# Straight Line and its construction

### From Math Images

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| -                                      | |ImageName=How to draw a straight line without a straight edge                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         | |ImageName=Drawing a Straight Line                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
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| -                                      | |ImageDescElem=What is a straight line? How do you define straightness? How do you construct something straight without assuming you have a straight edge? These are questions that seem silly to ask because they are so intuitive. We come to accept that straightness is simply straightness and its definition, like that of point and line, is simply assumed. However, compare this to the way we draw a circle. When using a compass to draw a circle, we are not starting with a figure that we accept as circular; instead, we are using a fundamental property of circles that the points on a circle are at a fixed distance from the center. This page explores the properties of a straight line and hence its construction.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | |ImageDesc=== What is a straight line? ==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}[[Image:Straightline.jpg|center|border|400px]]Image 1{{!}}{{!}}Today, we simply define a line as a one-dimensional object that extents to infinity in both directions and it is straight, i.e. no wiggles along its length. But what is straightness? It is a hard question because we have the picture in our head and the answer right there under our breath but we simply cannot articulate it.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | What is a straight line? How do you define straightness? The questions seem silly to ask because they are so intuitive. We come to accept that straightness is simply straightness and its definition, like that of point and line, is simply assumed. However, why do we not assume the definition of circle? When using a compass to draw a circle, we are not starting with a figure that we accept as circular; instead, we are using a fundamental property of circles, that the points on a circle are at a fixed distance from the center. This page explores the answer to the question "how do you construct a straight line without a straight edge?"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | In Euclid's book '''''Elements''''', he defined a straight line as "lying evenly between its extreme points" and it has "breadthless width." The definition is pretty useless. What does he mean if he says "lying evenly"? It tells us nothing about how to describe or construct a straight line. So what is a straightness anyway? There are a few good answers. For instance, in the Cartesian Coordinates, the graph of <math>y=ax+b</math> is a straight line. In addition, we are most familiar with another definition is the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. However, it is important to realize that the definitions of being "shortest" and "straight" are different from that on a flat plane. For example, the shortest distance between two points on a sphere is the the "great circle", a section of a sphere that contains a diameter of the sphere, and great circle is straight on the spherical surface.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         | =What Is A Straight Line?--- A Question Rarely Asked.=                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
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| -                                      | For more properties on staight line, you refer to the book '''''Experience Geometry''''' by zzz.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | In Euclid's book '''''Elements''''', he defined a straight line as "lying evenly between its extreme points" and as having "breadthless width." This definition is pretty useless. What does he mean by "lying evenly"? It tells us nothing about how to describe or construct a straight line.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | Since we are dealing with plane geometry here, we define straight line as the curve of <math>y=ax+b</math> in Cartesian Coordinates.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
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| -                                      | Image 2                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | +                                                                                         | For more comprehensive discussion of being straight, you can refer to the book '''''Experiencing Geometry''''' by David W. Henderson.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
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|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | Take a minute to ponder the question: "How do you produce a straight line?" Well light travels in straight line. Can we make light help us to produce something straight? Sure but does it always travel in straight line? Einstein's theory of relativity has shown (and been verified) that light is bent by gravity and therefore, our assumption that light travels in straight lines does not hold all the time. Well, another simpler method is just to fold a piece of paper and the crease will be a straight line. However, to achieve our ultimate goal (construct a straight line without a straight edge), we need a {{EasyBalloon|Link=linkage|Balloon=It is defined as a series of rigid links connected with joints to form a closed chain, or a series of closed chains. Each link has two or more joints, and the joints have various degrees of freedom to allow motion between the links.<ref>Wikipedia (Linkage (mechanical))</ref>}} and that is much more complicated and difficult than folding a piece of paper. The rest of the page revolves around the discussion of straight line linkage's history and its mathematical explanation.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
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| -                                      | == The Quest to Draw a Straight Line ==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | +                                                                                         | = The Quest to Draw a Straight Line =                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
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| -                                      | ==='''The Practical Need'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         | =='''The Practical Need'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
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| -                                      | {{!}}Now having defined what a straight line is, we have to figure out a way to construct it on a plane without using anything that we assume to be straight such as a straight edge (or ruler) just like how we construct a circle using a compass. Historically, it has been of great interest to mathematicians and engineers not only because it is an interesting question to ponder about but also it has important application in engineering. Since the invention of various steam engines and machines that are powered by them, engineers have been trying to perfect the mechanical linkage to convert all kinds of motions (especially circular motion) to linear motions.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         | {{!}}Now having defined what a straight line is, we must figure out a way to construct it on a plane. However, the challenge is to do that without using anything that we assume to be straight such as a straight edge (or ruler) just like how we construct a circle using a compass. Historically, it has been of great interest to mathematicians and engineers not only because it is an interesting question to ponder about, but also because it has important applications in engineering. Since the invention of various steam engines and machines that are powered by them, engineers have been trying to perfect the mechanical linkage to convert all kinds of motions (especially circular motion) to linear motions.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
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| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 3                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 3'''<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
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| -                                      | {{!}}The picture above shows a patent drawing of an early steam engine. It is of the simplest form with a boiler (on the left), a cylinder with piston, a beam (on top) and a pump (on the right side) at the other end. The pump was usually used to extract water from the mines. When the piston is at its lowest position, steam is let into the cylinder from valve K and it pushes the piston upwards. Afterward, when the piston is at its highest position, cold water is let in from valve E, cooling the steam in the cylinder and causing the pressure in the the cylinder to drop below the atmospheric pressure. The difference in pressure caused the piston to move downwards. After the piston returns to the lowest position, the whole process is repeated. This kind of steam engine is called "atmospheric" because it utilized atmospheric pressure to cause the downward action of the piston (steam only balances out the atmospheric pressure and allow the piston to return to the highest point). Since in the downward motion, the piston pulls on the beam and in the upward motion, the beam pulls on the piston, the connection between the end of the piston rod and the beam is always in tension (under stretching) and that is why a chain is used as the connection.                                                                            | +                                                                                         | {{!}}'''Image 3''' shows a patent drawing of an early steam engine. It is of the simplest form with a boiler (lower left corner), a cylinder with piston (above the boiler), a beam (on top, pivoted at the middle) and a pump (lower right corner) at the other end. The pump was usually used to extract water from the mines but other devices can also be driven.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
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| -                                      | {{!}}Anyway, the piston moves in the vertical direction and the piston rod takes only axial loading, i.e. forces applied in the direction along the rod. However, from the above picture, it is clear that the end of the piston does not move in a straight line due to the fact that the end of the beam describes an arch of a circle. As a result, horizontal forces are created and subjected onto the piston rod. Consequently, the process of wear and tear is very much quickened and the efficiency of the engine greatly compromised. Now considering that the up-and-down cycle repeats itself hundreds of times every minute and the engine is expected to run 24/7 to make profits for the investors, such defect in the engine must not be tolerated and thus poses a great need for improvements.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | {{!}}{{HideShowThis|ShowMessage=Click here to show how this engine works.|HideMessage=Click here to hide text|HiddenText=When the piston is at its lowest position, steam is let into the cylinder from valve K to push the piston upwards. Afterward, when the piston is at its highest position, cold water is let in from valve E, cooling the steam in the cylinder and causing the pressure in the the cylinder to drop below the atmospheric pressure. The difference in pressure causes the piston to move downwards. After the piston returns to the lowest position, the whole process is repeated. This kind of steam engine is called "atmospheric" because it utilizes atmospheric pressure to cause the downward action of the piston. Since in the downward motion, the piston pulls on the beam and in the upward motion, the beam pulls on the piston, the connection between the end of the piston rod and the beam is always in tension (it is being stretched by forces at two ends) and that is why a chain is used as the connection.<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18</ref> <ref>Wikipedia (Steam Engine)</ref>}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
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| -                                      | {{!}}[[Image:Img325.gif|center|border|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      | +                                                                                         | {{!}}Ideally, the piston moves in the vertical direction and the piston rod takes only axial loading, i.e. forces applied in the direction along the rod. However, from the above picture, it is clear that the end of the piston does not move in a straight line due to the fact that the end of the beam describes an arc of a circle. As a result, horizontal forces are created and subjected onto the piston rod. Consequently, the rate of attrition is very much expedited and the efficiency of the engine is greatly compromised. Durability is important in the design of any machine, but it was especially essential for the early steam engines. For these machines were meant to run 24/7 to make profits for the investors. Therefore, such defect in the engine posed a great need for improvements.<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
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|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
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| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 4                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}[[Image:Img325.gif|center|border|500px]]'''Image 4'''<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21</ref>{{!}}{{!}}align="center"{{!}}[[Image:Img326.gif|border|center|200px]]'''Image 5''' <ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
