24 May 2013 The basics of rational and prudentantibiotic use for common childhood infections in ambulatory care ARPEC Educational Group Julia Bielicki Giangiacomo Nicolini Marta Romanengo Francois Dubos Rebecca Lundin
Educational Tool Contents • Introduction • The role of microorganisms in the human body • Microorganisms and their treatments • Not all infections require specific treatment • What antibiotics do • European outpatient antibiotic use • Relationship between antibiotic resistance and antibiotic use • The landscape of antibiotic resistance in Europe: E.coli • Aspects of rational antibiotic prescribing in outpatient care • Dealing with common childhood infections presenting to ambulatory care providers • Pharyngitis • Acute otitis media • Community acquired pneumonia • Sinusitis • Urinary tract infection • Skin and soft tissue infection
The basics of rational and prudent antibiotic use for common childhood infections in ambulatory care Introduction
The role of microorganismsin the human body • 500-600 different kinds of bacteria thrive on mucus and food remnants in the mouth (Streptococcus, anaerobes). • Some microorganisms live on the external ear and skin and constitute its normal flora (Propionibacterium acnes, Staph epidermidis, Micrococcus). • A normal flora lives on the lower part of the urethra and the female genital tract (Lactobacilli). • The colon is a holding tank for bacteria (1012-1013/ml) that participate in the end stages of food digestion.
Microorganisms and their treatments Viruses Parasites Bacteria Fungi Antivirals Antibacterials (also called antibiotics) Antifungals Antiparasital drugs (active against malaria and other parasitic infections) Most often used in the community and the focus of these slides Antimycobacterials (specifically active against mycobacteria) Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of a microorganism to resist the actions of antimicrobial agents. It is a characteristic of micro-organisms, not patients, and may or may not be seen in conjunction with disease in a patient. Resistance may also be found when surveillance or environmental samples are analysed. Adapted from ECDC factsheet for experts “Antimicrobial resistance”
Not all infections require specific treatment • Most infections seen in ambulatory care are viral in nature (e.g. common cold, pharyngitis, acute otitis media, flu) • Most of these infections do not require specific treatment (indeed, often this is not available) • The key decision is whether the patient is presenting with an infection that is (a) likely to be bacterial and (b) likely to benefit from antibiotic treatment Adapted from ECDC factsheet for experts “Antimicrobial resistance”
What antibiotics do… • If there is a bacterial infection caused by a microorganism susceptible to the chosen antibiotic, the infection may be treated with the correctly administered antibiotic • The normal human flora will also be modified, resulting in some well-known side-effects such as diarrhoea • Groups of resistant bacteria may be selected and persist as colonizing organisms • These can cause infection in the same patient or in other contacts of that patient later Ecological pressure Selection of resistant bacteria Colonization of individuals Spread and cross-transmission between humans, animals and the environment Adapted from ECDC factsheet for experts “Antimicrobial resistance”
European outpatient antibiotic use ESAC Year book 2009, accessible at ESAC-Net website through ECDC. Reproduced with permission. Antibiotics are used very frequently in ambulatory healthcare & very variably across Europe
Relationship between antibiotic resistance and antibiotic use Study of the relationship between penicillin use and prevalence of penicillin non-susceptible S.pneumoniae in Europe: High observed levels of antibiotic resistance are associated with more intensive antibiotic use Goossens H et al.The Lancet. 2005;365:579-587. Reproduced with permission.
The landscape of antibiotic resistance in Europe: E.coli Note variation in resistance to third- generation cephalosporins amongst E.coli bloodstream and cerebrospinal fluid isolates In some countries the utility of cephalosporins in treatment of E.coli infection may already be limited Antimicrobial resistance surveillance in Europe 2011. ECDC 2012. Reproduced with permission.
