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The history of qigong,
the Chinese practice of aligning breath, movement, and awareness for
exercise, healing, and martial arts training, extends back more than
4,000 years. Contemporary qigong is a complex accretion of the
ancient Chinese meditative practice xing qi (行氣)
or "circulating qi" and the gymnastic breathing exercise
tao yin (導引)
or "guiding and pulling", with roots in the I
Ching and occult arts; philosophical
traditions of Confucianism,
Chinese medicine and martial
arts; along with influences of contemporary concepts of health,
and ancient history
Archeological evidence suggests that the first forms of qigong can be
linked to ancient shamanic meditative practice and gymnastic
For example, a nearly 7000 year old Neolithic vessel depicts a
priest-shaman (wu xi 巫覡)
in the essential posture of meditative practice and gymnastic
exercise of early qigong. Shamanic rituals and ideas eventually
evolved and formalized into Taoist beliefs and were incorporated into
the field of traditional Chinese medicine.
Roots in traditional medicine, philosophy, and martial arts
According to the traditional Chinese medical community, the origin of
qigong is commonly attributed to the legendary Yellow
Emperor (2696–2598 BCE)
and the classic Huangdi
Neijing book of internal medicine.
Chinese scholars acknowledge
("Confucius", 551–479 BCE) and Mèngzǐ
("Mencius", 385–302 BCE) as the founders of the
Scholar qigong tradition. In their writings, they alluded to the
concepts of qi training as methods of moral training.
In the Taoist tradition, the writings of Lǎozǐ
("Lao Tzu", ca. 400 BCE) and Zhuāngzǐ;
("Chuang Tzu", ca. 300 BCE) both describe meditative
cultivation and physical exercises as means to extend one's lifespan,
and to access higher realms of existence.
The Taoist inner alchemical cultivation around the Song Dynasty
Sung Ch'ao; IPA: [
sʊ̂ŋ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯ ])
between 960 and 1279, continued those Taoist traditions.
Silk Texts (168 BCE) shows a series of Tao
exercises that bears physical resemblance to some of the health
exercises being practiced today.
Buddhism, originating in India
and having its source in the Hindu
culture, developed an extensive system of meditation and physical
cultivation similar to yoga to help the practitioner achieve
enlightenment, awakening one to one's true self. When Buddhism was
transmitted to China, some of those practices were assimilated and
eventually modified by the indigenous culture.
The resulting transformation was the start of the Chinese Buddhist
qigong tradition. Chinese Buddhist practice reaches a climax with the
emergence of Chán
Buddhism in the 7th century AD. Meditative practice was emphasized
and a series of qigong exercises known as the Yijin
Jing ("Muscle/Tendon Change Classic") was attributed to
The Chinese martial arts community eventually identify this Yijing
Jing as one of the secret training methods in Shaolin
Chinese martial arts practitioners, influenced by all the different
elements within Chinese society, adapted and modified qigong theory
with the goal of improving their fighting abilities.
Many Chinese martial arts paid homage to Taoism or Buddhism by
claiming them as their original source. For example, Tai chi chuan is
often described as being Taoist in origin.
Shaolin martial arts is named after the famous Buddhist Shaolin
exchange of ideas between those different segments within Chinese
society created rich, complex, and sometimes contradictory theory and
methods of training. The difficulty in determining the correct
training method, the traditional master-student method of
transmission, and the belief that qigong represents a special and
valuable knowledge limited the research and development of qigong to
small but elite elements within Chinese society. Specialized texts
were available, but were secretive and cryptic, and therefore limited
to a selective few.
For the general population, qigong practice was a component of
traditional Chinese medicine. This medical system was developed based
on experience, along with philosophical and folk practices.
Starting in the 16th century, the nature and values of Chinese
society changed radically, with the arrival and dissemination of
Western ideas, technology, and culture.
In the declining period of the Qing
dynasty (1644–1912), the entire Chinese philosophy and
culture was re-examined. Chinese medicine, as part of the Chinese
tradition, was re-evaluated in response to the perceived
effectiveness of Western medicine.
