requires an equatorial climate with high humidity. The
ideal mean annual temperature is 27ºC with 5-7º
diurnal variation. The palm does not withstand prolonged
spells of extreme variations. A well-distributed rainfall
of 1300-2300 mm per annum is preferred.
is grown in different soil types such as laterite, coastal
sandy, alluvial, and also in reclaimed soils of the
marshy lowlands. It tolerates salinity and a wide range
of pH (from 5.0-8.0).
of mother palms
mother palms having the following characters:
1. Regular bearing habit and yielding not less than
80 nuts / annum.
2. Age 20 years or more (5 years after reaching full
bearing capacity). If the mother palms are the progeny
of elite planting material and gives consistently higher
yields for a period of not less than 6 years, seed nuts
can be collected from such palms. There is no need for
insisting 20 years as minimum age for mother palms in
3. More than 30 fully opened leaves with short strong
petioles and wide leaf base firmly attached to the stem.
4. Bearing at least 12 bunches of nuts with strong bunch
5. Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong shape.
6. Husked nuts should weigh not less than 600 g.
7. Mean copra content of 150 g per nut or more.
Avoid palms which (i) have long, thin and pendulous
inflorescence stalks (ii) produce long, narrow, small
sized or barren nuts (iii) show shedding of immature
nuts in large numbers and (iv) are grown under favourable
and storage of seed nuts
mature nuts (above 11 month old) during the period from
December to May. Lowering of bunches by means of ropes
may be done when the palms are tall and ground is hard.
Discard nuts, which show improper development or other
undesirable features. Store seeds in shade for a minimum
period of 60 days prior to sowing in nursery. For storing,
arrange the seed nuts with the stalk-end up over an
8 cm layer of sand in a shed and cover with sand to
prevent drying of nut water. Up to five layers of nuts
can be arranged one over the other. The nuts can also
be stored in plots, provided the soil is sandy and the
ground is sufficiently shaded. In the case of nuts harvested
in May, heap them in partial shade, till husk is well
dried and then sow them in the nursery.
and preparation of site for nursery
sites should be well drained with light textured soil
and with adequate but not too much shade. In open areas,
provide shade during summer. Prepare beds of 1.5 m width
and of convenient length with 75 cm space between beds.
In areas where drainage is poor, prepare raised beds.
Before planting, examine seed nuts and discard those
without nut water and rotten kernels. Sow the nuts in
the nursery after commencement of southwest monsoon
the seed nuts at a spacing of 30 cm (between rows) x
30 cm (between nuts) with four or five rows per bed.
of planting seed nuts
the seed nuts in the beds in trenches 25-30 cm deep
and cover with soil so that top portion of husk alone
is visible. The nuts may be planted either horizontally
with the widest of the segments at the top or vertically
with stalk-end up. Vertical planting is preferable on
account of convenience in transporting and lesser risk
of seedling injury.
and management of nursery
protective fencing to the nursery if it is located in
open area. If the soil is sandy, provide mulching immediately
after the cessation of monsoon rain. Irrigate the nursery
once in two days during summer months. Keep the nursery
beds free of weeds by periodic weeding. If termite is
noticed, remove soil in the affected area up to a depth
of about 15 cm and dust soil and nuts with carbaryl
or chlorpyrifos. Repeat if attack persists. Periodically
spray the plants with 1% Bordeaux mixture or any other
copper fungicide to prevent fungal infection.
seed nuts, which do not germinate within 6 months after
sowing as well as those with dead sprouts. Select only
good quality seedlings (9-12 months old) by a rigorous
selection based on the following characteristics.
Early germination, rapid growth and seedling vigour.
2. Six to eight leaves for 10-12 month old seedlings
and at least four leaves for 9 month old seedlings.
3. Collar girth of 10-12 cm.
4. Early splitting of leaves.
The recovery of quality seedlings will be about 60-65%.
Since early germination is one of the criteria for the
selection of seedlings, the storing and sowing of seed
nuts should be in lots rather than in a staggered manner.
seedlings from the nursery by lifting with spade and
cutting the roots. Keep the seedlings in shade and do
not expose to sun. Plant seedlings as early as possible
after removal from nursery. Never allow lifting the
seedlings from the soil by pulling the leaves or stem.
2.Anandaganga(AndamanOrdinary x Gangabondam)
3. Keraganga (West Coast Tall x Gangabondam)
4. Kerasankara (West Coast Tall x Chowghat Orange Dwarf)
5. Chandrasankara (Chowghat Orange Dwarf x West Coast
6. Kerasree (West Coast Tall x Malayan Yellow Dwarf)
7. Kerasoubaghya (WCT x SSA)
8. Chowghat Green Dwarf x West Coast Tall
9. Chandralaksha (Lakshadweep Ordinary x Chowghat Orange
Tender nut variety: Chowghat Orange Dwarf
(1). Hybrids Anandaganga, Keraganga and Kerasankara
are recommended for general cultivation both under rainfed
and irrigated conditions.
(2) Other hybrids especially Chandrasankara are recommended
for ideal situations and where good management practices
(3) Since the performance of Chandrasankara is markedly
superior to that of WCT in root (wilt) affected areas,
cultivation of Chandrasankara is preferred in such areas.
(4) Chandralaksha, Lakshaganga and Chandrakalpa are
recommended for cultivation under drought prone areas.
D x T hybrid production
following guidelines are suggested for large-scale production
of D x T hybrid seedlings. Assisted pollination should
be done to get maximum hybrid nut production. As far
as possible use prepotent palms as parents in the hybridization
of mother palms
with the following phenotypic character combination
may be selected for hybridization work.
