& Quad Jumps -
Implications for Training
Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism
The purpose of this paper is to review the
quadruple figure skating jumps, focusing on information that has
implications for strength and conditioning programs. At a minimum, to
complete the required revolutions in a jump, a skater must balance the
average angular velocity with the time in the air.
Vertical velocity at
takeoff is similar in high revolution jumps to that in low revolution
jumps; however, when comparing skaters of different abilities, those
with higher abilities generate greater vertical velocities at takeoff
for the same type of jump.
Powerful extension of the legs is the
primary factor in generating vertical velocity. Some jumps use
asymmetrical extension of both legs, while other jumps involve
extension of only one leg. Angular velocity is controlled primarily by
the skater's moment of inertia, which means skaters must forcefully
arrest the motion of the arms and legs after the propulsion phase and
then quickly position the arms and legs close to the axis of rotation
Training exercises that emphasize eccentric and
concentric muscle actions and which are adaptable to asymmetrical or
unilateral motions, such as box jumps and medicine ball throws, are a
crucial component to off-ice training programs for figure skaters.
skating is a sport that combines athletic prowess with elegant
artistry. Skaters are required to combine diverse skills such as jumps,
spins, step sequences, and spirals into a seamless program which has
both technical difficulty and beautiful presentation.
As the sport of
figure skating has developed over the years, the athletic capabilities
of the athletes have increased, due in part to improved training and
equipment, as is true in many sports. With the increased athleticism in
skating have come increased levels of difficulty in the technical
elements, such as jumps and spins.
Competitive male singles skaters are
complete 3 jumps in their
short programs, one of which must be a triple or quadruple jump. In
their free skating program, male skaters may complete up to 8 jumps. Of
these 8 jumps, the skaters competing at the highest level of
international competition will complete entirely triple and quadruple
Today's female skaters also must complete
their short programs, one of which must be a triple jump. In their free
programs, female skaters may complete up to 7 jumps. Of these 7 jumps,
female skaters successfully competing at the international level will
have almost entirely triple jumps and triple combination jumps (U.S.
Figure Skating, 2004).
Up-and-coming skaters hoping to break
international scene must master these skills as they prepare for the
increasing levels of difficulty that are likely to emerge as the
envelope of athletic performance expands even further.
To master this
degree of technical difficulty, the skaters must continue to make
advances in their physical capabilities such as flexibility, strength,
and power. Understanding the biomechanics of skating skills can help
skaters and their coaches design effective sport-specific training
programs to achieve this goal.
Thus, the purpose of this paper is to
review the biomechanics of triple and quadruple figure skating jumps,
specifically focusing on information that has implications for strength
and conditioning programs.
At a minimum, to complete the required
revolutions in a jump, a skater
must balance the average angular velocity with the time in the air.
While this will not guarantee a successful jump, as there are other
technical requirements and factors, it is an essential component of a
successful jump. The time in the air will depend on the vertical
velocity at the instant of takeoff.
Vertical velocity is generated
during the propulsive phase of the jump (Figure 1) as the skater
applies downward forces to the ice. Time in the air can also be
affected by the skater's landing position. Recent studies have shown
that skaters land with their center of mass in a lower position than at
takeoff (King et al., 2004).
When a skater "delays" the landing with
slightly flexed hips, knees, or ankles, as opposed to more extended
hips, knees, and ankles, he or she gains a few hundredths of a second
of flight time. While this may not sound like a significant increase in
time, depending on the skater's rotational velocity it could result in
an extra 10 to 20 degrees of rotation. In some instances this could be
the one factor that makes the difference between being able to land the
jump or not.
The skater's average angular velocity
flight phase of the
jump will depend on his or her angular momentum during flight and
his/her moment of inertia. Angular momentum is a measure of the
skater's angular motion about the axis of rotation.
The axis of
rotation refers to the skater's instantaneous axis of rotation as
determined by the orientation of the principal axis of inertia of the
minimal moment of inertia. However, few if any published studies have
actually reported angular momentum about this axis; instead,
researchers have used either the vertical axis (e.g., Albert and
Miller, 1996) or the longitudinal axis of the skater based on the
orientation of the trunk (e.g., King et al., 2002a).
Angular momentum is the product of moment
inertia and angular
velocity and is constant during the flight phase of a jump. Torque is
applied to the ice during the approach, preparatory, and propulsive
phases of a jump so as to produce angular momentum for the flight
Once in the air, since angular momentum
constant, the angular
velocity of the skater can be changed only by changes to his or her
moment of inertia. Moment of inertia is manipulated by the skater as
the arms and legs are positioned closer to or farther from the axis of
Specifically, if the skater's moment of
(masses of arms and legs positioned farther from the axis of rotation),
the angular velocity will decrease; and if the skater's moment of
inertia decreases (masses of arms and legs positioned closer to the
axis of rotation), the angular velocity will increase.
