William Donald Hamilton, byname W.D. Hamilton (born August 1, 1936, Cairo, Egypt—died March 7, 2000, London, England), British naturalist and population geneticist who found solutions to two of Darwin’s outstanding problems: the evolution of altruism and the evolution of sexual reproduction. Hamilton’s work on the genetics of social behaviour inspired the sociobiology debate of the late 20th century.
Hamilton was the son of noted New Zealand civil engineer Archibald Milne Hamilton and Bettina Matraves Collier. He was born in Cairo, where his father was stationed at the time. His family later moved to Kent, England. After attending the Tonbridge School, Hamilton enrolled in the University of Cambridge. He graduated in 1960 with a degree in genetics. That same year he became a graduate student at the London School of Economics and University College, London, where he earned a Ph.D in 1968.
In 1964 Hamilton accepted a teaching position at Imperial College, London, and published “population genetics studies of social behaviour. The key concept presented in this work was inclusive fitness, a theory in which an organism’s genetic success is believed to be derived from cooperation and altruistic behaviour, as well as the consequences of social interaction. Hamilton demonstrated mathematically that it was possible for altruism to evolve as a trait as long as the benefits of altruistic acts fell on individuals that were genetically related to the donor. In other words, it would be advantageous for an animal to give an alarm call, and thus place itself in danger, to warn a group of relatives, since its relatives also carry copies of its genes. What later became known as Hamilton’s rule predicted the conditions by which one individual would likely behave altruistically toward another. The rule states that altruism can evolve in a population if the fitness cost to the donor is less than the fitness benefit to the recipient, discounted by a “coefficient of relatedness” between the two (1/2 for parent-offspring or between full siblings, 1/4 for nephews and nieces, 1/8 for first cousins, and so on).
In developing the concept of inclusive fitness, Hamilton saw himself as taking on the task of generalizing the famous fundamental theorem of natural selection of British geneticist and statistician R.A. Fisher, which was limited to individual fitness. Fisher’s theorem stated that populations displaying a range of fitness can evolve more quickly than populations in which the fitness of individuals is the same.
During the late 1970s Hamilton left Imperial College and took a position as Museum Professor at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1980 and moved back to England in 1984 to accept a position as a Royal Society research professor at Oxford. This position allowed him to pursue a broad program of theoretical and field research that combined his unusual talents as both a mathematical modeler and a knowledgeable naturalist.
In the 1980s Hamilton’s main contribution to his field was his parasite-avoidance theory of sex. His “Parasite Red Queen Theory,” which proposed that multicellular organisms use the process of genetic recombination that naturally occurs during meiosis to stanch attacks by parasites, is a modification of the Red Queen hypothesis, which suggested that evolution was an “arms race” between species. This hypothesis was initially developed by American evolutionary biologist Leigh Van Valen. With American ecologist Marlene Zuk, Hamilton also developed the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis of sexual selection, which explains the evolutionary benefit behind the female preference for healthy, parasite-free males.
Over the course of his career, Hamilton addressed other important theoretical problems, including the evolution of senescence, the reason for unequal sex ratios, cooperation between nonrelatives, host-parasite coevolution, the evolution of sexual reproduction, mate choice, and conflicts within the genetic material of an organism (or the genome). In his pursuit of answers to these questions, Hamilton inspired the theoretical work of others, such as British evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith, and opened up new fields of empirical research, such as evolutionary medicine and evolutionary psychology. He also pioneered the use of computers in biology and computer simulation as a method of research and proof. He was awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society in 1988. In 1993 he was presented with both the Crafoord Prize by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Kyoto Prize by the Inamori Foundation.