The following is a list of games that have been canceled by the National Football League since 1933. While canceling games was extremely common prior to this date, since that year, the NFL has only twice canceled regular season games, in both cases for labor disputes between the league and the National Football League Players Association. Seven weeks of regular season games were canceled in 1982 and one week of regular season games was canceled in 1987.
Preseason contests have seen comparatively more cancellations, since the games do not count in the standings. Two of these games, the 1974 Chicago College All-Star Game and the 2011 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, were canceled because of offseason labor stoppages that were resolved prior to the start of the rest of the preseason. Three games were canceled as the result of unsafe playing fields: a 1995 NFL preseason game between the San Diego Chargers and the Houston Oilers,[1] a 2001 preseason game between the Baltimore Ravens and the Philadelphia Eagles,[2] and the 2016 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game.[3] An additional preseason game, the 2017 Texas Governor's Cup, was canceled for weather. At least one other announced game was discarded before it was officially placed on the schedule. The proposed China Bowl exhibition was to have been played in August 2007 but was postponed indefinitely before the 2007 schedule was released, with all plans for the game formally canceled before December 2008.
The league has run into other instances in which a game cannot realistically be played on its scheduled date, including weather-related rainouts and conflicts with college football or Major League Baseball over the use of shared stadiums. Unlike baseball, the NFL generally plays through even the coldest and most precipitous of weather unless such weather makes the stadium unusable or it becomes unsafe for spectators to attend the match. In such cases where a game cannot be played on its scheduled date, especially in the regular season, the league has the options of rescheduling the contest to any available day and, if the stadium cannot be used, relocating the contest to the opponent’s stadium or a neutral site (usually another nearby NFL stadium or a suitably sized modern college football venue). To date, such measures have not been necessary for any individual game in the playoffs.
1920s and 1930s
Canceling games was far more common in the 1920s and early 1930s, in the founding years of the league. When a team did not want to play a game, they could cancel without any punishment or penalty. Several years after league schedules were standardized in 1933, cancellations were effectively banned, and teams would have to forfeit the game or postpone if a cancellation was due to issues outside the team's control. There have been no forfeits in the league's history; a 1921 game between the Rochester Jeffersons and the Washington Senators is occasionally listed as a forfeit, but because of the lax cancellation rules of the time and uncertainty over which team (if either) was at fault for the game not being played, the game is listed in modern records as a cancellation. The last unpunished cancellation of a regular season NFL game is believed to have been a November 17, 1935 contest between the Boston Redskins and Philadelphia Eagles, which was canceled for severe rain and snow.
Several games were removed from the schedules of the NFL teams of the early 1940s, but because the issues (namely, World War II, the loss of marquee talent to the war effort, and restrictions on resource usage) were already foreseen by the start of the 1942 season, the league was able to issue shortened schedules from the start without having to cancel already scheduled contests.
1974 players' strike
The 1974 College All-Star Game, an exhibition game that pitted the most recent Super Bowl champion (Miami Dolphins) against a team composed entirely of rookies, was canceled as a result of a players’ strike. The strike was resolved before any further games were canceled; the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, along with the rest of the 1974 NFL season, went on as scheduled, although at least one game was held with the Denver Broncos using a squad of rookie replacement players.[4]
1982 players' strike
In 1982, players began a 57-day strike following the completion of Week 2 of the regular season. As a result of the impasse, games were simply canceled until a settlement was reached (ultimately, Weeks 3 to 9). Upon reaching that settlement, the NFL announced that Weeks 11 to 16 would be played as scheduled, and the games originally scheduled for Week 3 of the season would be played following the completion of the resumed regular season as a new Week 17, with the playoffs pushed back one week. Later, the NFL decided to use the final week 17 to hold various intra-division games from cancelled Weeks 3 to 9 instead of merely playing the Week 3 games. This was done to increase attendance and to allow some teams to balance out home and away games, to the extent possible (either five home and four away, or four home and five away). Because the 1982 shortened season would include only nine regular season contests for each team, the NFL announced that the three divisions in each of the two conferences would be eliminated for the purpose of determining playoff qualifications, and the regular season would be followed by an expansion of the playoffs from 10 to 16 teams. With this, each conference had 14 teams competing for 8 playoff spots, with division standings being disregarded in favor of overall conference standings. Each of the first three rounds of the playoffs was pushed back one week in order to make room for the new week 17, which was originally scheduled as the Wild Card weekend. This was possible because there was an idle week between the Conference Championship games and the Super Bowl. The Super Bowl and Pro Bowl were held as originally scheduled.
1982 games lost
Note: Some of the games originally scheduled for Weeks 3 to 9, listed below, were rescheduled to a new, final Week 17.
Week Three – September 26

Week Four – October 3

Week Five – October 10

Week Six – October 17

Week Seven – October 24

Week Eight – October 31

Week Nine – November 7

Week Ten – November 14

Games postponed to new Week 17
In order to ensure maximal attendance, and to balance out home and away games for each team, to the extent possible (either five home and four away, or four home and five away), the NFL made 12 of the 14 games in the final week of the rescheduled season (Week 17) select intra-division games that were picked from cancelled Weeks 3 to 10, instead of merely playing out Week 3 games, as had originally been planned. This was the maximum number mathematically possible, since four of the six divisions at that time had an odd number of teams (the two games that were not intra-division were New York Jets at Kansas City Chiefs and Dallas Cowboys at Minnesota Vikings). The New York Giants at Philadelphia Eagles game originally scheduled for Week 7 on Monday was moved to Sunday, while the Dallas Cowboys at Minnesota Vikings game originally scheduled for Week 3 on Sunday was moved to Monday.

1987 players' strike
In 1987, the players went on strike for a second time in-season, again following the second week of the campaign. However, unlike 1982, the owners took the bold step of using replacement players. After missing just one week of action, the NFL resumed with replacement players for Week 4. By the time Week 6 had rolled around, enough players had crossed the picket lines and forced an agreement to let the regular players play again. The canceled games of Week 3 were not made up, and the league counted the three weeks of game results featuring the replacement players as regular season games toward each team's final standings. By Week 7, the teams had all players back in action, with all teams completing a 15-game schedule. Also unlike 1982, there was no change to the playoff format that season.
1987 games lost
Week Three – September 27

