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Nutritional quality of wheat protein in adults
The revised estimate of the
lysine requirement in adults, 30 mg/kg/day, has implications for
the nutritional quality of wheat proteins. Thus, it is worth
considering this important plant protein source as a basis for
evaluating the validity of the foregoing analysis of the lysine
needs of healthy adults . The lysine content of wheat
products is summarized in table 6, together with the lysine
content of a number of FAO/WHO amino acid scoring patterns. In
addition, the usual concentration of lysine in most animal
proteins and legumes  and that for the MIT requirement
pattern are given for comparison in table 6. Therefore, if an
amino acid score ([amino acid content in the food protein/amino
acid content in the reference amino acid requirement pattern! x
100) is calculated for wheat flour, it would be greater than 100
when the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU  amino acid requirement pattern for
the adult is used as the reference pattern (table 7). This means
that the nutritional value of wheat would be equal to that of
high-quality animal protein foods, such as milk, egg, or meat
. On the other hand, for scoring purposes, the FAO/WHO/UNU 
pre-school amino acid pattern (or the FAD/WHO pattern )
predicts a relative nutritional quality of 41%, and with the MIT
pattern the score predicts a slightly higher value of 48%. In
each case, lysine is determined to be the most limiting amino
acid. These latter and lower estimates of the nutritional quality
of wheat proteins in adults are consistent with the results of
nitrogen balance experiments in healthy adults carried out at MIT
approximately twenty years ago .
TABLE 6. Lysine content of wheat flour in comparison
with other foods or amino acid requirement patterns
|Food or requirement pattern
||Lysine content (mg/g protein)
(70% 80% extraction rate) 
||85 ± 9
||65 ± 7
FAO/WHO/UNU pattern adults
schoolchildren pre-school children
TABLE: 7. Lysine content of whole wheat flour in
relation to an estimate of protein quality
|Amino acid pattern
||Amino acid score
FAO/WHO/UNU for adults 
et al. (MIT pattern) 
FAO/WHO/UNU pre-school child 
a. L = lysine first limiting
amino acid, not corrected for digestibility.
The nitrogen balance response to
graded intakes of test dietary protein in healthy adults,
expressed as relative protein value (RPV= [N balance slope with
wheat/N balance slope with reference protein] x 100), was 54 for
whole wheat protein, using beef protein as a reference. Expressed
as relative nitrogen requirement (RNR = 1/[amount of wheat
protein to achieve nitrogen balance in 97.5% of population amount
of beef protein] x 100), the response was about 56 (table 8). The
MIT amino acid requirement pattern predicted a value of 48.
Hence, it is clear that there is very good agreement between
these experimentally derived (nitrogen balance) and predicted
(from amino acid score) estimates of the nutritional quality of
whole wheat proteins. In contrast, use of the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU
adult amino acid pattern gives an invalid estimate of the
nutritional value of wheat protein, in that this pattern makes
wheat proteins nutritionally equivalent to beef proteins.
Notwithstanding the problems that are faced in attempts to
aggregate nitrogen balance data across separate studies carried
out in different laboratories or within the same laboratory on
different occasions , our observations support the conclusion
that the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU lysine requirement value of 12
mg/kg/day for the adult should be discarded. Further, they
provide additional justification for the tentative working value
of 30 mg/kg/day proposed above (or 50 mg lysine per gram of
protein), and they strengthen our recommendation that this figure
be used until additional data become available that may make any
further change in the recommendation both necessary and
TABLE 8. Biological assessment of the nutritional
quality of whole wheat proteins in young adultsa
|Measure of quality
from amino acid values
||MIT pattern 
a. Expressed in comparison with
beef protein as reference protein .
Worldwide applicability of estimates of
indispensable amino acid requirements
If it can be accepted that the
tentative new amino acid requirement values given in table 2
represent a better approximation of the minimal physiological
needs for well-nourished, healthy subjects studied largely in
North America, it is legitimate to ask whether the amino acid
requirements of individuals in developing regions, particularly
where protein and/or dietary lysine are likely to be more
limiting, are similar to or different from those given above.
Although the current international FAD/WHO/UNU  amino acid
requirement values, based largely on studies conducted in young
adult American subjects, are recommended for application
worldwide, our reassessment of the requirements for indispensable
amino acids emphasizes the need to consider this
nutritional-metabolic issue more critically than hitherto.
Unfortunately, there have not
been any relevant 13C-tracer studies in subjects outside North
America that directly explore this important practical issue.
Hence, the Global Cereal Fortification Initiative (GCFI) of
Ajinomoto Co., Inc., and Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Co., Ltd., Japan, is
now sponsoring a multicentre study designed to confirm our new
estimate of the lysine requirements of healthy adults (table 2)
and its applicability in other populations. The results to be
obtained from these studies within one or two years are expected
to give a reasonable indication of the approximate minimum lysine
needs of healthy Indian and Thai young adults, whose usual lysine
intake levels are likely to be below those of the US subjects
that we studied at MIT. This is an exciting and important
development with profound implications for international
nutritional and metabolic investigation and the value of studies
on nutritional requirements in humans.
