Portsmouth is a city in and the county seat of Scioto County, Ohio, United States.[6]  Located in southern Ohio 41 miles (66km) south of Chillicothe, it lies on the north bank of the Ohio River, across from Kentucky, just east of the mouth of the Scioto River. The population was 20,226 at the 2010 census.
History
Foundation
According to early 20th-century historian Charles Augustus Hanna, a Shawnee village was founded at the site of modern-day Portsmouth in late 1758, following the destruction of Lower Shawneetown by floods.[7]
European-Americans began to settle in the 1790s after the American Revolutionary War, and the small town of Alexandria was founded.[8] Located at the confluence, Alexandria was flooded numerous times by the Ohio and the Scioto rivers.
In 1803, Henry Massie found a better location slightly east and somewhat removed from the flood plains. He began to plot the new city by mapping the streets and distributing the land. Portsmouth was founded in 1803 and was established as a city in 1815. It was designated as the county seat. Settlers left Alexandria, and it soon disappeared.
The Ohio state legislature passed "Black Laws" in 1804 that restricted movement of free blacks and required persons to carry papers, in an effort to dissuade blacks from settling in the state. These provisions were intermittently enforced by local governments and law enforcement, and sometimes used as an excuse to force African Americans out of settlements. In 1831, Portsmouth drove out African Americans from the city under this pretext. Many settled several miles north in what became known as Huston's Hollow, along the Scioto River. Its residents, especially Joseph Love and Dan Lucas, provided aid to refugee slaves in the following years and assisted them in moving north.[9]
Although southern Ohio was dominated in number by anti-abolitionist settlers from the South, some whites also worked to improve conditions for blacks and aid refugee slaves. Portsmouth became important in the antebellum years as part of the Underground Railroad. Fugitive slaves from Kentucky and other parts of the South crossed the Ohio River here. Some found their future in Portsmouth; others moved north along the Scioto River to reach Detroit, Michigan, and get further away from slave catchers. Many continued into Canada to secure their freedom.[10] A historical marker near the Grant Bridge commemorates this period of Portsmouth's history.[11] James Ashley of Portsmouth continued his activism and pursued a political career. After being elected to Congress, he wrote the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in 1865 after the American Civil War.[12]
Portsmouth quickly developed an industrial base due to its location at the confluence of the Ohio and Scioto rivers. Early industrial growth included having meat packing and shipping facilities for Thomas Worthington's Chillicothe farm, located north of Portsmouth on the Scioto River.  The city's growth was stimulated by completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal in the 1820s and 1830s,[13] which provided access to the Great Lakes, opening up northern markets.
But the construction of the Norfolk and Western (N&W) railyards beginning in 1838 and the completion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) junction at the city in the late 1850s quickly surpassed the canal in stimulating growth. The railroads soon carried more freight than the canal, with the B&O connecting the city to the Baltimore and Washington, DC markets. By the end of the 19th century, Portsmouth became one of the most important industrial cities on the Ohio River between Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Cincinnati, Ohio.
20th century
The city's growth continued. By 1916, during World War I, Portsmouth was listed as being a major industrial and jobbing center, the fourth-largest shoe manufacturing center in the country, and the largest manufacturer of fire and paving bricks in the United States. Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel (later called Empire-Detroit Steel) employed over one thousand people. There were 100 other manufacturing companies producing goods from furniture to engines.[14]
Such industrial and shipping growth greatly benefited Boneyfiddle (a west-end neighborhood in Portsmouth), where grand buildings were constructed with the wealth from the commerce. As time passed, much of the commerce began to move toward Chillicothe Street, which has continued as the main thoroughfare of Portsmouth. While Boneyfiddle is receiving new life, it is a shadow of its former self.
The city population peaked at just over 42,000 in 1930 (see "Demographics", below). In 1931, the Norfolk Southern Corporation built a grand, art deco passenger station in Portsmouth, that provided a substantial entry to the city. It was located at 16th and Findlay streets. Passengers used the station for access to both interstate and intrastate train lines, which provided basic transportation for many. The widespread availability of affordable automobiles and changing patterns resulted in reduction in rail passenger traffic here and nationally. The station was later used for offices and its keys were turned over to Scioto County in 2003, and the building was demolished in 2004.[15]
Suburbanization also affected the city. By the 1950 census, the population had begun to decline, falling below 40,000. Some of this change was due to the effects of highway construction, which stimulated suburban residential development in the postwar years. But during the late 20th century, foreign competition and industrial restructuring resulted in the loss of most of the industrial jobs on which Portsmouth's economy had been based; the jobs were moved out of the area, with many going overseas.
Further decline occurred in 1980, following the suspension of operations at Empire Detroit Steel's Portsmouth Works, which took place after the sale of the steel plant to Armco Steel. Armco Steel closed the plant because they did not want to replace the obsolete, Open Hearth Furnaces with the more efficient basic oxygen steel furnaces. The plant also needed a continuous caster to replace the obsolete soaking pits and blooming mill in 1995. When the steel mill was closed, 1,300 steelworkers were laid off.
21st century
As of 2010, Portsmouth has a population of approximately 20,000. It has shared in the loss of jobs due to unskilled labor outsourcing and population migration to more populous urban areas.
Despite its relatively small size, Portsmouth has been a regular stop for recent Presidential campaigns of the 21st century. In September 2004, George W. Bush visited the city as part of his reelection campaign.[16]  Vice Presidential candidate John Edwards also visited Portsmouth that month.[17] The campaigns of 2008 resulted in numerous candidates and surrogates visiting Portsmouth, and some spoke at Shawnee State University: Bill Clinton on behalf of his wife Hillary Clinton,[18] Republican candidate John McCain,[19] and US Senator Barack Obama,[20] who won the election. In 2012, candidate Mitt Romney spoke at Shawnee State University.[21] In March 2016, Bill Clinton visited Portsmouth again to campaign for his wife, presidential candidate Hillary Clinton.[22]
Portsmouth, and other parts of Scioto County, have worked to redevelop blighted properties and create a new economy. After the Scioto County Port Authority secured an initial $30,000 grant from the Scioto Foundation, the Scioto County Land Reutilization Corporation received $2.725 million from the Ohio Housing Finance Agency (OHFA) through the Neighborhood Initiative Program (NIP).[23]  Along with adapting disused residential properties, Portsmouth has begun the process of transforming abandoned industrial and commercial properties to other uses.
Its industrial past resulted in environmental problems at some sites. Portsmouth was one of 172 communities to receive 279 grants totaling $56.8 million in EPA Brownfields funding through the Environmental Protection Agency's Assessment and Cleanup Grants. The Southern Ohio Port Authority (SOPA) received grant funding in 2017 of $300,000 as part of a program offered through the EPA in an effort to cleanup former industrial sites for other uses.  These funds provide aid to under-served and economically disadvantaged communities through the assessment and cleanup of abandoned industrial and commercial properties. They expand the ability of communities to recycle vacant and abandoned properties for new, productive reuses.[24]
The city has also initiated new developments in its downtown. The Ohio Legislature passed House Bill 233 on April 20, 2016 to authorize cities to create Downtown Redevelopment Districts. They operate similarly to a Tax Increment Finance (TIF) District. The city of Portsmouth formed a Downtown Redevelopment District (DRD) in 2017 in the Boneyfiddle neighborhood of the city to increase investment and development there.[25]
Through the early 21st century, there has been a noticeable increase in investment in Portsmouth's local economy.  The Southern Ohio Port Authority has worked with the Joint Economic Development Initiative of Southern Ohio (JEDISO) to secure funding for local business.  A grant through JEDISO from the Fluor-BWXT Opportunity was awarded to YEI Technology, PatterFam Sauces, Tri-America Contractors, Appalachian Wood Flooring (Phase 1) and Columbia Gas Regional Headquarters.  The grants resulted in 48 jobs created and 225 jobs retained.[26] New investments and developments in the local economy led to Portsmouth's inclusion in Site Selection Magazine's "Top 10 Micropolitan areas". Celina, Defiance and Portsmouth were among a group of cities tied for 10th. Portsmouth attracted nine significant economic development projects in 2016, nearly as many as it had from 2004-2013 combined.[26][27]
In 2016, Portsmouth was identified as one of the semi-finalists in the America's Best Communities competition.[28] In its Community Revitalization Plan, Portsmouth emphasized using its most valuable asset, the Ohio River, as a key to revitalizing the city. Its goal is to improve commercial and community access to the Portsmouth riverfront by making the port a premier regional destination for industrial development, small business development, and riverfront recreation.[29]
The America's Best Communities competition led to the city identifying Spartan Municipal Stadium as an invaluable asset for such development.[30] The city was recently awarded $25,000 in funding toward its renovation.[31]
Demographics

Historical populationCensusPop.%±1820527—18301,378161.5%18401,54412.0%18504,011159.8%18606,26856.3%187010,59269.0%188011,3216.9%189012,3949.5%190017,87044.2%191023,48131.4%192033,01140.6%193042,56028.9%194040,466−4.9%195036,798−9.1%196033,637−8.6%197027,633−17.8%198025,993−5.9%199022,676−12.8%200020,909−7.8%201020,226−3.3%Est. 201720,443[32]1.1%Sources:[4][33][34][35]
2010 census
As of the census[2] of 2010, there were 20,226 people, 8,286 households, and 4,707 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,885.0 inhabitants per square mile (727.8/km2). There were 9,339 housing units at an average density of 870.4 per square mile (336.1/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 90.1% White, 5.1% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.
There were 8,286 households out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.9% were married couples living together, 17.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.2% were non-families. 35.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.93.
The median age in the city was 36.1 years. 21.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.2% were from 45 to 64; and 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.4% male and 53.6% female.
2000 census
As of the census[4] of 2000, there were 20,909 people, 9,120 households, and 5,216 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,941.4 people per square mile (749.6/km²). There were 10,248 housing units at an average density of 951.5 per square mile
(367.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 91.50% White, 5.00% African American, 0.63% Native American, 0.61% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.32% from other races, and 1.92% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.93% of the population.
There were 9,120 households out of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.9% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.8% were non-families. 37.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.87.
In the city the population was spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 21.2% from 45 to 64, and 19.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $23,004, and the median income for a family was $31,237. Males had a median income of $31,521 versus $20,896 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,078. About 18.3% of families and 23.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.1% of those under age 18 and 14.5% of those age 65 or over.
Geography