1995 preseason game in Houston
An August 19, 1995 preseason game between the San Diego Chargers and the Houston Oilers was the first game in NFL history to be canceled before kickoff after an NFL official determined that the Astrodome’s artificial turf endangered the players.[7]
2001 preseason game in Philadelphia
An August 13, 2001 preseason game between the Ravens and the Eagles was canceled because of an unplayable playing surface at Veterans Stadium.
Because the multi-purpose stadium was shared by both the Eagles and the Philadelphia Phillies baseball team, the new artificial surface, NexTurf, and previous artificial turf installations before it included cutouts that covered up the dirt infield around the bases. After examining the turf, Ravens coach Brian Billick discovered a trench around the area where third base was covered up by one of the cutouts, and refused to let the Ravens take the field for warm-ups. Later, players from both teams reported that they sank into the turf in locations near the infield cutouts.
City crews unsuccessfully tried to fix the problem, forcing the game to be canceled. Team president Joe Banner was irate after the game, calling the stadium's conditions "absolutely unacceptable" and "an embarrassment to the city of Philadelphia."[8]
City officials, however, promised that the stadium would be suitable for play when the regular season started. The Eagles would move into Lincoln Financial Field in 2003, and the Phillies would move into its own separate ballpark, Citizens Bank Park, in 2004.
September 11, 2001 attacks
In the wake of the September 11 attacks, the NFL postponed its Week 2 games of the 2001 season, originally scheduled for September 16 and 17, until the end of the regular season. All playoff games following the 2001 regular season, including Super Bowl XXXVI and the 2002 Pro Bowl, were similarly rescheduled one week later.
This was in contrast during the wake of the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963 when the NFL went ahead and played its full slate of games that week, a decision that then-NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle would later regret,[9] though he also stated that Pierre Salinger, Kennedy’s press secretary, had urged him to allow the games to be played.[10] Meanwhile, the American Football League canceled week 12 of its 1963 season and later rescheduled those games.
2011 owners' lockout
On July 22, 2011, the NFL announced that that year’s Pro Football Hall of Fame Game originally set for August 7 of that year between Chicago and St. Louis had been canceled, for an ongoing lockout that had been in place since March of that year.[11] The league approved a new collective bargaining agreement on July 21, but at the same time announced the cancellation of the game, citing the fact that the players would not have enough time in training camp to prepare before the game.[12][13]
The NFL also had contingency plans to cancel and/or postpone regular season games (up to eight) if a labor agreement could not be reached by the start of the regular season.[14][15] The league did not have to implement the plans, since the players association agreed to terms with the NFL shortly before the start of the season proper on July 25, ending the lockout.
2016 Hall of Fame Game
The 2016 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game was canceled at the last minute due to poor playing conditions at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium.
Mike Silver of NFL.com reported that on the morning of game day, officials discovered the logos at midfield and in the end zones had been painted using paint which was not intended for use on the newly installed FieldTurf. Subsequently, the paint had not fully dried, and officials heated the field to speed up the drying process, causing the turf's rubber to melt; the affected areas were described as being slick and "like cement," making it impossible to get decent footing. Stadium officials attempted to address this by applying paint thinner to the turf, but a Packers employee noticed a label warning that this substance could result in burns when exposed to skin, and alerted them to the discovery.
When officially cancelling the game, both the league and the Players Association cited safety concerns.[16][17][18]
Both teams were told at 6:40p.m., an hour and 20 minutes before kickoff, that the game was going to be canceled.  However, fans in the stadium only learned of the pending cancellation via social media, and no official announcement was made until just before the scheduled 8 p.m. kickoff, which was greeted by boos and jeering.[19]
2017 Governor’s Cup
The 2017 Governor's Cup, an annual preseason matchup between Texas’s two NFL franchises, the Dallas Cowboys and Houston Texans, was canceled by the effects of Hurricane Harvey. The game, originally scheduled for August 31 in Houston, was initially moved to Dallas, as Houston was severely flooded as the result of the rains from Harvey and the team had temporarily relocated to Dallas until the storm passed. The Texans opted instead to cancel the game to allow the team more time to relocate back to Houston.[20]
Cancellations due to severe weather and natural disasters
In the modern era, severe weather or natural disasters have affected some games, but only the aforementioned case of Hurricane Harvey has a game been canceled outright. Others were either switched to a different location, or to a different date in the schedule.
The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake damaged Candlestick Park, forcing the San Francisco 49ers to play their next home game on October 22 against the New England Patriots at Stanford University’s Stanford Stadium.[21]
In 1992, Hurricane Andrew forced the September 6 opening-day game between the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins at Joe Robbie Stadium to be rescheduled to October 18, when both teams originally had a bye week.[22]
In the wake of the October 25, 2003 Cedar Fire, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency and activated the National Guard to assist in the disaster relief process. Because of the soot and particulate matter in the air from the fire two days earlier, the NFL was forced to move the Monday Night Football game on October 27 between the San Diego Chargers and Miami Dolphins to Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona.[23]
In 2004, the Cincinnati Bengals at Tampa Bay Buccaneers preseason game, scheduled for Saturday, August 14, was rescheduled to Monday, August 16, because of Hurricane Charley.[24]
In 2004, the Tennessee Titans at Miami Dolphins opening-day game, scheduled for Sunday, September 12 at 1 PM ET, was rescheduled to Saturday, September 11 at 1 PM ET because of Hurricane Ivan,[25]and the Pittsburgh Steelers at Miami Dolphins game scheduled for Sunday, September 26, at 1 PM ET was moved to 8:30 PM ET because of Hurricane Jeanne. The latter game would become notable as the first NFL start of Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger.[26]
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 damaged the Louisiana Superdome. The NFL decided that the New Orleans Saints' first regularly scheduled home game against the New York Giants be played in Giants Stadium in New Jersey, with the Saints the home team in name only.[27] For the rest of the season, the Saints home games were split between the Alamodome in San Antonio and Louisiana State University’s Tiger Stadium.
In 2005, the NFL moved up the Kansas City Chiefs at Miami Dolphins game from Sunday, October 23 at 1 PM ET to Friday, October 21 at 7 PM ET because of Hurricane Wilma. The NFL received permission to play the game on a Friday, as the team’s antitrust exemption normally forbids it to televise games on Fridays to protect high school football.[28] It also forced the Chiefs to travel to Miami on the day of the game, a violation of the NFL's collective bargaining agreement with the National Football League Players Association which requires a visiting team to arrive in the host city no later than 24 hours prior to kickoff.
Hurricane Ike forced several changes to the 2008 schedule. The Houston Texans’ Week 2 home game against the Baltimore Ravens was first postponed to Monday, September 15, before Ike made landfall; damage to Reliant Stadium forced a further postponement, to Week 10, on Sunday, November 9, giving the Texans and the Ravens their bye weeks in Week 2. Furthermore, to accommodate this move, the Texans’ home game against the Cincinnati Bengals was moved forward from November 9 to Sunday, October 26, pushing the Bengals’ bye week from Week 8 to Week 10.[29]
In 2010, a severe storm in Minnesota deposited over 17 inches or 0.43 metres of snow on the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, which caused the venue’s inflatable roof (a form of dome now mostly obsolete for major sports) to collapse about 24 hours later, early in the morning of December 12. The Minnesota Vikings had been scheduled to host the New York Giants that afternoon. Prior to the collapse, the game had already been postponed to Monday night, December 13, over concerns of stadium officials. The game was relocated to Ford Field in Detroit, still played Monday night.[30] The game would be notable as the ending of Brett Favre’s NFL-record 297 consecutive starts streak. The Vikings’ December 20 game against Chicago was moved to TCF Bank Stadium on the University of Minnesota campus.[31] The collapse affected no further NFL games, as the rest of the Vikings’ 2010 season consisted of road games, and the team had already been eliminated from playoff contention. The roof collapse was a factor in the Metrodome being demolished and replaced with hard-roofed U.S. Bank Stadium a few years later.
On December 26, 2010, a Sunday Night Football game between the Minnesota Vikings and Philadelphia Eagles in Philadelphia was postponed to Tuesday, December 28, by a severe snowstorm. It was the first Tuesday NFL game in 64 years.[32]
In 2014, a severe snowstorm that hit the Buffalo area forced a Jets–Bills game, originally scheduled for November 23, to be moved to Detroit’s indoor Ford Field on November 24.[33]
Hurricane Irma prompted the postponement of a game between the Miami Dolphins and Tampa Bay Buccaneers, originally scheduled for September 10, 2017, to November 19; both teams coincidentally were scheduled for the same bye week, leaving the latter date available for the game to be made up.
Effects of shared stadiums and sports complexes
There have also been rare occasions in which games had to be pushed back one night because of a last-minute scheduling conflict in the facility of those games, most notably when an NFL team has shared a home stadium with a team from Major League Baseball and the baseball team has needed the building for a post-season game. This was a frequent occurrence when there were several shared stadiums across the country, but since 2012 only one such venue remains: Oakland Coliseum in Oakland, home of the NFL Raiders and the MLB Athletics; this arrangement will end by 2020 when the Raiders move to a purpose-built stadium in Las Vegas.
Although NFL/MLB-shared stadiums are now rare instead of the norm, there are several current NFL stadiums that share the same parking lots and other ancillary facilities with an adjacent MLB ballpark, thus also preventing both teams from playing simultaneously. (This also occurs when two NFL franchises in different cities share a common geographic area, namely the Oakland Raiders and San Francisco 49ers. The cities and the NFL do not want the teams playing home games on the same day, for Bay Area traffic concerns.)
On October 12, 1964, the St. Louis Cardinals were forced to move their scheduled home game against the Baltimore Colts to Memorial Stadium, since St. Louis' Busch Stadium I was being used for the World Series by the baseball team also called the St. Louis Cardinals. Even though game five of the World Series was played that day at Yankee Stadium, the football Cardinals could not use the stadium until the baseball team, the stadium's owner, had completed its season.
The Atlanta Falcons were forced to move their October 5, 1969 home game vs. the Colts from Atlanta Stadium to Grant Field at Georgia Tech because the Atlanta Braves hosted the New York Mets in Game 2 of the National League Championship Series. The same day, the Minnesota Vikings moved their home game vs. the Green Bay Packers from Metropolitan Stadium to Memorial Stadium at the University of Minnesota because of an American League Championship Series game between the Minnesota Twins and the Baltimore Orioles. One week later, the Philadelphia Eagles’ game in Baltimore against the Colts was pushed from Sunday, October 12, to Monday night, October 13, to accommodate Game 2 of the World Series between the Orioles and the New York Mets. The following week, the World Series prompted the American Football League to move the game at Shea Stadium between the Houston Oilers and New York Jets from Sunday, October 19, to Monday night, October 20.
The 1973 New York Jets faced the same situation as the 1964 Cardinals. The New York Mets unexpectedly reached the World Series, and under the terms of the Jets’ lease at Shea Stadium in place at the time, there could be no football games at the stadium in Queens until the Mets’ season was complete. Thus, the Jets were forced to move their October 21 game vs. the Pittsburgh Steelers from Shea to Three Rivers Stadium, even though the final game of the Series at Shea was played October 18 (games six and seven were played at the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, home of the Oakland Athletics).
In 1979, the Philadelphia Eagles and Washington Redskins switched the dates of their two games with the Eagles hosting the Redskins on October 7th (instead of October 21st) and the Redskins hosting the Eagles on October 21st (instead of October 7th). This was due to the visit of Pope John Paul II to Washington on October 7th. A similar situation happened to the Eagles in 1983 where they were forced to switch the dates of their games with the Dallas Cowboys because the Phillies were playing the 1983 World Series. The Eagles were originally scheduled to play the Cowboys at Veterans Stadium on October 16, 1983; however this game conflicted with Game 5 of the World Series. The game was moved to Texas Stadium and the November 6th game was moved to Veterans Stadium.
In 1987, Game 5 of the National League Championship Series between the St. Louis Cardinals and the San Francisco Giants was held at Candlestick Park, prompting the 49ers and Falcons to switch home dates for their two games that season; the 49ers visited Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium on October 11, and the Falcons went to San Francisco on December 20. The October 11 game in Atlanta drew only 8,684, the lowest ever for a Falcons home game up to that point; the game was played during the player strike, so replacement players were used.[34]
In 1987, the Sunday, October 18 World Series Game 2 between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Minnesota Twins led to the Vikings and Tampa Bay Buccaneers to switch home dates for their two games that season.
In 1987, the next week, the Sunday, October 25 World Series Game 7 between the St. Louis Cardinals and Minnesota Twins led the NFL to reschedule the Denver Broncos at Minnesota Vikings) game to the following Monday night, October 26.
In 1989, the Sunday, October 8 New Orleans Saints and San Francisco 49ers switched home dates (October 8 originally in San Francisco and November 6 originally in New Orleans) to accommodate the MLB's National League Championship Series Chicago Cubs at San Francisco Giants games on October 7, 8, and 9.
In 1997, the Sunday, October 26 Cleveland Indians at Florida Marlins World Series game caused the NFL to reschedule the Chicago Bears at Miami Dolphins game for the following Monday night, October 27.[35]
In 2001, a potential Oakland Athletics baseball playoff game forced the Oakland Raiders to play their contest against the Dallas Cowboys two weeks in advance to avoid a possible conflict, when both clubs originally had their bye week (as it turned out, the Athletics ended up getting eliminated a few days before the originally scheduled date of the Cowboys–Raiders game).[36]
In 2009, the New York Giants–Philadelphia Eagles game at Lincoln Financial Field was moved from 4:15 pm to 1:00 pm to accommodate the Philadelphia Phillies hosting Game 4 of the 2009 World Series at adjacent Citizens Bank Park.[37]
In 2013, the Oakland Athletics playing in the ALDS against the Detroit Tigers forced the Oakland Raiders to postpone their originally scheduled Sunday afternoon game against the San Diego Chargers from 4:25 pm Eastern/1:25 pm Pacific to a late-night start time of 11:35 Eastern/8:35 Pacific.[38]
The opening match of the 2013 season on September 5, which would traditionally have been hosted by the Baltimore Ravens as defending Super Bowl XLVII champions, was instead a Ravens road contest at the Denver Broncos. A Baltimore Orioles home game against the Chicago White Sox was scheduled for Camden Yards that night, and both the Ravens and Orioles had failed to resolve issues which centered on parking and traffic.[39]
Notes

