Presentation on theme: "INTRODUCTION The food we eat is our only source of energy for performing biological work. There are three major metabolic destinations for the principle."— Presentation transcript:
1INTRODUCTIONThe food we eat is our only source of energy for performing biological work.There are three major metabolic destinations for the principle nutrients. They will be used for energy for active processes, synthesized into structural or functional molecules, or synthesized as fat or glycogen for later use as energy.
2METABOLIC REACTIONSMetabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in the body.Catabolism includes all chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules while anabolism refers to chemical reactions that combine simple molecules to form complex molecules.The chemical reactions of living systems depend on transfer of manageable amounts of energy from one molecule to another. This transfer is usually performed by ATP.
4ENERGY TRANSFERAll molecules (nutrient molecules included) have energy stored in the bonds between their atoms.
5Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Oxidation is the removal of electrons from a molecule and results in a decrease in the energy content of the molecule. Because most biological oxidations involve the loss of hydrogen atoms, they are called dehydrogenation reactions.When a substance is oxidized, the liberated hydrogen atoms do not remain free in the cell but are transferred immediately by coenzymes to another compound.Reduction is the opposite of oxidation, that is, the addition of electrons to a molecule and results in an increase in the energy content of the molecule.
6CoenzymesTwo coenzymes are commonly used by living cells to carry hydrogen atoms: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).An important point to remember about oxidation-reduction reactions is that oxidation is usually an energy-releasing reaction.
7Mechanisms of ATP Generation ADP + P = ATPPhosphorylation isbond attaching 3rd phosphate group contains stored energyMechanisms of phosphorylationwithin animalssubstrate-level phosphorylation in cytosoloxidative phosphorylation in mitochondriain chlorophyll-containing plants or bacteriaphotophosphorylation.
8Phosphorylation in Animal Cells In cytoplasm (1)In mitochondria (2, 3 & 4)
9CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM During digestion, polysaccharides and disaccharides are converted to monosaccharides (primarily glucose)absorbed through capillaries in villitransported to the liver via the hepatic portal veinLiver cells convert much of the remaining fructose and practically all of the galactose to glucosecarbohydrate metabolism is primarily concerned with glucose metabolism.
10In body cells --functions of glucose Carbohydrate ReviewIn GI tractpolysaccharides broken down into simple sugarsabsorption of simple sugars (glucose, fructose & galactose)In liverfructose & galactose transformed into glucosestorage of glycogen (also in muscle)In body cells --functions of glucoseoxidized to produce energyconversion into something elsestorage energy as triglyceride in fat
11Fate of GlucoseSince glucose is the body’s preferred source for synthesizing ATP, the fate of absorbed glucose depends on the energy needs of body cells.If the cells require immediate energy, glucose is oxidized by the cells to produce ATP.
12Fate of GlucoseGlucose can be used to form amino acids, which then can be incorporated into proteins.Excess glucose can be stored by the liver and skeletal muscles as glycogen, a process called glycogenesis.If glycogen storage areas are filled up, liver cells and fat cells can convert glucose to glycerol and fatty acids that can be used for synthesis of triglycerides (neutral fats) in the process of lipogenesis.
13Glucose Movement into Cells Glucose absorption in the GI tract is accomplished by secondary active transport (Na+ - glucose symporters). (ion-coupled transport)Glucose movement from blood into most other body cells occurs via facilitated diffusion transporters (Gly-T molecules). Insulin increases the insertion of Gly-T molecules into the plasma membranes, thus increasing the rate of facilitated diffusion of glucose.Glucose is trapped in the cell when it becomes phosphorylated.Concentration gradient remains favorable for more glucose to enter
14Glucose Movement into Cells In GI tract and kidney tubulesNa+/glucose symportersMost other cellsGluT facilitated diffusion transportersinsulin increases the insertion of GluT transporters in the membrane of most cellsin liver & brain, always lots of GluT transportersGlucose 6-phosphate forms immediately inside cell (requires ATP) thus, glucose is “hidden” when it is in the cell.Concentration gradient remains favorable for more glucose to enter.
