Odisha, also called Orissa, state of India. Located in the northeastern part of the country, it is bounded by the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal to the north and northeast, by the Bay of Bengal to the east, and by the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana to the south and Chhattisgarh to the west. Before India became independent in 1947, Odisha’s capital was at Cuttack. The present capitol was subsequently built at Bhubaneshwar, in the vicinity of the city’s historic temples in the east-central coastal plains. In late 2011 the state’s name was officially changed from Orissa to Odisha. Area 60,119 square miles (155,707 square km). Pop. (2011) 41,947,358.
Relief, soils, and drainage
Odisha’s geologic formations vary considerably in both age and character. In the interior regions, extending across the stable landmass of the Indian subcontinent (a fragment of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana), are found some of the oldest rocks of Earth’s crust, while along the seaboard are deltaic alluvial deposits and ridges of windblown sand.
The state can be divided broadly into four natural divisions: the northern plateau, the Eastern Ghats, the central tract, and the coastal plains. The northern plateau (in the northern part of the state) is an extension of the forest-covered and mineral-rich Chota Nagpur plateau centred in Jharkhand. The Eastern Ghats, extending roughly parallel to the coast and rising to an elevation of about 3,600 feet (1,100 metres), are remnants of a very ancient line of hills in eastern peninsular India. The central tract comprises a series of plateaus and basins occupying the inland area to the west and north of the Eastern Ghats; the plateau areas provide scant resources, but several of the basins—notably the Kalahandi, Balangir, Hirakud, and Jharsuguda—have the soil and the irrigation facilities to support local agriculture. The coastal plains are formed of alluvial soils deposited by the many rivers flowing to the Bay of Bengal; locally the area is known as the Balasore (Baleshwar) coastal plain to the northeast, the Mahanadi River delta in the centre, and the Chilka plain to the southwest.
In addition to the Mahanadi, the main rivers are the Subarnarekha, Budhabalanga, Baitarani, Brahmani, Rushikulya, and Vamsadhara. Odisha’s saltwater Chilka Lake is one of the largest lagoons in India. Notable mountain peaks include Mahendra Giri (4,924 feet [1,501 metres]), Malayagiri (3,894 feet [1,187 metres]), and Megasini (3,822 feet [1,165 metres]).
Odisha is located in a climatic region known as tropical wet-dry (or tropical savanna). In January, the coolest month, high temperatures in Cuttack typically rise into the mid-80s F (about 30 °C) from a low in the mid-50s F (low 10s C). In May, the warmest month, temperatures usually reach the mid-90s F (mid-30s C) from a low in the low 70s F (low 20s C). The higher elevations of the hills provide some relief from the summer heat, which becomes particularly oppressive in the basins of the central tract. Average annual rainfall in the state is about 60 inches (1,500 mm), mostly occurring during the months of the southwest monsoon (June through September). The Eastern Ghats receive heavier precipitation, while the coastal area south of Chilka Lake, which is the driest region in the state, may receive less than 50 inches (1,300 mm) annually.
Plant and animal life
Odisha’s forests cover nearly one-third of the state. They are commonly classified into two categories: tropical moist deciduous and tropical dry deciduous. The first type occupies the hills, plateaus, and more-isolated areas within the northeastern part of the state, while the second is found in the southwest. From northeast to southwest, the density of forest cover generally decreases. Bamboo grows in both forest types, as do tropical hardwoods, such as teak, rosewood, and padauk.
Odisha’s woodlands are inhabited by an array of wildlife, much of which is protected in parks and sanctuaries established by the state and national governments. Notable mammals include elephants, gaurs (wild cattle), blackbucks, four-horned antelope, several types of tigers, and various species of monkeys. Peacocks are among the characteristic birds of Odisha’s forests. In the east-central coastal region, Chilka Lake is a breeding ground for many fish and waterfowl.
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Scheduled Tribes (the official government designation applied to indigenous peoples who fall outside the predominant Indian social hierarchy) and Scheduled Castes (formerly called “untouchables”; the official name for groups that occupy a low position within the caste system) together constitute some two-fifths of the population of Odisha. The tribal peoples are divided into three linguistic groups: the speakers of Munda languages of the Austroasiatic language family, the speakers of various languages of the Dravidian family, and the speakers of Oriya (or Odia), which is an Indo-Aryan language. Historically, the Santhal, Savara, and Juang peoples have been among the most prominent of the Munda speakers, while the Khond, Gond, and Oraon (Kurukh) have been the principal speakers of Dravidian languages. The Bhuiyan speak Oriya. By the early 21st century, many of the tribal peoples had adopted Oriya as their primary language. Oriya is the official language of Odisha and is spoken by most of Odisha’s nontribal population, except in some parts of the northeast, where Bengali is widely spoken.