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| -                                      | {{!}}Improvements were made. Firstly, "double-action" engines were made, part of which is shown in the picture on top. Atmospheric pressure acts in both upward and downward strokes of the engine and two chains were used (one connected to the top of the arched end of the beam and one to the bottom), both of which will take turns to be in tension throughout one cycle. One might ask why chain was used all the time. The answer was simple: to fit the curved end of the beam. However, this does not fundamentally solved the problem and unfortunately created more. The additional chain increased the height of the engine and made the manufacturing very difficult (it was hard to make straight steel bars and rods back then) and costly.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}{{HideShowThis|ShowMessage=Click to read more about these systems.|HideMessage=Hide|HiddenText=Firstly, "double-action" engines were built, part of which is shown in '''Image 4'''. Secondly, the beam was dispensed and replaced by a gear as shown in '''Image 5'''.  However, both of these improvements were unsatisfactory and the need for a straight line linkage was still imperative. In '''Image 4''', atmospheric pressure acts in both upward and downward strokes of the engine and two chains were used (one connected to the top of the arched end of the beam and one to the bottom), both of which will took turns being taut throughout one cycle. One might ask why chain was used all the time. The answer was simple: to fit the curved end of the beam. However, this does not fundamentally solve the straight line problem and unfortunately created more. The additional chain increased the height of the engine and made the manufacturing very difficult (it was hard to make straight steel bars and rods back then) and costly.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}[[Image:Img326.gif|border|center|200px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      | +                                                                                         | In '''Image 5''', after the beam was replaced by gear actions, the piston rod was fitted with teeth (labeled k) to drive the gear. Theoretically, this solves the problem fundamentally. The piston rod is confined between the guiding wheel at K and the gear, and it moves only in the up-and-down motion. However, the practical problem remained unsolved. The friction and the noise between all the guideways and the wheels could not be ignored, not to mention the increased possibility of failure and cost of maintenance due to additional parts.<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21</ref>}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
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| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 5                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | {{!}}Secondly, beam was dispensed and replaced by a gear as shown on the left. Consequently, the piston rod was fitted with teeth (labeled k) to drive the gear. Theoretically, this solves the problem fundamentally. The piston rod is confined between the guiding wheel at K and the gear, and it moves only in the up-and-down motion. However, the practical problem was still there. The friction and the noise between all the guideways and the wheels could not be ignored, not to mention the increased possibility of failure and cost of maintenance due to additional parts. Therefore, both of these methods were not satisfactory and the need for a linkage that produces straight line action was still imperative.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | ==='''James Watt's breakthrough'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         | =='''James Watt's breakthrough'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
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| -                                      | {{{!}}border="1"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}James Watt found a mechanism that converted the linear motion of pistons in the cylinder to the semi circular motion of the beam (or the circular motion of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheel flywheel]) and vice versa. In 1784, he invented a  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical) three member linkage] that solved the linear motion to circular problem practically as illustrated by the animation below. In its simplest form, there are two radius arms that have the same lengths and a connecting arm with midpoint P. Point P moves in a straight line. However, this linkage only produced approximate straight line (a stretched figure 8 actually) as shown on the right, much to the chagrin of the mathematicians who were after absolute straight lines. There is a more general form of the Watt's linkage that the two radius arms having different lengths like shown in the figure in the middle. To make sure that Point P still move in the stretched figure 8, it has to be positioned such that it adheres to the ratio<math>\frac{AB}{CD} = \frac{CP}{CB}</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}James Watt found a mechanism that converted the linear motion of pistons in the cylinder to the semi circular motion (that is moving in an arc of the circle) of the beam (or the circular motion of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheel flywheel]) and vice versa. In this way, energy in the vertical direction is converted to rotational energy of the flywheel from where is it converted to useful work that the engine is desired to do. In 1784, he invented a  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical) three member linkage] that solved the linear-motion-to-circular problem practically as illustrated by the animation below. In its simplest form, there are two radius arms that have the same lengths and a connecting arm with midpoint P. Point P moves in a straight line while the two hinges move in circular arcs. However, this linkage only produced approximate straight line (a stretched figure 8 actually) as shown in '''Image 7''', much to the chagrin of the mathematicians who were after absolute straight lines. There is a more general form of the Watt's linkage that the two radius arms having different lengths like shown in '''Image 6'''. To make sure that Point P still move in the stretched figure 8, it has to be positioned such that it adheres to the ratio<math>\frac{AB}{CD} = \frac{CP}{CB}</math>.<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 24</ref> |
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| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 6{{!}}{{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 7                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 6''' <ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 23</ref>{{!}}{{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 7''' <ref>Wikipedia (Watt's Linkage)</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | ==='''The Motion of Point P'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  | +                                                                                         | =='''The Motion of Point P'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | We intend to described the path of <math>P</math> so that we could show it does not move in a straight line (which is obvious) and more importantly to pinpoint the position of <math>P</math> using certain parameter we know such as the angle of rotation or one coordinate of point <math>P</math>. This is awfully important in engineering as engineers would like to know that there are no two parts of the machine will collide with each other throughout the motion.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | We intend to describe the path of <math>P</math> so that we can show it does not move in a straight line (which is obvious in the animation). More importantly, this will allow us to pinpoint the position of <math>P</math> using certain parameters we know, such as the angle of rotation or one coordinate of point <math>P</math>. This is awfully crucial in engineering as engineers would like to know that there are no two parts of the machine will collide with each other throughout the motion. In addition, you can use the parametrization to create your own animation like that in '''Image 7'''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
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| -                                      | ===='''Algebraic Description'''====                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                | +                                                                                         | ==='''Algebraic Description'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
| -                                      | {{{!}}border="1"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}We see that <math>P</math> moves in a stretched figure 8 and will tend to think that there should be a nice close form of the relationship between the coordinates of <math>P</math> like that of the circle. But after this section, you will see that there is a closed form, at least theoretically, but it is not "nice" at all.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         | {{!}}We see that <math>P</math> moves in a stretched figure 8 and will tend to think that there should be a nice {{EasyBalloon|Link=closed form|Balloon=In mathematics, an expression is said to be a closed-form expression if, and only if, it can be expressed analytically in terms of a bounded number of certain "well-known" functions. Typically, these well-known functions are defined to be elementary functions – constants, one variable x, elementary operations of arithmetic (+ – × ÷), nth roots, exponent and logarithm (which thus also include trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions).<ref>Wikipedia (Closed-form expression)</ref>}}  of the relationship of the <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> coordinates of <math>P</math> like that of the circle. After this section, you will see that there is a closed form, at least theoretically, but it is not "nice" at all.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
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| -                                      | {{!}}[[Image:JW point P.png|center|600px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:JW point P.png|center|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
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| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 8                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 8'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|                                        | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}We know coordinates <math>A</math> and <math>D</math>. Hence let the coordinates of <math>A</math> be <math>(0,0)</math>, coordinates of <math>B</math> be <math>(c,d)</math>. We also know the length of the bar. Let <math>AB=CD=r, BC=m</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | +                                                                                         | {{!}}{{SwitchPreview|ShowMessage=Show derivation of the relationship of the <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> coordinates of <math>P</math>.|HideMessage=Hide|PreviewText=We know coordinates <math>{\color{Gray}A}</math> and <math>{\color{Gray}D}</math> because they are fixed.|FullText=We know coordinates <math>A</math> and <math>D</math> because they are fixed. Hence suppose the coordinates of <math>A</math> are <math>(0,0)</math> and coordinates of <math>B</math> are <math>(c,d)</math>. We also know the length of the bar. Let <math>AB=CD=r, BC=m</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Suppose that at one instance we know the coordinates of <math>B</math> as <math>(a,b)</math>, then <math>P</math> will be on the circle centered at <math>B</math> with a radius of <math>m</math>. Since <math>P</math> is on the circle centered at <math>D</math> with radius <math>r</math>. Then the coordinates of <math>C</math> have to satisfy the two equations below.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | Suppose that at one instance we know the coordinates of <math>B</math> as <math>(a,b)</math>, then <math>C</math> will be on the circle centered at <math>B</math> with a radius of <math>m</math>. Since <math>C</math> is on the circle centered at <math>D</math> with radius <math>r</math>. Then the coordinates of <math>C</math> have to satisfy the two equations below.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | <math>\begin{cases}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |                                                                                           | <math>\begin{cases}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
| Line 95:                               |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | Line 99:                                                                                  |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         | {{EquationRef2|Eq. 1}}<math>x^2+y^2-2ax-2by+a^2+b^2=m^2</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
| -                                      | {{!}}rowspan="2"{{!}}<math>\begin{cases}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | x^2+y^2-2ax-2by+a^2+b^2=m^2 \cdots \cdots \\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         | {{EquationRef2|Eq. 2}}<math>x^2+y^2-2cx-2dy+c^2+d^2=r^2</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
| -                                      | x^2+y^2-2cx-2dy+c^2+d^2=r^2 \cdots \cdots \\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | \end{cases}</math>{{!}}{{!}}{{EquationRef2|Eq. 1}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}{{EquationRef2|Eq. 2}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | Subtract {{EquationNote|Eq. 2}} from {{EquationNote|Eq. 1}} we have,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |                                                                                           | Subtract {{EquationNote|Eq. 2}} from {{EquationNote|Eq. 1}} we have,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
| -                                      | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}<math>(-2a+2c)x-(2b-2d)y+(a^2+b^2)-(c^2+d^2)=m^2-r^2\cdots \cdots </math>{{!}}{{!}}{{EquationRef2|Eq. 3}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         | {{EquationRef2|Eq. 3}} <math>(-2a+2c)x-(2b-2d)y+(a^2+b^2)-(c^2+d^2)=m^2-r^2</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| -                                      | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | Substituting <math>a^2+b^2=r^2</math> and rearranging we have,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |                                                                                           | Substituting <math>a^2+b^2=r^2</math> and rearranging we have,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | <math>(-2a+2c)x-(2b-2d)y=m^2-2r^2+c^2+d^2</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |                                                                                           | <math>(-2a+2c)x-(2b-2d)y=m^2-2r^2+c^2+d^2</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | Hence {{EquationRef2|Eq. 4}} <math>y=\frac {-2a+2c}{2b-2d}x-\frac {m^2-2r^2+c^2+d^2}{2b-2d}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | Now, we can manipulate {{EquationNote|Eq. 3}} to get an expression for <math>b</math>, i.e. <math>b=f(a,c,d,m,r,x,y)</math>. Next, we substitute <math>b=f(a,c,d,m,r,x,y)</math> back into {{EquationNote|Eq. 1}} and will be able to obtain an expression for <math>a</math>, i.e. <math>a=g(x,y,d,c,m,r)</math>. Since <math>b=\pm \sqrt {r^2-a^2}</math>, we have expressions of <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> in terms of <math>x,y,d,c,m</math> and <math>r</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         | Say point <math>P</math> has coordinates <math>(x',y')</math>, then <math>x'=\frac {a+x}{2}</math> and <math>y'=\frac {b+y}{2}</math> which will yield                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}Hence <math>y=\frac {-2a+2c}{2b-2d}x-\frac {m^2-2r^2+c^2+d^2}{2b-2d} \cdots \cdots </math>{{!}}{{!}}{{EquationRef2|Eq. 4}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Now, we could manipulate {{EquationNote|Eq. 3}} to get an expression for <math>b</math>, i.e. <math>b=f(a,c,d,m,r,x,y)</math>. Next, we substitute <math>b=f(a,c,d,m,r,x,y)</math> back into {{EquationNote|Eq. 1}} and will be able to obtain an expression for <math>a</math>, i.e. <math>a=g(x,y,d,c,m,r)</math>. Since <math>b=\pm \sqrt {r^2-a^2}</math>, we have expressions of <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> in terms of <math>x,y,d,c,m</math> and <math>r</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Say point <math>P</math> has coordinates <math>(x',y')</math>, then <math>x'=\frac {a+x}{2}</math> and <math>y'=\frac {b+y}{2}</math> which will yield                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         | {{EquationRef2|Eq. 5}} <math>x=2x'-a</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