1. Nuts without ridges and having yellow, orange or
2. Palms with overlapping female and male phases.
3. Small crown and canopy compared to that of tall palm.
4. Narrow stem without any bulging at the base with
close leaf scars.
Use mixed pollen from identified tall palms.
2. Emasculate the inflorescence by cutting the male
flowers with scissors and stripping if necessary within
5-7 days of opening the spathe.
3. Cloth bags made of very close mesh should be used
for covering the inflorescence.
4. Hairy caterpillar larvae cause serious damage by
boring into the female flowers and developing buttons
through stigmatic ends. The damage is more serious under
bagged conditions. Spraying 0.15% carbaryl suspension
mixed with 1% fish oil soap or sandovit ensures protection
from the larvae. Spraying may be done prior to pre-pollination
5. Dusting of pollen-talc mixture in 1:9 proportion
using pollen dispensers is recommended.
6. Assisted pollination for at least 3-5 days on each
inflorescence till last female flower becomes receptive
and fully pollinated.
7. Remove bags after the seventh day of pollination
of the last female flower.
nuts should be harvested before it is tree-ripe and
sown immediately in the bed without storage. Nursery
beds should be mulched or shaded and watered regularly
cultural practices have to be adopted to suit the varying
climatic and soil conditions.
sites with deep (not less than 1.5 m depth) well drained
soil. Avoid shallow soils with underlying hard rock,
low-lying areas subject to water stagnation and heavy
Preparation of land and planting of seedlings
nature of preparation of land before planting depends
upon topography of land, soil type and other environmental
factors. On slopes and in areas of undulating terrain,
prepare the land by contour terracing or bunding. In
low-lying areas and rice fields, form mounds to a height
of at least 1 m above water level. In reclaimed kayal
areas, planting can be done on the field bunds.
The size of pits for planting would depend upon soil
types and water table. In loamy soils with low water
table, pit size of 1 x 1 x 1 m is recommended. In laterite
soils with underlying rock, take larger pits of size
1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 m. In sandy soils, the size of pits
may be 0.75x 0.75 x 0.75 m. The pits may be filled up
with topsoil to a height 60 cm below the ground level.
In low lying lands, take shallow pits and as the plant
grows, raise the ground level by adding silt and sand
so as to cover the entire bole of the palm. The same
procedure can be adopted when planting is done on mounds
or bunds. Burial of two layers of husks in the floor
of the pits will be useful for moisture conservation.
The husk is to be buried in layers with concave surface
facing upwards. After arranging each layer, sprinkle
carbaryl 10% dust on the husk to prevent colonization
In lateritic areas, common salt at the rate of 2 kg
per pit may be applied on the floor of the pit to improve
soil conditions. Common salt is to be applied about
six months prior to planting.
depends upon the planting system, soil type etc. In
general, the following spacings are recommended under
different systems in sandy and laterite soils. In lateritic
gravelly soils, under rainfed conditions of north Kerala,
a closer spacing to accommodate 250 palms per ha is
number of plants/ha
to 9 m
m in the rows 9 m between the rows
x 5 m in rows 9 m between pairs of rows
In the hedge system of planting, the rows should be aligned
in north-south direction and the seedlings planted as
in the triangular system.
the seedlings during May, with the onset of pre-monsoon
rains is ideal. Under assured irrigation, planting can
be done during April also. In low-lying areas, plant
the seedlings in September after the cessation of heavy
the first two years from planting, irrigate @ 45 litres
of water per seedling, once in 4 days, during dry summer
months. Provide adequate shade to the transplanted seedlings.
and mixed cropping
for inter/mixed cropping may be drawn up based on the
canopy size, age and spacing of palms. In general, palms
in the age group of 8-25 years are not suitable for
inter and mixed cropping. However, cereals and tapioca
are recommended as intercrops in young coconut plantation
up to 3-4 years. Since ginger and turmeric are shade
tolerant crops with shallow roots, they can be intercropped
in coconut garden even in the age group of 15-25 years.
It ensures better land utilization, solar energy harvesting,
efficient water use, utilization of soil nutrient resources,
more returns and an insurance against crop failure.
Under conditions of wider spacing i.e. beyond 7.6 m,
intercropping is possible irrespective of the age of
following crops are recommended as intercrops.
and pulses: Groundnut, horse gram, cowpea
Tapioca, sweet potato, yams, colocasia
and condiments: Ginger, turmeric, chilly, pepper, nutmeg,
plants: Banana, pineapple, papaya. (Banana variety Palayankodan
is recommended in the reclaimed soils of Kuttanad. Three
suckers per clump have to be retained).
grasses: Hybrid Napier, guinea grass
all cases, separate application of adequate fertilizers
and manures to the individual crop is essential.
cafeteria for multiple cropping in coconut garden
Cocoa, nutmeg, pepper, clove, lemongrass and cinnamon.
(a) Kharif: Rice, maize, groundnut, ginger, turmeric,
chilli, yams, colocasia, red gram, vegetables, sweet
potato, tapioca, banana, pineapple, papaya and fodder
(b) Rabi: Sesame, horse gram, red gram, vegetables,
cowpea, sweet potato and banana.
(c) Summer: Vegetables
the palms during summer months in basins around palms
as shown below:
requirement of coconut
soil moisture (cm/m)
of water / irrigation / palm in litres in a basin
of 1.8 m radius
of irrigation (days)
areas in Kerala except north eastern portion of
Thrissur and Palakkad districts
eastern portion of Thrissur and Palakkad districts
In coastal sandy soils, seawater can be used for irrigation.