Aspects of rational antibiotic prescribing in outpatient care • It is in the interest of patients to preserve currently available antibiotics for future use • Patients must receive antibiotics that they need at the right time, dose and duration • A given antibiotic should be prescribed if • the infection is most likely caused by bacteria • the causative bacteria are likely to be susceptible to the antibiotic of choice • antibiotic treatment is the only safe option to manage the patient • Gathering all relevant information to address the above points at each patient encounter is critical Adapted from WHO report “The evolving threat of antimicrobial resistance – Options for action. 2012”
Further information: Relevant antibiotic prescription guidelines Potentially relevant guidelines in English may be found at: • The National Guideline Clearinghouse run by the US Department of Health and Human Services and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (http://guideline.gov/) • The Clinical Guidelines Portal run by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia (http://www.clinicalguidelines.gov.au/) • Clinical Guidelines provided by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) (http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG)# • The Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network run by Healthcare Improvement Scottland (http://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/published/index.html) • The Cochrane Reviews provided by the Cochrane Collaboration (http://www.cochrane.org/) In addition, you may be able to find guidelines for the treatment of the common infections discussed in this slide set through your national paediatric or paediatric infectious diseases society.
Further information: Country specific antibiotic use and resistance EU country specific data on antibiotic use and resistance may be found at: • The European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network (EARS-Net) run by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) (http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/activities/surveillance/EARS-Net/database/Pages/database.aspx) • The European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption Network (ESAC-Net), also run by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) (http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/activities/surveillance/ESAC-Net/database/Pages/database.aspx ) In addition, you may be able to find information on national, regional, or hospital level antibiotic use and resistance through your national or regional public health authority or laboratory or pharmacy departments within individual hospitals.
The basics of rational and prudent antibiotic use for common childhood infections in ambulatory care Dealing with common childhood infections presenting to ambulatory care providers
Introductory remarks • This slide set includes discussions on the management of specific common childhood infections in ambulatory care • Whenever a specific guideline is cited, this is as an example of a structured approach rather than as an endorsement of that particular recommendation • Users of this slide set should be encouraged to adhere to local guidelines, wherever these exist • Recommendations for specific antibiotic treatments included in this slide set are used only as examples, because rational antibiotic choices may vary according to local epidemiology
Common childhood infections presenting to ambulatory care providers Infections covered in slide set Structured approach Broadly, for each infection the slide set contains information on Case outline Background information Clinical assessment Benefit of laboratory testing Choosing a treatment strategy Risk-benefit considerations for antibiotic treatment Proposed approach • Pharyngitis • Acute otitis media • Community acquired pneumonia • Sinusitis • Urinary tract infection • Skin and soft tissue infection
Basic knowledge on good clinical practice in common infectious diseases in children Pharyngitis
David can’t eat today… “David, my 5 year old son attending pre-school, was always healthy before nephrotic syndrome was discovered about 2 months ago. For about three days he has had a bad sore throat, especially when he swallows, and I wonder if this can be related to his kidneys, as he has been taking steroids for nearly 2 months. His fever was 38.5˚C this morning. He is not eating much” On clinical examination David is hotand you can feel his cervical lymph nodes. He has no signs of toxicity or respiratory distress. His throat is very red, with big tonsils with exudate and erythema. Everseenthese?
