Created in 1946 - the result of a series of negotiations
conducted between Filipino nationalists and the U.S.
government - the Republic of the Philippines is an arbitrary
amalgamation of a multitude of diverse islands and peoples.
This political entity is not a nation-state; neither is it a
voluntary multinational association. Rather, it constitutes a
new, post World War II, colonial order centered in Manila, and
dedicated to the political and economic hegemony of the local
Christian-Europhile community over the entire territory of the
former American colony. That which separates the Philippines from
all other multi-ethnic states in Asia is its unique nationalism.
Although distinct Cambodian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean,
Tibetan, and Thai countries had emerged by the time of the
onslaught of European imperialism in Asia during the late 19th
century, there never existed a Filipino nation.
While other heterogeneous Asian countries can seek to
legitimate the existence of their states by declaring a
continuity - however dubious - with indigenous kingdoms or
empires that flourished in their lands before European
domination, Filipino nationalists cannot.
No single political entity ever ruled the entire
archipelago, and those states which did arise to govern
significant portions of these islands, including the area around
Manila, were Muslim. Unlike other Asian nationalisms, for
Filipinos history is an enemy, not an ally.
The Nations Within
Filipino nationalism is an artificial, non-Asian
construct with no existence prior to and separate from the
Spanish invasion of 1565. The extent of its dependency on
European colonialism for its very identity is seen by the
nationalists embrace of The Philippines as the name for their
country, a name given to the islands by the Spanish in 1542 in
honor of King Philip II of Spain - a tyrant, and a racial and
Originally, Filipino nationalism did not even seek
independence for the Philippines but rather its complete cultural
assimilation and total political integration into Spain. The
goal was equal representation with "the other parts of Spain" in
the Cortes at Madrid. To these Filipino nationalists, Filipinos
were just eastern Spaniards, as Majorcans were western"
Spaniards, as Andalusians were southern" Spaniards.
Only when this aspiration failed to be realized did the
objective of Filipino nationalists shift to political
independence - but not to decolonize. If they could not be an
integral part of Spain, then the Philippines would constitute a
second Spain - one which would complete the hispanization of the
The commitment to this non-Asian identity is so intense that
in 1962 then President Macapagal warmly embraced the suggestion
of Spain's dictator, Generalissimo Franco, that the Philippines
should initiate the creation of a political-cultural bloc
consisting exclusively of states sharing a common Spanish-
As a result, Filipino nationalists view the rest of Asia
with ambivalence and as somewhat alien. Like Israeli and
Afrikaan nationalisms, Filipino nationalism considers itself as
culturally and spiritually separate from, and in fact superior
to, the region and peoples in which it is geographically
The failure of the Philippines to develop into the Southeast
Asian showcase for democracy and economic growth which was
anticipated for it by both Filipino and U.S. politicians is a
direct consequence of this nationalism. For the indigenous
nations in the Philippines, especially, the Igorots and the
Moros, this assumed nationalism has endangered their continued
cultural and physical survival.
A part of the Malay, or East Indian, Archipelago - which
reaches from Southeast Asia to Australia - the Philippines
consist of more than 7,100 islands with a total land mass of
115,831 square miles. Stretching 1,000 miles from north to
south, these islands are commonly divided into three distinct
regions: Luzon in the north (the largest island totaling 40,420
square miles) with the smaller islands to its north, Mindanao in
the south (the second largest island with 36,537 square miles)
and the lesser islands to its south in the Sulu archipelago -
sometimes including Palawan, all the islands in between are
collectively referred to as the Visayas.
According to government estimates, the country's population
numbers 56,808,000 (1985) with a projected annual growth rate of
2.5% (1983). This population is unevenly distributed throughout
the state with the heaviest concentration and most rapid growth
rate in central-southern Luzon and the country's urban areas.
These constitute the heartland and strongholds of Filipino
Fifty Peoples and Three Loose Confederations
The population is overwhelmingly Malay with significant
Chinese, European, and indigenous Dumagat and Negrito minorities.
This image of an apparent homogeneous Malay nation, however, is
shattered by the reality of over 50 peoples speaking 90 languages
and dialects, and professing rival religions: Christianity,
Islam, and Animism. These three faiths have molded the disparate
communities into not one nation, but three - Filipino, Moro, and
Among the Filipinos, eight peoples account for 90% of the
total population. These are:
The largest community, they are located
in the central Visayas and eastern Mindanao.
The second largest group, they're located in
central Luzon and the Manila environs. Their language is the
basis of the official state language, Filipino.
Both are located in the central Visayas.
These people are located on the northwestern
coast of Luzon.|
These people are located on the northwestern
coast of Luzon.
They are located in the southern peninsula of
They are located in west-central Luzon.|
This group is located around the Gulf of
Lingayen in northwestern Luzon.|
Of the 7 million indigenous peoples in the Philippines
- groups which have not been Christianized or Hispanicized - the
Moros and the Igorots are the two most important because of their
numerical size, demographic concentration, and political
There are twelve peoples whose shared religion, Islam, and
shared historical experience, persecution by Spaniards and later
Filipinos, have formed a distinct nation called the Bangsamoro.
But they are better known by the name the Spaniards gave them,
Moros - meaning Moors or Muslims. Originally, Spaniards and
Filipinos used the word Moro as a term of contempt for the
Muslims of Basilan, Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu archipelago.
"Moro," the Badge of Honor
Moro was a synonym for barbarism and inferiority. Now it has
become a badge of honor embraced by the Muslims to identify
themselves and their nation.
The Moros, who number between 2 - 5 million, consist of the
following peoples with the first four communities representing
98% of the total population:
"People of th Flooded Plain," one of the largest groups, they live along the Cotabato River in Mindanao.
"People of the Lake," they are located around Lake Lanao in Mindanao.
Historically, these Muslims hve been the most fragmented with numerous,
small, rival sultanates and principalities the predominate political
"People of the Current," they are located in the Sulu archipelago principally on the islands of Jolo, Siasi, Tapul, and Lugus.
They are located in the Sulu archipelago primarily on the island of
Tawi-Tawi. The Samals also inhabit protinos of Siasi, Jolo Laminusa,
Tandubas, Tabawan, Unggus, Matata, Simuni, and the Tongkil group of
||They are located in the Sulu archipelago and are
called "Sea Gypsies" because of their migration from island to island
in order to avaid conflicts.
They are located on Basilan Island.
They are located around the Gulf of Davao in southern Mindanao.
They live on Balabac Island.
They inhabit Cagayan Island.
They are located on Palawan Island.
They reside around the Gulf of Davao in southern Mindanao.
They are located in western Mindanao around the shores of the Moro Gulf.
The Igorot of Luzon
Igorot is a Tagalog word for "mountain people" and
denotes the inhabitants of the mountains of central Luzon. Like
the word Moro, Igorot had a derogatory connotation implying
backwardness and cultural inferiority. And like the word Moro,
it has become a source of pride to its members - designating an
identity distinct from Filipino.
Among the 800,000 Igorots, there are seven major peoples:
Apayao, Tinggian, Kalinga, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kankanai, and Ibaloi.
The ancestors of today's Igorots originally were low-landers
who immigrated to the mountains of central Luzon centuries ago in
two distinct waves. The first wave occurred before the arrival
of the Spanish when people from the coastal lowlands went to the
mountains in search of additional sources of food, and water, and
for tradable commodities such as lumber and gold. Once there
they stayed. The second and larger wave of immigrants arrived as
refugees fleeing the Spanish conquest and subsequent rule.
Despite repeated attempts over three centuries to conquer
them, the Spaniards were never able to dominate the peoples of
the mountains politically or culturally. During those centuries,
while a Filipino political identity was in the process of being
created, for the Christian low-landers, a separate identity was
emerging among the mountain people. This political identity
eventually was to adopt the label "Igorot."
When the low-landers started their revolution again in 1898,
the Igorots initially supported the Philippine independence
movement. An independent Philippines appeared to offer an end to
repeated military incursions into their mountain homeland, and to
extend the promise of equality and respect for all nations.
By its mistreatment of the Igorots, however, the Filipino
revolutionary government quickly demonstrated that it was no
different from the former, imperial regime. As a result, war
broke out between the Igorots and the Filipinos, thus reinforcing
separate national identities.
War ended when the U.S. took effective control of the region
in 1902, and expelled all Filipino revolutionaries from the
mountains. Recognizing that a difference existed between the two
nations, Washington officially established the Mountain Province
for the Igorots by the Philippine Commission Act No. 1876 on
August 18, 1912. The province consisted of seven sub-provinces
delineated generally along national lines: Amburayan, Apayao,
Benguet, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Lepanto.
During the American occupation of the Mountain Province, the
U.S. authorities opened new roads which aided trade and
communications among the Igorots, established an elementary
educational system, and introduced modern health measures.
Despite these propitious beginnings, Washington failed the
Igorots. The educational system became the monopoly of Catholic
and Protestant missionaries from the U.S. and from Europe, and
Education a pretext for religious evangelization. The Igorots
were subjected to religious harassment at the hands of these
Worse was the decision by the U.S. government to deny the
Igorots the right to national self-determination. The Igorots
were to be a part of the Philippines regardless of their wishes.
