ENG 528: Language Change Research Seminar Sociophonetics: An Introduction Chapter 9: Variation and the Cognitive Processing of Sounds And Related Articles Background: Phonology and Phonetics • The traditional understanding of the difference between phonetics and phonology (from Bloomfield 1933 and earlier scholars, followed by Chomsky & Halle 1968): Phonology=discrete phenomena (phonemes, features, rules, syllables) that are cognitively represented Phonetics=gradient phenomena (consequences of the construction of the articulatory and auditory apparatuses) that are not cognitively represented Background: Generative Phonology • Chomsky and Halle (1968), The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), was the Bible of phonology for a long time • It provided a list of phonological features for English sounds: e.g., [t] is [-syl, +cons, -son, -voiced, -cont, +cor, lab, +ant, -constr]; the features were developed from earlier feature systems • It adopted the standard way of writing phonological rules, e.g., [+cont,+ant][+voice]/[+voice]_[+voice] for voicing of certain Old English fricatives • It also included detailed derivations for such pairs as divine/divinity, serene/serenity, sane/sanity, code/codify John J. Ohala (1992), “The Costs and Benefits of Phonological Analysis” • follows up on Ohala (1974), “Experimental Historical Phonology,” in which experiments showed that speakers don’t consistently employ the SPE rules when asked to make new words using existing words and suffixes (for either vowels or consonants)—e.g., they said obtanitory with /e/ and domesticism with /k/ • See also his 1986 paper, “Consumer’s Guide to Evidence in Phonology” • For instance, SPE treats the “short o” and “long o” sounds as underlyingly /o/ and /o / because of the relationship between words like cone/conical, depose/deposit, code/codify, verbose/verbosity, etc. • However, Ohala says that the sound alternations are a) more opaque than phonologists have acknowledged (e.g., suppose and suppository) and b) less productive than phonologists have claimed (as with the experiments mentioned above) John J. Ohala (1992), “The Costs and Benefits of Phonological Analysis” • “…there will come a point…where one can set up alternative systems to explain quite a wide range of phenomena. One can think that this or that system is more elegant or more deep than some other, but is it right?” —Noam Chomsky, 1967 • just because a theory is elegant or “deep,” that doesn’t make it correct • Phonologists like to create notations and formalisms, but do they really reflect what’s going on in a speaker’s brain? I.e., IT LOOKS NICE, BUT IS IT REAL? John J. Ohala (1992), “The Costs and Benefits of Phonological Analysis” • §2: the “cost-benefit” issue • Simplicity is not always the only consideration • memory may be cheaper than computational ability (or ability to process complex grammatical rules) • However, phonologists have traditionally used simplicity as the only criterion for evaluating proposed rules. • Evidence now shows that storage space in the brain is not a limitation (see Jaeger 1986) John J. Ohala (1992), “The Costs and Benefits of Phonological Analysis” • §3: several issues that are problems for the SPE approach • 1. It’s often difficult to figure out what the constituent morphemes of words are phonologists came up with generative rules because they are more educated (about language history) and more aware of linguistic relationships than ordinary people Many historically related words have drifted apart from each other in meaning (e.g., author/authority). We also have lots of polysemes (e.g., raise/raze) and cranberry morphemes. Thus the connections between morphemes are hard to figure out John J. Ohala (1992), “The Costs and Benefits of Phonological Analysis” • 2. Exceptions make general phonological patterns hard to discern Sure, there are repeated patterns like extreme/extremity, serene/serenity, obscene/obscenity, etc. But there are also patterns like bean/beanery, obese/obesity, peace/pacify, etc. The experiment that Ohala and his class conducted (see graph to right) showed that the same regression line appeared for common and isolated patterns, indicating that speakers don’t treat them differently John J. Ohala (1992), “The Costs and Benefits of Phonological Analysis” • §3 • 3. • • • 4. • • (continued) Exposure to patterns doesn’t mean that speakers will recognize ‘em Note the spelling mistakes that he lists. The point is that people just don’t recognize connections between words The suppose/suppository case is another example The payoff for an SPE-type grammar isn’t worth the effort People get along fine without recognizing relationships between words. Hence you get musicisms with /k/. Even if they do figure out that two words are related, why do they need to work out an underlying form? A better answer to how speakers make connections is that they use what Ohala calls “cut-and-paste rules”—most other people call this analogy. In the 1974 experiment, speakers could be primed to give a certain response by an immediately preceding pair of words. The speakers just copied the