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| Voltaire: Philosophical Dictionary (StudyGuide)
Voltaire: Philosophical Dictionary (StudyGuide)
StudyGuide for Voltaire`s Philosophical
The most commonly-taught book by Voltaire is his amusing satire
It was even made into a delightfulmusical by Leonard Bernstein. However, it does
not represent Voltaire at hismost influential. Philosophical optimism is pretty
much dead and has to beexplained to students today so that they can grasp the
point of his satire.Voltaire`s thought ranged much more widely than this,
however. In a verylong life of tireless intellectual campaigning he was the most
widely-read ofthe Enlightenment spokesmen known as philosophes.
These writers prized clarity and wit, and Voltaire`s writingabounds in
both. However, these qualities are somewhat dimmedfor many contemporary readers
who don`t have the backgroundto appreciate his jokes or grasp his points without
assistance.These notes try to provide some assistance in this regard, anddraw
the reader`s attention to the most important issues.
It has been said that "Voltaire criticized the Bible, butnow everyone reads
the Bible and no one reads Voltaire."Besides being wildly overstated, this jibe
misses the point: weno longer read most of Voltaire`s writings because theideas
he fearlessly promoted have mostly become commonplaces whichwe take for granted.
The agenda of the
familiarone to anyone studying classic American values: freedom of speech,press,
assembly, and religion, opposition to the cruel capricesof unenlightened
monarchs, to militarism and to slavery.
(An essay on the relationship of the Enlightenment to the shaping of American thought.
It is crucial to understand that at his time, organized religionin France
(and elsewhere) ranged itself on the opposite side ofevery one of these issues,
censoring the press and speech, opposingreligious toleration, supporting the
doctrine of the divine rightof kings to rule and often endorsing slavery as
well. Voltairerailed against the Catholic Church not because he was a wickedman
who wanted freedom to sin, but because he viewed it as a fountainheadand bulwark
of evil. He felt that no change of the kind he wantedwas possible without
undermining the power of the Church; thatis why he devoted so much of his
attention to ridiculing and discreditingit.
Unlike his arch-rival
he wasnot a democrat.
(A comparison of the two.
Despite the stereotype of the Enlightenment asa movement of facile optimism,
Voltaire was deeply pessimisticabout the human nature. He never dreamed of
creating a perfectworld (despite the utopia depicted in
). He onlyargued
that the world could be less bad than it is if we replacedignorance and
superstition with knowledge and rational thought.
His influence (along with Rousseau) on the French Revolution iswell-known,
but Voltaire would have been appalled by the irrational,violent excesses done in
the name of enlightenment. Critics eversince have been arguing that the
18th-century crusade againstfaith has fatally wounded the Western World,
promoting all sortsof social ills. Whether one sees the world as better or
worseafter Voltaire, there is no question that the issues which obsessedhim are
still important today. There are few of the questionstreated below which are not
still being hotly debated in contemporaryAmerica, and few of his arguments have
lost their point in theensuing centuries.
As you read this book, ask yourself to what extent are his viewsthe very
foundation stones of our culture and to what extent dothey challenge it?
Voltaire`s great ambition was to makehis contemporaries think, and it is a
tribute to his wit and hisintellect that his writings can still accomplish that
Why does Voltaire think it is ironic that priests are called "father?"What
does he think is the main fault of modern priests as opposedto ancient ones?
What does the threat in the last line of thisarticle mean?
In this article Voltaire ironically examines the concept of thesoul, which
had been finely subdivided as he describes by theancient Greek philosopher
whose definitions were adaptedby the thirteenth century Italian theologian
andwhich became the basis of Roman Catholic teaching on the subject(see p. 24).
Much of this article is spent mocking these teachings.Focus instead on
Voltaire`s attitude toward knowledge. Someof his comments in this article are
aimed at particular pointsin their philosophy and are of mainly historical
interest. Focuson the points addressed in the following questions. Voltaire
doesnot believe it is possible to observe what is usually called the"soul."
