Although rockets, like artillery, were not employed in sufficient quantity
in Manila to be devastating, their potentialities were demonstrated.
Rocket fire was almost always employed at night simultaneously with
artillery fire, a circumstance which made accurate reports on its source
and effect difficult. More extensive use of rockets in future Japanese
city fighting may be expected.
Three standard kinds of rockets were found : the 447mm and 20cm naval
spin-stabilized rockets, and the Army 20cm spin-stabilized rocket Model 4.
Launching devices were of various types and included tube launchers, open
troughs and rail launchers on single, double and triple mounts. Those used
in Manila proper are believed to have been the Navy 20cm rocket with rail
launchers, and possibly the 447mm rocket. Army 20cm rockets with tube
launchers were used extensively in the fighting in the hills east of
In addition improvised rockets consisting of Navy 60kg Model 97 bombs with
welded iron and sheet steel propelling devices attached were found, ready
to fire, in Fort McKinley, and may have been used in the Manila area.
The 447mm (175/8")
rocket (see Inclosure 37) is 68¼"
long, weighs approximately 1500 pounds, contains a picric acid bursting
charge, has a point-detonating fuse, and is estimated to have a maximum
range of not over 2000 yards. Of 85 rounds found in a dump in Quezon City,
Manila, the latest manufacturing date was in November, 1944. Observers'
reports describing what is believed to have been the 447mm rocket in
flight state that it left a trail of sparks approximately 150 feet long,
and detonated with a terrific explosion, doing extensive damage to
Rockets for the 20cm rocket launcher Model 4 (see Annex 38 ) recovered in
the Manila area were manufactured at the Osaka Army Arsenal in late 1944.
The rockets are 20.2cm in diameter, 38¾" long, and are fused with a Type
100 mortar fuse. Japanese manuals give the range as from 360 meters at 10
degrees elevation to a maximum of 1800 meters at 50 degrees elevation. The
launcher is similar to a large trench mortar. As stated in Japanese
manuals and verified by experimental firing, the rocket must be fired by
means of a long lanyard, since it shoots flame and showers powder
particles to the rear, raising a cloud of dust as it leaves the launcher.
It can be seen in flight by day and traced by its trail of sparks at
night. Throughout its flight it makes a loud swishing noise. Its
detonation is of a high order, greater in blast effect than in
fragmentation. Instantaneous fuse settings used in the fighting east of
Manila gave it a “daisy cutter” effect.
VI. TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES
On the basis of experience gained in Manila, it may be stated that
Japanese tactics and techniques in city fighting presented no radical
departures from methods utilized by the enemy in other types of combat.
Almost without exception, developments in Manila had ample precedent in
It should be emphasized at the outset that the defense of Manila was
influenced by certain factors which may not be present, either in part or
in entirety, during future operations of a similar nature. Some of these
circumstances complicated the defense: others facilitated it. In the first
category were the following conditions: (a) the relative scarcity of
weapons ; (b) the lack of training and inexperience of the majority of
enemy troops: (c) the conglomerate nature of those troops ; and (d) the
presence of essentially unfriendly civilians. On the other hand, the
enemy's problems were simplified by: (a) the disproportionately large
number of automatic weapons available as a result of the cannibalization
of armament on planes and ships; (b ) the prohibition against aerial
bombing by American forces; (c) the initial restrictions on our artillery
fire, a procedure prompted by our desire to preserve property to the
greatest possible extent: and (d) our efforts to protect the friendly
civilian population and our consequent reluctance to proceed ruthlessly.
2. Conduct of the Defense
A partial reconstruction of the enemy's plans prior to our assault upon
Manila indicates that he anticipated attacks either from the sea, from the
south, or by airborne elements. When our true intentions became evident,
the enemy was not able to redeploy his strength and to reorient his
positions completely. In an attempt to salvage as much as possible from a
difficult situation, the Japanese commander apparently decided to
establish Intramuros as the core of his defense. This central installation
was to be protected by an outlying belt of highly developed positions in
earthquake-resistant buildings, which, in turn, were guarded by pillboxes,
trenches and barricades (See
Annex 39 and
Annex 40) . These main defenses were
situated south of the Pasig River. Units north of the river were seemingly
given the four-fold mission of screening the principal positions to the
south, of delaying the advance of our elements, of harassing our rear, and
of guarding the approaches to the vital bridges across the Pasig until the
moment of demolition.
Although fires set by withdrawing units and by artillery emplaced in the
southern section of the city delayed the progress of our troops, the
resistance offered by the northern Japanese forces was comparatively weak.