pattern. Q.v. witticism, Congolese, egotist, tobacconist A Different Problem with Distinctive Feature Theory • Mielke (2008) found that the three main feature theories together could account for only 70% of known phonological rules in a survey of 628 language varieties • He used this finding to argue that features were acquired, not innate Blurring the Phonology/Phonetics Boundary • Various studies have found processes that are clearly specified cognitively, but are not discrete or contrastive • We’ll cover three here: variability in cues, phasing of gestures, and variability in undershoot • This opens up the possibility for a probabilistic approach to phonological categories • Note the evidence that phonemes can be fuzzy and ambiguous around the edges: this challenges the notion of invariance Variability in Cues Used for Contrasts • This issue is basically about trading relations • Various studies (particularly Kingston & Diehl 1994) have found variation in the cues used for the [voice] feature • Note how Purnell, Salmons, and colleagues found variation for [voice] in Wisconsin English (shown on next slide) • Other examples are the [tense] feature for vowels and the height distinction for vowels Variability in Cues Used for Contrasts: Results from Purnell et al. (2005) Phasing of Gestures • We’ve already talked about Fourakis & Port (1986); they proposed that languages vary in the phase rules they used to implement articulatory gestures American English [d nts] closure complete (stop) frication voicing [n] [t] [s] South African English [d ns] closure complete (stop) frication voicing [n] [s] Variations in Undershoot F1 of nucleus in Hz • Note that this can apply to vowels, consonants, lexical tone contours, or intonational contours • You’ve already seen the cross-linguistic comparisons of /a/ in Turkish, K’iche’, and English • Here’s a similar 950 difference for a 900 diphthong, as 850 uttered by two 800 speakers who 750 were the same 700 age, were from 650 the same 600 community, and speaker G05, before voiceless consonant 550 knew each other speaker G05, other contexts 500 well speaker G14, before voiceless consonant speaker G14, other contexts 450 50 100 150 200 250 300 duration of diphthong in ms 350 400 How do you define a phonological category? • After Medin & Barsalou (1987): 1. By rules: problematic for phonology 2. By prototypes: but is a prototype an average or an ideal (extreme) form? 3. By boundaries 4. By exemplars: a category is a cloud of remembered examples Prototypes vs. Boundaries (1) • Depends on a prototype being an average form, not an extreme moving stimulus by stimulus here, identification accuracy improves for a boundary effect but gets worse for a prototype effect moving stimulus by stimulus here, identification accuracy improves for both a boundary effect and a prototype effect ph on em ic bo un da ry prototype Prototypes vs. Boundaries (2): The Perceptual Magnet Effect • Perceptual Magnet Effect was first described by Patricia Kuhl (e.g., Kuhl 1991) • If it’s present, discriminability and goodness ratings will differ for prototype and boundary effects ph on em ic bo un da ry prototype Moving stimulus by stimulus here, discriminability of adjacent stimuli improves but goodness ratings of stimuli decrease for a prototype effect. For a boundary effect, discriminability from the prototype is low and goodness ratings are high until the phonemic boundary is reached, and then discriminability jumps and goodness ratings fall dramatically. Exemplar Theory • This is what’s called an “episodic” approach • Radically different approach to phonology from traditional views, which are called “abstract” approaches • The discovery that the brain has plenty of storage space, obviating the need for minimalism in phonology, is one factor behind it • It holds that people store detailed knowledge of exemplars, including where, when, and from whom they heard an exemplar Keith Johnson (1997) “Speech Perception without Speaker Normalization: An Exemplar Model” (1) • The main pretense of the article is human auditory normalization: note that this is the cognitive issue, not the one sociolinguists usually deal with (reduction of interspeaker differences) • All normalization techniques (as well as gesture recovery theories, e.g., Liberman & Mattingly 1985, Fowler 1986) assume that listeners have to normalize. That is, there’s an intermediate step between audition and linguistic processing • p. 146: Exemplar Model: “no abstract category prototypes are posited:” “a perceptual category is defined as the set of all experienced instances of the category” Keith Johnson (1997) “Speech Perception without Speaker Normalization: An Exemplar Model” (2) • P. 148: speakers “retain speaker-specific information in the longterm category representation (the set of exemplars)” • Word frequency has an effect (see reference to Ganong 1980) because common words have more exemplars that are recent, i.e., fresh in the listeners’ mind • • dij = (wm(xim-xjm)2), where dij = Euclidian distance between exemplars i and j • wm= attention weight for m • xim = auditory property m of exemplar i • xjm = auditory