Portsmouth is at the confluence of the Ohio, Scioto, and Little Scioto rivers. It is a midway point among four major cities: Charleston, West Virginia, Cincinnati and Columbus, Ohio; and Lexington, Kentucky, each of which are approximately ninety miles away (roughly a two-hour drive).
Much of the terrain is quite hilly due to dissected plateau around it. Both rivers have carved valleys and Portsmouth lies next to both the Scioto and Ohio rivers. It is within the ecoregion of the Western Allegheny Plateau.[36] According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.07 square miles (28.67km2), of which 10.73 square miles (27.79km2) is land and 0.34 square miles (0.88km2) is water.[1]
Neighborhoods
Sciotoville - located 5 miles (8.0km) in the eastern part of Portsmouth off US 52 at Ohio 335; it is sometimes known as East Portsmouth, but it is within the city limits, with about 10% of the city's population living there.
North Moreland - a community within Portsmouth, north of the Village of New Boston. North Moreland connects the larger western section of Portsmouth with Sciotoville.
Boneyfiddle - several blocks west of downtown Portsmouth, generally centered around the Market St./2nd St. intersection
Hilltop - residential neighborhoods in Portsmouth located north of 17th St., west of Thomas Ave and east of Scioto Trail

Government
City government

The city charter was adopted on November 6, 1928. The city conducts business at their city hall, which was constructed in 1935. City council meetings are held during the second and fourth weeks in the month. The city reverted from being run by a city manager to a mayor in 1988, with the mayor being elected every four years.
In 2012 voters approved returning to a City Manager/Council form of government; this took effect in January 2014. Under the City Manager/Council system, the mayor and vice-mayor are elected members of the city council who are appointed to their positions by the council. The city manager is hired by and reports directly to the council. The city manager oversees the day-to-day operations of city government and is the direct supervisor of all city department heads. There are six wards in the city with elections of council members from the wards every two years.
The City Manager is Sam Sutherland.[37]
[38]
County government

Portsmouth is the county seat for Scioto County. The courthouse is located at the corner of Sixth and Court Streets and was constructed in 1936. The sheriff's office and county jail, once located in the courthouse, are located in a new facility, constructed in 2006 at the former site of the Norfolk and Western rail depot near U.S. 23.
County Commissioners:
Bryan K. Davis, Chairman
Michael Crabtree
Cathy E. Coleman
The county commissioners meet twice weekly on Tuesday and Thursdays at 9:30 am in room 107 on the first floor of the Scioto County Courthouse.
Economy
Portsmouth major employers include Southern Ohio Medical Center, Kings Daughters Medical Center, Shawnee State University, Norfolk Southern Corp.(Railroad), Southern Ohio Correctional Facility and OSCO Industries.  In November 2002, the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant in nearby Piketon, Ohio was recognized as a Nuclear Historic Landmark by the American Nuclear Society. It had served a military function from 1952 until the mid-1960s, when the mission changed from enriching uranium for nuclear weapons to one focused on producing fuel for commercial nuclear power plants. The Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant ended enriching operations in 2001 and began to support operational and administrative functions and perform external contract work. The site is currently being cleaned up for future development by Fluor/ B&W.
Graf Brothers Flooring and Lumber, the world's largest manufacturer of rift and quartered oak products, has two satellite log yards in Portsmouth, with the company's main office being located across the river in South Shore, Kentucky. Portsmouth is the home of Sole Choice Inc., one of the largest manufacturers of shoelaces in the world.
Transportation

Highways
Portsmouth is served by two major U.S. Routes: 23 and 52. Other significant roads include Ohio State Routes 73, 104,
139, 140, and 335. The nearest Interstate highway is I-64.
Interstate 73 is planned to use the newly built Portsmouth bypass en route from North Carolina To Michigan. The I-74 Extension is planned to use US 52 through Portsmouth, running concurrently with I-73 on the eastern side of Portsmouth
Rail

Portsmouth is an important location in the Norfolk Southern Railway network. Norfolk Southern operates a railyard and locomotive maintenance facility for its long distance shipping route between the coalfields of West Virginia and points east, to the Great Lakes. Competitor CSX Transportation operates a former Chesapeake & Ohio Railway line just east of the city in Sciotoville, which crosses the Ohio River on the historic Sciotoville Bridge. Amtrak offers passenger service to the Portsmouth area on its Cardinal route between New York City and Chicago. The passenger station is located on CSX Transportation-owned track in South Shore, Kentucky, across the Ohio River from Portsmouth.
Air
Portsmouth is served by the Greater Portsmouth Regional Airport (PMH), a general aviation airport. The airport is located in Minford, Ohio, approximately 12 miles (19km) northeast of the city. The nearest commercial airport is Tri-State Airport (HTS) in Ceredo, West Virginia, approximately 3 miles (4.8km) outside Huntington, West Virginia and 53 miles (85km) southeast of Portsmouth.
Public transportation
Public transportation for Portsmouth and its outlying areas is offered through Access Scioto County (ASC).[39]
Education
Colleges and universities

Portsmouth is the home of Shawnee State University, a public institution established in 1986. It is Ohio's thirteenth and newest institution of higher education.[40]

K-12 schools

Portsmouth has one public and two private school systems (the Notre Dame schools and the Portsmouth STEM Academy). The Portsmouth
City School District has served the city since its founding in the 1830s and is the public school in the city. Portsmouth City School District is notable having a storied basketball tradition by winning four OSHAA State Basketball Championships in 1931, 1961, 1978, and 1988.[41] The Trojan basketball team has made 14 final four appearances, they are 1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1931 (1st), 1934 (2nd), 1939, 1941, 1961 (1st), 1978 (1st), 1980 (2nd), 1988 (1st), 1990 (2nd).[42] and 2012 (2nd).  The Trojan football team has also produced some notable teams as of late with an Associated Press Division 3 State Championship in 2000, a regional title, and state semi-final appearance in 2000, and finishing as regional runner up in both 2001, and 2002. In all the Trojans football team has sent 5 teams to the post season since 2000, as of the start of the 2009 season.[43][44]
In 2000, Portsmouth voters passed a much needed school bond issue, which helped construct new schools for the district. The new schools opened for the 2006–2007 school year. These schools won the Grand Prize from School Planning & Management's 2007 Education Design Showcase. The award is awarded annually to the K-12 school that displays "excellence in design and functional planning directed toward meeting the needs of the educational program."[45][46] In addition, the school system plans to build a new $10 million athletic complex.[47]
Portsmouth High School has an award-winning Interactive Media program that has won multiple awards for both video and graphic design. The class is under the direction of Chris Cole and the
students run the local cable station TNN CH25.

In 2009 the school system completed construction on a new $10 million athletic complex. The 25-acre (10ha) Clark Athletic Complex[48] has a new football field, baseball field, softball field, tennis courts, and track.[47] The complex is named for Clyde and Maycel Clark of the Clark Foundation, major financial contributors for the construction of the facility.[49] The new complex, situated on the site of the former high school building and across the street from the current high school, has three paintings by mural artist Herb Roe, a 1992 Portsmouth High School alumnus.[50] The murals depict three of the sports played at the new facility: baseball, tennis, and football.

Notre Dame (Catholic) Schools(formerly Portsmouth Central Catholic HS) have served the city's Roman Catholics and others since 1852. It is also notable for its
football team, founded in 1929. It won two state championships in 1967 and 1970.[41]
Prescription Drug Epidemic

We have a very high addiction rates in addition to the death rates. A lot of young people are addicted. Our treatment facilities are overwhelmed. The court systems are overwhelmed.—Lisa Roberts, registered nurse with the Portsmouth City Health Department (2010)[51]

Since the late 1990s and problems of unemployment, an epidemic of prescription drug abuse has swept the town and surrounding areas.[52] It has caused a dramatic increase in Hepatitis C cases in the county,[53] drug-related deaths,[54] robberies,[55][56][57] murder,[58] and an increased incidence of children born addicted to prescription drugs.[52] The most prevalent drug is OxyContin, a synthetic opiate originally developed as a cancer drug, known colloquially as oxys and hillbilly heroin (because of the drug's association with Appalachian areas of Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia).[59]
The crisis is blamed on the proliferation of cash-only pain clinics, known as "pill mills" by locals. According to authorities, there are eight such clinics in Scioto County alone,[54] the largest concentration of such operations per capita in any of Ohio's counties.[60] The clinics began opening in the late 1990s, after state legislators passed a law stating that doctors could not be prosecuted for prescribing painkillers as long as they had examined and documented that a patient was in intractable pain and needed the medication.[61] The slightly more than half a dozen pain clinics dispense nearly 35 million pills a year,[52] or, according to 2008 state pharmacy board statistics, roughly 460 pills for every resident in a county of 76,000 people.[62]
The geographic location has played a role in the size of the problem, with Portsmouth located near the junction of Ohio, Kentucky and West Virginia and on the routes of several north-south and east-west highways, making it a distribution point for more than just the local area. The separate state jurisdictions do not track prescriptions among the others, making it harder to tell where the prescriptions are going. Generations of poverty have helped to create an underground economy supporting the distribution of illegal substances.[62]
As of spring 2011, the county has had more than 120 drug-related deaths over the preceding decade,[52] and in 2009 had the second-highest death rate in the state from accidental drug overdoses, although it is sparsely populated compared to the urban population centers of the state.[63] According to Lisa Roberts, a registered nurse with the Portsmouth City Health Department, Southern Ohio distributes four times as many prescription drugs as Northern Ohio, contributing to the high death rates.[51] Local deaths from a lethal drug combination of opiates, sedatives and muscle relaxants are so common that locals have dubbed it the Portsmouth Cocktail.[52] Admissions into rehab facilities for painkiller addictions in the town are five times the national average.[64] Almost one in 10 infants born in Scioto County in recent years has been addicted to prescription drugs.[64] Because of the extent of the problem, the Drug Enforcement Administration has listed Scioto County on its watch list of the 10 most significant places in the country for trafficking in prescription drugs.[54]
In February 2011 NBC Universal had a film crew in the city filming for the cable TV show Intervention.[65] On April 11, 2011 the show aired as a special episode: "Intervention In-Depth: Hillbilly Heroin." It explored the effects of prescription drug abuse on residents of the town and surrounding area.[66]
In 2007 Paul Volkman, a doctor from Chicago who had worked at a pain clinic in Portsmouth since 2003, was indicted. He was tried in February 2011 at the federal court in Cincinnati.[67] Volkman was convicted of 18 counts of illegal prescription drug distribution, and was found guilty related to the deaths of four of his patients. He is suspected of causing nearly 20 deaths. He faces from 20 years to life in prison.[68]
In 2011 the DEA and state and local law enforcement agencies worked to crack down on this problem. On May 17, 2011 the DEA served Immediate Suspension Orders (suspension of their license to practice medicine) on four local doctors and a pharmacy in Scioto County, including Dr. Margy Temponeras. In a press release, the DEA said that Temponeras was one of the largest dispensers of controlled substances in the US.[69]
Nationally, prescription drug abuse is one of our largest substance abuse problems, and in southern Ohio abuse of pharmaceuticals has reached almost epidemic proportions. Doctors that prescribe dangerous drugs, for reasons not driven by medical need, are a danger to the community. The actions taken today illustrate that DEA is committed to work with our law enforcement partners and attack this problem head on.—Robert Corso, DEA Special Agent in Charge[69]

