Royal family of
 the United Kingdom and the
 other Commonwealth realms
HM The Queen
HRH The Duke of Edinburgh
HRH The Prince of Wales
HRH The Duchess of Cornwall
HRH The Duke of Cambridge
HRH The Duchess of Cambridge
HRH Prince George of Cambridge
HRH Princess Charlotte of Cambridge
HRH Prince Louis of Cambridge
HRH The Duke of Sussex
HRH The Duchess of Sussex
HRH The Princess Royal
HRH The Duke of York
HRH Princess Beatrice of York
HRH Princess Eugenie of York
HRH The Earl of Wessex
HRH The Countess of Wessex

HRH The Duke of Gloucester
HRH The Duchess of Gloucester
HRH The Duke of Kent
HRH The Duchess of Kent
HRH Princess Alexandra
HRH Prince Michael of Kent
HRH Princess Michael of Kentvt
Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926)[lower-alpha 1] is Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms.[lower-alpha 2]
Elizabeth was born in London as the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, and she was educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother King Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In 1947, she married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, a former prince of Greece and Denmark, with whom she has four children: Charles, Prince of Wales; Anne, Princess Royal; Prince Andrew, Duke of York; and Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex.
When her father died in February 1952, she became head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon. She has reigned as a constitutional monarch through major political changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation, and the decolonisation of Africa. Between 1956 and 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and realms, including South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (renamed Sri Lanka), became republics. Her many historic visits and meetings include a state visit to the Republic of Ireland and visits to or from five popes. Significant events have included her coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of her Silver, Golden, and Diamond Jubilees in 1977, 2002, and 2012 respectively. In 2017, she became the first British monarch to reach a Sapphire Jubilee. She is the longest-lived and longest-reigning British monarch as well as the world's longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state, the oldest and longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state.
Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the royal family, in particular after the breakdown of her children's marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992 and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana, Princess of Wales. However, support for the monarchy has consistently been and remains high, as does her personal popularity.
Early life

Elizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, the Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her mother, the Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat the Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair.[3] She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[4][lower-alpha 3] and named Elizabeth after her mother, Alexandra after George V's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[6] Called "Lilibet" by her close family,[7] based on what she called herself at first,[8] she was cherished by her grandfather George V, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.[9]

Elizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford.[10] Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music.[11] Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family.[12] The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[13] Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[14] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[15]
Heir presumptive
During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward and her father. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as Edward was still young. Many people believed he would marry and have children of his own.[16] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[17] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[18]
Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[19] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[20] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her own age.[21] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[20]
In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[22] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[23] They corresponded regularly,[23] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[22]
Second World War

In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Lord Hailsham[24] suggested that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. This was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[25] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[26] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[27] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[28] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[29] She stated: "We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well."[29]
In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[30] As she approached her 18th birthday, parliament changed the law so she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[31] In February 1945, she was appointed as an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the service number of 230873.[32] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander five months later.[33][34][35]

At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[36]
During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for several reasons, including fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd at a time when Britain was at war.[37] Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[38] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[39]
Princess Elizabeth went in 1947 on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong."[40]
Marriage

Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[41] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip, and they began to exchange letters.[42] She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[43]
The engagement was not without controversy; Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[44] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[45] Later biographies reported Elizabeth's mother initially opposed the union, dubbing Philip "The Hun".[46] In later life, however, the Queen Mother told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[47]
Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[48] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[49]
Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world.[50] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[51] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[52] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[53]
Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[54] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[55]
Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949,[50] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[56]
Reign
Accession and coronation

During 1951, George VI's health declined, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[57] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new queen.[58] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[59] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[60] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[61]

With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[62] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[63]
Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[64] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[65] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[66] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[67]
Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[68] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[69][lower-alpha 4] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[73] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[74]
Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth

From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[75] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[76] In 1953, the Queen and her husband embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles by land, sea and air.[77] She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[78] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[79] Throughout her reign, the Queen has made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she is the most widely travelled head of state.[80]
In 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union.[81] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[82]

The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[83]
The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[84] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[85] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[86] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice she followed.[87] The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister.[87] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving her of involvement.[88]

In 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[89] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[89][90] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[91] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins.[92] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as... a film star... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man'... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[92] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination.[93][94] No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[95]
Elizabeth's pregnancies with Princes Andrew and Edward, in 1959 and 1963, mark the only times she has not performed the State Opening of the British parliament during her reign.[96] In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, she also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[97]
Acceleration of decolonisation