16Glucose Oxidation Cellular respiration Anaerobic respiration 4 steps are involvedglucose + O2 produces H2O + energy + CO2Anaerobic respirationcalled glycolysis (1)formation of acetyl CoA (2) is transitional step to Krebs cycleAerobic respirationKrebs cycle (3) and electron transport chain (4)
17GlycolysisGlycolysis refers to the breakdown of the six-carbon molecule, glucose, into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid.10 step process occurring in cell cytosoluse two ATP molecules, but produce four, a net gain of two.
19Glycolysis of Glucose & Fate of Pyruvic Acid Breakdown of six-carbon glucose molecule into 2 three-carbon molecules of pyruvic acidPyruvic acid is converted to acetylCoA, which enters the Kreb’s Cycle.The Kreb’s Cycle will require NAD+NAD+ will be reduced to the high-energy intermediate NADH.
20Glycolysis of Glucose & Fate of Pyruvic Acid When O2 falls short in a cellpyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acidcoupled to oxidation of NADH to NAD+NAD+ is then available for further glycolysislactic acid rapidly diffuses out of cell to bloodliver cells remove lactic acid from blood & convert it back to pyruvic acid
21Pyruvic AcidThe fate of pyruvic acid depends on the availability of O2.
22Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria with help of transporter proteinDecarboxylationpyruvate dehydrogenase converts 3 carbon pyruvic acid to 2 carbon fragment acetyle group plus CO2.
23Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A 2 carbon fragment (acetyl group) is attached to Coenzyme A to form Acetyl coenzyme A, which enter Krebs cyclecoenzyme A is derived from pantothenic acid (B vitamin).
24Krebs CycleThe Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle, or the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It is a series of biochemical reactions that occur in the matrix of mitochondria.
26Krebs CycleThe large amount of chemical potential energy stored in intermediate substances derived from pyruvic acid is released step by step.The Krebs cycle involves decarboxylations and oxidations and reductions of various organic acids.For every two molecules of acetyl CoA that enter the Krebs cycle, 6 NADH, 6 H+, and 2 FADH2 are produced by oxidation-reduction reactions, and two molecules of ATP are generated by substrate-level phosphorylation (Figure 25.6).The energy originally in glucose and then pyruvic acid is primarily in the reduced coenzymes NADH + H+ and FADH2.
27Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) The oxidation-reduction & decarboxylation reactions occur in matrix of mitochondria.acetyl CoA (2C) enters at top & combines with a 4C compound2 decarboxylation reactions peel 2 carbons off again when CO2 is formed
28Potential energy (of chemical bonds) is released step by step to reduce the coenzymes (NAD+NADH & FADFADH2) that store the energyReview:Glucose 2 acetyl CoA moleculeseach Acetyl CoA molecule that enters the Krebs cycle produces2 molecules of C023 molecules of NADH + H+one molecule of ATPone molecule of FADH2Krebs Cycle
29ReviewFigure 25.7 summarizes the eight reactions of the Krebs cycle.
30Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain involves a sequence of electron carrier molecules on the inner mitochondrial membrane, capable of a series of oxidation-reduction reactions.As electrons are passed through the chain, there is a stepwise release of energy from the electrons for the generation of ATP.In aerobic cellular respiration, the last electron receptor of the chain is molecular oxygen (O2). This final oxidation is irreversible.The process involves a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in which the energy in NADH + H+ and FADH2 is liberated and transferred to ATP for storage.
31Electron Transport Chain Pumping of hydrogen is linked to the movement of electrons passage along the electron transport chain.It is called chemiosmosis (Figure 25.8.)Note location.
32ChemiosmosisH+ ions are pumped from matrix into space between inner & outer membraneHigh concentration of H+ is maintained outside of inner membraneATP synthesis occurs as H+ diffuses through a special H+ channels in the inner membrane
33Electron Transport Chain The carrier molecules involved include flavin mononucleotide, cytochromes, iron-sulfur centers, copper atoms, and ubiquinones (also coenzyme Q).