Washington assumed, erroneously, that Igorot rights and national
identity would be protected by the legal existence of the
Mountain Province. This was a legality which Washington also
mistakenly believed Manila would respect. But Filipino
nationalism is predicated upon the Filipinization of all tribal
peoples, and the colonization of their lands. After obtaining
home-rule under the Jones Law in 1916, Filipino politicians began
to nibble away at the borders of the Mountain Province. During
the 1920s, Manila's gerrymandering awarded Amburayan, and large
parts of Lepanto and Benguet to the Filipino provinces of La
Union, Ilocos Sur, and Abra.
By the 1930s, Filipino politicians were attacking the very
concept of the Mountain Province. Arguing that it endangered the
"national unity" of the Philippines by politically unifying the
non-Christian peoples of the mountains of northern Luzon, they
demanded the partition of the Mountain Province.
Supported by the recently elected President, Ferdinand
Marcos, the opposition parties, and the church, Republic Act No.
4695 became law on June 18, 1966. By this legislation, the
Mountain Province was partitioned into four, separate provinces:
Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, and a truncated Mountain
Province. Later in 1972, after the declaration of martial law,
Marcos further attacked Igorot unity by bifurcating these four
provinces. With the proclamation of Presidential Decree Number
One, Integrated Reorganization Plan, 12 larger, administrative
units were created called Regions. Benguet and the rump Mountain
Province were assigned to Region I, while Ifugao and Kalinga-
Apayao were placed in Region II.
By such gerrymandering, Manila sought first to effectively
exploit the rich mineral deposits, such as gold, and the other
valuable natural resources contained in the mountains. Secondly,
these measures attempt to facilitate Filipino colonization of
Aquino Government continutes Past Polices
Despite repeated assertions that her government respects
human rights, President Cory Aquino has not reestablished the
Mountain Province within its 1912 borders. The Igorots remain
divided among 4 provinces and 2 regions. Similarly, the
President has not removed all the Filipino colonists from the
lands of the Igorots.
Unfortunately, Mrs. Aquino is no different from Mr. Marcos
or any other Filipino nationalist. In their opinion, the
Philippine state is for the exclusive benefit of Filipinos, and
the best thing for tribal peoples to do is to assimilate as
quickly as possible. Without consistent, external pressure being
exerted upon Manila to allow the Igorots the right to national
self-determination, the Philippine government - under Aquino or
any other Filipino administration - will continue to dispossess
the Igorots of their lands, their culture, their national
identity, and their future.
A thousand miles to the south are the Moros of Basilan,
Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago. For 400 years,
these people have defended their homeland against foreign
invaders - Spaniards, Americans, Japanese, and now Filipinos.
Moro history dramatically reveals the illegitimacy of the
"national borders" of the Philippines.
Since they are a part of the Islamic World, the Moros can
draw upon the solidarity of half-a-billion co-religionists and
the political support of dozens of independent Muslim states.
These are resources which the Igorots lack. To Manila,
therefore, of all the tribal groups the Moros pose the most
serious threat to the Filipino state.
While the Igorots lived in remote villages scattered
throughout their mountain homeland, isolated from the larger
world, the Moros resided in powerful Muslim states with cultural
and trading contacts stretching from Arabia to China.
By the 16th Century, four Moro states had emerged: the
Sultanate of Sulu, the Sultanate of Maguindanao, the Bauyan
Sultanate, and the apat na Pangampong.
Although each was a distinct political entity exercising
sovereignty over specific territory, all four states were
interconnected and interrelated by a common religion - Islam, by
shared customs and traditions, and through intermarriage among
the royal families.
Moros Test State's Borders
The diplomatic and legal history of the Moros present the
most immediate danger to the credibility and viability of the
During the Spanish-American War of 1898, all three competing
powers - Aquinaldo's revolutionary government, the Kingdom of
Spain, and the U.S. government - acknowledged that the Moros were
not part of the Philippines.
After the Spanish forces were defeated, hostilities erupted
between the U.S. and Aquinaldo's army. In his search for allies,
Aquinaldo's government - a body overwhelmingly Tagalog in
composition with absolutely no representatives from Basilan,
Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago - negotiated,
unsuccessfully, with the Moros for a military alliance against
the Americans. By the act of these negotiations, as well as by
the address of the appeal, Aquinaldo officially recognized that
the Moros were separate from "his government" and from the
During the peace negotiations conducted between Madrid and
Washington to formally terminate the war and resolve colonial
issues, Spain - contrary to earlier pronouncements - officially
declared that Moroland, Basilan, Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu
archipelago, was not part of her colony of the Philippines.
Although the final draft of the peace treaty which Madrid
did sign provided for the sale of the Philippines, including
Moroland, to the United States for 20 million Mexican dollars,
President William McKinley had doubts as to Spain's legal right
to dispose of Moroland. He, therefore, instructed the Schurman
Commission - the first U.S. government body to administer the
Philippines - to investigate the legal status of the Moros. If
it was determined that the Moros were independent of the
Philippines, bilateral treaties were to be negotiated especially
with the Sultanate of Sulu. A commercial treaty had already
existed between the U.S. and Sulu since 1842.
The result was the Bates Treaty. Negotiated between two,
equal, sovereign states - the United States and the Sultanate of
Sulu - the treaty was signed on August 20, 1899. This was eight
months after the Treaty of Paris had been signed ending the
Spanish-American War. By this document - which officially states
that any subsequent changes to the treaty could only occur by
mutual consent - Washington officially acknowledged that the
Moros were not part of the Philippines and specifically
guaranteed to respect the identity and the integrity of the Sulu
Sultanate. In return, the sultan recognized U.S. sovereignty.
On March 21, 1904, the U.S. government unilaterally, and
illegally, abrogated the Bates Treaty. The sultan responded by
officially expressing his surprise and sadness by Washington's
The abrogation of the Bates Treaty provoked a war with the
Moros which lasted until 1913. The subsequent Carpenter
Agreement of 1915 by which the Sultan of Sulu formally
relinquished all political authority was illegal as it was signed
under American military coercion. This document, however,
relinquished political power only to the United States government
not to the Philippines.
The army which the Moros placed in the field consisted of
irregular bands. Although highly motivated - they were defending
their families, their lands, and their faith - the Moros, unlike
the U.S. forces, were ill-equipped, lacked effective leadership,
and operated without any military or political coordination.
Notable among the insurrections were those of: the Panglimas
Hasan and Maharadja Andung in Sulu, the Datus of Maciu,
Binidayan, and Taraca in Lanao, Mindanao, the Datu Ali in
Cotabato, Mindanao, and the leaders of the Footmen Uprising in
Through a combination of superior firepower and "candy and
chocolate diplomacy," the U.S. defeated the Moro guerrillas.
Once pacification was achieved, Washington initiated programs
designed to politically integrate and culturally assimilate the
Moros into the Philippines.
1913 - The governing Philippine Commission was
reconstituted with a Filipino majority.
1913 - The Moro Province which had been established in 1903 with
an administration, budget, and constabulary separate from the
Philippines was abolished.
1914 - The Moro Constabulary which was officiated by Americans
and staffed by Moros was abolished.
1914 - Filipino colonists began to be settled in Moroland.
1915 - The Carpenter Agreement.
1916 - Washington passed the Jones Law (Public Act No. 240) which
promised Filipino nationalists the future independence of the
Philippines, including the Moroland, and provided for the
establishment of local government by a Philippine legislature in
1916 - The new Philippine legislature, with no elected Moro
representatives, extended all Filipino laws to Moroland.
1916 - The Philippine legislature uprooted the American
administration in Moroland creating in its place governorships,
judgeships, public prosecutors, a civil service bureaucracy, a
constabulary, and an educational system staffed by Filipinos.
1916 - Using the power of confirmation conferred on it by the
Jones Law, the Philippine legislature insured that only Filipinos
were appointed government positions in Moroland.
1917 - Creation of the Bureau of non-Christian tribes under the
direct control of Filipinos.
1920 - The department of Mindanao and Sulu abolished. American
supervision of Moroland terminated. The Philippine legislature
assumes administrative control of the Moros.
The Moros reacted to these developments. On June 9,
1921, fifty-seven Muslim leaders met in Sulu and signed a
petition which was addressed to Manila and Washington, D.C.
After enumerating numerous acts of Filipino discrimination
against Moros, the signatories formally requested that the Sulu
archipelago be separated from the Philippines and annexed to the
United States. The petition and grievances were ignored.
Revolts against Filipino colonialism soon erupted: in Lanao
in 1923, in Cotabato in 1923-24, and in Agusan in 1924. Between
1900-1941, there were 41 revolts throughout Moroland against
first U.S., and then Filipino colonialism.
In 1924, Moro leaders again appealed to Washington for
redress and sent a Declaration of Rights and Purposes to the U.S.
