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Managing Deer in the Countryside
N O T E
O F F O R E S T R E S E A R C H J U L Y 1 9 9 9
P R A C T I C E
B Y B R E N D A M A Y L E
Six species of deer live wild in Britain today with a total population of around one million. Most species are increasing in numbers and range, notably in lowland regions. Deer live mainly in woodland but use farmland and gardens, and red deer have adapted to live on moorlands. Deer are an important part of our wildlife, and are attractive animals which people enjoy seeing in our countryside. However, they must be managed to keep them in balance with their habitat and prevent serious damage to woodlands, trees, crops, gardens and other wildlife. This Note is mainly for people who are not familiar with deer or their management but own or manage woods, farmland, nature reserves, parks or gardens where deer may live now or colonise in the future. It provides information on: • identifying whether there are deer present and of which species • deciding whether deer are causing damage • ways in which deer problems can be prevented • knowing where to go for more advice. The focus is mainly on lowland regions, particularly in England and Wales, but the principles can be applied elsewhere.
Roe deer browsing on young spruce trees.
Woodland clearance and over-hunting reduced deer in historic times but during the 20th century our native deer species have re-colonised both ancient and new woodlands over much of their former range. Man exterminated wolves and other animals which once helped to control deer numbers naturally and has also introduced four species (fallow, sika, muntjac and chinese water deer) three of which are now spreading rapidly. For these reasons deer and their habitats need to be managed to prevent problems. The following information can be used to identify which deer species are present on a piece of land now or might be expected to colonise in the future.
THE NEED TO MANAGE DEER
Too many deer can lead to: • • • • damage to trees, woodland flora and wildlife habitats damage to farm crops and gardens more traffic accidents poor health for the deer themselves if their numbers are greater than the habitat can support.
Fallow bucks at woodland edge.
sometimes arable crops HABITS: STATUS: Spreading. acorns and mast • Groups or herds. often shelter in woods and feed on fields • Damage to farm crops. e.g. frays to 80 cm One fawn each year Introduced by the Normans to parks and estates from France BREEDING: ORIGIN: BREEDING: ORIGIN: DIET: Herbs. woody browse. within Midlands and into Wales STATUS: Spreading in some areas.Roe deer 1 metre Fallow deer 1 metre winter summer winter summer HEIGHT: Up to 75 cm at shoulder Browses to 1. Midlands & East Anglia Droppings and tracks (slots) are illustrated at half natural size.1 m. 2 Deer illustrations: Neil McReddie .g. woody browse. frays to 50 cm One or two kids each year Native HEIGHT: Up to 1 m at shoulder Browses to 1. crops DIET: Grass. bramble. herbs. crops.8 m. e. woodland shrubs and ground flora can be locally severe HABITS: • Solitary or in small groups in woodland • Sometimes feeds in fields • Often damages trees. grass.
heather. crops.1 m.8 m One calf each year. nuts and fruits. coppice shoots. 1–2 fawns each year Introduced to Bedfordshire in early 1900s from China HEIGHT: Up to 1. DIET: Grass. 3 Deer illustrations: Neil McReddie . farm crops.8 m.Muntjac deer Red deer 1 metre 1 metre winter summer winter summer HEIGHT: Up to 50 cm at shoulder Browses to 1. • Damages trees. Hybridises with sika deer Native BREEDING: ORIGIN: BREEDING: ORIGIN: DIET: Bramble. Yorkshire and the south-west Droppings and tracks (slots) are illustrated at half natural size. frays to 1. frays to 40 cm All year round.2 m at shoulder Browses to 1. herbs. woodland shrubs and ground flora. in dense woodland cover • Often feeds in gardens. flowers • Solitary. trees and shrubs HABITS: HABITS: • Groups (herds on moorland) • Ranges widely and can cause serious damage to trees. woodlands and farm crops STATUS: Spreading fast in England and into Wales STATUS: Spreading in East Anglia.