Background information: Pharyngitis Bacterial aetiology S. pyogenes = Group A Strep (20-30% children) • Gram positive cocci • May be present in the normal pharyngeal flora in children • Several factors of virulence How can I distinguish between them? Many symptoms are similar; it is not easy to distinguish bacterial from viral streptococcal infection only on clinical grounds • Other rare bacteria • Fusobacterium (adolescents) • Neisseria • Corynebacteria Clinical criteria more frequently met in bacterial infection Viral aetiology The most common (60-80%) ssociated features: Conjunctivitis Rhinitis Hoarseness Cough Diarrhoea Exanthema Rhinovirus, adenovirus, EBV, Enterovirus, HSV, influenza virus, RSV, parainfluenzae virus, coronavirus, metapneumovirus
Specific considerations with Group A Streptococcus Accurate identification of streptococcal pharyngitis followed by AB therapy can be important for improving clinical symptoms and for prevention of complications, but several facts should be considered • GAS pharyngitis is a self-limited illness even without AB treatment • Transmission: GAS Pharyngitis is transmitted by droplets from person to person, AB treatment can stop transmission. • Purulent complications: Retropharyngeal abscesses, peritonsillar abscesses, (quinsy), Lamierre’s Syndrome are very rare (< 1%) • Carriers: GAS carriers should not be treated with antimicrobial therapy, they are unlikely to spread GAS pharyngitis or develop complications. • Non purulent complications • Scarlet fever • Acute post-streptococcal Glomerulonephritis (it is not prevented by antimicrobial therapy!) • Rheumatic fever (ARF) (still leading cause of acquired heart disease in children in parts of the world) • Post-streptococcal reactive arthritis
Possible diagnostic approaches towards acute Pharyngitis Can be used when no detection test is available, but has low prediction value for GAS infection (35-50%) Can be very tricky in a non-collaborative child, but if performed correctly is 90-95% sensitive for detection of GAS Not indicated for children < 3 years , those with viral aetiology, or asymptomatic household contacts Clinical Criteria: The 4 Centre Criteria: 1.Fever and 2.Tonsillar exudate 3.Tender linphoadenophaty 4.Absence of cough Rapid antigen detection test (RADT) Throat culture (can be used to verify RADT test results) Anti-streptococcal antibody titres are not recommended How can I make an informed decision on the use of antibiotics in children with acute pharyngitis?
Group A Strep-rapid test (RADT) • ① Detect the membrane group A specific carbohydrate antigens. AB treatment can be proposed • Amoxicillin susceptibility: 100% • Macrolide resistance: 2-20% by an efflux pump mechanism No Antibiotics • Symptomatic treatment The performance of the test depends on the quantity of antigen in the swab. A swabbing with high charge of pus is important. • ② • ③ • ④ • ⑤ This is GOOD practice, we can avoid inappropriate administration of AB!
Benefits & Risks of AB in Pharyngitis Benefits of AB in pharyngitis • AB are an effective treatment for bacterial Pharyngitis caused by GAS • Positive RADT are highly specific for GAS and allow targeted Rx . • Reduction of contagiousness from 6-14d to 24h for Strep A pharyngitis • Reduction of complications • the greatest burden of disease, particularly invasive disease and post-streptococcal sequelae, is in children in resource-poor areas. • Reduction of inflammatory complications not different between delayed or immediate AB treatment • Antimicrobial therapy is of no proven benefit as treatment due to organisms other than GAS • Family & Physician reassurance Risks of AB Rx in pharyngitis • Adequate AB treatment should follow bacteriological confirmation with RADT or swab. • Clinical criteria for GAS pharyngitis are not certain • Inappropriate AB Rx for large numbers of non-GAS pharyngitis • Natural history of symptoms is towards a spontaneous resolution • Development of antimicrobial resistance among common pathogens • Risk for AB side-effects • Rash • Diarrhoea • Excessive diagnoses of allergy
A reasonable approach to David’s sore throat… You can use a RADT test ! • ① Considering David’s symptoms, age, and examination results, I must consider a possible GAS infection. What are my next steps? • David is febrile and mum is worried • David has just had a long treatment with steroids for GN • You do not want to prescribe unnecessary treatment to him • You need a quick answer for mum and a solid plan for his discharge I can be reasonably confident David has a Streptococcal Pharyngitis • You can perform a throat swab for culturefor patients with underlying conditions if strep A test is negative • Give antibiotics in case of positive culture
Antibiotic Regimens reccomended for Group A Streptococcal Pharyngitis If you decide to prescribe antibiotics you should follow your local guidelines. IDSA Guidelines, 2012
Antibiotic Regimens recommended for GAS Pharyngitis • A course of 10 days of oral penicillin V is recommended in view of rheumatic fever prevention but compliance is very low • Benzathine Penicillin G Intramuscular can be used in those patients unlikely to complete a full course of treatment, but is very rare approach in western Countries. • Alternative regimens with comparable effectiveness are high dose amoxicillin twice a day or narrow spectrum cephalosporins for 5-6 days. • You decide to initiate antibiotic treatment with high dose Amoxicillin a day for David for a week. • David’s mum rings you after 2 days. He is much better and has been afebrile for a full day today. His appetite has come back and he is much happier.