In irrigated gardens, interruption of irrigation would
lead to serious set back in yield and general condition
of palms. Hence, when once started, irrigation should
be continued regularly and systematically. In sandy
loam soil, irrigating the crop with 500 litres of water
through basin taken at 1.5 m radius at CPE value of
50 mm (approximate interval of 15 days) is most economical.
Do not irrigate seedlings and very young palms with
the traditional system of irrigation followed in coconut
gardens such as flood irrigation, basin irrigation etc.
irrigation efficiency is only 30 to 50 per cent due
to considerable wastage of water. In addition, cost
on inputs like labour and energy in adopting these systems
are high. Scarcity of water and increasing cost of labour
and energy are deterrents in adopting these traditional
irrigation systems. Under these circumstances, drip
irrigation is the most suitable system of irrigation
to coconut. Some of the major advantages of drip irrigation
are: it saves water, enhances plant growth and yield,
saves energy and labour, most suited for soils having
low water holding capacity and undulating terrain, reduces
weed growth and improves efficiency of fertilizers.
For coconut, generally, three to four drippers are given
per palm. The water requirement for an adult palm is
40 to 50 litres per day
Drought management in coconut gardens
produces nuts round the year. Therefore, adequate supply
of water is essential for its unhindered growth. Soil
moisture is essential for the absorption of nutrients
by roots. Moisture stress leads to stunted growth, drooping
of leaves, immature nut fall and decreased yield. Importance
may be given on the following aspects so as to ward
Husk burial for moisture conservation
of fresh or dried coconut husk around the palm is a
desirable practice particularly for moisture retention.
The husk can be buried either in linear trenches taken
3 m away from the trunk between rows of palms or in
circular trenches taken around the palm at a distance
of 2 m from the trunk. The trenches may be of 0.5 m
width and depth. The husks are to be placed in layers
with concave surface facing upwards and covered with
soil. The beneficial effect of husk burial will last
for about 5-7 years. Instead of husk, coconut pith can
be buried @ 25 kg / palm / year.
is an effective method of conserving soil moisture.
Mulch the coconut basins with green / dry leaves at
the close of northeast monsoon (October-November). Mulching
also adds organic matter to the soil and reduces the
soil temperature. Do not disturb soil in the coconut
garden during summer months. In level lands, during
rainy seasons excess water may be conserved in small
trenches dug out in the plantation. In sloppy areas,
land may be terraced and trenches dug across. This will
facilitate maximum percolation of rainwater and water
storage. For moisture conservation, lowermost 3-5 leaves
may be cut and removed. Provide adequate shade for the
transplanted seedlings for 1-2 years. To minimize the
heat load on the stem, application of lime solution
on the trunk up to a height of 2-3 m at the start of
the summer season is recommended.
Green manure and cover crops
manure and cover crops recommended for cultivation in
coconut gardens are:
(a) Green manure crops: Crotalaria juncea (sunn hemp),
Tephrosia purpurea (kolinji), Indigofera hirsuta, Pueraria
(b) Cover crops: Calapagonium muconoides, Mimosa invisa,
(c) Shade-cum-green manure shrub: Tephrosia candida
Sow green manure and cover crop seeds during April-May
with the onset of pre-monsoon rains. The green manure
crops should be ploughed in and incorporated into the
soil during August-September. This will increase the
water holding capacity of soil. Calapagonium can be
grown either as green manure or cover crop. Tephrosia
is especially suited for planting around seedling pits
for summer shade and as a source of green manure in
the rainy season
the first three years after planting under rainfed conditions,
apply fertilizers in two split doses at the rates shown
in Table 19. Fertilizer requirement of adult palms is
given in Table 20.
Fertilizer requirement of young palms in relation
to that of adult palms
of adults palm dose)
months (1/10th of full dose)
year (1/3rd of full dose)
year (2/3rd of full dose)
year onwards (full dose)
Under irrigated conditions, the fertilizers can be applied
in 3-4 equal split doses. In the case of low lying areas,
apply fertilizer after water table recedes in one single
dose or in two split doses as conditions permit. In
all types of soils that are low in organic matter content
(except reclaimed clayey soils and alluvial soils),
apply organic matter @ of 15-25 kg/palm/year during
June-July from the second year of planting.
of adult palms
nutrient dosages recommended for adult palms are given
in Table 20.
Fertilizer recommendation for coconut
reclaimed clayey soils ( as in Kuttanad)
loam soils (southern Kerala)
& high yielding palms
(a) For irrigated areas
(b) For rain fed conditions
Under irrigated conditions, fertilizers can be applied
in 3-4 equal split doses.
2. In the case of low-lying areas, apply fertilizers
in one single dose after water table recedes or in two
split doses as conditions permit.
3. The application of organic materials such as forest
leaves, cattle manure, coir dust or coconut shredding
at 10 kg per pit in the first three years and 15-25
kg thereafter will be useful to obtain better establishment
of coconut palms in sandy soils and in coastal situations.
4. In situations where the available P2O5 status of
the soil is more than 10 ppm, application of phosphatic
fertilizers can be skipped for a few years until the
status of P2O5 reaches 10 ppm.
5. For sandy and sandy loams of Onattukara and similar
situations and also for hybrid palms grown in root (wilt)
affected areas, apply 500 g N + 300 g P2O5 + 1000 g
K2O along with 500 g MgSO4 / palm / year.
6. Application of MgSO4 to coconut palms earlier confined
to root wilt affected areas is recommended for the whole
state (ad hoc recommendation).
7. The N:P2O5:K2O recommendation given for high yielding
palms is, in general, sufficient for palms yielding
up to 100 nuts per year. For palms yielding more than
100 nuts per year, an additional dose of 10 g N, 5 g
P2O5 and 15 g K2O may be supplied for every nut exceeding
100 nuts (ad hoc recommendation).