The DEA also served ISOs on three other doctors: John Temponeras, Mark Fantazuzzi, and Michael Dawes, and a pharmacy, Prime Pharmacy, located at 902 Fourth Street in Portsmouth.[69] The DEA had made a preliminary finding that the continued registration of these doctors and pharmacy constituted an imminent danger to public health and safety. The orders prohibit the parties from possessing or dispensing controlled substances, pending the outcome of ongoing investigations.[70] As a result of the ISO, Dr. John Temponeras resigned from his position at the Southern Ohio Medical Center.[71]
The support group SOLACE formed to tackle this problem; it has helped to raise public awareness of the issue and has lobbied the state house for legislation.[72] Governor John Kasich referred to the group in his first State of the State Address, and members of the group were featured in the A&E documentary entitled Intervention In-Depth: Hillbilly Heroin (2011).[73] The group opened an official headquarters in Portsmouth[74] and worked with Attorney General Mike DeWine to make a documentary about drug abuse.[75] SOLACE's efforts have been promoted as an example of how a small, dedicated group could effect real change in their community.[76] But, Ohio voters in 2011 rejected a proposed $1 million drug prevention tax levy backed by SOLACE and other anti-drug abuse organizations.[77]
In May 2011 the Ohio Senate and House unanimously passed House Bill 93, authored by Portsmouth's representative in the Ohio House, Dr. Terry Johnson, which dealt with improved regulation of pain clinics. The legislation called for a performance analysis of the Ohio Automated Rx Review System, limits the ability of prescribers to personally furnish controlled substances, reforms Medicaid provisions to improve consumer education, improves licensing and law enforcement issues related to pain-management clinics, and calls for the development of a statewide prescription drug "take-back" program.[78] The amended bill was signed into law by Governor John Kasich on May 20, 2011.[79]
Culture
Buildings and landmarks

Many historical buildings in Portsmouth have been demolished because of poor upkeep, other city development, or the completion of new buildings that replaced the landmarks. Landmarks that have been demolished include the old Norfolk & Western rail depot, churches dating back to the early 20th century, houses dating to the 1850s, Grant Middle School, and the old Portsmouth High School and various elementary schools.
Many buildings survive from the early 19th century. Old churches are among the reminders of Portsmouth's past and identity. The Columbia Theater was given a major facelift after it was damaged by fire.[80][81][82] Other noted historic buildings include the old monastery, which can be seen for miles, and Spartan Stadium, as well as numerous buildings in the Boneyfiddle Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1982, students from Miami University conducted research on several of Portsmouth's most important historic buildings. This work resulted in an exhibition at the Miami University Art Museum and a book entitled Portsmouth: Architecture in an Ohio River Town.[83]
The Portsmouth Public Library is the city's library, founded in 1879. It has branch libraries throughout Scioto County. The Southern Ohio Museum, founded in 1979, has more than sixty exhibits on display including artwork by Clarence Holbrook Carter and Jesse Stuart, China dolls, Native American artifacts, and works by local artists.
Indian Head Rock
The Indian Head Rock is an eight-ton sandstone boulder which until 2007 rested at the bottom of the Ohio River. Historically, the boulder was used to record low river stages. It is notable due to its history and due to the figures and names of individuals which were carved into the rock at times of low water levels. In 1917, the construction of a dam downriver from Portsmouth meant that the rock would forever be submerged, if not for its recovery by a group of local divers led by an Ironton historian. The removal of the rock led the states of Kentucky and Ohio into a legislative battle to determine its ownership and disposition.[84] The rock was returned to the state of Kentucky in 2010.
City parks
Portsmouth has fourteen parks for residents and community use. These include Alexandria Park (Ohio and Scioto River confluence), Bannon Park (near Farley Square), Branch Rickey Park (on Williams Street near levee), Buckeye Park (near Branch Rickey Park), Cyndee Secrest Park (Sciotoville), Dr. Hartlage Park (Rose Street in Sciotoville), Labold Park (near Spartan Stadium), Larry Hisle Park (23rd Street & Thomas Ave.), Mound Park (17th & Hutchins Streets), York Park (riverfront), Spartan Stadium, Tracy Park (Chillicothe & Gay Streets), and
Weghorst Park (Fourth & Jefferson Streets).[85]
Greenlawn Cemetery
This active cemetery was established in 1829. Greenlawn is 40 acres in size and is the only public cemetery in the city of Portsmouth. This cemetery incorporates several smaller cemeteries, which are sections of Greenlawn Cemetery. Sections included in Greenlawn Cemetery are: City, Evergreen, Hebrew, Holy Redeemer, Hill North (Methodist), Hill South (Robinson), Old Mausoleum, Soldiers Circle, and St. Marys. The cemetery is located at Offnere Street and Grant Street. It is maintained by the City of Portsmouth. [86]
Floods and floodwalls

Although developed on higher ground, the city has been subject to seasonal flooding. The city had extensive flooding in 1884, 1913, and 1937. After the flood of 1937, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers constructed a floodwall protecting the city, which prevented two major floods in 1964 and 1997.
In 1992, the city of Portsmouth began honoring some of the many accomplishments of its area natives by placing a star on the riverside of the floodwall. This is known as the Portsmouth Wall of Fame and was instituted by then-mayor Frank Gerlach. Some of the honorees include Don Gullett, Al Oliver, and former United States Vice-President Dan Quayle, who was not a Portsmouth native.[87]
In 1992 a nonprofit group headed by Dr. Louis R. Chaboudy was formed to investigate developing a mural-based tourist attraction on the floodwall. In the spring of 1993, mural artist Robert Dafford was commissioned and began painting murals of Portsmouth's history. He hired local art student Herb Roe as an assistant. Roe subsequently apprenticed to and worked for Dafford for 15 years.[88] The project eventually spanned sixty 20 feet (6.1m) tall consecutive Portsmouth murals, stretching for over 2,000 feet (610 m).[89] Subjects covered by the murals span the history of the area from the ancient mound building Adena and Hopewell cultures to modern sporting events and notable natives.
These subjects include:
The Portsmouth Earthworks, a large mound complex constructed by the Ohio Hopewell culture from 100 BCE to 500 CE.
Lower Shawneetown, a Shawnee village that straddled the Ohio River just downstream during the late 18th century.
The 1749 'Lead Plate Expedition' to advance France's territorial claim on the Ohio Valley, led by Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville.
Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader who directed a large tribal confederacy that opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812. He grew up in the Ohio country during the American Revolutionary War and the Northwest Indian War.
Henry Massie, a founding father of the town and surveyor who laid out the original plat in 1803.
A Civil War unit from Portsmouth, Battery L, fighting at Gettysburg
Jim Thorpe, a Native American athlete who played as the player/coach of the semi-professional Portsmouth Shoesteels in the late 1920s.
The Portsmouth Spartans, a member of the NFL from 1929-1933; the organization later moved to Detroit to become the Detroit Lions.
Branch Rickey, influential baseball coach, inventor of the farm team system, and the signer of Jackie Robinson to Major League Baseball; Robinson broke the baseball color line when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947.
Clarence Holbrook Carter, an American Regionalist and surrealist painter.
Carl Ackerman, local photographer and historic photo collector, whose collection was used for many of the river murals.
The disastrous Ohio River flood of 1937, which led to construction of the floodwall.
Transportation – stagecoaches, riverboats, railroads and the Ohio and Erie Canal, which had its terminus just outside Portsmouth.
Local notables including Roy Rogers, Jesse Stuart, Julia Marlowe, and Vern Riffe.
Other panels explore the local history of education, the first European settlers, industries (including the steel industry, shoe industry, and the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant), sister cities, the local Carnegie library, firemen and police, period genre scenes of old downtown and other localities, and a memorial to area armed forces veterans.
The original mural project was finished in the fall of 2003. Since then several additional panels have been added, including murals honoring Portsmouth's baseball heroes in 2006; and the Tour of the Scioto River Valley (TOSRV), a bicycle tour between Columbus and Portsmouth in 2007.[90]
Professional sports
Portsmouth had a series of semi-pro football teams in the 1920s and 1930s, the most notable being the Portsmouth Shoe-Steels, whose roster included player-coach Jim Thorpe. From 1929 to 1933, the city was home to the Portsmouth Spartans, which joined the National Football League in 1930. The Spartans competed in the first professional football night game against the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1930.[91][92] Despite their success, the team could not survive in the NFL's second-smallest city during the Great Depression. This forced the team to be sold and moved to Detroit in 1934, where it became the Detroit Lions.
In the late 20th century, the Portsmouth Explorers were one of the original teams in the Frontier League, a non-affiliated minor league baseball organization. The Explorers played in the league's first three seasons, from 1993 to 1995. In 1938, Portsmouth was also the home of the Portsmouth Red Birds, a minor league team owned by the St. Louis Cardinals.
In the late 1990s Portsmouth was home to the Superstar Wrestling Federation before its demise. More recently Revolutionary Championship Wrestling has made its home in Portsmouth, airing on local TV station WQCW. Revolutionary Championship Wrestling in Portsmouth has featured such stars as Big Van Vader, Jerry "The King" Lawler, Demolition Ax, "Beautiful" Bobby Eaton, "Wildcat" Chris Harris, and Ivan Koloff.
Media
Portsmouth is near the dividing line for several television markets, including Columbus,
Cincinnati, and Huntington-Charleston. There are two local television stations including WTZP, an America One affiliate, and WQCW, a CW affiliate. Portsmouth was, prior to October 2017, served by WPBO, a PBS affiliate. Programs aired on WPBO were broadcast by WOSU in Columbus. Local radio stations WPAY-FM, WIOI, WNXT, WPYK, WZZZ, and WOSP-FM serve the radio listeners in the city.
Portsmouth is also served by three newspapers. The Portsmouth Daily Times is the city's only daily newspaper and is also available online.[93] The Community Common is a free biweekly newspaper[94] and the Scioto Voice is a weekly newspaper, which is mailed to subscribers.[95] The University Chronicle is the student-led newspaper at Shawnee State University.[96]
Notable people