References • Shulman ST et al. Clinical Practice Guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. ClinInfect Dis 2012 Nov 15;55(10):1279-82.
The basics of rational and prudent antibiotic use for common childhood infections in ambulatory care ACUTE otitis media
James has a fever and is refusing food… James’s mother brings her nine month-old son to your office early on Monday morning. His fever spiked in the previous afternoon but later he had a good meal. He woke up at 2 am crying and little could be done to calm him. He finally could go back to sleep after being given a dose of 5 mL Paracetamol. In the morning he refused his milk and appeared restless and possibly hot again. You know James, he has no previous medical problems. His mum reports that he was recently introduced into a day care nursery for three half-days a week. Examination Irritable, with normal consciousness, not smiling. Signs of upper airway infection. T˚=38.9˚C No respiratory signs, normal general examination. Mum helps you and you manage to check his ears. This is what you see: (left otoscopy)
Background information: acute otitis media • Episodes of upper respiratory viral infection (adenovirus, rhino, influenza, RSV) often precede or are concurrent with development of AOM • Middle ear fluid pathogens in AOM: • Streptococcus pneumoniae & HemophilusInfluenzae(80-85%) • Moraxella Catarralis(5-10%) • Streptococcus Pyogenes(5%) Highest incidence among children between 6 months and 2 years of age By 3 years of age, 80% of children have had at least one episode of acute otitis media What should I consider in the approach to a child with suspected acute otitis media? • AOM is the most commonly reported indication for antibiotic treatment in children • There is serious problem with over-diagnosis and overprescribing of AB for AOM in children • Precise microbiologic diagnosis requires a sample of middle ear fluid • Middle ear fluid sampling is not possible • Natural history of the majority of AOM episodes is a spontaneous resolution of pain and fever in 5-7 days • Is antibiotic treatment necessary? • Rare but serious suppurative complications of AOM can occur (mastoiditis, hearing loss, meningitis) • Incidence in children is not influenced by initial treatment with antibacterial agents How can I make an informed decision on the use of antibiotics in children with suspected acute otitis media ?
A possible strategy for treating James… 1) How likely is this to be a real acute otitis media? Focus on TM: must be cloudy, bulging with impaired mobility • Check history of acute onset • Otalgia • Irritability • Fever • Excessive crying The symptoms are often aspecific • Check tympanic membrane for signs of: Middle-ear effusion (MEE) • Fullness or bulging of TM • Limited or absent mobility of TM • Air-fluid level behind the TM • Otorrhea Middle-ear inflammation • Distinct erythema of TM • Distinct otalgia Can you differentiate AOM from OME ? 3. Assess and check for sign of severe illness or presence of suppurativecomplications 4. Treat pain with Paracetamol or Ibuprofen following local guidelines for pain management, adequate dose and age appropriate indications Ifthisispresent, referthe childaccordingly OME (Otitis Media with Effusion) is a sterile inflammatory state of the middle ear that resolves spontaneously; AB are not appropriate or beneficial in this case This is what James’ mum has reported NICE AAP OMA Guidelines 2013
A possible strategy for treating James… 2) I am reasonably confident James has AOM, should I prescribe an antibiotic? Observation without use of antibacterial agents (or delayed AB prescribing) is an option for selected children with uncomplicated AOM • How old is the child? Young child (< 6 months or < 2 years) or bilateral AOM, othorrea • Has pain and fever been assessed? and adequately treated? • Can the child be adequately supervised? Inform the parents regarding the treatment plan and expected illness progression • Has adequate follow up appointment been agreed upon? But it is important to consider and weight the presence of other factors that might influence your decision how to treat the AOM:
Antibiotic choice for AOM Ifyou decide to prescribeantibioticsyoushouldfollowyourlocalguidelines. The followingtablesare the reccomendedantibacterial agents in the AAP Guidelines for AOM published in 2013. AAP Guidelines, 2013