8. In laterite soils, 50% of the K2O requirement of
coconut can be substituted by Na2O supplied in the form
of sodium chloride.
frequency and method of fertilizer application
rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two split doses,
1/3 at the time of early southwest monsoon showers in
April-June and 2/3 in September-October.
Under irrigated conditions, apply fertilizers in three
or four equal doses in April-May, August-September,
December and February-March.
Apply lime or dolomite during April-May, magnesium sulphate
during August-September and organic matter during June-July.
For an adult palm 1 kg dolomite or 1 kg lime + 0.5 kg
MgSO4 is required per annum.
Apply fertilizers and manures in circular basins at
a radius of 2.0 m from the base of the palm and 10 cm
deep, opened after the onset of southwest monsoon. Split
doses can be applied with irrigation water in summer
of palm waste
of palm waste is very much beneficial especially for
maintaining the availability status of micronutrients
and trace elements. Palm wastes like coconut leaves,
crown waste, dried spathes, husk etc. may be deposited
in a small trench of convenient length, 0.5 m to 0.75
m wide and 0.3 to 0.5 m deep at a distance of 2-2.5
m away from the base of the trunk. Fill up this trench
with the palm wastes along one side of the palm (say
north) in one year, opposite side (south) in the next
year, east in the third year and so on. This practice
of organic recycling of waste has been found to improve
the growth and productivity of the palms.
the pits free of weeds by periodical weeding. Remove
the soil covering the collar of seedlings. As the seedlings
grow and form stem, fill up the pits gradually by cutting
the sides. Proper intercultivation provides control
of weeds and creates soil mulch. Any tillage system
(ploughing, digging, raking or forming mounds) that
provides soil mulch and control weeds may be followed
depending upon local conditions. For laterite, sandy
and red sandy loam soils give two ploughings or diggings
in May-June and September-October and one raking in
January. In areas where surface run off is more, form
mounds in September-October and level them in November-December.
Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros)
The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and
spathes. The attacked frond when fully opened shows
characteristic triangular cuts.
Provide field sanitation to prevent breeding of beetles.
2. Hook out the beetles from the attacked palms by using
3 The topmost three leaf axils around the spindle may
be filled with any of the following mixtures as a prophylactic
(a) Sevidol 8G 25 g + fine sand 200 g, which is to be
done thrice in a year in April-May, September-October
and December-January. (b) Naphthalene balls 10.5 g (approx.
three balls) covered with fine sand, once in 45 days.
4. Treat manure pits and other possible breeding sites
with 0.01% carbaryl on w/w basis. Treatment will have
to be repeated every three months.
5. Release Baculovirus oryctes infected adults @ of
10-15 / ha to bring down the pest population.
6. Inoculation of breeding sites with entomopathogenic
fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae (@ 5 x 1011 spores /
ml) gives effective control.
palm weevil (Rhyncophorus ferrugineus)
diagnostic symptoms are the presence of holes on the
stem, oozing out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion
of chewed up fibrous matter through the hole, longitudinal
splitting of leaf base and wilting of central shoot.
Sometimes the gnawing sound produced by the feeding
grubs inside will also be audible.
Field sanitation should be given prime importance.
2. Avoid making steps or any other injury on the tree
trunks to reduce the loci of infestation.
3. Leaf axil filling as suggested in the case of rhinoceros
beetle will be useful against the red palm weevil also.
4. When green leaves are cut from the palms, stumps
of not less than 120 cm may be left on the trees in
order to prevent successful inward movement of the grubs
through the cut end.
5. In attacked palms, observe for the bore- holes and
seal them except the top most one. Through the top most
hole, pour 1% carbaryl or 0.2% trichlorphon suspension @ one litre per palm, using a
6. When the pest infestation is through the crown, clean
the crown and slowly pour the insecticidal suspension.
7. As an alternative, apply 1% DDVP or aluminum phosphide
(for limited use only) one or two tablets per palm as
a curative measure.
8. Coconut log traps with fermenting toddy or pineapple
or sugarcane activated with yeast or molasses can be
set in coconut plantation to attract and trap the free
floating population of red palm weevil. Incorporate
any of the insecticide to each trap to kill the weevils
9. Use of pheromone trap for attracting and killing
adult weevils @ one trap per 2 ha.
eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella)
caterpillar feeds on green matter from the lower leaf
surface, remaining within galleries of silk and frass.
The attack will be severe during summer months from
As a prophylactic measure, the first affected leaves
may be cut and burnt during the beginning of the summer
2. Arrange for the release of larval / pupal parasitoids,
Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus nephantidis (brown species)
and Brachymeria nosatoi.
3. When infestation is very severe and if the biocontrol
is not likely to be effective, spray the undersurface
of the fronds with dichlorvos 0.02%, malathion 0.05%,
quinalphos 0.05%, phosalone 0.05%.
Note: Application of the insecticides should be followed
by liberation of larval and pupal parasites from the
beetle (Leucopholis coneophora)
soil inhabiting white grubs cause damage to the roots
of coconut palm. The attack is common in sandy tracts.
The infested palms turn pale yellow and there will be
considerable reduction in yield.
Collection and destruction of adults during the monsoon
period from adjacent vegetation (in the evening).
2. Plough or dig the infested soil synchronizing with
3. Treat the soil with phorate 10G @ 100 g/palm or drench
with chlorpyrifos 0.04% suspension. The treatment should
be given twice, first during April-May after the receipt
of pre-monsoon showers and second during the month of
Note: Wherever possible, light traps may be set up to
attract and trap adult beetles.
bug (Paradasynus rostratus)
attacked buttons become deformed with characteristic
crevices on the husk below the perianth with gum exudations
and the tender nuts become barren.