property m of exemplar j • sij = exp(-cdij) c = sensitivity constant • sij = auditory similarity between exemplars i and j Keith Johnson (1997) “Speech Perception without Speaker Normalization: An Exemplar Model” (3) • Solutions to the “head-filling-up problem:” There’s more memory space in the brain than generativists assumed a connectionist model involving mapping of exemplars into auditory space would help solve it Attention weights and association weights are learned by a neural network method (“feedback on correct categorization”) The JND (just noticeable difference) effect makes this plausible Keith Johnson (1997) “Speech Perception without Speaker Normalization: An Exemplar Model” (4) • He suggests that the production/perception link comes from one’s own speech by means of gestural mirages (similar to Liberman’s Motor Theory and Fowler’s Direct Realism*) • In the conclusion, he briefly mentions that his account would explain not only interspeaker recognition, but also a) recognition of speech at different rates and b) the fact that increased exposure to a dialect increases your ability to understand it *Fowler argued that listeners perceive gestures not by means of a specialized decoder, as in the Motor Theory, but because information in the acoustic signal specifies the gestures that form it John Coleman (2002), “Phonetic Representations in the Mental Lexicon” (1) • Coleman argues that: 1. mental representations of sounds are phonetic, not phonological 2. phonological competence utilizes statistical properties 3. phonetic, statistical, and semantic knowledge account for many “phonological” realms • Basically, he’s against the levels of abstraction proposed by phonologists. • • He says that you have to test phonological theories empirically, not philosophically (e.g., judging them by how parsimonious they are)—exactly what John Ohala has said John Coleman (2002), “Phonetic Representations in the Mental Lexicon” (2) Various units seem to support an abstract level (but…): •syllable—note, though, that studies of both infants and adults show a link between syllables and statistical probabilities •foot—here, again, statistical probability offers an alternative explanation •mora, onset, rhyme—he basically says only that psychological evidence is shaky for morae but strong for onsets and rhymes •phonemes—beware of evidence from subjects who are alphabetic literates brain activation studies don’t seem to support phonemes well Kuhl’s “perceptual magnet effect” construct makes phonemes look like statistical constructs •features—they work insofar as they represent phonetic properties between a phonetic (with gradual tapering off) and phonological (with abrupt shift) model of phonic boundaries, though, all the evidence favors a phonetic one phonological categories consist of two dimensions: ocontinuous physical scale (mostly for production) ocontinuous probability scale (mostly for perception) John Coleman (2002), “Phonetic Representations in the Mental Lexicon” (3) • Then he names various other pieces of evidence, among them: Incomplete neutralization (e.g., German final stops) Variable rules—but he says that sociolinguists didn’t get them right (the rules were binary except for their output, and you can’t write them without either overgenerating or missing the generalization) • Previous familiarity with a voice increases accuracy of word identification— therefore, redundant features are stored alongside distinctive ones (recall all the phonetic features used to mark a single contrast) John Coleman (2002), “Phonetic Representations in the Mental Lexicon” (4) • P. 125: knowledge of word forms includes knowledge of: 1. fine phonetic details, well beyond “phonological features” 2. word frequencies 3. statistical patterns of phonetic variation, as well as correlation with pragmatic context and sociolinguistic factors • He concludes by giving a time/frequency model of linguistic representation John Coleman (2002), “Phonetic Representations in the Mental Lexicon” (5) • P. 126: new conception of lexical representation 1. word forms are stored as memories of auditory/articulatory experience, not as phonological abstractions 2. phonological constituents are statistical regularities from that experience 3. phonological abilities can arise either from storage (minimal pair discrimination) or online (phoneme monitoring) Exemplar Theory vs. Prototypes • The two give very similar results: in both cases, a target value emerges • The difference is that the target is immobile for a prototype effect but malleable (with exposure to new exemplars) for an exemplar effect • To test them against each other, you’d need an experiment in which you exposed subjects to lots of unusual exemplars and then examined their behavior Maye, Aslin, & Tannenhaus (2008): “The weckud wetch of the wast: Lexical adaptation to a novel accent” • Listeners heard 20 minutes of The Wizard of Oz with all the front vowels lowered • Then they had to judge whether stimuli were real words or not • Their judgments reflected the vowel lowering they’d heard: they rated lowered vowels as good exemplars • To test whether their