The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. Over 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing "loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth. Although the Queen formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[98] As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.[99]
In February 1974, the British Prime Minister, Edward Heath, advised the Queen to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[100] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[101]
A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[102] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general.[103] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.[102]
Silver Jubilee
In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband.[104] In 1978, the Queen endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena,[105] though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands".[106] The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[107]
According to Paul Martin, Sr., by the end of the 1970s the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian Prime Minister.[108] Tony Benn said the Queen found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[108] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind the Queen's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[108] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found the Queen "better informed... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[108] She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[108] Patriation removed the role of the British parliament from the Canadian constitution, but the monarchy was retained. Trudeau said in his memoirs that the Queen favoured his attempt to reform the constitution and that he was impressed by "the grace she displayed in public" and "the wisdom she showed in private".[109]
1980s

During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at the Queen from close range as she rode down The Mall on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[110] The Queen's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[111]
Months later, in October, the Queen was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. New Zealand Security Intelligence Service documents declassified in 2018 revealed that 17-year-old Christopher John Lewis fired a shot with a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade, but missed.[112] Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital in order to assassinate Prince Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana, Princess of Wales, and Prince William.[113]
From April to September 1982, the Queen was anxious but proud of her son, Prince Andrew, who was serving with British forces during the Falklands War.[114] On 9 July, the Queen awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard.[115] After hosting US President Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, the Queen was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[116]
Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, not all of which were entirely true.[117] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[118] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that the Queen was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[119] Thatcher reputedly said the Queen would vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents.[120] Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[121] Belying reports of acrimony between them, Thatcher later conveyed her personal admiration for the Queen,[122] and the Queen gave two honours in her personal gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major.[123] Former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid.[124][125]
By the end of the 1980s, the Queen had become the target of satire.[126] The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed.[127] In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau.[124] The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of the Governor-General, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.[128]
1990s
In 1991, in the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, the Queen became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress.[129]

In a speech on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis, meaning horrible year.[130] Republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen's private wealth—which were contradicted by the Palace—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family.[131] In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, and his wife, Sarah, separated; in April, her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips;[132] during a state visit to Germany in October, angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at her;[133] and, in November, a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny.[134] In an unusually personal speech, the Queen said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[135] Two days later, the Prime Minister, John Major, announced reforms to the royal finances planned since the previous year, including the Queen paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list.[136] In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated.[137] The year ended with a lawsuit as the Queen sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity.[138]
In the years to follow, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued.[139] Even though support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republicanism was still a minority viewpoint, and the Queen herself had high approval ratings.[140] Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself and the Queen's wider family rather than her own behaviour and actions.[141] In consultation with her husband and the Prime Minister, John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey, and her private secretary, Robert Fellowes, she wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, saying a divorce was desirable.[142]
In August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. The Queen was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons by Charles—Princes William and Harry—wanted to attend church and so the Queen and Prince Philip took them that morning.[143] After that single public appearance, for five days the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private,[144] but the royal family's seclusion and the failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace caused public dismay.[125][145] Pressured by the hostile reaction, the Queen agreed to return to London and do a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral.[146] In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a grandmother" for the two princes.[147] As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.[147]
In November 1997, the Queen and her husband held a reception at Banqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary.[148] She made a speech and praised Philip for his role as a consort, referring to him as "my strength and stay".[148]
Golden Jubilee

In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee. Her sister and mother died in February and March respectively, and the media speculated whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure.[149] She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness.[150] As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[151] and the enthusiasm shown by the public for the Queen was greater than many journalists had expected.[152]
Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.[153]
In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph, citing unnamed sources, reported the Queen was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of the British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair.[154] She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland.[155] She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007.[156] On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, the Queen attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.[157]
Diamond Jubilee and longest-reigning British monarch
The Queen addressed the United Nations for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth.[158] The UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her as "an anchor for our age".[159] During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for British victims of the September 11 attacks.[159] The Queen's visit to Australia in October 2011—her 16th visit since 1954—was called her "farewell tour" in the press because of her age.[160] By invitation of the Irish President, Mary McAleese, the Queen made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011.[161]

Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee in 2012 marked 60 years on the throne, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. In a message released on Accession Day, Elizabeth wrote:In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope we will all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength of family, friendship and good neighbourliness... I hope also that this Jubilee year will be a time to give thanks for the great advances that have been made since 1952 and to look forward to the future with clear head and warm heart.[162]