Dale Bandy – Ohio University basketball coach
Henry T. Bannon - U.S. representative from Portsmouth (1901-1905), attorney, author, and historian
Kathleen Battle – opera singer
Al Bridwell – former Major League Baseball player
Gerald Cadogan – former Professional Football player
Earl Thomas Conley – country music singer and songwriter
Martin Dillon – musician and operatic tenor
Chuck Ealey – former football player for University of Toledo, and the Canadian Football League's Winnipeg Blue Bombers, Hamilton Tiger-Cats and Toronto Argonauts
Steve Free – ASCAP Award-winning Appalachian musician
Bill Harsha – Ohio politician for the U.S. House of
Representatives (1961–1981)
Larry Hisle – former Major League Baseball player, currently employed with Milwaukee Brewers Organization
Elza Jeffords – U.S. representative from Mississippi (1883–1885); practiced law in Portsmouth prior to the American Civil War
Liza Johnson - film director
Cheryl L. Mason — Chairman, Board of Veterans' Appeals, US Department of Veterans' Affairs (First woman to hold the office)
Serena B. Miller - author
Jeff Munn – Vice President of operations for Harlem Globetrotters
Rocky Nelson – former Major League Baseball player
Josh Newman – Major League Baseball pitcher
Al Oliver – former Major League Baseball player
Wally Phillips – longtime Chicago radio personality
Del Rice - former Major League Baseball player
Branch Rickey – baseball executive, signed Jackie Robinson to the Brooklyn Dodgers
Barbara Robinson – author
Herb Roe – mural artist
Roy Rogers – singer and cowboy movie star
Stuff Smith – jazz musician
Adam Stevens - crew chief for Kyle Busch in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series[97]
Ted Strickland – former Ohio governor
Gene Tenace – former Major League Baseball player

Sister cities
Portsmouth has three sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:

 – Great Corby, England, United Kingdom
 – Orizaba, Mexico
 – Zittau, Sachsen, Germany
See also
List of cities and towns along the Ohio River

Further reading
Ann Hagedorn, Beyond the River The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Underground Railroad (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).

What city has the highest concentration of drug addiction in the U.S.?


United States Army Officer rank insignia in use today.

US DoD Pay GradeO-1O-2O-3O-4O-5O-6O-7O-8O-9O-10SpecialSpecialInsigniaArmy Service Uniform Insignia (for infantry officer)TitleSecond
LieutenantFirst
LieutenantCaptainMajorLieutenant
ColonelColonelBrigadier
GeneralMajor
GeneralLieutenant
GeneralGeneralGeneral
of the
ArmyGeneral
of the
ArmiesAbbreviation2LT1LTCPTMAJLTCCOLBGMGLTGGENGAGASNATO CodeOF-1OF-2OF-3OF-4OF-5OF-6OF-7OF-8OF-9OF-10OF-11

Warrant Officers (WO) and Chief Warrant Officers (CW) in the US Military rank below officers but above officer candidates and enlisted servicemen. The first warrant officer rank, WO1 does not have a "commission" associated with it, instead having a "Warrant" from the Secretary of the Army. Warrant officers are allowed the same courtesies as a commissioned officer, but may have some restrictions on their duties that are reserved for commissioned officers. Warrant officers usually receive a commission once they are promoted to Chief Warrant Officer 2 (CW2), but are usually not referred to as "commissioned officers". WO-1s may be and sometimes are appointed by commission as stated in title 10USC.

US DoD Pay GradeCW5CW4CW3CW2WO1 United States
(Edit)Warrant officer 1
Chief warrant officer 2
Chief warrant officer 3
Chief warrant officer 4
Chief warrant officer 5

History
The structure of United States military ranks had its roots in British military traditions, adopting the same or similar ranks and titles. At the start of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, the Continental Army's lack of standardized uniforms and insignia proved confusing for soldiers in the field. To correct the situation, at least in the short term, General George Washington recommended the following stopgap solution for distinguishing the ranks:
"As the Continental Army has unfortunately no uniforms, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able to distinguish the commissioned officers from the privates, it is desired that some badge of distinction be immediately provided; for instance that the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the subalterns green."[1]

In 1780, regulations prescribed silver stars for general officers, worn on epaulettes.[2] From 1821 to 1832, the Army used chevrons to identify officer grades, a practice that is still observed at West Point for cadet officers.
In 1832, epaulettes were specified for all officers, and colonels began wearing the familiar eagle insignia.  The epaulettes worn by the infantry were silver, while all other branches had gold epaulettes. In order that the rank insignia would be clearly discernible, they were of the opposite color; that is, the infantry colonels had an eagle of gold because it was placed on a silver epaulette and all other colonels had silver eagles on gold epaulettes. No insignia existed yet for lieutenant colonels, majors, captains, and lieutenants—the length and size of the fringe showing the difference of grade.[2]
In 1836, shoulder straps were adopted to replace the epaulette for field duty. The straps followed the same color combination as the epaulettes; that is, the border was gold with silver insignia for all officers except those of infantry which had silver border with gold insignia. At that time, lieutenant colonels and majors were authorized leaves, captains were authorized two bars, and first lieutenants were authorized one bar on the shoulder straps.[2]
In 1851, it was decided to use only silver eagles for colonels, as a matter of economy. The silver eagle was selected based on the fact that there were more colonels with the silver eagle that those with gold, primarily in the cavalry and artillery, hence it was cheaper to replace the numerically fewer gold ones in the infantry. At that time on the shoulder straps, lieutenant colonels wore an embroidered silver leaf; majors wore a gold embroidered leaf; and captains and first lieutenants wore gold bars. The second lieutenant had no grade insignia, but the presence of an epaulette or shoulder strap identified him as a commissioned officer.[2] For majors, the shoulder strap contained an oak leaf, but like the second lieutenant, the epaulette had no grade insignia. However, the major was still distinguishable from the second lieutenant due to the more elaborate epaulette fringes worn by field grade officers.
In 1872, epaulettes were abolished for officers and replaced by shoulder knots. As the shoulder knots had no fringe, it was necessary that some change in the insignia on the dress uniform be made in order to distinguish the major from the second lieutenant. It was natural to use the gold leaf which the major had been wearing on the shoulder strap.  In the same year, the bars on the shoulder straps of the captains and first lieutenants were changed from gold to silver.[2]
By 1917 and the time of World War I, the olive drab service uniform had gradually become used more frequently and the blue uniform was worn only on formal dress occasions.  As a result, metal insignia was authorized for wear on the service uniform on the shoulder loop and on the collar of the shirt when worn without a jacket. Shortly after the United States entered the war, only the service olive drab uniform was being worn. The need for an insignia for the second lieutenant became urgent. Among the proposals was one to authorize for that grade a single bar, the first lieutenant two bars, and the captain three bars. However, the policy of making as little change as possible prevailed, and a gold bar was adopted in 1917, following the precedent previously established by the adoption of the major’s insignia.[2]
Silver versus gold
In terms of heraldic tradition, these changes created the curious situation  of silver outranking gold.  One anecdotal explanation suggested by some NCOs is that the more-malleable gold suggests that the bearer is being "molded" for his or her responsibilities—as a junior company grade officer (while a second lieutenant) or a junior field grade officer (while a major). Another rationale, perhaps originally devised as a tool for recruits to sort out the confusion, proposed that the symbolism was expressed as proximity to the heavens. Gold metal is denser, thus deeper in the ground, than silver, followed by leaves on a tree above the metals, with eagles flying above the trees, and finally the stars in the firmament. In actuality, the precedence of silver outranking gold was a consequence of the decision in 1851 to select silver over gold as a matter of economy.[2]
General of the Army / Armies

While not currently in use today, special insignia were authorized by Congress for ten general officers who were promoted to the highest ranks in the United States Army: general of the army, designed as a "five-star" rank, and general of the armies, considered to be the equivalent of a "six-star" rank. Eight generals were promoted to the rank and title General of the Army (Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, Philip Sheridan, George Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Henry H. Arnold, and Omar Bradley), while two generals were promoted to the higher rank and title of General of the Armies of the United States (George Washington and John J. Pershing).
Congress created the rank of general of the armies specifically for Washington, although while living he never officially accepted the honor. Pershing received the rank in 1919 and was allowed to choose his own insignia; he chose to use four gold stars. While a conjectural design for the rank of general of the armies was proposed using six silver stars when the promotion of Douglas MacArthur to the rank was considered in 1945, no design was ever officially authorized. In 1976, Congressman Mario Biaggi of New York submitted a house resolution granting Washington the promotion. The promotion was effective on July 4, 1976, the bicentennial of the Declaration of Independence. Although Pershing accepted the rank in 1919 and technically had a date of rank that preceded Washington's, the new law specified that no other officer of the United States Army should ever outrank Washington, including Pershing. Hence, effective date of rank notwithstanding, Washington was permanently made superior to all other officers of the United States Armed Forces, past or present.[3]
While no living officer holds either of these ranks today, the General of the Army title and five-star insignia designed in 1944 are still authorized for use in wartime. Congress may promote generals to this rank for successful wartime campaigns, or to give the officer parity in rank to foreign counterparts in joint coalitions, specifically with respect to field marshals.