Hindus make up the overwhelming majority of the population of Odisha. Muslims are the largest religious minority in all areas of the state except in certain administrative localities, including Sundargarh, Ganjam, Koraput, and Phulabani, where there are greater numbers of Christians. In none of the state’s districts, however, does a single minority religion claim more than a tiny fraction of the population.
The caste structure in Odisha is similar to that in other states of eastern India. Just below the highest-level Brahmans are the Karanas (the writer class), who claim Kshatriya (military) status, with the pen as their weapon rather than the sword. The Khandayats (literally, “Swordsmen”) are mostly cultivators but call themselves “Khandayat-Kshatriyas.” The tribal peoples for a long time have been undergoing the process of Hinduization, and many tribal chieftains also have claimed Kshatriya status. All castes look to Jagannatha, one of the incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu, as the centre of their religious faith. For centuries the city of Puri, known as the abode of Jagannatha, has been the only place in India where all castes eat together.
Odisha has a predominantly rural population. The irrigated rice-farming region of the coastal plains is heavily populated. Although some tribal peoples have settled in the plains, most live in the hill areas. The major cities are Bhubaneshwar, Cuttack, Brahmapur, Raurkela, Sambalpur, and Puri. All are in the coastal region except Raurkela and Sambalpur, which are in the northwestern part of the state.
Although much of the land is either unproductive or unsuitable for more than a single annual crop, about three-fifths of the working population is engaged in agriculture, and the sector accounts for roughly one-sixth of the state’s gross product. Cultivated lands occupy about one-third of the total area of the state; about three-fourths of those lands are sown with rice. Other important crops include pulses (legumes), oilseeds, vegetables, cereals (such as wheat, corn [maize], sorghum, and pearl millet), jute, sugarcane, coconuts, and spices. Low sunlight availability, modest soil quality, limited use of fertilizer, and variable volume and timing of the monsoon rains combine to give the state’s farmers generally low yields. Agricultural families sometimes supplement their income through nonagricultural pursuits, as farming does not typically provide year-round employment.
Resources and power
The mineral resources of Odisha are considerable. The state is a national leader in the production of chromite, bauxite (aluminum ore), manganese ore, graphite, and nickel ore. It is also one of the top producers of high-quality iron ore. Coal from the Talcher field near the east-central city of Dhenkanal provides the energy base for a number of the state’s large-scale industries.
Aside from its “captive power plants” (power plants that are dedicated to specific industries), the bulk of Odisha’s energy comes from hydroelectric stations. Indeed, the great Mahanadi River system has been harnessed by one of the most ambitious multiple-purpose projects on the subcontinent; the Hirakud Dam and the Machkund hydroelectric project, together with several smaller units, provide flood control, irrigation, and power to the entire lower basin. Thermal plants are a significant secondary source of power.
Most of the state’s manufacturing activities are tied to its natural resources. Large-scale mineral-based industries include steel, ferromanganese, cement, aluminum, and fertilizer production as well as nonferrous smelting. Other major industries include the manufacture of chemicals, ceramic products, and aeronautics equipment. In general, heavy and large-scale industries are concentrated in the interior regions of the state. By contrast, most of the foundries (especially for aluminum and brass), glassworks, and paper mills are located in the coastal plains, as are small-scale industries, including mills that produce cotton textiles, sugar, and rice. There is also a small but significant handicraft sector that includes a highly regarded sericulture (silk production) industry.
The service sector became the largest proportion of Odisha’s economy in terms of value in the early 21st century, and it continued to grow rapidly. Major components include banking and finance, insurance, trade, and hotel and other hospitality activities. Tourism has played a relatively small role overall, although that sector has grown in significance.
Communication facilities were undeveloped before 1947, but the merger of a number of feudatory states with what was then Orissa and the discovery of mineral resources required the construction of a network of good roads. Beginning in the mid-20th century, bold construction programs—such as the building of bridges over most of the principal rivers—were undertaken by the state government, and by the early 21st century national highways and major roads covered most regions of the state.