She and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf.[163][164] On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world.[165] In November, the Queen and her husband celebrated their sapphire wedding anniversary.[166] On 18 December, she became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.[167]
The Queen, who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two countries.[168] For the London Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond.[169] On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet" at the award ceremony.[170]
On 3 March 2013, Elizabeth was admitted to King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. She returned to Buckingham Palace the following day.[171] A week later, she signed the new Commonwealth charter.[172] Because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, in 2013 she chose not to attend the biennial meeting of Commonwealth heads of government for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by her son, Prince Charles.[173] She had cataract surgery in May 2018.[174]

The Queen surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-lived British monarch on 21 December 2007, and the longest-reigning British monarch and longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015.[175][176][177] She is also the "longest-reigning sovereign in Canada's modern era".[178] (King Louis XIV of France reigned over Canada (New France) for longer than Elizabeth.[179]) She became the oldest current monarch after King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia died on 23 January 2015.[180][181] She later became the longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state following the death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016,[182][183] and the oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe on 21 November 2017.[184][185] On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee,[186] and on 20 November, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum wedding anniversary.[187] Prince Philip had retired from his official duties as the Queen's consort in August.[188]
The Queen does not intend to abdicate,[189] though Prince Charles is expected to take on more of her duties as Elizabeth, who celebrated her 92nd birthday in 2018, carries out fewer public engagements.[190] On 20 April 2018, the government leaders of the Commonwealth of Nations announced that she will be succeeded by Prince Charles as head of the Commonwealth. The Queen stated it was her "sincere wish" that the Prince of Wales would follow her in the role.[191] Plans for her death and funeral have been extensively prepared by most British government and media organisations for decades.[192]
Public perception and character

Since Elizabeth rarely gives interviews, little is known of her personal feelings. As a constitutional monarch, she has not expressed her own political opinions in a public forum.[193] She does have a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and takes her coronation oath seriously.[194] Aside from her official religious role as Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, she is a member of that church and also of the national Church of Scotland.[195] She has demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and has met with leaders of other churches and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis.[196] A personal note about her faith often features in her annual Christmas message broadcast to the Commonwealth. In 2000, she said:
To many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.[197]

She is patron of over 600 organisations and charities.[198] Her main leisure interests include equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis.[199] Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first corgi owned by her family.[200][201] Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life have occasionally been witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepare a meal together and do the washing up afterwards.[202]
In the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen".[203] After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a "new Elizabethan age".[204] Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish schoolgirl" was an extremely rare criticism.[205] In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales.[206] In public, she took to wearing mostly solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, which allow her to be seen easily in a crowd.[207]
At her Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic,[208] but in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny.[209] Elizabeth's popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public.[210] Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, though Elizabeth's personal popularity and support for the monarchy rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.[211]
In November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state.[212] Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for Elizabeth,[213] and in 2012, her Diamond Jubilee year, approval ratings hit 90 percent.[214] Referendums in Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 both rejected proposals to become republics.[215]
Elizabeth has been portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including painters Pietro Annigoni, Peter Blake, Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy, Terence Cuneo, Lucian Freud, Rolf Harris, Damien Hirst, Juliet Pannett, and Tai-Shan Schierenberg.[216][217] Notable photographers of Elizabeth have included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Annie Leibovitz, Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, John Swannell, and Dorothy Wilding. The first official portrait of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams in 1926.[218]
Finances

Elizabeth's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. In 1971 Jock Colville, her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth at £2million (equivalent to about £28million in 2018[219]).[220][221] In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates of £100million "grossly overstated".[222] In 2002, she inherited an estate worth an estimated £70million from her mother.[223] The Sunday Times Rich List 2017 estimated her personal wealth at £360million, making her the 329th richest person in the UK.[224]
The Royal Collection, which includes thousands of historic works of art and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Queen personally but is held in trust,[225] as are her official residences, such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle,[226] and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £472million in 2015.[227] Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are personally owned by the Queen.[226] The British Crown Estate—with holdings of £12billion in 2016[224]—is held in trust and cannot be sold or owned by Elizabeth in a personal capacity.[228]
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles

21 April 1926–11 December 1936: Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth of York
11 December 1936–20 November 1947: Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth
20 November 1947–6 February 1952: Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh
Since 6 February 1952: Her Majesty The Queen
Elizabeth has held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, is Sovereign of many orders in her own countries, and has received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms she has a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen of Jamaica and her other realms and territories in Jamaica, Queen of Australia and her other realms and territories in Australia, etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown dependencies rather than separate realms, she is known as Duke of Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster. When in conversation with the Queen, the practice is to initially address her as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am.[229]
Arms