Congress. This document requested a separate political status
for Moroland as an unincorporated American territory. It offered
to hold a plebiscite 50 years after the Philippines had gained
its independence to determine the wishes of the Moros. Under the
proposed referendum, the Moros would be able to choose union with
the Philippines, continuation as an American territory, or
independence. Should the Philippines, however, be granted
independence without first providing for Moroland remaining an
American possession, the Moros would declare unilateral
Two years later the U.S. Congress officially had this
declaration read into the Congressional Record.
Responding to the mounting political violence - 124
conflicts between Moros and the Filipino Constabulary in seven
years - Congressman Robert Bacon of New York introduced House
Bill No. 12772 on May 6, 1926 calling for a separate political
administration for Moroland, independent of the Philippines.
This bill was defeated by the pro-Filipino lobby.
In 1927, another Moro revolt occurred against Filipino
oppression this time in Sulu. The U.S. Congress continued to
ignore the underlying causes for the violence and addressed the
matter as a "breakdown in law and order."
In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Law (Public Act No. 127) was
passed by the U.S. Congress authorizing Filipinos to write their
own constitution. In response to this law, 200 Moro leaders sent
a letter to the Governor-General, Frank Murphy, dated July 13,
1934. In this letter, the signatories requested that in its
deliberations the forthcoming constitutional convention formally
respect Islam, protect Moro culture and traditions, honor Moro
land rights, appoint Moros to government positions in Lanao, and
preserve the development projects introduced by the Americans.
If these requests were not embodied in the proposed constitution,
then the Moros were not interested in being a part of the
A constitutional convention was duly held by Filipino
nationalists who hand-picked all the "Mindanao representatives"
to insure the proper appearance of "national consensus."
At the same time, a rival Moro congress was held at Dansalan
(Marawi City), Mindanao on March 18, 1935. One hundred twenty
datus were in attendance. The Congress issued a declaration
reiterating Moro opposition to being included in the Philippines.
A formal letter was sent by the delegates to President Franklin
Delano Roosevelt explaining the Moro position and officially
requesting a separate political status for Moroland. Again, they
In 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was formally
established. Under the Quezon administration an escalation of
Filipino colonization of Moroland commenced.
Filipino objectives were succinctly stated in two
declarations: The Organic Charter of Organized Land Settlement of
. . . land settlement work is the only government policy
that will furnish effective solution to the Mindanao
problem . . ., [and President Quezon's address to the First
National Assembly on June 16, 1936 announced] . . . the time has
come when we should systematically proceed with and bring about
the colonization and economic development of Mindanao . . . .
This resettlement program concentrated on
dispossessing the Moros of the rich, fertile lands of Davao,
Cotabato, and Lanao. A corollary to resettlement was the
reduction, and eventually curtailment, of economic programs for
the Moros initiated by the U.S. Future projects were for the
exclusive benefit of Filipino colons. According to a 1971 report
by the Philippine Senate Committee on National Minorities, no
irrigation projects had been constructed in any municipality on
Mindanao which had a Muslim majority.
All of this provoked a five-year insurrection by the Moros
of Lake Lanao - from June 1936 to 1941.
At the same time, Manila launched a concerted attack on the
legal protections which had been afforded the Moros by the U.S.
The Administrative Code for Mindanao and Sulu which
permitted flexibility in the application of Filipino laws so as
to respect Moro culture was abolished.
The Moro Board of the office of the Governor of Lanao which
provided for the settling of Moro civil and religious disputes
according to Islamic law and Moro customary law was abolished.
Official recognition of the titles of the Moro nobility [the
community's civil leaders] was rescinded.
A State is Invented and Colonization Continues
On July 4, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines was
inaugurated with Moroland as part of the new state. Moroland
consists of approximately 117,000 square kilometers or 38% of the
state's territory. Manila now resumed the colonization of
Mindanao which had been interrupted by World War II. The
Hukbalahap Rebellion was defeated, in part, by Manila resettling
landless Huks in Mindanao.
In 1951, the Moros of Sulu, led by Mass Kamlon, revolted
against Philippine rule. The insurrection lasted five years.
Unsettled by this event, the Philippine legislature sought
to resolve the Moro Problem once and for all. To this end,
Republic Act No. 1888 established the Commission on National
Integration with the stated purpose ". . . to render real,
complete, and permanent the integration of said minorities into
the body politic . . . ." This goal presupposed that all
subordinate peoples, especially the Moros and the Igorots, shall
eventually be forced to become Christian. The Commission did not
resolve the Moro Problem. Tensions increased as Moros continued
to seek national self-determination, and Filipinos continued to
deny this to them.
In 1961, Ombra Amilbangsa, a member of the Philippine
legislature and, himself, a descendant of the sultans of Sulu,
introduced House Bill No. 5682 which called for the
reestablishment of Sulu as an independent country. The bill was
rejected by the Filipino Congress.
Later that same year, the Hajal Ouh Movement arose seeking
to reestablish an independent state for the Moros of Sulu,
Basilan, and Zamboanga by means of a war of national liberation.
Before it could effectively organize, the government of the
Philippines crushed the movement, killing the leader Hajal Ouh.
The current phase of the Moro struggle can be traced to two
events which occurred in 1968. On March 18th of that year, there
was the Corregidor Incident in which the government of the
Philippines murdered a number of Muslim army recruits - accounts
vary between 28 and 68 - who refused to participate in Operation
Merdeka or Jabidah. This was a top-secret project by which
Manila hoped to end its territorial dispute with Malaysia over
North Borneo (Sabah Province, Malaysia) by militarily invading
and annexing the land. It was only because one soldier, Jibin
Arula, survived and told his story to the opposition party
governor of Cavite, Delfin Montano, that the public was made
aware of the massacre. Investigations, which lasted until 1971,
were conducted by both the Philippine legislature and the
Philippine military. In the end, of the 23 officers indicted,
none was incarcerated.
In response to the Jabidah Massacre, two Moro nationalist
parties were created: the Muslim (later renamed Mindanao)
Independence Movement (MIM), and the Moro National Liberation
Front (M.N.L.F.). Both organizations sought political
independence for Moroland - Basilan, Mindanao, Palawan, and the
The MIM was officially founded on May 1, 1968 by the former
governor of Cotabato province, Datu Udtog Matalam. Although the
movement claimed to speak for all Moros, it never expanded beyond
the province of Cotabato. The failure of Matalam to organize MIM
into an active, pan-Moro party or to develop a concrete political
platform, lead to suspicions that the datu was using the movement
as a bargaining chip with Manila to advance his personal career.
Earlier in March a group of Muslim intellectuals and
students residing in Manila had founded the Moro National
Liberation Front. One of the founding members of the M.N.L.F.
was Nur Misuari, the current chairman of the party. During the
1970s, the M.N.L.F. would emerge as the preeminent Moro military
force and be internationally recognized by the Organization of
the Islamic Conference as the sole, legitimate representative of
the Bangsamoro people.
The second event which occurred in 1968 was the emergence of
Filipino terrorists known as Ilaga, an Ilongo word meaning rat.
Motivated by religious bigotry and greed, the Ilagas began to
attack Moros with impunity. These colons viewed the Moros as an
alien and inferior community who posed a danger to the Philippine
Through acts of violence, the Ilagas hoped to accomplish
several objectives: to retaliate against the Moros for demanding
national self-determination, to intimidate the Moros into
abandoning future political activity, to expel the minority Moro
population from Filipino majority provinces in Mindanao, and most
importantly, to dispossess the Moro majority elsewhere in
Mindanao of much of their remaining homeland.
The failure of the MIM to respond adequately to the llagas
contributed to the final demise of that party. The M.N.L.F.
reacted to the terrorism by preparing for a war of national
liberation. This was launched on October 21, 1972 - shortly
after Marcos had imposed martial law - with an armed insurrection
in Marawi City. So successful were the guerrillas in seizing
military control of the city, it took the superior firepower of
the Philippine armed forces 24 hours to recapture the
Although cruder and overwhelmingly more overtly violent, the
llaga was a natural extension of official Filipino nationalism.
Their terrorism was aided and abetted by 7 municipal mayors, 3
provincial governors, the Philippine Constabulary, and the Armed
Forces of the Philippines.
Just how intimate the relationship was between Manila and
the llagas became apparent after Marcos declared martial law.
While Moros were disarmed, the llagas were allowed to keep
possession of their weapons and were quickly given official,
legal status as the Civil Home Defense Force. By 1975, the now
legally sanitized llagas (Civil Home Defense Force) numbered
Moro and Manila War for a Generation
Since 1972 a war has raged between the M.N.L.F. and the
government of the Philippines. In 1973, as the violence
escalated, Muslim countries became increasingly concerned over
the plight of their co-religionists. As a result, during the
Fourth Islamic Foreign Ministers' Conference held in Benghazi,
Libya in March of that year, the Organization of the Islamic
Conference established the Quadripartite Ministerial Commission.