How many games were canceled by the NFL in 2018?


Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine. Also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use the liquid fuel (gasoline), and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens designed the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran  a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. The same year,  the  Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, one of his engines pumped water on the Croydon Canal from 1830 to 1836. He also demonstrated a boat using his engine on the Thames in 1827, and an engine driven carriage in 1828.
Father Eugenio Barsanti, an Italian engineer, together with Felice Matteucci of Florence invented the first real internal combustion engine in 1853. Their patent request was granted in London on June 12, 1854, and published in London's Morning Journal under the title "Specification of Eugene Barsanti and Felix Matteucci, Obtaining Motive Power by the Explosion of Gasses". In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fueled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the world's first jet aircraft.  In 1954 German engineer Felix Wankel patented a "pistonless" engine using an eccentric rotary design.
Prior to 1860

202 BCE–220 CE: The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han Dynasty.[1]
3rd century CE: Evidence of a crank and connecting rod mechanism dates to the Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (Turkey), then part of the Roman Empire.
6th century: Several sawmills use a crank and connecting rod mechanism in Asia Minor and Syria, then part of the Byzantine Empire.
9th century: The crank appears in the mid-9th century in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[2]
1206: Al-Jazari invented an early crankshaft,[3][4] which he incorporated with a crank-connecting rod mechanism in his twin-cylinder pump. Like the modern crankshaft, Al-Jazari's mechanism consisted of a wheel setting several crank pins into motion, with the wheel's motion being circular and the pins moving back-and-forth in a straight line.[3] The crankshaft described by al-Jazari[3][4] transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion.
17th century: Samuel Morland experiments with using gunpowder to drive water pumps.
17th century: Christiaan Huygens designs gunpowder to drive water pumps, to supply 3000 cubic meters of water/day for the Versailles palace gardens, essentially creating the first idea of a rudimentary internal combustion piston engine.
1780s: Alessandro Volta built a toy electric pistol[5] in which an electric spark exploded a mixture of air and hydrogen, firing a cork from the end of the gun.
1791: John Barber receives British patent #1833 for A Method for Rising Inflammable Air for the Purposes of Producing Motion and Facilitating Metallurgical Operations. In it he describes a turbine.
1794: Robert Street built a compressionless engine. He was also the first to use liquid fuel in an internal combustion engine.[6]
1794: Thomas Mead patents a gas engine.[7]
1798: John Stevens builds the first double-acting, crankshaft-using internal combustion engine.
1801: Philippe LeBon D'Humberstein comes up with the use of compression in a two-stroke engine.
1807: Nicéphore Niépce installed his "moss, coal-dust and resin" fueled Pyréolophore internal combustion engine in a boat and powered up the river Saône in France. A patent was subsequently granted by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte on 20 July 1807.
1807: Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine powered by a hydrogen and oxygen mixture, and ignited by electric spark. (See 1780s: Alessandro Volta above.)[8]
1823: Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, the gas vacuum engine. The design used atmospheric pressure, and was demonstrated in a carriage and a boat, and in 1830 commercially to pump water to the upper level of the Croydon Canal.
1824: French physicist Sadi Carnot established the thermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines.
1826 April 1: American Samuel Morey received a patent for a compressionless "Gas or Vapor Engine."[9] This is also the first recorded example of a carburetor.
1833: Lemuel Wellman Wright, UK patent no. 6525, table-type gas engine. Double-acting gas engine, first record of water-jacketed cylinder.[10]
1838: A patent was granted to William Barnett, UK patent no. 7615 April 1838. According to Dugald Clerk, this was the first recorded use of in-cylinder compression.[11]
1853–1857: Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci invented and patented an engine using the free-piston principle in an atmospheric two cycle engine.[12][13]
1856: in Florence at Fonderia del Pignone (now Nuovo Pignone, later a subsidiary of General Electric), Pietro Benini realized a working prototype of the Italian engine supplying 5HP. In subsequent years he developed more powerful engines—with one or two pistons—which served as steady power sources, replacing steam engines.
1857: Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci describe the principles of the free piston engine where the vacuum after the explosion allows atmospheric pressure to deliver the power stroke (British patent no. 1625).
[13]