| -                                      | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}rowspan="2"{{!}}<math>\begin{cases}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | +                                                                                         | {{EquationRef2|Eq. 6}} <math>y=2y'-b</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
| -                                      | x=2x'-a \cdots \cdots \\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | y=2y'-b \cdots \cdots                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | \end{cases}</math>{{!}}{{!}}{{EquationRef2|Eq. 5}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}{{EquationRef2|Eq. 6}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | In the last step we substitute <math>a=g(x,y,d,c,m,r)</math>,<math>b=\pm \sqrt {r^2-a^2}</math>, {{EquationNote|Eq. 5}} and {{EquationNote|Eq. 6}} back into {{EquationNote|Eq. 4}} and we will finally have a relationship between <math>x'</math> and <math>y'</math>. Of course, it will be a messy one but we could definitely use Mathematica to do the maths.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                | +                                                                                         | In the last step we substitute <math>a=g(x,y,d,c,m,r)</math>,<math>b=\pm \sqrt {r^2-a^2}</math>, {{EquationNote|Eq. 5}} and {{EquationNote|Eq. 6}} back into {{EquationNote|Eq. 4}} and we will finally have a relationship between <math>x'</math> and <math>y'</math>. Of course, it will be a messy closed form but we could definitely use Mathematica to do the maths. The point is, there is no nice algebraic form for that figure 8, though it has closed form and that is why we have to find something else.}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
|                                        | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | ===='''Parametric Description'''====                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{{!}}border="1"                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | ==='''Parametric Description'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| -                                      | {{!}}Alright, since the algebraic equations are not agreeable at all, we have to resort to the parametric description. To think about, it would not be too bad if we could describe the motion of <math>P</math> using the angle of ration. As a matter of fact, it is easier to obtain the angle of rotation than knowing one of <math>P</math>'s coordinates.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}Alright, since the algebraic equations are not agreeable at all, we have to resort to the parametric description. To think about, it may be more manageable to describe the motion of <math>P</math> using the angle of ratation. As a matter of fact, it is easier to obtain the angle of rotation than knowing one of <math>P</math>'s coordinates.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
|                                        | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}[[Image:JWpara.png|center|600px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:ParaP.png|center|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|                                        | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 9                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 9'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|                                        | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}We will parametrize the <math>P</math> with the angle <math>\theta</math> in conformation of most parametrizations of point.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  | +                                                                                         | {{!}}{{SwitchPreview|ShowMessage=Show parameterization of <math>P</math>.|HideMessage=Hide|PreviewText=We will parametrize the <math>{\color{Gray}P}</math> with the angle <math>{\color{Gray}\theta}</math> in conformation of most parametrizations of point.|FullText=We will parametrize the <math>P</math> with the angle <math>\theta</math> in conformation of most parametrizations of point.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
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|                                        | <math>\begin{cases}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |                                                                                           | <math>\begin{cases}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
| Line 172:                              |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | Line 166:                                                                                 |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | \end{align}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |                                                                                           | \end{align}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
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| -                                      | Now, <math>\overrightarrow {AP}</math> is parametrized in term of <math>\theta, c, d, r</math> and <math>m</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | +                                                                                         | Now, <math>\overrightarrow {AP}</math> is parametrized in term of <math>\theta, c, d, r</math> and <math>m</math>.}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
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|                                        | {{!}}[[Image:Watt2.gif|center|border|450px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |                                                                                           | {{!}}[[Image:Watt2.gif|center|border|450px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
|                                        | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 10                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 10''' <ref>Lienhard, 1999, February 18</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | {{!}}Imitations were a big problems beck in those days. When filing for a patent, James Watt and other inventors, had to explain how their devices work without revealing the critical secrets so that others could easily copy them. As seen in the original patent illustration on the bottom right, Watt illustrated his simple linkage on a separate diagram but we couldn't find it in anywhere in the illustration. That is Watt's secret. What he had actually used on his engine was the modified version of the basic linkage as show on the left. The link <math>ABCD</math> is the original three member linkage with <math>AB=CD</math> and point <math>P</math> being the midpoint of <math>BC</math>. A is the pivot of the beam fixed on the engine frame while D is also fixed. However, Watt modified it by adding a parallelogram <math>BCFE</math> to it and connecting point <math>F</math> to the piston rod. We now know that point <math>P</math> moves in quasi straight line as shown previously. The importance for two points move in a straight line is that one has to be connected to the piston rod that drives the beam, another will convert the circular motion to linear motion so as to drive the valve gears that control the opening and closing of the valves. It turns out that point F moves in a similar quasi straight line as point P. | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}[[Image:Watt1.png|center|border|600px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 11                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}How would we find the parametric equation for point <math>F</math> then? Well, it is easy enough.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | {{!}}[[Image:JWpointF.png|center|550px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}Image 12                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | {{!}}<math>\overrightarrow {AB} = (r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | \therefore \overrightarrow {AE} = \frac {e+f}{r}(r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta)</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         | ==Watt's Secret==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}Another reason we parameterized <math>P</math> is that Watt did not simply used that three bar linkage shown in '''Image 6''' and '''Image 7'''. Instead he used something different. To understand that, our knowledge of the parameterizaion of <math>P</math> is crucial. Imitations were a big problems back in those days. When filing for a patent, James Watt and other inventors had to explain how their devices worked without revealing the critical secrets so that others could easily copy them. As shown in '''Image 10''', the original patent illustration, Watt illustrated his simple linkage on a separate diagram on the upper left hand corner but try looking for it on the engine illustration itself. Can you find it at all? That is Watt's secret. This is the equivalent of telling you by using the principle of 1+1 makes 2 you could get 34 x 45; the crucial step in understanding (and to make the engine work smoothly in Watt's case) is avoided. What he had actually used on his engine was the modified version of the basic linkage as show in '''Image 11'''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Furthermore <math>\overrightarrow {AF} = \overrightarrow {AE} + \overrightarrow {BC}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Therefore, <math> \overrightarrow {AF} = \frac {e+f}{r}(r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta) + (m \sin (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha), m \cos (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha))</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                | +                                                                                         | The link <math>ABCD</math> is the original three member linkage with <math>AB=CD</math> and point <math>P</math> being the midpoint of <math>BC</math>. A is the pivot of the beam fixed on the engine frame while D is also fixed. However, Watt modified it by adding a parallelogram <math>BCFE</math> to it and connecting point <math>F</math> to the piston rod. We now know that point <math>P</math> moves in quasi straight line as shown previously. It is important for two points to move in straight lines now is because one has to be connected to the piston rod that drives the beam, another has to convert the circular motion to linear motion so as to drive the valve gears that control the opening and closing of the valves. It turns out that point F moves in a similar quasi straight line as point P. This is the truly famous James Watt's "parallel motion" linkage.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
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|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:Watt1.png|center|border|400px]]{{!}}{{!}}[[Image:PointF.png|center|350px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 11'''{{!}}{{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 12'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}{{SwitchPreview|ShowMessage=How would we find the parametric equation for point <math>F</math> then?|HideMessage=Hide|PreviewText=Well, it is easy enough. Refer to '''Image 12'''.|FullText=Well, it is easy enough. Refer to '''Image 12'''. <math>\overrightarrow {AB} = (r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta)\therefore \overrightarrow {AE} = \frac {e+f}{r}(r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta)</math>. Furthermore <math>\overrightarrow {AF} = \overrightarrow {AE} + \overrightarrow {BC}</math>. Therefore, <math>\overrightarrow {AF} = \frac {e+r}{r}(r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta) + (m \sin (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha), m \cos (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha))</math>. We now have the parameterization of point <math>F</math> and <math>P</math> and Watt's secret is eventually cracked.}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |
|                                        | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | ==='''The First Planar Straight Line Linkage - Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | =='''The First Planar Straight Line Linkage - Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |
| -                                      | [[Image:Peaucellier linkage animation.gif|right|border]]Mathematicians and engineers have being searching for almost a century to find the solution to the straight line linkage but all had failed until 1864, a French army officer Charles Nicolas Peaucellier came up with his ''inversor linkage''. Interestingly, he did not publish his findings and proof until 1873, when Lipmann I. Lipkin, a student from University of St. Petersburg, demonstrated the same working model at the World Exhibition in Vienna. Peaucellier acknowledged Lipkin's independent findings with the publication of the details of his discovery in 1864 and the mathematical proof.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}[[Image:Peaucellier linkage animation.gif|center|border]]'''Image 13''' <ref>Wikipedia (Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage)</ref>{{!}}{{!}}Anyway, mathematicians and engineers had being searching for almost a century to find the solution to a straight line linkage but all had failed until 1864 when a French army officer Charles Nicolas Peaucellier came up with his ''inversor linkage''. Interestingly, he did not publish his findings and proof until 1873, when Lipmann I. Lipkin, a student from University of St. Petersburg, demonstrated the same working model at the World Exhibition in Vienna. Peaucellier acknowledged Lipkin's independent findings with the publication of the details of his discovery in 1864 and the mathematical proof. '''Taimina'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