This four power commission, consisting of Libya, Saudi Arabia,
Senegal, and Somalia, was authorized to investigate the causes of
the Moro War and to make recommendations to the O.I.C. on
At the Fifth Islamic Foreign Ministers' Conference held in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in June 1974, the O.I.C. formally adopted
Resolution 18. This official document embodied the commission's
conclusions: the causes of the Moro War were political, direct
negotiations should be conducted between the M.N.L.F. and Manila,
and the political settlement should provide for Moro autonomy
within the framework of the Philippine state - not independence
as had been advocated by the M.N.L.F.
Under diplomatic pressure from the O.I.C., the threat of an
oil embargo by Islamic oil producing countries, and an
unsatisfactory military situation, the Marcos regime entered into
negotiations with the M.N.L.F. The talks between the two
belligerents were conducted in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia during
January 1975. They failed to reach an accord and were broken
off. A second round of talks held in December 1976 in Tripoli,
Libya produced the Tripoli Agreement.
By this accord, the M.N.L.F., under pressure from the OIC,
agreed to political autonomy within the Philippine state - not
independence - for a Moroland much reduced in territorial size.
The new borders comprised 13 provinces, instead of 22, or only
60% of the historic homeland of the Moros.
The treaty was explicit:
A political autonomous Moro region was to be
established consisting of 13 provinces in the
southwest and all the cities and villages located
within them (Paragraph 2).
The Moro autonomous region was to possess a
legislative assembly and executive council (Paragraph
3, Article 9).
An administrative system (Paragraph 3, Article 5).
Its own financial and economic system (Paragraph 3, Article 6).
A separate Special Regional Security Force (Paragraph 3, Article 8).
The right to establish an educational system of schools,
colleges, and universities (Paragraph 3, Article 4).
The right to Islamic courts (Paragraph 3, Article 3).
A provisional government was to be instituted to oversee
elections to the legislative assembly and administer the region
until the elected legislators had formed a government (Paragraph
3, Article 15).
During this transitional period, a mixed commission was to be
created composed of representatives from the Philippine
government, the M.N.L.F., and the O.I.C. to supervise an
immediate cease-fire (Paragraph 3, Article 12).
Displaying greater political skills than his
adversaries, and more fidelity to his objectives than the O.I.C.
demonstrated for the Moro cause, Marcos destroyed the Tripoli
Agreement within four months.
By publicly sowing confusion as to what were the exact terms
of the accord, the President of the Philippines prompted further
negotiations between his administration and Colonel Qaddafi and
the O.I.C. These negotiations effectively excluded the M.N.L.F.
from participation. By the wording of the resulting
reaffirmations to the Tripoli Agreement, Marcos extracted "three
clarifications" which doomed the accord to extinction. First, a
referendum was to be held on the implementation of the Tripoli
Agreement. Second, the agreed to Moro autonomous region became
the autonomous regions of the Southern Philippines. Third, the
President of the Philippines was to appoint the provisional
Moro Autonomy Non-Negotiable
With these concessions, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 1628
on Declaring Autonomy in Southern Philippines. In conformity
with this document, the President of the Philippines appointed
all 7 members of the Provisional government including the
M.N.L.F. representatives. Such an act was contrary to the
understanding of the other parties and lead to the M.N.L.F.
boycotting this puppet government.
More ominous were the last paragraphs of the proclamation.
They declared that the referendum would determine how the areas
were to be administered. This was not in agreement with the
letter or the intent of the Tripoli Agreement. Moro autonomy was
nonnegotiable. Only certain aspects of the administration of the
Moro autonomous region could be subject to a referendum - not the
existence of the autonomous region itself.
Manila assured both Qaddafi and the O.I.C. that the
approaching April 17, 1977 referendum would conform to the
Tripoli Agreement and ask only those specific questions agreed to
by the contracting parties. Marcos lied. Most of the questions
placed on the referendum were irrelevant and only encouraged
anti-Moro feelings among the Filipino colonists.
The referendum was held under government imposed conditions
- hand picked provisional government and improper ballots - and
not unexpectedly, Manila announced that 95% of the voters had
rejected the Tripoli Agreement.
Claiming to be implementing the results of the April 1977
referendum, however belatedly, Marcos proclaimed Presidential
Decree No. 1618 on July 25, 1979. This decree abolished the
Southern Philippine Provisional Government, established by the
Tripoli Agreement, and designated Region IX and Region XII as
autonomous Filipino - not Moro - political units.
Even this autonomy, created and imposed by Manila, existed
in name only. In its origin and purpose, it was similar to the
autonomy proposed by the Nicaraguan Sandinistas for the Miskito,
Sumo, and Rama peoples, and to that imposed on the Hmong by the
Pathet Lao. It reserved specific powers including immigration
(read: colonization) for the central government with the
stipulation that the powers belonging to Manila were not limited
to those enumerated. The powers of the regional governments were
subordinate to and under the supervision of Manila. The
President of the Philippines appointed one-quarter of the members
of the legislative assemblies and all members of the executive
In the aftermath of the scuttling of the Tripoli Agreement,
open dissension erupted within the ranks of the M.N.L.F. By
1982, several Moro Guerrillas had surrendered to the Philippine
government including the vice-chairman, and one of the founders
of the M.N.L.F., Abul Khayr Alonto. Dissatisfaction also
produced political schisms and the formation of three, rival Moro
(B.M.L.O.) was founded by the late Sultan Haroun Al-Rashid Lucman
and has been supported by some elements of the traditional
society. Dimasankay Pundato, a vice-chairman of the M.N.L.F.,
and a Maranao, established the M.N.L.F. - Reformist Group
(M.N.L.F. - RG). After, unsuccessfully, attempting to depose Nur
Misuari, a Suluano and chairman of the M.N.L.F., and Hashim
Salamat, chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the
M.N.L.F. and a Maguindanaon, founded the M.N.L.F. - Moro Islamic
Liberation Front (M.N.L.F. - MILF). Circumstances persuaded
these three organizations to enter into an alliance and establish
a joint Coordinating Council.
Whether as a result of war-weariness, personal rivalries,
strongest and largest military force and the one recognized by
the Organization of the Islamic Conference as the sole,
legitimate representative of the Bangsamoro people.
the situation is in greater flux. Filipinos are now fighting
among themselves - pro-Aquino, pro-Marcos, pro-military, pro-
Marxist - for effective control of the state structure.
In such circumstances the opportunity exists, or can be
created, to realize Moro national self-determination. The
obstacles remain formidable. Over the past 15 years, the Moros
have endured horrendous losses in pursuit of this goal:
50,000 - 100,000 killed, mostly women, children and the
The price of resignation, of submission to Manila,
however, is much higher.
200,000 - 300,000 homes and buildings burned
535 mosques demolished
200 schools destroyed
35 cities and villages completely razed
almost half the entire Moro population uprooted
100,000 - 200,000 Moro refugees in Sabah, Malaysia
an incalculable worth of physical and emotional damage
For the Moro predicament is desperate and getting worse.
At the start of the U.S. occupation of Moroland in 1913, the
Muslims represented approximately 98% of the territory's
population. Virtually all of the land at that time was owned or
occupied by the Moros. As a result of half a century of
intensive, systematic Filipino colonization, the Moros are now a
dispossessed minority in their own homeland. They constitute
only 40% of the current population (Filipino sources claim they
are just 22%), own less than 17% of the land, most of it barren
land in remote, mountain areas, and have had 80% of their people
reduced to the status of landless tenants.
Originally, the Moro Problem was referred to as the Southern
Philippines Question. Today, it is described as the Southwestern
Philippines Question. Tomorrow, it will be known as the Sulu
Archipelago Question. Unless the Moros achieve national self-
determination, they will no longer be a problem, or a "geographic
expression." They will cease to exist as a nation.
To Preserve The Philippine State
In the attempt to deny the Moros and the Igorots national
self-determination, Filipino nationalists and their foreign
supporters cite 10 reasons for the establishment, and subsequent
preservation, of the Philippines within its post-1946 borders.
- The boundaries of the Philippines constitute
internationally recognized borders which were officially
delineated nearly a century ago during the colonial era.
This rational is a paradox. Philippine independence
bases its legitimacy on a passionate repudiation of European
colonialism, yet it ardently champions and defends the fruits of
that colonialism, the territorial boundaries.
The essence of this argument is that political borders are
legitimate if they have been accepted by the world community of
But, for its proponents, the logic of this position is self-
defeating. For if international recognition confers legitimacy
upon political borders, then all decolonization - including
Philippines independence - becomes illegitimate. After all, the
borders of the various, colonial empires had been accorded such
recognition by their peers.
If accepted as a general principle, this argument would deny
national self-determination to Tibetans and Turkestanis, to
Ukrainians and Byelorussians, to Estonians, Latvians, and
Lithuanians, to Irish and Kanaks. Each nation is part of a
state, much against their wishes, whose boundaries are
internationally recognized -- de jure or de facto -- by most
- Preservation of the Philippines existing borders is
supported by Third World concepts of the sanctity of the
territorial integrity of post-colonial states.
This belief has only been advanced by the Organization
of African Unity in Articles 2 and 3 of its charter. According
to this document, in any conflict between the principles of
territorial integrity and national self-determination, the former
This situation is unique to Africa and has no real bearing
on Asia. Asia has no equivalent to the OAU or its charter.