1860–1910

1860: Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822–1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine similar in appearance to a horizontal double-acting steam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and flywheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
1861: Nikolaus Otto builds a copy of the Lenoir engine.
1862: Nikolaus Otto attempts the construction of the compressed charge four cycle engine, and fails.
1862: The earliest confirmed patent of the 4-cycle engine, by Alphonse Beau de Rochas.  This was principle only, there was NO engine built to prove the concept.
1862: The German Nikolaus Otto begins to manufacture a no compression gas Lenoir engine with a free piston.[14]
1864: Nikolaus Otto, patented in England and other countries his first atmospheric gas engine. Otto was the first to build and sell this type of compressionless  engine designed with an indirect-acting free-piston, whose great efficiency won the support of Eugen Langen and then most of the market, which at that time was mainly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas.  Eugen Langen collaborated with Otto in the design and they began to manufacture it in 1864.[15]
1865: Pierre Hugon started production of the Hugon engine, similar to the Lenoir engine, but with better economy, and more reliable flame ignition.
1867: Otto and Langen exhibited their free piston engine at the Paris Exhibition in 1867, and they won the greatest award. It had less than half the gas consumption of the Lenoir or Hugon engines.
1870: In Vienna, Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline and the first modern internal combustion engine on a handcart.
1872: In America George Brayton invented Brayton's Ready Motor and went into commercial production, this used constant pressure combustion, and was the first commercial liquid fuelled internal combustion engine.
1876: Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-stroke engine.[16]  The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four-stroke cycle, and after this decision, in-cylinder compression became universal.
1878: Dugald Clerk designed the first two-stroke engine with in-cylinder compression.  He patented it in England in 1881.
1879: Karl Benz, working independently, was granted a patent for his reliable two-stroke, internal combustion engine, gas engine.
1882: James Atkinson invented the Atkinson cycle engine. Atkinson's engine had one power phase per revolution together with different intake and expansion volumes, potentially making it more efficient than the Otto cycle, but certainly avoiding Otto's patent.
1884: British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol (gasoline) internal combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, and was the first to use the word petrol.[17]
1885: German engineer Gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for a supercharger [18]
1885/1886 Karl Benz designed and built his own four-stroke engine that was used in his automobile, which was developed in 1885, patented in 1886, and became the first automobile in series production.
1887: Gustaf de Laval introduces the de Laval nozzle
1889: Félix Millet begins development of the first vehicle to be powered by a rotary engine in transportation history.
1891: Herbert Akroyd Stuart built his oil engine, leasing rights to Hornsby of England to build them. They built the first cold-start compression-ignition engines. In 1892, they installed the first ones in a water pumping station. In the same year, an experimental higher-pressure version produced self-sustaining ignition through compression alone.
1892: Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine .[19]
1893 February 23: Rudolf Diesel received a patent for his compression ignition (diesel) engine.
1896: Karl Benz invented the boxer engine, also known as the horizontally opposed engine, or the flat engine, in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead center at the same time, thus balancing each other in momentum.
1897: Robert Bosch was the first to adapt a magneto ignition to a vehicle engine.
1898: Fay Oliver Farwell designs the prototype of the line of Adams-Farwell automobiles, all to be powered with three or five cylinder rotary internal combustion engines.
1900: Rudolf Diesel demonstrated the diesel engine in the 1900 Exposition Universelle (World's Fair) using peanut oil fuel (see biodiesel).[20]
1900: Wilhelm Maybach designed an engine built at Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft—following the specifications of Emil Jellinek—who required the engine to be named Daimler-Mercedes after his daughter. In 1902 automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.[21][22]
1903: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of theoretical papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space. A major point in his work is liquid fueled rockets.
1903: Ægidius Elling builds a gas turbine using a centrifugal compressor which runs under its own power.  By most definitions, this is the first working gas turbine.
1905: Alfred Buchi patents the turbocharger and starts producing the first examples.
1903–1906: The team of Armengaud and Lemale in France build a complete gas turbine engine. It uses three separate compressors driven by a single turbine. Limits on the turbine temperatures allow for only a 3:1 compression ratio, and the turbine is not based on a Parsons-like "fan", but a Pelton wheel-like arrangement. The engine is so inefficient, at about 3% thermal efficiency, that the work is abandoned.
1908: New Zealand inventor Ernest Godward started a motorcycle business in Invercargill and fitted the imported bikes with his own invention–a petrol economiser. His economisers worked as well in cars as they did in motorcycles.
1908: Hans Holzwarth starts work on extensive research on an "explosive cycle" gas turbine,[23] based on the Otto cycle. This design burns fuel at a constant volume and is somewhat more efficient.  By 1927, when the work ended, he has reached about 13% thermal efficiency.
1908: René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine.
1916: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressors to improve high-altitude performance, the first example of the turbocharger.

1920–1980
1920: William Joseph Stern reports to the Royal Air Force that there is no future for the turbine engine in aircraft. He bases his argument on the extremely low efficiency of existing compressor designs.  Due to Stern's eminence, his paper is so convincing there is little official interest in gas turbine engines anywhere, although this does not last long.
1921: Maxime Guillaume patents the axial-flow gas turbine engine. It uses multiple stages in both the compressor and turbine, combined with a single very large combustion chamber.
1923: Edgar Buckingham at the United States National Bureau of Standards publishes a report on jets, coming to the same conclusion as W.J. Stern, that the turbine engine is not efficient enough. In particular he notes that a jet would use five times as much fuel as a piston engine.[24]
1925: The Hesselman engine is introduced by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman represented the first use of direct gasoline injection on a spark-ignition engine.[25][26]
1925: Wilhelm Pape patents a constant-volume engine design.
1926: Alan Arnold Griffith publishes his groundbreaking paper Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, changing the low confidence in jet engines. In it he demonstrates that existing compressors are "flying stalled", and that major improvements can be made by redesigning the blades from a flat profile into an airfoil, going on to mathematically demonstrate that a practical engine is definitely possible and showing how to build a turboprop.
1926: Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket
1927: Aurel Stodola publishes his "Steam and Gas Turbines"—basic reference for jet propulsion engineers in the US.
1927: A testbed single-shaft turbo-compressor based on Griffith's blade design is tested at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.
1929: Frank Whittle's thesis on jet engines is published
1930: Schmidt patents a pulse-jet engine in Germany.
1935: Hans von Ohain creates plans for a turbojet engine and convinces Ernst Heinkel to develop a working model. Along with a single mechanic von Ohain develops the world's first turbojet on a test stand.
1936: French engineer René Leduc, having independently rediscovered René Lorin's design, successfully demonstrates the world's first operating ramjet.
1937: The first successful run of Sir Frank Whittle's gas turbine for jet propulsion.
March, 1937:  The Heinkel HeS 1 experimental hydrogen fueled centrifugal jet engine is tested at Hirth.
27 August 1939:  Flight of the world's first turbojet power aircraft. Hans von Ohain's Heinkel He 178 V1 pioneer turbojet aircraft prototype makes its first flight, powered by an He S 3 von Ohain engine.
15 May 1941: The Gloster E.28/39 becomes the first British jet-engined aircraft to fly, using a Power Jets W.1 turbojet designed by Frank Whittle and others.
1942: Max Bentele discovers in Germany that turbine blades can break if vibrations are in its resonance range, a phenomenon already known in the US from the steam turbine experience.
18 July 1942: The Messerschmitt Me 262 first jet engine flight
1946: Samuel Baylin develops the Baylin Engine a three cycle internal combustion engine with rotary pistons.  A crude but complex example of the future Wankel engine.[27]
1951: Engineers for The Texas Company—i.e. now Chevron—developed a four stroke engine with a fuel injector that employed what was called the Texaco Combustion Process, which unlike normal four stroke gasoline engines which used a separate valve for the intake of the air-gasoline mixture, with the T.C.P. engine the intake valve with a built in special shroud delivers the air to the cylinder in a tornado type fashion and then the fuel is injected and ignited by a spark plug.  The inventors  claimed their engine could burn on almost any petroleum based fuel of any octane and even some alcohol based fuels—e.g. kerosene, benzine, motor oil, tractor oil, etc.—without the pre-combustion knock and the complete burning of the fuel injected into the cylinder. While development was well advanced by 1950, there are no records of the T.C.P. engine being used commercially.[28]
1950s: Development begins by US firms of the Free-piston engine concept which is a crankless internal combustion engine.[29]
1954: Felix Wankel's first working prototype DKM 54 of the Wankel engine
1980 to present
1986: Benz Gmbh[30] files for patent protection for a form of Scotch yoke engine and begins development of same.  Development subsequently abandoned.
1996: Ford Motor Company files patent for compact turbine engine.[31]
2004: Hyper-X first scramjet to maintain altitude
2004: Toyota Motor Corp files for patent protection for new form of Scotch yoke engine.[32]
Engine starting

Early internal combustion engines were started by hand cranking.  Various types of starter motor were later developed.  These included:
An auxiliary petrol engine for starting a larger petrol or diesel engine. The Hucks starter is an example
Cartridge starters, such as the Coffman engine starter, which used a device like a blank shotgun cartridge. These were popular for aircraft engines
Pneumatic starters
Hydraulic starters
Electric starters
Electric starters are now almost universal for small and medium-sized engines, while pneumatic starters are used for large engines.
Modern vs. historical piston engines
The first piston engines did not have compression, but ran on an air-fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression of the fuel charge prior to combustion.
The problem of ignition of fuel was handled in early engines with an open flame and a sliding gate.  To obtain a faster engine speed Daimler adopted a Hot Tube ignition which allowed 600rpm immediately in his 1883 horizontal cylinder engine and very soon after over 900rpm.  Most of the engines of that time could not exceed 200rpm due to their ignition and induction systems.[33]
The first practical engine, Lenoir's, ran on illuminating gas (coal gas).  It wasn't until 1883, that Daimler created an engine that ran on liquid petroleum, a fuel called Ligroin which has a chemical makeup of Hexane-N.  The fuel is also known as petroleum naphtha.
Otto's first engines were push engines which produced a push through the entire stroke (like a Diesel).  Daimler's engines produced a rapid pulse, more suitable for mobile engine use.
See also
Bertha Benz Memorial Route, commemorating the world's first long distance journey with an automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine in 1888.
Harry Ricardo
Timeline of heat engine technology
Timeline of motor vehicle brands

Further reading

History of the internal combustion engine

What was the first use of the internal combustion engine?


