"Figs, Dates, Laurel, and Myrrh: Plants of the Bible and the Quran" offers insights on many plants, including:
Carob. Seeds of the carob tree are used as a substitute for chocolate. Carob is a valuable crop in the Mediterranean today. But in the Bible, carob is described as food for pigs.
Crown of thorns. Ziziphus spina-chrisi ("spine of Christ") often is said to be the plant used for the crown of thorns placed on Jesus' head, but it probably wasn't. The plant was more likely spiny burnet (Sarcopoterium spinosum) with thorns up to 4 inches long. It is a flexible plant that would be easy to weave into a crown.
Date palm. The date palm is the most frequently cited plant in the Quran. In both the Quran and the Bible, palm trees are likened to humans. In addition to providing fruit, the date palm was valued for its leaves, which were used to make baskets, roofs and mats.
Ginger. The only clearly identified plant that is in the Quran but not the Bible is ginger. The Quran mentions ginger-flavored water in a description of paradise.
Tamarisk. These trees live along the shores of the Dead Sea and in other areas of the Middle East with high salinity. The leaves have glands that secrete salt. At night, the salt absorbs water. When the water evaporates the next day, it provides a cooling effect to anyone under the tree. Tamarisk is mentioned in Genesis: "Then Abraham planted a tamarisk (eshel in Hebrew) tree at Beersheba, and there he worshipped the Lord, the Eternal God."
Wheat. The cultivation of wheat is one of the major events in human civilization. Early cultures depended on grain for food. Wheat straw was used for fodder, animal bedding, basketry and roofing thatch. Chaff, the remains after threshing and winnowing, appears several times as a symbol of worthlessness in the Bible. In Psalms, a reference to the wicked says: "They are like chaff that the wind blows away."
Frankincense and myrrh are well known as the gifts of the Magi. But as far as what they actually are? That's more of a challenge.
Spices? Rare herbs?
Resin, actually. Both frankincense and myrrh are created from sap that oozes from cuts made in species of Boswellia and Commiphora trees and shrubs, according to botanist Lytton John Musselman, whose book, "Figs, Dates, Laurel, and Myrrh: Plants of the Bible and the Quran" (Timber Press; 336 pp; $24.95), was published last month.
Musselman, who has been studying plants of the Holy Land for some 30 years, wrote the book to help people better grasp the role of nature in Scripture.
"What I would hope to accomplish, is for people to understand the text better by understanding the plants and uses of the plants in their original setting," Musselman said in a phone interview from his office at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Va., where he is chairman of the biology department.
In the book's forward, humorist Garrison Keillor (he and Musselman are longtime friends) says: "Until I read Musselman's book, I did not know what myrrh is. I am sixty-four and a college graduate but if a child had asked me, ‘What is myrrh?' I would have been forced to lie. ‘The name, my dear, comes from polymer, it was an early plastic formed as a byproduct when they burned rubber plants, and it was considered quite precious, and that's why the Wise Men brought it as a gift for the Christ Child, so He could form it into a ball in his tiny hand and bounce it on the floor.'"
Well, not quite. Musselman said both frankincense and myrrh were highly valued, although not expensive, at the time they were brought to Jesus.
"They were very widely traded," he said.
Frankincense has a piney fragrance. It was — and still is — used as incense. Small amounts flavor candies and baked goods. And it has been used medicinally to stop bleeding.
Myrrh is made from different species of Commiphora. Some myrrh is used medicinally (it has antibacterial properties); other types are prized for fragrance.
Musselman has lived and worked in several Middle East countries. His professional specialty is parasitic plants. The book was an outgrowth of his lifelong passions for plants and the Bible.
While working on the book, an editor suggested including plants from the Quran, the sacred book of Islam. At first, Musselman resisted. But after considering the idea, he realized it made a lot of sense. There is geographical overlap between the two texts, so there is common ground plantwise.
"I thought it was worthwhile. I learned a lot by doing it," he said. While there are differences in Christianity, Islam and Judaism, "Plants affect people of all faiths," Musselman said.
Plants in the Bible and Quran were used for food, medicine and in religious ceremonies. "Our culture is shaped by plants," he said.
While some of the plants are obscure, many are familiar — barley, palm, fig, garlic, grape, olive, pomegranate and wheat.
While many plants show up in the Bible or the Quran, their specific names are often not given. Musselman combined his familiarity with flora of the Middle East with archaeological studies and references in literature to identify plants in the sacred texts. Sometimes it came down to "the most likely plant is ..."
For example, there's no mention of an apple being the forbidden fruit in the Bible's story of Adam and Eve. "The Bible doesn't say what the fruit is. It's unlikely it was an apple," Musselman said.
He said apples weren't introduced to the region until after the Scriptures were written. So what was the fruit?
Probably an apricot, Musselman said.
Reporter Laura Christman can be reached at 225-8222 or firstname.lastname@example.org.