On the contrary, borders, more often than not, have been
altered from their colonial boundaries. States have been
enlarged, others reduced, and still others obliterated from the
-- China invaded and annexed Tibet (1950), later seized parts of
the disputed territory of Kashmir (1959-1962).
-- India and Pakistan were established in 1947 through a dual
process of partition and annexation. The British Raj was
partitioned into two successor states, while the legally separate
entities known as the princely states were annexed to either
India or Pakistan.
-- India annexed the French enclaves of Karikal, Mahe, Pondichey,
and Yanam in 1954, the Portugese colonies of Dadra, and Nagar
Aveli in 1960, and the last Portugese strongholds of Damao, Diu,
and Goa in 1961. The Kingdom of Sikkim was annexed in 1975.
-- India and Pakistan have fought two wars for control of Kashmir
in 1947-48 and again in 1965. The result has been Kashmir's
partition between the two rivals.
-- The eastern wing of Pakistan seceded to form Bangladesh in
-- Dutch New Guinea was transferred to Indonesian rule in 1963.
East Timor was invaded and annexed by Indonesia in 1975.
-- The British colonies on Borneo, Sarawak and Sabah, were united
with Malaya to create the Federation of Malaysia in 1963.
Singapore was expelled from the federation in 1965.
-- The United Nations Strategic Trust Territory of Micronesia
administered by the United States was partitioned into four
separate political units -- Federated States of Micronesia,
Marshall Islands, Northern Marianas, and Palau -- during the late
1970s, early 1980s.
- The Boundaries of the Philippines form "natural"
borders for they enclose a distinct, geographic archipelago.
The Philippines, however, do not form a single
archipelago. It is part of the Malay, or East Indian,
Archipelago which includes Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore,
Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea as well as the Philippines.
According to the logic of this argument, the states' borders
should be expanded to include the entire archipelago -- islands,
states, and peoples.
The division of this archipelago in to various states was
arbitrary based on European needs not "natural" criteria.
A variation of this theme is to stress the "natural"
compactness of the state. Yet the distance between Manila and
Sibutu Island is almost the same as between Manila and Taipei.
Should the Philippines, therefore, claim Taiwan, in part or in
whole, as belonging to it?
- Strategic "choke-points" of several shipping lanes are
located within the boundaries of the Philippines. The premise is
that strategic points of international waterways are best placed
under one political authority for security and efficiency.
This argument is without foundation for two reasons.
First, as a general rule, choke-points of the world's shipping
lanes are not within the jurisdiction of a single state.
Strait of Dover -- U.K. and France
Strait of Gibraltar -- Spain, U.K., Morocco
Strait of Hormuz -- Oman and Iran
Strait of Bab-el Mandeb -- North Yemen, South
Yemen, Djibouti, and Ethiopia
Strait of Magellan -- Argentina and Chile
Palk Strait -- India and Sri Lanka
Great Channel -- India and Indonesia
Strait of Malacca -- Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia
Strait of Singapore -- Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia
Drake Passage -- Argentina, U.K., Chile
Torres Strait -- Australia and Papua New Guinea
Batabac Strait -- Philippines and Malaysia
Soya Strait -- Japan and the U.S.S.R.
Nemuro Strait -- Japan and the U.S.S.R.
Korea Strait -- Japan and South Korea
Bering Strait -- U.S. and the U.S.S.R.
Windward Passage -- Cuba and Haiti
Strait of Florida -- U.S., Bahamas, and Cuba
Do the proponents of this argument maintain that such
a division of political authority makes these choke-points
unsafe? If strategic waterways should be places within the
borders of one state, what of these? Which states would be
granted this privilege, and why?
Second, of the strategic waterways currently within the
borders of the Philippines, most would remain under Filipino
control even after Igorot and Moro states have been established.
Except for a few which cross south of Mindanao through the Sulu
Archipelago and the Celebes Sea, the vast majority of the
shipping lanes and their choke-points lie between Luzon and the
- The borders of the Philippines enclose a racially
homogeneous Malay population.
This is a variant on the "natural" border theme.
Malays, however, are not restricted to the Philippines. They
constitute the majority of the population of Malaysia, Brunei,
and Indonesia. If the borders of the Philippines are legitimate
because they unite the Malays in one state, then logically these
borders should be expanded to include Malaysia, Brunei, and
If, on the other hand, the proponents of this argument
accept these three, other Malay states as legitimate (and they
do), then there is no reason why two additional Malay states --
Igorot and Moro -- could not be accepted as well.
- The boundaries of the Philippines have been
established in accordance with democratic principles. The
state's borders have been endorsed overwhelmingly by Filipinos at
the voting booths.
From 1903-1946, the Moros demonstrated to Washington
their consistent and universal opposition to incorporation within
an independent Philippines.
Argument 6 seeks to deny the ethnic realities of the
Philippines and to conceal the colonial domination of the smaller
Igorot and Moro nations by the larger, Filipino community behind
the democratic facade of majority rule.
The implication of this "majority rule" argument is
dangerous. It rationalizes the annexation of smaller nations by
their larger neighbors and condones the subsequent colonization
of the former's land by the latter.
If accepted as a general principle, this argument justifies
Chinese occupation of Tibet, Soviet occupation of Lithuania, and
the French occupation of Kanakia.
- Independence for the Igorots and the Moros is without
historical validity since neither ever succeeded in establishing
a unified state encompassing all of Moroland or the Mountain
This is perhaps the most bizarre reason advanced by
the supporters of the Philippine state. The argument undercuts
their own position, since there never was a Filipino state that
ruled all the 7,100 islands. Even the notion of a Filipino
identity is non-indigenous. Of the three groups, Igorot, Moro,
and Filipino, it is the Filipino which is the most historically
- If the Philippine state is broken up, the resulting
successor states -- Igorot and Moro -- would be unviable.
Both an Igorot state and a Moro state would be
politically, and economically viable. Each in terms of
territorial and population size would be larger than a number of
independent countries of Asia, the Caribbean, Europe, and the
Freed from Filipino occupation, the Igorots and the Moros
could devote their resources to establishing, or re-establishing,
stable independent states.
Having successfully defended their national existence for
over 400 years against military assaults by Spaniards, Americans,
Japanese, and Filipinos, the goal should not be impossible to
It is precisely because the lands of the Igorots and the
Moros are rich in natural resources -- and economically viable as
states -- that the Philippines wishes to retain possession of
The price which Manila is paying to hold on to these lands,
however, has been costly. The true expense can be seen in the
resulting political turmoil and economic decline.
(A) Major development projects used to solidify Manila's
control of the Mountain Province and Moroland, have provoked
further unrest. Many of the projects have been economic failures
in their own right.
(B) Funds have been diverted from economic development to
the war effort.
(C) The government has incurred a heavy debt by seeking
international loans for its "development" projects and "counter-
(D) The wars have fueled inflation, encouraged the black
market, promoted corruption, and contributed to the Philippines
general economic decline.
(E) As a result of the instability, foreign investments in
the past have declined.
(F) In its effort to win the wars, Manila not only has
tolerated the existence of local political "bosses" with their
private armies, but has created additional paramilitary units.
Such armed groups, however, pose a threat to the stability, and
to the functioning, of any democratic government in the
(G) The attempt to retain control of the Igorots and the
Moros has undermined the Philippines political system in another
way. The political rhetoric of "territorial integrity," and
other shibboleths of Filipino "nationalism" contributed to the
establishment of the Marcos dictatorship, has provoked dissension
within the Aquino administration, and was one of the reasons for
4 coup attempts against Aquino. Rational debate is impossible in
such an arena where extremism dominates. By its nature the
political atmosphere breeds intolerance and tyranny.
(H) While the Igorots and the Moros ask only for national
self-determination, and do not question the legitimacy of the
Philippine government within certain borders, the Marxist New
Peoples Army does. The NPA denies the legitimacy of the
political establishment in Manila -- government, legal, non-
Marxist, opposition parties, and their respective social bases.
The war between Manila and the NPA is an internecine
struggle for control of the Philippines. Neither antagonist
questions the validity of the Philippines state. On the
contrary, both are articulators of a Filipino "nationalism".
Their differences center on how that state can be strengthened.
For Manila, this goal is best realized through a quasi capitalist
economy, a multi party political system, and close ties with the
West, especially the United States. The NPA seeks to fulfill its
version of Filipino "nationalism" by instituting a socialist
economy, a communist political dictatorship, and intimate
relations with the Soviet Bloc.
By rejecting national self-determination for the Igorots and
the Moros, Manila is confronted with three rebellions, not just
the one. This situation benefits the NPA, and weakens Manila.
- Political independence for the Igorots and the Moros
would be physically impossible to achieve.
A significant population of Filipinos has been
established among the Igorots and the Moros. If independence
were granted to the Mountain Province (1912 borders) and to
Moroland, these Filipinos, who have no desire to be separated
from the Philippines, would necessarily be included in such
states. This, it is claimed, would perpetrate a grave injustice.
