Roger Stokoe Goodell (born February 19, 1959) is an American businessman who is currently the Commissioner of the National Football League (NFL). On August 8, 2006, Goodell was chosen to succeed retiring commissioner Paul Tagliabue.[1] He was chosen for the position over four finalists; he won a close vote on the fifth ballot before being unanimously approved by acclamation of the owners. He officially began his tenure on September 1, 2006, just prior to the beginning of the 2006 NFL season. On December 6, 2017, the NFL announced that Goodell signed a new contract that will start in 2019.[2] Commentators have described him as "the most powerful man in sports."[3][4][5]
Early life
Goodell was born in Jamestown, New York on February 19, 1959,[6] to United States Senator Charles Ellsworth Goodell of New York, and Jean (Rice) Goodell of Buffalo, New York. He graduated from Bronxville High School where, as a three-sport star in football, basketball, and baseball, he captained all three teams as a senior and was named the school's athlete of the year.[7] Injuries kept him from playing college football.[8] Goodell is a 1981 graduate of Washington & Jefferson College in Washington, Pennsylvania with a degree in economics.[6][9][10][11]
Professional career
From intern to COO
Goodell began his NFL career in 1982 as an administrative intern in the league office in New York under then-Commissioner Pete Rozelle. The position was secured through a letter-writing campaign to the league office and each of its then 28 teams.[12][13] In 1983, he joined the New York Jets as an intern, but returned to the league office in 1984 as an assistant in the public relations department.[14][15][16]
In 1987, Goodell was appointed assistant to the president of the American Football Conference, Lamar Hunt, and under the tutelage of Commissioner Paul Tagliabue filled a variety of football and business operations roles, culminating with his appointment as the NFL's Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer in December 2001. As the NFL's COO, Goodell took responsibility for the league's football operations and officiating, as well as supervised league business functions. He headed NFL Ventures, which oversees the league's business units, including media properties, marketing and sales, stadium development, and strategic planning.[17]
Goodell was heavily involved in the negotiation of the collective bargaining agreement with the NFLPA and NFL owners during the summer of 2011.[18] He also played an extensive role in league expansion, realignment, and stadium development, including the launch of the NFL Network and securing new television agreements.[17]
NFL commissioner selection
When Tagliabue retired, Goodell was one of the candidates in contention for the position. In the second and third ballots, Goodell and Gregg Levy were the only candidates to receive votes (Goodell 17, Levy 14). Goodell increased his lead to 21–10 after the fourth ballot, falling one vote shy of election, but on the fifth round of voting two owners swung their votes to him to achieve the necessary two-thirds majority (Goodell 23, Levy 8).[16] The Oakland Raiders abstained from the voting in each round.
On August 8, 2006, Goodell was chosen to succeed Tagliabue; he assumed office on September 1, the date Tagliabue was required to step down.[19]
Actions as commissioner
Goodell believes his primary responsibility as commissioner is protecting the integrity of the game and making it safer—"protecting the shield", as he puts it (a reference to the NFL's shield logo).[20] However, some of his actions in this regard have been met with criticism.[21]
In 2014, Goodell was awarded the third highest honor within the Department of the Army Civilian Awards scheme, the Outstanding Civilian Service Award, for substantial contributions to the US Army community while serving as the NFL commissioner.[22]
NFL in Europe
The spring league NFL Europe, founded in 1995 and since 2004 with five of six teams based in Germany, was shut down by Goodell after the 2007 season. The NFL International Series began in October 2007 with regular season games in London.
Player conduct

In April 2007, following a year of significant scandal surrounding some NFL players' actions off the field, Goodell announced a new NFL Personal Conduct Policy. Tennessee Titans cornerback Pacman Jones and Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver Chris Henry were the first two players to be suspended under the new policy,[23] and Chicago Bears defensive lineman Tank Johnson was suspended months later because of his conduct involving weapon ownership and drunk driving. On August 31, 2007, Goodell suspended Dallas Cowboys quarterbacks coach Wade Wilson for five games and fined him US$100,000, and suspended New England Patriots safety Rodney Harrison for four games without pay, after they admitted the use of banned substances for medical purposes and to accelerate healing, respectively. The league indicated to Wilson that his more severe penalty was because they held "people in authority in higher regard than people on the field."[24] Goodell has also imposed suspensions on the following players for conduct:

In addition to suspensions, Goodell has also fined players for on-field misconduct. For example, on October 19, 2010, the NFL handed out fines to Pittsburgh Steelers linebacker James Harrison, Falcons cornerback Dunta Robinson, and New England Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather after they were involved in controversial hits the previous Sunday. Goodell released a memo to every team in the league stating that "It is clear to me that further action is required to emphasize the importance of teaching safe and controlled techniques, and of playing within the rules."[30] The NFL's reaction to the hits was itself controversial and Goodell came under criticism from players like Troy Polamalu, who felt he had assumed too much control and power over punishment towards players and was making wrong decisions.[31]
Two national political advocacy groups, CREDO and UltraViolet have submitted a petition with over 100,000 signatures calling on Goodell and the NFL to "address its domestic violence problem." This came after Ray Rice was suspended for two games when he was accused of assaulting his then fiancée, Janay Palmer, who is now his wife.[32]
Spygate

On September 13, 2007, Goodell disciplined the New England Patriots and head coach Bill Belichick after New England attempted to videotape the defensive signals of the New York Jets from an illegal position on September 9. In the aftermath, Belichick was fined the league maximum of $500,000. The Patriots themselves were fined $250,000 and had to forfeit a first round pick in the 2008 NFL Draft. Goodell came down hard on the Patriots because he felt Belichick's authority over football operations (Belichick is effectively the Patriots' general manager as well as head coach) was such that his decisions were "properly attributed" to the Patriots as well.[33] Goodell said he considered suspending Belichick, but decided against it because he felt fining them and stripping them of a draft pick were "more effective" than a suspension.[34]
2011 NFL lockout

Outside of player conduct, Goodell is also known for his work in the 2011 NFL lockout. Prior to the start of the 2011 NFL season, Goodell worked with NFL owners and the NFLPA on settling the NFL lockout which ran from March 11 to August 5.[35] During the lockout, at the request of some NFL teams, he held conference calls with season ticket holders where he discussed the collective bargaining agreement and conducted question-and-answer sessions on various NFL topics.[36]
Bountygate

In March 2012, Goodell revealed evidence that players and coaches on the New Orleans Saints had instituted a bounty program in which Saints defensive players were paid bonuses for deliberately knocking opposing players out of games. Then-defensive coordinator Gregg Williams administered the program, and as many as 27 Saints defensive players were involved. Later that month, Goodell handed down some of the harshest penalties in NFL history. He suspended Williams, who had left to become defensive coordinator of the St. Louis Rams, indefinitely (Williams would later be reinstated at the start of the 2013 season). Goodell also suspended head coach Sean Payton for the entire 2012 season, general manager Mickey Loomis for eight games and assistant head coach Joe Vitt for six games. Additionally, the Saints themselves were fined a league maximum $500,000 and had to forfeit their second round draft picks in 2012 and 2013.[37] Goodell was particularly upset that those involved in the program lied about it during two separate league investigations of the program. Sanctions for players were not handed down at the time, and Goodell stated he would refrain from penalizing players until the NFLPA completed its investigation of the affair.[38]
2012 referee lockout

