Class 15: Crusades and European Expansion
I. Introduction The Crusading Movement - one of defining features of High Middle Ages. Sources - Many - Chronicles, Memoirs, Papal Documents, Feudal Documents. We are in to a new world compared to the earlier periods. What is a Crusade? - A Holy War?. Hard to define. Much Research. In a militarized and religious society - might seem natural. But in fact a lot more complicated than this. Let us try to answer this question by seeing what it was. II. European Expansion Until c. 1000 a chaotic situation in Europe. We already looked at:- -The political rebirth -Ecclesiastical revolution - a period of religious enthusiasm. Also a growing population -No plague -Less war -more resources with expansion of Land Europe still less `civilized' than Byzantium or Islam, but now strong and ready to expand. European imperialism - never stopped (?.. Note importance of military background of upper classes, and progressive Christianization of all classes. III. Christianity and Islam Main Battles had been in Byzantium By 11th century Byzantium was able to push its borders into Muslim Territory. But in Spain also, the collapse of the Caliphate in 1002 had allowed Christians to expand south. More in next class. Muslims in heartland not really aware of any threat, but Crusades were to condition Muslim and Christian relations for centuries. Crusade is a conflict of Muslims and Christians, but also more than that. It was Christians against all non-Christians. Jews and heretics also effected. IV. Normans Normandy - French and Feudal. Tight control by Dukes of Normandy - led many to seek fortunes elsewhere. One a pattern starts it is self perpetuating. That's why historians look at origins so much. England - conquered 1066 Southern Italy -Tancred de Hautville - a minor baron. Good example of younger sons heading off. -Eight went to Southern Italy in 1030a and 1040s - as mercenaries -lost of conflict between Byzantine cities, Lombard states and Italian republics. Robert Guiscard arrives 1047. Bandit leader. Then by 1059 Duke. Normans looked on with favor by Papacy. Vs the Empire 1060-90 - conquest of Sicily 1071 - Began to attack Byzantine Possessions - Took Bari. Bad time for Byzantines. Normans rule Sicily well - used Byzantine and Islamic forms. Normans very involved in Crusades. Crusades are part of purely political/booty expansion of feudal classes in Europe. But also more than that. V. Byzantium A. 11th Century Bureaucracy replaces a military state - it looked like Byzantium did not need its huge armies. B. 1071 - Mantzikert. Seljuqs Turcomans invade all of Anatolia C. Alexius Comenus 1081- Renovatio Expansion in Balkans and Anatolia Alexius possibly appealed to the Pope for military aid. Used Jerusalem as an attraction + relics. Did not want a Crusade: Had no idea what one was. Byzantine attitude to Jerusalem -Constantinople was the new Jerusalem as well as New Rome Crusades a reaction to perilous situation of Christians in the East. But more than that. VI. Fatamids Fatamids 969. Cairo. Attacks by Hakim on Christians 1021. Crusades are a defense of Jerusalem. VII. Jerusalem Real or not real - Symbolic importance. Pilgrimage in Europe: 1064-65 big German pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Raid on Mahdya in 1087 by Pisa - called a `pilgrimage'. Crusade to some extent incorporates ideas of pilgrimage But that's not all VIII. The Peace and Truce of God What I have described so far is lots of different elements that could come together to create a conflict situation. But a Crusade was not just a war, it was an ideology [DISCUSS} For Byzantines and Muslims it must have looked like a standard war, or at least plundering expeditions. But for the western fighters it had definite religious overtones. This is connected with the attempt by the Church to Control and Christianize the very strong feudal forces - and stop private warfare. Two movements in France [NB France has largest population and dominates crusade] sponsored by monasteries, particularly Cluny. Problem of lawless knights and private warfare. Church wanted peace, plus less attacks on it. Kings and high nobles wanted war to be their privilege The Peace of God -no war against holy places or people -POG aimed to put under God's protection the poor (who were defenseless., unarmed clerics, pilgrims, merchants, women, children, peasants. IE it defined combatants and non-combatants It defined the milites as a military class. Later on it tried to protect all Christians. -Began in late 10th century, but most effective in 11th. An episcopal more than a papal movement. The Gregorian councils and synods pushed it. The Truce of God Began in late 11th century (or 1127?. -A clerical ideology of war: Holy War and Holy Peace -no war on holy days - actually half the year Crusades effectively diverted private warfare, and were an expansion of peace efforts within Christendom. Gregory VII's idea of soldiers of Christ. [Gregory was fully part of feudal world view]. Idea of Christina Knighthood [To be expanded by St. Bernard]. Ideals of Just war and Holy war are important, and distinct Crusade includes ideas of peace within Christendom. IX. Urban II 1188-99 A Monk of Cluny. Gregorian Reform Crusades were led and encouraged by the Papacy. They were papal wars. But more than that X. The First Crusade A. Council at Clermont-Ferrand 1095 - Deus le volt! B. Crusading Indulgence -for remission of sins -New concept. Very popular. C. Response by 1096 Pope was surprised by response. He had offered no plan of action. 