Furthermore, it is asserted, these Filipinos would undermine the
new states by all the means available to them - including
On the other hand, the argument continues, since these rival
settlements crisscross the disputed territories, no viable
political borders could be properly delineated which would
effectively separate the respective nations.
Deliberately misusing the concept of democratic rights, this
argument uses demographic "facts" created by Manila's policy of
colonization to justify preserving that colonialism.
If the logic of this argument is accepted as valid, then it
would condemn all the captive nations within the Soviet and
Chinese states, for example, to perpetual occupation, and many to
What is intentionally ignored by Argument 9 is that
independence for the Igorots and the Moros -- within the historic
homelands of each -- would be premised upon the repatriation of
most, if not all, the colonial, Filipino population.
Just as the Chinese must leave Tibet, just as the Russians
must leave Lithuania, so, too, the Filipino colons must leave the
Mountain Province (1912 borders) and Moroland (Basilan, Mindanao,
Palawan, and the Sulu Archipelago).
The precedent exists. The French evacuated Algeria; the
Germans left Alsace-Lorraine, Pomerania, and East Prussia; the
Italians emigrated from Libya; the Japanese were expelled from
south Sakalin. In addition, there have been two major population
transfers in this century: between Greece and Turkey in the
1920s, and in the 1940s between India and Pakistan.
- The breakup of the Philippines would de-stabilize the
The threat to regional peace comes from the attempt by
the Philippines to dominate two, small nations -- the Igorots and
the Moros. Especially the latter. Manila's obsession with
retaining Moroland has lead it to lay claims to Sabah province of
Malaysia. Alleging that Sabah was an integral part of the
Sultanate of Sulu, and that the sultan had transferred his
patrimony to the Philippines, Manila nearly went to war with
Malaysia for control of this territory in the 1960s.
A New Political Status brings Stability
The establishment of independent Igorot and Moro
states would contribute to political stability for the region in
general and for the Philippines in particular.
Neither a sovereign Singapore, which had been expelled from
the Federation of Malaysia in 1965, nor an independent Brunei,
which refused to join the Malaysian federation and became a
sovereign state in 1985, have de-stabilized Southeast Asia.
A variation of this theme of de-stabilization stresses that
any partition of Luzon and Mindanao would induce political
Yet Borneo has been partitioned among three, separate states
- Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. Filipino "nationalists" and
their foreign supporters have accepted this political partition,
and have accepted the fact it has not lead to instability for the
region. If the partition of Borneo can be sanctioned, so can the
partitions of both Luzon and Mindanao.
Underlying these 10 arguments are specific "Western" biases:
U.S. Interests Oppose Self-Determination
- Western delineated borders are inherently progressive,
- Large, modern, economic units are superior to small or
tribally based economies. Such large economic systems require
large, Westernized states to function.
- Nationalism is archaic and de-stabilizing. Despite the
fact that nationalism is a distinctly, Western European
phenomenon -- the ideology emerged in the 19th century from the
convergence of both the Industrial and the French Revolutions --
today, it is, ironically, the European world, and the U.S., which
dismisses the legitimacy and motivating force of nationalism, and
thus are bind to its importance to the non-Western world.
- Religion is a private matter, a personal conviction,
which should not form the rational for independence or the basis
of statehood. There is a "Christian" bias in this position.
Whether a devout Christian or a Western secularist, or humanist
-- the two latter beliefs arose directly out of Christendom --
there is an insensitivity, perhaps even a fear, of other
religions. The desire is to suppress the political power of
these other religious communities.
- Modern, Western culture is superior to all others. The
material prosperity, technological achievements, and the
extensive political and economic power wielded by this world
culture are held as proofs of its inherent superiority.
Citing the previous arguments, motivated by the above
biases, Washington has opposed national self-determination for
the Igorots and the Moros. Since 1898, under both Democratic and
Republican administrations, the U.S. consistently has promoted
and sustained the territorial integrity of the Philippines.
Four factors inhibit American policy on this issue from
changing, at least in the near future.
- The desire of the U.S. government to retain its
military facilities at Clark air base and Subic naval base, the
largest U.S. facilities outside American territory.
Although these installations are not located in the
disputed territories, and, therefore, would not be directly
effected, Washington would be concerned that an aggrieved
Filipino "nationalism" - stung by the loss of its colonies
would strike out at the U.S., blaming Washington for somehow not
preventing the secessions. The prime target for any retaliation
would be these bases with Manila canceling the lease agreements.
This is a dubious justification for opposing national self-
determination for the Igorots and the Moros. For several years,
Manila has threatened to phase out these facilities despite
considerable U.S. financial and military assistance in defense of
the state's political integrity. At one point during the 1970s,
it was alleged that U.S. planes from Clark air base even
participated in air strikes against the MNLF in Mindanao.
Evidently, Washington believes, or hopes, that these threats
to close the military bases are just a bargaining chip for future
negotiations. Under that assumption, as long as the bases remain
open no actions should be taken that could be used to justify any
closure. This means continued opposition to Igorot and Moro
- The intent of major American corporations to preserve
their immensely profitable business operations.
Over the decades, an intimate and mutually rewarding
relationship has developed between Manila and foreign firms doing
business in the Philippines, chiefly U.S. companies. For both
the Filipino government and its foreign business allies the
tribal lands have constituted a rich prize.
Under the cover of "national development," these lands have
been invaded and exploited. The results have benefited both
parties. The companies have reaped tremendous, financial
profits. Manila, however, has reaped something more valuable --
political dividends. The tribal societies, which form a rival
authority, have been undermined. An effective governmental
presence has been established in these territories, in many
instances for the first time. Most importantly, Filipino
colonists have migrated to these lands.
To entice foreign corporations to undertake "development"
projects, the Marcos administration offered such companies tax
exemptions and the right to repatriate up to 100% of their
profits. Multinationals were receptive. During the 1960s,
1970s, and early 1980s, U.S. firms, generally, prospered despite
the wars. The principle target for "development" was Mindanao
which has been transformed into a showcase of Philippine
Mindanao is the treasure chest of the Philippines. The
island accounts for 100% of the state's rubber, 100% of all
exported bananas, 100% of all exported pineapples, 100% of its
aluminum ore, 90% of its iron ore, 89% of its nickel, 89 % of its
cobalt, 62% of its limestone, 56% of its corn, 50% of its
coconuts, 50% of its fish, 50% of its zinc, 40% of its cattle,
25% of its coal, and 20% of its rice. With three-fifths of the
country's total timber land, lumbering is another lucrative
industry. The total land concessions granted to logging
companies amounts to five million hectares. Other sources of
revenues for Manila include: ramie, palay, coffee, cocoa, copper,
marble, cement, steel, and gold.
Most of the profits from these enterprises accrue to a few
giant U.S. multinationals. 97% of all income derived from rubber
goes to three firms -- Goodrich, Goodyear, and Firestone. 99% of
all Pineapple sales are accounted for by two companies -- Dole
and Del Monte. The Mindanao land holdings of both Dole and Del
Monte total approximately 16,400 hectares making them among the
largest pineapple plantations in the world.
Mindanao's most important cash crop is bananas. The
plantations for this industry cover 27,000 hectares. All this
land is controlled by four large, multinationals -- Dole, Del
Monte, United Fruits, and Sumitomo (Japanese) -- which also
regulate the entire export distribution of this crop.
During the late 1970s, the profits earned on bananas by
these four companies averaged $9,700 per hectare, per year.
Through its various subsidiaries, Del Monte owns 61% of the
Philippines' fruit manufacturing industry. The Company's
operations are highly diversified including livestock feed,
cattle, and deep-sea fishing.
Dole and its subsidiaries own 38% of the country's fruit
industry. In addition, Dole's business operations extend to
glass manufacturing, land development, cattle breeding, the sugar
industry, and banking. The company is also the largest coffee
producer in the state.
Mindanao's fate is but a foreshadow of what is in store for
the land of the Igorots -- ecological devastation, economic
dislocation, and demographic destruction.
The multinationals know that their profits, present and
future, can only be attained as long as the lands of the Igorots
and the Moros remain firmly controlled by Manila. They,
therefore, can be expected to use their not insignificant
influence in Washington to insure that the U.S. government
remains committed to the territorial integrity of the
- The determination of Christian churches, especially
the Roman Catholic Church, to uphold the political power of the
only Christian state in Asia.
Despite nearly half a millennium of intensive
missionary activity in Asia -- activity more often than not
supported by the military might of European powers -- the only
conquest achieved by Christian missionaries remains the
For the Christian churches whose message of world salvation
is predicated upon world conversion, Asia's continued following
Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam has been a source of
The Philippines was envisioned by the missionaries to be a
showcase of the moral and material truth of their religion.
Conversion to Christianity was anticipated to bring in its wake
the concrete political and economic benefits associated with
Apparently, the missionaries believed that such material
benefits would be viewed as proof of their faith's truth and
persuade other Asian peoples to convert. The Philippines did not
become such a showcase; Asian nations did not convert.
Today, the preservation of the political power of this
Asia's only Christian nation is most important to the churches.