By June 2012, the league and the NFL Referees Association had not yet come to terms on a new collective bargaining agreement, thus failing to resolve a labor dispute. Accordingly, the NFL locked out the regular NFL game officials, and opened the 2012 season with replacement referees.[39][40]
The replacement officials consisted of low-level college and high school officials. None were Division I college referees at the time since the league wanted to protect them from union backlash and let them continue working their scheduled games during the concurrent college football season.[41] In addition, many of the top Division I conferences barred their officials from becoming replacements anyway because they employed current and former NFL referees as officiating supervisors.[42][43]
Despite Goodell stating during the preseason that he believed that the replacement officials will "do a credible job",[44] the inexperience of the replacement referees  generated criticism by writers and players. Referencing Goodell's aforementioned other actions as commissioner, the NFLPA issued a letter after Week 2 to the owners to end the dispute, saying:
It is lost on us as to how you allow a Commissioner to cavalierly issue suspensions and fines in the name of player health and safety yet permit the wholesale removal of the officials that you trained and entrusted to maintain that very health and safety. It has been reported that the two sides are apart by approximately $60,000 per team. We note that your Commissioner has fined an individual player as much in the name of "safety." Your actions are looking more and more like simple greed. As players, we see this game as more than the "product" you reference at times. You cannot simply switch to a group of cheaper officials and fulfill your legal, moral, and duty obligations to us and our fans. You need to end the lockout and bring back the officials immediately.[45]

Player brain damage

Under Goodell's leadership, on August 30, 2013, the NFL reached a $765 million settlement with the former NFL players over head injuries.[46] The settlement created a $675 million compensation fund from which former NFL players can collect from depending on the extent of their conditions. Severe conditions such as Lou Gehrig's disease and postmortem diagnosed chronic traumatic encephalopathy would be entitled to payouts as high as $5 million.[46] From the remainder of the settlement, $75 million would be used for medical exams, and $10 million would be used for research and education.[46] However, in January, 2014, U.S. District Judge Anita B. Brody refused to accept the agreed settlement because "the money wouldn't adequately compensate the nearly 20,000 men not named in the suit".[47] In 2014, the cap was removed from the amount.[48]
Deflategate

After the NFL suspended New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady four games for his alleged awareness of team employees deflating footballs, as indicated in the Wells Report, the NFLPA filed an appeal of his suspension on May 14, 2015.[49] Despite their request for a neutral third party arbitrator, the NFL announced that Goodell would preside over Brady's appeal hearing,[50] which he did on June 23.[51]
Goodell announced his upholding of the suspension on July 28, citing the destruction of Brady's cell phone as critical evidence that Brady "knew about, approved of, consented to, and provided inducements and rewards in support of a scheme by which, with Mr. Jastremski's support, Mr. McNally tampered with the game balls."[52] The same day, the NFL filed papers in Manhattan federal court to confirm Goodell's upholding of the suspension.[53] A day after the suspension was upheld, Brady and Patriots owner Robert Kraft made statements criticizing the league, with Brady stating that he was never "made aware at any time during Mr. Wells investigation, that failing to subject my cell phone to investigation would result in ANY discipline."[54][55]
On August 4, U.S. District Judge Richard M. Berman ordered the transcript from Brady's appeal hearing released to the public. Writers quickly spotted contradictions between Goodell's statement and Brady's testimony, notably regarding increased phone conversations between Brady and team staffer John Jastremski in the weeks between the AFC Championship Game and Super Bowl XLIX. Dan Wetzel of Yahoo! Sports pointed out that while Goodell had stated in upholding the suspension that Brady claimed he only spoke with Jastremski about football preparations for the Super Bowl, which would be suspicious if correct due to the increase in communication, Brady had testified in the hearing that other topics, including the alleged deflation, were discussed.[56] The NFL was also criticized for a conflict of interest at the hearing, as one of the lawyers who worked on the Wells Report, Lorin Reisner, cross-examined Brady during the hearing on behalf of the league; Ted Wells' independence in his investigation, as repeatedly asserted by the league, was also put to question, as he testified that NFL counsel Jeff Pash reviewed the report.[57]
Berman vacated Brady's suspension on September 3, citing a lack of fair due process.[58] Analysts criticized Goodell for his violation of due process in order to uphold an extreme punishment and his arrogance in presuming he superseded the NFL's rules. Wetzel stated that "Judge Berman didn't declare Brady innocent on Thursday; he declared the NFL guilty of violating federal law in trying to declare Brady guilty."[59] Michael Hurley of CBS Boston pointed out that the NFL's case was centered on Article 46 of the league's Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA), but Berman cited Article 46 as evidence that the league had used unfair process.[60]
The NFL announced it would appeal Judge Berman's decision just hours after the suspension was overturned.[61] The appeal hearing was held March 3, 2016.[62]  At the hearing the three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit scrutinized Players Association lawyer Jeffrey L. Kessler more intensely than NFL lawyer Paul Clement, with Circuit Judge Denny Chin even stating that "the evidence of ball tampering is compelling, if not overwhelming."[63]
On April 25, 2016, the Second Circuit reinstated Brady's four-game suspension for the 2016 NFL season. Circuit Judge Barrington Daniels Parker, Jr., joined by Circuit Judge Chin, wrote that they could not "second-guess" the arbitration but were merely determining it "met the minimum legal standards established by the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947".[64]  Circuit Chief Judge Robert Katzmann dissented, writing that the NFL's fines for using stickum were "highly analogous" and that here "the Commissioner was doling out his own brand of industrial justice."[65] On May 21, 2015, The Washington Post published an article that Goodell's efforts to harshly suspend Brady were "part of a personal power play", supporting public claims that he was simply trying to demonstrate authority within the league.[66]
US national anthem protests

On May 23, 2018, Commissioner Goodell and certain NFL owners unanimously approved a new policy requiring all players to stand during the national anthem or given the option to stay in the locker room during the national anthem. Any players from a NFL team who protested the anthem while on the field would become subject to discipline from the league. In addition, the teams as a whole would be subject to punishment and other forms of discipline from the NFL as a result.[67][68]
Personal life
In October 1997, Goodell married former Fox News Channel anchor Jane Skinner[69] and together they have twin daughters, born in 2001. He has four brothers: among them are Tim, who is a Senior Vice President for the Hess Corporation, and Michael, married to Jack Kenny, creator of the short-lived NBC series The Book of Daniel. The Webster family on the show was loosely based on the Goodell family.[70] Goodell's cousin Andy Goodell is a member of the New York State Assembly.


