centuries following the Buddha's lifetime, His followers faithfully
preserved His teachings and spread it not only throughout India,
but also to many countries in Asia and lately even to Europe and
America. During the first five hundred years after the Buddha's
Final Nirvana, the Teaching and Discipline were not yet written
down. Instead, they were retained in the memories of the monks who
periodically assembled to recite and review them. A number of councils
were held during this period to make sure that the Buddha's teachings
were transmitted accurately.
The first council
arose out of Maha Kashyapa's concern for the future of the Dharma,
as a result of the following incident. Maha Kashyapa was proceeding
to Kushinagara at the head of a large assembly of monks when he
was informed of the Buddha's Final Nirvana. On hearing this news,
some monks were very sad, but one monk said that they should not
grieve because they were free to do as they wished, now that the
Buddha was no more with them. This remark made Maha Kashyapa uneasy.
He was concerned that the Buddha's teachings would eventually disappear
unless action was taken to preserve it.
the Buddha's body had been cremated and His relies distributed,
Maha Kashyapa, with the support of many of the senior monks, decided
to hold a council. At this council, the monks would come to an agreement
on the Teaching and Discipline that the Buddha had taught. Maha
Kashyapa presided over this first council, which was held at Rajagriha.
He began by questioning Upali on the rules governing the life of
the monastic community. Based on Upali's answers, the content of
the Discipline (Vinaya) was agreed upon. Similarly, Maha Kashyapa
questioned Ananda on the sermons taught by the Buddha. Based upon
his answers, the Teaching (Dharma) was established.
About a hundred
years after the Buddha's Final Nirvana, a second council was held
at Vaishali. The purpose of this council was to settle a disagreement
that had arisen between a group of monks and the elders of the Order.
This group of monks resented the exclusive authority of the elders
and wanted greater freedom in the application of the rules of the
Discipline. They adopted practices, which many of the elders considered
to be breaches of the rules of the Discipline. These practices included
trivial items as well as more significant ones, such as the practice
of accepting gold and silver.
to the Teaching, these dissenting monks did not agree that becoming
an Arhat was the highest attainment possible for most people. They
believed that the Arhats, who did not possess the extraordinary
qualities of the Buddha, were still fallible in many ways. According
to them, the only goal worthy of attainment was buddhahood. Moreover,
the dissenting monks felt that their views represented the original
spirit of the Buddha's teachings.
At the second
council, the practices of the dissenting monks were declared to
be unacceptable. The dissenting monks, however, refused to accept
the decision of the council and proceeded to hold their own council
elsewhere. They called themselves the "Great Community"
because they were sympathetic to the concerns of the majority of
the ordinary monks and the lay community, and had their support.
between the monks of the "Great Community" and the elders
gradually led to the appearance of two major Buddhist traditions:
Theravada (Way of the Elders) and Mahayana (the Great Way). Although
both traditions acknowledge the Buddha as their Teacher, they differ
in some of the rules of monastic discipline. They also differ in
the goal of religious practice. The Theravada tradition generally
teaches that the highest goal, which most people can aspire to,
is becoming an Arhat. The Mahayana tradition, however, teaches that
the only worthy goal for all is the attainment of buddhahood.
The third council
was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Emperor Ashoka, the
renowned Buddhist monarch of the third century B.C. The conversion
of Emperor Ashoka to Buddhism led to lavish royal patronage of Buddhist
monks and monasteries. This inevitably led to many non-Buddhists
joining the Order not because they were genuinely interested in
Buddhism but because it enjoyed royal patronage. These newcomers
tended to retain their old beliefs and practices although they now
belonged to the Buddhist Order. Therefore, the third council was
held to remove these beliefs and practices which were not part of
the Buddha's teachings.
During the course
of the council, several unorthodox beliefs were reviewed, one of
which was the belief in an independent and permanent self. These
beliefs were rejected and their exponents expelled from the Order.
The council also compiled the Buddhist teachings, which by now included
not only the Teaching and the Discipline, but also Buddhist Philosophy
and Psychology (Abhidharma).
Ashoka's Contribution to Buddhism
As a prince,
Ashoka was known for his ruthless character. When he heard that
his father was dying, he hurried to the capital and eliminated all
his rivals to the throne. Ashoka had ambitious plans to expand his
empire through military conquests. In his invasion of the neighbouring
state of Kalinga, many thousands were killed, wounded or captured.
The tremendous loss of lives in this invasion proved a turning point
in the life of Ashoka. Disenchanted with war, he decided not to
undertake any more military expeditions. He turned to religion instead
and soon became a devoted Buddhist.
to respect the value of life. He drastically reduced the number
of animals that were killed to sustain his household. While other
kings went on hunting excursions, Ashoka went on pilgrimages to
holy places. He had trees planted, wells dug and hospitals opened
not only within his own territory, but also in the lands of his
people not to harbour unwholesome thoughts like greed and anger,
but to cultivate moral values such as respect for truth, loving-kindness
and charity. He also encouraged them to be tolerant of all faiths
and to show reverence to holy men. Through his proclamations carved
on rocks and pillars, and through his missionaries, he hoped to
improve the character of people.
Buddhist missionaries to the far corners of the known world. Some
of these missionaries went southwards to Sri Lanka where they were
well received. Soon Sri Lanka became a stronghold of Buddhism.