34Electron CarriersFlavin mononucleotide (FMN) is derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2)Cytochromes are proteins with heme group (iron) existing either in reduced form (Fe+2) or oxidized form (Fe+3)Iron-sulfur centers contain 2 or 4 iron atoms bound to sulfur within a proteinCopper (Cu) atoms bound to proteinCoenzyme Q is nonprotein carrier mobile in the lipid bilayer of the inner membrane
35Steps in Electron Transport Carriers of electron transport chain are clustered into 3 complexes that each act as a proton pump (expelling H+)Mobile shuttles (CoQ and Cyt c) pass electrons between complexes.The last complex passes its electrons (2H+) to oxygen to form a water molecule (H2O)
36Proton Motive Force & Chemiosmosis Buildup of H+ outside the inner membrane creates + chargeThe potential energy of the electrochemical gradient is called the proton motive force.ATP synthase enzymes within H+ channels use the proton motive force to synthesize ATP from ADP and P
37Summary of Aerobic Cellular Respiration The complete oxidation of glucose can be represented as follows:C6H12O6 + 6O2 => 36 or 38ATP + 6CO2 +6H2ODuring aerobic respiration, 36 or 38 ATPs can be generated from one molecule of glucose.Two of those ATPs come from substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis.Two come from substrate-level phosphorylation in the Krebs cycle.
38Review Table 25.1 summarizes the ATP yield during aerobic respiration. Figure 25.8 summarizes the sites of the principal events of the various stages of cellular respiration.
39Glycogenesis & Glycogenolysis glucose storage as glycogen4 steps to glycogen formation in liver or skeletal musclestimulated by insulinGlycogenolysisglucose release
40Glycogenesis & Glycogenolysis glucose storage as glycogenGlycogenolysisglucose releasenot a simple reversal of stepsPhosphorylase enzyme is activated by glucagon (pancreas) & epinephrine (adrenal gland)Glucose-6-phosphatase enzyme is only in hepatocytes so muscle can not release glucose into the serum.
41Carbohydrate LoadingLong-term athletic events (marathons) can exhaust glycogen stored in liver and skeletal musclesEating large amounts of complex carbohydrates (pasta & potatoes) for 3 days before a marathon maximizes glycogen available for ATP productionUseful for athletic events lasting for more than an hour.
42GluconeogenesisGluconeogenesis is the conversion of protein or fat molecules into glucose (Figure 25.12).
43GluconeogenesisGlycerol (from fats) may be converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and some amino acids may be converted to pyruvic acid. Both of these compounds may enter the Krebs cycle to provide energy.Gluconeogenesis is stimulated by cortisol, thyroid hormone, epinephrine, glucagon, and human growth hormone.
44Transport of Lipids by Lipoproteins Most lipids are transported in the blood in combination with proteins as lipoproteins (Figure 25.13).
45Transport of Lipids by Lipoproteins Four classes of lipoproteins are chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
46LipoproteinsChylomicrons form in small intestinal mucosal cells and contain exogenous (dietary) lipids. They enter villi lacteals, are carried into the systemic circulation into adipose tissue where their triglyceride fatty acids are released and stored in the adipocytes and used by muscle cells for ATP production.VLDLs contain endogenous triglycerides. They are transport vehicles that carry triglycerides synthesized in hepatocytes to adipocytes for storage. VLDLs are converted to LDLs.LDLs carry about 75% of total blood cholesterol and deliver it to cells throughout the body. When present in excessive numbers, LDLs deposit cholesterol in and around smooth muscle fibers in arteries.HDLs remove excess cholesterol from body cells and transport it to the liver for elimination.
47Classes of Lipoproteins Chylomicrons (2 % protein)form in intestinal mucosal cellstransport exogenous (dietary) fatapo C-2 activates enzyme that releases the fatty acids from the chylomicron for absorption by adipose & muscle cells; liver processes what is leftVLDLs (10% protein)transport endogenous triglycerides (from liver) to fat cellsconverted to LDLsLDLs (25% protein) --- “bad cholesterol”carry 75% of blood cholesterol to body cellsapo B100 is docking protein for receptor-mediated endocytosis of the LDL into a body cellHDLs (40% protein) --- “good cholesterol”carry cholesterol from cells to liver for elimination
48CholesterolThere are two sources of cholesterol in the body: food we eat and liver synthesis.For adults, desirable levels of blood cholesterol areTC (total cholesterol) under 200 mg/dlLDL under 130 mg/dlHDL over 40 mg/dl.Normally, triglycerides are in the range of mg/dl.Among the therapies used to reduce blood cholesterol levelExerciseDietDrugs that inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol
49Fate of Lipids, Some lipids may be oxidized to produce ATP. Some lipids are stored in adipose tissue.Other lipids are used as structural molecules or to synthesize essential molecules. Examples includephospholipids of plasma membraneslipoproteins that transport cholesterolthromboplastin for blood clottingmyelin sheaths to speed up nerve conductioncholesterol used to synthesize bile salts and steroid hormones.