From 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of St George.[230] Upon her accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign. The Queen also possesses royal standards and personal flags for use in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, and elsewhere.[231]

Coat of arms of Princess Elizabeth (1944–1947)Coat of arms of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (1947–1952)Coat of arms of Elizabeth II in England, Wales and Northern IrelandCoat of arms of Elizabeth II in ScotlandCoat of arms of Elizabeth II in Canada (one of three versions used in her reign)[lower-alpha 5]

Issue

Ancestry
Ancestors of Main Page8. Edward VII of the United Kingdom4. George V of the United Kingdom9. Princess Alexandra of Denmark2. George VI of the United Kingdom10. Francis, Duke of Teck5. Princess Mary of Teck11. Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge1. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom12. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 13th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne6. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne13. Frances Dora Smith3. Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon14. Charles Cavendish-Bentinck7. Nina Cavendish-Bentinck15. Carolina Burnaby[233]
See also
Household of Queen Elizabeth II
List of things named after Elizabeth II
Notes

Bibliography

Bond, Jennie (2006). Elizabeth: Eighty Glorious Years. London: Carlton Publishing Group. ISBN1-84442-260-7
Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (2002). Fifty Years the Queen. Toronto: Dundurn Press. ISBN978-1-55002-360-2
Bradford, Sarah (2012). Queen Elizabeth II: Her Life in Our Times. London: Penguin. ISBN978-0-670-91911-6
Brandreth, Gyles (2004). Philip and Elizabeth: Portrait of a Marriage. London: Century. ISBN0-7126-6103-4
Briggs, Asa (1995). The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: Volume 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-212967-8
Campbell, John (2003). Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN0-224-06156-9
Crawford, Marion (1950). The Little Princesses. London: Cassell & Co.
Hardman, Robert (2011). Our Queen. London: Hutchinson. ISBN978-0-09-193689-1
Heald, Tim (2007). Princess Margaret: A Life Unravelled. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN978-0-297-84820-2
Hoey, Brian (2002). Her Majesty: Fifty Regal Years. London: HarperCollins. ISBN0-00-653136-9
Lacey, Robert (2002). Royal: Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. London: Little, Brown. ISBN0-316-85940-0
Macmillan, Harold (1972). Pointing The Way 1959–1961 London: Macmillan. ISBN0-333-12411-1
Marr, Andrew (2011). The Diamond Queen: Elizabeth II and Her People. London: Macmillan. ISBN978-0-230-74852-1
Neil, Andrew (1996). Full Disclosure. London: Macmillan. ISBN0-333-64682-7
Nicolson, Sir Harold (1952). King George the Fifth: His Life and Reign. London: Constable & Co.
Petropoulos, Jonathan (2006). Royals and the Reich: the princes von Hessen in Nazi Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-516133-5
Pimlott, Ben (2001). The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy. London: HarperCollins. ISBN0-00-255494-1
Roberts, Andrew; Edited by Antonia Fraser (2000). The House of Windsor. London: Cassell & Co. ISBN0-304-35406-6
Shawcross, William (2002). Queen and Country. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN0-7710-8056-5
Thatcher, Margaret (1993). The Downing Street Years. London: HarperCollins. ISBN0-00-255049-0
Trudeau, Pierre Elliott (1993). Memoirs. Toronto: McLelland & Stewart. ISBN978-0-7710-8588-8
Williamson, David (1987). Debrett's Kings and Queens of Britain. Webb & Bower. ISBN0-86350-101-X
Wyatt, Woodrow; Edited by Sarah Curtis (1999). The Journals of Woodrow Wyatt: Volume II. London: Macmillan. ISBN0-333-77405-1