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| -                                      | Take a minute to ponder the question: "How do you produce a straight line?" We all know, or rather assume, that light travels in straight line. But does it always do that? Einstein's theory of relativity has shown (and been verified) that light is bent by gravity and therefore, our assumption that light travels in straight lines does not hold all the time. Another simpler method is just to fold a piece of paper and the crease will be a straight line.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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| -                                      | Now, the linkage that produces a straight line motion is much more complicated than folding a piece of paper but the Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage is amazingly simple as shown on the left and right. In the next section, a proof of how this linkage draws a straight line is provided.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}[[Image:PL cell.png|center|border|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center" colspan="2"{{!}}'''Image 14'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| -                                      | [[Image:PL cell.png|center|border|550px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}Let's turn to a skeleton drawing of the Peaucellier-Lipkin linkage in '''Image 14'''. It is constructed in such a way that <math>OA = OB</math> and <math>AC=CB=BP=PA</math>. Furthermore, all the bars are free to rotate at every joint and point <math>O</math> is a fixed pivot. Due to the symmetrical construction of the linkage, it goes without proof that points <math>O</math>,<math>C</math> and <math>P</math> lie in a straight line. Construct lines <math>OCP</math> and <math>AB</math> and they meet at point <math>M</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
| -                                      | Let's turn to a skeleton drawing of the Peaucellier-Lipkin linkage. It is constructed in such a way that <math>OA = OB</math> and <math>AC=CB=BP=PA</math>. Furthermore, all the bars are free to rotate at every joint and point <math>O</math> is a fixed pivot. Due to the symmetrical construction of the linkage, it goes without proof that points <math>O</math>,<math>C</math> and <math>P</math> lie in a straight line. Construct lines <math>OCP</math> and <math>AB</math> and they meet at point <math>M</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
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|                                        | Since shape <math>APBC</math> is a rhombus                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |                                                                                           | Since shape <math>APBC</math> is a rhombus                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
| Line 227:                              |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | Line 213:                                                                                 |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | <math>\begin{align}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |                                                                                           | <math>\begin{align}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        | (OA)^2 - (AP)^2 &  = (OM)^2 - (PM)^2\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | (OA)^2 - (AP)^2 &  = (OM)^2 - (PM)^2\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | & = (OM-PM)\cdot(PM + PM)\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         | & = (OM-PM)\cdot(OM + PM)\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
|                                        | & = OC \cdot OP\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |                                                                                           | & = OC \cdot OP\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        | \end{align}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |                                                                                           | \end{align}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
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|                                        | Let's take a moment to look at the relation <math>(OA)^2 - (AP)^2 = OC \cdot OP</math>. Since the length <math>OA</math> and <math>AP</math> are of constant length, then the product <math>OC \cdot OP</math> is of constant value however you change the shape of this construction.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |                                                                                           | Let's take a moment to look at the relation <math>(OA)^2 - (AP)^2 = OC \cdot OP</math>. Since the length <math>OA</math> and <math>AP</math> are of constant length, then the product <math>OC \cdot OP</math> is of constant value however you change the shape of this construction.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}[[Image:PLcellproof2.png|border|center|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
| -                                      | [[Image:PLcellproof2.png|border|center|550px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center" colspan="2"{{!}}'''Image 15'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| -                                      | Refer to the graph above. Let's fix the path of point <math>C</math> such that it traces out a circle that has point <math>O</math> on it. <math>QC</math> is the the extra link pivoted to the fixed point <math>Q</math> with <math>QC=QO</math>. Construct line <math>OQ</math> that cuts the circle at point <math>R</math>. In addition, construct line <math>PN</math> such that <math>PN \perp OR</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="2"{{!}}Refer to '''Image 15'''. Let's fix the path of point <math>C</math> such that it traces out a circle that has point <math>O</math> on it. <math>QC</math> is the extra link pivoted to the fixed point <math>Q</math> with <math>QC=QO</math>. Construct line <math>OQ</math> that cuts the circle at point <math>R</math>. In addition, construct line <math>PN</math> such that <math>PN \perp OR</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | Since, <math> \angle OCR = 90^\circ</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |                                                                                           | Since, <math> \angle OCR = 90^\circ</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | We have <math> \vartriangle OCR \sim \vartriangle ONP, \frac{OC}{OR} = \frac{ON}{OP}</math>,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         | We have <math> \vartriangle OCR \sim \vartriangle ONP and \frac{OC}{OR} = \frac{ON}{OP}</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | and <math> OC \cdot OP = ON \cdot OR</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         | Moreover <math> OC \cdot OP = ON \cdot OR</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Therefore <math> ON = \frac {OC \cdot OP}{OR} = </math>constant, i.e. the length of <math>ON</math>(or the x-coordinate of <math>P</math> w.r.t <math>O</math>) does not change as points <math>C</math> and <math>P</math> move. Hence, point <math>P</math> moves in a straight line. ∎                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         | Therefore <math> ON = \frac {OC \cdot OP}{OR} = </math>constant, i.e. the length of <math>ON</math>(or the x-coordinate of <math>P</math> w.r.t <math>O</math>) does not change as points <math>C</math> and <math>P</math> move. Hence, point <math>P</math> moves in a straight line. ∎<ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 33-36</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | =='''Inversive Geometry in Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
| -                                      | ==='''Inversive Geometry in Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | As a matter of fact, the first part of the proof given above is already sufficient. Due to inversive geometry, once we have shown that points <math>O</math>,<math>C</math> and <math>P</math> are collinear and that <math>OC \cdot OP</math> is of constant value. Points <math>C</math> and <math>P</math> are inversive pairs with <math>O</math> as inversive center. Therefore, once <math>C</math> moves in a circle that contains <math>O</math>, then <math>P</math> will move in a straight line and vice versa. ∎ See [[Inversion]] for more detail.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           | As a matter of fact, the first part of the proof given above is already sufficient. Due to inversive geometry, once we have shown that points <math>O</math>,<math>C</math> and <math>P</math> are collinear and that <math>OC \cdot OP</math> is of constant value. Points <math>C</math> and <math>P</math> are inversive pairs with <math>O</math> as inversive center. Therefore, once <math>C</math> moves in a circle that contains <math>O</math>, then <math>P</math> will move in a straight line and vice versa. ∎ See [[Inversion]] for more detail.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | ==='''Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage in action'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | +                                                                                         | =='''Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage in Action'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
| -                                      | [[Image:Adapted.jpg|border|600px|center|Mr.Prim's adaptation]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | The new linkage caused considerable excitement in London. Mr. Prim, "engineer to the House", utilized the new compact form invented by H.Hart to fit his new blowing engine which proved to be "exceptionally quiet in their operation."  In this compact form, <math>DA=DC</math>, <math>AF=CF</math> and <math>AB = BC</math>. Point <math>E</math> and <math>F</math> are fixed pivots. In the diagram above. F is the inversive center and points <math>D</math>,<math>F</math> and <math>B</math> are collinear and <math>DF \cdot DB</math> is of constant value. I left it to you to prove the rest. Mr. Prim's blowing engine used for ventilating the House of Commons, 1877. The crosshead of the reciprocating air pump is guided by a Peaucellier linkage shown at the center. The slate-lined air cylinders had rubber-flap inlet and exhaust valves and a piston whose periphery was formed by two rows of brush bristles. Prim's machine was driven by a steam engine.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:Adapted.jpg|border|550px|center|Mr.Prim's adaptation]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
| -                                      | [[Image:Blowing engine.jpg|center|thumb|600px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 16'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}The new linkage caused considerable excitement in London. Mr. Prim, "engineer to the House", utilized the new compact form invented by H.Hart to fit his new blowing engine which proved to be "exceptionally quiet in their operation."  In this compact form, <math>DA=DC</math>, <math>AF=CF</math> and <math>AB = BC</math>. Point <math>E</math> and <math>F</math> are fixed pivots. In '''Image 16'''. F is the inversive center and points <math>D</math>,<math>F</math> and <math>B</math> are collinear and <math>DF \cdot DB</math> is of constant value.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:Blowing engine.jpg|center|border|600px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 17'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}Mr. Prim's blowing engine used for ventilating the House of Commons, 1877. The crosshead of the reciprocating air pump is guided by a Peaucellier linkage shown in the middle of '''Image 17'''. Prim's machine was driven by a steam engine.<ref>Ferguson, 1962, p. 205</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | After Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage was introduced to England in 1874, Mr. Hart of Woolwich devised a new linkage that contained only four links which is the blue part as shown in the picture below. Point <math>O</math> is the inversion center with <math>OP</math> and <math>OQ</math> collinear and <math>OP \cdot OQ =</math> constant. When point <math>P</math> is constrained to move in a circle that passes through point <math>O</math>, then point <math>Q</math> will trace out a straight line. See below for proof.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | [[Image:Hartlinkage3.png|border|center|600px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | +                                                                                         | {{!}}After the Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage was introduced to England in 1874, Mr. Hart of Woolwich Academy <ref>Kempe, 1877, p. 18</ref> devised a new linkage that contained only four links which is the blue part as shown in '''Image 18'''. The next part will prove that point <math>O</math> is the inversion center with <math>OP</math> and <math>OQ</math> collinear and <math>OP \cdot OQ =</math> constant. When point <math>P</math> is constrained to move in a circle that passes through point <math>O</math>, then point <math>Q</math> will trace out a straight line. See below for proof.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      | We know that <math>AB = CD, BC = AD</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:Hartlinkage3.png|border|center|550px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 18'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}We know that <math>AB = CD, BC = AD</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | As a result, <math>BD \parallel AC</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |                                                                                           | As a result, <math>BD \parallel AC</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