In aerobatics, Pugachev's Cobra (or Pugachev Cobra) is a dramatic and demanding maneuver in which an airplane flying at a moderate speed suddenly raises the nose momentarily to the vertical position and slightly beyond, before dropping it back to normal flight. It uses potent engine thrust to maintain approximately constant altitude through the entire move.[1] Some have speculated that the maneuver may have use in close range combat,[2] although it has never been used.
It is an impressive trick to demonstrate an aircraft's pitch control authority, high angle of attack (AOA) stability and engine-versus-inlet compatibility, as well as the pilot's skill. The maneuver is named after the Soviet test pilot Viktor Pugachev, who performed it in 1989 at the  Le Bourget Paris air show.[1]
But Igor Volk was the first who tested aircraft behavior at high super-critical angles of attack (around 90°) and performed aerobatics such as the "cobra" maneuver.[3]
Description
In the case of the Su-27, the pilot initially disengages the angle of attack limiter of the plane, normally set at 26°.[1]  This action also disengages the g limiter. After that the pilot pulls back on the stick hard. The aircraft reaches 90–120° angle of attack with a slight gain of altitude and a significant loss of speed. When the elevator is centered, the drag at the rear of the plane causes torque, thus making the aircraft pitch forward. At that time the pilot adds power to compensate for the lift loss.
In a properly performed Pugachev's Cobra, the plane maintains almost straight flight throughout the maneuver. The plane does not roll or yaw in either direction. Proper entry speed is significant because, if entering at too low a speed, the pilot might not be able to accomplish the maneuver. Entering at too high a speed might result in airframe damage due to the high g-force or for the pilot to lose consciousness.
While Pugachev's Cobra can be executed using only standard aerodynamic controls, it could be achieved more easily with modern thrust vectoring such as the case of F-22 Raptor which utilizes 2D thrust vectoring. In the latter case it would be an example of supermaneuverability,[4] specifically poststall maneuvering. The Herbst maneuvering and the helicopter maneuver are other examples of the recent growing use of vectored thrust in 4.5 and fifth-generation jet fighters, manned as well as unmanned.[5]
Potential use in combat

It has been speculated that the maneuver could theoretically be useful when a combatant is being pursued closely by an opponent at a somewhat higher altitude. By executing the Cobra, a sufficiently closely pursued aircraft may suddenly slow itself to the point that the pursuer may overshoot it, allowing the previously pursued aircraft to complete the Cobra behind the other. This may give the now-pursuing aircraft an opportunity for firing its weapons, particularly if a proper pointing aspect (facing toward the former pursuer) can be maintained. Maintenance of the proper aspect can be facilitated when the aircraft employs thrust vectoring and/or canard control surfaces.
The disadvantage of performing this maneuver is that it leaves the airplane in a low speed/low energy state, which can leave it vulnerable to attack from opposing aircraft. It can also be countered by maneuvers such as high yo-yo.
The maneuver is also potentially a defense against radar, as the sudden change in velocity can often cause Doppler radars to lose their lock on the target.[6] Doppler radars often ignore any objects with a near zero velocity to reduce ground clutter. The cobra maneuver's sudden change to near zero velocity often results in the target being momentarily filtered off as ground clutter, making it difficult for the radar to lock onto the target, or breaking the target lock if already established.
Examples of aircraft capable of the manoeuvre

Production aircraft
Sukhoi Su-27[1] and variants (Su-30/Su-30MKI/Su-30MKM, Su-33, Su-34, Su-35,[7] Su-37 and Shenyang J-11)
Chengdu J-10
Sukhoi Su-57[8]
Mikoyan MiG-29M OVT[9] and Mikoyan MiG-35
Saab 35 Draken [10]
Experimental aircraft
Rockwell-MBB X-31
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 HARV
McDonnell Douglas F-15 STOL/MTD
General Dynamics F-16 VISTA
Sukhoi Su-47
Chengdu J-10 (J-10B TVC Demonstrator variant)[11]
See also
Cobra Turn
Herbst maneuver, post-stall braking and turn demonstrated by the Rockwell-MBB X-31 experimental thrust vectoring fighter.
Kulbit, a more demanding combat manoeuvre (performed for example by the Sukhoi Su-37)[1]

What is the hardest fighter plane maneuver?