The conflict between Eastern and Western approaches reached a crisis
point at the beginning of the Republican period. Larger segments
within Chinese society began to openly challenge traditional Chinese
philosophies such as Confucianism and Taoism and advocated the
wholesale adoption of Western principles. In response, many
nationalists countered by pointing out the limitation of Western
society and the success of Chinese ideas such as TCM and qigong. This
resulted in many publications promoting Chinese cultural practices,
with introduction of qigong to the general population.
Thus conflicting worldviews shaped the development of qigong.
During the turmoil of the fall of the Qing Dynasty and through to
Period (1912–49), Chinese society was fighting for its own
survival and there was little attention on the development of qigong.
in the communist era
Concerted efforts to re-establish Chinese culture under a new
ideology began after the creation of the People’s
Republic of China in 1945. The new ruling government under the
leadership of Mao
Zedong rejected all ties to traditional Chinese philosophies such
as Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Instead, the Chinese
government promoted a socialist
view. Through a series of government directed programs that lasted
for nearly three decades (1949–1976), the entire fabric of
Chinese society was torn apart and reorganized. It was in this
environment that the current attitude toward qigong was born in
Mao Zedong himself recognized the conflicting aims between the
rejection of feudalistic
ideas of the past and the benefits derived from those ideas.
Traditional Chinese medicine was a clear example of this conflict.
His solution can be summarized by his famous phrase “Chinese
medicine is a great treasure house! We must make efforts to uncover
it and raise its standards!”, which legitimized the practice of
traditional Chinese medicine and created an impetus to develop a
stronger scientific basis.
The subject of qigong underwent a similar process of transformation.
The historical elements of qigong were stripped to create a more
scientific basis for the practice.
In the early 1950s, Liu
(1920–83), a doctor by training, used his family’s method
of body cultivation to successfully cure himself of various
He then promoted his method to his patients and eventually published
a book, Qi Gong liaofa shiyan (氣功療法實驗)
to promote his successes. His efforts to re-define qigong without a
religious or philosophical context proved to be acceptable to the
The popularity and success of Liu’s book and the government’s
strong support for Traditional Chinese medicine resulted in the
formation of Qigong department within Universities and hospitals that
practiced Traditional Chinese medicine. As a result, the first
institutional support for qigong was established across China, but
this practice remained under tight control and had limited access by
the general public.
Qigong in the era of reconstruction
In the late 1970s, with the fall of the Gang
of Four and the start Era
of Reconstruction, there was a new openness in Chinese society.
The practice of qigong spread from an institutional setting to a
popular movement led by charismatic promoters. Guo
a Beijing artist who claimed to have cured herself of uterine cancer
in the 1960s, was one of the first qigong masters to teach qigong
openly to the general public outside an institutional setting.
Scientists, free from the repression of the Cultural Revolution, were
able to seek new challenges. Among the new subjects of inquiry, they
studied the effects of qigong and provided scientific foundations for
qigong practice. In 1979, Gu Hansen of the Shanghai Institute of
Atomic Research first reported on the external measurement of qi.
This research proved to be critical in promoting the notion of a
scientific basis for qigong. Other reports of external evidence of qi
quickly followed. Other forms of measurements, personal testimonies
on the effectiveness of qigong treatment and demonstration of the
uses of qigong found in the martial arts were used to illustrate the
practical realities of the qigong.
In the early 1980s, the enthusiasm for this new external qi paradigm
eventually led to the use of qi as an explanation for paranormal
abilities such as Extrasensory
perception (ESP) and psychokinesis.
The increasingly exaggerated claims of qigong practice prompted some
elements within the Chinese government to warn of the dangers of this
paranormal craze and the prevalence of pseudoscientific beliefs.
Leading public figures Qian
eminent scientist and founder of Chinese Rocketry, and Zhang
a former general, rushed to defend qigong practice. They championed
the view that qigong was a new science of the mind. A compromise on
the support of qigong activities was eventually reached by various
factions within the Chinese government. Qigong activity was to be
regulated, with the establishment of the China Qigong Scientific
Research Association under the leadership of Zhang Zhenhuan. Overt
criticism of the paranormal research was to be muted.