50ReviewThe various functions of lipids in the body may be reviewed in Table 2.7.
51Triglyceride StorageTriglycerides are stored in adipose tissue, mostly in the subcutaneous layer.Adipose cells contain lipases that catalyze the deposition of fats from chylomicrons and hydrolyze neutral fats into fatty acids and glycerol.50% subcutaneous, 12% near kidneys, 15% in omenta, 15% in genital area, 8% between musclesFats in adipose tissue are not inert. They are catabolized and mobilized constantly throughout the body.
52Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis Triglycerides are split into fatty acids and glycerol (a process called lipolysis) under the influence of hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glucocorticoids and released from fat deposits. Glycerol and fatty acids are then catabolized separately (Figure 25.14).
53Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis Glycerol can be converted into glucose by conversion into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.In beta oxidation, carbon atoms are removed in pairs from fatty acid chains. The resulting molecules of acetyl coenzyme A enter the Krebs cycle.
54Lipid Catabolism: Ketogenesis As a part of normal fatty acid catabolism two acetyl CoA molecules can form acetoacetic acid which can then be converted to beta-hydroxybutyric acid and acetone.These three substances are known as ketone bodies and their formation is called ketogenesis (Figure 25.14).heart muscle & kidney cortex prefer to use acetoacetic acid for ATP production
55Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis The conversion of glucose or amino acids into lipids is called lipogenesis. The process is stimulated by insulin (Figure 25.14).The intermediary links in lipogenesis are glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and acetyl coenzyme A.
56Clinical Application Blood ketone levels are usually very low many tissues use ketone for ATP productionAn excess of ketone bodies, called ketosis, may cause acidosis or abnormally low blood pH.Fasting, starving or high fat meal with few carbohydrates results in excessive beta oxidation & ketone productionacidosis (ketoacidosis) is abnormally low blood pHsweet smell of ketone body acetone on breathoccurs in diabetic since triglycerides are used for ATP production instead of glucose & insulin inhibits lipolysis
57PROTEIN METABOLISMDuring digestion, proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries of villi and enter the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
58Fate of ProteinsAmino acids, under the influence of human growth hormone and insulin, enter body cells by active transport.Inside cells, amino acids are synthesized into proteins that function as enzymes, transport molecules, antibodies, clotting chemicals, hormones, contractile elements in muscle fibers, and structural elements. They may also be stored as fat or glycogen or used for energy. (Table 2.8)
59Protein CatabolismAmino acids can be converted to substances that can enter the Krebs cycle.DeaminationDecarboxylationHydrogenation(Figure 25.13).Amino acids can be converted intoGlucosefatty acidsketone bodies
60Protein CatabolismLiver cells convert amino acids into substances that can enter the Krebs cycledeamination removes the amino group (NH2)converts it to ammonia (NH3) & then ureaurea is excreted in the urineConverted substances enter the Krebs cycle to produce ATP.
61Protein Anabolisminvolves the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids to produce new proteins.stimulated by human growth hormone, thyroxine, and insulin.carried out on the ribosomes of almost every cell in the body, directed by the cells’ DNA and RNA.
62Amino AcidsOf the 20 amino acids in your body, 10 are referred to as essential amino acids. These amino acids cannot be synthesized by the human body from molecules present within the body. They are synthesized by plants or bacteria. Food containing these amino acids are “essential” for human growth and must be a part of the diet.Nonessential amino acids can be synthesized by body cells by a process called transamination. Once the appropriate essential and nonessential amino acids are present in cells, protein synthesis occurs rapidly.
63Clinical Application: PKU Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic error of protein metabolism characterized by elevated blood and urine levels of the amino acid phenylalanine.caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for the enzyme phenylalanine hydrolylase.This enzyme is needed to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine.Tyrosine can enter the Krebs cyclePKU causes vomiting, seizures & mental retardationScreening of newborns prevents retardation.Requires a restricted diet to avoid elevated phenylalanineavoid Nutrasweet which contains phenylalanine
64KEY MOLECULES AT METABOLIC CROSSROADS Although there are thousands of different chemicals in your cells, three molecules play key roles in metabolismglucose-6-phosphatepyruvic acidacetyl CoA(Figure 25.16).
65Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads Glucose 6-phosphate, pyruvic acid and acetyl coenzyme A play pivotal roles in metabolismDifferent reactions occur because of nutritional status or level of physical activity
66Role of Glucose 6-Phosphate Glucose is converted to glucose 6-phosphate just after entering the cellPossible fates of glucose 6-phosphateused to synthesize glycogen when glucose is abundantif glucose 6-phosphatase enzyme is present, glucose can be re-released from the cellprecursor of a five-carbon sugar used to make RNA & DNA (ribose-5-phosphate)converted to pyruvic acid during glycolysis in most cells of the body
67Role of Pyruvic Acid3-carbon molecule formed when glucose undergoes glycolysisIf oxygen is available, cellular respiration proceeds (pyruvic acid AcetylCoAIf oxygen is not available, only anaerobic reactions can occurpyruvic acid lactic acid to regenerate NAD+Conversionsamino acid alanine produced from pyruvic acidto oxaloacetic acid of Krebs cycle
68Role of Acetyl coenzyme A Can be used to synthesize fatty acids, ketone bodies, or cholesterolCan not be converted to pyruvic acid so can not be used to reform glucose
69ReviewTable 25.2 summarizes carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism.
70METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS Your metabolic reactions depends on how recently you have eaten. During the absorptive state, which alternates with the postabsorptive state, ingested nutrients enter the blood and lymph from the GI tract, and glucose is readily available for ATP production.An average meal requires about 4 hours for complete absorption, and given three meals a day, the body spends about 12 hours of each day in the absorptive state. (The other 12 hours, during late morning, late afternoon, and most of the evening, are spent in the postabsorptive state.)Hormones are the major regulators of reactions during each state.
71Metabolism During the Absorptive State Several things typically happen during the absorptive state (Figure 25.17).Most body cells produce ATP by oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide and water.Glucose transported to the liver is converted to glycogen or triglycerides. Little is oxidized for energy.Most dietary lipids are stored in adipose tissue.Amino acids in liver cells are converted to carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
72Absorptive StatePoints where insulin stimulation occurs.
73Regulation of Metabolism During the Absorptive State Gastric inhibitory peptide and the rise in blood glucose concentration stimulate insulin release from pancreatic beta cells.Insulin’s functionsincreases anabolism & synthesis of storage moleculesdecreases catabolic or breakdown reactionspromotes entry of glucose & amino acids into cellsstimulates phosphorylation of glucoseenhances synthesis of triglyceridesstimulates protein synthesis along with thyroid & growth hormoneTable 25.3 summarizes the hormonal regulation of metabolism in the absorptive state.
74Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State The major concern of the body during the postabsorptive state is to maintain normal blood glucose level (70 to 110 mg/100 ml of blood).glucose enters blood from 3 major sourcesglycogen breakdown in liver produces glucoseglycerol from adipose converted by liver into glucosegluconeogenesis using amino acids produces glucosealternative fuel sources arefatty acids from fat tissue fed into Krebs as acetyl CoAlactic acid produced anaerobically during exerciseoxidation of ketone bodies by heart & kidney Homeostasis of blood glucose concentration is especially important for the nervous system and red blood cells.
75Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State Most body tissue switch to utilizing fatty acids, except brain still need glucose.fatty acids are unable to pass the blood-brain barrier.Red blood cellsderive all of their ATP from glycolysis of glucose because they lack mitochondria (and thus lack the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain.)
76Postabsorptive State Reactions Reactions that produce glucose are the breakdown of liver glycogen, gluconeogenesis using lactic acid, and gluconeogenesis using amino acids (Figure 25.18).Reactions that produce ATP without using glucose are oxidation of fatty acids, oxidation of lactic acid, oxidation of amino acids, oxidation of ketone bodies, and breakdown of muscle glycogen.
78Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State The hormones that stimulate metabolism in the postabsorptive counter the insulin effects that dominate the absorptive state. The most important anti-insulin hormone is glucagon.released from pancreatic alpha cellsstimulates gluconeogenesis & glycogenolysis within the liverHypothalamus detects low blood sugarsympathetic neurons release norepinephrine and adrenal medulla releases norepinephrine & epinephrinestimulates glycogen breakdown & lipolysisraises glucose & free fatty acid blood levels
79Metabolism During Fasting and Starvation Fasting means going without food for many hours or a few days whereas starvation implies weeks or months of food deprivation or inadequate food intake.Catabolism of stored triglycerides and structural proteins can provide energy for several weeks.The amount of adipose tissue determines the lifespan possible without food.During fasting and starvation, nervous tissue and red blood cells continue to use glucose for ATP production.
80Prolonged FastingDuring prolonged fasting, large amounts of amino acids from tissue protein breakdown (primarily from skeletal muscle) are released to be converted to glucose in the liver by gluconeogenesis.The most dramatic metabolic change that occurs with fasting and starvation is the increase in formation of ketone bodies by hepatocytes.Ketogenesis increases as catabolism of fatty acids rises.The presence of ketones actually reduces the use of glucose for ATP production, which in turn decreases the demand for gluconeogenesis and slows the catabolism of muscle proteins.
81Absorption of AlcoholAbsorption begins in the stomach but is absorbed more quickly in the small intestinefat rich foods keep the alcohol from leaving the stomach and prevent a rapid rise in blood alcohola gastric mucosa enzyme breaks down some of the alcohol to acetaldehydeFemales develop higher blood alcoholshave a smaller blood volumehave less gastric alcohol dehydrogenase activity
82HeatHeat is a form of kinetic energy that can be measured as temperature and expressed in units called calories.A calorie, spelled with a little c, is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 140C to 150C.A kilocalorie or Calorie, spelled with a capital C, is equal to 1000 calories.
83Metabolic RateThe overall rate at which heat is produced is termed the metabolic rate.Measurement of the metabolic rate under basal conditions is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR).BMR is a measure of the rate body breaks down nutrients to liberate energymade under specific conditionsquiet, resting, fastingBMR is also a measure of how much thyroxine the thyroid gland is producing, since thyroxine regulates the rate of ATP use and is not a controllable factor under basal conditions.
84Metabolic Rate and Heat Production Factors that affect metabolic rate and thus the production of body heatexercise increases metabolic rate as much as 15 timeshormones regulate basal metabolic ratethyroid, insulin, growth hormone & testosterone increase BMRsympathetic nervous system’s release of epinephrine & norepinephrine increases BMRhigher body temperature raises BMRingestion of food raises BMR 10-20%children’s BMR is double that of an elderly persongender, climate, sleep, and malnutrition
85Hypothalmic Thermostat The hypothalmic thermostat is the preoptic area.Nerve impulses from the preoptic area propagate to other parts of the hypothalamus known as the heat-losing center and the heat-promoting center.Several negative feedback loops work to raise body temperature when it drops too low or raises too high (Figure 25.19).Heat conservation mechanismsVasoconstrictionsympathetic stimulationskeletal muscle contraction (shivering)thyroid hormone production
86Body Temperature Homeostasis If the amount of heat production equals the amount of heat loss, one maintains a constant core temperature near 370C (98.60F).Core temperature refers to the body’s temperature in body structures below the skin and subcutaneous tissue.Shell temperature refers to the body’s temperature at the surface, that is, the skin and subcutaneous tissue.shell temperature is usually 1 to 6 degrees lowerToo high a core temperature killsdenaturing body proteinsToo low a core temperature killscardiac arrhythmias
87Energy LossHeat is lost from the body by radiation, evaporation, conduction, and convection.Radiation is the transfer of heat from a warmer object to a cooler object without physical contact.Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to a vapor. Water evaporating from the skin takes with it a great deal of heat. The rate of evaporation is inversely related to relative humidity.Conduction is the transfer of body heat to a substance or object in contact with the body, such as chairs, clothing, jewelry, air, or water.Convection is the transfer of body heat by a liquid or gas between areas of different temperature.
88Clinical ApplicationHypothermia refers to a lowering of body temperature to 350C (950F) or below. It may be caused by an overwhelming cold stress, metabolic disease, drugs, burns, malnutrition, transection of the cervical spinal cord, and lowering of body temperature for surgery.