The Abbots Ripton rail disaster occurred on 21 January 1876 at Abbots Ripton, then in the county of Huntingdonshire, England, on the Great Northern Railway main line, previously thought to be exemplary for railway safety. In the accident, the Special Scotch Express train from Edinburgh to London was involved in a collision, during a blizzard, with a coal train. An express travelling in the other direction then ran into the wreckage. The initial accident was caused by:
over-reliance on signals and block working as allowing high-speed running even in adverse conditions
systematic signal failure in the adverse conditions of that day due to a vulnerability to accumulation of snow and ice
The accident (and the subsequent inquiry into it)[1] led to fundamental changes in British railway signalling practice.
Overview
A coal train preceding the Flying Scotsman on the main East Coast up (south-bound) line was normally scheduled to be shunted into a siding at Abbots Ripton to allow the much faster Flying Scotsman to pass.  Because of a very bad snowstorm, both the coal train and the Flying Scotsman were running late and the signalman at Holme, the next station north of Abbots Ripton, judged that the coal train needed to go into sidings at Holme if it was not to delay the Flying Scotsman. He therefore set his signal levers to danger so as to stop the coal train, but it continued on the main line until it reached Abbots Ripton, where as expected the signalman waved it on to his box with a hand lamp, and directed it to shunt. The goods train had nearly completed shunting into the Abbots Ripton siding when the Scotch express ran into it at speed. The wreckage obstructed the down (northbound) line and a second collision occurred some minutes later when a northbound express to Leeds crashed into the wreckage. Thirteen passengers died in the collisions, and 53 passengers and 6 traincrew members were injured.
The Great Northern was operating on the block system, which was supposed to eliminate such accidents, so the accident caused considerable alarm. It was soon established that the main problem was with signals and snow:
the weight of snow on the semaphore arm and/or snow and ice on the wires by which the arm should be moved had meant that when signalmen had put levers to the 'danger' position from the normal 'all clear' the signals did not fully move to 'danger'
in normal conditions, signalmen could see the signals they were controlling– in a snowstorm they could not
The coal train had therefore seen nothing to make it stop at Holme, and the Flying Scotsman whilst catching up with it had run through a number of signals which were showing 'clear' although their levers had been set to 'danger'.
Narrative
Great Northern Railway equipment and practices
Geography
Abbots Ripton is about 4.5 miles (7.2km) north of Huntingdon (and 12.8 miles (20.6km) south of  Peterborough ) on the East Coast main line, which handled both fast passenger trains and slow goods (largely coal) traffic. North of Peterborough passenger and coal traffic took different routes. South of Peterborough, they shared the same route; this was twin track in 1876, but stations with 'shunting sidings' were provided at frequent intervals to avoid slow goods trains, typically travelling at 20mph (32km/h), obstructing fast trains such as the prestigious 'Scotch express', which averaged 45mph (72km/h) (hence its unofficial nickname 'The Flying Scotsman'),  A slow train being caught up by a faster one would stop at such a station and reverse into the shunting siding, taking about four minutes to clear the main line. After the fast train had passed, the slow train would resume its journey. Abbots Ripton station had a shunting siding; for a south-bound ('up') train the previous siding was 5.8 miles (9.3km) further north at Holme, 7 miles (11km) south of Peterborough.
Block working
Traffic along the line was regulated by block working.  Abbots Ripton and Holme had signal boxes and between them were two intermediate boxes. All controlled 'home' signals near the box and 'distant' signals about half a mile (c 800 m) before the home signals. The line was thus divided into three blocks, each roughly 2 miles (c 3.1km) long; entry to each block was controlled by the signal box at the start of the block.[2] Shunting into the siding at Abbots Ripton took place in a fourth block. The 'home' signals at Abbots Ripton were interlocked with the siding points and so that whenever the points were open to the main line the Abbots Ripton home signal lever had to be at 'danger'.
All boxes could communicate with adjacent boxes by their block telegraph. Signals were normally kept at 'all clear' but were set to 'danger' to protect trains as follows.  When a train entered a block by passing a home signal, the signalman would set the home signal to 'danger', thus preventing a following train entering the same block. The distant would also be set to 'danger'.  Trains were required to stop at a home signal at 'danger' but were allowed to pass a distant signal at 'danger', this merely warning the driver of an approaching train to moderate his speed so that the train could be stopped at the home signal.  Both signals would be returned to 'all clear' when the next box telegraphed 'line clear'. Normally, as soon as a train was past a box's home signal, the signalman would telegraph 'line clear' to the preceding box. During foggy or snowy weather, however, when a train stopped at a station 'line clear' was not sent until the train had restarted, or been shunted into a siding.[3] In good weather therefore a goods train being shunted into a siding at Abbots Ripton should have been protected against another train running into it by the Abbots Ripton 'home' and 'distant' signals ; in falling snow, the home and distant signals of the previous box should have given further protection and the fast train should always have been at least one full block away.
Signal boxes serving stations/sidings had, as well as the block telegraph, 'speaking telegraph' instruments (not telephones, but Morse code senders, used for messages (for example how late a train was running)).
Signals
The signals used on the Great Northern to work the block system were lower quadrant semaphores.[note 1] A lever in the signal box was connected by a wire (under tension, and passing over intermediate pulleys) to a counterweighted arm on the signal.  To set a signal to all clear, the signalman pulled the appropriate lever in his signal box; this moved the arm down (which was pivoted in a slot in the signal post), against the pull of the counterweight, "to a vertical position in the post".[4] When the lever was moved to set the signal to danger, this did not positively drive the signal to “danger” but paid out slack in the wire and allowed the counterweight to take the arm to a horizontal position.  [note 2]
Since by day the signal arms were clearly visible from the signal box from which they were worked, the system had no repeater in the signal box to confirm a signal was actually showing the aspect corresponding to the lever position.
In emergency the signal could be set to ‘danger’ by cutting the wire; but a heavy weight lying on the wire would keep the signal at ‘all clear’ by effectively pulling on it: since the signals were normally set to ‘all clear’ any fault which stopped them being moved would almost certainly keep them at ‘all clear’ as well.
At night (or in poor visibility in daytime) an oil lamp displayed a white light when the signal was at 'all clear'; when the signal arm moved to the horizontal “danger” position it brought a red lens in front of the light, so that a red light was then displayed to oncoming trains. In poor visibility, GNR regulations called for detonators to be laid if possible on the track at the home signal when this was set to danger; at stations where platelayers were available, this should also be done at the distant signals.
Brakes
The express trains were made up of non-bogie non-corridor four- or six-wheel carriages. There were 13 on the Leeds express, giving a weight (including the engine and tender) of somewhat over 200 tons. At this period, other railways often had to resort to using more than one engine to maintain a high top speed,; the Great Northern (favoured with one of the best engine classes of the period– the Stirling 8-foot singles) prided itself on not doing so. As with all the other railways, though, it had considerable difficulties in stopping the trains rapidly once they were at speed. To stop a train, the driver could shut off steam, get his fireman to apply a handbrake [note 3] on the tender and put the engine into reverse. He had no means of applying brakes to the rest of the train; indeed most of the carriages had no brakes.  Two or three of the carriages were brake carriages with handbrakes, each with a guard who would apply them when (and if) he heard the driver "whistle for brakes". In trials carried out after the accident under favourable conditions this was shown to bring the train to rest within 800–1150 yards when travelling at 40–45mph.  The Railway Inspectors considered that much shorter stopping distances would be possible if passenger trains were provided with continuous brakes operable by the driver, and had urged such systems be fitted. This had been resisted by the railway companies as unnecessary, unreliable, expensive and dangerous.[note 4]
Flying Scotsman
On the night of the accident, the Scotch express had 10 passenger carriages.  These were first- or second-class; as customary the train did not carry third-class passengers.  Notable passengers on the night of the accident included the Russian Ambassador, the deputy chairman  [note 5] and another director[note 6] of the Great Northern, a director (John Cleghorn, formerly company secretary) of the North Eastern Railway and the chief engineer of the NER (Thomas Elliot Harrison, a past president of the Institution of Civil Engineers).[5] At the inquest, the coroner's summing up noted that it was a heavy responsibility to stop a train, but did not explicitly suggest the prestige of the Scotch express aggravated the responsibility
The First Collision
On the afternoon of 21 January, the Peterborough-Huntingdon area was experiencing a very bad snow storm; more than one witness at the Inquiry said they had never known worse "freezing blowing and snowing...bad for seeing signals".[6] Crucially, the snow/sleet fell onto already cold ground and equipment, freezing on them.[note 7][7]
The southbound coal train had left Peterborough about 18 minutes late, and therefore with about 12 minutes less lead on the Flying Scotsman than normal. It progressed steadily to Abbots Ripton where it stopped by the signalbox (at about 6.41) and on the instructions of the Abbots Ripton signalman began to shunt (as it would normally have done) into the siding to let the Flying Scotsman overtake. The signalman urged the driver to hurry up, as he was "keeping the Scotchman standing at Wood Walton (the previous signal box)".[8]
The signalman at Holme had been concerned that, because the coal train was so late, if it went to Abbots Ripton before shunting into a siding the Flying Scotsman would be delayed. To avoid this, he had decided to stop the train at Holme and put it into a siding there. He set his signal levers to put his signals to danger, but when the coal train arrived at Holme at 6.21 pm it did not stop. He telegraphed to Abbots Ripton that the train had run past the signals,[note 8][9] and told the stationmaster at Holme that the train had disobeyed the signals. As the Inquiry report noted "The evidence as to what then happened at the Holme station was unsatisfactorily given, and is not clear"
The Holme station master told the enquiry that he then sent for the platelayers; whilst waiting for them he checked the up line home signal and saw it to be at 'danger'. However, when a down express went through he noticed that one of the signals did not go to 'danger' after it had passed.[note 9][10] This appeared considerably at variance with other testimony.
The platelayers had to be sent for because they had been allowed to go home at the end of their normal working day, despite the weather. Their foreman was uneasy about this and came out of his house to watch the up distant signal whilst two trains went past: the first of these was the Manchester express, running about 13 minutes behind the Scotsman; the second a slow stopping passenger train, a further 6 minutes behind when it left Peterborough.  As he feared, the signal showed a white light throughout.  He put his work clothes back on and went to the signal.  The arm was weighed down with snow; once he had shaken this off by working the arm up and down it showed a red light. He then walked to the station; on his way he met a platelayer despatched to the distant signal by the stationmaster.[11]
Other witnesses also gave evidence strongly suggesting that the platelayers were not summoned until after the Scotsman had passed and were not back at work until after the Manchester express had passed (c 6.50.[10]). They reported that other signals (including the up home signal) were– when first checked– in the same state as the up distant. The signalman also claimed that the stationmaster had reported the up home signal to not be working properly.
The Scotch express had left Peterborough at 6.24, about 6 minutes late. It did not slacken speed for the bad weather; it passed through Holme at about 6.37, the signals all showing clear, and arrived at Wood Walton at 6.40. The signalman there had set his signal levers to put his signals to 'danger' to protect the shunting at Abbots Ripton, but had not left his levers to set detonators at the home signal, nor did he supplement his fixed signals by displaying a hand-lamp from the signal box.  He told the inquiry he was busy stopping a train of empty coal wagons on the down line, and because of the weather he did not hear the express until it ran past his cabin at full speed. At 6.44 the Scotsman reached Abbots Ripton, its driver having seen "nothing but white lights all the way from Peterboro".  It was at full speed (40–45mph) when it crashed into the coal train, which had not yet cleared the main line. Some coal wagons were smashed, but the coal train engine itself was largely unscathed. The express engine derailed and veered to the right.  It ended up lying on its side, beyond the down line. Behind it, its tender and two passenger carriages were obstructing the down line.
The Second Collision
The railway workers involved were badly shaken– some admitted it took them a few minutes to fully gather their wits [note 10] but the guards (whose duty it was to 'protect their train') were affected to a lesser extent. The guard of the express walked back up the up line towards Wood Walton, laying fog-signals (detonators) on the rails to warn any further trains to stop.[12] Despite the signals showing 'all clear', the Manchester express stopped in response to the Wood Walton signalman using a hand-lamp to show a red light from his signal-box. It finally pulled up beyond the Wood Walton down distant signal; the Abbots Ripton up distant signal could be seen ahead showing the clear white “all clear”.[note 11][13] It then proceeded cautiously towards Abbots Ripton, being stopped successively by the Scotsman guard waving a red hand-lamp and then by a platelayer, eventually drawing up at the rear of the wrecked Scotsman.
The fireman of the coal train similarly laid detonators on the down line just inside the Abbots Ripton down distant signal, and was then picked up by the coal train engine running light to Huntingdon to seek assistance and warn approaching down trains. This was at the instigation of a GNR “relief clerk” (i.e. a clerk qualified to act as a ‘’locum’’ stationmaster) who had been travelling on the express.[note 12]
The Abbots Ripton signalman was evidently dazed by the events; he set his signals in both directions to 'danger' but did not (as he should also have done) immediately send the 5-beat 'obstruction danger' bell signal to Stukeley, the next signal box south.  Instead he tried to send a message reporting the crash and seeking assistance by the speaking telegraph to Huntingdon station to the south.[8][note 13] He prefixed the message with the special 'SP' code indicating top priority but the signalman at Huntingdon did not answer. The Abbots Ripton signalman kept trying to raise Huntingdon, but without success; when the Huntingdon signalman did answer he first refused to accept any message not starting with a code to indicate time sent, and rebuffed subsequent sends with an 'MQ' code– roughly translating as "Go away, I'm busy".[note 14] Indeed, he was; he was accepting the Leeds express and passing it on to the next signal box. At 6.52, after trying and failing for 8 minutes to pass his message to Huntingdon South, the Abbots Ripton signalman sent the 5-beat 'obstruction danger' bell signal to Stukeley.
The down Leeds express passed through Huntingdon at about 6.49 (at which time no message had been accepted there from Abbots Ripton) and reached Stukeley at 6.52.  The signalman at Stukeley received the 'obstruction danger' message just seconds after the express had passed. The Abbots Ripton down distant signal was showing 'all clear' and the Leeds express approached it at full speed.
I found a white light at the distant signal at Abbotts Ripton. After passing that signal post, I was alarmed by passing over two fog-signals which exploded; I at once shut off steam and told my mate to put on the tender break.  I was then going at 40 or 50 miles an hour.  In another instant I met an engine on the up road giving sharp whistles,[note 15] and saw a red lamp from it, which I took to mean that there was something out of the ordinary way. I reversed my engine, and reapplied my steam, and as soon as that was done the collision occurred[14] Still travelling at some speed, the Leeds express ploughed through the tender and carriages blocking the line (this, rather than the first collision, is when most– if not all– of the deaths are thought to have occurred).
The Abbots Ripton signalman had just started his 12-hour shift at 6 p.m. His colleague on the day shift returned to work on hearing of the first collision, arriving soon after the second collision. He took over the speaking telegraph, because whilst the duty signalman appeared to be doing his best to send the message he was confused at the time, and I felt I was more able to send the message than he. Messages seeking assistance were then sent to Huntingdon and Peterborough.
Inquiry
A Court of Inquiry was convened, and took evidence from 24 January to 17 February, issuing its report on 23 February. The inquiry rejected the conclusion of the coroner's jury that the block system was at fault and "had proved ineffective in a case of emergency", riposting "such a conclusion, natural enough on a superficial view to those who are not thoroughly versed in the subject, really results from a confusion of ideas". The problem was with signals, and any system of working railways must be ineffective if signals could not be relied upon. [note 16]
Findings