Period1866–18721872–18881919–19391942–present1956–presentInsigniaTitleGeneral of the Army1General of the Army2General of the Armies3General of the Army4General of the Armies51 Worn by Grant (1866 to 1872).

2 Worn by Sherman (1872 to 1888) and Sheridan (1888).

3 Insignia chosen by Pershing (authorized 1919 to 1948).

4 Worn by Marshall (1944–1959), MacArthur (1944–1964), Eisenhower (1944–1969), Arnold (1944–1950), and Bradley (1950–1981).

5 Conjectural Design for General of the Armies authorized in 1956.
Former rank insignia

NATO codeOF-10OF-9OF-8OF-7OF-6OF-5OF-4OF-3OF-2OF-1OF(D)Student officer United States
(1959–2015)
(Edit)VariousVariousGeneral of the Army[note 1]GeneralLieutenant generalMajor generalBrigadier generalColonelLieutenant colonelMajorCaptainFirst lieutenantSecond lieutenantOfficer candidateOfficer cadet

See also
United States Army enlisted rank insignia
Warrant officer (United States)
Comparative army officer ranks of the Americas
Notes

 - United States Army website
 The Institute of Heraldry
 Courtesy of Georgia State Defense Force

vtUnited States uniformed services commissioned officer and officer candidate ranksPay grade / branch of serviceOfficer
candidateO-1O-2O-3O-4O-5O-6O-7O-8O-9O-10O-11Special
gradeInsignia[1][2] ArmyCDT / OC2LT1LTCPTMAJLTCCOLBGMGLTGGENGA[3]GAS[3] Marine CorpsMidn / Cand2ndLt1stLtCaptMajLtColColBGenMajGenLtGenGen[5][5] NavyMIDN / OCENSLTJGLTLCDRCDRCAPTRDMLRADMVADMADMFADM[3]AN[3] Air ForceCadet / OT / OC2nd Lt1st LtCaptMajLt ColColBrig GenMaj GenLt GenGenGAF[3][5] Coast GuardCDT / OCENSLTJGLTLCDRCDRCAPTRDMLRADMVADMADM[5][5] PHS Corps[OC]ENSLTJGLTLCDRCDRCAPTRADMRADMVADMADM[5][5] NOAA CorpsOCENSLTJGLTLCDRCDRCAPTRDMLRADMVADM[4][5][5][1] No universal insignia for officer candidate rank; Navy candidate insignia shown
[2]Official 1945 proposal for General of the Armies insignia; John J. Pershing's GAS insignia: ; George Dewey's Admiral of the Navy insignia:
[3] Rank used for specific officers in wartime only, not permanent addition to rank structure
[4] Grade is authorized by the U.S. Code for use but has not been created
[5] Grade has never been created or authorized

vtUnited States warrant officer and commissioned warrant officer ranksW-1W-2W-3W-4W-5Army

WO1
CW2
CW3
CW4
CW5Marine Corps

WO1
CWO2
CWO3
CWO4
CWO5Navy

WO1
CWO2
CWO3
CWO4
CWO5Air Force

WO1[1]
CWO2[1]
CWO3[1]
CWO4[1]
CWO5[1]Coast Guard

WO1[1]
CWO2
CWO3
CWO4[2]PHS Corps
[2][2][2][2][1] Grade inactive
[2] Grade is authorized for use by U.S. Code but has not been created

United States Army officer rank insignia


Main Page

G.I. Joe is a line of action figures produced and owned by the toy company Hasbro.[3][4] The initial product offering represented four of the branches of the U.S. armed forces with the Action Soldier (U.S. Army), Action Sailor (U.S. Navy), Action Pilot (Air Force), Action Marine (Marine Corps) and later on, the Action Nurse. The name derived from the usage of "G.I. Joe" for the generic U.S. soldier, itself derived from the more general term "G.I.".[5][6][7]  The development of G.I. Joe led to the coining of the term "action figure". G.I. Joe's appeal to children has made it an American icon among toys.[8]
The G.I. Joe trademark has been used by Hasbro for several different toy lines, although only two have been successful.  The original 12-inch (30cm) line introduced on February 2, 1964 centered on realistic action figures.[9]  In the United Kingdom, this line was licensed to Palitoy and known as Action Man.  In 1982 the line was relaunched in a 3.75-inch (9.5cm) scale complete with vehicles, playsets, and a complex background story involving an ongoing struggle between the G.I. Joe Team and the evil Cobra Command which seeks to take over the Free World through terrorism. As the American line evolved into the Real American Hero series, Action Man also changed, by using the same molds and being renamed as Action Force. Although the members of the G.I. Joe team are not superheroes, they all had expertise in areas such as martial arts, weapons, and explosives.[10]
G.I. Joe was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York, in 2003.

History of the 12-inch (30cm) figures

Stan Weston's original design (1963)
The original idea for the action figure that would become G.I. Joe was developed in 1963 by Stan Weston, a Manhattan licensing agent. Weston made rudimentary prototypes of the figure and basic marketing materials that showed the sales potential of a military action figure. When he showed these materials to Donald Levine, a Hasbro executive, Levine told Weston "You will make a fortune with these."[11][12] Weston subsequently licensed the entire concept to Hasbro for US$100,000.[13][14]
America's movable fighting man (1964–1969)

The conventional marketing wisdom of the early 1960s was that boys would not play with dolls and parents would not buy their sons dolls which have been traditionally a girl’s toys, thus the word "doll" was never used by Hasbro or anyone involved in the development or marketing of G.I. Joe. "Action figure" was the only acceptable term, and has since become the generic description for any poseable doll intended for boys. "America's movable fighting man" is a registered trademark of Hasbro, and was prominently displayed on every boxed figure package.
The Hasbro prototypes were originally named "Rocky" (marine/soldier) "Skip" (sailor) and "Ace" (pilot), before the more universal name G.I. Joe was adopted. One of the prototypes would later sell in a Heritage auction in 2003 for $200,001.[15]
Aside from the obvious trademarking on the right buttock, other aspects of the figure were copyrighted features that allowed Hasbro to successfully pursue cases against producers of cheap imitations, since the human figure itself cannot be copyrighted or trademarked. The scar on the right cheek was one; another, unintentional at first, was the placement of the right thumbnail on the underside of the thumb. Early trademarking, with "G.I. Joe™", was used through some point in 1965; the markings changed once G.I. Joe was a registered trademark; "G.I. Joe®" now appears on the first line. Subsequently, the stamped trademarking was altered after the patent was granted (in late 1966), and assigned a number; 3,277,602. Figures with this marking would have entered the retail market during 1967.
Adventure Team (1970–1976)

By the late 1960s, in the wake of the Vietnam War, Hasbro sought to downplay the war theme that had initially defined "G.I. Joe". The line became known as "The Adventures of G.I. Joe". In 1970, Hasbro settled on the name "Adventure Team". Highlights of the line included:
To coincide with the new direction, "Life-Like" flocked hair and beard, an innovation developed in England by Palitoy for their licensed version of Joe, Action Man, is introduced in 1970. A retooled African American Adventurer was also introduced, which came in two versions as did the others in the series, bearded or shaven.[16]
In 1974, named after the increasingly popular martial art, Hasbro introduced "Kung-Fu Grip" to the G.I. Joe line. This was another innovation that had been developed in the UK for Action Man. The hands were molded in a softer plastic that allowed the fingers to grip objects in a more lifelike fashion.
In 1976, G.I. Joe was given eagle eye vision; a movable eye mechanism to allow the toy to appear to be looking around when a lever in the back of the head was moved. This would be the last major innovation for the original line of 12-inch (30cm) figures.

A shift in play patterns
For its first ten years, G.I. Joe was a generic soldier/adventurer with only the slightest hints of a team concept existing. In 1975, after a failed bid to purchase the toy rights to the Six Million Dollar Man, Hasbro issued a bionic warrior figure: Mike Power, Atomic Man. One million units were sold. Also added to the Adventure Team was a superhero, Bullet Man. This character had recurring enemies, The Intruders – Strongmen from Another World. Comics included with figures at the time featured "Eagle Eye" Joe, Atomic Man, and Bullet Man operating together; the Adventure Team was finally an actual team. The original 12-inch (30cm) G.I. Joe line ended in America in 1976. At this time, Hasbro released a line of inexpensive, rotationally molded mannequins in the G.I. Joe style called The Defenders.
International G.I. Joe licensees

From 1966 through 1984, Palitoy Ltd. produced a British version of the 12-inch (30cm) G.I. Joe line, under the Action Man name for the UK market.[8] Initially, these were exactly the same designs as the American figures, and at first the same military theme which included figures from World War II. The line later expanded the line to include all men of action, like football players and other sports figures. In the early 1980s, Palitoy responded to falling sales of Action Man by launching "Action Force", a new range of smaller military-themed figures in the style of the then-popular Star Wars line from Kenner. Later, when the U.S. Real American Hero line was released in the UK, they were released under the 'Action Force' title, since the term "G.I." is not in common use in Britain. The figures had the same appearance and code names as the American G.I. Joes, but their identities and histories were international rather than purely American or British. The range was later renamed G.I. Joe to bring it into line with international markets; however, the Action Man line retained its original name when it was revived in the early 1990s.
The G.I. Joe line was also licensed to Germany under the Action Team name. In Spain, Geyperman was the Hasbro license, although the products were more based on Palitoy's line, down to the logo design. In France the name was Action Joe, in Japan, Takara and Tsukuda licensed the figures under the names "G.I. Joe" and "Combat Man". In Italy, Polistil licensed the figures under the Action Team name (same as they were called in Germany). In Australia, the line was released as "G.I. Joe" by Kenbrite; Palitoy also licensed their "ActionMan" line to TolToys. Hasbro produced G.I. Joe figures in Australia under the name "Falcon" and the 3.75-inch (9.5cm) figures under the name "Comandos em Ação". In Brazil, it was licensed to Brinquedos Estrela; the 12-inch (30cm) line was called "Falcon" and the 3.75-inch (9.5cm) figures were called "Comandos em Ação" ("Action Commandos"). In Argentina, the G.I. Joe figures were licensed by Veri-li enterprises under the name "Joe Super Temerario", and "Los Temerarios". The G.I. Joe toy line was produced in India under the Funskool brand. In Mexico, the G.I. Joe were licensed to Lili-Ledy brand and were named "Hombres de Acción" (Men of Action).
Hall of Fame (1991–1994)