1. Popular Response Peter the Hermit and poor men 2. Noble Response Especially from Northern France, Normandy, Flanders, but also from Southern France - Perhaps 25,000 men Four Armies Southern France - led by papal legate and Count Raymond of Toulouse Northern France - led by Hugh or Vermandois, Count Robert of Flanders, Count Stephen-Henry of Blois, and Duke Robert of Normandy. Lorraine - led by Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine (a supporter of Henry IV., his brother Baldwin Italy - led by Robert Guiscard's son Bohemund and Tancred 3. German Response 1096 Massive anti-Semitic attacks in Mainz, Koln etc. -effect of crusading on European Minorities. D. Journey - difficult - no provisions Destroyed a lot of Balkans. E. Constantinople Impressed by Alexius - who made leaders his vassals/douloi Alarmed at Norman presence F. In Anatolia Many killed at Nicea -Crusaders killed many Christians -Byzantine and Western hostility G. Antioch Got Bogged down. Tarfurs ate Muslims Finding of the Holy Lance - spurred on Army Had good luck - as Fatamids and Seljuqs were at war with each other. H. Jerusalem 1099 - July 15th - Massive killing I. The Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099-1291 No idea what they would do once they got there. Set up a `perfect' Feudal state - Assizes of Jerusalem - C13 See Map p. 180 It used to thought it had strong nobles and weak king. Now its known the king was strong for first 30 years. Also not perfect feudalism - the nobles lived in the towns. Many had left wives in Europe - and so could not pass on lands to legitimate heirs. Very little settlement. Set up a Latin Church structure - alienated the Greeks. Trade with Muslims - but little intellectual contact - which was more in Spain and Sicily J. Knights Hospitallers 1113 Knights Templars 1119 Small armies. Strong Castles - basis of security. XI. The End of the Crusading Movement? Continued to 1918? Allenby's troops in Jerusalem. Certainly throughout the Middle Ages. XII. European Expansion: The Later Crusades i. Introduction A. Summing up Crusades from last class: We talked mainly of the First Crusade in 1196-99 A Holy War - but that is not an adequate definition B. Summary [Q&A] Involved were varying concepts -Conflict of Christians and Muslims -Military adventures of the feudal classes, especially Normans. -The idea of Aid to eastern Christians, both those in the Holy land and Byzantium. -The idea of Pilgrimage to Jerusalem -Extension of the Church's ongoing attempt to control warfare as in Truce of God and Peace of God. -Papal blessing and indulgences C. All in all a heady mix of religious faith, religious symbols, and religious power, with secular adventurism. Once the idea got going it became an accepted part of medieval ideology. Only very late on did criticism start. Crusade defines much of European activity for the high middle ages. D. The crusades have also been seen as the first phase of European expansionism. This is the theme I want to explore in this class. Both by looking at the future of the Crusades to the Holy Land, and at other European Crusades In Spain, Eastern Europe and strangely enough in France. ii. Crusades to the Holy Land A. The Kingdom of Jerusalem B. The Second Crusade 1146-8 1. Fall of Edessa 2. St. Bernard of Clairvaux -Great mystical writer -Encourager of devotion to B.V.M -politically important because of his holiness 3. More attacks on Jews 4. The Crusade - Kings take over Louis VII, Conrad 5. Military Orders - promoted by St. Bernard to maintain kingdom of Jerusalem. Ultimate development of Milites Christi idea -Hospital 1113 -Temple 1119 - based on Cistercians C. The Third Crusade 1. 1187 - Saladin's Victory at Hattin fall of Jerusalem 2. The Crusade of Kings - the most Romantic? -Frederick Barbarossa (died in a ditch on the way. -Philip Augustus, new king of France -His sometime lover, Richard I the Lion Heart -Salah-al-din/Saladin. 3. Failure of Crusade Seen as a result on sin and antichrist 4. Conquest of Cyprus by Richard II New Latin base in the East D. The Kingdom of Acre Nobles, Castles - development of Military architecture E. Future Crusades to the East There were many more crusades. But they never quite made it to the Holy land. -Fourth destroyed the Byzantine Empire -Fifth Went to Egypt -Children's Crusade 1212 - led to slavery F. Reasons for Failure 1. Distance 2. Muslim Resurgence Beginning of cult of Jerusalem among Muslims This is the period when Christianity looses its hold in Syria and Iraq. 3. Size of Armies changes European ones remain small, but Asian ones grow big. Eventually the Mongols where to invade the area with thousands of troops - turned back at Ein Jalut in 1260 by the well equipped successor to Saladin, Sultan Baibars of Egypt. 