Notice how he ridicules the idea that thereis a spiritual entity separate from
the body by discussing thenature of flowers and dogs. Voltaire, like most modern
scientists,sees humans as being part of a natural continuum with animalsand
plants. In the last sentence on p. 21, Voltaire introducesthe rest of his
discussion by suggesting that religious teachers(by "supernatural help") are the
sole source of thenotion of the soul: reason alone does not suggest it. On p.
22, he uses the newly-announced theory of gravitation (developedby
and much admired
by Voltaire) to argue that the factthat human beings are alive does not imply
the existence of asoul separate from the body. Rocks do not have heaviness in
themas something distinguishable from the rest of their nature: rocksare heavy.
Similarly, living beings live not because they havesouls which animate them;
they are simply physical beings oneof whose characteristics is life. What do you
think of this argument?Voltaire repeatedly argues that the soul cannot be known
without"revelation" or "faith;" is he thereforearguing in favor of the concept
of an inspired Bible? How canyou tell? On p. 23 he rejects the Greek concept of
the animalsoul. On p. 24, how can you tell that the sentence which begins"Saint
Thomas wrote two thousand pages" is sarcastic?"Schoolmen" are the traditional
theologians known as
What examplesdoes he use to ridicule the concept of the existence of a
soulexisting after death? What does he say was the attitude towardthe ancient
Jewish people about the soul and immortality? "Decalogue"means the Ten
Commandments. What kind of portrait does he giveof Jewish law in his paraphrase
of laws from Deuteronomy on p.25? Why does he single out the passage on false
prophets? Whatrelationship does the last full paragraph on p. 25 have to
thequestion of whether the Jews believed in immortality? Throughouthis
discussion of Deuteronomy Voltaire follows the common interpretationof his time
that Moses was the author of the first five booksof the Bible, though he
elsewhere rejects this notion. He stateson p. 26 that "several illustrious
commentators"argue that when Jacob, mourning Joseph, said he would descendin
) it is thereby proven that the ancientJews
believed in an afterlife; but he does not bother to answerthis argument. Why is
it an embarrassing argument even for thosewho use it? Since the Sadducees were
the most conservative, traditionalbranch of Judaism, it is particularly
significant that they didnot accept the concept of immortality. According to
that the Pharisees believed in "metempsychosis"(reincarnation), while the
Sadducees rejected life after deathaltogether. The Essenes were the least
orthodox of all, yet theirbeliefs best match those of later Jews and Christians.
On p.27, "He who alone was to teach all men" is of courseChrist. Why does
Voltaire say that we`ve only been certainof the existence of the soul for 1,700
years? Note how Voltaireslips in a sarcastic comment on the Bible`s
inconsistencyin stating in one place that Moses saw God face to face and
inanother that he saw him only from the rear. What, for Voltaire,is the purpose
of the mind, or "understanding?" Onp. 28 he rejects the accusation that he
supports belief in a materialsoul by repeating that knowledge of any kind of
soul is impossible.How does he use the arguments of religious people in favor
ofdivine revelation against them? How does he contrast the attitudeof Philosophy
(Enlightenment philosophy, of course) with thatof religious thinkers in the last
sentence of this essay?
For Voltaire love equals sex. What quality of sexuality does hesay is
unique to human beings, denied to the lower animals? Whatdo you think of his
argument? What is the point of the quotationfrom the
Earl of Rochester
notorious skeptic) on p. 30? Howdoes he argue on p. 31 that syphilis is not the
result of God`sdispleasure with human immorality, as many priests had argued?Can
you apply this argument to the
epidemic? Phryne, Lais,Flora and Messalina were all women notorious for their
sexualexcesses. "The pox" is syphilis.
