250 years ago, when people were getting used to the idea that the planets circle the Sun and not the other way around, they wondered how that worked. Isaac Newton said, “I can explain it with my Laws of Motion and my Law of Gravity.”
The first Law of Motion is that an object will move in a straight line unless acted upon by a force. If you’re holding a ball by a string and swing the ball in a circle, the reason the ball doesn’t fly away is that the string is exerting a force on the ball. Using Newton’s Laws, if you know the mass of the ball and the length of the string, you can calculate how fast the ball moves along that circle.
Newton said that the Solar System works the same way. Between the Sun and each planet there’s an attractive force which he called gravity. If you can determine three points in a planet’s orbit, you can use the Laws of Motion and the Law of Gravity to calculate the planet’s speed at any time, how close it gets to the Sun, even how much the planet weighs.
Astronomers said, “This is wonderful! We can calculate the whole Solar System this way, but… we don’t see any strings. How does gravity work?”
Newton was an honest man. His response was, “I don’t know how gravity works. But I can calculate it and that should be good enough.”
And that was good enough for 250 years until Albert Einstein produced his Theories of Relativity. This graphic shows one model of Einstein’s model of “the fabric of space.” According to the theory, light (the yellow threads) travels at 186,000 miles per second everywhere in the Universe.
As we’ve seen, the theory also says that space is curved and compressed near a massive object. Accordingly, the model’s threads are drawn together near the dark circle, which could represent a planet or a star or a black hole. If you were standing next to a black hole (but not too close). you’d feel fine because all your atoms and the air you breathe would shrink to the same scale. You’d just notice through your telescope that planetary orbits and other things in the Universe appear larger than you expect.
This video shows how a massive object’s space compression affects a passing light wave. The brown dot and the blue dot both travel at 186,000 miles per second, but “miles are shorter near a black hole.” The wave’s forward motion is deflected around the object because the blue dot’s miles are longer than the miles traveled by the brown dot.
When Einstein presented his General Theory of Relativity in 1916, his calculations led him to predict that this effect would cause a star’s apparent position to be altered by the Sun’s gravitational field.
An observer at the bottom of this diagram can pinpoint the position of star #1 by following its light ray back to the star’s location. Star #2, however, is so situated that its light ray is bent by our massive object. To the observer, star #2’s apparent position is shifted away from its true position.
In 1919, English physicist-astronomer Arthur Eddington led an expedition to the South Atlantic to test Einstein’s prediction. Why the South Atlantic? To observe the total eclipse of the sun that would occur there. With the Sun’s light blocked by the Moon, Eddington would be able to photograph the constellation Taurus behind the Sun.
Sure enough, in Eddington’s photographs the stars closest to the Sun were shifted in their apparent position relative to those further way. Furthermore, the sizes of the shifts were almost embarrassingly close to Einstein’s predicted values.
Eddington presented his photographs to a scientific conference in Cambridge and thus produced the first public confirmation of Einstein’s theory of gravity.
Wait, how does an object bending a light ray connect with that object’s pull on another mass? Another piece of Einstein’s theory says that if a light ray and a freely falling mass both start from the same point in spacetime, both will follow the same path through space. American physicist John Archibald Wheeler said, “Mass bends space, and bent space tells mass how to move.”
~~ Rich Olcott