Vegetables are parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food.  The original meaning is still commonly used and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. The alternate definition of the term vegetable is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition. It may exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but include fruits from others such as tomatoes and courgettes and seeds such as pulses.
Originally, vegetables were collected from the wild by hunter-gatherers and entered cultivation in several parts of the world, probably during the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC, when a new agricultural way of life developed. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, but as time went on, trade brought exotic crops from elsewhere to add to domestic types. Nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries. The scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing.
Vegetables can be eaten either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates, but high in vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, five or more portions a day often being recommended.
Etymology

The word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French,[1] and was originally applied to all plants; the word is still used in this sense in biological contexts.[2] It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis "growing, flourishing" (i.e. of a plant), a semantic change from a Late Latin meaning "to be enlivening, quickening".[1]
The meaning of "vegetable" as a "plant grown for food" was not established until the 18th century.[3] In 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a "plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root". The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term "veggie".[4]
As an adjective, the word vegetable is used in scientific and technical contexts with a different and much broader meaning, namely of "related to plants" in general, edible or not—as in vegetable matter, vegetable kingdom, vegetable origin, etc.[2]
Terminology

The exact definition of "vegetable" may vary simply because of the many parts of a plant consumed as food worldwide—roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The broadest definition is the word's use adjectivally to mean "matter of plant origin". More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as "any plant, part of which is used for food",[5] a secondary meaning then being "the edible part of such a plant".[5] A more precise definition is "any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, but including mature fruits that are eaten as part of a main meal".[6][7] Falling outside these definitions are edible fungi (such as edible mushrooms)  and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables.[8]
In the latter-mentioned definition of "vegetable", which is used in everyday language, the words "fruit" and "vegetable" are mutually exclusive. "Fruit" has a precise botanical meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the word's culinary meaning. While peaches, plums, and oranges are "fruit" in both senses, many items commonly called "vegetables", such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893. The court ruled unanimously in Nix v. Hedden that a tomato is correctly identified as, and thus taxed as, a vegetable, for the purposes of the Tariff of 1883 on imported produce. The court did acknowledge, however, that, botanically speaking, a tomato is a fruit.[9]
History
Before the advent of agriculture, humans were hunter-gatherers. They foraged for edible fruit, nuts, stems, leaves, corms, and tubers, scavenged for dead animals and hunted living ones for food.[10] Forest gardening in a tropical jungle clearing is thought to be the first example of agriculture; useful plant species were identified and encouraged to grow while undesirable species were removed. Plant breeding through the selection of strains with desirable traits such as large fruit and vigorous growth soon followed.[11] While the first evidence for the domestication of grasses such as wheat and barley has been found in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, it is likely that various peoples around the world started growing crops in the period 10,000 BC to 7,000 BC.[12] Subsistence agriculture continues to this day, with many rural farmers in Africa, Asia, South America, and elsewhere using their plots of land to produce enough food for their families, while any surplus produce is used for exchange for other goods.[13]
Throughout recorded history, the rich have been able to afford a varied diet including meat, vegetables and fruit, but for poor people, meat was a luxury and the food they ate was very dull, typically comprising mainly some staple product made from rice, rye, barley, wheat, millet or maize. The addition of vegetable matter provided some variety to the diet. The staple diet of the Aztecs in Central America was maize and they cultivated tomatoes, avocados, beans, peppers, pumpkins, squashes, peanuts, and amaranth seeds to supplement their tortillas and porridge.  In Peru, the Incas subsisted on maize in the lowlands and potatoes at higher altitudes. They also used seeds from quinoa, supplementing their diet with peppers, tomatoes, and avocados.[14]
In Ancient China, rice was the staple crop in the south and wheat in the north, the latter made into dumplings, noodles, and pancakes. Vegetables used to accompany these included yams, soybeans, broad beans, turnips, spring onions, and garlic. The diet of the ancient Egyptians was based on bread, often contaminated with sand which wore away their teeth. Meat was a luxury but fish was more plentiful. These were accompanied by a range of vegetables including marrows, broad beans, lentils, onions, leeks, garlic, radishes, and lettuces.[14]
The mainstay of the Ancient Greek diet was bread, and this was accompanied by goat's cheese, olives, figs, fish, and occasionally meat. The vegetables grown included onions, garlic, cabbages, melons, and lentils.[15] In Ancient Rome, a thick porridge was made of emmer wheat or beans, accompanied by green vegetables but little meat, and fish was not esteemed. The Romans grew broad beans, peas, onions and turnips and ate the leaves of beets rather than their roots.[16]
Some common vegetables

Nutrition and health

Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling.[18] They supply dietary fiber and are important sources of essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. Particularly important are the antioxidant vitamins A, C, and E. When vegetables are included in the diet, there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic ailments.[19][20][21] Research has shown that, compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day, those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke.[22]
The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat,[23] and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B6; provitamins; dietary minerals; and carbohydrates.
However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients which interfere with the absorption of nutrients. These include α-solanine, α-chaconine,[24] enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, tannins and others. These toxins are natural defenses, used to ward off the insects, predators and fungi that might attack the plant. Some beans contain phytohaemagglutinin, and cassava roots contain cyanogenic glycoside as do bamboo shoots. These toxins can be deactivated by adequate cooking. Green potatoes contain glycoalkaloids and should be avoided.[25]
Fruit and vegetables, particularly leafy vegetables, have been implicated in nearly half the gastrointestinal infections caused by norovirus in the United States. These foods are commonly eaten raw and may become contaminated during their preparation by an infected food handler. Hygiene is important when handling foods to be eaten raw, and such products need to be properly cleaned, handled, and stored to limit contamination.[26]
Dietary recommendations
The USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming five to nine servings of fruit and vegetables daily.[27] The total amount consumed will vary according to age and gender, and is determined based upon the standard portion sizes typically consumed, as well as general nutritional content. Potatoes are not included in the count as they are mainly providers of starch. For most vegetables and vegetable juices, one serving is half of a cup and can be eaten raw or cooked. For leafy greens, such as lettuce and spinach, a single serving is typically a full cup.[28] A variety of products should be chosen as no single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients needed for health.[22]
International dietary guidelines are similar to the ones established by the USDA. Japan, for example, recommends the consumption of five to six servings of vegetables daily.[29] French recommendations provide similar guidelines and set the daily goal at five servings.[30] In India, the daily recommendation for adults is 275 grams (9.7oz) of vegetables per day.[19]
Production
Cultivation

Vegetables have been part of the human diet from time immemorial. Some are staple foods but most are accessory foodstuffs, adding variety to meals with their unique flavors and at the same time, adding nutrients necessary for health. Some vegetables are perennials but most are annuals and biennials, usually harvested within a year of sowing or planting. Whatever system is used for growing crops, cultivation follows a similar pattern; preparation of the soil by loosening it, removing or burying weeds, and adding organic manures or fertilisers; sowing seeds or planting young plants; tending the crop while it grows to reduce weed competition, control pests, and provide sufficient water; harvesting the crop when it is ready; sorting, storing, and marketing the crop or eating it fresh from the ground.[31]
Different soil types suit different crops, but in general in temperate climates, sandy soils dry out fast but warm up quickly in the spring and are suitable for early crops, while heavy clays retain moisture better and are more suitable for late season crops. The growing season can be lengthened by the use of fleece, cloches, plastic mulch, polytunnels, and greenhouses.[31] In hotter regions, the production of vegetables is constrained by the climate, especially the pattern of rainfall, while in temperate zones, it is constrained by the temperature and day length.[32]

On a domestic scale, the spade, fork, and hoe are the tools of choice while on commercial farms a range of mechanical equipment is available. Besides tractors, these include ploughs, harrows, drills, transplanters, cultivators, irrigation equipment, and harvesters. New techniques are changing the cultivation procedures involved in growing vegetables with computer monitoring systems, GPS locators, and self-steer programs for driverless machines giving economic benefits.[32]
Harvesting

When a vegetable is harvested, it is cut off from its source of water and nourishment. It continues to transpire and loses moisture as it does so, a process most noticeable in the wilting of green leafy crops. Harvesting root vegetables when they are fully mature improves their storage life, but alternatively, these root crops can be left in the ground and harvested over an extended period. The harvesting process should seek to minimise damage and bruising to the crop. Onions and garlic can be dried for a few days in the field and root crops such as potatoes benefit from a short maturation period in warm, moist surroundings, during which time wounds heal and the skin thickens up and hardens. Before marketing or storage, grading needs to be done to remove damaged goods and select produce according to its quality, size, ripeness, and color.[33]
Storage
All vegetables benefit from proper post harvest care. A large proportion of vegetables and perishable foods are lost after harvest during the storage period. These losses may be as high as thirty to fifty percent in developing countries where adequate cold storage facilities are not available. The main causes of loss include spoilage caused by moisture, moulds, micro-organisms, and vermin.[34]