| Line 285:                              |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | Line 286:                                                                                 |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | </math>,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |                                                                                           | </math>,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | We then have <math> AC \cdot BD = (ED)^2 - (EB)^2 = (AD)^2 - (AB)^2</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         | we then have <math> AC \cdot BD = (ED)^2 - (EB)^2 = (AD)^2 - (AB)^2</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Further, due to <math> \frac{OP}{BD} = m, \frac{OQ}{AC} = 1-m </math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              | +                                                                                         | Further, let's define <math> \frac{OP}{BD} = m, hence \frac{OQ}{AC} = 1-m </math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        | where <math>0<m<1</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |                                                                                           | where <math>0<m<1</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | We have <math>\begin{align}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        | +                                                                                         | We finally have <math>\begin{align}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        | OP \cdot OQ & = m(1-m)BD \cdot AC\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |                                                                                           | OP \cdot OQ & = m(1-m)BD \cdot AC\\                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        | & = m(1-m)((AD)^2 - (AB)^2)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |                                                                                           | & = m(1-m)((AD)^2 - (AB)^2)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
| -                                      | \end{align}</math>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | +                                                                                         | \end{align}</math>which is what we wanted to prove.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | =='''Other Straight Line Mechanism'''==                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{{!}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}[[Image:Circle in circle 1.png|border|center|200px]]{{!}}{{!}}[[Image:Circle in circle 2.png|border|center|200px]]{{!}}{{!}}[[Image:Img335.gif|border|center|200px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 19'''{{!}}{{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 20'''{{!}}{{!}}align="center"{{!}}'''Image 21''' <ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p.44</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="3"{{!}}There are many other mechanisms that create straight line. I will only introduce one of them here. Refer to '''Image 19'''. Consider two circles <math>C_1</math> and <math>C_2</math> with radius having the relation <math>2r_2=r_1</math>. We roll <math>C_2</math> inside <math>C_1</math> without slipping as show in '''Image 20'''. Then the arch lengths <math>r_1\beta = r_2\alpha</math>. Voila! <math>\alpha = 2\beta</math> and point <math>C</math> has to be on the line joining the original points <math>P</math> and <math>Q</math>! The same argument goes for point <math>P</math>. As a result, point <math>C</math> moves in the horizontal line and point <math>P</math> moves in the vertical line. In 1801, James White patented his mechanism using this rolling motion. It is shown in '''Image 21''' <ref>Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p.42-44</ref>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="3" align="center"{{!}}[[Image:Ellipsograph2.png|border|center|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="3" align="center"{{!}}'''Image 22'''                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}-                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | {{!}}colspan="3"{{!}}Interestingly, if you attach a rod of fixed length to point <math>C</math> and <math>P</math> and the end of the rod <math>T</math> will trace out an ellipse as seen in '''Image 22'''. Why? Consider the coordinates of <math>P</math> in terms of <math>\theta</math>, <math>PT</math> and <math>CT</math>. Point <math>T</math> will have the coordinates <math>(CT \cos \theta, PT \sin \theta)</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | ==='''Other straight line mechanism'''===                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         | Now, whenever we see <math>\cos \theta</math> and <math>\sin \theta</math> together, we want to square them. Hence, <math>x^2=CT^2 \cos^2 \theta</math> and <math>y^2=PT^2 \sin^2 \theta</math>.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | [[Image:Circle in circle 1.png|border|center|325px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               | +                                                                                         | Well, they are not so pretty yet. So we make them pretty by dividing <math>x^2</math> by <math>CT^2</math> and <math>y^2</math> by <math>PT^2</math>, obtaining <math>\frac {x^2}{CT^2} = \cos^2 \theta</math> and <math>\frac {y^2}{PT^2} = \sin^2 \theta</math>. Voila again! <math>\frac {x^2}{CT^2} + \frac {y^2}{PT^2}=1</math> and this is exactly the algebraic formula for an ellipse. <ref>Cundy, & Rollett, 1961, p. 240</ref>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
| -                                      | There are many other mechanisms that create straight line. I will only introduce one of them here. Refer to the diagrams above. Consider two circles <math>C_1</math> and <math>C_2</math> with radius having the relation <math>2r_2=r_1</math>. We roll <math>C_2</math> inside <math>C_1</math> without slipping as show in the diagram below.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  | +                                                                                         | {{!}}}                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | [[Image:Circle in circle 2.png|border|center|300px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | Then the arch lengths <math>r_1\beta = r_2\alpha</math>. Voila! <math>\alpha = 2\beta</math> and point <math>C</math> has to be on the line joining the original points <math>P</math> and <math>Q</math>! The same argument goes for point <math>P</math>. As a result, point <math>C</math> moves in the horizontal line and point <math>P</math> moves in the vertical line.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | [[Image:Img335.gif|border|center|300px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | +                                                                                         | =Conclusion---The Take Home Message=                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
| -                                      | In 1801, James White patented his mechanism using this rolling motion. Its picture is shown on the right. Interestingly, if you attach a rod of fixed length to point <math>C</math> and <math>P</math> and the end of the rod <math>T</math> will trace out an ellipse. Why? Consider the coordinates of <math>P</math> in terms of <math>\theta</math>, <math>PT</math> and <math>CT</math>. Point <math>T</math> will have the coordinates <math>(CT \cos \theta, PT \sin \theta)</math>. Now, whenever we see <math>\cos \theta</math> and <math>\sin \theta</math> together, we want to square them. Hence, <math>x^2=CT^2 \cos^2 \theta</math> and <math>y^2=PT^2 \sin^2 \theta</math>. Well, they are not so pretty yet. So we make them pretty by dividing <math>x^2</math> by <math>CT^2</math> and <math>y^2</math> by <math>PT^2</math>, obtaining <math>\frac {x^2}{CT^2} = \cos^2 \theta</math> and <math>\frac {y^2}{PT^2} = \sin^2 \theta</math>. Voila again! <math>\frac {x^2}{CT^2} + \frac {y^2}{PT^2}=1</math> and this is exactly the algebraic formula for an ellipse.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | +                                                                                         | We should not take the concept of straight line for granted and there are many interesting, and important, issues surrounding the concepts of straight line. A serious exploration of its properties and constructions will not only give you a glimpse of geometry's all encompassing reach into science, engineering and our lives, but also make you question many of the assumptions you have about geometry. Hopefully, you will start questioning the flatness of a plane, roundness of a circle and the nature of a point and allow yourself to explore the ordinary and discover the extraordinary.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
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| -                                      | [[Image:Ellipsograph2.png|border|center|500px]]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | |other=A little Geometry                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |                                                                                           | |other=A little Geometry                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
|                                        | |AuthorName=Cornell University Libraries and the Cornell College of Engineering                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           | |AuthorName=Cornell University Libraries and the Cornell College of Engineering                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| Line 315:                              |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | Line 324:                                                                                 |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                                        | |SiteURL=http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/model.php?m=244                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |                                                                                           | |SiteURL=http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/model.php?m=244                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
|                                        | |Field=Geometry                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                                                           | |Field=Geometry                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
| -                                      | *)http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=math;cc=math;view=toc;subview=short;idno=Kemp009                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | +                                                                                         | *http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=math;cc=math;view=toc;subview=short;idno=Kemp009                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
| -                                      | *)http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/tutorials/04/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  | +                                                                                         | *http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/tutorials/04/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
| -                                      | *)http://www.howround.com/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | +                                                                                         | *http://www.howround.com/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
| -                                      | |References=How to draw a straight line: a lecture on linkages, Alfred Bray Kempe, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Library                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | *http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| -                                      |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | =Notes=                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
| -                                      | How round is your circle?, John Bryant and Chris Sangwin, Princeton, Princeton University Press                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | <references/>                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |
| -                                      | |ToDo=I need to change the size of the main picture and maybe some more theoretical description what a straight line here.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | +                                                                                         | |References=#Bryant, John, & Sangwin, Christopher. (2008). How Round is your circle?. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton Univ Pr.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
| -                                      | |InProgress=Yes                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Cundy, H.Martyn, & Rollett, A.P. (1961). Mathematical models. Clarendon, Oxford : Oxford University Press.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Henderson, David. (2001). Experiencing geometry. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice hall.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Kempe, A. B. (1877). How to Draw a straight line; a lecture on linkage. London: Macmillan and Co..                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Taimina, D. (n.d.). How to Draw a Straight Line. Retrieved from The Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library: http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/tutorials/04/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Ferguson, Eugene S. (1962). Kinematics of mechanisms from the time of watt. United States National Museum Bulletin, (228), 185-230.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Weisstein, Eric W. Great Circle. Retrieved from MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GreatCircle.html                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Wikipedia (Steam Engine). (n.d.). Steam Engine. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Wikipedia (Cartesian coordinate system). (n.d.). Cartesian coordinate system. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Wikipedia (Closed-form expression). (n.d.). Closed-form expression. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-form_expression                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
|                                        |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | +                                                                                         | #Lienhard, J. H. (1999, February 18). "I SELL HERE, SIR, WHAT ALL THE WORLD DESIRES TO HAVE -- POWER". Retrieved from The Engines of Our Ingenuity: http://www.uh.edu/engines/powersir.htm                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
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## Current revision