4 Deer illustrations: Neil McReddie . heather. Hybridises with red deer Introduced to deer parks from Japan during 1860s HEIGHT: Up to 60 cm at shoulder Browses to 90 cm Two or three fawns each year Introduced to Woburn in early 1900s from China BREEDING: ORIGIN: BREEDING: ORIGIN: DIET: Grass.6 m One calf each year. crops HABITS: • Groups in dense woodland with mixed fields or glades • Can cause serious damage to woodlands and sometimes crops HABITS: • Solitary in wet woods and reed beds next to fields • Damage to trees. shrubs and crops is slight • Males have tusks. not antlers STATUS: Spreading fast. bramble. trees.Sika deer 1 metre Chinese water deer 1 metre summer winter summer winter HEIGHT: Up to 85 cm at shoulder Browses to 1.8 m. frays to 1. Bedfordshire and Northants Droppings and tracks (slots) are illustrated at half natural size. especially in Scotland STATUS: Slow spread to East Anglia. sedges. shrubs and herbs DIET: Grass. herbs.
willow. especially cherry. This may damage the bark or even kill the tree. Squirrels. lodgepole pine. Similar damage by domestic stock leaves diagonal teeth marks. The height of browsing helps to identify which deer species is responsible1. muntjac with their tusks. rabbits and voles also remove bark but their teeth marks are much narrower. Tree fraying Male deer mark their territories and clean the velvet off their newly-grown antlers by rubbing or fraying them on young. ash. a clean. Muntjac damage coppice shoots by nipping through the stem about 1 metre from the ground so that it bends over (as in the photograph). Browsing damage by roe and red deer. (See pages 2–4. and beech are favoured. sika and mature muntjac deer usually do this in the autumn. A ragged end to a shoot suggests deer or sheep. Bark stripping by sheep. willow. ash.) Bark stripping Red. As deer have no upper incisor teeth they leave broad teeth marks running up the peeled stem with torn or broken bark hanging at the top. Bark stripping by deer. Smoothbarked species such as Norway spruce. they will walk over the top of a bendy stem running it through their mouth to remove the leaves. angled cut is produced by hares or rabbits. fallow.RECOGNISING DEER DAMAGE Browsing All species of deer eat tender tree and plant shoots and leaves. Most trees are eaten but broadleaves. fallow with their antlers. Fallow and muntjac both fray treeshelters. Roe usually fray in spring or summer whereas red. to reach tasty foliage at the ends of coppice stems above their browse height. whippy trees. Courtesy of Arnold Cooke 5 . hazel and rowan are strongly preferred. sika and fallow deer will peel and eat bark. Coppice stems broken by muntjac deer. Alternatively. larch.
soft fruit and flowering plants are very attractive food for deer. particularly muntjac. kale and high value crops such as turnips. Fallow deer fraying of treeshelter. 6 Courtesy of Fred Currie Courtesy of Arnold Cooke . This field of rape has been heavily grazed by muntjac deer. Some deer. Low densities may be beneficial. Roses are particularly favoured by roe and muntjac. Farm crops A few deer grazing on cereals or grassland do little damage to the final crop. Ripening corn may be eaten or trampled down by deer which often lie up in it by day. However. Gardens and orchards Courtesy of Nigel Straw Gardeners. market gardeners and commercial fruit growers may experience expensive damage. large numbers of deer can cause damage.Effect of muntjac feeding on bluebells (above. deer browsing helps to control dense shrubs and brambles and their selective feeding creates a mosaic of vegetation. feed selectively on important woodland flowers such as oxlips (above). left of fence) and oxlips (below). Woodland flora and wildlife habitat Deer can influence the variety of wildlife in woodlands and other habitats by altering structural and plant species diversity. as vegetables. Velvet still attached. and are often feeding on weeds or herbs within the crop. especially to rape. particularly in the presence of domestic stock. Roe deer fraying of young spruce tree. carrots and beans. providing niches for a variety of wildlife. regeneration and destroy the shrub layer (especially freshly cut coppice) and flowering plants. prevent woodland Roses browsed by roe deer. High densities.