Risks & benefits of antibiotic use in AOM Benefits • The treatment is always empirical • Family reassurance • Can be safe to prescribe empirically even among infants and children < 2 years Risks • Antibiotic treatment has no effect for : • Reducing pain on day 1 • Preventing suppurative complications • Accelerating resolution of middle ear fluid • Unwanted AB side-effects • Diarrhoea • Vomiting • Rashes • Allergy/Anaphylaxis • Increased AB resistance in community • Higher rate of treatment failure • Use of low dosage dose or incorrect course 1-Rosenfeld, Laryngoscope 2003 2-Little P, Br J Gen Pract 2006 3-Spiro DM, JAMA 2006 4-Coker, JAMA 2010
A reasonable approach to James’s problem… You review James 2 days later. He is much better and has been treated with only Paracetamol for about 24 hours and his distress has disappeared. Youconsider James isonly 9 monthsold, his temperature is 38.5°C nowand hismumappearsveryconcerned for hisdistress. Youare certainthat James has AOM butatpresenthisconditionisnot severe and youhave time to observe the situation. Youreassure and explain to hismumwhatyouthink and thatsheneeds to givehimParacetamolregularly. Nevertheless, you decide to dischargehim with an antibioticprescription (Amoxicillinat 80 mg/kg/24 hours) and instructhismumthatifsymptoms do notimprovewithin2 days, she can call you and a different treatment can be agreedupon. James mum asks if anything can be done to prevent further episodes of AOM, can you advise her on this?
References • The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. American Academy of Pediatrics subcommittee on management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics. 2013 February; DOI: 10.1542/peds.2012-3488 • Respiratory tract infections – antibiotic prescribing. NICE clinical guidelines 69, issued July 2008 • Wald ER. Acute otitis media and acute bacterial sinusitis. ClinInfect Dis2011 May;52(Suppl 4):S277-83. • Wald ER, DemuriGP. Antibiotic Recommendations for Acute Otitis Media and Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in 2013 - The Conundrum. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2013 Jan 21. [Epub ahead of print]
The basics of rational and prudent antibiotic use for common childhood infections in ambulatory care COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA
Albert has a bad cough… Albert’s father brings his 12 years old boy to your attention. He wants Albert to be assessed because he has been coughing for five days now. He was originally diagnosed with a viral infection by his regular doctor, who suggested salbutamol and steroid inhalers, which Albert has needed before. Albert has many allergies, mostly to foodstuffs and pollen. He likes to play football, and he had continued to be able to play until yesterday, when he developed a high fever and the cough got worse, on 2 occasions resulting in Albert having to throw up. You examine Albert, who is attentive and able to co-operate with the examination. However, you note that his respiratory rate is 32/min and he is slightly out of breath after undressing. He also has a temperature of 39.2°C. You hear crackles over the right lung and find Albert’s oxygen saturation to be 93% in room air. His throat is normal and he does not have a cold. You feel Albert has community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).
Background information: Community acquired pneumonia Viruses (20-45%) • Influenza virus • Parainfluenzae virus • RSV • Rhinovirus • Adenovirus • Coronavirus • Enterovirus • Bocavirus • Metapneumovirus Curr Opin Pulm Med 2005 A microorganism is identified in less than 10% of cases Bacteria Typical • Streptococcus pneumoniae • Streptococcus group A • Staphylococcus aureus (H. influenzae & M. catharralis) Atypical • Mycoplasma pneumoniae • Chlamydia pneumoniae • Bordetella pertussis In children, CAP is most commonly due to viral infection, but can be bacterial with different pathogens important at different ages
What is pneumonia? In some studies, viral aetiologies of CAP have been documented in up to 80% of children younger than 2 years. The distinctions between typical – bacterial, atypical – bacterial and viral cases are difficult. Laboratory tests and chest radiography could help but are not conclusive. Pneumonia is an acute or chronic inflammation of the lung caused by infection. Bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites can cause pneumonia. The most important criteria for diagnosis are clinical signs and symptoms Pneumonia definitions: • very sensitive: e.g. fever and cough for epidemiologic considerations • very specific: e.g. clinical symptoms and signs + radiologic documentation /microbiologic confirmation defined by government regulatory agencies for approval of antimicrobials to treat pneumonia Lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) can be synonymous with CAP when defined in a way that is clinically oriented, to assist practitioners with diagnosis and management. IDSA CAP guideline, 2011