Thus there are three main mechanical
that contribute to the
skater's achieving the correct balance of time in the air and
(1) generating appropriate levels
force during propulsion;
(2) generating appropriate levels of torque
during approach, preparation, and propulsion; and
(3) controlling the
moment of inertia (body position) during the flight phase of the jump.
To link these three components to
muscle groups and strength
and conditioning needs, the specific biomechanics of the different
jumps must be analyzed.
Biomechanics of Specific Jumps
In the past, most of the research on the
biomechanics of figure skating
jumps has focused on the axel jump (Albert and Miller, 1996; Aleshinsky
et al., 1988; King et al., 1994). However, one of the most original
biomechanical studies ever completed was done on waltz, salchow,
toe-loop, and flip jumps (Aleshinsky, 1986).
Recently several studies
have been conducted on triple Lutzes (King et al., 2001; 2002a) and
quadruple toe-loops (King et al., 2002b; 2002c; 2004). The majority of
these studies are purely descriptive in nature, providing a
biomechanical description of the technique used by national caliber
novice, junior, or senior skaters to complete the respective jumps.
few studies, however, make comparisons between skaters of different
levels or between different types of jumps in order to identify
critical factors related to completing triple and quadruple jumps.
Specifically, King et al. (1994) and King (1997) compared single,
double, and triple axels of junior and senior level skaters; Albert and
Miller (1996) compared single and double axels of "good" figure
skaters; and King et al. (2004) compared triple and quadruple toe-loops
of 2002 Olympic male competitors.
When examining the information available
several important biomechanical factors related to completing
multi-revolution jumps emerge. Vertical velocity at takeoff is similar
in higher revolution jumps as compared to lower revolution jumps (Table
1) (Albert and Miller, 1996; King et al., 1994; 2002c). However, when
the same jump, such as a double axel, is compared across skaters of
different abilities, those of higher ability who have mastered higher
revolution jumps (triple as compared to double) generate greater
vertical velocity at takeoff (Table 2).
Few studies have reported angular
across groups of
skaters or jump types. Albert and Miller (1996) reported similar
angular momentum values for single and double axels of 16 "good"
skaters, while Aleshinsky et al. (1988) reported greater angular
momentum for a triple axel as compared to a double axel of an Olympic
Obviously there is a need for more
However, despite the disparate findings in terms of angular momentum,
the average rotational velocity systematically increases as number of
revolutions increases (Albert and Miller, 1996; Aleshinsky, 1986,
Aleshinsky et al., 1988; King, 1997; King et al., 1994; 2004).
Vertical velocity is developed during the
propulsive phase of the jump
during which the skater forcefully and powerfully extends the hip,
knee, and to some extent the ankle, creating downward forces against
the ice. Depending on the jump type, these forces may come solely from
a single takeoff leg or from an asymmetrical extension of both legs
The actual range of motion of the joints
to skater and jump to jump; though for pick jumps the knee of the pick
leg typically extends from 40 or 50 degrees of flexion to 10 deg of
flexion, while the knee of the glide leg may extend from 60 or 90 deg
of flexion to 20 deg of flexion (King et al., 2001; 2002b).
duration of the propulsion phase has rarely been reported, but from
examining published graphs, a propulsion phase just under 0.2 seconds
is typical for triple lutzes and quadruple toe-loops (King et al.,
2002a; 2002c). The propulsive phase of the jumps is preceded by
eccentric muscle contractions, suggesting that use of the stretch
shortening cycle is an important component to generating vertical
velocity (King et al., 2002c). Thus it is important for skaters to
incorporate plyometric exercises such as box or depth jumps, which
elicit the stretch shortening cycle, into their off-ice training
In most figure skating jumps there is
contribution to total body vertical momentum from the upward motion of
the free limbs (King et al 2002a; 2002c; 2004). In any type of jump,
upward motion of the free limbs affects the forces applied to the ice
during takeoff and has the potential to increase the impulse generated
during the takeoff.
<>In the axel jump, the movements of the
(both arms and the non-takeoff leg) sufficiently contribute to the
impulse during takeoff to account for 8 to 10% of the vertical momentum
of the total body (King, 2004). The motion of the trunk is another
important contributor to the forces developed and thus the impulse
generated during takeoff. Due to the large mass of the trunk, the
extension motion of the trunk during takeoff is an essential component
of total body vertical momentum for figure skating jumps.
Generating Angular Momentum
As the skater approaches the jump takeoff, the
forces generated from
the movements of the skater's body and limb segments also create a
torque about the axis of rotation. This torque provides angular impulse
to the skater about the axis of rotation which creates angular
Albert and Miller (1996) reported that in
axel jump, the
movement of the skater's free leg during the approach and propulsive
phases provided the largest contribution of all segments to the total
body angular momentum.