What Christian traditions might Voltaire have had in mind in tellingthe
story of the Indian fakir on p. 35? What is his position onself-love and
Athée, athéisme: Atheist, atheism
You can skim most of this article up to p. 55. Voltaire beginshis
discussion of atheism with a long list of distinguished peoplefrom the past who
have been unjustly accused of atheism. On p.50, why does Voltaire call the
Romans wiser than the Greeks? Notehow he calls modern Europeans "the barbarian
peoples whichsucceeded the Roman empire." Voltaire cites Vannini as apredecessor
of the Enlightenment figures like himself who arguedin favor of deism but who
were attacked for atheism. How doeshe argue on pp. 54 and 55 that a whole
society can exist composedof atheists? "Gentiles" are non-Jews--in thiscase
ancient Greeks and Romans, many of whom he argues were inessence atheists. This
was a strong argument since the Frenchof his time particularly admired Classical
thought. Which, onp. 56, does he argue is more dangerous: atheism or
fanaticism?Do you agree or disagree with him? Why? What is the point of
hisreference to the
"massacres of Saint Bartholomew
his arguments than one can have a just society composedof atheists, why does he
argue on p. 57 that belief in God isdesirable in a monarchy? What is the sole
reason he puts forwardthat learned men should not be atheists? Can you see any
problemswith this argument? The final sentence in the last full paragraphon p.
57 is a subtle rejection of Christian belief in creationex nihilo
nothing), considered disproved by 18th-centuryscience, and leading perhaps to
belief in an orderly Deistic universebut not to a conventionally God-dominated
one. Something is saidto have had a final cause if it has been called into being
forsome purpose. What is Voltaire`s opinion of final causes?In section II, what
does Voltaire say are the main causes of atheism?What are your own reactions to
his argument here? Atheism is commonin France and most of Western Europe, rare
in the U.S. Why doyou suppose so few Americans are atheists?
Beau, Beauté: Beautiful, beauty
What is the main point of this article? Do you agree with it?
Bien (tout est) All is good
Voltaire`s most famous work, Candide, satirizesthe arguments of
Leibnitz [here spelled Leibniz] and Pope that"all is for the best in this best
of all possible worlds."On the bottom of p. 68, what basic element of
Christianity doeshe say Leibnitz has fatally weakened by adopting his thesis?
Hesummarizes Lactantius` devastating statement of the classic"problem of evil"
on p. 69, delighting in drawinghis arguments from an unimpeachably Catholic
source. What is hisbasic point here? What is the point of his argument about a
Lucullus(a famously wealthy Roman)who can easily believe that all is forthe
best? He goes on to recount mockingly the attempts of variousfaiths to deal with
the problem of evil, none of which works forChristians or Jews. What is the
point of his fanciful tale ofa supposed Syrian creation story? He says that "all
isgood" simply means "everything is as it has to be."How does the central
paragraph on p. 72 seek to refute the argumentthat the orderliness of the
universe is evidence of a divine,benevolent will? Note his sarcasm at the end.
How does he argueagainst Pope`s statement that particular evils form thecommon
good? On p. 73, how does he react to those who find thistheory consoling? What
kind of a God does he say the theory implies?What is his final statement as to
the problem of evil? What areyour personal reactions to these
Bornes de l`esprit humain: Limits of the human mind
As elsewhere in Voltaire, "doctor" means "theologian."In what way is the
subject of this article related to the lastparagraph of the previous one? What
is his attitude toward thosewho claim to have absolute knowledge? Why is he so
opposed tosuch attitudes?
Catéchisme chinois: Chinese catechism
Like most of Voltaire`s writings on Asian religions, thisbears slight
relation to real Asian thought. It is instead a vehiclefor the expression of
some of his more daring criticisms of Christiantheology. By using the dialogue
format, he can offer two disputants,one more skeptical than the other. What is
his attitude towardthe concept of Heaven on p. 79? Does he reject the concept
thatEarth is unique in the universe? In ridiculing the myth of Fohe is of course
mocking the Christian doctrine of the Incarnationof Christ. With what objection
does Koo meet the traditional argumentthat the marvel of the eye implies a
creator? What attitude towardbelief in God does his story of the crickets imply?