How likely is this to be a community acquired pneumonia? CAP in children is defined as the presence of signs and symptoms of pneumonia in a previously healthy child caused by an infection that has been acquired outside of the hospital. More directly relevant to evaluating severity of disease in CAP is the simple measurement of oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry. Albert has some signs of distress; By definition he suffers from CAP. IDSA CAP guideline, 2011
Diagnostic approach towards CAP Patient will be managed as outpatient Consider • Influenza virus and other viral test, tests for Mycoplasma (depending on age and clinical signs) to help delineate aetiology • Pulse oximetry rule out need for hospitalisation Probably not necessary • Blood cultures • Sputum children are rarely able to expectorate • Pneumococcal urinary antigen often false – positive • Complete blood cell count and acute –phase reactants • Routine chest radiographs Patient will be managed in hospital Consider • Influenza virus and other viral test, tests for Mycoplasma (depending on age) to help delineate aetiology • Pulse oximetry confirm need for hospitalisation • Blood cultures higher rates of bacteraemia if unwell • Sputum if child is able to expectorate • Complete blood cell count and acute –phase reactants to assess response to therapy • Routine chest radiographs or ultrasound to assess for pleural effusion Probably not necessary • Pneumococcal urinary antigen often false – positive CAP is a clinical diagnosis, therefore no further testing is required to identify CAP. However, some further evaluation and tests may be helpful to determine appropriate CAP management If you manage Albert as an outpatient, he may not need any further tests. IDSA CAP guideline, 2011
Does this child with CAP require hospital admission? • Children and infants who have moderate to severe CAP, as defined by several factors, including respiratory distress and hypoxemia (sustained peripheral oxygen saturation <=90% at sea level) should be hospitalized for management in a setting where skilled paediatric nursing care can be provided. • Infants less than 3–6 months of age with suspected bacterial CAP (but also frequently those with viral aetiology) are likely to benefit from hospitalization, especially when there are feeding problems. • Children and infants with suspected or documented CAP caused by a pathogen with increased virulence, such as community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) should be hospitalized. These children will be generally very unwell and remain so despite treatment with antibiotics. • Children and infants for whom there is concern about careful observation at home or who are unable to comply with therapy or unable to be followed up should be hospitalized. There are some situations when admission to hospital should be considered in a child with CAP. It looks like Albert can be managed at home. The most common reasons for admission are hypoxaemia and feeding difficulties/refusal to drink. IDSA CAP guideline, 2011
CAP – a strategy to determine whether treatment is required Limited role for blood tests in screening (CRP, PCT, WBC, ESR) but if all or most of these are elevated bacterial aetiology is highly probable Decide on where to manage the patient: based on clinical severity of symptoms and patient characteristics Choice of diagnostic test: if you decide to manage patient at home possibly 1) no blood sample, 2) viral antigen, 3) no X-ray. If bacterial aetiology is felt likely (see next slide) and viral antigen testing (if relevant in your area) is negative, antibiotic treatment should be given • S.pneumoniae continues to be the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia and therefore should be covered • In some patients may need to consider a macrolide if atypical bacteria are suspected Route of treatment: oral Duration of treatment should be between 7 to 10 days, but local guidelines may vary Follow-up: • If possible review patient on antibiotic treatment within 48-72 hours • Change treatment and refer to hospital if worsening Albert can be managed at home. You take a full blood count and CRP, both of which are elevated. Testing for influenza is negative. You are not able to perform an X-ray at your practice. On the basis of his clinical signs Albert is most likely to have disease caused by typical bacteria. Therefore the treatment should cover these first and foremost. IDSA CAP guideline, 2011 Differentiation of bacterial and viral CAP in children, Don et al. Pediatr Int. 2009