Storage can be short-term or long-term. Most vegetables are perishable and short-term storage for a few days provides flexibility in marketing. During storage, leafy vegetables lose moisture, and the vitamin C in them degrades rapidly. A few products such as potatoes and onions have better keeping qualities and can be sold when higher prices may be available, and by extending the marketing season, a greater total volume of crop can be sold. If refrigerated storage is not available, the priority for most crops is to store high-quality produce, to maintain a high humidity level, and to keep the produce in the shade.[33]
Proper post-harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficient cold chain application.[35] Cold storage is particularly useful for vegetables such as cauliflower, eggplant, lettuce, radish, spinach, potatoes, and tomatoes, the optimum temperature depending on the type of produce. There are temperature-controlling technologies that do not require the use of electricity such as evaporative cooling.[6] Storage of fruit and vegetables in controlled atmospheres with high levels of carbon dioxide or high oxygen levels can inhibit microbial growth and extend storage life.[36]
The irradiation of vegetables and other agricultural produce by ionizing radiation can be used to preserve it from both microbial infection and insect damage, as well as from physical deterioration. It can extend the storage life of food without noticeably changing its properties.[37]
Preservation
The objective of preserving vegetables is to extend their availability for consumption or marketing purposes. The aim is to harvest the food at its maximum state of palatability and nutritional value, and preserve these qualities for an extended period. The main causes of deterioration in vegetables after they are gathered are the actions of naturally-occurring enzymes and the spoilage caused by micro-organisms.[38] Canning and freezing are the most commonly used techniques, and vegetables preserved by these methods are generally similar in nutritional value to comparable fresh products with regards to carotenoids, vitamin E, minerals. and dietary fiber.[39]

Canning is a process during which the enzymes in vegetables are deactivated and the micro-organisms present killed by heat. The sealed can excludes air from the foodstuff to prevent subsequent deterioration. The lowest necessary heat and the minimum processing time are used in order to prevent the mechanical breakdown of the product and to preserve the flavor as far as is possible. The can is then able to be stored at ambient temperatures for a long period.[38]
Freezing vegetables and maintaining their temperature at below −10°C (14°F) will prevent their spoilage for a short period, whereas a temperature of −18°C (0°F) is required for longer-term storage. The enzyme action will merely be inhibited, and blanching of suitably sized prepared vegetables before freezing mitigates this and prevents off-flavors developing. Not all micro-organisms will be killed at these temperatures and after thawing the vegetables should be used promptly because otherwise, any microbes present may proliferate.[40]

Traditionally, sun drying has been used for some products such as tomatoes, mushrooms, and beans, spreading the produce on racks and turning the crop at intervals. This method suffers from several disadvantages including lack of control over drying rates, spoilage when drying is slow, contamination by dirt, wetting by rain, and attack by rodents, birds, and insects. These disadvantages can be alleviated by using solar powered driers.[34] The dried produce must be prevented from reabsorbing moisture during storage.[38]
High levels of both sugar and salt can preserve food by preventing micro-organisms from growing. Green beans can be salted by layering the pods with salt, but this method of preservation is unsuited to most vegetables. Marrows, beetroot, carrot, and some other vegetables can be boiled with sugar to create jams.[38] Vinegar is widely used in food preservation; a sufficient concentration of acetic acid prevents the development of destructive micro-organisms, a fact made use of in the preparation of pickles, chutneys and relishes.[38] Fermentation is another method of preserving vegetables for later use. Sauerkraut is made from chopped cabbage and relies on lactic acid bacteria which produce compounds that are inhibitory to the growth of other micro-organisms.[6]
Top producers

In 2010, China was the largest vegetable producing nation, with over half the world's production. India, the United States, Turkey, Iran, and Egypt were the next largest producers. China had the highest area of land devoted to vegetable production, while the highest average yields were obtained in Spain and the Republic of Korea.[41]

Standards
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets international standards to ensure that products and services are safe, reliable, and of good quality. There are a number of ISO standards regarding fruits and vegetables.[42]  ISO 1991-1:1982 lists the botanical names of sixty-one species of plants used as vegetables along with the common names of the vegetables in English, French, and Russian.[43] ISO 67.080.20 covers the storage and transport of vegetables and their derived products.[44]
See also

Food quality
Food safety
Herbivore
List of foods
List of vegetable dishes
List of vegetables
Market gardening
Perennial vegetable
Plant pathology
Post-harvest losses (vegetables)
Vegetable carving

 Media related to Main Page at Wikimedia Commons

What is the most common vegetable consumed by animals?


Mental health in the United Kingdom involves state, private and community sector intervention in mental health issues. One of the first countries to build asylums, the United Kingdom was also one of the first countries to turn away from them as the primary mode of treatment for the mentally ill. It was Enoch Powell in 1961, then Minister of Health, who led the shift towards Care in the Community, the British version of deinstitutionalisation. The majority of mental health care is now provided by the National Health Service, assisted by the private and the voluntary sectors.
According to an investigation in 2018, the NHS is struggling to cope with rising demand for mental health care, with a shortage of beds, patients facing long delays in accessing treatment, and receiving inadequate care when they do. Areas of concern include support for pregnant women and new mothers; depression, anxiety and suicidal thoughts in school-age children and adolescents; and the use of restraints on mental health patients.
History
The Madhouses Act 1774 was the first legislation in the United Kingdom addressing mental health. Privately funded lunatic asylums were widely established during the nineteenth century. The County Asylums Act 1808 permitted, but did not compel, Justices of the Peace to provide establishments for the care of "pauper lunatics", so that they could be removed from workhouses and prisons. The Lunacy Act 1845 established the Board of Commissioners in Lunacy. Justices were forced to build lunatic asylums financed by the local rates.[1]
In 1859, there were about 36,000 people classified as lunatics in all forms of care in England and Wales. About 31,000 were classed as paupers and 5,000 were private patients. Over 17,000 of the paupers were in county asylums or on contract in licensed houses, about 7,000 were in workhouses, while a similar number were living 'with friends or elsewhere'. Ten per cent of workhouse infirmaries provided separate insane wards. The Lunacy Act 1862 permitted voluntary admission. Any person who had been a patient in any type of mental hospital during the previous five years could enter a licensed house as a voluntary boarder. The Lunacy Commissioners could remove lunatics from workhouses to county asylums, and the harmless chronic insane could be moved from the overcrowded asylums to the workhouses.[1]

