VITAMINS. Vitamins may be regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism. There are about 15 vitamins, essential for humans.
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Vitamins may be regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
Vitamin A deficiency results in growth retardation due to imperiment in skeletal formation.
Effect on Reproduction :
The reproductive system is adversely affected in Vitamin A deficiency. Degeneration of germinal epithelium leads to sterility in males.
Effect on Skin and epitelial cells :
The skins becomes rough and dry. Keratiniza
Vitamin E is absorbed along with fat in the small intestine. Bile salts are necessary for the absorption. In the liver, it is incorporated into lipoproteins (VLDL and LDL) and transported. Vitamin E is stored in adipose tissue, liver and muscle. The normal plasma level of tocopherol in less than 1 mg/dl.
Most of the functions of vitamin E are related to its antioxidant property.
Vitamin K is the only fat soluble vitamin with a specific coezyme function. It is required for the production of blood clotting factors, essential for coagulation (in German – Koagulation; hence the name k for this vitamin.
Vitamin K exists in different forms vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) is present in plants. Vitamin K2 (menaqquinone) is produced by the
All the three vitamin (k1,k2,k3) are naphthoquinone derivatives. Isoprenoid side chain is present in vitamins K1 and k2. The three vitamins are stable to heat. Their activity is, however, lost by oxidizing agents, irradiation, strong acids and alkalies.
Absorption , transport and storage
Vitamin k is taken in the diet or synthesized by the intestinal bacteria. Its absorption takes place along with fat (chylomicrons) and is dependent on bile
The functions of vitamin K are concerned with blood clotting process. It brings about the post-translational (after protein biosynthesis in the cell) modification of certain blood clotting factors. The clotting factors II (prothrombin) VII IX and X are synthesized as inactive precursors (zymogens) in the liver. Vitamin K act as a
Vitamin K is also required for the carboxylation of glutamic acid residues of
The mechanism of carboxylation is not fully understood. It is known that a 2,3 epoxide derivative of vitamin K is formed as an intermediate during the course of the reation. Dicumarol inhibits the enzymes (reductase) that converts epoxide to active Vitamin K.
Role of Gla in clotting
The –carboxyglutamic acid (Gla ) residues
Strictly speaking there is no RDA for vitamin K, since it can be adequately synthesized in the gut. It is however , recommended that half of the body requirement is provided in the diet, while the other half is met from the bacterial synthesis. Accordingly , the suggested RDA for an adult is 70-140 μg/day.
Cabbage, cauliflower , tomatoes , alfa alfa,
The deficiency of vitamin K is uncommon , since it is present in the diet in sufficient quantity and is adequately synthesized by the intestinal bacteria. However , vitamin K deficiency may occur due to its faulty absorption (lack of bile salts) loss of vitamin into feces (diarrheal diseases ) and
Deficiency of vitamin k leads to the lack of active prothrombin in the circulation. The result is that blood coagulation is adversely affected. The individual bleeds profusely even for minor injuries .The blood clotting time is increased.
Administration of large doses of vitamin K produces hemolytic anaemia and jaundice,
Antagonists of vitamin k
The compounds namely heparin, bishydroxycoumarin act as anticoagulants and are anatagonists to vitamin k. The salicylates and dicumarol are also anatagonists to vitamin K.
Dicumarol is structurally related to vitamin k and acts as a competitive inhibitor in the synthesis of active prothrombin.
The daily requirement of thiamine depends on the intake of carbohydrate. A dietary supply of 1-1.5 mg/day is recommended for adults (about 0.5 mg/1000 cals of energy). For children RDA is 0.7-1.2 mg/day. The requirement marginally increases in pregnancy an location (2 mg/day) old range and alcoholism.
Cereals, pulses, oil seed, nuts and yeast are good sources. Thiamine is mostly concentrated in the outer layer (bran) of
The deficiency of vitamin B1 results in a condition called beri-beri [ sinhalese:1 cannot said twice]. Beri – beri is mostly seen in populations consuming exclusively polished rice as staple food. The early symptoms of thiamine deficiency are loss of appetite (anorexia) weekness, constipation , nausea, mental depression, Peripheral neuropathy irritability etc. Numbness in the legs complaints of pins and needles sensation are reported.
In adults, two types of beri-beri namely
Wet Beri – Beri
This is characterized by edema of legs, face, trunk and serious cavities. Breatless and palpitation are present. The calf muscles are slightly swollen. The systolic blood pressure is elevated while diastolic is decreased. Fast and bouncing pulse is observed. The heart becomes weak and death may occur due to
This is associated with neuro-logical manifestations resulting in peripheral neutritis. Edema is not commonly seen. The muscles become progressively weak and walking becomes difficult. The affected individuals depend on support to walk and become bedridden and may even die if not treated.