The immediate cause was the accumulation of snow on the semaphore arms and/or control wire of several sets of signals.[note 17] On the night of the accident the weight of snow on some signal arms and wires meant that the arm balanced well short of the 'danger' position and that the spectacle plate failed to drop sufficiently to move a red lens in front of the white lamp displayed in the "all clear" position. The signal therefore showed a white light (apparently 'all clear') when the lever in the signal box was in fact set to danger; the snow and ice (in the words of the Inquiry Report) thus rendering the signals to be not only useless for warning by red-lights the engine-driver of the Scotch-express-train, but also a means by the exhibition of white lights of luring him forward at full speed to the collision
The enquiry had heard evidence from experienced working-level witnesses that this (or a milder manifestation of this) was a known problem on snowy days but could easily be sorted if you knew how, e.g. by "jiggling the arms".  It implicitly rejected the evidence from GNR senior managers who denied that there was any prior history of problems, but made no comment on the discrepancy.  [note 18]
Operating practice at that time was that the signals were left in the 'clear' position continuously unless it was required to protect a static obstruction. Consequently, the signals stood at clear for considerable periods of time, and there was little opportunity to spot the problem.
The inquiry report noted various suggested improvements to signal arrangements, but cautioned against over-elaborate solutions
It is well that these and other proposals for improvement, which are constantly invented or advocated, such as combining sight with sound at the signals, and the use of detonators, mechanically applied, to supersede the use of fogmen, should receive full consideration and discussion, after the experience of so terrible an accident, caused mainly by the failure of existing signal-arrangements.  But, in the course of such deliberations, the facts must not be lost sight of, that men are still liable to make mistakes, machinery is still liable to fail, and further complication is by no means certain in all cases to produce greater safety
It commented adversely
on the performance of individuals
"The want of judgement or precaution exhibited by the station-master at Holme" for not stopping the Scotsman and warning its driver of the signal problem
"The neglect of the Wood Walton signalman" in not putting detonators down or exhibiting a red handlamp to the Scotsman
"The delay of the signalman at the Huntingdon South" signal box in answering Abbots Ripton
and, without blaming individuals, on
the delay in warning Stukeley of the obstruction on the down line[note 19]
the failure to put platelayers at signals as soon as they were needed; to clear the signals of snow or to lay down detonators if the signals could not be made to work
the running of fast through trains at full speed through such a storm..without the adoption of extra precautions, such as the detention of slower trains, the use of hand-lamps in the signal-cabins, and the employment of platelayers at the signals
the absence of a speaking telegraph in the intermediate signal boxes
the lack of continuous brakes on the Leeds express
Recommendations
The Board of Trade had no regulatory powers to enforce the recommendations of the inquiry report.  The most important were:
Improving signals so that they work properly in frost and snow, and that they provide an indication to the signalman if they are not operating properly
Keeping the signals normally at danger, so that if they stick there is unlikely to be a false 'clear'
The use by signalmen of hand lamps in bad weather to confirm the indications of fixed signals
The provision of telegraph apparatus in all signal boxes
The improvement of braking systems on trains
The suspension of less important trains, and the reduction in speed of other trains, in very severe weather conditions.
Consequences
The GNR adopted a significantly different design of semaphore signal; the 'somersault' signal. In this, the pivot about which the arm moved was at the middle of the arm; other things being equal accumulation of snow should not significantly affect the balance of the arm
The modern practice of the default position for signals being 'danger' was adopted
Railway companies were required by law to make an annual return to the Board of Trade on what fraction of their passenger rolling stock was fitted with continuous brakes
Over a longer timescale, and after further accidents
Continuous braking was fitted to passenger trains
'All clear' was indicated by a green light (so that a broken red lens– or one out of position- no longer gave false reassurance)
Notes and references
Notes

References

Coordinates:

Were there two trains involved in the Abbots Ripton rail disaster?