Drawing a Straight Line
Field: Geometry
Image Created By: Cornell University Libraries and the Cornell College of Engineering
Website: Model: S35 Peaucellier Straight-line Mechanism

Drawing a Straight Line

The image shows the first planar linkageIt is defined as a series of rigid links connected with joints to form a closed chain, or a series of closed chains. Each link has two or more joints, and the joints have various degrees of freedom to allow motion between the links. that drew a straight line without using a straight edge. Independently invented by a French army officer, Charles-Nicolas Peaucellier and a Lithuanian (who some argue was actually Russian) mathematician Lipmann Lipkin, it had important applications in engineering and mathematics.[2][3][4]

# Introduction

What is a straight line? How do you define straightness? The questions seem silly to ask because they are so intuitive. We come to accept that straightness is simply straightness and its definition, like that of point and line, is simply assumed. However, why do we not assume the definition of circle? When using a compass to draw a circle, we are not starting with a figure that we accept as circular; instead, we are using a fundamental property of circles, that the points on a circle are at a fixed distance from the center. This page explores the answer to the question "how do you construct a straight line without a straight edge?"

# What Is A Straight Line?--- A Question Rarely Asked.

Today, we simply define a line as a one-dimensional object that extents to infinity in both directions and it is straight, i.e. no wiggles along its length. But what is straightness? It is a hard question because we can picture it, but we simply cannot articulate it.  In Euclid's book Elements, he defined a straight line as "lying evenly between its extreme points" and as having "breadthless width." This definition is pretty useless. What does he mean by "lying evenly"? It tells us nothing about how to describe or construct a straight line.   So what is a straightness anyway? There are a few good answers. For instance, in the Cartesian CoordinatesA Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length., the graph of $y=ax+b$ is a straight line as shown in Image 1. In addition, the shortest distance between two points on a flat plane is a straight line, a definition we are most familiar with. However, it is important to realize that the definitions of being "shortest" and "straight" will change when you are no longer on flat plane. For example, the shortest distance between two points on a sphere is the the "great circle"A section of a sphere that contains a diameter of the sphere, and great circle is straight on the spherical surfaceas shown in Image 2. Since we are dealing with plane geometry here, we define straight line as the curve of $y=ax+b$ in Cartesian Coordinates.  For more comprehensive discussion of being straight, you can refer to the book Experiencing Geometry by David W. Henderson. Take a minute to ponder the question: "How do you produce a straight line?" Well light travels in straight line. Can we make light help us to produce something straight? Sure but does it always travel in straight line? Einstein's theory of relativity has shown (and been verified) that light is bent by gravity and therefore, our assumption that light travels in straight lines does not hold all the time. Well, another simpler method is just to fold a piece of paper and the crease will be a straight line. However, to achieve our ultimate goal (construct a straight line without a straight edge), we need a linkageIt is defined as a series of rigid links connected with joints to form a closed chain, or a series of closed chains. Each link has two or more joints, and the joints have various degrees of freedom to allow motion between the links. and that is much more complicated and difficult than folding a piece of paper. The rest of the page revolves around the discussion of straight line linkage's history and its mathematical explanation.
Image 1                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Image 2 [7]

# The Quest to Draw a Straight Line

## The Practical Need

Now having defined what a straight line is, we must figure out a way to construct it on a plane. However, the challenge is to do that without using anything that we assume to be straight such as a straight edge (or ruler) just like how we construct a circle using a compass. Historically, it has been of great interest to mathematicians and engineers not only because it is an interesting question to ponder about, but also because it has important applications in engineering. Since the invention of various steam engines and machines that are powered by them, engineers have been trying to perfect the mechanical linkage to convert all kinds of motions (especially circular motion) to linear motions.

Image 3[8]
Image 3 shows a patent drawing of an early steam engine. It is of the simplest form with a boiler (lower left corner), a cylinder with piston (above the boiler), a beam (on top, pivoted at the middle) and a pump (lower right corner) at the other end. The pump was usually used to extract water from the mines but other devices can also be driven.
[Click here to show how this engine works.]    When the piston is at its lowest position, steam is let into the cylinder from valve K to push the piston upwards. Afterward, when the piston is at it [...]  [Click here to hide text]  When the piston is at its lowest position, steam is let into the cylinder from valve K to push the piston upwards. Afterward, when the piston is at its highest position, cold water is let in from valve E, cooling the steam in the cylinder and causing the pressure in the the cylinder to drop below the atmospheric pressure. The difference in pressure causes the piston to move downwards. After the piston returns to the lowest position, the whole process is repeated. This kind of steam engine is called "atmospheric" because it utilizes atmospheric pressure to cause the downward action of the piston. Since in the downward motion, the piston pulls on the beam and in the upward motion, the beam pulls on the piston, the connection between the end of the piston rod and the beam is always in tension (it is being stretched by forces at two ends) and that is why a chain is used as the connection.[9] [10]
Ideally, the piston moves in the vertical direction and the piston rod takes only axial loading, i.e. forces applied in the direction along the rod. However, from the above picture, it is clear that the end of the piston does not move in a straight line due to the fact that the end of the beam describes an arc of a circle. As a result, horizontal forces are created and subjected onto the piston rod. Consequently, the rate of attrition is very much expedited and the efficiency of the engine is greatly compromised. Durability is important in the design of any machine, but it was especially essential for the early steam engines. For these machines were meant to run 24/7 to make profits for the investors. Therefore, such defect in the engine posed a great need for improvements.[11]

Improvements were soon developed to force the end of the piston rod move in a straight line, but these brought about new mechanical problems. The two pictures below show two improvements at the time. The hidden text explains how these improvements work and why they have failed to produce satisfactory results.
Image 4[12]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Image 5 [13]
[Click to read more about these systems.]    Firstly, "double-action" engines were built, part of which is shown in Image 4. Secondly, the beam was dispensed and replaced by a gear as shown [...]  [Hide]  Firstly, "double-action" engines were built, part of which is shown in Image 4. Secondly, the beam was dispensed and replaced by a gear as shown in Image 5.  However, both of these improvements were unsatisfactory and the need for a straight line linkage was still imperative. In Image 4, atmospheric pressure acts in both upward and downward strokes of the engine and two chains were used (one connected to the top of the arched end of the beam and one to the bottom), both of which will took turns being taut throughout one cycle. One might ask why chain was used all the time. The answer was simple: to fit the curved end of the beam. However, this does not fundamentally solve the straight line problem and unfortunately created more. The additional chain increased the height of the engine and made the manufacturing very difficult (it was hard to make straight steel bars and rods back then) and costly.   In Image 5, after the beam was replaced by gear actions, the piston rod was fitted with teeth (labeled k) to drive the gear. Theoretically, this solves the problem fundamentally. The piston rod is confined between the guiding wheel at K and the gear, and it moves only in the up-and-down motion. However, the practical problem remained unsolved. The friction and the noise between all the guideways and the wheels could not be ignored, not to mention the increased possibility of failure and cost of maintenance due to additional parts.[14]

## James Watt's breakthrough

James Watt found a mechanism that converted the linear motion of pistons in the cylinder to the semi circular motion (that is moving in an arc of the circle) of the beam (or the circular motion of the flywheel) and vice versa. In this way, energy in the vertical direction is converted to rotational energy of the flywheel from where is it converted to useful work that the engine is desired to do. In 1784, he invented a  three member linkage that solved the linear-motion-to-circular problem practically as illustrated by the animation below. In its simplest form, there are two radius arms that have the same lengths and a connecting arm with midpoint P. Point P moves in a straight line while the two hinges move in circular arcs. However, this linkage only produced approximate straight line (a stretched figure 8 actually) as shown in Image 7, much to the chagrin of the mathematicians who were after absolute straight lines. There is a more general form of the Watt's linkage that the two radius arms having different lengths like shown in Image 6. To make sure that Point P still move in the stretched figure 8, it has to be positioned such that it adheres to the ratio$\frac{AB}{CD} = \frac{CP}{CB}$.[15]

Image 6 [16]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Image 7 [17]

## The Motion of Point P

We intend to describe the path of $P$ so that we can show it does not move in a straight line (which is obvious in the animation). More importantly, this will allow us to pinpoint the position of $P$ using certain parameters we know, such as the angle of rotation or one coordinate of point $P$. This is awfully crucial in engineering as engineers would like to know that there are no two parts of the machine will collide with each other throughout the motion. In addition, you can use the parametrization to create your own animation like that in Image 7.