Why does hequote
on p. 81? What
is he trying to imply about theethics of Christianity? (Confucius lived several
centuries beforeChrist.) Notice that Koo argues that humanity is more diligentin
suppressing evil than is God. Wht do you think of this argument?What attitude
toward immortality does Ku-Su express at the endof the Second Conversation? The
Third Conversation offers familiararguments against the existence of the soul
(see Ame, Soul
above). with some original twists. One of the most
importantpassages occurs on p. 83, where Koo says "What impressiondo you want to
give me of the architect of so many millions ofworlds were he obliged to carry
out so many repairs to keep hiscreation going?" What is the point of this
question? Noticethat on p. 85 he argues that at least half of the Ten
Commandments(the laws of the Sinoos) are necessarily universal, thus
implyingthat morality need not be based on any particular religious
revelation.What arguments does he bring against the idea of divine judgmentafter
death on p. 86? Koo seems to give in to faith grudginglyon p. 86: why does he do
so? What are his arguments against prayerand sacrifice in the Fourth
Conversation? What does Koo claimare the real motives of the bonzes (priests) in
preaching as theydo? What does Ku-Su argue on p. 88 is natural law? Why does
Voltairelike King Daon? In the Fifth Conversation, what sorts of virtuesare
admired in a king? The king being ridiculed on p. 90 in Koo`sstatement about
those with 300 wives, etc. is
. What relationshipdoes
the last paragraph on p. 90 have to the article Abbé,
read earlier? Why does Ku-Su argue that friendship shouldnot be made a religious
teaching? Why does he claim that Confuciusrecommends to his followers to love
their enemies? (In fact hedoes not.) On p. 92, the "impertinent peoples"
referredto are of course the Europeans (see footnote). Voltaire`scriticisms of
"taverns" reflect the low state ofcommercial hospitality in his day. Commodious
hotels and restaurantswere founded only after the French Revolution, when the
wealthycould no longer automatically stay as guests in aristocratic
mansions.Voltaire himself was a perennial house guest for many years.
Whatcriticisms does he make of the Christian concept of humility onp. 94? What
do you think of these criticisms? What are the basicreligious beliefs that Koo
endorses at the end of the essay?
Certain, certitude: Certain, certainty
What is Voltaire`s basic attitude toward human certainty?What does he argue
are the only kinds of "immutable andeternal" certainty? What Christian belief is
he satirizingin his example about the Marshal of Saxe on p. 107? Why do youthink
this question of certainty and uncertainty is so importantto Voltaire? How is it
reflected in other articles in the Dictionary?
Cha"ne des événements: Chain of events
Voltaire takes it as given that all events have causes, that theworld
operates like an "immense machine" (p. 110),but argues that not all actions have
results. It may seem strangethat someone so passionately attached to freedom
should arguefor determinism (the belief that everything happens by
necessity).Why do you think this argument attracted Voltaire?
Voltaire begins this declaration of his personal theology witha joke in
which Mlle Duclos is so ignorant of her religion thatshe has the Credo
confused with the Pater Noster
(theLord`s Prayer). The point of the
paragraph at the bottomof p. 159 and the top of p. 160 is that the Christian
Credo probablyevolved some time after Jesus, and does not reflect the beliefsof
his early followers. The paragraph about the belief that Christdescended into
Hell is based on a now-obscure doctrine calledin English
"the Harrowing of Hell
which at onetime was very prominent and is often depicted in
literature. The so-called "Credo of Saint-Pierre"is, of course, Voltaire`s own
composition. What does itsstrong insistence on monotheism imply about
Christianity? Whatis the point of the long third paragraph of the "Credo,"and of
the two paragraphs that follow? What is the evil that hemost strenuously
attacks? How does he say priests should be treated?
What, according to Voltaire, is humanity`s greatest divinegift? And what is
the result of not using this gift properly?He is echoing Rousseau`s famous
statement that "Manis born free and is everywhere in chains," and to some
degreereplying to the latter philosopher`s theories of humanequality in The
Social Contract. What does he argue isthe cause of inequality on p. 182?