Interstate 64 (I-64) is an Interstate Highway in the Eastern United States. Its western terminus is at I-70, U.S. Route 40 (US40), and US61 in Wentzville, Missouri. Its eastern terminus is at an interchange with I-264 and I-664 at Bowers Hill in Chesapeake, Virginia. I-64 connects the major metropolitan areas of St. Louis, Louisville and Lexington in Kentucky, Charleston, West Virginia, and Richmond and Hampton Roads in Virginia.
At 953.74 miles, I-64 is the second longest interstate highway not ending with a 5 or 0, after I-94.
Route description

I-64 overlaps with I-55, I-57, I-75, I-77, I-81, and I-95. I-64 does not maintain exit number continuity for any of the overlaps, as each of the six north-south routes maintain their exit numbering on their respective overlaps with I-64.
Missouri

In Missouri, the stretch was originally labeled as the Daniel Boone Expressway then only as US-40, and as such, is still known to some locals in the St. Louis area as Highway 40, even though the road has been designated as both I-64 and US-40 since 1988.  This road is also the southernmost portion of the Avenue of the Saints.  An interchange at Highway N O'Fallon, Missouri opened on December 13, 2004. This interchange also accommodates the tie-in of the Missouri Route 364 freeway to I-64.  In April 2007, construction started to rebuild 10.5 miles (16.9km) of I-64 in St. Louis, Missouri, from Spoede Road to Kingshighway. This project included repaving the entire road, rebuilding the overpasses and interchanges, adding a fourth lane between Spoede Road and I-170, and connecting I-64 to I-170 in all directions. Construction resulted in the complete closure of portions of the expressway in 2008 and 2009.  In 2008, I-64 was closed from I-270 to I-170, re-opening December 15, 2008. Beginning December 15, 2008, I-64 from I-170 to Kingshighway was closed. On December 6, 2009,[3] with a grand opening ceremony and dedication, Interstate 64 was completed in its entire length in Missouri from the Poplar Street Bridge to I-70 in Wentzville.[4]As of December 7, 2009, I-64 is now complete and signed all the way to Interstate 70 in Wentzville.[5]  All stoplights have been removed.  The portion of Interstate 64 in St. Louis has been named the Jack Buck Memorial Highway, in honor of the late sportscaster.
Illinois

I-64 enters Illinois from St. Louis, Missouri, via the Poplar Street Bridge, where it overlaps I-55 as it crosses the Mississippi River.  After crossing the city of East St. Louis and the rest of suburban St. Clair County, the freeway heads southeast through rural Southern Illinois.  Shortly after passing Mid-America Airport at Exit 23, I-64 enters Clinton County, then Washington County.  After providing access to towns such as Carlyle, Breese, Nashville, and Centralia, the freeway overlaps I-57 through the Mt. Vernon area for approximately five miles.  East of Mt. Vernon in Illinois, services along I-64 are few. The freeway crosses Jefferson, Wayne, and White counties as it progresses east toward Indiana and the Evansville area. East of the St Louis area, there are numerous oil wells dotting the landscape.
The section from IL 127 to I-57 opened on October 4, 1974.[6]  The section from IL 161 to IL 127 opened in December 1973.[7]  The section in the Metro East, except for a short section near I-55/70, opened on December 23, 1975.[8]  The section from US 460 (later IL 142) to US 45 opened on August 7, 1975.[9]
Indiana

I-64 crosses the Wabash River and enters the state of Indiana. It passes Griffin (exit 4/State Road 69) and Poseyville (exit 12/State Road 165), and also passes under nearby State Road 68 (no direct interchange serves State Road 68, though one can access said route from either State Road 165 or 65) then passes three officially marked exits for Evansville (State Road 65, US 41, and Interstate 69) then proceeds through part of the scenic Hoosier National Forest, with exits leading to Dale and Huntingburg (Exits 57A-B/US 231), Santa Claus and Ferdinand (exit 63/State Road 162), French Lick and Tell City (exit 79/State Road 37), and Indiana's first state capital, Corydon (exit 105/State Road 135).
Near milepost 61, there is a time change from Central Time Zone (Spencer County) to Eastern Time Zone (Dubois County). As with all time zone changes on highways maintained by the Indiana Department of Transportation, this change in time zone is not marked with any roadside signage.
Between Evansville and New Albany, I-64 intersects a few major north-south arterial highways, such as U.S. 231, Indiana 37, Indiana 135 and offers access to Interstate 65 to Indianapolis via Interstate 265 before crossing into Kentucky on the Sherman Minton Bridge.
The 123-mile route in Indiana can be described as being somewhat winding, especially the farther east one travels within the state. The longest straight line distance along the route is the around 9 mile stretch from the Indiana 65 exit to the 26 mile marker, 1 mile east of U.S. 41. There are many points along the route where the two halves of the highway are nearly 500 feet apart, especially around the Hoosier National Forest and points to the east. In addition, there are several points, especially in the very sharp valleys along its route in Dubois, Perry, Crawford and Harrison Counties, where the highway towers more than 100 feet above the surrounding terrain.
Kentucky

Interstate 64 enters Kentucky at Louisville, paralleling the Ohio River along the Riverfront Expressway. It intersects with several downtown interchanges before coming to the Kennedy Interchange, where it intersects Interstate 65 and Interstate 71 in a tangle of ramps often referred to as the "Spaghetti Junction". Moving eastward, I-64 passes through Shelbyville, Frankfort, Midway, Lexington, Winchester, Mount Sterling, Owingsville, and Morehead, before leaving the state near Ashland at Catlettsburg. It overlaps Interstate 75 as it makes an arc around the northeast of Lexington's urban core, with the exit numbers for I-75 used for the concurrent portion. The two interstates separate a few miles east of downtown Lexington.
West Virginia

Interstate 64 travels for 184 miles (296km) within the state of West Virginia, passing by the major cities of Huntington, Beckley, and Lewisburg, and directly through the Capital city of Charleston. It has only two major junctions within the state: Interstate 77 in Charleston and in Beckley. It also crosses the Kanawha River a total of four times in a 20-mile (32km) stretch (twice west of Charleston, immediately before entering the downtown Charleston area, then approximately 5 miles (8.0km) east of downtown Charleston in Kanawha City).
Between I-64's two junctions with I-77, I-64 and I-77 overlap. From the final crossing of the Kanawha River east of Charleston to their split at Exit 40 south of Beckley, the two Interstates are tolled, forming a part of the West Virginia Turnpike.
While the two expressways overlap, the exit signs are those for Interstate 77.  Thus, eastbound travelers entering from Kentucky will see exit numbers increase until Exit 60, at which time Interstate 77's exit numbers are used, decreasing from Exit 100.
Virginia