As the skater is on the forward outside
brings the free leg through during the propulsive phase, the torque
about the axis of rotation increases, causing an increase in angular
momentum. However, just prior to takeoff, as the free leg nears maximum
hip flexion, the contribution of the leg to angular momentum begins to
decrease due to its deceleration.
At this point the arm motions,
resulting from flexion of the shoulders, assist in creating positive
angular impulse. However, the contribution of the arms is not
sufficient to maintain a constant angular momentum, due to the
decreasing contribution of the free leg. Thus the total body angular
momentum decreases slightly just before takeoff.
For the triple lutz, King et al. (2002a)
that movements of the
arms were more influential than those of the legs in creating angular
impulse during the propulsive phase, and thus had a greater effect on
the generation of total body angular momentum.
King et al. reported
that the angular momentum was primarily generated prior to toe-pick as
the skater brought the left arm back and up (horizontal abduction), the
right arm forward and in (flexion and adduction), and rotated and
extended the trunk. These motions, as the skater maintained a back
outside edge, created angular impulse about the axis of rotation which
in turn provided angular momentum for the jump.
A distinguishing characteristic of
multi-revolution jumps, as compared
to single revolution jumps, is a smaller moment of inertia about the
axis of rotation prior to takeoff and/or during flight (Albert and
Miller, 1996; Aleshinsky, 1986; King et al., 2004).
The smaller moments
of inertia are from a closer position of the arms and free leg to the
axis of rotation (King et al., 2002c). Adopting a smaller moment of
inertia prior to takeoff mechanically limits the skater's ability to
dramatically increase angular velocity during flight, as detailed by
Aleshinsky (1986), but it does enable skaters to increase angular
velocity while still on the ice, which in turn results in greater
angular velocity at the instant of takeoff. Once in the air, skaters
continue to decrease their moment of inertia, though the magnitude of
the decrease depends greatly on jump type.
Once skaters have reached the minimum
based on their body size, they can no longer attain higher angular
velocities by decreasing their moments of inertia, as they are already
in their tightest possible rotating position.
In the long run, this
strategy of relying almost solely on smaller moments of inertia to
increase angular velocity as number of revolutions increases is
limiting to the continued progression of completing higher and higher
revolution jumps in the sport of figure skating. It is a successful
strategy for the jumps currently being performed, however, and is
consistently used by figure skaters completing multi-revolution jumps.
Implications for Training
As the majority of biomechanical analyses have
focused on jump
takeoffs, versus landings, the training implications discussed herein
will focus on the takeoff phase of the jump. This is not to imply,
however, that the landing is less important. It is imperative
that off-ice training programs include exercises specifically aimed at:
- strengthening the abdominals and trunk muscles, such as
with a medicine ball and abdominal curls and side curls on a stability
- training the leg muscles eccentrically for landing, such as
box landings and lateral bench jumps;
- training balance, such as
single leg squats on a stability disk and balancing on a wobble board
while imitating the landing motion of the free leg.
For the takeoff phase of figure skating
jumps, concentric extension of
the hip, knee, and ankle, preceded by large eccentric contractions of
the extensor muscles, are critical motions in generating vertical
velocity during figure skating jumps. Thus when doing jump-specific
training, skaters need to focus on the extensor muscle groups of the
lower extremity, such as gluteus maximus, quadriceps, hamstrings,
adductor magnus, and gastrocnemius during contractions in both the
eccentric and concentric directions.
In lutz and toe-loop jumps, it is
known that both legs contribute to the generation of vertical velocity,
though the motion is not symmetrical either in range of motion or
timing. The glide leg extends first and goes through a larger range of
motion, followed by the extension of the pick leg through a smaller
range of motion. In the axel the takeoff is entirely from one leg. This
suggests that traditional hip and knee extensor exercises, such as
squats, should be adapted to more closely represent the biomechanics of
the takeoff of skating jumps.
Skaters can use light resistance such as
dumbbells or sport cords
and focus on fast powerful movements. For example, they can perform
squats with dumbbells, emphasizing speed of movement as they explode
upward. Lunges can be performed with light hand weights with the skater
lunging forward or to the right and left on a diagonal.
power skips, and squat jumps on a rebounder are also effective
techniques to train these muscles using concentric and eccentric
contractions at high speeds. These plyometric exercises evoke the
stretch shortening cycle, which is a critical component of the figure
skating jump takeoff. Skaters will need to do both unilateral (e.g.,
single-leg box jumps) and bilateral (e.g., double-leg box jumps)
When doing bilateral exercise they can
positions to better approximate the asymmetrical motions used in
skating. For example, a double-leg box jump can be performed with the
right foot slightly forward of the left foot, or vice versa, as the
skater explodes upward off the floor.