Hasbro began releasing new 12-inch (30cm) G.I. Joe figures in 1991. The first figure, Duke, was marketed exclusively to Target retail stores.[17]
Based on the Real American Hero toyline, the Hall of Fame series featured Mission Gear Outfits, vehicles, and featured popular characters like Snake-Eyes, Stalker, Gung-Ho, Cobra Commander, Destro, and Storm Shadow among others.
This was followed by an anniversary series based on the 1960s line—and was followed by the Hall of Fame Limited Editions, also based on 60s releases.
Classic Collection (1995–2004)

G.I. Janes were introduced in a series called the Classic Collection, the first 12-inch (30cm) female dolls in the G.I. Joe line-up since 1967; this doll was a helicopter pilot. The Classic Collection hearkened back to the original all military theme of G.I. Joe with fairly realistic uniforms and gear. Soldiers from Australia, Britain, and other nations, as well as United States forces were featured. The line also presented an all-new articulated G.I. Joe figure that formed the basis of many offerings until the 12-inch (30cm) line was discontinued in the new millennium.
In 2000, a Navajo Code Talker was introduced, one of only two 12-inch (30cm) G.I. Joe talking figures (until this time) since the 1970s.
In 2001, G.I. Joe honored the events of the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor by releasing a line of Pearl Harbor figures. In 2003 Hasbro announced the release of the 40th Anniversary G.I. Joe line. This line featured reproductions of the earliest G.I. Joe figures and accessories originally made in 1964.
In November 2006 a reproduction Land Adventurer G.I. Joe figure was released as an exclusive to Hot Topic stores. The figure was a reproduction of the Land Adventurer with the Kung-Fu Grip and came in the "Coffin" style box. A reproduction Talking Adventure Team Commander was also released in a limited run of 1,970 issues.
Masterpiece (1996–1997)

In 1997, the original G.I. Joe figure returned via the G.I. Joe Masterpiece Edition, a unique book-and-figure product created by Chronicle Books with assistance from Don Levine, former creative director of Hasbro Toys and the driving force behind the original Joe concept.[18]
Timeless Collection (1998–2003)

During the late 1990s Hasbro built on the renewed interest in authentic reproductions of G.I. Joe established by the Masterpiece Edition reproduction book/figure set; they bought the rights to the ME figure and released a range of store exclusive reproduction figure sets, with the character of the sixties G.I. Joe boxed sets.
History of the 3.75-inch (9.5cm) figures
A Real American Hero (1982–1994)

The year 1982 saw the highly successful relaunch of the G.I. Joe product line in a smaller, 3.75-inch (9.5cm) scale. The scale was the same scale used by the Kenner's Star Wars figures, but with many more points of articulation much like the 1970s Mego's Micronauts toy line which itself was licensed directly from Takara's Microman toy line.
This relaunch pioneered several tactics in toy marketing, combining traditional advertising with an animated television mini-series and an ongoing comic book. The decision to use a smaller 3.75-inch (9.5cm) scale for the figures also made it possible for Hasbro to produce a variety of matching vehicles and playsets that further expanded the appeal and commercial potential of the line.
G.I. Joe's increasing popularity supported an array of spin-off merchandising that included posters, t-shirts, video games, board games, and kites. In 1985, both Toy & Lamp and Hobby World magazines ranked G.I. Joe as the top-selling American toy.
The 3.75-inch (9.5cm) line was canceled at the end of 1994. This was also the 30th Anniversary of G.I. Joe and accordingly, Hasbro released a series of 12-inch (30cm) and 3.75-inch (9.5cm) figures based on the Original Action Team figures from 1964.
Stars & Stripes Forever – TRU Exclusives (1997–1998)
A select assortment of figures from the "Real American Hero" line were released as Toys "R" Us exclusives to celebrate the 15th anniversary. A second assortment followed in 1998.[19][20]
A Real American Hero Collection (2000–2002)
In 2000, Hasbro re-released a selection of 3.75-inch (9.5cm) G.I. Joe figures and vehicles. This line lasted until 2002. The figures were sold in packs of two and consisted of repainted versions of figures from the Real American Hero line. Some of these repainted figures were assigned new identities: for example, the Baroness figure was repainted and sold as a new character called Chameleon, described on the packaging as "the illegitimate half sister of Baroness".
G.I. Joe vs Cobra (2002–2005)

Beginning in 2002, newly designed collections of 3.75-inch (9.5cm) G.I. Joe figures and vehicles were released. Each collection centered on a storyline or theme, such as "Spy Troops" and "Valor vs. Venom".
Direct-to-DVD features were animated for both the G.I. Joe: Spy Troops and G.I. Joe: Valor vs. Venom collections, as well as a new trading card game based on the G.I. Joe vs. Cobra storyline. Both the 12-inch (30cm) and 3.75-inch (9.5cm) lines were put on hiatus prior to the release of the Sigma 6 line in 2005.
Direct to Consumer (DTC) (2005–2006)
The 3.75-inch (9.5cm) line was reintroduced after a very brief hiatus via Hasbro's direct-to-consumer website HasbroToyShop.com and various online retailers. As a result of the line's success, some figures also became available at certain retailers, such as Toys "R" Us.
25th Anniversary (2007–2009)

2007 marked the 25th anniversary of the "Real American Hero" line. To commemorate the event, Hasbro released a "25th Anniversary" collection of newly sculpted 4-inch (10cm) figures (as opposed to the 3.75-inch (9.5cm) scale of the RAH line) based on classic and new designs of many of the line's best known and most popular characters. The 25th-anniversary figures replaced the classic O-ring construction with a swivel chest feature and increased points of articulation beyond the standard shoulder, elbow and knees to swivel wrists, ankles and double-hinged knees. The 25th-anniversary figures also include "Specialist Trakker", otherwise known as Matt Trakker the leader of M.A.S.K. [21]
Originally planned to consist of only two sets of five figures each (one G.I. Joe and one Cobra), the "25th Anniversary" collection was well received by retailers and collectors and has since been expanded by Hasbro into a full-fledged toyline that ran through 2009. The most recent releases in this line do not include the "25th Anniversary" branding, but in all other respects constitute a continuation of the "25th Anniversary" collection. Other waves released in 2009 include the Resolute figures, which were introduced in wave 13, and had an animated feature premiere in April 2009.
The "25th Anniversary" line was later canceled, in favor of releasing figures for the upcoming live-action movie. Some of the planned figures from canceled waves, totaling 14 figures, were instead released as two 7-figure exclusive packs. Entitled "Defense and Attack of Cobra Island," each set contained figures from one opposing side . The canceled future waves included Night Force Falcon, the Python Patrol Trooper and Tele-Viper, and an Iron Klaw/Resolute Crimson Guard Trooper Comic Pack.
The Rise of Cobra (2009)
In July 2009, a series of figures based on the G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra movie was released in the United States and Australia. The line was a mixture of the Rise of Cobra movie designs, some G.I. Joe vs Cobra designs, some 25th Anniversary figure molds and new molds.
The Pursuit of Cobra (2010–2011)
In 2010, a new series of figures was released, based on four battlegrounds: Desert, City, Jungle and Arctic. The packaging was an update to the 25th Anniversary design.
30th Anniversary (2011–2012)
In 2011, a new series of figures has been released, including characters from both G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero and the G.I. Joe: Renegades cartoon series. This series was continued through 2012.
Retaliation (2013)
A series of figures based on the movie G.I. Joe: Retaliation was confirmed by Hasbro in February 2012.[22] Despite the movie's release being moved from June 2012 to March 2013, the initial assortments of figures, vehicles, and role-play items were shipped to retailers, and appeared on store shelves in May 2012. A Variety article was published stating that the already released figures had been pulled from the shelves and recalled by Hasbro,[23] although the companies official statement indicated that existing product would be sold through. New product shipments were halted by Hasbro, but existing Retaliation figures were available in Target, Wal-Mart, and Toys R Us as late as December 2012.[24] The toyline was re-released in the United States in February 2013.[25]
50th Anniversary (2014–2016)
In 2014, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of G.I. Joe, a new line of figures was released, using characters from the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero cartoon series. This series ended in 2016.
Other licensees
Super Joe (1977–1978)
In 1977, Hasbro released the Super Joe Adventure Team, and took the battle between good and evil to the stars. The figures were scaled down to 81⁄2inches, similar in size to Mego's Superheroes line of action figures. The line was a hybrid of superhero and space action figures with new features incorporated such as battery powered back-pack lights and motorized accessories. The hero Super Joe characters, Super Joe Commander (Caucasian/African American) and Super Joe (Caucasian/African American) had a "One-Two Punch" that could be activated by pressing panels on the figure's back. The majority of these figures used Kung-Fu grip style plastic in the joints and hands. Unfortunately, with age, the material degrades, leaving even unopened figures missing limbs and hands.
Unlike the original G.I. Joe collection, the Super Joe collection was developed from the start with a play-pattern of Good vs Evil. Super Joe Commander and the Adventure Team (Man of Action, and Adventurer) with their alien comrades "The Night Fighters," Luminos and The Shield, fight against the evil Gor, King of the Terrons, Terron, The Beast from Beyond, and his orange-eyed ally Darkon, the half-man half-monster.
Super Joe was discontinued by the end of 1978. The same basic body molds were used later by a subsidiary of Hasbro to produce a line of action figures based on the TV series Space Academy.
Short-lived lines (1994–1997)
As a follow-up to the Real American Hero toyline, Sgt. Savage and his Screaming Eagles figures debuted in late 1994. It was canceled after only two waves of figures were released, due to a combination of scarce marketing and, therefore, low sales.
In 1995, G.I. Joe Extreme figures were introduced by Kenner Toys (who had merged with Hasbro in late 1994, taking over their boys toys production). Along with the release of toys, G.I. Joe Extreme featured a comic book, published by Dark Horse Comics, and a Gunther-Wahl-produced cartoon series which ran for two seasons.
Sigma 6 (2005–2007)