This is seen in infants born to mothers suffering form thiamine deficiency. The breast milk of these mothers contain low thiamine content. Infantile beri-beri is characterized by sleeplessness, restlessness, vomiting , convulsions and bouts of screaming that resemble abdominal
Wernicke – Korsakoff syndrome
This is a disorder mostly seen in chronic alcoholics. The body demands of thiamine increase in alcoholism. Insufficient intake or impaired intestinal absorption of thiamine will lead to this syndrome. It is characterized by loss of memory, apathy and a rhythmical to and fromotion of the eye balls.
The enzyme thiaminase is present in certain seafoods. Their inclusion in the diet will destroy thiamine by a cleavage action (pyrimidine and thiazole rings are seperated) and lead to deficiency. Pyrithiamine , a structural analogue and an antimetabolite of thiamine, is found in certain plants like ferns. Horses and cattle often develop thiamine deficiency (fern poisoning) due to the
Pyrithiamine and oxythiamine are the two important antimetabolites of thiamine.
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
Riboflavin through its coenzymes takes part in a variety of cellular oxidation reduction reaction.
Riboflavin contains 6,7 dimethyl isoalloxazine (a hetercyclic 3 ring sturcture)
Riboflavin is stable to heat but sensitive to light. When exposed to ultra-violet rays of sunlight, it is converted to lumiflavin which exhibits yellow flurescenes. The substances namely lactoflavin (from milk), hepatoflavin (from liver) and ovaflavin (from eggs) which were originally thought to be different are
Coenzymes of riboflavin
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are the two coenzyme forms of riboflavin. The ribitol (5 carbon) is linked to phosphate in FMN. FAD is formed from FMN by the transfer of an AMP moiety from ATP.
The flavin coenzymes (mostly FAD and to a lesser extent FMN) participate in many redox reactions responsible for energy
Enzymes that use flavin coenzymes (FMN or FAD) are called flavoproteins. The coenzymes (prosthetic groups) often bind rather tightly, to the protein (apoenzyme)
The coenzymes FAD and FMN are associated with certain enzymes involved in carbohydrate , lipid, protein and purine metabolism , besides the electron transport chain. A few examples are listed in Table.
The daily requirement of riboflavin for an adult is 1.2-1.7 mg. Higher intakes (by 0.2-0.5 mg/day) are advised for pregnant and lactating women.
Milk and milk products, meat, eggs, liver , kidney are rich sources. Cereals , fruit, vegetables and fish are moderate sources.
Riboflavin deficiency symptoms include cheilosis (fissures at the corners of the mouth), glossitis (tongue smooth and purplish) and dermatitis.Riboflavin deficiency as such is uncommon. It is mostly seen along with other vitamin deficiences. Chronic alcoholics are suscepitible to B2 deficiency. Assay of the enzymes glutathione reductase in erythrocytes will be useful in assessing
Galactoflavin is an antimetabolite of riboflavin.
Niacin or nicotinic acid is also known as pellagra preventive (P.P) factor of Glodberg. The coenzymes of niacin (NAD+ and NADP) can be synthesized by the essential amino acid tryptophan.
Chemistry and synthesis of coenzymes
Niacin is a pyridine derivative. Structurally, it is pyridine 3-carboxylic acid. The amide form of niacin is known as niacinamide or nicotinamide.
Dietary nicotinamide niacin and tryptophan (an essential amino acid) contribute to the
The coenzymes NAD+ and NADP+ are involved in a variety of oxidation -reduction
The daily requirement of niacin for an adult is 15-20 mg and for children around 10-15 mg . Very often the term niacin equivalents (NE) is used while expressing its RDA. One NE= 1 mg niacin or 60 mg of tryptophan. Pregnancy an lacatation in women impose an additional metabolic burden and increase the niacin requirement.
The rich natural sources of niacin include
Niacin deficiency results in a condition
Dermatitis (inflammation of skin) is usually found in the areas of the skin exposed to sunlight (neck , dorsal part of feet, ankle
Pellagra is mostly seen among people whose staple diet is corn or maize. Niacin present in maize is unavailable to the body
PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
VITAMIN B6 is used to collectively represent the three compounds namely pyridoxine pyridoxal and pyridoxamine (the vitamers of B6).
Vitamin B6 compounds are pyridine derivatives. They differ from each other in the structure of a functional group attached to 4th carbon in the pyridine ring. Pyridoxine
Synthesis of coenzyme
The active form of vitamin B6 is the coenzyme pyridoxal phosphate (PLP). PLP can be synthesized from the three compounds pyridoxine , pyridoxal and
Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP), the coenzyme of vitamin B6 is found attached to the E-amino group of lysine in the enzyme. PLP is closely associated with the metabolism of amino acids. The synthesis of certain specialized products such as serotonin, histamine, niacin coenzymes from amino acids is dependent on pyridoxine.
Pyridoxine deficiency is associated with neurological symtoms such as depression, irritability, nervousness and mental confusion. Convulsions and peripheral neuropathy are observed in severe deficiency. These symptoms are related to the decreased synthesis of biogenic amines (serotonin, GABA, norepinephrine and epinephrine). In children B6 deficiency with
Decrease in hemoglobin levels, associated with hypochromic microcytic anamia, is seen in B6 deficiency. This is due to a reduction in hemo production.