Odisha also is served by a number of railways. Major train stations are located in Bhubaneshwar, Puri, Baleshwar, Cuttack, Khurda Road (just southwest of Bhubaneshwar), and Brahmapur—all in the coastal plains. There is an all-weather, sheltered, deep-draft port at Paradip, at the mouth of Mahanadi River. That port has become an important departure point for the state’s exports, especially coal. An airport in Bhubaneshwar offers domestic service.
Government and society
The government of Odisha, like that of most other states and territories in India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. The head of state is the governor, appointed by the president of India. The actual administration, however, is conducted by the Council of Ministers, which is headed by a chief minister and responsible to the unicameral Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha), whose members are elected at intervals of not more than five years through universal adult suffrage. There is a high court in Cuttack; its chief justice is appointed by the president of India. Below the high court are district and sessions courts, magistrates’ courts, and various courts that handle particular types of cases.
Odisha is divided into more than a dozen districts, grouped into several revenue divisions, each under a divisional commissioner. A board of revenue is in charge of revenue administration. The district administration is conducted by a deputy commissioner, who is also the district magistrate. The districts are divided into tahsils, each having a tahsildar as its revenue officer. Tahsils comprise groups of villages, administered by panchayats (village councils), to which villagers elect their representatives. A sarpanc (elected president) heads each panchayat. The towns are administered by municipalities.
Health and welfare
At one time there was a high rate of malaria along the coastal belt, and the whole state was subject to epidemics of cholera and smallpox. The incidence of filariasis (a disease caused by the presence of filarial worms in the blood and glands), leprosy, and tuberculosis was also high. Since the mid-20th century much attention has been paid to health services, and great progress in reducing the incidence of those diseases has been achieved through various programs. Nevertheless, with the exception of cholera and smallpox, which have been brought under control, those diseases as well as sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS) and measles have remained a concern and a focus of state health initiatives. Allopathic (Western), Ayurvedic (ancient Indian), and homeopathic medical treatment is available throughout the state.
The state conducts various programs to improve and broaden educational, cultural, economic, and social opportunities for tribal peoples and other disadvantaged groups. A research and training institute in Bhubaneshwar is charged with collecting information to assist the state government in formulating plans and policies regarding tribal welfare. Other schemes, such as public education initiatives and the expansion of urban immunization and health services, aim to better the welfare of women and children.
Although the number of educational institutions in Odisha has increased considerably since the mid-20th century, the state’s literacy rate has remained below the national average, and only a small fraction of Odisha’s population is university-educated. Higher education is available, however, at several local universities (and numerous associated colleges). Of the universities, Utkal University (founded 1943) and Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology (1962), both in Bhubaneshwar, are the largest and best known. Training in allopathic, Ayurvedic, and homeopathic medicine is offered at more than a dozen government and private colleges. Odisha also has numerous pharmacy colleges and nursing schools.
Odisha has a rich artistic heritage and has produced some of the finest examples of Indian art and architecture. Among the most-notable traditions in the visual arts are mural painting, stone carving, wood carving, icon painting (known as patta), and painting on palm leaves. The state also is widely recognized for its exquisite silver filigree ornamentation, pottery, and decorative work.
In tribal areas Odisha has a wide variety of dances. Music of the madal (a type of local drum) and flute is characteristic of the countryside. The classical dance of Odisha, known as odissi, has survived for more than 700 years. Originally it was a temple dance performed for the gods. The movements, gestures, and poses of the dance are depicted in relief on the walls of the great temples. Chhau, a type of masked dance associated with the Mayurbhanj district and adjacent areas in the north, is emblematic of Oriya culture. For the promotion of dancing and music, the Kala Vikash Kendra centre was founded at Cuttack in 1952, and it has continued to be a prominent arts performance and training venue in Odisha.
Odisha is the site of many traditional festivals. One that is unique to the state is the ceremony of Boita-Bandana (worshipping of boats) in October or November (the date is set to the Hindu calendar). For five consecutive days before the full moon, people gather near riverbanks or the seashore and float miniature boats in remembrance of their ancestors who once sailed to faraway lands (such as Malaysia and Indonesia).
The town of Puri is the site of the Jagannatha temple, perhaps the most famous Hindu shrine in India, and of the temple’s annual Chariot Festival, which attracts hundreds of thousands of people; the English word juggernaut, derived from the temple’s name, was inspired by the massive, nearly unstoppable wagons used in the festival. A short distance away, in Konark (Konarak), is a 13th-century temple that reinforces the significance of the chariot in the region; it is constructed in the form of the chariot of the Hindu sun god, Surya.
