  1975. Foundations of Leninism. Foreign Languages Press.
- Tismăneanu, Vwadimir (2003). Stawinism for aww seasons: a powiticaw history of Romanian Communism. University of Cawifornia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23747-6.
- Todd, Awwan, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2003.The European Dictatorships: Hitwer, Stawin, Mussowini. Cambridge University Press.
- Traynor, John, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2002. Chawwenging History: Europe 1890–1990. Chewtenham: Newson Thornes.
- Tucker, Robert C., ed. 2017. Stawinism: essays in historicaw interpretation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Routwedge.
- Winkwer, Martina. 2017. "Chiwdren, Chiwdhood, and Stawinism." Kritika 18(3):628–37. doi:10.1353/kri.2017.0041.
- Wood, Awan, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2004. Stawin and Stawinism (2nd ed.). Routwedge. ISBN 978-0-415-30732-1.
|Wikimedia Commons has media rewated to Stawinism.|