The Metropolitan Asylums Board, established by the Metropolitan Poor Act 1867 built two large asylums for London, Leavesden Mental Hospital and Caterham Asylum.[2]  They were built to similar designs by the same architect and each was intended to accommodate 1560 patients in six three-storey blocks for 860 females and five blocks for 700 males. They were both extended by around 500 places within five years.[3] In 1870 there were about 46,500 poor law mental health cases: 25,500 in county asylums, 1,500 in registered establishments, 11,500 in workhouses and the remainder boarded out with relatives. In 1876, there were nearly 65,000 people classified as mentally disordered in England and Wales. It is not clear that there was actually an increase in the prevalence of mental illness.
From around 1870 there were moves to separate what were then called idiot children from adults. Darenth School for 500 children with learning disabilities was opened by the Metropolitan Asylums Board in 1878 and a separate institution next to the school, with accommodation for 1,000 adults, was opened in 1880.
The Lunacy Act 1890 placed an obligation on local authorities to maintain institutions for the mentally ill. By 1938 131,000 patients were in local authority mental hospitals in England and Wales, and 13,000 in District Asylums in Scotland, where there were also seven Royal Mental Asylums. Mental hospitals were overcrowded and understaffed.[4]
Mental health services were not integrated with physical health services when the NHS was established in 1948. Shortages of money, staff and buildings continued. Confederation of Health Service Employees organised an overtime ban in 1956, the first national industrial action in the NHS. Iain Macleod increased capital spending from 1954, hoping to increase bed numbers by 2,800. Rising numbers of patients, especially the elderly, caused a shift in policy away from institutions and towards day centres and community care.[5]
In 1961 Enoch Powell, then Minister of Health, made his Water Tower Speech. He said "in fifteen years time there may well be needed not more than half as many places in hospitals for mental illness as there are today".[6] This marked a shift towards Care in the Community, the British version of deinstitutionalisation, which was given further impetus by a series of scandals over long-stay hospitals from 1968 onwards.[7]
Incidence of mental health problems
Most mental health problems are not easily defined. The American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems are most generally used. According to Mind about 25% of the adult population will experience a mental health problem each year.[8]
In 2014 the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey reported that 17% of those surveyed in England met the criteria for a common mental disorder and about 37% of those were accessing mental health treatment. Those more severely affected were more likely to be accessing services.[9] In 2017 a survey found that 65% of Britons have experienced a mental health problem, with 26% having had a panic attack and 42% saying they had suffered from depression.[10]
Pregnant women and new mothers who develop mental health problems get inadequate help from the NHS and how much help they get is subject to a postcode lottery. Some take their own lives; suicide is the most common cause of death among mothers who gave birth within the previous year. The NHS considers that up to 20% of the 775,000 women who give birth annually have a mental health problem connected with carrying a child or giving birth. This includes anxiety disorders, depression and psychotic illnesses such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. According to Claire Murdoch, NHS England's national mental health director, “As recently as 2014, only 3% of the country had good access to perinatal mental health care...".[11]
Agnes Hann of the National Childbirth Trust said, "These findings are shocking, and mean that thousands of women experiencing potentially serious perinatal mental health problems are not getting the support they need. Perinatal mental illness can have a severe and long-term impact on mothers, babies and families. In extreme circumstances, it can result in tragedy – suicide is a leading cause of maternal death." From roughly 10% to 20% of women giving birth experience some type of mental illness such as anxiety and depression or more complex problems like PTSD and psychosis. With about 665,000 births a year in England 66,500–133,000 women a year develop illnesses. In 2016, 13,000 women were treated by perinatal teams while 800 became inpatients. This means the majority were untreated.[12]
Benefit cuts and sanctions "are having a toxic impact on mental health" according to the UK Council for Psychotherapy. Rates of severe anxiety and depression among unemployed people increased from 10.1% in June 2013 to 15.2% in March 2017. In the general population the increase was from 3.4% to 4.1%.[13]
On 5 March 2018, it was reported that "hundreds of mental health patients died after NHS care failures". The report found "271 highly vulnerable patients died between 2012 and 2017 after 706 failings by health bodies". Many of these patients took their own lives. The investigation found that the NHS is struggling to cope with rising demand for mental health care, as well as patients facing long delays in accessing treatment and receiving inadequate care when they do. "NHS providers, mental health organisations and charities have warned that NHS services have too few staff". "There are 6,000 fewer mental health nurses in England than in 2010". There was found to have been multiple notices of inadequate supervision of those with a clear suicide risk, NHS staff ignoring families fears of the suicide risk of a loved one and dozens of cases of staff making mistakes with patients medication or failing to properly assess a patients suicide risk.[14]
Anxiety, depression and suicidal thoughts among children and adolescents are increasing but only half get the treatment they need. Consultant clinical psychologist, Dr. Nihara Krause said,  "Schools face huge challenges in dealing with mental health issues in their students, and teachers are on the front line. They witness first-hand the devastating impact of pressures such as exam anxiety, bullying, and family problems. The consequences of these problems are serious, often life-threatening, and teachers are desperate to help. Yet at a time when the need for preventative, early intervention and specialist services are soaring, schools are finding it increasingly difficult to provide the help their pupils need. There's an urgent need for better support mechanisms in schools, as well as decent funding for the range of mental health services children and young people need."[15]  At least one in ten children are believed to have a psychiatric problem. Just 25% of children with mental health conditions get treatment. A child and adolescent mental health service (Camhs) worker said, "My experience in the past eight to 10 years has been a real deterioration in children and adolescents' ability to access services - the thresholds have changed considerably."  At least one and a half million children under age 18 live in areas without 24/7 mental health crisis care.[16]  Research by the Education Policy Institute suggests referrals to child and adolescent mental health services rose 26% in the five years to 2018. Eating disorders causing weight loss less than 15% from the ideal weight do not get referrals despite National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines that they should.[17]
Poor mental health at work affects half of employees. Fewer than 1 in 5 employers offer mental health training to managers.[18]
Suicide

In the years 2009 through 2011, deaths by suicide numbered 6,045, 5,608 and 5,675 respectively.[19][20]
From 2010 to 2016, 224 inpatients at English psychiatric institutions died of self-inflicted injuries of whom 134 were men and 90 women. The overall figure seems to be falling. Though men are usually at greater risk of suicide, in 2015, for the first time, twenty women killed themselves compared to fifteen men, and in 2016 the figures were ten women and six men. Campaigners have described women's mental health care by the NHS as "not fit for purpose". Katharine Sacks-Jones of Agenda, which campaigns over risks to women and girls, said, "It is appalling that we are seeing so many self-inflicted deaths of women and girls detained under the Mental Health Act. Many will have been detained precisely because they were at risk to themselves, yet the Mental Health Act is not keeping them safe and is failing to support and protect them. NHS care of women with serious psychological or psychiatric problems needs to take much greater account of the fact that many female patients have suffered violence or abuse. The reality is that the conditions under which the Mental Health Act are enforced are not fit for purpose for women and girls". Coroners found at least 271 mental health patients in England and Wales died from 2012 to 2017, sometimes following multiple failings by NHS staff and organisations. This included mental health trusts, GP surgeries and ambulance services. Nearly one in six involved lack of staff, beds or treatment that a patient needed. Deborah Coles of INQUEST, called for mandatory independent investigations into deaths in places where there is mental health care. Coles said, "Our casework bears witness to the escalating rise on the number of highly vulnerable women and girls dying in places where they should be safe. Critical to this is the need for greater oversight, accountability and learning. The lack of an independent investigation system for deaths in mental health settings, unlike that for deaths in police or prison custody, undermines this necessary scrutiny."[21]
Mental health treatment
Improved mental health funding enables people with mental health problems to become more productive workers. Patients diagnosed for the first time with psychosis are too frequently not getting the full recommended care package. Norman Lamb, Liberal Democrat Spokesperson for Health, said, "The impact on peoples' lives of not making this investment is profound. You are left with – potentially – a miserable life, a life on benefits, a life with difficult relationships. And yet if we make that investment, we can transform lives."[22]  Understaffing in psychiatric hospitals sometimes leads to avoidable deaths.[23] Coroners issued legal warnings respecting 271 deaths of psychiatric patients that happened in England and Wales from 2012 to 2017 after treatment failings.[24] At least 154 vulnerable patients with eating disorders, mostly women with some teenagers, needed to travel hundreds of miles away from homes to get inpatient treatment in Glasgow and Edinburgh, which cost the NHS millions of pounds per year.  Mental health experts were alarmed and held severe shortage of both beds and specialist staff in mental health facilities responsible.[25]  Provision of talking therapies is subject to a postcode lottery. In some cases this method of treatment is prompt, in others there are delays of up to four months.[26]
During the six years up to early 2018 in England and Wales 271 psychiatric patients died following failings in their NHS care. Paul Farmer of Mind stated, "When a coroner identifies failings, the NHS needs to respond by urgently addressing any concerns raised and make sure that lessons are learned, not just on one ward or in one trust, but across NHS mental health services. We also need greater clarity when it comes to accountability – it is not clear at the moment who is responsible for making sure that the improvements called for in [Prevention of Future Deaths Notices] are carried out."[27]
Children and adolescent services