Just how important the issue of political power has been for
the Christian churches can be appreciated by comparing their
position on the Philippines with their position on Sudan. Both
republics are divided by historical, linguistic and religious
differences into a dominate North and a rebellious Southhese
emotional distinctions are reinforced by physical barriers -- the
Mindanao Sea in the Philippines and the Sudd in Sudan.
The Philippines and the Sudan are mirror images of one
another. Whereas the Philippines has a northern, Christian
majority suppressing a secessionist, southern, Muslim minority,
in the Sudan the northern majority is Muslim ad the secessionist
minority in the south is Christian. The Christian churches have
championed the territorial unity of the former and not the
Attempts to form a separate, colonial administration for the
Muslim minority in the Philippines, the Moros, was not supported
by the churches. Vigorous opposition was expressed by them,
especially, the Roman Catholic Church, to any suggestion that the
Moros be permitted to become an independent state. Instead, the
church condoned, and at times encouraged, massive colonization of
Moroland by Filipinos.
During British, colonial rule in the Sudan, the Christian
churches successfully lobbied London to establish a separate
colonial administration for the south Sudan -- an area inhabited
by tribes practicing their own indigenous religions, and a few
Christian converts. In the hope, that this detachment could be
made permanent, the Christian churches supported a variety of
discriminatory laws and policies: northerners (Muslims) were
prohibited from immigrating into the south, northern (Muslim)
merchants were barred from trading in the region, the wearing of
any apparel considered "Muslim" was forbidden, the teaching and
use of Arabic was discouraged, Sunday legally replaced Friday as
the day of the Sabbath, and all Muslim personal names were
mandated to be changed to Biblical names. The goal was to
convert the region to Christianity.
Since that time, the last quarter of the 19th century, the
Christian churches, generally, have supported maximum autonomy
for a unified south within the Sudan coupled with safeguards to
protect the south Sudanese from Muslim immigration, Islamic law,
and the use of Arabic. Often times these same churches have
displayed, and continue to display, a pronounced sympathy for
complete independence for the south Sudan. When either proposal
is advanced by the Moros of the Philippines They are ignored or
condemned by these same Christian churches.
During the 1970s, a dangerous situation was beginning to
emerge in the Philippines for the Christian political position.
The tribal nations -- the Igorots and the Moros -- began to
vigorously assert their own national identities -- identities
which were neither Filipino nor Christian. Not only was the
Philippines not the beacon of Christianity for the rest of Asia,
it was fast becoming apparent to the outside world that the very
idea of the Philippines as a unitary Christian nation was false.
If the Igorots and the Moros were to secede, it would be a
terrible psychological and political blow to the Christian
churches: the actual territorial and numerical size of their only
missionary conquest in Asia would be drastically reduced, a major
base for their evangelization works in Asia would be seriously
weakened, and most importantly, they would experience a grave
setback as the power, prestige, and attraction of rival religions
-- especially, Islam -- would be enhanced among neighboring
The Christian churches in general, and the Roman Catholic
Church in particular, can be expected to use the significant
influences they possess with members of the government to lobby
for continued U.S. support for the existing state borders of the
- The sensitivity of Washington to the impact, both
domestically and internationally, of any charges by Filipino and
Filipino-American organizations that any U.S. support for the
Igorots and the Moros is anti-Filipino, racist, and imperialist.
In the United States, virtually the entire immigrant
community from the Philippines is Filipino with little, if any,
Igorot or Moro representation. This enables the Filipino
viewpoint to dominate in any discussion of the Philippines
whether by the media, academic institutions or Washington.
In their lobbying, the Filipino activists might possibly
enlist support from other Asian-American organizations with
similar concerns of territorial integrity -- Chinese-American,
Japanese-American, perhaps, even Vietnamese-American political
Faced with the accusations of racism and colonialism over a
distant war, and with a sizable Filipino-American voting
constituency, many politicians and both political parties will
prefer to avoid the issue altogether or take a pro-Philippine
Against such formidable opposition -- U.S. geopolitics,
multinationals, Christian churches, and organized Filipino
lobbying -- to whom can the Igorots and the Moros turn for
Toward Igorot and Moro Self-Determination
Sympathetic articles have appeared in the publications of
the Center for World Indigenous Studies, Cultural Survival, and
Minority Rights Group. A public platform from which to
articulate their views is provided by the World Council of
Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Working Group on
Indigenous Populations in Geneva.
These expressions of support are important and beneficial.
Each organization, however, reaches a limited audience and can
only offer the Igorots and the Moros moral support.
What is essential to any tribal victory -- or necessary to
prevent any tribal defeat -- is the diplomatic, economic,
military, and political assistance of foreign countries. To a
qualified degree this has been afforded the Moros by Muslim
Libya had extended the MNLF military, financial, and
diplomatic support. As a result of Qaddafi's intervention the
short-lived "Tripoli Agreement" providing political autonomy for
the Moros was negotiated in 1976. But the Colonel is irrational,
hence unpredictable. He cannot be relied upon to be either an
ally or an enemy. Originally, an exponent of Eritrean
independence, Qaddafi is now a proponent of continued Ethiopian
rule. After advocating the overthrow of King Hassan II of
Morocco for several years, the Libyan leader turned around and in
1981 signed a treaty of union with the monarch (Treaty of Arab-
African Union). For a variety of reasons including the drop in
oil revenues, the war in Chad, and personal idiosyncrasies,
Qaddafi has significantly reduced his involvement with and
interest in the Moros. This is for the best. To have the Libyan
leader as the principal, if not the sole, sponsor of the Moros
was in many ways worse than no foreign support at all. A pariah
not only in the West but in much of Africa, and the Arab and
Islamic worlds, assistance from Qaddafi was easily used by Manila
to discredit the Moro cause and elicit further aid from
Malaysia has provided, and continues to provide, political
asylum for Moro Refugees. At one point during the 1972-1977
period the number of refugees was several hundreds of thousands.
Some reports claimed the number was near one million. According
to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the current
official number of refugees is 90,000. The government of Kuala
Lumpur while officially providing sanctuary has refused either to
supply the MNLF with weapons or to endorse the goal of political
independence for the Moros. This policy has been pursued in
order not upset the delicate balance in Malaysia between Muslims
and non-Muslims, and among Malays, Asian-Indians, Chinese, and
the tribal nations. When it as discovered by the government
that the governor of Sabah province, Tun Mustapha, had been
aiding the MNLF he was removed from office in 1975. This was
done adroitly so as not to disturb the domestic political
Finally, between 1973-1979, the Organization of the Islamic
Conference, an international body consisting of 46 Muslim states,
was actively involved in mediating a political settlement between
Manila and the MNLF. Since several of its members have had
trouble with secessionist movements -- especially, Indonesia,
Iraq, Pakistan, and Sudan -- the OIC supported only political
autonomy within the Philippine state for the Moros and not
independence. In attempting to conclude such a compromise, the
OIC declined a Moro request to impose an oil embargo on the
Philippines in order to force Manila to agree. The Conference
believed that such an act would be counterproductive, and only
result in a hardening of Manila's position. This strategy
appeared to have succeeded in 1976 when Marcos signed the
"Tripoli Agreement." By the time the OIC realized that Marcos had
no intention of honoring the accord, the Conference was inundated
by other crises: Egypt's peace treaty with Israel, the political
disintegration of Lebanon, war in the Western Sahara, war between
Ethiopia and Somalia, the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Iran-Iraq War, and renewed
civil war in Sudan. The initiative which had been with the MNLF
from 1972 through 1975 had been lost.
Although this Muslim support for the Moros failed to achieve
the desired results, it still can be the basis for a new
endeavor, one that can succeed if it goes beyond past limitations
-- beyond autonomy and beyond the Moros.
Steps to the Realization of Self-Government
To realize national self-determination for both the
Igorots and the Moros, 14 steps must be taken.
Each of these steps will be a burden to the OIC members,
each a potential source of disagreement among the rival leaders
of the Muslim world and among the tribal leaders of the Moros and
the Igorots. But, if personal differences can be set aside, and
such a coordinated policy, or one similar to it, is pursued, the
goal of national self-determination for the Moros and the Igorots
can be realized. Not to attempt such a program is to condemn
both tribal nations to the inevitable logic of Filipino
colonization -- cultural and national extinction.
- Moro forces must unify under one political-military
coordinating council. Through its office, the OIC can help to
achieve and maintain this essential unity.
- The Moro political objective must be clearly and
vigorously presented to the world community. The Moro nation
must have the right to decide by secret vote whether it wishes to
remain part of the Philippines, or to form a separate,
independent state. The land under discussion is the historic
homeland of the Moros -- Basilan, Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu
- Malaysia and Indonesia must continue to offer political
asylum to Moro refugees, but it is not only a problem of these
two countries, it is a problem for all Islam. Therefore, the OIC
should compensate both Kuala Lumpur and Djakarta for the expenses
- The OIC must continue to provide financial and
diplomatic support to the Moros.
- All financial and military assistance extended to the
Moros by Muslim countries should be channeled through the OIC.
This is to insure that the Moros are not made the pawns of other
states foreign policy objectives.