0.1% carbaryl suspension on the newly
opened inflorescence after the receptive phase of the
female flowers and spray the entire crown excluding
the leaves and older bunches.
Note: The insecticide may be applied according to the
severity of infection in a need-based manner.
eriophyid mite (Aceria [Eriophyes] guerreronis)
eriophyid mite, a recently introduced pest is spreading
at an alarming rate in Kerala. It is a microscopic worm
like mite infesting young buttons colonizing under the
earliest symptom on 2-3 month old buttons is pale yellow
triangular patches seen below the perianth. Later, these
patches become brown. Severely affected buttons may
fall. As the buttons grow, brown patches lead to black
necrotic lesions with longitudinal fissures on the husk.
Uneven growth results in distortion and stunting of
nuts leading to reduction in copra yield. In severe
cases, the losses are compounded because the quality
of fibre is reduced and distorted nuts increase the
labour requirements for dehusking.
Collect and destroy all the fallen buttons of the affected
2. Apply 2% neem oil + garlic emulsion or commercial
neem formulation azadirachtin 0.004% (Neemazal T/S 1%
@ 4 ml per litre of water) or micronized wettable sulphur
0.4 % in the crown on young bunches. In large coconut
plantations, dicofol 0.1% can be applied after taking
adequate precautions. However, spraying of dicofol should
be avoided in homesteads. When rocker sprayer is used
1.0 to 1.5 litres of spray fluid per palm is required.
If a hand sprayer is used, the spray solution required
may be about 500 to 750 ml. Spraying has to be done
on second to seventh bunches from top avoiding unpollinated
inflorescence. Care should be taken to see that spray
fluid reaches the perianth region of third, fourth and
fifth bunches since these bunches harbour maximum number
of mites. Three rounds of spraying are recommended in
a year viz., March-April before the onset of southwest
monsoon, in August-September during the dry spell between
the southwest and northeast monsoons and in December-January
after the northeast monsoon so that all the emerging
bunches in the vulnerable stage receive one round of
spraying. Rational rotation of the above pesticides
may be adopted to avoid chances of resistance.
of neem oil + garlic emulsion (2%)
prepare 10 litres of 2% neem oil + garlic emulsion,
200 ml neem oil, 200 g garlic and 50 g ordinary bar
soap are required. Slice the bar soap and dissolve in
500 ml lukewarm water. Grind 200 g of garlic and take
the extract in 300 ml of water. Pour the 500 ml soap
solution in 200 ml neem oil slowly and stir vigorously
to get a good emulsion. Mix the garlic extract in the
neem oil + soap emulsion. Dilute this 1 litre stock
solution by adding 9 litres of water to get 10 litres
of 2 % neem oil + garlic emulsion.
As per the recommendation of the National Level Steering
Committee, a holistic approach has to be adopted in
the management of the coconut eriophyid mite. Hence,
in addition to the plant protection measures mentioned
above, the following measures can be adopted:
1. Improving nutrient status by applying organic manure
at the rate of 50 kg and neem cake 5 kg per palm per
year. Also apply the recommended dose of fertilizers
in two split applications.
2. Growing compatible intercrops / mixed crops.
3. Providing adequate irrigation.
bugs infest the unopened heartleaf and inflorescence.
As a result, the leaves become highly stunted, suppressed,
deformed and present a crinkled appearance. It is often
confused with the leaf rot symptoms. The affected inflorescences
are malformed and do not open. Even if they open, they
do not bear nuts.
Button mealy bugs colonize under the perianth lobes
of tender nuts. Infested nuts harbouring gravid mealy
bugs remain on the spadix, which serve as inoculum for
and destroy all dried up inflorescence and unproductive
buttons. Apply non-residual phosphatic insecticides
like dimethoate 0.1%, quinalphos 0.05 %, fenthion 0.1%
at the site of infestation.
Neem garlic emulsion 2% applied on infested bunches
checks button mealy bugs.
damage tender nuts by forming characteristic holes.
Shed nuts can be seen at the base of the palm.
Use warfarin-based wax blocks containing 0.025% active
ingredient at intervals of three months for reducing
2. Place wax blocks of 0.005% bromadiolone in coconut
crown of the infested palms at 3 to 4 days interval
till the bait is no more consumed.
palmivora has been found to affect seedlings and adult
palms causing bud rot and immature nut fall commonly
known as mahali.
of all age are liable to be attacked but normally young
palms are more susceptible, particularly during monsoon
when the temperature is low and humidity is very high.
In seedlings, the spear leaf turns pale and comes off
with a gentle pull. In adult palms, the first visible
symptom is the colour change of the spear, which becomes
pale and breaks at the base and hangs down. The tender
leaf base and soft tissues of the crown rot into a slimy
mass of decayed material emitting a foul smell. The
rotting slowly progresses downwards, finally affecting
the meristem and killing the palms. This is accompanied
by drooping of successive leaves. Even then, nuts that
are retained on the palm may grow to maturity. The disease
proves fatal if not checked at the early stages, before
damage of the bud.
In early stages of the disease (when the heartleaf starts
withering) cut and remove all affected tissues of the
crown. Apply Bordeaux paste and protect it from rain
till normal shoot emerges.
2. Burn all disease-affected tissues removed from the
3. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture on spindle leaves and crown
of disease affected as well as neighbouring palms, as
a prophylactic measure. Palms that are sensitive to
copper containing fungicides can be protected by mancozeb.