a. 7 . b. Rabbit and hare droppings are much more rounded and fibrous than those of deer. between two and six suggests medium density and above six suggests high density. a. a deer fence or a 2 m wall) the number of deer pathways crossing a measured (paced) woodland perimeter should be counted. plus little if any bramble or woody foliage and few regenerating seedlings. b. Counts of deer droppings can be used to provide an index of deer presence and to indicate favoured areas. The size and shape of pellets varies between species and with sex. Rabbit and hare droppings* are more rounded and fibrous than those of deer. c. Where there is no effective barrier to deer (such as a dense hedge plus stock fence.5–1. but not above this height. Deer/sheep browsing. Fresh deer pellets.and ageclass of the animal although there is some overlap between similar sized deer. Rabbits and hares leave diagonal cuts and the shoots are often left lying. With experience it is possible to identify the deer species present merely from their droppings. If you can see for some distance into a wood at 0. These tend to be more pointed at the front than sheep slots which are generally broader and more rectangular.5 m from the ground. cylindrical or almost spherical and often have a small point at one end. Browse line along woodland ride edge (indicated by arrows) and a clear view into the woodland suggests high deer numbers. Rabbit/hare browsing. c. and deer slots can often be seen where there is little ground vegetation present. sheep droppings* tend to be less cylindrical and more angled in shape. with rounded tips. *Droppings and tracks (slots) are illustrated at half natural size. Where the average number of pathways per 100 m is below two the deer density is probably low.S I G N S : C O M PA R I S O N W I T H OTHER ANIMALS Droppings Deer droppings (or pellets) tend to be short. with rounded tips. This. Sheep slots* are broader and more rectangular than those of deer. a. They have a smooth surface compared with rabbit and hare pellets and when fresh are usually black and covered in a thin layer of shiny mucus which quickly dries. indicates that deer densities are high. Pathways Deer use regular routes or pathways when leaving or entering a woodland. b. The number of deer pathways crossing a woodland boundary can be used to provide an index of deer presence. Browsing Deer browsing leaves ragged ends and the shoots are always eaten. then a clear ‘browse line’ is present. whilst sheep droppings tend to be less cylindrical and more angled in shape.
humane culling of deer over reasonably large areas to reduce and then maintain numbers at an acceptable level. Sometimes protective measures such as fencing may be enough to prevent problems in the short term. They protect wildlife habitats. It may be desirable to prevent the spread of deer into new areas. On existing fences the fly wires should be removed and a top rail added at regular deer crossing places or ‘hot spots’. Deer can jump over the standard agricultural stock mesh fence topped with one or more plain or barbed line wires (fly wires). •Co-operation amongst neighbouring landowners is important to achieve effective management. can lead to damage problems and large fluctuations in the deer population.design and management of the habitat. This problem can be avoided on new fences by using a wider mesh where the additional height is required. which fly into them. Vulnerable crops such as carrots. As muntjac will always try to push under a fence netting should be lapped 150 mm on the ground and pegged or turfed as for rabbit fencing. • Prevention of deer problems should be the aim. and sunny glades will be used for resting. planted next to a wood are also more likely to be damaged. Without appropriate management the problems associated with too many deer will also spread. from heavy browsing and grazing by deer. In larger woodlands sudden large habitat changes. MANAGEMENT METHODS Design of the habitat The design of any new woodland should consider the risk of damage and the future need to cull deer safely and efficiently. for gardens. such as felling a large part of the wood at once. In upland areas fences can sometimes be a danger to grouse. but usually a combination of approaches will be needed. Fallow and roe deer appear particularly prone to this during late spring when heavily pregnant does attempt to return to their woodland shelter after feeding on fields. Local advice should be sought. . Planning for the arrival and management of deer in new woodlands is important. The current rate of range expansion suggests that deer will eventually spread into all areas of lowland England and Wales with suitable habitat. Line-wire fences are not deer-proof. particularly if favoured tree species are planted (see Browsing). but occasionally they may drop a hind leg which becomes entangled. Where a good spread of tree ages is maintained throughout the wood the deer population will fluctuate less. .Deer pathway through hedge. New planting next to mature woodland will be at greater risk. as well as trees. especially woodlands.g. Slot marks will often be visible in the bare soil. Deer pay no heed to ownership boundaries and can range over wide areas. or to ‘restrict’ the colonisation of native species to former ranges. Such areas should be left unplanted with access routes for stalking. Fences must be higher than for stock or rabbits. fallow and sika deer. crops or gardens. The use of barbed wire on woodland boundary fences should be avoided where deer are present. • Management of deer problems requires a combination of three approaches: . In woodland areas of less than 8 .physical protection of vulnerable areas or individual trees. These can be used to protect young trees. and with a mesh size sufficiently small to stop them jumping through (see Table 1)2. Permanent fencing3 is recommended where protection is required for 10–15 years. especially red. Wide sunny rides with willow and rowan along the edges will attract deer. Protection Mesh fences DEER MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES • Management should aim to maintain healthy deer populations in balance with their environment. e.
