of Nevada, Reno
Understanding what effects the media has on individuals and society
has been of interest to researchers for decades. Our understanding of
media effects has gone through three primary phases:
Powerful Effects -- 1920s to
- Researchers believed that the media (movies
and radio) had very immediate and direct impacts on its
- Harold Lasswell studied World War II
propaganda and concluded that the media could be used to change
behavior: convince soldiers of their duty, get housewives to
change food habits, improve morale of new recruits.
- Assumes that the audience is passive and
uncritical. Based more on anectodal evidence than on empirical
- Sometimes called the hypodermic needle or
Minimalist Effects Theory --
1940s to 1960s (approx.)
- People appear to be far
more influenced by friends and acquaintances than by the media.
Paul Lazarsfeld conducted two massive studies of voter behavior
and opinion during an election, concluding that the media had very
little direct effect on voters choices.
- Audiences are stubborn and
insulate themselves against contradictory messages.
- Maxwell McCombs and Don
Shaw developed a theory of agenda-setting, explaining that the
media do not tell people what to think, but what to think
- Narcotizing dysfunction --
Some researchers believe that the media causes people to withdraw
and become passive.
Cumulative Effects Theory --
1960s to present
- The media can have both powerful and
limited effects on an audience, depending on situational
- Mass media is a socializing influence that
impacts the development of attitudes, beliefs and values.
- Mass media is more influential during
periods of unrest, when people are uncertain.
- Mass media is more influential on some
personalities than on others.
- Spiral of silence (Noelle-Neumann, 1984) --
People make judgments about which side is ahead and gaining
support on controversial issues. The "losing side" stops voicing
opinions, starting a spiral of silence, which ultimately affects
change of opinion and behavior.
Uses and Gratifications
- Explores why people use the media: for
surveillance, for socialization, for diversion.
- Consistency theory says that people tend to
watch and read what they agree with.
For more information, see Vivian, Chapter 15,
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