Additionally, the skater can
incorporate diagonal and lateral box jumps. For the axel jump,
jump-specific training should include training of the hip and shoulder
flexors and abductors, both in the concentric and eccentric directions,
as these motions make an important contribution through the free limbs
in generating vertical velocity.
Polensky et al. (1990)
identified shoulder abductor strength and knee extensor strength as two
of the main predictors of jump height in figure skating. Medicine ball
throws with and without twisting, box push-ups, and sit-up medicine
ball throws with and without twisting are three good ways to train the
upper body using concentric and eccentric muscle actions at high speeds.
There are several additional reasons why
body strength and power
are critical to successful jumping in figure skating and should be
incorporated into off-ice training programs. Arm movements contribute
to the production of angular momentum during takeoff and are crucial to
decreasing the moment of inertia during takeoff and flight.
the arms and limbs close to the body, skaters must resist the tendency
of the limbs to continue moving in a linear path as they are pulled
around in a circle. These inertial forces increase with number of
revolutions, amplifying the need for increased strength to complete
these skills with the arms in a flexed position close to the body
(Aleshinsky et al., 1988).
The motions used during takeoff to
angular impulse and then
position the arms and legs close to the axis of rotation depend on jump
type. For all jumps, however, the elbows go through flexion during the
propulsive phase to bring the hands toward the chest.
motions, in addition to varying with jump type, also vary from the
right to left sides of the body. In the lutz for example, the left arm
often is typically brought above the head during propulsion and then
must be brought down to the rotating position using shoulder extension
and adduction. The right shoulder meanwhile has typically gone through
shoulder flexion and adduction (King et al., 2001).
Thus, muscles such as the biceps,
deltoid, and latissimus
dorsi which are active in shoulder flexion, abduction, horizontal
adduction, and extension are important for positioning the arms during
the propulsive and fight phases.
However, typical upper body exercises,
such as a bench press, will not meet the skater's specific needs since
these are often symmetrical bilateral exercises. Instead, or in
addition, skaters will want to incorporate asymmetrical arm exercises
into their jump-specific resistance training program. For example,
skaters can use a sport cord to provide resistance during arm pull-ins
during which they replicate the arm motions used in the takeoff of each
jump. Medicine ball throws with a twisting motion (being sure to do
repetitions in each direction) are again a good exercise for skaters
because they utilize asymmetrical arm motions.
The leg and arm motions that contribute
decreased moments of
inertia in higher revolution jumps are often abbreviated motions of the
same movements observed during lower revolution jumps. For example, in
the triple axel, a quick but short hip flexion range of motion is used
as compared to the larger hip flexion range of motion during the double
There are obvious strength implications
abruptly stop the hip flexion motion at the end of the propulsion
phase. Training these eccentric contractions for both the arm and free
leg motions may be an area for improvement in a skater's jump-specific
training program. Both upper and lower body plyometric exercises such
as box push-ups, box jumps, and power skipping are good exercises for
training these motions.
Over the years, figure skaters have
level of technical
difficulty in their programs. Improvements have been made in off-ice
strength and conditioning with growing emphasis on the importance of
core and upper body strength.
A thorough examination of the role of the
upper and lower body to the vertical and rotational components to
skating jumps, however, has not been addressed. Specifically, this
review has examined jump takeoffs, though the landings of jumps are
equally important. Extension of the takeoff leg is critical to
generating vertical velocity; in many jumps both legs contribute to the
generation of vertical velocity and the motion is asymmetrical.
In the jumps studied to date,
are incorporated into
the jumping technique, highlighting the use of the stretch shortening
cycle in figure skating jump takeoffs and the need to incorporate
eccentric and plyometric exercises into off-ice training. In some jumps
the arms have a meaningful contribution to vertical velocity of the
skater, though in most jumps the arm motion is more critical to the
rotational component of the jump.
Due to the different arm motions of
the various jump takeoffs, skaters should not limit themselves to
single joint exercises, nor should they rely solely on bilateral
symmetrical resistance training exercises.
Examples of good upper body exercises are
pull-ins with sport
cord and medicine balls throws with and without twisting. The medicine
ball throws are also good explosive exercises for developing core
Medicine ball throws can be done standing
sit-up motion on or off a stability ball. Good lower body exercises
include box jumps with one and two legs, power skips, and lunges
performed straight and on the diagonal. While this review has
emphasized jump-specific training, it is important to remember that
there is much more to skating than jumping.
As with any athlete,
skaters should incorporate general strength, flexibility, core
strength, and balance into their overall training program.
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Received November 1, 2004;
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Deborah L. King is with the Dept.
of Exercise and Sport
Center for Health Sciences, Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY 14850 USA.
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