50 per metre for materials compared to £3–5 for permanent fencing) and are also suitable for use as temporary and reusable fences2. New lightweight materials including high tensile plastic netting.8 *Although muntjac cannot pass through 100x100 mm mesh. fallow and muntjac are generally undeterred by them.5 ha areas >2. Unprotected coppice stools (arrowed) are heavily browsed.75–1. Electric fences These are commonly used for stock fencing by farmers but are much less effective against deer. rabbits and hares but plastic spiral guards are ineffective against deer. recycled plastic posts and metal box strainers and intermediate posts have reduced the costs of fencing (£0. Plastic netting tree guards and treeshelters4.5 ha Fallow Red and sika 75x75* 200x150 200x150 220x200 220x300 Height (m) 1.5 These protect young trees against deer. about 2–3 hectares individual guards or treeshelters are cheaper. Roe. The maximum individual area of woodland fenced should be no more than 10–15 ha.5 1.Figure 1 Planning new woodlands to allow good deer management High seats Field Deer fence optional.5 1. are fenced in. Whole woods should not be fenced. but these will not protect ground flora and shrubby vegetation. males may pass their head through and then be unable to withdraw due to antlers snagging. The larger the fenced area the more difficult it will be to ensure that no deer. particularly roe or muntjac. It is essential to use a strong stake and the correct height for 9 .5 1. Although they may provide short-term protection they need regular checking making low cost. temporary mesh fencing a better alternative. First season’s coppice growth protected with temporary/reusable fencing. use until woodland is sufficiently mature Woodland Open space Glade 100m Stalking ride: varied orientation average 20m wide Deer feeding (stock excluded) Stalking path Stock fence Stream Table 1 Maximum mesh size and minimum height for deer fencing2 Mesh size (mm) Muntjac Roe areas <2.2 1. New coppice shoots should be beyond browse height in 3 years in lowland woods.
Culling must be carried C O . etc. This shelter is too short. sexes and countries.out safely. 10 . poor quality coppice stems. There may already be a DMG in your area for you to join. Deer deterrents6 Some substances sold as deterrents to browsing deer provide temporary protection to small numbers of trees or garden plants. The sapling has been severely browsed by fallow deer. BASC. Several bodies give training and award certificates to stalkers.8 m for red. The use of ultrasound has not been shown to be effective in trials. It is important for local landowners and managers to cooperate to share information. Culling should concentrate on mature females to control populations. In England and Wales tenants rights are more variable. Ask your local Forestry Commission office. If you own or occupy land but have little or no experience of deer. Piling brushwood onto coppice stumps is not effective and causes forked. tenants should check their leases. Legal close seasons when deer may not normally be shot vary between species. an acceptable deer population is that which the area can sustain without unacceptable damage to local interests. Local offices of the Forestry Commission.O P E R AT I N G W I T H NEIGHBOURS A co-operative approach to local deer management is vital for success. the British Deer Society (BDS) and the British Association for Shooting and Conservation (BASC) may be able to advise you of qualified stalkers in your area. legally and humanely. 1. the British Deer Society. Who can carry out deer culling? Landowners normally have rights to shoot wild deer on their land. together with other local land-using interests affected by deer. discuss objectives and organise deer management. In Scotland tenants have the right to shoot deer which are causing damage to enclosed woodlands. Brushwood hedges Hedges made of cut branches can be effective against the larger deer species for up to 18 months in small areas of newly cut coppice. Guards give longer protection against fraying than most treeshelters. it is best to seek expert advice and help with culling and deer management. There are strict laws covering deer shooting and the use of firearms.2m for roe. Where serious damage occurs expert advice should be sought. Co-operation may be achieved by setting up a Deer Management Group (DMG) with an informal constitution. Agricultural Development and Advisory Service (in England and Wales). The benefits include: • co-ordination of effort and information • management across the whole range of a deer population • sharing of costs and specialist expertise • more effective marketing of deer carcasses (venison). Those who hold the shooting rights. As brushwood fences are laborious to erect costs are similar to those for lightweight reusable fences. should form the Group and agree its policy. the largest deer species present: 1.. the Deer Commission for Scotland. the laws in Scotland are different from those in England and Wales. Advisers and stalkers can be engaged to monitor deer populations and damage and to carry out culling to a high standard. Competent trained stalkers are essential especially in highly populated areas. They are ineffective against muntjac which generally push through the bottom. To prevent a deer population from increasing. muntjac and water deer. fallow and sika. crops or grassland. or in Scotland. Deer culling Culling together with good design and protection measures will normally be needed. around 20–25% of the adults would need to be shot each year. There is no single recommended population level to aim for. and seek advice. They need to be renewed regularly and are not suitable for large-scale use.