What common human characteristicslead to inequality (p. 183)? Note his sly dig
at the rivalriesof theologians in the middle of the page. What does he say isthe
implied meaning of laws which forbid people to leave a country(as he was
forbidden to leave Prussia by his former friend andsupporter Frederick the
Great)? To what basic principle does hereduce human equality? When Voltaire says
that anyone who feelsunjustly treated in a particular state should leave, he is
notspeaking lightly. He lived in exile from France for much of hislife. Note
that his attitudes are far removed from the extremeegalitarianism during the
Why does Voltaire label enthusiasm a disease? (Note that the
18th-centuryFrench use of this term is not identical with contemporary
Englishusage.) His story about the young man so carried away by a tragedythat he
decides to write one himself is a self-mocking comment:he wrote many tragedies.
The Art of Love
are cynical observations on love affairs, whereas
Sappho`spoetry is filled with passion. She was said in ancient times tohave
committed suicide for love. How does he contrast reason withreligion? What sort
of people are said to unite reason with enthusiasm?
États, gouvernements: quel est le meilleur? States,governments:
which is the best?
Voltaire begins this article by mocking those who claim to beable to reform
government based on an imperfect understandingof the world. The article really
begins on p. 192 when he raisesthe question of what sort of government a "wise
man, free,of modest wealth, and without prejudices" would prefer tolive in.
Typically, he sets this dangerous debate (remember thatVoltaire lived in an
absolute monarchy endorsed by the Church)by placing it in the mouths of two
Indians. He begins by satirizingthe republic of ancient Israel (on the top of p.
193). What doeshe say is the reason there are so few republics (states in
whichthe citizens govern themselves)? The republic discussed by thecouncilor
which lasted more than 500 years is the ancient
moral advantage is it argued a republic has overa monarchy? Voltaire amusedly
alludes to Montesquieu`stheory that different laws are caused by different
climactic conditions,but excludes religion from this variability. What does it
meanto say that the best government is that "in which onlythe laws are obeyed?"
(Hint: there is a common phrase inAmerican constitutional law that states "We
are a governmentof laws, not of men," which means the same thing.) Whatdoes this
last sentence of the article mean? Why do you thinkself-government has been so
rare in human history?
What do Voltaire`s examples of detestable fanaticism havein common? What is
the remedy he suggests on p. 203? What doeshe dislike about the stories from the
Old Testament to which healludes? What does he say is the basic problem with
people whoappeal to a higher divine law when they behave violently? By theway,
he is quite wrong in his description of Confucianism as beingfree from
fanaticism; Buddhism comes closer. Although Confucianismis based on rational
principles, Confucianists could be quitefanatical in their opposition to
The story with which this article begins is loosely based on historicalfact
and allows Voltaire to remind his readers of some of themore unsavory aspects of
the history of the papacy. What is hisdefinition of faith? What criticisms does
he make of it? Can youprovide a different definition of faith which is not open
to thesecriticisms? Why does he say faith brings no merit? He is parodyingin the
statement of the bonze toward the bottom of p. 209 theChristian doctrine that
one can receive the grace to believe whatone does not readily accept through
In one of his most bitterly sarcastic passages, Voltaire "praises"war as a
divine gift which unites all the worst evils, causingthose who create it to be
adored as gods on earth. The whole articledrips with irony. When he comments on
p. 232 that people todaydo not fight wars for such stupid causes as the ancient
Romans,he is being ironic. What does he say on p. 232 is a common causefor
princes going to war (hint: see Shakespeare`s
)? What does he say
should happen before a king should beallowed to become the ruler over a people?
What relationship doeshe say the Church has to war (p. 233)? What distinction
does hemake between natural and artificial religion? When he contrasts"love"
with war, he of course means sex. Does hebelieve war can be abolished?
Liberté de pensée: Freedom of thought
Voltaire places the debate over freedom of thought in the mouthsof
representatives of England (which he admired) and Portugal(which he detested).