Biotin (formally known as anti-egg white injury factor, vitamin B7 or vitamin H) is a sulfur containing B-complex vitamin. It directly participates as a coenzyme in the
Biotin is a hetercyclic sulfur containing monocarboxylic acid. The structure is formed by fusion of imidazole and thiophene rings with a valeric acid side chain. Biotin is convalently bound to e-amino group of lysine to form biocytin in the enzymes. Biocytin may be regarded as the coenzyme of biotin.
Biotin serves as a carrier of Co2 in carboxylation reactions. The reaction catalysed by pyruvate carboxylase, converting pyruvate to oxaloacetate has been investigated in detail.
The conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate the biotin dependent pyruvate carboxylase (described above) is essential for the synthesis of glucose from many
Acetyl coA Malonyl CoA
Acetyl CoA carboxylase
Propionyl CoA Propionyl CoA carboxylase
A daily intake of about 100-300 mg is recommended for adults. In fact, biotin is normally synthesized by the intestinal bacteria. However , to what extent the synthesized biotin contributes to the body requirements is not clearly known.
Biotin is widely distributed in both animal and plant foods. The rich sources are liver , kidney , egg yolk, milk, tomatoes grain etc.
The symptoms of biotin deficiency include anemia , loss of appetite, nausea, dermatitis, glossitis etc. Biotin deficiency may also result in depression , hallucinations, muscle pain and dermatitis.
Panthothenic acid (Greek : Pantos-everywhere) formerly known as chick anti – dermatitis factor (or filtrate factor) is widely distributed in nature. Its metabolic role as
Chemistry and synthesis of coenzyme A
Pantothenic acid consists of two compnents , pantoic acid and β- alanine, held together by a peptide linkage. Synthesis of coenzyme A from pantothenate occurs in a series of reactions.
The function of pantothenic acid are exerted through coenzyme A or CoA ( A for acetylation) . Coenzyme A is a central molecule involved in all the metabolism
Coenzyme A serves as a carrier of activated acetyl or acyl groups (as thiol esters).This is comparable with ATP which is a carrier of activated phosphoryl groups.
A few examples of enzymes involved the participation of coenzyme are given below.
α- Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
Fatty Acid Acyl CoA
Succinyl CoA is also involved in many reactions including the synthesis of porphyrins of heme.
Besides the various function through coenzyme A, pantothenic acid itself is a component of fatty acid synthase complex
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA)
The requirement of pantothenic acid for humans is not clearly known. A daily intake of about 5-10 mg is advised for adults.
Pantothenic acid is one of the most widely distributed vitamins found in plant and animals. The rich sources are egg, liver , meat , yeast , milk etc.
Pantothenic acid deficiency in experimental animals results in anemia, fatty, liver, decreased steroid synthesis etc.
Folic acids or folacin Latin folium leaf is abundantly found in green leafy vegetables. It is important for one carbon metabolism and is required for the synthesis of certain
Folic acid consists of three components pteridine ring , p-amino benzoic acid (PABA) and glutamic acid (1 to7 residues). Folic acid mostly has one glutamic acid residues and is known as pteroyl-glutamic acid (PGA).
The active form of folic acid is tetrahydrofolate (THF or FH4). It is synthesized from folic acid by the enzyme
Tetrahydrofolate (THF or FH4) the coenzyme of folic acid is actively involved in the one carbon metabolism. THF serves as an acceptor or donor of one carbon units (formly , methyl etc).in a variety of reaction involving amino acid and nucleotide metabolism.
The daily requirement of folic acid is around 200 μg. In the women, higher intakes are recommended during pregnancy (400 μg / day) and loctation (300 μg/day).
Folic acid is widely distributed in nature. The rich sources are green leafy vegetables, whole grains, cereals, liver , kidney, yeast and eggs. Milk is rather a poor source of folic acid.
Folic acid deficiency is probably the most common vitamin deficiency, observed primarily in the pregnant women, in both developed (including USA) and developing countries (including india). The pregnant women, lactating women, women on oral contraceptives, and alcoholics are also susceptible to folate deficiency. The folic acid deficiency may be due to (one or more causes) inadequate dietary intake, defective
The microcytic anemia (abnormally large RBC) associated with megaloblastic changes in bone marrow is a characteristic feature of folate deficiency.
Folic acid and hyperhomocysteinemia
Elevated plasma levels of homocysteine are associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis, thrombosis and hypertension. Hyperhomocysteinemia is mostly due to functional folate deficiency caused by impairment to form
Folic Acid antagonists
Aminopterin and amethopterin (also called as methotrexate) are structural analogues of folic acid. They competitively inhibit dihydrofolate reductase and block the
Trimethoprin ( a component of the drug septran or bactrim) and pyrimethamine (antimalarial drug) are structurally related to folic acid. They inhibit dihydrofolate reductase , and the formation of THF.