judgment norms were lowered or just relaxed (i.e., expanded), they ran a second experiment in which the stimuli included raised vowels • Subjects did not rate the raised vowels as good exemplars Applications of Exemplar Theory 1. Child language acquisition 2. Speech perception, especially as an alternative to normalization 3. Speech production 4. Accounting for how language users connect linguistic variants with social identity/ indexicality How Exemplar Theory Affects Sociolinguistics • It makes sociolinguists look good, since we’ve been saying for years that social factors are part of Grammar • There are lots of fine phonetic variants to use as variables • It puts us on the track to look at mental representation of language • For sound change, the fine phonetic factors are now key (as well as being cognitively encoded) • Also for sound change, the probabilistic component facilitates sound change Foulkes and Docherty (2006), “The Social Life of Phonetics and Phonology” • They start out talking about the consonantal variation that we saw in another paper by them earlier • On pp. 425-432, they get into Exemplar Theory and how it impacts sociolinguistics Foulkes and Docherty (2006), “The Social Life of Phonetics and Phonology” • Phonology theories have a lot of trouble with variation; often they ignore it (e.g., SPE); when they do address it, they do it clumsily optional rules and variable rule orderings (response to generative phonology) alternative constraint rankings or unordered clusterings of constraints (Optimality Theory) Foulkes and Docherty (2006), “The Social Life of Phonetics and Phonology” • Exemplar Theory has variation built into it: lexical representations aren’t stored in abstract or invariant form language users have detailed memories of exemplars, including both the phonetic realization, the context, and the speaker that provides a mechanism for sociolinguistic findings that speakers index social meanings with particular variants the probabilistic aspect of Exemplar Theory accounts for how speakers can change their usage as they mature; building socio-indexical knowledge is part of language acquisition this also allows for fluidity in socio-indexical meanings Problems with Exemplar Theory (1): Memory Saturation • Memory saturation is the “head-filling-up problem” • People can’t possibly remember every token they’ve ever heard • To review, Johnson (1997) said that: There’s more memory space in the brain than generativists assumed a connectionist model involving mapping of exemplars into auditory space would help solve it Attention weights and association weights are learned by a neural network method (“feedback on correct categorization”) • Pierrehumbert (2006) added that certain events are more salient, more memorable, to listeners than others. (She cites an analogy of going by a store every day, which loses its saliency.) Problems with Exemplar Theory (2): Lack of Abstractions • People can learn new words they hear rapidly • A very literal interpretation of Exemplar Theory would hold that only previously heard words can be interpreted • Also, there’s quite a bit of evidence for certain abstractions, e.g., the vowel/consonant distinction or syllables and their constituent parts • This points out the need for some level of abstraction • In actuality, Exemplar Theorists hold that people develop phonological categories through hearing lots of exemplars, and new words are matched to these categories • We’ll come back to this issue when we get to Pierrehumbert (2006) and two other articles I didn’t assign Problems with Exemplar Theory (3): Lack of Lexical Diffusion in Sound Change • I see this as the weakest of the criticisms • Labov (2006) said that ANAE didn’t find lexical effects • However, he looked only at average values of lots of people; to find lexical effects, you have to treat people as individuals • I suspect he was too fixated on William S-Y. Wang’s (1977) Lexical Diffusion theory, which he mostly opposes ro de F1 in Hz 550 600 650 700 750 2400 2200 2000 1800 ap so boat own soak no road coat ove dr uto no a stove oh only home mean TRAP reference vowel GOAT vowel pre-/l/ GOAT vowel 500 no an Jo goes 1600 F2 in Hz 1400 home 500 poles behold coal home poles rod Joan e e drove s o coat telephone Joan th so bolts road bothsoak oh behold cold auto goat don't own don't boat those cold bolts only Joan 600 no goat 450 no Joan Joan mean FLEECE 400 F1 in Hz 400 d ne ow telephone don't home thos e those mean FLEECE so bo th 350 700 stove soap mean LOT 1200 reference vowel GOAT vowel pre-/l/ GOAT vowel 800 1000 800 2600 2400 2200 2000 mean TRAP 1800 1600 F2 in Hz mean LOT 1400 1200 1000 800 600 Hybrid Models • Pierrehumbert (2006:524) says that “the future lies with hybrid models, which have multiple levels of representation (like neogenerative models) while also having explicit mechanisms for statistical learning and situational indexing (like exemplar models) Janet Pierrehumbert (2006), “The Next Toolkit” • There are certain abstract phonological concepts that you simply can’t get around • A strong version of Exemplar Theory doesn’t have a means of accounting