By the middle of the 1980s, there were more than 2000 qigong
organizations and between 60 and 200 million practitioners across
China, almost one fifth of the Chinese population. This growth was
fueled by the tacit support of small elements within the Chinese
government, reduced criticism of qigong practice, pent-up demand
within Chinese society for alternative belief systems, and improved
methods of communication that resulted in mass adaptation of qigong
practice, in what has been termed "qigong
By the end of the 1980s, qigong practices could be found within all
segments of Chinese society.
By the end of the 1990s, the explosive growth in the number of qigong
practitioners had led to the revival of the old traditions that
accompanied qigong development. Qigong organizations such as Falun
Gong re-introduced moral and religious elements associated with
their training methods. Such practices eventually led to direct
conflict with the central authorities. By 1999, there was a
systematic crackdown on qigong organizations that were perceived to
challenge State control over Chinese society, including shutdown of
qigong clinics and hospitals, and banning groups such as Zhong
Gong and Falun
Since the crackdown, qigong research and practice have only been
officially supported in the context of health functions and as a
field of study within traditional Chinese medicine. The Chinese
Health Qigong Association was established in 2000 to regulate public
qigong practice, restricting the number of people that could gather
at a time, requiring state approved training and certification of
instructors, limiting practice to four standardized forms of daoyin
from the classical medical tradition, and encouraging other types of
recreation and exercise such as yoga, t'ai chi, senior disco dancing,
and exercise machines.
Spread of qigong
Migration, travel, and exploration
contributed to the spread of qigong practice beyond the Chinese
community. Western societies first encountered qigong concepts
through exposure to traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese philosophy
and the Chinese martial arts.
It was not until China opened up to the Western World with the visit
of President Nixon in 1972 and the subsequent exchanges between
China and the West that Western society became aware of qigong. The
ideas of qigong were quickly embraced by alternative therapists.
The idea of qi as a form of living energy also found a receptive
audience within the New
When the Chinese qigong community started to report cases of
paranormal activity, Western researchers in the field were also
excited by those findings.[citation
needed] Chinese findings were reviewed 
and various qigong practitioners were invited to the West to
demonstrate those results.
public’s first exposure to qigong was in the PBS series Healing
and the Mind with Bill
Moyers in 1993.
In the documentary, Moyers provided an in-depth look at alternatives
to Western medicine and introduced the audience to traditional
Chinese medicine, acupuncture, and qigong. As a result, qigong
practice spread to the general public in the US.
Historically, the effect of qigong practice has always been
subjective. It ranges from feelings of calm, peace, and well being to
cure of chronic medical conditions. Throughout history, remarkable
claims have been made about results of qigong practice. The journey
towards self-enlightenment can include descriptions of out of body
experiences and miraculous powers for both the Buddhist 
and the Taoist
For some individuals, qigong training is seen as providing a curative
function after extensive training. For martial artists, qigong
training is credited as the basis for developing extraordinary powers
such as the ability to withstand blows and the ability to break hard
In the early 1980s, the Chinese scientific community attempted to
verify the principles of qi through external measurements. Initially,
they reported great success suggesting that qi can be measured as a
form of electrical magnetic radiation. Other reports indicates that
qi can induce external effects such as changing the properties of a
liquid, clairvoyance, and telekinesis.
Those reports created great excitement within the paranormal 
and para psychological research communities.
However, those reports were severely criticized by the conventional
scientific community both within China 
and outside of China.
The main criticism from the conventional scientific establishment
about qigong research is the lack of application of the principles of
method notably the absence of scientific rigor, the small sample
sizes, the uncontrolled testing environment and lack of
In addition to those criticisms, the public acceptance of paranormal
properties arising from qigong practice contributed to social
As a result of those controversies, the emphasis on qigong
research within Mainland Chinas has changed from externally verifying
the existence of qi to focus on effects on health and as a component
of Traditional Chinese Medicine without any reference to other
aspects of traditional qigong practice.
Today, millions of people worldwide practice qigong. Similar to
its historical origin, those interested in qigong come from diverse
backgrounds and practice it for diverse reasons, including for
exercise, recreation, preventative medicine, self-healing,
self-cultivation, meditation, and martial arts training.
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