 at the Royal Family website
 at the Encyclopædia Britannica
 on BBC

 at the National Portrait Gallery, London
 on IMDb
Titles and succession


Neil Brooks (born 27 July 1962) is an Australian former sprint freestyle swimmer best known for winning the 4×100m medley relay at the 1980 Olympics in Moscow as part of the Quietly Confident Quartet. Brooks was as much known for his swimming achievements as he was for disciplinary incidents. He often found himself in conflict with officialdom and threatened with sanctions. His international career ended when he was suspended for drinking 46 cans of beer on the return flight to Australia after the 1986 Commonwealth Games. In retirement, he became a news presenter and sports commentator, but was fired amid alcohol problems.
Born in England, Brooks emigrated to Australia as a toddler and started swimming lessons after nearly drowning in a childhood accident. After initially being known for his lack of technique, Brooks quickly rose through the youth ranks. Brooks made his debut at the Australian Championships in 1976, but it was not until 1979 that he medalled at national level and made his debut for Australia at a FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation) Swimming World Cup meet. In 1980, he gained prominence by breaking the Australian record in the 100m freestyle and being invited to a national team camp. There he had his first clash with officialdom, walking out after accusing the officials of neglecting him. He then qualified for the Australian team for the 1980 Moscow Olympics, defying political pressure to boycott the Games in the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Arriving in Moscow, Brooks' experience in the 100m freestyle was an unpleasant one, suffering an asthma attack and missing the final. The peak of his swimming career came in the 4×100m medley relay, when he caught and passed the Soviet Union's Sergey Kopliakov during the anchor leg to seal a narrow victory for Australia. This victory remains the only time that the United States did not win the event at Olympic level.
Following the Olympics, Brooks was expelled from the Australian Institute of Sport by Don Talbot for disciplinary reasons. He accepted a swimming scholarship at the University of Arkansas, where he enjoyed the more liberal disciplinary standards. He returned to Australia for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane and again raised the ire of officials during a preparatory training camp. After lobbying for improved accommodation conditions, Brooks was involved in a physical altercation with the team manager. As a result, he was given a suspension that was to take effect after the Commonwealth Games. However, his teammates protested and threatened to walk out, resulting in the ban being rescinded. Despite the turbulent preparation, Brooks had a successful meet, winning the 100m freestyle and anchoring the 4×100m freestyle and medley relays to gold medals. Brooks competed at his second Olympics in Los Angeles in 1984 Games, where he won silver in the 4×100m freestyle relay and bronze for swimming the heats of the medley relay. Brooks' international career ended at the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh with silver in the 100m freestyle and gold in the freestyle relay. Brooks retired after being suspended for his drinking binge during the return trip. He later became a swimming commentator but was sacked in 1998 after a disciplinary incident.
Early years

An only child, Brooks was born in Crewe, England, before migrating to Western Australia when he was four, along with his working-class parents Mick and Norah.[1] His first aquatic adventure was almost his last. Aged seven, he was playing with a friend on the shore of the Swan River when they climbed into a boat that drifted deeper into water and overturned. Brooks was forced to cling to the boat as his friend swam ashore to seek help.[1] His parents immediately enrolled him in swimming lessons at the Marylands Swim Club. Shortly after, he switched to the tutelage of Kevin Duff, who coached him for the next fifteen years. After just six weeks under Duff, Brooks came third in the 50m breaststroke at the State Age Championships.[1] Despite coaching the likes of Olympic medallists Kevin O'Halloran, Lyn McClements, David Dickson and Lynne Watson, Duff was virtually unknown outside Western Australia. Brooks was known for his rebellious nature, and had a glowing assessment of his coach, opining that "He's not pushy like many other Australian coaches and he's not in the politics of Australian swimming".[1]
Brooks attended Hale Primary School and trained at Beatty Park Pool, routinely dominating the State Age Championships. He won bronze in the 100m and 200m backstroke, and silver in the 200m freestyle at the 1974 Australian Age Championships. Owing to a lack of style, he was known during his primary school years as "Basher Brooks",[1] but by the time he entered Churchlands Senior High School,[2] his stroke had become more technically refined. Nevertheless, he was always confident in his mental ability, stating "before I just swam on guts, now I had the stroke as well as the guts. I was always the toughest kid in the race."[1]
At the age of 13, Brooks suffered a loss of confidence. After being champion in all four strokes for the previous four years, he was now frequently losing. The other children had grown more at the start of their adolescence and he was struggling to match them.[1] Within a year, Brooks' physical growth began to catch up and he started to regain the dominant position. He also switched from distance to sprint events.[1]
National debut
In 1976, at the age of 13, Brooks competed at his first open Australian Championships, but did not gain any podium finishes and as such missed selection in the team for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. In the same year, the Australian team came to Perth for its pre-Olympic training camp and were billeted in the homes of members of the local swimming community. Brooks' family took his future relay team-mate Mark Tonelli, who had a reputation for indiscipline.[1] Brooks, however, was inspired by Tonelli and cited him as a key motivating factor in him wanting to become an Olympian.[1]
During the 1976–77 season, Brooks came to prominence as a possible Australian representative sprinter. He broke six records in winning two events at the 1977 Western Australian Championships. He swam the 100m freestyle in 56.56s, breaking the state records for 14-, 15-, and 16-year-olds, before repeating the achievement in the 200m backstroke. Still aged 14, he competed at his second Australian Championships and came fourth in the 100m freestyle. In 1978, he came third in the 100m freestyle and missed selection for the 1978 Commonwealth Games in Edmonton, Canada by 0.03s.[1] He spent the rest of the year training and studying accounting at Leederville Technical College. During the year, Brooks set Australian age group records in the 200m individual medley, the 200m backstroke and the 100m freestyle. At the inaugural Australian Short Course Championships in Launceston, Tasmania in 1979, he won silver in the 200m individual medley and bronze in the 100m freestyle. His performances earned him selection in the Australian team for the first time, competing in the FINA Swimming World Cup event in Tokyo in April 1979, aged 16 years and nine months.[1]
Aged 17, Brooks swam 51.91s in Perth in January 1980, breaking Tonelli's Australian record in the 100m freestyle. As a result, he was invited to his first national training camp under Bill Sweetenham for prospective Olympic swimmers. He had the first of his many clashes with sporting administrators, first claiming that the officials did not want him to board with Tonelli's family and then stating that Sweetenham had only coached him two or three times, which he felt was insufficient. Brooks walked out of the camp and returned to Perth to train under Duff.[3] At the Australian Championships, the 100m was seen as a clash between Tonelli and Brooks. The latter came second in the 100m freestyle, outsprinted in the dying stages by Tonelli,[3] who reclaimed his national record in a time of 51.80s.[4] As a result, Brooks was selected in both the individual event and the 4×100m medley relay.[3]
However, another obstacle arose with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which resulted in a boycott of the Games by a large part of the Western World, led by the United States. The Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser was also the patron of the Australian Olympic Committee, and significant political pressure came to bear on the athletes to boycott the Games. Tonelli, however, realised that only the sportspeople would suffer from a boycott and that trade relations would continue unabated. He took a leadership role among the athletes to fight for their right to compete.[5][6][7]
Moscow Olympics