Antibiotic choice for CAP – a strategy Most probable cause • Viruses • Investigate for Mycoplasma, Influenza A/B, S. pneumoniae • S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, consider S. aureusin case of necrotizing pneumonia/abscess • S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes • S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes Duration of treatment must be of 7 – 10 days First line AB treatment No AB therapy required + strict follow-up (even with viral infection children can get unwell) Amoxicillin or equivalent; consider macrolide first if >5yo Requires hospitalisation Amoxicillin or equivalent Consider assessment in hospital Presentation Bilateral pneumonia, well child with signs of viral infection (pharyngitis, runny nose, wheezing, diarrhoea etc.) Bilateral pneumonia, moderately unwell Bilateral pneumonia, severely unwell Lobar/segmental pneumonia, mild Lobar/segmental pneumonia, moderate to severe IDSA CAP guideline, 2011 Bradley. PIDJ 2002
Risks & Benefits of antibiotic use in CAP Benefits of AB in CAP • In bacterial CAP AB are effective treatment. There are no benefits in case of viral CAP, but distinguishing viral and bacterial CAP can be difficult. • In typical S.pneumoniae lobar pneumonia AB treatment may prevent suppurative complications • Family & Physician reassurance, however review is important to monitor progress Risks of AB in CAP • Unnecessary AB treatment in children with viral CAP • Unnecessary broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment in children most likely to haveS.pneumoniaeinfection responsive to penicillin • Prescribing errors resulting in inadequate treatment • Unwanted AB side-effects • Diarrhoea • Vomiting • Rashes • Allergy/Anaphylaxis • Selection of resistant bacteria • Risk of re-consultation for an infection caused by a resistant microorganism
A reasonable approach to Albert’s problem… You explain to Albert and his father that you suspect CAP. You feel that Albert would benefit from antibiotics and that the symptoms and signs are not severe enough to require an admission to hospital. When you perform a rapid screen for influenza, the test comes back negative. Luckily, and despite his many allergies, Albert’s father confirms that he has had penicillin antibiotics previously without any symptoms suggestive of allergy. Therefore you propose to start an oral antibiotic treatment, choosing as first line amoxicillin. You also suggest to discontinue the inhalations for now. You warn Albert that he may experience some diarrhoea, but that he should hopefully feel better within a few days. You ask to see Albert again in a couple of days to assess his progress and to review your treatment. You review Albert 2 days later. He is much better and has been afebrile for a day although still coughing. There is no wheezing on auscultation. You propose to go on with antibiotic treatment for another 5 days. You ask Albert’s father to contact you if he get worse again and you reassure both that the cough should eventually settle down.
References • Sinaniotis CA, Sinaniotis AC. Community acquired pneumonia in children. CurrOpinPulm2005 May;11(3):218-25 • Bradley JS et al. The management of community-acquiredpneumonia in infants and childrenolderthan 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the PediatricInfectiousDiseases Society and the InfectiousDiseases Society of America. CID Advance Access published August 301, 2011 • Don et al. Differentiation of bacterial and viral CAP in children, PediatrInt. 2009 Feb;51(1):91-6 • Bradley JS. Management of community-acquiredpediatric pneumonia in an era of increasingantibioticresistance and conjugatevaccines. PIDJ, 2002 Jun;21(6):592-8
The basics of rational and prudent antibiotic use for common childhood infections in ambulatory care ACUTE RHINOSINUSITIS
Sophia has rhinorrhoea, headache and cough… Sophia’s mother brings her 8 year old daughter to your attention. Sophia has been complaining about persistent, thick nasal discharge, nasal congestion, headache and cough for 13 days now. The cough is worse at night but there is no wheezing. Every day, in the afternoon, she has a temperature spike of 38.2°C. She doesn’t vomit and has no rashes or other symptoms. There are no signs of referred nasal foreign bodies. No allergy or other illnesses are mentioned by Sophia’s mother. You examine Sophia, who is breathing well, without signs of dyspnoea; no fever at the moment. You don’t find any eye abnormalities, her tympanic membranes are clear. She has nasal congestion with thick yellow purulent mucus in the posterior nasal pharynx. She has mild tenderness to palpation of her maxillary sinuses. Her oral pharynx is non erythematous. Her breath is malodorous. She has no obvious dental caries or pain on tapping of her teeth. You feel Sophia has an acute sinusitis.