Furthermore, there are few
relevant data that can be used to predict whether the
indispensable amino acid needs, and the lysine requirements in
particular, are similar or different among these various
population groups. Studies of obligatory nitrogen losses in US
[60-62], Chinese (Taiwan Province) , Indian , Nigerian
[65, 66], and Japanese  men reveal that they are remarkably
uniform . This implies similar OAALs and similar dietary
requirements for indispensable amino acids . This would be so
unless there were evidence that the efficiency of specific amino
acid retention differed among apparently similar subjects in the
population groups. According to FAO/WHO/UNU , nitrogen balance
studies have not revealed any striking differences in estimates
of total protein requirements, in relation to body cell mass, in
studies of well-nourished subjects in different countries.
Earlier studies suggesting that Nigerian men of low income are
adapted to low-protein diets and utilize dietary protein more
efficiently [65, 69] than, for example, US students  are not
appropriate to answer this question. Indeed, they are probably
flawed because the nitrogen balance results in the subjects
studied indicated that they were depleted and that they were
undergoing a body protein repletion response to the good diet
given during the course of the experiments. Later studies in
young Nigerian adult males  indicate that at maintenance
nitrogen intakes, the efficiency of dietary protein utilization
is essentially the same as that for caucasian and Asian subjects.
In summary, it seems rather
unlikely that there would be any major differences in the minimal
physiological requirements for lysine among groups of normal
healthy adults of different genetic, nutritional, and
environmental background. The ongoing GCFI-sponsored multicentre
studies should provide evidence to support or refute this view.
Thus, the GCFI study is potentially of great practical and
international significance, and it is the authors' hope that
there soon will be a broader appreciation for this fact by
national and multinational authorities concerned with improving
the nutritional well-being of underprivileged populations
Conclusions and implications for nutrition
policies and food programmes
Despite the economic, social, and
human dimensions of protein-energy malnutrition in large areas of
the developing world, current knowledge about the quantitative
needs both for dietary energy and for the indispensable amino
acids that are supplied by our food protein remains inadequate.
In 1973 a group of senior investigators in the United Kingdom
asked the rhetorical question "How much food does a man
require?" . Since that time, there has been a
considerable amount of research on this topic. This follow-on
effort has been facilitated by the development in a number of
countries, including the United States, of whole-body
calorimeters and by the application of the doubly labelled water
technique, which permits a non-invasive, quantitative measure of
energy expenditure in free-living individuals [72-75]. Hence, the
energy requirements of individuals of all ages, from infants [76,
77] to the elderly , are now being refined and the database
is being expanded. With reference to the requirements for
indispensable amino acids, equivalent advances in technique have
been slower to occur, and therefore their application has also
been less extensive to date, in comparison with the explosion of
studies involving use of the doubly labelled water method.
However, it is encouraging to note that the application of amino
acid kinetics and, by extension, the 13C-tracer balance method
represents one of the most important developments in recent years
with respect to the study of human amino acid requirements .
Based on these tracer-derived
data, it is our view that the new, tentative requirements for
indispensable amino acids represent the best available
approximations of the needs for these nutrients in adults. Hence,
we recommend that they be used as a rational basis for the
formulation of amino acid mixtures, or of protein sources,
intended for meeting the nutritional support of individuals in
institutional settings; the determination of the composition of
enteral products is a case in point. Furthermore, these newly
proposed values for the amino acid requirements of adults serve,
in our view, as a credible benchmark for assessing the
quantitative impact of disease and trauma on amino acid
requirements. They should aid, therefore, in the design of
parenteral nutritional formulations and, hopefully, lead to
improvements in their efficacy for supporting the nutritional and
metabolic needs of patients in a catabolic state.
Finally, as pointed out above,
the revised requirements for adults are similar to those of young
children when expressed in relation to the need for dietary
protein. On this basis, considerations of dietary protein quality
become important in reference to adult human protein as well as
in relation to the nutritional well-being of the younger age
groups. This challenges the current dogma, as reflected by
FAO/WHO/UNU , that indigestibility appears to be the most
important factor determining the capacity of the protein sources
in a usual mixed diet to meet the protein needs of adults.
However, as has been stated by Berg and Singer  in their
assessment of the historical background behind the now dominant
use of recombinant DNA technology in biology, changes in human
thought and technological developments lead to new issues that
challenge traditional ideas. We presume that the 13C-tracer techniques used by our group and
others represent another, perhaps small, advance in nutritional
investigation. We recommended that the adult amino acid
requirement values, referred to as the MIT Amino Acid Requirement
Pattern, now be used to establish the quantitative profile of the
amino acid component of an adequate diet. The new amino acid
requirement pattern should be of greater value in identifying the
nature and extent of the limiting indispensable amino acid(s) in
national and regional diets. This pattern should be of particular
assistance to those responsible for developing sound food and
nutrition policies and programmes. The pattern should also be
useful for evaluating the economic, social, and cultural merits
of dietary protein complementation, food protein supplementation,
and specific amino acid fortification, such as lysine
fortification of wheat flour, as alternative or perhaps
simultaneous approaches for improving the nutritional value of
diets based predominantly on cereals.
The authors' studies were
supported by NIH grants DK 15856, DK 42101, and RR 88, and by
SHCC grant 15847.
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