for them • There’s also some other evidence: experiments show that likely phonotactics make recognition easier, but lexical neighbors make recognition harder, which suggests that the two processes occur at different levels (stages) in speech perception • The very low correlation between sound and meaning implies that there’s a phonological stage in speech perception • People are also better at learning new words than learning new voices • Ambiguous signals are heard immediately as one word or another (Fast Mapping), not as something amorphous Janet Pierrehumbert (2006), “The Next Toolkit” • However, Pierrehumbert staunchly defends the statistical properties of language learning, the same ones that make Exemplar Theory attractive to sociolinguists • Pierrehumbert recommends a “combined theory” that retains the store of exemplars and the statistically-based learning of language but allows for some phonological categories • In a hybrid model, there’s a phonological coding level between the phonetic level and the lexical (word recognition) level • However, the phonological categories are learned from statistical interpretations of heard exemplars, not necessarily from a store of innate features (or constraints, or…) • P. 527: “hybrid exemplar models by their nature have frequency effects everywhere. However, more frequent does not necessarily mean more.” Janet Pierrehumbert (2006), “The Next Toolkit” • Pierrehumbert implies that positional allophones, not phonemes, are what are learned. (This would suggest that phonemes in the traditional sense don’t really exist, which is a valid position.) • Some of Pierrehumbert’s understanding of sociolinguistics (p. 528) is faulty: Although Clopper and Pisoni (2004) did find a poor ability of listeners to identify dialects, they were comparing very similar dialects, and other comparisons (e.g. Afr. Am./Eur. Am.) have yielded much higher identification levels Her comments about the Northern Cities Shift jumping from city to city are based on early findings; more recent studies have revealed a much more complex picture Cynthia Connine & Eleni Pinnow (2006), “Phonological variation in spoken word recognition: Episodes and abstractions” • Review of various experiments those two had been involved in • Experiments had examined tapping and schwa deletion in American English • Tapped variants are cognitively encoded because they’re so common • Schwa-deletion is cognitively encoded for words in which it occurs frequently • In experiments, exposure to an infrequent variant improved word recognition • However, using a different speaker or a different word in the priming and in the test also improved word recognition, suggesting that some abstraction was going on Cynthia Connine & Eleni Pinnow (2006), “Phonological variation in spoken word recognition: Episodes and abstractions” • Connine & Pinnow assert that these results suggest that there are both episodic and abstract kinds of processing • That means you need a hybrid model Lynne Clark & Graeme Trousdale (2010), “A cognitive approach to quantitative sociolinguistic variation: Evidence from thfronting in central Scotland” • They examined fronting of / / to [f] in West Fife, Scotland (across the Firth of Forth from Edinburgh) in a 2-year ethnographic study • Lexical frequency was a significant predictor, but social clique, presence of /f/ elsewhere in the word, onset vs. coda position, and type of word (name, ordinal, or other) had stronger effects (all based on Varbrul analysis) • They assert that people choose the variants they use to signal their affiliation with groups. “The repeated co-activation and entrenchment of particular (social and linguistic) nodes and links in the cognitive network enables each speaker to associate social knowledge with particular linguistic variants” (p. 312). • They favor a Hybrid Model involving not only episodic memory but also abstractions away from exemplars—context isn’t just the particular event, but also the wider social context in which a variant is used • We’ll get into choice and social context more in the next two chapters Small-Group Discussion Questions 1. Compare and contrast the main tenets of Prototype Theory and Exemplar Theory. Design experiments to test these issues: a) b) c) 2. Are the two completely incompatible or are there ways that both could operate simultaneously? Is it plausible that each could predominate at different stages of a person’s life, and if so, how could you test that? Might they have different degrees of influence on production vs. perception—e.g., when somebody gets used to hearing a dialect different from their own? What advantages and disadvantages does Exemplar Theory have in terms of a) its compatibility with sociolinguistic and phonetic theory and b) testing it empirically? References • • • • • • • • • Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Chomsky, Noam. 1967. Discussion. In C. H. Millikan and F. L. Darley (eds.), Brain Mechanisms Underlying Speech and Language, 99-100. New York: Grune & Stratton. Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. 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