Interstate 64 in Virginia runs east–west through central Virginia from West Virginia via Covington, Lexington, Staunton, and Charlottesville to Richmond. From Lexington to Staunton, it overlaps Interstate 81 (using I-81 exit numbers). In Richmond, it overlaps Interstate 95.[10] From Richmond, Interstate 64 continues southeasterly through Newport News and Hampton to the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, and then through Norfolk and a small portion of Virginia Beach to end in Chesapeake.[11]
I-64 itself does not reach the Oceanfront area of Virginia Beach, as it continues through the western portion of Virginia Beach as part of the circumferential Hampton Roads Beltway. At its terminus, East I-64 is actually running westbound (and West I-64 eastbound), as the route forms a fishhook around Norfolk. Interstate 264 intersects the beltway, providing access to other parts of Norfolk and Chesapeake, and extending east to the Oceanfront.
Access to the Oceanfront area is accomplished from I-64 via a portion of Interstate 264, a roadway originally built as the Virginia Beach Expressway, funded by tolls to retire revenue bonds.
History
Elements of Interstate 64, such as the Sherman Minton bridge over the Ohio on the Indiana-Kentucky border, were completed by the early 1960s. The interstate was complete between St. Louis and Charleston with the completion of the 9th Street overpass in Louisville in December 1976.[12]
In Virginia, the proposed southern route between Clifton Forge and Richmond called for the Interstate to follow from Richmond via US-360 and US-460, via Lynchburg to Roanoke and US-220 from Roanoke to Clifton Forge, then west following US-60 into West Virginia.[13]  The initial 1957 recommendation by a state-retained engineering consultant was for the northern route, but due in large part to the efforts of a Virginia Senator Mosby G. Perrow, Jr. from Lynchburg, the state changed the location to the southern route in 1959.[14]  Despite assurances from the federal government that the route would be decided by the state, Virginia's 1959 decision was overturned in favor of the northern route through Charlottesville.
I-64 had a proposed routing around the US 50 corridor in Illinois when the interstates were first planned.  Local pressure pushed the routing closer to the US 460 corridor because of the cheaper cost and shorter mileage compared to the original routing,[15] but not before construction was started on a short section that is now US-50 between Vincennes, Indiana and Lawrenceville, Illinois. It is also worth noting that the apparent route of I-64 would have taken it through the southern end of Carlyle Lake which was also under construction at this time.
I-64 signs started going up in August 1987 on the US 40 freeway in St. Louis. This change was made in part due to truck drivers deliberately using US 40 to avoid mandatory fines for overweight trucks.[16]
On September 9, 2011, the Sherman Minton Bridge was closed down by Indiana governor Mitch Daniels after construction crews found cracks in the main load bearing structural element. Mainline traffic was redirected to Interstate 265, then south on Interstate 65 across the John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge before rejoining Interstate 64 at the Kennedy Interchange in Louisville. Repairs were completed in a few months later and the Sherman Minton Bridge reopened at 11:50 pm on February 17, 2012.[17][18][19]
Junction list
Missouri
I-70 / US40 / US61 in Wentzville. I-64/US40 travels concurrently to East St. Louis, Illinois. I-64/US61 travels concurrently to the Frontenac–Ladue city line.
I-270 in Town and Country
US61 / US67 on the Frontenac–Ladue city line
I-170 in Richmond Heights
I-44 / I-55 in St. Louis. I-55/I-64 travels concurrently to East, St. Louis, Illinois.
Illinois
I-55 / I-70 / US40 in East St. Louis
I-255 / US50 in Caseyville. I-64/US50 travels concurrently to O'Fallon.
US51 in Richview
I-57 in Mount Vernon. The highways travel concurrently to south-southwest of Mount Vernon.
US45 north of Mill Shoals
Indiana
US41 west-southwest of Warrenton
I-69 west-northwest of Elberfeld. Former Junction of Interstate 164
US231 in Dale
US150 west of New Albany. The highways travel concurrently to Louisville, Kentucky.
I-265 in New Albany
Kentucky
I-264 in Louisville
I-65 in Louisville
I-71 in Louisville
US42 / US60 in Louisville
I-264 in Louisville
I-265 on the Middletown–Louisville city line
US127 in Frankfort
US60 southeast of Frankfort
US62 northwest of Lexington
I-75 in Lexington. The highways travel concurrently through Lexington.
US27 / US68 in Lexington
US60 northeast of Winchester
US460 in Mt. Sterling
US60 northeast of Mt. Sterling
US60 east-southeast of Owingsville
US60 northeast of Olive Hill
US60 in Coalton
US23 south-southwest of Catlettsburg
West Virginia
US52 in Kenova. The highways travel concurrently to Huntington.
US60 in Barboursville
US35 in Teays Valley
US60 in South Charleston
US119 in Charleston. The highways travel concurrently through Charleston.
US60 in Charleston
I-77 in Charleston. The highways travel concurrently to southeast of Crab Orchard.
US60 north of Chelyan
US60 south-southeast of Crawley
US219 in Lewisburg
US60 east of White Sulphur Springs
US60 east-southeast of White Sulphur Springs. The highways travel concurrently to Callaghan, Virginia.
Virginia[10]
US60 / US220 in Mallow. I-64/US60 travels concurrently to north-northwest of Lexington. I-64/US220 travels concurrently to east-northeast of Clifton Forge.
US11 in East Lexington
I-81 east of East Lexington. The highways travel concurrently to Jolivue.
US11 northeast of East Lexington
US11 in Greenville
US340 in Waynesboro
US250 in Rockfish Gap
US250 in Yancey Mills
US29 west-southwest of Charlottesville
US250 east-southeast of Charlottesville
US15 north-northeast of Zion Crossroads
US522 northeast of Gum Spring
Va. 288 (a superhighway)
I-295 in Short Pump
US250 in Innsbrook
US250 in Dumbarton
US33 in Dumbarton
I-195 in Richmond
I-95 in Richmond. The highways travel concurrently through Richmond.
US1 / US301 in Richmond
US360 on the boundary of Richmond with East Highland Park
I-295 / US60 east of Sandston
US17 in Newport News
US258 in Hampton
I-664 in Hampton
US60 in Hampton. The highways travel concurrently to Norfolk
I-564 / US460 in Norfolk
US13 in Norfolk
I-264 in Norfolk
I-464 / US17 in Chesapeake. I-64/US17 travels concurrently through Chesapeake.
US13 / US460 in Chesapeake
I-264 / I-664 in Chesapeake
Auxiliary routes

I-164 - Former spur to Evansville, Indiana, known as the Robert D. Orr Highway, became I-69 in 2014.
I-264, loop around Louisville, Kentucky; also called the Georgia Davis Powers/Shawnee Expressway west of the Dixie Highway (US-31W) exit and the Watterson Expressway east of US-31W/Dixie Highway
I-264, I-464, I-564, I-664 - all serving the Hampton Roads region around Norfolk, Virginia

Route map: Attached KML Error: KML file not foundTemplate:Attached KML/Main PageKML is not from Wikidata

How many metropolitan areas does Route 64 pass through?