Small, perforated sachets containing 2 g of mancozeb
may be tied to the top of leaf axil. When it rains,
a small quantity of the fungicide is released from the
sachets to the leaf base, thus protecting the palm.
4. Adopt control measures for rhinoceros beetle.
5. Provide adequate drainage in gardens.
6. Adopt proper spacing and avoid over crowding in bud
rot prone gardens.
of female flowers and immature nuts are the common symptoms
of the disease. Lesions appear on the young fruits or
buttons near the stalk, which later lead to the decay
of the underlying tissues and endosperm.
1% Bordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride preparation
(0.5%) on the crown of palms, once before the monsoon
and once or twice later on at intervals of 40 days.
characteristic symptom is the flaccidity of leaflets.
Yellowing of older leaves, necrosis of leaflets and
deterioration and decay of root system are other salient
features of the disease. The leaflets curve inwardly
to produce ribbing so that the whole frond develops
a cup like appearance. Abnormal shedding of buttons
and immature nuts are also noticed.
root (wilt) is a non-lethal debilitating disease and
the affected palms survive for a long period giving
a reasonably good yield. The root (wilt) affected palms
are susceptible to diseases like leaf rot and pests
like rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil. So there
is a chance of confusing the pests and disease symptom
with the root (wilt) disease. Negligence on the management
aspects aggravates the malady. Efficient management
of palms suspected to be affected by coconut root (wilt)
disease demands control of all pests and diseases and
imparting natural resistance and health to the palms
through proper manuring and agronomic practices. A package
of management practices for the effective management
of root (wilt) disease is given below:
Rogue out palms that are affected severely by root (wilt)
and yield less than 10 nuts / palm / year and those,
which have contracted the disease before flowering.
Replant with disease tolerant material / high yielding
2. Apply fertilizers for coconut palms in average management
at the rate of 0.34 kg N, 0.17 kg P2O5 and 0.68 kg K2O
/ palm / year in the form of urea, rock phosphate and
muriate of potash, respectively. For palms under good
management, fertilizers may be given @ of 0.5 kg N,
0.32 kg P2O5 and 1.2 kg K2O / palm / year.
3. In addition to the above, apply 50 kg cattle manure
or green manure and 1 kg of lime / palm / year. Magnesium
may be supplied @ 500 g MgO per palm per year in the
Onattukara region (sandy soil) and 100 g MgO in the
remaining areas. The cheapest source of MgO is magnesite
(MgCO3). The magnesium in magnesite is acid soluble.
Hence it may be preferred in acid soils.
4. Growing green manure crops like sunn hemp, sesbania,
cowpea and calapagonium in the coconut basin and their
incorporation in situ is beneficial as the practice
reduces the intensity of the root (wilt) and increases
the nut yield. The ideal green manure crops for the
sandy and alluvial soils are cowpea and sesbania, respectively.
5. Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two
splits, 1/3rd at the time of early southwest monsoon
and 2/3rd before the northeast monsoon. Under irrigated
conditions apply fertilizers in three equal splits (April-May,
August-September and December-January).
6. Apply fertilizers and manures in 10 cm deep circular
basins at a radius of 2 m from the bole of the palm.
7. When the crop is grown under the bund and channel
system, desilt the channel and strengthen the bunds
during summer months.
8. Follow strictly all the prescribed prophylactic measures
against leaf rot disease, red palm weevil, rhinoceros
beetle etc. so as to ensure that the palms are not debilitated.
To maintain the productivity of the palms, prophylactic
measures are of great importance.
first symptom is the appearance of water-soaked brown
lesions in the spear leaves of root-wilt affected palms.
Gradually these spots enlarge and coalesce resulting
in extensive rotting. As the leaf unfurls, the rotten
portions of the lamina dry and get blown off in wind,
giving a 'fan' shape to the leaves. Some times, the
symptom becomes very acute and the spear fails to unfurl.
This disease is a fungal complex initiated predominantly
by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Exserohilum rostratum
and Fusarium spp.
Remove the rotten portions from the spear and the two
2. Pour 300 ml of fungicidal solution at the base of
the spear. This can be prepared by mixing hexaconazole
5 EC 2 ml or mancozeb 3 g in 300 ml water.
3. Treat the top two leaf axils with insecticide preparation.
This can be prepared by mixing phorate 10 G / sevidol
/ carbaryl 20 g with 200 g sand.
4. Spray crowns and leaves with 1% Bordeaux mixture
or 0.5% copper oxychloride formulations or 0.4% mancozeb
in January, April-May and September. While spraying,
care has to be taken to spray the spindle leaf.
of the reddish brown liquid through the growth cracks
mostly at the basal part of the trunk and bleeding patches
higher up in the trunk are characteristic symptoms.
One or more lesions, lying close by, may coalesce to
form large patches. The liquid that oozes out dries
up and turns black. The tissues beneath the bleeding
points decay and become yellowish. The lesions spread
upwards as the disease progresses. In advanced stages,
the leaf size reduces leading to reduction in crown
size. The rate of leaf production slows down. The production
of bunches is affected and nut shedding takes place.
The trunk gradually tapers towards the apex. The progress
of the disease is faster during July to November.
fungus, Thielaviopsis paradoxa is the causal agent.
Growth cracks on the trunk, severe summer followed by
heavy down pour, water stagnation, imbalance in nutrition,
excess salinity and stress can act as predisposing /
Chisel out completely the affected tissues and paint
the wound with tridemorph 5%. Apply coal tar after 1-2
2. Destroy the chiseled materials by burning. Avoid
any mechanical injury to trunk.
3. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg per palm in the basin along
with other organics.
4. Root feed with tridemorph 5%, thrice a year during
April-May, September-October and January-February to
prevent further spread of lesions.
5. Apply tridemorph @ 25 ml in 25 litre of water as
soil drenching once in four months.
is caused by the fungus Pestalotia palmarum.
appear in the mature leaves of the outer whorl as yellow
specks encircled by a greyish band which later become
greyish white. The spots coalesce into irregular necrotic
patches causing extensive leaf blight. In advanced stages,
the tips and margins of the leaflets dry and shrivel
giving a burnt appearance.
severely affected older leaves and burn. Spray the trees
with 1% Bordeaux mixture or propiconazole 0.3%.
disease is of recent occurrence in many parts of Kerala,
especially in the districts of Palakkad, Malappuram,
Thrissur, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad. Middle
aged palms were seen fatally affected. The characteristic
symptom of the disease is the rotting of the basal portion
of the stem. The bark turns brittle and often gets peeled
off in flakes, leaving open cracks and crevices. The
internal tissues are discoloured and disintegrated,
emitting a bad smell. Mild bleeding occurs on the basal
region. The tissues on the bleeding spots are soft to
touch. Extensive damage of the root system following
root rotting has been observed. Ultimately the palm
Apply organic manure @ 50 kg / palm.
2. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg / palm / year.
3. Reduce fertilizer application to one-fourth of the
4. Drench the basin with 40 litres of 1% Bordeaux mixture
or tridemorph 0.1% or any other copper fungicide to
soak soil up to 15 cm depth at quarterly intervals.
5. Root feed with tridemorph 2 ml mixed with 100 ml
water at quarterly intervals.
6. Avoid flood irrigation in order to prevent the possible
spread of the pathogen through soil.
7. Isolate the affected palm from the healthy ones by
digging a trench of size 1 m deep and 50 cm wide, 1.5
m away from the bole of the infected palm.
8. Avoid growing leguminous crops in and around the
shedding of buttons in the coconut is attributed to
the following reasons.
1. Pathological conditions
2. Attack of insect pests
3. Nutritional deficiencies
4. Soil and climatic variations
5. Defects in pollination and fertilization
6. Structural defects in the flower
7. Abortion of embryos
8. Limited capacity of the tree to bear fruits
9. Unfavourable conditions such as deficit of moisture,
waterlogging and lack of aeration.
The causes of button shedding may be identified and
appropriate remedial measures adopted.
Two types of copra namely milling and edible are made
in India. Milling copra is used to extract oil while edible
grade of copra is consumed as a dry fruit and used for
religious purposes. Milling copra is generally manufactured
by adopting sun drying and artificial means. Substantial
quantity of milling copra is manufactured using modern
hot air driers resulting in the availability of superior
quality copra which is required for the manufacture of
best grade coconut oil. A good number of farmers' co-operative
societies are also involved in the manufacture and marketing
of milling copra. Milling copra is available in different
grades. Edible copra is made in the form of balls and
cups. Different grades of edible copra are available in
the market according to the size, colour etc.
Coconut oil is used in the country as a cooking fat, hair
oil, body oil and industrial oil. Coconut oil is made
from fully dried copra having maximum moisture content
of six per cent. Steam cooking of copra is also practised
by some millers to enhance the quality and aroma of oil.
Coconut oil is marketed in bulk as well as in packs ranging
from sachets containing 5 ml. to 15kg tins. The branded
coconut oil in small packs is mainly marketed as hair
oil and body oil. There are several brands known for their
superior grade oil which have export market throughout
the world. India has unbeatable quality advantage in this
sector. Refined coconut oil is also manufactured in the
country for industrial uses. Refined coconut oil is mainly
used in the manufacture of biscuits, chocolates and other
confectionery items, ice cream, pharmaceutical products
and costly paints. Generally, filtered coconut oil is
used for cooking and toiletry purposes.
Virgin coconut oil is also made in the country from the
milk extracted from raw kernel. This is done on a small
scale by the traditional method which is now partially
mechanised or on a large scale by adopting wet processing
technology. High quality of this oil makes it ideal massage
oil for babies.
The water of tender coconut, technically the liquid
endosperm, is the most nutritious wholesome beverage
that the nature has provided for the people of the tropics
to fight the sultry heat. It has caloric value of 17.4
is unctuous, sweet, increasing semen, promoting digestion
and clearing the urinary path," says Ayurveda on
tender coconut water (TWC).
medicinal properties of tender coconut water reported
1. Good for feeding infants suffering from intestinal
2. Oral re-hydration medium
3. Contains organic compounds possessing growth promoting
4. Keeps the body cool
5. Application on the body prevents prickly heat and
summer boils and subsides the rashes caused by small
pox, chicken pox, measles, etc.
6. Kills intestinal worms
7. Presence of saline and albumen makes it a good drink
in cholera cases
8. Checks urinary infections.
9. Excellent tonic for the old and sick
10. Cures malnourishment.
12. Effective in the treatment of kidney and urethral
13. Can be injected intravenously in emergency case.
14. Found as blood plasma substitute because it is sterile,
does not produce heat, does not destroy red blood cells
and is readily accepted by the body.
15. Aids the quick absorption of the drugs and makes
their peak concentration in the blood easier by its
16. Urinary antiseptic and eliminates poisons in case
of mineral poisoning.
"It's a natural isotonic beverage with the same
level of electrolytic balance as we have in our blood.
It's the fluid of life, so to speak," says Mr.
Morton Satin, Chief of FAO's Agricultural Industries
and Post Harvest Management Service.