2005 saw the introduction of a new line called G.I. Joe: Sigma 6, consisting initially of an 8" scale selection of action figures distinguished by their extensive articulation and accessories. Sigma 6 combined entirely new characters with already familiar characters from the 3.75-inch (9.5cm) "Real American Hero" line. Its release was accompanied by a television series produced by the Japanese animation studio GONZO, and a comic book mini-series published by Devil's Due. Hasbro also expanded the Sigma 6 line to include a 21⁄2" scale selection of vehicles, play sets, and figurines with limited articulation.
2007 saw the re-branding of the 8" line. The Sigma Six branding was dropped in the spring of 2007. Subsequent 8" figures were branded simply as "G.I. Joe" action figures and divided into differently packaged sub-groups such as Combat Squad, Commandos, and Adventure Team. The entire 8" product line was canceled by the end of 2007, although Hasbro considers the 8" figures a success and may revisit the scale in the future.
Sideshow Collectibles (2009–present)
In 2009, Sideshow Collectibles began releasing its own line of G.I. Joe figures under license from Hasbro. These highly detailed figures offer new looks at key characters. In addition, Sideshow also created "Figure Environments", which are small diorama pieces intended to enhance the display of their figures.[26] A line of figures was featured at Comic-Con 2012.[27]
Real people honored with G.I. Joe figures

The G.I. Joe brand has made promotional action figures based on real-life persons, both military and civilian, that the company deems Real American Heroes.
In media
Comics

G.I. Joe originated from a comic strip in the 1940s called "Private Breger".[16] As a licensed property by Hasbro, G.I. Joe comics have been released from 1967 to present. G.I. Joe re-appeared in the 1980s as a promotional comic book, produced by Marvel Comics. The success of the main title led Marvel Comics to produce a secondary title, G.I. Joe: Special Missions which lasted 28 issues. The main series released its final issue #155 in December 1994, coinciding with the end of the Real American Hero toy line.
In July 2001, Devil's Due Publishing acquired the rights to G.I. Joe and released a four-issue limited series entitled G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero (Reinstated). The new series picked up seven years after the end of the Marvel Comics series, and also used elements from the animated TV series. Strong sales led to Reinstated being upgraded to ongoing, and DDP also published other G.I. Joe titles outside the existing continuity. DDP's license with Hasbro expired in 2008 and was not renewed.
In 2009, IDW Publishing began to publish the series again. IDW's G.I. Joe series is a complete reboot of the property, ignoring the continuity from the Marvel and Devil's Due incarnations of the comic. However, the G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero series originally published by Marvel Comics in the 1980s and 1990s was revived as an ongoing series in May 2010 with a special #155 1⁄2 issue, and followed by #156 onwards in July 2010. The series directly picks up from the end of the Marvel Comics series and ignores the Devil's Due continuity completely.
Book and record sets
In the 1960s, Hanna-Barbera released a record titled "The Story of the Green Beret" as a G.I. Joe tie-in. Later, four Book and Record 45 rpm sets were released by Peter Pan Records, which tied into accessory packages. Three of these were combined into a LP. The art of the original Peter Pan book and record sets was created by Carl Pfeufer. The same recordings were also repackaged as material for G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero.[28]
Film

Many movies have been made based upon G.I. Joe and the toy lines that developed from the action figure. The G.I. Joe: Real American Hero cartoon series was followed up by G.I. Joe: The Movie. The film had been released direct-to-video in 1987 because of the perceived box office failure of another animated movie – The Transformers: The Movie. Inspired by viewers' reaction to Optimus Prime's death, G.I. Joe: The Movie was re-dubbed, cutting out the death of one of the main characters, Duke. Instead, he falls into a coma and recovers (unseen) at the movie's end. Also, the main villain, Cobra Commander, met his own demise when he was turned into a living snake by mutant spores created by a new enemy, Cobra-La.
A direct to video animated series was created for the Sgt. Savage line, packaged with an exclusive Sgt. Savage figure in 1994. Next in the G.I. Joe-based line of movies was the 2003 release of Spy Troops: The Movie, Hasbro's first computer animated feature which coincided with the release of its "Spy Troops" header line. Next followed Valor vs. Venom (2004), in response to sales from "Spy Troops". This was Hasbro's second commissioned feature using computer graphics to coincide with the line of the same name. By 2005, Hasbro had entered into an exclusive agreement with Paramount Pictures to have them distribute any future, features based on the "Real American Heroes" line, but by the time a third movie was to be created, this time called, Attack of the BATS, Hasbro's sales on the "Real American Heroes" line had once again slumped, and the project was scrapped.
In 2009 Stephen Sommers directed a big budget Hollywood live-action movie based on G.I. Joe. The first film in what is intended to be a franchise, is G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra, stars Channing Tatum in the role of Duke, Ray Park in the role of Snake-Eyes, Jonathan Pryce in the role of The President of the United States, and Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the role of Cobra Commander. Tatum describes the film as being a cross between X-Men, Transformers and Mission Impossible: "It's a huge $170 million movie. It's just a big kid sort of driven film."[29] The movie showcased the main members of G.I. Joe and Cobra. While some characters held true to the cartoon adaptations, others differed markedly in significant respects. As well, the storyline gave a different foundation for the battle between G.I. Joe and Cobra. The movie is based in present time (however at the beginning of the movie it states "In the not too distant future") and shows glimpses of each character's history. In the movie, Cobra sets out to cause destruction using high tech weapons and sell them to ruthless terrorists. The G.I. Joe members join together to stop Cobra from becoming a global terrorist organization.
To promote the film, G.I. Joe: The Invasion of Cobra Island was produced as a viral campaign. The short animated two-parter used stop motion and puppet animation utilizing Hasbro's toy line, and was produced by R.M. Productions Ltd.
The sequel G.I. Joe: Retaliation was scheduled to be released in June 2012 but was delayed until March 2013.[30] In the film, the Joes are framed as traitors by Zartan, who is still impersonating the President of the United States, and Cobra Commander now has all the world leaders under Cobra's control, with their advanced warheads aimed at innocent populaces around the world. Outnumbered and out gunned, the Joes form a plan with the original G.I. Joe General Joseph Colton to overthrow the Cobra Commander and his allies Zartan, Storm Shadow and Firefly.[31][32]
Television

The premise of the 1985 cartoon series was "good vs. evil". The show's opening theme song included this narration, provided by Jackson Beck: "'G.I. Joe' is the code name for America's daring, highly trained special mission force. Its purpose: to defend human freedom against Cobra, a ruthless terrorist organization determined to rule the world."[33]
The show featured physical fighting and high-tech weapons as a way to compensate for toned-down violence and lack of bullets in what was intended to be a children's program. The show also featured public service announcements placed at the end of each show. These PSAs ended with the phrase: "Now I know!" "And knowing is half the battle."[34] The series ran for a total of 95 episodes, from 1985 to 1986.
The animated series was canceled after the release of G.I. Joe: The Movie, but made a significant return in 1989, with the animation company DiC taking over where Sunbow/Marvel left off. That year, DiC released a 5-part mini-series entitled "Operation: Dragonfire", in which the Joes faced off once again against Cobra as they tried to take control of an energy source known only as 'dragonfire.' In this mini-series, Cobra Commander was also returned to a semi-human state by the energy itself while Serpentor, the Cobra emperor, was turned into an iguana by the dragonfire. The animated series proved to be a bit of a success as DIC made 2 more seasons that ran from 1990 to 1991.
Following the "Operation: Dragonfire" series was the "G.I. Joe Extreme" animated series in 1995, created by Sunbow Productions and based upon the namesake toy line. This series, along with the toy line, was canceled after 2 seasons, broadcast from 1995 to 1997.
In the 2000s, a new interest in the "Real American Hero" toy line brought about new new lines, including Spy Troops (2003), Valor vs. Venom (2004), and Sigma 6 (2005-2007). In 2008, G.I. Joe: Resolute was launched. This new series was more realistic and contained graphic violence and dark themes, with Cobra portrayed as a serious threat; a sharp contrast to the relatively lighter-toned animated series that proceeded it. Resolute was originally released as mini webisodes, with the full series later broadcast on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim.
In 2010, The Hub launched G.I. Joe: Renegades, in which the Joes became fugitives seeking to clear their names while Cobra worked towards world domination under the guise of a pharmaceutical company. The series' last episode aired 2011.
Video games

There were several video game adaptations of G.I. Joe, including G.I. Joe: Cobra Strike by Parker Brothers for the Atari 2600 and Intellivision (1983), G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero by Epyx for the Apple II and the Commodore 64 (1985), Action Force by Virgin Games for the Commodore 64 (1987), a G.I. Joe video game by Taxan for the Nintendo Entertainment System (1991), a G.I. Joe arcade game by Konami for arcades (1992), and G.I. Joe: The Atlantis Factor by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System (1992).[35] A game for Wii, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 2, PSP and Nintendo DS was released to coincide with the first live-action G.I. Joe film, G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra.
See also

1:6 Scale Modeling, a.k.a. Playscale Miniaturism
Action Figure
Action Force
Action Man
Big Jim, a similar action figure series made by Mattel
Eagle Force
G.I. Joe's, a former sports store unrelated to the series closed in 2009
Donald Levine, a Hasbro executive credited as the "father" of G.I. Joe
List of G.I. Joe series
The Story of G.I. Joe