Not until the passage of the river was completed did the nature of the
enemy defense entirely reveal itself. Then it became clear that the
defense was to consist, in the main, of independent centers of resistance
which were well sited, well constructed, and fiercely held, but which were
not coordinated in an overall plan.
As soon as the first Japanese positions in the southern part of the city
were encountered, it was evident that, in constructing defensive
installations the enemy had brought all his acknowledged ingenuity to
bear. Demonstrating once again his ability to adapt his defense to the
existing terrain, the enemy took excellent advantage of the specialized
topography of the city. Virtually every street was barricaded. Reinforced
pillboxes, carefully placed to allow assaulting troops only severely
limited aproaches, commanded critical points. Chosen for their strength as
well as for their location, buildings took on many of the aspects of
fortresses. Minefields, although generally inexpertly laid, were a
constant hazard and acted as a delaying element. (Specific instances of
the skill shown by the enemy in siting and constructing defenses may be
found in Section IV, Defensive
In these positions the enemy emplaced a considerable variety of weapons,
standard, modified or improvised. The Japanese have always been reasonably
proficient in the use of infantry weapons or weapons adapted for use by
infantry. The defense of Manila produced no significant exceptions to this
general rule. Inasmuch as this subject is discussed in some detail in
Section V, Part One, only a summary of the salient features is presented
a. On the whole, rifles and automatic weapons were employed
b. Fields of fire were chosen with care and permitted good coverage of
c. Within each center of resistance the fire plan was characteristically
thorough ; coordination between positions was, however, generally
d. Fire discipline was good ; fire was withheld until assault troops were
at very short range.
e. Snipers, as such, were not used to any important extent.
The troops manning the pillboxes and serving the weapons were a variegated
lot, poorly trained and inexperienced. What they lacked in skill, however,
they redeemed by their suicidal tenacity. The vast majority was resigned
to defending the positions until death, and there were no satisfactory
indications that plans for withdrawal from outlying buildings to
Intramuros were ever made. Within the buildings themselves, however, the
Japanese retired to successive positions in the interior until trapped and
In spite of excellent positions, good employment of weapons and fierce
resistance by his troops, the enemy's defense was seriously impaired by
his failure to coordinate centers of resistance. This common enemy
weakness was perhaps attributable to inadequacies of the command, poor
communications and the heterogeneity of the units available. The absence
of an integrated fire plan has already been noted. In addition, there was
little evidence of echeloned defense. Although concentrations of
installations in certain areas gave the effect of depth, this seems to
have been incidental and inadvertent rather than the result of a
deliberate plan. The lack of coordination inevitably caused the enemy
defense to become inelastic, in that centers of resistance became isolated
and susceptible to destruction in detail.
The enemy employment of artillery also gave evidence of the Japanese
inability to coordinate elements in the defense. Artillery fire, although
accurate, was never delivered in heavy concentrations. For the most part,
the enemy seemed content to undertake harassing missions, never involving
more than three pieces against a target. It should be pointed out in this
connection, however, that this enemy policy may have been dictated by the
necessity of protecting his guns from our counterbattery fire.
Concerted counterattacks, in the usual sense of the term, were never
launched. That at least one abortive attack was made is evidenced by a
captured document, the translation of which appears below :
"Ultra Secret Central Force Op Order No 4
15 Feb 45
Central Force CO, Iwabuchi, Mitsuji (or Sanji)
Central Unit Order
1. The city has fallen into hand-to-hand fighting since this morning, and
5 tanks and 9 armored cars are appearing and disappearing at every turn.
2. This unit will make preparations for an all-out suicide attack to
annihilate the enemy to our front. On the night of the 15th each unit will
carry out as many daring suicide attacks on the enemy to our front as
possible. Although the time of the all-out suicide attack will be
indicated in a separate order, preparations will be completed beforehand.
a. In addition to annihilating
the enemy to the front, the suicide unit will plan to wipe out the enemy
in the Malacanan Palace.
b. Prior to the all-out suicide
attack, wounded will be made to commit suicide and documents and material
will be burnt.
c. In the all-out suicide
attack every man will attack until he achieves a glorious death. Not even
one man must become a prisoner. During the attack friends of the wounded
will make them commit suicide.
d. The Suicide (Nikko) Section will be at the head of the attack and will
destroy the enemy tanks.
e. /Personnel/ will be lightly
garbed in the attack and carry as much ammo as possible. Personal
belongings and unnecessary articles will be burnt."
The only indication of this attack was an increase in enemy
infiltration attempts on the night of 15-16 February,
Occasionally, when a position became untenable, isolated groups, usually
composed of twenty to thirty men, executed frontal suicidal attacks which
were easily repulsed.