The major chemical constituents of coconut water are
sugars and minerals and minor ones are fat and nitrogenous
of Mature and Tender Coconut Water
Satyavati Krishnankutty (1987)
Sugars in the forms of glucose and fructose form an
important constituent of the tender nut water. The concentration
of sugars in the nut water steadily increases from about
1.5 per cent to about 5 - 5.5 per cent in the early
months of maturation and then slowly falls reaching
about 2 per cent at the stage of the full maturity of
the nut. In the early stages of maturity sugars are
in the form of glucose and fructose (reducing sugars)
and sucrose (non-reducing sugar) appears only in later
stages which increases with the maturity while the reducing
sugars fall. In the fully mature nut approximately 90
per cent of the total sugars is sucrose.
Tender coconut water contains most of the minerals such
as potassium, sodium, calcium, phosphorous, iron, copper,
sulphur and chlorides. Among the minerals more than
half is potassium the concentration of which is markedly
influenced by potash manuring. Tender coconut water
being rich in potassium and other minerals plays a major
role to increase the urinary output.
Coconut water contains small amounts of protein. The
percentage of arginine, alanine, cystine and serene
in the protein of tender coconut water are higher than
those in cow's milk. Since it does not contain any complex
protein the danger of producing shock to the patients
Amino Acid Composition of Coconut Water (% of total
Aspartic acid 3.60
Cystine 0.97 - 1.17
Glutamic acid 9.76 - 14.5
Histidine 1.95 - 2.05
Leucine 1.95 - 4.18
Lysine 1.95 - 4.57
Proline 1.21 - 4.12
Serine 0.59 - 0.91
Tyrosine 2.83 - 3.00
Pradera et al, 1942
Tender coconut water contains both ascorbic acid and
vitamins of B group. The concentration of ascorbic acid
ranges from 2.2 to 3.7mg per ml, which gradually diminishes
as the kernel surrounding the water begins to harden.
Vitamins of B Group in Coconut Water
Nicotinic acid 0.64 microgram / ml
Pantothenic acid 0.52 ,,
Biotin 0.02 ,,
Riboflavin < 0.01 ,,
Folic acid 0.003 ,,
Thiamine Trace ,,
Pyridoxine Trace ,,
The Wealth of India (1950)
coconut (DC), Coconut Cream, Coconut Milk and Spray
Dried Coconut Milk Powder are the convenience coconut
products manufactured in the country. Desiccated coconut
is used as a substitute to grated raw coconut in various
food preparations. Desiccated coconut is marketed in
bulk as well as in small packs. Defatted desiccated
coconut is also available in the country.
Processed coconut cream/coconut milk are used in various
food preparations as a substitute to milk extracted
from raw kernel in the traditional method. They are
available in cans and tetra packs. Spray drying is the
best method for the preservation of coconut milk. The
product has advantages such as less storage space, bulk
packaging possible at low cost and long shelf life.
Spray dried coconut powder is manufactured by one unit
in the country.
Coconut cake is the residue left after the extraction
of oil from copra which is mainly used as a cattle feed.
Coconut cake contains 4-5 per cent oil which is extracted
by solvent extraction process. This oil is generally
used for industrial purpose and de-oiled cake is used
to make mixed cattle feed. There are a few such units
in the country especially in Kerala.
tapping is an organised industry in traditional coconut
growing tracts in the country. Coconut jaggery is made
from sweet coconut toddy. It is manufactured by a few
units in Lakshadweep, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala on
cottage scale and is available in different packings.
Toddy on fermentation becomes an alcoholic drink. Arrack
and vinegar are also manufactured from coconut toddy.
In Goa commercial arrack obtained by distillation of
coconut toddy is known as coconut fenny.
Shell charcoal, shell based activated carbon, shell
powder, shell handicrafts, shell ice cream cups and
bear glasses, ladles, forks, show pieces, shell buttons,
etc. are the shell based products available in the country.
Coconut Wood based Products
The coconut wood because of its distinct grain characteristics
is ideal for making wall panels, furniture, doors and
windows, show pieces, etc. There are several small scale
units manufacturing a variety of articles from coconut
Coconut leaves are plaited and used for thatching houses
and sheds in rural areas. It is also used for thatching
'honeymoon huts' and such huts in town and cities. Technology
is available with Regional Research Laboratory, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala for extending the life of leaf thatch from one
year to four years. Plaited coconut leaves are also
used for making baskets, headgears and for erection
of temporary fences. Plaiting of coconut leaves is a
cottage industry in traditional coconut growing states.
Midribs of leaves are used to make brooms of different
types, which are used for cleaning rough grounds and
floors. Brooms of midribs of coconut leaves are manufactured
on a commercial scale in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Coir pith a waste product obtained during the extraction
of coir fibre from husk is very light, highly compressible
and highly hygroscopic. It is used as a soil conditioner,
surface mulch/rooting medium and desiccant. Composted
coir pith is excellent organic manure for indoor plants
as well as for horticulture crops. Several firms are
manufacturing composted coir pith in the country. Compressed
coir pith in the form of briquettes for easy transportation
is also manufactured in the country.
storage of copra
obtained from commonly cultivated varieties / cultivars
is attacked by various insect pests in store. Among
these ham beetle, Necrobia rufipes and saw toothed grain
beetle, Oryzaphilus surinamensis are of major importance,
which can cause more than 15% loss to copra when stored
for more than six months.
Following precautions are to be taken for the safe storage
of copra for more than three months:
(1) Dry the produce to four per cent moisture content.
(2) Avoid heap storage, which causes maximum damage.
(3) Store copra in netted polythene bags or gunny bags.