Since its earliest known history, the land that roughly corresponds to present-day Odisha has gone by various names, most notably Utkala (or Okkala), Kalinga, and Odra Desha (or Oddaka), which appeared in ancient literature as designations for particular tribes. The ancient Greeks knew the latter two groups as Kalingai and Oretes. Those names eventually became identified with specific territories.
At the dawn of Indian history, Kalinga was already a famous and formidable political power. Buddhist sources refer to the rule of King Brahmadatta in Kalinga at the time of the Buddha’s death, sometime between the 6th and the 4th century bce. In the 4th century bce the first Indian empire builder, Mahapadma Nanda, founder of the Nanda dynasty, conquered Kalinga, but the Nanda rule was short-lived. In 260 bce the Mauryan emperor Ashoka invaded Kalinga and fought one of the greatest wars of ancient history. He then renounced war, became a Buddhist, and preached peace and nonviolence in and outside India. In the 1st century bce the Kalinga emperor Kharavela conquered vast territories that collectively came to be called the Kalinga empire.
In the 1st century ce Kalinga emerged as a maritime power. Its overseas activities possibly involved the establishment in the 8th century of the Shailendra empire on the Southeast Asian island of Java (now in Indonesia). Kalinga was ruled by the powerful Bhauma-Kara dynasty during the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries, followed by the Soma kings until the 11th century. Construction of the 11th-century temple of Lingaraja at Bhubaneshwar, the greatest Shaiva monument of India, was begun by the Soma king Yayati.
Kalinga enjoyed a golden age under the Ganga dynasty. The Ganga ruler Anantavarman Chodagangadeva (1078–1147) ruled from the Ganges River to the Godavari River with Cuttack as his capital. He began the construction of the temple of Jagannatha (“Lord of the World”) at Puri. Narasimha I (1238–64) built the Sun Temple (Surya Deula) of Konark, one of the finest specimens of Hindu architecture. In the 13th and 14th centuries, when much of India came under the rule of Muslim powers, independent Kalinga remained a citadel of Hindu religion, philosophy, art, and architecture.
The Gangas were succeeded by the Surya dynasty. Its first king, Kapilendra (1435–66), won territories from his Muslim neighbours and greatly expanded the Kalinga kingdom. His successor, Purushottama, maintained those gains with difficulty. The next and the last Surya king, Prataparudra, became a disciple of Chaitanya, the great Hindu mystic, and became a pacifist. After Prataparudra’s death in 1540, the kingdom’s power declined, and in 1568, when King Mukunda was killed by his own countrymen, it lost its independence to the Afghan rulers of Bengal.
It was sometime between the 11th and 16th centuries that the name Kalinga fell into disuse. In its place arose the old tribal name Odra Desha, which was gradually transformed into Odisha (or Uddisha, or Udisa), which in English became Orissa; that spelling persisted until the original Odisha was reinstated in the early 21st century. The language of the region came to be known as Oriya.
The Mughal emperor Akbar wrested Odisha from the Afghans in 1590–92. When the Mughal Empire fell in the mid-18th century, part of Odisha remained under the nawabs (provincial governors of Mughal India) of Bengal, but the greater part passed to the Marathas, who ruled much of South India between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Bengal sector came under British rule in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey (near present-day Palashi), and the Maratha sector was conquered by the British in 1803. Although after 1803 the British controlled the entire Oriya-speaking area, it continued to be administered as two units. It was not until April 1, 1936, that the British heeded calls for unification on a linguistic basis and constituted Orissa as a separate province. However, 26 Oriya princely states remained outside the provincial administration. After the independence of India in 1947, the territory of Orissa was expanded to include all the princely states except Saraikela and Kharsawan, which were absorbed by Bihar. Orissa became a state of India in 1950.
Between the establishment of the state and 2000, Orissa’s government was largely controlled by the Indian National Congress (Congress Party). The only exceptions to the Congress Party’s five decades of dominance were in 1967–72, 1977–80, and 1990–95 and during several short periods of rule by the central Indian government. In 2000, however, the regional Biju Janata Dal (BJD) party, led by its founder, Naveen Patnaik, won a plurality of seats in state legislative elections. With its coalition partner, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the BJD formed a coalition government, with Patnaik as chief minister. The BJD severed its ties with the BJP for the 2009 state elections, won an overwhelming majority of seats in the legislature that year, and upped its total in the 2014 elections. Patnaik remained as chief minister throughout the period of BJD rule.