### Algebraic Description

We see that $P$ moves in a stretched figure 8 and will tend to think that there should be a nice closed formIn mathematics, an expression is said to be a closed-form expression if, and only if, it can be expressed analytically in terms of a bounded number of certain "well-known" functions. Typically, these well-known functions are defined to be elementary functions – constants, one variable x, elementary operations of arithmetic (+ – × ÷), nth roots, exponent and logarithm (which thus also include trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions).  of the relationship of the $x$ and $y$ coordinates of $P$ like that of the circle. After this section, you will see that there is a closed form, at least theoretically, but it is not "nice" at all.

Image 8
[Show derivation of the relationship of the $x$ and $y$ coordinates of $P$.]   We know coordinates ${\color{Gray}A}$ and ${\color{Gray}D}$ because they are fixed.[Hide] We know coordinates $A$ and $D$ because they are fixed. Hence suppose the coordinates of $A$ are $(0,0)$ and coordinates of $B$ are $(c,d)$. We also know the length of the bar. Let $AB=CD=r, BC=m$.  Suppose that at one instance we know the coordinates of $B$ as $(a,b)$, then $C$ will be on the circle centered at $B$ with a radius of $m$. Since $C$ is on the circle centered at $D$ with radius $r$. Then the coordinates of $C$ have to satisfy the two equations below. $\begin{cases} (x-a)^2+(y-b)^2=m^2 \\ (x-c)^2+(y-d)^2=r^2 \end{cases}$ Now, since we know that $B$ is on the circle centered at $A$ with radius $r$, the coordinates of $B$ have to satisfy the equation $a^2+b^2=r^2$. Therefore, the coordinates of $C$ have to satisfy the three equations below. $\begin{cases} (x-a)^2+(y-b)^2=m^2 \\ (x-c)^2+(y-d)^2=r^2 \\ a^2+b^2=r^2 \end{cases}$  Now, expanding the first two equations we have,           $x^2+y^2-2ax-2by+a^2+b^2=m^2$          $x^2+y^2-2cx-2dy+c^2+d^2=r^2$    Subtract Eq. 2 from Eq. 1 we have,           $(-2a+2c)x-(2b-2d)y+(a^2+b^2)-(c^2+d^2)=m^2-r^2$  Substituting $a^2+b^2=r^2$ and rearranging we have, $(-2a+2c)x-(2b-2d)y=m^2-2r^2+c^2+d^2$ Hence            $y=\frac {-2a+2c}{2b-2d}x-\frac {m^2-2r^2+c^2+d^2}{2b-2d}$  Now, we can manipulate Eq. 3 to get an expression for $b$, i.e. $b=f(a,c,d,m,r,x,y)$. Next, we substitute $b=f(a,c,d,m,r,x,y)$ back into Eq. 1 and will be able to obtain an expression for $a$, i.e. $a=g(x,y,d,c,m,r)$. Since $b=\pm \sqrt {r^2-a^2}$, we have expressions of $a$ and $b$ in terms of $x,y,d,c,m$ and $r$. Say point $P$ has coordinates $(x',y')$, then $x'=\frac {a+x}{2}$ and $y'=\frac {b+y}{2}$ which will yield           $x=2x'-a$           $y=2y'-b$   In the last step we substitute $a=g(x,y,d,c,m,r)$,$b=\pm \sqrt {r^2-a^2}$, Eq. 5 and Eq. 6 back into Eq. 4 and we will finally have a relationship between $x'$ and $y'$. Of course, it will be a messy closed form but we could definitely use Mathematica to do the maths. The point is, there is no nice algebraic form for that figure 8, though it has closed form and that is why we have to find something else.

### Parametric Description

Alright, since the algebraic equations are not agreeable at all, we have to resort to the parametric description. To think about, it may be more manageable to describe the motion of $P$ using the angle of ratation. As a matter of fact, it is easier to obtain the angle of rotation than knowing one of $P$'s coordinates.

Image 9
[Show parameterization of $P$.]   We will parametrize the ${\color{Gray}P}$ with the angle ${\color{Gray}\theta}$ in conformation of most para [...] [Hide] We will parametrize the $P$ with the angle $\theta$ in conformation of most parametrizations of point. $\begin{cases} \overrightarrow {AB} = (r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta) \\ \overrightarrow {BC} = (m \sin (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha), m \cos (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha)) \\ \end{cases}$ Now let $BD=l$. Then using cosine formula, we have $m^2+l^2-2ml\cos \alpha = r^2$ As a result, we can express $\alpha$ and $\beta$ as $\alpha = \cos^{-1} \frac {m^2+l^2-r^2}{2ml}$ Since $l = \sqrt{(c-r \sin \theta)^2+(d-r \cos \theta)^2}$, $c$ and $d$ being the coordinates of point $D$, we can find $\alpha$ in terms of $\theta$. Furthermore, $\begin{align} \overrightarrow {BD} & = \overrightarrow {AD}-\overrightarrow {AB} \\ & = (c,d) - (r\sin \theta, r \cos \theta) \\ & = (c - r\sin \theta, d - r \cos \theta) \end{align}$ Therefore, $\beta = \tan^{-1}\frac {d-r \cos \theta}{c - r \sin \theta}$ Hence,  $\begin{align} \overrightarrow {AP} & = \overrightarrow {AB} + \frac {1}{2} \overrightarrow {BC} \\ & = (r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta) + \frac {m}{2}(\sin (\frac {\pi}{2} + \alpha + \beta), \cos (\frac {\pi}{2} + \alpha + \beta)) \\ \end{align}$ Now, $\overrightarrow {AP}$ is parametrized in term of $\theta, c, d, r$ and $m$.

Image 10 [19]

## Watt's Secret

Another reason we parameterized $P$ is that Watt did not simply used that three bar linkage shown in Image 6 and Image 7. Instead he used something different. To understand that, our knowledge of the parameterizaion of $P$ is crucial. Imitations were a big problems back in those days. When filing for a patent, James Watt and other inventors had to explain how their devices worked without revealing the critical secrets so that others could easily copy them. As shown in Image 10, the original patent illustration, Watt illustrated his simple linkage on a separate diagram on the upper left hand corner but try looking for it on the engine illustration itself. Can you find it at all? That is Watt's secret. This is the equivalent of telling you by using the principle of 1+1 makes 2 you could get 34 x 45; the crucial step in understanding (and to make the engine work smoothly in Watt's case) is avoided. What he had actually used on his engine was the modified version of the basic linkage as show in Image 11.  The link $ABCD$ is the original three member linkage with $AB=CD$ and point $P$ being the midpoint of $BC$. A is the pivot of the beam fixed on the engine frame while D is also fixed. However, Watt modified it by adding a parallelogram $BCFE$ to it and connecting point $F$ to the piston rod. We now know that point $P$ moves in quasi straight line as shown previously. It is important for two points to move in straight lines now is because one has to be connected to the piston rod that drives the beam, another has to convert the circular motion to linear motion so as to drive the valve gears that control the opening and closing of the valves. It turns out that point F moves in a similar quasi straight line as point P. This is the truly famous James Watt's "parallel motion" linkage.

Image 11                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Image 12
[How would we find the parametric equation for point $F$ then?]   Well, it is easy enough. Refer to Image 12.[Hide] Well, it is easy enough. Refer to Image 12. $\overrightarrow {AB} = (r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta)\therefore \overrightarrow {AE} = \frac {e+f}{r}(r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta)$. Furthermore $\overrightarrow {AF} = \overrightarrow {AE} + \overrightarrow {BC}$. Therefore, $\overrightarrow {AF} = \frac {e+r}{r}(r \sin \theta, r \cos \theta) + (m \sin (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha), m \cos (\frac {\pi}{2} + \beta + \alpha))$. We now have the parameterization of point $F$ and $P$ and Watt's secret is eventually cracked.

## The First Planar Straight Line Linkage - Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage

Image 13 [20]                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Anyway, mathematicians and engineers had being searching for almost a century to find the solution to a straight line linkage but all had failed until 1864 when a French army officer Charles Nicolas Peaucellier came up with his inversor linkage. Interestingly, he did not publish his findings and proof until 1873, when Lipmann I. Lipkin, a student from University of St. Petersburg, demonstrated the same working model at the World Exhibition in Vienna. Peaucellier acknowledged Lipkin's independent findings with the publication of the details of his discovery in 1864 and the mathematical proof. Taimina

Image 14
Let's turn to a skeleton drawing of the Peaucellier-Lipkin linkage in Image 14. It is constructed in such a way that $OA = OB$ and $AC=CB=BP=PA$. Furthermore, all the bars are free to rotate at every joint and point $O$ is a fixed pivot. Due to the symmetrical construction of the linkage, it goes without proof that points $O$,$C$ and $P$ lie in a straight line. Construct lines $OCP$ and $AB$ and they meet at point $M$. Since shape $APBC$ is a rhombus $AB \perp CP$ and $CM = MP$ Now, $(OA)^2 = (OM)^2 + (AM)^2$ $(AP)^2 = (PM)^2 + (AM)^2$ Therefore,  $\begin{align} (OA)^2 - (AP)^2 & = (OM)^2 - (PM)^2\\ & = (OM-PM)\cdot(OM + PM)\\ & = OC \cdot OP\\ \end{align}$ Let's take a moment to look at the relation $(OA)^2 - (AP)^2 = OC \cdot OP$. Since the length $OA$ and $AP$ are of constant length, then the product $OC \cdot OP$ is of constant value however you change the shape of this construction.