Alexander Gordon (Sandy) Winton[1] (born 18 December 1970)[1] is an Australian actor. From 2010 to 2012, he portrayed Michael Williams in the soap opera Neighbours.
Career
Winton attended Newington College (1983–1988)[1] and graduated from Australia's National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA) with a degree in Performing Arts (Acting) in 1995.[2] In March 2010, it was announced that Winton would be joining the cast of Neighbours as Michael Williams.[3] On 7 November 2011, it was announced Winton would be leaving Neighbours in 2012.[4] Of Winton's departure, executive producer Susan Bower said "The Michael Williams character will be leaving Ramsay Street as part of a significant story coming up in April. Sandy's contribution to the show has been superb, enabling the character to be part of some milestone storylines."[4]
Personal life
Winton is married with two children.[5] Upon landing the role of Michael Williams, Winton relocated to Melbourne from Sydney. He is a supporter of AFL team, Sydney Swans.[5]
Filmography

Film

Television

 on IMDb


Lazio (UK: /ˈlætsioʊ/, US: /ˈlɑːtsioʊ/; Italian:[ˈlattsjo]; Latin: Latium) is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy. Situated in the central peninsular section of the country, it has almost 5.9 million inhabitants – making it the second most populated region of Italy (after Lombardy and just a little ahead of Campania) [1] – and its GDP of more than 170 billion euros per annum means that it has the nation's second largest regional economy. The capital of Lazio is Rome, which is also Italy's capital and the country's largest city.
Geography

Lazio comprises a land area of 17,242km2 (6,657sqmi) and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. The region is mainly flat, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts.
The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of sandy beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo (541 m) and Gaeta (171 m). The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, lie opposite the southern coast. Behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale (the continuation of Tuscan Maremma), a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains (616 m). The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, a vast alluvial plain surrounding the city of Rome, with an area of approximately 2,100km2 (811sqmi). The southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries.
The Preapennines of Latium, marked by the Tiber valley and the Liri with the Sacco tributary, include on the right of the Tiber, three groups of mountains of volcanic origin: the Volsini, Cimini and Sabatini, whose largest former craters are occupied by the Bolsena, Vico and Bracciano lakes. To the south of the Tiber, other mountain groups form part of the Preapennines: the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin, and the calcareous Lepini, Ausoni and Aurunci Mountains. The Apennines of  Latium are a continuation of the Apennines of Abruzzo: the Reatini Mountains with Terminillo (2,213 m), Mounts Sabini, Prenestini, Simbruini and Ernici which continue east of the Liri into the Mainarde Mountains. The highest peak is Mount Gorzano (2,458 m) on the border with Abruzzo.
History
See also: List of museums in Lazio

The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium. The name of the region also survives in the tribal designation of the ancient population of Latins, Latini in the Latin language spoken by them and passed on to the city-state of Ancient Rome. Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans and other Italics besides the Latini, the latter were the dominant constituent. In Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from king Latinus. Apart from the mythical derivation of Lazio given by the ancients as the place where Saturn, ruler of the golden age in Latium, hid (latuisset)[2] from Jupiter there,[3] a major modern etymology is that Lazio comes from the Latin word "latus", meaning "wide",[4] expressing the idea of "flat land" meaning the Roman Campagna. Much of Lazio is in fact flat or rolling. The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes.  This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the added lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium, the older, smaller region.
The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria.
The emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. The part of today's Lazio south of the Tiber river – together with the present region of Campania immediately to the southeast of Lazio and the seat of Neapolis – became Region I (Latium et Campania), while modern Upper Lazio became part of Regio VII - Etruria, and today's Province of Rieti joined Regio IV - Samnium.
After the Gothic conquest of Italy at the end of the fifth century, modern Lazio became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom, but after the Gothic War between 535 and 554 and the Byzantine conquest, this region regained its freedom, because the "Roman Duchy" became the property of the Eastern Emperor. However, the long wars against the Longobards weakened the region. With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Bishop of Rome acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome.
The strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords (Baroni) and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century. Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power, wishing to assert his authority in the provincial administrations of Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, in order to reduce the power of the Colonna family. Other popes tried to do the same.
During the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France (1309–1377), the feudal lords' power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome. Small communes, and Rome above all, opposed the lords' increasing power, and with Cola di Rienzo, they tried to present themselves as antagonists of the ecclesiastical power. However, between 1353 and 1367, the papacy regained control of Lazio and the rest of the Papal States.
From the middle of the 16th century, the papacy politically unified Lazio with the Papal States,[5] so that these territories became provincial administrations of St. Peter's estate; governors in Viterbo, in Marittima and Campagna, and in Frosinone administered them for the papacy.
Lazio comprised the short-lived Roman Republic, in which it became a puppet state of the First French Republic under the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Republic existed from 15 February 1798 until Lazio was returned to the Papal States in October 1799. In 1809, Lazio was annexed to the French Empire under the name of Department of Tibre, but returned under the Pope in 1815.
On 20 September 1870 the capture of Rome, during the reign of Pope Pius IX, and France's defeat at Sedan, completed Italian unification, and Lazio was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy.
In 1927 the territory of the Province of Rieti, belonging to Umbria and Abruzzo, joined Lazio.
Towns in Lazio were devastated by the 2016 Central Italy earthquake which occurred on 24 August 2016.[6]
Economy
Agriculture, crafts, animal husbandry and fishery are the main traditional sources of income. Agriculture is characterized by the cultivation of wine grapes, fruit, vegetables and olives.
Industrial development in Lazio is limited to the areas south of Rome. Communications and - above all - the setting of the border of the Cassa del Mezzogiorno some kilometers south of Rome, have influenced the position of industry, favouring the areas with the best links to Rome and those near the Autostrada del Sole (motorway), especially around Frosinone. Firms are often small to medium in size and operate in the building and building materials (Rome, Civitavecchia), paper (Sora, Italy, Isola del Liri), petrochemical (Gaeta, Rome), textile (Frosinone), engineering (Rieti, Anagni), automobile (Cassino), electronic and electrotechnical (Viterbo) sectors.
Approximately 73% of the working population are employed in the services sector; this is a considerable proportion, but is justified by the presence of Rome, which is the core of public administration, banking, tourism, insurance and other sectors. Many national and multinational corporations, public and private, have their headquarters in Rome (ENI, Enel, Leonardo, Alitalia, RAI).
Lazio's limited industrial sector and highly developed service industries allowed the region to well outperform the Italian economy in 2009 in the heart of the global financial crisis.
The unemployment rate stood at 10.7% in 2017.[7]

Demographics
Historical populationYearPop.±%1861 356,000—1871 1,173,000+229.5%1881 1,257,000+7.2%1901 1,586,000+26.2%1911 1,771,000+11.7%1921 1,997,000+12.8%1931 2,349,000+17.6%1936 2,655,000+13.0%1951 3,341,000+25.8%1961 3,959,000+18.5%1971 4,689,000+18.4%1981 5,002,000+6.7%1991 5,140,000+2.8%2001 5,112,000−0.5%2011 5,732,000+12.1%2017 5,898,124+2.9%Source: ISTAT 2001, 2014

With a population of about 5.887 million, Lazio was at the end of 2014 the second most populated region of Italy.[1] The overall population density in the region is 341 inhabitants per km2. However, the population density widely ranges from almost 800 inhabitants per km2 in the highly urbanized Province of Rome to less than 60 inhabitants per km2 in the mountainous and rural Province of Rieti. As of January 2010, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 497,940 foreign-born immigrants live in Lazio, equal to 8.8% of the total regional population.[8]
Government and politics

Rome is center-left politically oriented by tradition, while the rest of Lazio is center-right oriented. In the 2008 general election, Lazio gave 44.2% of its vote to the centre-right coalition, while the centre-left block took 41.4% of vote. In the 2013 general election, Lazio gave 40.7% of its vote to the center-left block coalition, 29.3% to the center-right coalition and 20.2 to the Five Star Movement.
Administrative divisions
Lazio is divided into four provinces and one metropolitan (province-level) city:

See also
Geography of Italy
Regions of Italy
Administrative divisions of Italy

 (in English)
 (in Italian)
Coordinates:

How many provinces are there in the Lazio region?