Official sites


Scientific drilling into the Earth is a way for scientists to probe the Earth's sediments, crust, and upper mantle. In addition to rock samples, drilling technology can unearth samples of connate fluids and of the subsurface biosphere, mostly microbial life, preserved in drilled samples.  Most of the technology used for drilling come from advances in the oil and gas industry.  Scientific drilling is carried out on land by the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP) and at sea by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP).  Scientific drilling on the continents includes drilling down into solid ground as well as drilling from small boats on lakes. Sampling thick glaciers and ice sheets to obtain ice cores is related but will not be described further here.
Like probes sent into outer space, scientific drilling is a technology used to obtain samples from places that people cannot reach.  Human beings have descended as deep as 2,080 m (6,822 ft) in Voronya Cave, the world's deepest known cave, located in the Caucasus mountains of the country of Georgia. Gold miners in South Africa regularly go deeper than 3,400 m, but no human has ever descended to greater depths than this below the Earth's solid surface. As depth increases into the Earth, temperature and pressure rise. Temperatures in the crust increase about 15°C per kilometer, making it impossible for humans to exist at depths greater than several kilometers, even if it was somehow possible to keep shafts open in spite of the tremendous pressure.[1]
Scientific drilling is interdisciplinary and international in scope. Individual scientists cannot generally undertake scientific drilling projects alone. Teamwork between scientists, engineers, and administrators is often required for success in planning and in carrying out a drilling project, analyzing the samples, and interpreting and publishing the results in scientific journals.
Purposes
Scientific drilling is used to address a wide range of problems, which cannot be addressed using rocks exposed on the surface or on the seafloor.  The Integrated Ocean Drilling Program has a broad set of research objectives, which can be divided into three principal themes:
The nature of the deep biosphere and the oceanic sub-seafloor
Understanding environmental change, processes and effects
Cycles and geodynamics of the solid Earth
ICDP focuses on scientific drilling to address the following questions about the history, chemistry, and physics of Earth and the biosphere:
What are the physical and chemical processes responsible for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and what are the best ways minimize their effects?
How has Earth's climate changed in the recent past and what are the reasons for such changes?
What have been the effects of meteorite impacts (bolides) on climate and mass extinctions of life?
What is the nature of the deep biosphere and its relation to geologic processes such as hydrocarbon maturation, ore deposition and evolution of life on Earth?
What are ways to safely dispose of radioactive and other toxic waste materials?
How do sedimentary basins and fossil fuel resources originate and evolve?
How do mineral and metal ore deposits form?
What are the fundamental physics of plate tectonics and heat, mass and fluid transfer through Earth's crust?
How can people better interpret geophysical data used to determine the structure and properties of Earth's crust?
Deepest drillings
The Kola Superdeep Borehole on the Kola peninsula of Russia reached 12,262 metres (40,230ft) and is the deepest penetration of the Earth's solid surface.  The German Continental Deep Drilling Program at 9.1 kilometres (5.7mi) has shown the earth crust to be mostly porous. Drillings as deep as 2.1 kilometres (1.3mi) into the seafloor were achieved at DSDP/ODP/IODP Hole 504B. Because the continental crust is about 45 km thick on average, whereas oceanic crust is 6-7 km thick, deep drillings have penetrated only the upper 25-30% of both crusts.
Ocean drilling

The drillship that has been used for the past 20 and more years, the JOIDES Resolution, drills without a riser.  Riser-less drilling uses seawater as its primary drilling fluid, which is pumped down through the drill pipe. This cleans and cools the drill bit and lifts cuttings out of the hole, piling them in a cone around the hole.  Japan's new drillship, the Chikyu, uses a riser for drilling.  The riser system includes an outer casing that surrounds the drill pipe, to provide return-circulation of drilling fluid for maintaining pressure balance within the borehole. A blowout preventer (BOP) protects the vessel and the environment from any unexpected release of gas and oil. This technology is necessary for drilling several thousand meters into the Earth and for drilling into thick sediments where oil and gas might reside.


Main Page

Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes)[2][1][3][4] is the relatively slow-growing, typically aerotolerant anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium (rod) linked to the skin condition of acne;[5] it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis,[6] the latter particularly following intraocular surgery. The genome of the bacterium has been sequenced and a study has shown several genes can generate enzymes for degrading skin and proteins that may be immunogenic (activating the immune system).[7]
This bacterium is largely commensal and part of the skin flora present on most healthy adult humans' skin.[8]  It is usually just barely detectable on the skin of healthy preadolescents.  It lives primarily on, among other things, fatty acids in sebum secreted by sebaceous glands in the follicles. It may also be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract.[9]
Originally identified as Bacillus acnes,[10] it was later named Propionibacterium acnes for its ability to generate propionic acid.[11]
In 2016, P. acnes was taxonomically reclassified as a result of
biochemical and genomic studies. In terms of both phylogenetic tree structure and DNA G + C content, the cutaneous species were clearly distinguishable from other species that had been previously categorized as P. acnes.[1][12]  As part of restructuring, the novel genus Cutibacterium was created for the cutaneous species,[1] including those formerly identified as Propionibacterium acnes, Propionibacterium avidum, and Propionibacterium granulosum.[3] Characterization of philotypes of C. acnes is an active field of research.[13][2][14]
Role in disease
C. acnes bacteria predominantly live deep within follicles and pores, although they are also found on the surface of healthy skin.[2]  In these follicles, C. acnes bacteria use sebum, cellular debris and metabolic byproducts from the surrounding skin tissue as their primary sources of energy and nutrients.  Elevated production of sebum by hyperactive sebaceous glands (sebaceous hyperplasia) or blockage of the follicle can cause C. acnes bacteria to grow and multiply.[15]
C. acnes bacteria secrete many proteins, including several digestive enzymes.[16]  These enzymes are involved in the digestion of sebum and the acquisition of other nutrients.  They can also destabilize the layers of cells that form the walls of the follicle.  The cellular damage, metabolic byproducts and bacterial debris produced by the rapid growth of C. acnes in follicles can trigger inflammation.[17]  This inflammation can lead to the symptoms associated with some common skin disorders, such as folliculitis and acne vulgaris.[18][19]
The damage caused by C. acnes and the associated inflammation make the affected tissue more susceptible to colonization by opportunistic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus. Preliminary research shows healthy pores are only colonized by C. acnes, while unhealthy ones universally include the nonpore-resident Staphylococcus epidermidis, amongst other bacterial contaminants.  Whether this is a root causality, just opportunistic and a side effect, or a more complex pathological duality between C. acnes and this particular Staphylococcus species is not known.[20]
C. acnes has also been found in corneal ulcers, and is a common cause of chronic endophthalmitis following cataract surgery.  Rarely, it infects heart valves leading to endocarditis, and infections of joints (septic arthritis) have been reported.[9] Furthermore, Cutibacterium species have been found in ventriculostomy insertion sites, and areas subcutaneous to suture sites in patients who have undergone craniotomy. It is a common contaminant in blood and cerebrospinal fluid cultures.[21][22]
C. acnes has been found in herniated discs.[23] The propionic acid which it secretes creates micro-fractures of the surrounding bone. These micro-fractures are sensitive and it has been found that antibiotics have been helpful in resolving this type of low back pain.[24]
C. acnes can be found in bronchoalveolar lavage of approximately 70% of patients with sarcoidosis and is associated with disease activity, but it can be also found in 23% of controls.[25][26]  The subspecies of C. acnes that cause these infections of otherwise sterile tissues (prior to medical procedures), however, are the same subspecies found on the skin of individuals who do not have acne-prone skin, so are likely local contaminants.  Moderate to severe acne vulgaris appears to be more often associated with virulent strains.[27]
C. acnes is an opportunistic pathogen, causing a range of postoperative and device-related infections e.g., surgery,[28] post-neurosurgical infection,[29] joint prostheses, shunts and prosthetic heart valves. C. acnes may play a role in other conditions, including inflammation of the prostate leading to cancer,[30][31] SAPHO (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, osteitis) syndrome, sarcoidosis and sciatica.[32] It is also suspected a main bacterial source of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease brains.[33]
Antimicrobial susceptibility
C. acnes bacteria are susceptible to a wide range of antimicrobial molecules, from both pharmaceutical and natural sources.  Antibiotics are commonly used to treat infections caused by C. acnes.  Acne vulgaris is the disease most commonly associated with C. acnes infection.  The antibiotics most frequently used to treat acne vulgaris are erythromycin, clindamycin, doxycycline, and minocycline.[34][35][36]  Several other families of antibiotics are also active against C. acnes bacteria, including quinolones, cephalosporins, pleuromutilins, penicillins, and sulfonamides.[37][38][39]
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant C. acnes bacteria represents a growing problem worldwide.[40]  The problem is especially pronounced in North America and Europe.[41]  The antibiotic families that C. acnes are most likely to acquire resistance to are the macrolides (e.g., erythromycin and azithromycin), lincosamides (e.g., clindamycin) and tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline and minocycline).[42][43]
However, C. acnes bacteria are susceptible to many types of antimicrobial chemicals found in over-the-counter antibacterial products, including benzoyl peroxide,[44] triclosan,[45] chloroxylenol (PCMX),[46] and chlorhexidine gluconate.[47]
Several naturally occurring molecules and compounds are toxic to C. acnes bacteria.  Some essential oils such as rosemary,[48] tea tree oil,[49] clove oil,[50] and citrus oils[51][52] contain antibacterial chemicals.
The elements silver,[53] sulfur,[54] and copper[55] have also been demonstrated to be toxic towards many bacteria, including C. acnes.  Natural honey has also been shown to have some antibacterial properties that may be active against C. acnes.[56]
Photosensitivity
C. acnes glows orange when exposed to blacklight, possibly due to the presence of endogenous porphyrins. The bacterium is killed by ultraviolet light. C. acnes is also especially sensitive to light in the 405–420nanometer (near the ultraviolet) range due to an endogenic porphyrin–coporphyrin III. A total irradiance of 320 J/cm² is found to inactivate this bacterium in vitro.[57] This fact is used in phototherapy. Its photosensitivity can be enhanced by pretreatment with aminolevulinic acid, which boosts production of this chemical, although this causes significant side effects in humans, and in practice was not significantly better than the light treatment alone.[58][59]
Other habitats
Unexpectedly, C. acnes was found to be an endophyte of plants. Notably, grapevine appears to host an endophytic population of C. acnes that is closely related to the human-associated strains. The two lines diverged roughly 7,000 years ago, at about the same time when grapevine agriculture may have been established. This C. acnes subtype was dubbed Zappae in honour of the eccentric composer Frank Zappa, to highlight its unexpected and unconventional habitat.[60]

 at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
 (Kenyon College)