• The British Deer Society Burgate Manor Fordingbridge Hampshire SP6 1EF Tel: 01425 655434 Fax: 01425 655433 • British Association for Shooting and Conservation Marford Mill Rossett Wrexham Clwyd LL12 0HL Tel: 01244 573000 Fax: 01244 573001 11 . including Deer Management Groups.ADVICE Other sources of advice are: In England & Wales • Agricultural Development & Advisory Service MAFF 157-197 Buckingham Palace Road Victoria London SW1W 9SP Tel: 0207 798 7359 Fax: 0207 798 7085 • English Nature Northminster House Northminster Road Peterborough Cambridgeshire PE1 1UA Tel: 01733 455000 Fax: 01733 568834 • Countryside Council for Wales Plas Penrhos Penrhos Road Bangor Gwynedd LL57 2LQ Tel: 01248 370444 Fax: 01248 355782 • Chairman The Deer Initiative Forestry Commission National Office for England Great Eastern House Tenison Road Cambridge CB1 2DU Tel: 01223 314546 Fax: 01223 460699 • Chairman The Deer Initiative Forestry Commission National Office for Wales Victoria Terrace Aberystwyth Ceredigion SY23 2DQ Tel: 01970 625866 Fax: 01970 626177 In Scotland • Deer Commission for Scotland (DCS) Knowsley 82 Fairfield Road Inverness IV3 5LH Tel: 01463 231751 Fax: 01463 712931 • Association of Deer Management Groups (contact via DCS as above) • Scottish Natural Heritage (for advice on nature conservation matters) 2/5 Anderson Place Edinburgh EH6 5MP Tel: 0131 554 9797 Fax: 0131 446 2405 Throughout Britain The following organisations will give you advice on deer management.
(1987) Plastic mesh tree guards. H. Edinburgh. (1992) Forest fencing. 4. Edinburgh. J. (1996) Application of the chemical repellant Aaprotect to prevent winter browsing. PEPPER. Forestry Commission Practice Note 3. Forestry Commission Bulletin 102. Forestry Commission Research Information Note 289. W. (1998) The prevention of mammal damage to trees in woodland. H. Forestry Commission Handbook 7. HODGE. HMSO. Forestry Commission Information Note (In prep). 6. HMSO. Forestry Commission. PEPPER. Enquiries relating to this publication should be addressed to: Brenda Mayle Forest Research Alice Holt Lodge Wrecclesham Farnham Surrey GU10 4LH Tel: 01420 22255 Fax: 01420 23653 E-mail: b. PEPPER. and HEMMINGS. H. Arboriculture Research Note 5. Edinburgh 2. H. (1991) Treeshelters. W. 3. 5. roe and muntjac – and proposals for temporary and reusable fencing. London. Forestry Commission. and PEPPER. H. S. NEIL D. POTTER. Surrey. M.uk FPD9/34-IH(ECD)-HNP/7. Arboricultural Advisory and Information Service. Forestry Commission.mayle@forestry. J.gov. London..REFERENCES 1.5K-JUL99 Photographs: FOREST RESEARCH photo library 01420 22255 & FOREST LIFE picture library 0131 334 0303 © CROWN COPYRIGHT ISSN 1460-3810 ISBN 0-85538-501-4 12 . PEPPER. (1999) Deer fencing: new recommendations for fallow. W. Farnham.