89Energy Homeostasis and Regulation of Food Intake Energy homeostasis occurs when energy intake is matched to energy expenditureEnergy intake depends on the amount of food consumedEnergy expenditure depends on basal metabolic rate (BMR), nonexercise thermogenesis (NEAT), and food induced thermogenesis.
90Energy Homeostasis and Regulation of Food Intake Two centers in the hypothalamus related to regulation of food intake are the feeding (hunger) center and satiety center. The feeding center is constantly active but may be inhibited by the satiety center (Figure 14.10).The hormone leptin acts on the hypothalamus to inhibit ciruits that stimulate eating and to activate circuits that increase enerby expenditure.Other stimuli that affect the feeding and satiety centers are glucose, amino acids, lipids, body temperature, distention of the GI tract, and choleocystokinin.
91Clinical ApplicationEating is response to emotions is called emotional eating. Problems arise when emotional eating becomes so excessive that it interferes with health.
92NUTRITIONGuidelines for healthy eating include eating a variety of foods; maintaining healthy weight; choosing foods low in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol; eating plenty of vegetables, fruits, and grain products; using sugar only in moderation; using salt and sodium only in moderation; and drinking alcohol only in moderation or not at all.The Food Guide Pyramid (Figure 25.20) shows how many servings of the five major food groups to eat each day.
94Food Guide PyramidFoods high in complex carbohydrates serve as the base of the pyramid since they should be consumed in largest quantity.Minerals are inorganic substances that help regulate body processes.Minerals known to perform essential functions include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, iron, sulfur, iodine, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, selenium, and chromium.Their functions are summarized in Table 25.5.
95Minerals Inorganic substances = 4% body weight Functions calcium & phosphorus form part of the matrix of bonehelp regulate enzymatic reactionscalcium, iron, magnesium & manganesemagnesium is catalyst for conversion of ADP to ATPform buffer systemsregulate osmosis of watergeneration of nerve impulses
96VitaminsVitamins are organic nutrients that maintain growth and normal metabolism. Many function in enzyme systems as coenzymes.Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body. No single food contains all of the required vitamins – one of the best reasons for eating a varied diet.Based on solubility, vitamins fall into two main groups: fat-soluble and water-soluble.
97VitaminsFat-soluble vitamins are emulsified into micelles and absorbed along with ingested dietary fats by the small intestine. They are stored in cells (particularly liver cells) and include vitamins A, D, E, and K.Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with water in the GI tract and dissolve in the body fluids. Excess quantities of these vitamins are excreted in the urine. The body does not store water-soluble vitamins well. They include the B vitamins and vitamin C.
98Antioxidant Vitamins C, E and beta-carotene (a provitamin) Inactivate oxygen free radicalshighly reactive particles that carry an unpaired electrondamage cell membranes, DNA, and contribute to atherosclerotic plaquesarise naturally or from environmental hazards such as tobacco or radiationMay protect against cancer, aging, cataract formation, and atherosclerotic plaque
99Vitamin and Mineral Supplements Eat a balanced diet rather than taking supplementsExceptionsiron for women with heavy menstrual bleedingiron & calcium for pregnant or nursing womenfolic acid if trying to become pregnantreduce risk of fetal neural tube defectscalcium for all adultsB12 for strict vegetariansantioxidants C and E recommended by some
100Clinical Application: Vitamin-related Disorders The sources, functions, and related deficiency disorders of the principal vitamins are listed in Table 25.6.Most physicians do not recommend taking vitamin or mineral supplements except in special circumstances, and instead suggest being sure to eat a balanced diet that includes a variety of food.
101DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES Obesity is defined as a body weight more than 20% above desirable standard as the result of excessive accumulation of fat.Even moderate obesity is hazardous to health.Risk factor in many diseasescardiovascular disease, hypertension, pulmonary disease,non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitusarthritis, certain cancers (breast, uterus, and colon),varicose veins, and gallbladder disease.
102FeverFever is an elevation of body temperature that is due to resetting of the hypothalamic thermostat. The most common cause of fever is a viral or bacterial infectiontoxins from bacterial or viral infection = pyrogensheart attacks or tumorstissue destruction by x-rays, surgery, or traumareactions to vaccinesBeneficial in fighting infection & increasing rate of tissue repair during the course of a diseaseComplications--dehydration, acidosis, & brain damage.