Barnardo's claims the government plans for children's therapy are too little too late. According to Barnardo's, children in mental health crisis need to see a therapist within days rather than within a month as the government promises. Further, the proposed plans will not reach more than a quarter of children for years.[28]  Matt Blow of YoungMinds said, "In many areas it is desperately hard for young people to get the support they need, Every day the charity's helpline hears from parents who have been waiting months for an appointment for their child and have nowhere to turn.  Sometimes their children have started to self-harm, become suicidal or dropped out of school during the wait."[29]
Young English people with eating disorders are sent to Scotland because the services they need are not available locally. Being away from friends and family compromises their recovery.[30]
There are concerns that not enough is being done to support people at risk of suicide.[31]  1,039 children and adolescents in England were admitted to beds away from home in 2017-18, many had to travel over 100 miles from home. Many had complex mental health issues frequently involving a risk of self-harm or suicide, like severe depression, eating disorders, psychosis and personality disorders.[32]
In 2017-18 at least 539 children assessed as needing Tier 3 child and adolescent mental health services care waited more than a year to start treatment, according to a Health Service Journal survey which elicited reports from 33 out of the 50 mental health trusts.[33]  99% of UK family doctor fear youngsters under 18 will be harmed through long delays to see a specialist and rationing of vital care.[34]
England
The King's Fund found that 40% of English Mental Health Trusts experienced budget cuts in 2015–16.[35]  Money promised for children's mental health services is not reaching frontline services and instead is being used to offset cuts elsewhere. According to the Education Policy Institute 'Independent Commission on Children and Young People's Mental Health', young people still struggle to get psychiatric help. 23% of children and young people referred to mental health services are turned away due to "high thresholds" to access services. A report claimed, "something has to go drastically wrong before some services will intervene".[36] In some areas services are so stretched that children only get help if they are suicidal or seriously self harming. Barnardos is not bidding to provide some services because with the limited funding available they do not believe they can provide a safe service.[37]  The number of psychiatrists available to treat children and young people with mental health needs is falling despite rising demand.  Patient care is being delayed or limited because staffing numbers have not kept up with growing demand, which experts connect to academic pressures, social media and other issues. Some children's treatment is delayed up to 18 months. Dr Bernadka Dubicka of the Royal College of Psychiatrists stated,  “With the country facing a crisis in children’s mental health, we need a big expansion of the number of doctors … It is deeply frustrating that the number of child and adolescent psychiatrists is falling.”[38]  Plans to change mental health care for young people will come too late for the present generation.[39]
The numbers attending A&E due to psychiatric problems rose by 50% between 2011 and 2016 and reached 165,000 in that year. Patients are suffering psychiatric crises due to lack of earlier intervention. It is suspected that yet more psychiatric cases are recorded as something else like self-harm or attempted suicide. Some trusts claim that 10% of A&E cases are psychiatric. Patients attending A&E due to psychiatric problems have not benefited from early intervention due to years of underfunding. Young people do not get early help and problems escalate.[40]
There are calls for increased provision of in patient psychiatric services and community psychiatric services because otherwise patients will be failed, sometimes with tragic results. A&E is stressful and far from ideal for people in a mental health crisis but many patients in mental distress, some suicidal, have nowhere else to go.[40] Some mental health services have increased but many have been cut. Forty per cent of mental health trusts have seen their budget reduced. Marjorie Wallace of mental health charity Sane, said "cuts to services across the country continue and people seeking help are still being failed".[41]
In Birmingham, the Forward Thinking Birmingham consortium was selected to deliver a new combined mental health service for people aged 0–25 across the city from October 2015.[42]  The 5-year contract had an annual value of £23.7 million. It will result in the mental health trust losing £14.2m a year. An independent impact assessment recommended delayed implementation and "bridging funding" of at least £1.5m to enable the safe transition of some adult services.[43] The joint commissioning board for the three Birmingham and Solihull clinical commissioning groups agreed in June 2017 to spend an additional £8.1 million over two years to ease pressure on adult mental health beds after an independent report produced by Mental Health Strategies had "unearthed unsafe clinical practice due to a shortfall in bedded capacity". The contract provided 28 inpatient mental health beds for young adults but the service consistently had about 51 inpatients.[44]
Mental health problems among university students have been increasing. Suicides among university students have increased. There is need for better joined up care between GP's at their parents' home where students are during vacations and university provision away from home. Waiting times before students can access mental health care are long.[45]
The Tory manifesto for the 2017 general election promised to provide £1 billion extra cash by 2021 for mental health in England, to scrap the Mental Health Act 1983 and to introduce a new Mental Health Treatment Bill.[46] In July 2017, Jeremy Hunt announced plans to create 21,000 new NHS posts. Two thousand additional nurses, consultants and therapist posts are to be created in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, and 2,900 additional therapists in adult talking services, with 4,800 extra nurses and therapists in crisis care settings.[47] Javed Khan, chief executive of Barnardo's, said, "The response is insufficient, it's not broad enough, there is limited financial detail. It talks about rolling out a number of initiatives in a number of areas but funding is only secured to these areas until 2023. The prime minister has talked about this issue as a burning injustice but we don't think the action is matching the rhetoric."[37]
Large numbers of psychiatric patients are sent out of the area where they live for treatment. In January 2018, 700 patients were sent out of their area and in February that year 650 patients received inpatient treatment outside their area. There are doubts if a target to end the practise by 2020 will be met. Health care professionals frequently spend hours looking for a place with a bed for a patient, preventing them from tending to other patients. Also, treatment away from family, friends and social contacts isolates patients and makes them less likely to recover.[48]  The King's Fund stated, "A lack of available beds is leading to high numbers of out-of-area placements for inpatients. Out-of-area placements are costly, have a detrimental impact on the experience of patients and are associated with an increased risk of suicide."[49]  Mental health beds in England have declined by 30% since 2009. Beds for patients with some of the most serious illnesses which include psychosis, serious depression with suicidal feelings and eating disorders, have fallen from 26,448 in 2009 to 18,082 in the first quarter of 2018. The number of mental health nurses working in the NHS fell from 46,155 to 39,358 and the number of doctors in specialist psychiatry training fell from 3,187 in 2009 to 2,588 in the first quarter of 2018.[50]  Psychiatrists and therapists are leaving the NHS while the numbers needing help are increasing.[51]
The police are increasingly having to deal with mental health issues because the mental health services do not do enough according to Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire and Rescue Service.[52]  This takes police resources away from fighting crime.  Merseyside police reckons 25% of its police time is spent dealing with mental health problems, and Lancashire police reckons that 20,000 hours of police time, out of 70,000 hours yearly is spent working on mental health problems.[53]  Police are forced to keep vulnerable psychiatrically ill patients in police cells for the patients' safety, which leaves some patients feeling like criminals.[54]
Medical restraints in the UK

The Millfields Charter is an online charter which promotes an end to the teaching of any prone (face-down) restraint holds to frontline healthcare staff.[55] In June 2013 the UK government announced that it was considering a ban on the use of face-down restraint in English mental health hospitals.[56]
Face-down restraints are used more often on women and girls than on men. 51 out of 58 mental health trusts use restraints unnecessarily when other techniques would work. Organisations opposed to restraints include Mind and Rethink Mental Illness. YoungMinds and Agenda claim restraints are "frightening and humiliating" and "re-traumatise" patients, especially women and girls who have previously been victims of physical and/or sexual abuse.
The charities sent an open letter to health secretary, Jeremy Hunt showing evidence from 'Agenda, the alliance for women and girls at risk', revealing that patients are routinely restrained in some mental health units while other units use non-physical ways to calm patients or stop self-harm. According to the letter, over half of women with psychiatric problems have suffered abuse, restraint can cause physical harm, can frighten and humiliate the victim. Restraint, especially face-down restraint can re-traumatise patients who previously suffered violence and abuse. "Mental health units are meant to be caring, therapeutic environments, for people feeling at their most vulnerable, not places where physical force is routine."
Government guidelines state that face-down restraint should not be used at all and other types of physical restraint are only for last resort. Research by Agenda found one fifth of female patients in mental health units had suffered physical restraint. Some trusts averaged over twelve face-down restraints per female patient. Over 6% of women, close to 2,000, were restrained face-down in total more than 4,000 times. The figures vary widely between regions.
Some trusts hardly use restraints, others use them routinely. A woman patient was in several hospitals and units at times for a decade with mental health issues. She said in some units she suffered restraints two or three times daily. Katharine Sacks-Jones, director of Agenda, maintains trusts use restraint when alternatives would work. Sacks-Jones maintains that women in her group speak to repeatedly describe face-down restraint as a traumatic experience. On occasions, male nurses have used it when a woman did not want her medication. "If you are a woman who has been sexually or physically abused – and mental health problems in women often have close links to violence and abuse – then a safer environment has to be just that: safe and not a re-traumatising experience. ... Face-down restraint hurts, it is dangerous, and there are some big questions around why it is used more on women than men."[57]
The use of restraints in UK psychiatric facilities is increasing.[58]  In 2016–17 there was the largest number of injuries ever; 3,652 patients were injured by being restrained, data from 48 of England's 56 mental health trusts reveals. Critics say restraints are potentially traumatic even life-threatening for patients. Norman Lamb said, "Whilst this dramatic increase may be partly explained by improved reporting, the scale of injuries is horrifying. This is also, no doubt, in part due to the stress that many trusts are under, with bed occupancy close to 100% and often relying on agency staff. This amounts to a serious and unacceptable breach of people's human rights. What is most shocking is that some of those against whom restraint is used have suffered abuse in their lives. For them, restraint amounts to an assault, which can be frightening and can completely undermine trust." The most injuries happened at Southern Health (534 cases), Merseycare (493) and South London and the Maudsley (255). Restraints were used 97,000 times in 2016–17. some trusts have greatly reduced the number of restraints used. Thirteen per cent of trusts have no restraint policy though 2014 government guidance asked all mental health care providers to draw one up. Staff as well as patients need to be protected and standards of training particularly in de-escalation techniques need improvement.[59]
The police use stun guns on psychiatric patients including teenagers though this use is controversial and can be life-threatening. Gracie Bradley of Liberty said, “Given the pain, distress and serious health consequences electro-shock weapons can cause, it’s difficult to see how using them on vulnerable people seeking treatment in mental health hospitals could ever be appropriate or justified.  [Stun guns] can and do kill, which is why they were initially restricted to use by firearms officers – but mission creep has seen them deployed well beyond that.”  Norman Lamb said the UN defines stun gun use as potentially torture. “It’s seen as a way of avoiding force but this is not a risk-free option and it is particularly shocking when [stun guns] are used against teenagers.”[60]
Proposals
NHS Improvement began plans to help trusts in England integrate mental and physical health care in June 2017.[61] Claire Murdoch said that more than 10,000 staff would be required to deliver the promised service improvements.[62]
See also
Improving Access to Psychological Therapies
Mental Health Research UK
Category:Mental health organisations in the United Kingdom
Category:Psychiatric hospitals in the United Kingdom
General:
Health in the United Kingdom

Further reading
. The Independent. Author – Katie Forster. Published 18 May 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
. The Guardian. Author – Denis Campbell. Published 16 January 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018.

 on the NHS website

What is the most commonly diagnosed mental health disorder in the UK?