4. Failure to Colonize -Number who went east was in fact quite small. -They live in the towns. Which were trading places. -Land cultivation continued by the original Christian and Muslim inhabitants -Few peasants went out - no reason to go -People did not go out on an adventure or pilgrimage to farm. -few women went. In short, the crusades became a small governing class in a basically Muslim/Arab Christian Country Lessons were taken to heart by modern Israelis. G. The Crusades and Europe They were not a success. But Europe did benefit in many ways -not by intellectual contact with the superior Islamic and Byzantine cultures - that took place in Spain/Sicily -But positive benefits in growth of trade - of which more in future class. -Architectural impact of Crusader castles. -New awareness of the outside world. -the Whole theme of Crusade as a motivator. H. But bear in mind the failure to colonize. Population is probably the key to what happened in the east - both its failures, and its successes (e.g. Castles.. iii. Spain A. Reconquista -Spain fell 711 -Kingdom of the Asturias & County of Barcelona -Until decline of Caliphate in early 11th century, no room for Christians to do anything. -Then they begin to develop a distinctively Spanish ideology of Reconquista: The idea that Muslims were in Spain illegitimately, and that it was a duty to `reconquer.' This is prior to Crusades. Has its own religious cult - Santiago de Compostella. B. Asturias Leon, Castile, Navarre, Catalonia/Aragon, [Portugal] States that could expand were the future. C. Process -Gradual move into Extremadura Helped by Muslim concentration in the South. -1085 - under Alfonso VI, Capture of Toledo, old Visigothic Capital (textbook wrong date on p. 171. -Period of stability: Alomohads and Almoravids -1212 Las Navas de Tolosa -South fall by 1260 -All except Granada which remains Muslim until 1492. -Then Spanish move on to Americas. D. Assimilation to Crusades -Repeat - this was not a Crusade in origin. Had Spanish origins. -But once crusades got started - a general similarity could obviously be seen -Popes said Spaniards should not go on Crusade, but stay and fight Muslims in Spain. -Crusade indulgences to people fighting in Spain. So, gradually Reconquista, although always keeping its own identity, becomes assimilated to crusades. -This is also helped by the influence of French knights who would come to Spain, which was much closer than the Holy land, to fulfill Crusade vows. -Spanish Religious Orders - Santiago de C., Calatrava -Also epic poetry - crusading literature if you like - was not set in the Holy land, but in the time of Charlemagne's attacks on Spain. E. Spanish Reconquista a Success At least in its own terms. Muslims probably not too happy. What was the difference? -Obviously - distance was not an issue, The area conquered was contiguous to the aggressive area. -Also Muslims in Spain were isolated. In fact when they received help from Morocco they could stand their ground fairly well. -But the biggest difference was the official policy of `repobulacion' -Spanish Monarchs took special care that the area they -conquered was settled. Spanish Towns -Now the land was not always suitable for arable farming - so the basis of settlement was towns. -Spain had no real feudal system to negate the development of towns. No noble titles either. -So towns were established all over the conquered areas Privileges - Fueros/Forums were given which gave the citizens a great deal of liberty to attract settlers. -Also led to early representative government in Spain as the reps. of the towns were invited to council with the kings from the 1250s on. Spain then was not only conquered, as the Holy land, but it was also made Spanish. -The critical aspect is population in my estimation. iv. Germans - The Drang Nach Ostern A. Both Crusades and Reconquista began militarily, even if results are due to population effects. In Germany population movement is prior in expansion. B. Germany HRE and Separate states. C. Population growth D. Method of Expansion From 10th century to 13th -Elbe - Oder - Vistula -Lay lords and bishops try to attract settlers -From all different areas of Germany + Flanders -Giving Peasants freedoms + Building defensible settlements -Germanic settlements through Eastern Europe and Russia E. Eastern Europe Slavs - Wends, Poles Lithuanians, Letts -Resistance - big battles 983, 1018, 1060. F. Northern Crusades -Germans on Crusade 1147 - Wendish Crusade -But they too bordered infidels -The Teutonic Knights -Expansion in Livonia and Prussia G. The big difference from Spain and Holy Land was that the Native inhabitants became Christian. -This meant they eventually could stand their ground and that the area of Germanization only extended so far. -Beyond a certain point the Germans remained in towns, but not in the countryside. H. Germanization of Baltic area - continued until 1945. Combination of political control and population. v. Albigensian Crusade Brief mention as I will discuss it under heresy. But the notion of Crusades other than in the Holy Land and against others than Muslims proved attractive - in fact it possibly sapped the vitality of the crusade in the East. It was most dramatic in its use in 1209 against Cathar heretics in the South of France. This was not exactly expansion of Europe, but it was an expansion of the political control of the French kings and of the Northern French aristocracy over the South. vi. Summation By the end of 1250, Western Europe was larger -not in the Holy land -In Spain and Germany and Sicily -also Scandinavian expansion in Iceland and Greenland -A dramatic indication of the `rebirth' after 1050.
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© Paul Halsall, 1996.
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