Medroso (the name means "fearful")is a religious fanatic, ignorant of the most
famous names fromantiquity. What does he say at the top of p. 280 is the main
dangerof freedom of thought? The "holy office" referredto here is the
run by the Dominican Order which imprisoned,tortured, and executed those who
failed to conform to Catholicorthodoxy. Banned from France, it still flourished
in Spain andPortugal in Voltaire`s time. Why does he argue Christiansshould
support freedom of thought? Hidden in the paragraph beginning"When some business
matter . . ." is his answer
toPascal`s famous wager
which argued that it makes senseto believe in God since if there is one, one
will avoid goingto Hell for disbelieving, and if there is none, one will
havenevertheless led a good life. What is Voltaire`s objectionto this logic?
What is your own reaction to this argument? Whatare the respective virtues of
the English and the Portuguese,stated on p. 281?
Under this heading Voltaire groups a wide variety of ideas--allof them
various sorts of irrational opinions. What are good prejudices,according to him?
(Compare with "natural law.") Whatcommon European attitudes is he satirizing in
the paragraph thatbegins at the bottom of p. 343? "Prejudices of the Senses"are
simply sensory illusions, and "physical prejudices"are irrational beliefs handed
on by tradition. He debunks a piousstory about how Clovis converted to
Christianity by pointing outthat it is not natural to pray to a God in whom one
does not yetbelieve. Note that most of his examples of religion avoid
Christianitybut can easily be paralleled with it. What does he say shouldbe the
final result of overcoming religious prejudices?
Why does Voltaire argue that the very existence of disputing sectswithin a
religion disproves its truth? How does he contrast sciencewith religion?
Scientists also disagree among themselves; doesthis make them the same as
religious people? Explain. What distinctionsdoes he make between religious
beliefs that everyone shares andthose which are unique (and therefore false)?
Pascal was not theonly one to argue that there is special merit in believing
Voltaire consistently uses the term "theist" wherewe would use
:" a believer
in a minimal religionwhich reveres a creator but omits most of the elements of
traditionalreligion: prayers of petition, miracles, divine revelation,
incarnation,salvation, damnation, etc. What are the main characteristics ofthe
theist, according to Voltaire?
What does Voltaire say is the first law of nature? Voltaire isintent on
showing that the Romans were unusually tolerant of foreignreligions because the
usual stereotype of their culture is thatit was intolerant in its attitude
toward Christianity. Accordingto him, why did the Romans finally become hostile
to Christianity?What does he say was the attitude of various groups within
originalChristianity? On p. 389 he engages in one of his periodic assaultson
Jewish belief, but with the aim of maintaining that they wereat least more
open-minded than Christians. What seem at firstto be antisemetic passages in his
work are often simply rusesto attack Christianity. He depicts the religious
conversion ofleaders in Europe as having produced a series of catastrophes.In
section II, what does he say is the attitude of Christianitytoward other
religions? The second paragraph, assuming a detailedfamiliarity with the Bible,
is designed to demonstrate that Christiansdid not at first distinguish
themselves from Jews, and that theirsubsequent intolerance was an unfortunate
late development. Onp. 391 he refers to the numerous sects into which
Christianityhas always been divided to refute the claims of the Catholic
Churchto universal authority. What does he say is the remedy for
religiousdissension? How does the argument on p. 292 relate to the
articleentitled "Secte: Sect?" What religious sectdoes he most admire and
compare to the beliefs of the earliestChristians? What arguments does he give to
show that Jesus wasnot a Christian? What is the point of the parable of the
reedat the end of the article? Americans, like Voltaire, value
toleration,particularly in religious matters, very highly; but they alsotend to
value faith, which he rejects. How do you reconcile thesetwo values? Is it
possible to believe profoundly in a religiousfaith without being tempted to
coerce others into accepting it?Explain.
Voltaire is of course being sarcastic when he says "thereare no such
tyrants in Europe." What does he say is theadvantage of living under one tyrant
rather than under many?
Notes by Paul Brians
, Department of
English, WashingtonState University, Pullman 99164-5020.
Version of July 21, 1997.