Image 15
Refer to Image 15. Let's fix the path of point $C$ such that it traces out a circle that has point $O$ on it. $QC$ is the extra link pivoted to the fixed point $Q$ with $QC=QO$. Construct line $OQ$ that cuts the circle at point $R$. In addition, construct line $PN$ such that $PN \perp OR$. Since, $\angle OCR = 90^\circ$  We have $\vartriangle OCR \sim \vartriangle ONP and \frac{OC}{OR} = \frac{ON}{OP}$. Moreover $OC \cdot OP = ON \cdot OR$. Therefore $ON = \frac {OC \cdot OP}{OR} =$constant, i.e. the length of $ON$(or the x-coordinate of $P$ w.r.t $O$) does not change as points $C$ and $P$ move. Hence, point $P$ moves in a straight line. ∎[21]

## Inversive Geometry in Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage

As a matter of fact, the first part of the proof given above is already sufficient. Due to inversive geometry, once we have shown that points $O$,$C$ and $P$ are collinear and that $OC \cdot OP$ is of constant value. Points $C$ and $P$ are inversive pairs with $O$ as inversive center. Therefore, once $C$ moves in a circle that contains $O$, then $P$ will move in a straight line and vice versa. ∎ See Inversion for more detail.

## Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage in Action

Image 16
The new linkage caused considerable excitement in London. Mr. Prim, "engineer to the House", utilized the new compact form invented by H.Hart to fit his new blowing engine which proved to be "exceptionally quiet in their operation."  In this compact form, $DA=DC$, $AF=CF$ and $AB = BC$. Point $E$ and $F$ are fixed pivots. In Image 16. F is the inversive center and points $D$,$F$ and $B$ are collinear and $DF \cdot DB$ is of constant value.

Image 17
Mr. Prim's blowing engine used for ventilating the House of Commons, 1877. The crosshead of the reciprocating air pump is guided by a Peaucellier linkage shown in the middle of Image 17. Prim's machine was driven by a steam engine.[22]

## Hart's Linkage

After the Peaucellier-Lipkin Linkage was introduced to England in 1874, Mr. Hart of Woolwich Academy [23] devised a new linkage that contained only four links which is the blue part as shown in Image 18. The next part will prove that point $O$ is the inversion center with $OP$ and $OQ$ collinear and $OP \cdot OQ =$ constant. When point $P$ is constrained to move in a circle that passes through point $O$, then point $Q$ will trace out a straight line. See below for proof.

Image 18
We know that $AB = CD, BC = AD$ As a result, $BD \parallel AC$ Draw line $OQ \parallel AC$, intersecting $AD$ at point $P$. Consequently, points $O,P,Q$ are collinear Construct rectangle $EFCA$  $\begin{align} AC \cdot BD & = EF \cdot BD \\ & = (ED + EB) \cdot (ED - EB) \\ & = (ED)^2 - (EB)^2 \\ \end{align}$ For $\begin{array}{lcl} (ED)^2 + (AE)^2 & = & (AD)^2 \\ (EB)^2 + (AE)^2 & = & (AB)^2 \end{array}$, we then have $AC \cdot BD = (ED)^2 - (EB)^2 = (AD)^2 - (AB)^2$. Further, let's define $\frac{OP}{BD} = m, hence \frac{OQ}{AC} = 1-m$ where $0<m<1$ We finally have $\begin{align} OP \cdot OQ & = m(1-m)BD \cdot AC\\ & = m(1-m)((AD)^2 - (AB)^2) \end{align}$which is what we wanted to prove.

## Other Straight Line Mechanism

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| Image 19                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | Image 20 | Image 21 [24] |
| There are many other mechanisms that create straight line. I will only introduce one of them here. Refer to Image 19. Consider two circles $C_1$ and $C_2$ with radius having the relation $2r_2=r_1$. We roll $C_2$ inside $C_1$ without slipping as show in Image 20. Then the arch lengths $r_1\beta = r_2\alpha$. Voila! $\alpha = 2\beta$ and point $C$ has to be on the line joining the original points $P$ and $Q$! The same argument goes for point $P$. As a result, point $C$ moves in the horizontal line and point $P$ moves in the vertical line. In 1801, James White patented his mechanism using this rolling motion. It is shown in Image 21 [25].                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |          |               |
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| Image 22                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |          |               |
| Interestingly, if you attach a rod of fixed length to point $C$ and $P$ and the end of the rod $T$ will trace out an ellipse as seen in Image 22. Why? Consider the coordinates of $P$ in terms of $\theta$, $PT$ and $CT$. Point $T$ will have the coordinates $(CT \cos \theta, PT \sin \theta)$. Now, whenever we see $\cos \theta$ and $\sin \theta$ together, we want to square them. Hence, $x^2=CT^2 \cos^2 \theta$ and $y^2=PT^2 \sin^2 \theta$.  Well, they are not so pretty yet. So we make them pretty by dividing $x^2$ by $CT^2$ and $y^2$ by $PT^2$, obtaining $\frac {x^2}{CT^2} = \cos^2 \theta$ and $\frac {y^2}{PT^2} = \sin^2 \theta$. Voila again! $\frac {x^2}{CT^2} + \frac {y^2}{PT^2}=1$ and this is exactly the algebraic formula for an ellipse. [26] |          |               |

# Conclusion---The Take Home Message

We should not take the concept of straight line for granted and there are many interesting, and important, issues surrounding the concepts of straight line. A serious exploration of its properties and constructions will not only give you a glimpse of geometry's all encompassing reach into science, engineering and our lives, but also make you question many of the assumptions you have about geometry. Hopefully, you will start questioning the flatness of a plane, roundness of a circle and the nature of a point and allow yourself to explore the ordinary and discover the extraordinary.

# Teaching Materials

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# About the Creator of this Image

KMODDL is a collection of mechanical models and related resources for teaching the principles of kinematics--the geometry of pure motion. The core of KMODDL is the Reuleaux Collection of Mechanisms and Machines, an important collection of 19th-century machine elements held by Cornell's Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.

# Notes

2. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 34
3. ↑ Kempe, 1877, p. 12
4. ↑ Taimina
5. ↑ Wikipedia (Cartesian coordinate system)
7. ↑ Weisstein
8. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18
9. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18
10. ↑ Wikipedia (Steam Engine)
11. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21
12. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21
13. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21
14. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 18-21
15. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 24
16. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 23
18. ↑ Wikipedia (Closed-form expression)
19. ↑ Lienhard, 1999, February 18
21. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p. 33-36
22. ↑ Ferguson, 1962, p. 205
23. ↑ Kempe, 1877, p. 18
24. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p.44
25. ↑ Bryant, & Sangwin, 2008, p.42-44
26. ↑ Cundy, & Rollett, 1961, p. 240

# References

1. Bryant, John, & Sangwin, Christopher. (2008). How Round is your circle?. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton Univ Pr.
2. Cundy, H.Martyn, & Rollett, A.P. (1961). Mathematical models. Clarendon, Oxford : Oxford University Press.
3. Henderson, David. (2001). Experiencing geometry. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice hall.
4. Kempe, A. B. (1877). How to Draw a straight line; a lecture on linkage. London: Macmillan and Co..
5. Taimina, D. (n.d.). How to Draw a Straight Line. Retrieved from The Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library: http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/tutorials/04/
6. Ferguson, Eugene S. (1962). Kinematics of mechanisms from the time of watt. United States National Museum Bulletin, (228), 185-230.
7. Weisstein, Eric W. Great Circle. Retrieved from MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GreatCircle.html
10. Wikipedia (Cartesian coordinate system). (n.d.). Cartesian coordinate system. Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system
13. Lienhard, J. H. (1999, February 18). "I SELL HERE, SIR, WHAT ALL THE WORLD DESIRES TO HAVE -- POWER". Retrieved from The Engines of Our Ingenuity: http://www.uh.edu/engines/powersir.htm

Leave a message on the discussion page by clicking the 'discussion' tab at the top of this image page.

```   |colspan="2"|Today, we simply define a line as a one-dimensional object that extents to infinity in both directions and it is straight, i.e. no wiggles along its length. But what is straightness? It is a hard question because we can picture it, but we simply cannot articulate it. 
```

In Euclid's book Elements, he defined a straight line as "lying evenly between its extreme points" and as having "breadthless width." This definition is pretty useless. What does he mean by "lying evenly"? It tells us nothing about how to describe or construct a straight line.

So what is a straightness anyway? There are a few good answers. For instance, in the Cartesian CoordinatesA Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length., the graph of $y=ax+b$ is a straight line as shown in Image 1. In addition, the shortest distance between two points on a flat plane is a straight line, a definition we are most familiar with. However, it is important to realize that the definitions of being "shortest" and "straight" will change when you are no longer on flat plane. For example, the shortest distance between two points on a sphere is the the "great circle"A section of a sphere that contains a diameter of the sphere, and great circle is straight on the spherical surfaceas shown in Image 2.

Since we are dealing with plane geometry here, we define straight line as the curve of $y=ax+b$ in Cartesian Coordinates.

For more comprehensive discussion of being straight, you can refer to the book Experiencing Geometry by David W. Henderson.

Take a minute to ponder the question: "How do you produce a straight line?" Well light travels in straight line. Can we make light help us to produce something straight? Sure but does it always travel in straight line? Einstein's theory of relativity has shown (and been verified) that light is bent by gravity and therefore, our assumption that light travels in straight lines does not hold all the time. Well, another simpler method is just to fold a piece of paper and the crease will be a straight line. However, to achieve our ultimate goal (construct a straight line without a straight edge), we need a linkageIt is defined as a series of rigid links connected with joints to form a closed chain, or a series of closed chains. Each link has two or more joints, and the joints have various degrees of freedom to allow motion between the links. and that is much more complicated and difficult than folding a piece of paper. The rest of the page revolves around the discussion of straight line linkage's history and its mathematical explanation. |-

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