- The Igorots must maintain and strengthen their political
- The Moros and the OIC must officially support the
Igorots demand for the reunification of the Mountain Province, a
return to its 1912 borders, and the right of the Igorot people to
decide in a secret ballot whether they wish to remain a part of
the Philippines, and if so, under what political conditions, or
to separate and form an independent country.
- The Moros and the Igorots must form a common, political
platform and coordinate their diplomatic activities.
- The OIC should offer to extend financial and diplomatic
assistance to the Igorots free from any attempts or suggestions
of Islamic indoctrination.
- The OIC should reconsider an oil embargo on the
Philippines. Although less dependent today on Middle East oil
than it was in the 1970s -- from 90% dependency down to 50% --,
an embargo would still be a major discomfort and international
embarrassment for Manila.
- The OIC should also consider terminating the employment
contracts of all Filipinos working in Muslim countries. The end
of workers' remittances coupled with the return of several
thousands of unemployed citizens would persuade Manila to be more
- The OIC should consider having its members withdraw
their investments from the Philippines and boycott all Filipino
products until a negotiated settlement with the Moros and the
Igorots has been achieved.
- Muslim countries individually, as well as the OIC,
should exert diplomatic pressure on Washington emphasizing that
national self-determination for the Igorots and the Moros is
consistent with America's commitment to national self-
determination for Tibet and the Baltic states.
- The OIC, and the individual Muslim countries, should
offer financial assistance to the post-partitioned Philippines
and to the new, independent Moro and Igorot states to help each
become stable and sound.
A Fourth World Path - Neither Left Nor Right
This is the objective which Filipino "nationalism" -- of
both the left and the right -- have pursued, and will continue to
The Communist party of the Philippines, and its military
arm, the New Peoples' Party, enunciated through the Marxist
National Democratic Front a Ten-Point Program in 1977 which
included "... support for the national minorities, especially
those in Mindanao and the Mountain Province, in their struggle
for self-determination and democracy." Self-determination was
defined as "... the right to secede from a state of national
Despite consistent pronouncements in defense of national
self-determination, up to and including the right for a nation to
secede and form its own independent state, after it has seized
power no Communist Party has ever permitted such an event to
occur. Witness the history of the U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia, the
Peoples' Republic of China, and Ethiopia.
By its own words, the Communist Party of the Philippines,
and its New Peoples' Army, shows that the left has no intention
of honoring national self-determination. The secession that is
approved is one from "a state of national oppression" only.
Since by Marxist definition the accession to power of a Communist
party would end such a "state of national oppression," secession
from a Communist Philippines would have no justification. Such
an attempt would be labeled as counter-revolutionary and would be
On the right, the leading opponent of Ferdinand Marcos was
the late ex-Senator Begnino Aquino, Jr. In May 1981, the Senator
sent an Aide Memoire to the General Secretariat of the
Organization of the Islamic Conference in which he recognized
"... the sacred birth right of Filipino Muslims to self-
determination." Yet Aquino defined the Moros first as
"Filipinos" and offered to them in that capacity only self-
determination, not national (Moro) self-determination. Would he
have permitted the Moros the right to political independence?
Begnino Aquino's wife, Cory Aquino, the current President of the
Philippines, maintains that she is faithfully fulfilling her
husband's political testament. She opposes independence for the
Moros, rejects the "Tripoli Agreement," and refuses OIC
mediations. The Igorots pose a less serious military threat, so
they are subject to benign neglect.
One of Cory Aquino's principal supporters and advisors,
Jaime Cardinal Sin has been quite frank on what the Moros and the
Igorots can expect. At the recent October 1987 Synod of Bishops
in Rome, he declared that in the Philippines any separation of
religion and politics was "unthinkable." The religion to which
he was alluding was his own, Roman Catholicism. In such a
society Islam and tribal religions have no future.
After so many decades of abuse and betrayal, for the Moros
and the Igorots to trust Manila and to remain within the
Philippines would not only be naive, it would be suicidal.
Afable, Lourdes B. "The Muslims as an Ethnic Minority in
the Philippines", Philippine Sociological Review January-April
Ahmad, Aijaz. "400 Year War-Moro Struggle in the Philippines",
Southeast Asia Chronicle No. 82, February 1982.
Asani, Abdurasad. "The Bangsamoro People: A Nation in Travail",
Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs V.6, N.2 July 1985,
---------------- "Moro-Not Filipinos", The Diliman Review March-
April 1980, pp.27-30
Alonto, Hadji Madki. "Islam in the Philippines", Fookien Times
Yearbook, 1960, pp.239,241,243.
Ashworth, Georgina. "The Philippine Moslems", World Minorities
Vol.1, Quartermaine House Ltd., U.K. 1977.
Bogabong, Hadji (Kali sa Onayan) et al. Letter to President
Franklin Delanor Roosevelt, March 18, 1935. Signed by 120 datus
of Lanao. 12 typed and written pages in English including
signatures and thumbprints.
Bunge, Fredricka M. Philippines, A Country Study, 3rd. edition,
Foreign Area Studies, American University, Washington, D.C.,
Carino, Jocelyn. "The New Situation: What Does Cory's Government
Hold For The Kaigorotan?", Fourth World Journal, Vol.1, No. 4,
Summer 1986, pp.257-267.
Claver, William F. "The Igorot of the Cordillera", Fourth World
Journal, Vol.1, No. 2, Winter 1985, pp.127-134.
The Congressional Record-House (U.S.A.). 1926 (May 6), Speech of
Congressman Bacon with exhibits, pp.8830- 8836.
Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines. The
Southwestern Philippines Question, 3rd. edition, Manila, 1980.
---------------------. Implementation of the Tripoli Agreement-
1984, Manila, 1984.
Eder, James F. "The Batak of the Philippines", World Minorities
Vol.2, Quartermaine House Ltd., U.K. 1978.
Eprile, Cecil. War and Peace in the Sudan: 1955-1972, David &
Charles, London 1974.
Forbes, W. Cameron. The Philippine Islands. Vol.2, Boston:
Houghton Miffin Company, 1928.
Fox, Robert B. "A Consideration of Theories Concerning Possible
Affiliations of Mindanao Cultures with Borneo, the Celebes, and
other regions of the Philippines", Philippine Sociological
Review, January 1957, pp.2-52.
Fry, Howard Tyrrell. A History of the Mountain Province, Quezon
City, New Day Publishers; Detroit, Michigan: Exclusive
Distributors The Cellar Book Shop, 1983.
Gowing, Peter Gordon. "Muslim Filipinos Today", The Muslim World,
Vol. 54, No. 1, 2. pp.39-48, 112-121.
--------------------. Mandate in Moroland: The American
Government of Muslim Filipinos, 1899-1920. Quezon City,
Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, 1977.
--------------------. Muslim Filipinos-Heritage and Horizon,
Quezon City, New Day Publishers, 1979.
Isidro, Antonio and Mamitua Saber (eds.). Muslim Philippines.,
University Research Center, Mindanao State University, Marawi
May, R.J. "The Situation of Philippine Muslims", Journal
Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.v, No. 2, July 1984,
McLean, Scilla. "Development? The Kalinga, Bontoc, and Isneg of
the Philippines", World Minorities Vol. 3, Quartermaine House
Ltd., U.K. 1980.
Molloy, Ivan. "Revolution in the Philippines: The Question of an
Alliance Between Islam and Communism", Asian Survey, Vol. xxv,
No. 8, August 1985, pp.822-833.
Morris, Glenn T. and Ward Churchill. "Between a Rock and a Hard
Place -- Left-Wing Revolution, Right-Wing Reaction, and the
Destruction of Indigenous People", Cultural Survival Quarterly,
Vol.11, No. 3, 1987, pp.17-24.
Morrison, Godfrey. Eritrea and the Southern Sudan: Aspects of
Some Wider African Problems, Report No. 5, Minority Rights Group,
Nietschman, Bernard. "The Third World War", Cultural Survival
Quarterly, Vol.11, No. 3, 1987, pp.1-16
Noble, Lela G. "The Moro National Liberation Front", Pacific
Affairs, Vol.XLIX/3 (Fall), 1976, pp.405-424.
-----------. Philippine Policy Toward Sabah: A Claim to
Independence, University of Arizona Press, Tucson Arizona, 1977.
Ortiz, Pacifico A. "Legal Aspects of the North Borneo Question",
Philippine Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, January 1963, pp.18-64.
Resolutions of the Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers
Regarding Filipino Muslims -- Fifth (June 1974) through
Twelfth (June 1981) Sessions.
Scott, William Henry. "Spanish-Moro Relations in the 16th
Century: Crusade or Commerce", The Diliman Review, March-April
1980, pp.8-10, 36.
Tan, Samuel K. The Filipino Muslim Armed Struggle, 1900- 1972,
Filipinas Foundation Inc., Manila 1977.
Tiamson, Alfredo T. The Muslim Filipinos: An Annotated
Bibliography, Office of the Special Assistant of Cultural
Communities, Department of Public Information, Manila 1977.
United States Congress - Senate, Papers Relating to the Treaty
with Spain, 56th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Document No. 148.