Highly valued by the enemy but hardly worthy of the title "counterattacks"
were infiltration raids by groups normally consisting of from ten to
fifteen men carrying demolition charges. Missions were assigned in very
general terms, such as "to destroy enemy installations in the rear areas
paying particular attention to artillery". These infiltrators, operating
within the built up section of the city, usually because separated or lost
and were destroyed by our forces before they fulfilled their purpose.
4. Espionage and counter-espionage
The enemy frequently employed pro-Japanese Filipinos on intelligence
Interrogation of captured spies disclosed that they were not directed to
gather any special or unusual intelligence but were instructed to report
on the locations of troops, installations, movements, and strengths.
Endeavoring to make the most of their physical resemblance to the
Filipinos and to take advantage of the American inability to distinguish
between Orientals, Japanese members of special intelligence units allowed
their hair to grow long and adopted civilian disguise to facilitate entry
into our areas. It has been impossible to determine the degree of success
achieved by these units. A pertinent document is set forth below :
"Ultra Secret 4th Bn Daily Order No 2 28 Jan 45, MANDA HILL
From : 4th Bn Co, OGAWA, Sautami
"To : All Co COs and Plat Ldrs
In accordance with Manila Naval Defense Force Op Order No 25, special
reconnaissance units will be organized.
1. CO : Naval Lt (legal) ANDO, Masafumi.
2: Organization : Two teams (or less ) of three men each will be sent by
all Bns of the Manila Naval Defense Force from each of their pIts.
3. Duties : Observation, reconnaissance, demolition, burning, surprise
attacks, and stratagems as ordered.
4. Selection of personnel : Personnel for these units will be carefully
chosen and appointed with attention to the following points :
a. Firmness of purpose (keeping secrets, avoidance of improper actions).
b. Bodily strength.
c. Build and features.
d. Consideration must be given to personnel fluent in English.
5. Equipment : Pistols, hand grenades, etc., as required.
6. Clothing : As required, but mainly civilian clothes.
7. Performance of duty :
a. For the present the personnel will be on duty in their plats, and
the Plat Ldr may use them in the patrol duties of his own unit.
b. Except when carried out directly under the control of the
CO, training will be carried out by each unit CO, for his own men.
c. The /Force/ CO will use the teams either individually or in
conjunction with one another.
8. Miscellaneous : Unit personnel may grow long hair if they have
A nominal roll of personnel selected will be
Goaded by their failure to put an end to guerrilla activity in
Manila, the Japanese, in desperation, determined to take positive action
by declaring that all Filipinos,, women and children
included, found in the battle areas were to be considered guerrillas and
were to be exterminated. This decision was carried out in part. Below
appears a translation of the document which directed this mass murder :
"KOBAYASHI Group (HEIDAN) Order
The Americans who have penetrated into Manila have about 1,000 army
troops, and there are several thousand Filipino guerrillas. Even women and
children have become guerrillas.
All people on the battlefield with the exception of Japanese
military personnel, Japanese civilians, Special Constr Units (GANAPS in
the Filipino language ) will be put to death. Houses---" (Order breaks off
5. Chemical Warfare
One authenticated instance of the use of gas was reported on 12 February.
During the house to house fighting in the Singalong District of Manila, a
self-projecting vomiting-gas candle exploded in a room occupied by
American troops. The soldiers, having immediately felt a stinging
sensation in their eyes, withdrew and later became violently ill. Vomiting
gas candles and frangible glass HCN grenades were discovered in dumps in
the city and are known to have been in the hands of troops. This isolated
instance, however, is believed to have been a lapse in command discipline
rather than an authorized resort to chemical warfare.
A very few flame throwers were found in Manila, but none appeared to have
One tank was encountered in Manila and it was destroyed by our tank
destroyers on Faura Street on 16 February. On the same day, one armored
car was observed on Dewey Boulevard.
In recapitulation, it may be said that the Japanese defense of Manila
produced no innovations of consequence. The enemy's tactics and techniques
gave evidence of the same strengths and weaknesses which have been
apparent in his methods in other operations. In his favor were : his
shrewd use of terrain ; his excellent location and construction of
individual positions ; his ingenuity in improvising and adapting weapons ;
his skilled employment of individual weapons ; and, above all, his great
tenacity in defensive combat. He was guilty on the other hand, of several
basic errors, among them; his inability to develop any degree of overall
coordination in the plan of defense; his weak and ineffective employment
of artillery; and his lack of appreciation of the potentialities of mines
as defensive weapons.
The enemy, notwithstanding his deficiencies, proved himself a formidable
opponent in the defense of a heavily populated area. Unquestionably he
will profit by experience gained during the fighting in Manila, and, in
consequence, it may be expected that some or all of his shortcomings will
be corrected in the future.