The fourth council
was held in the first century C.E. under the patronage of Kanishka,
a powerful king who ruled in the north-western part of India. After
his conversion to Buddhism, Kanishka became interested in the Teaching
of the Buddha. Each day, he sent for a monk to instruct him in the
Teaching. However, the king was confused when each monk gave instructions
differing from the others. Finally, on the advice of a monk, he
held a council at which the various Buddhist interpretations of
the Teaching were represented and reviewed.
the council compiled commentaries on the three divisions of the
Buddhist scriptures, that is, the Teaching, the Discipline and the
Philosophy and Psychology. These commentaries gave interpretations
that were agreed upon by a majority of the monks present at the
Role of Buddhism in Later Indian Culture
more than a thousand years after the fourth council, Buddhism flourished
and enjoyed the patronage of many kings throughout India. Great
monastic universities like that of Nalanda (near Rajagriha) were
built and generations of scholars from India as well as the rest
of Asia were taught there. Magnificent Buddhist paintings, sculptures
and other monuments were created, many of which can still be seen
today, for example, at Ajanta.
period also, Buddhist scholars composed outstanding works in the
fields of Ethics, Philosophy and even Logic. Eminent scholars like
Nagarjuna and the two brothers, Asanga and Vasubhandu, made important
contributions to the philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism. As a result
of their efforts, Mahayana Buddhism gained greater popularity throughout
born in the southern part of India towards the end of the first
century CE According to legend, his parents had long wanted a son,
so they rejoiced at his birth. However, their happiness soon turned
to sorrow when a local soothsayer told them that the boy would not
live beyond the age of seven. When the boy's seventh birthday drew
near, his parents, who did not want to see him die before their
eyes, sent him on a journey accompanied by attendants. At the great
monastic university of Nalanda, Nagarjuna met a renowned Buddhist
monk. This monk advised him that he could escape from his premature
death by renouncing the family life and reciting the mantra of the
Buddha of Limitless Life (Amitayus). Nagarjuna did as he was advised
and lived to become one of the greatest philosophers Buddhism has
many books explaining the profound teaching of "Emptiness".
These works rank among the best of the philosophical writings ever
produced by man. Widely regarded as a Bodhisattva, Nagarjuna gained
great fame in India.
Later, when Buddhism reached China, Japan, Tibet and Mongolia, he
also received the reverence of Buddhists in these countries.
The two brothers,
Asanga and Vasubandhu, were well known Buddhist scholars who lived
in the fourth century CE Like Nagaduna, they contributed greatly
to Buddhist philosophy. Both wrote many books describing the role
of the mind in the origin of suffering and in the attainment of
buddhahood. Buddhists of the Mahayana tradition believe that Asanga
received instruction directly from Maitreya, the future Buddha,
and wrote down what he was taught for the benefit of others.
Buddhism became more popular, many Buddhists in India began to look
to the great Buddhas and Bodhisattvas like Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara
and Manjushri, for encouragement and inspiration. During this period,
there was an increase in the creation of images representing these
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. These images served as a reminder to the
Mahayana Buddhists of the qualities of buddhahood such as limitless
life, compassion and wisdom.
(the Diamond Way) also appeared during this period. Like Mahayana,
Vajrayana Buddhism teaches that buddhahood is attainable by all.
It differs from Mahayana, however, in some of the methods that it
uses for achieving this goal. These methods, which include meditation
upon special forms of the Buddha and the recitation of mantras,
can help one attain buddhahood more quickly.
After the thirteenth
century, Buddhism largely disappeared from India, leaving only a
few Buddhist communities in the Himalayas and in what is now Bangladesh.
It left, however, a lasting impression on Indian life and culture.
The ideas of renunciation, non-violence, karma and freedom from
rebirth as they are now found in Indian religion, owe much to Buddhist
influence. In addition, Buddhism has contributed its sense of social
justice, tolerance and democracy to Indian life. In recent years,
Buddhism has again won new followers and fresh recognition in India.
the year 246 B.C., Emperor Ashoka sent his son, Mahinda, as the
head of a mission to Sri Lanka. There, he converted the king to
Buddhism. The king supported these Buddhist missionaries and provided
facilities for them in his capital. From there, they were able to
carry on their work of spreading the Teaching of the Buddha. A great
monastery was then built near the capital. Later, Ashoka's daughter,
Sanghamitra, brought a shoot of the Bodhi tree in Buddha Gaya to
Sri Lanka. She also established an Order of Nuns in Sri Lanka. With
the help of royal patronage, Buddhism became the dominant religion
of Sri Lanka by the second century B.C. A century later, a Sri Lankan
king commissioned the compilation of a collection of the Buddhist
scriptures in written form.
In the first
centuries of the Common Era, Buddhist culture and scholarship flourished
in Sri Lanka. The fifth century saw the arrival of the famous scholar,
Buddhaghosha, from South India. He made an outstanding contribution
to the literature of the Theravada tradition.
From the earliest
period of Sri Lankan history, invasions and migrations from India
have threatened the independence of the island and have left it
with a composite population consisting of both Hindu and Buddhist
elements. Buddhism in Sri Lanka suffered setbacks during the periods
when Hindu influence was greatest. Later, during the centuries of
colonial rule under the Portuguese, Dutch and British, Buddhism
suffered further setbacks.
A movement to
revive Buddhism in Sri Lanka began in the later half of the nineteenth
century through the efforts of a learned monk named Gunananda. His
eloquent lectures on Buddhism aroused much interest. These lectures
attracted the attention of H. S. Olcott, an American, who then came
to Sri Lanka and enthusiastically supported the revival of Buddhism
there. A young Sri Lankan named Dharmapala soon aided Olcott. Both
of them travelled widely, giving lectures on Buddhism, distributing
Buddhist literature and collecting funds for Buddhist education.
Their active missionary work created widespread support for Buddhism
in Sri Lanka. By the mid-twentieth century, Buddhism was once again
as strong as it had ever been on the island. Today, as in the past,
Sri Lanka is famous as a source of inspiration to the Buddhist world.