The 4×100m medley relay was the focal point of Brooks' Moscow campaign and it came only two days before his 18th birthday. The event had always been won by the United States since its inception at Olympic level in 1960, and their boycott had opened up the field in the event. In the five times the event had been contested, Australia's best result was a silver in the inaugural race. A bronze in 1964 was the only other medal success and the 1976 edition of the medley relay had seen Australia eliminated in the heats. This time, Australia were regarded as a medal chance, but were not seen as the main threats;[8] Sweden, Great Britain and the Soviet Union were the most heavily fancied teams.[8] The hosts boasted the silver medallists in the 100m backstroke and breaststroke, and their butterflyer had come fifth; their freestyler would place fourth a few days later. The British had Duncan Goodhew, the breaststroke gold medallist, while Sweden's butterflyer and backstroker had won their respective events and their freestyle swimmer would come second in the 100m.[8] On paper, Australia's team paled in comparison. Peter Evans was the only individual medallist over a 100m race,[6] claiming bronze in the breaststroke. Mark Kerry had been eliminated in the backstroke semifinals, while Tonelli was swimming as a makeshift butterflyer,[9] despite having performed better than Kerry in the 100m backstroke.[7][10] Adding to the pressure was the fact that Australia won no gold medals at the 1976 Olympics in any sport, and were yet to win in Moscow, so the public were still awaiting their first victory since Munich in 1972.[11] Coming into the Olympics, Australia were ranked seventh out of the thirteen competing countries.[12] Australia's prospects improved after the morning heats in which Sweden was disqualified. Tonelli, the eldest swimmer in the quartet at the age of 23, convened the team as its de facto leader. He asked his team-mates to commit to swimming their legs in a certain time; Kerry vowed to swim the backstroke in 57s, Evans the breaststroke in 63s flat, Tonelli the butterfly in 54s and Brooks promised to anchor the team in 49.8s, even though he had never gone faster than 51s. Tonelli named the foursome as the Quietly Confident Quartet, and they exhibited a quiet confidence as they lined up for the race.[7][9]
Kerry led off in a faster time than he had clocked in the individual event, but it was still two seconds slower than his personal best time of 57.87s. This left Australia in fourth place at the end of the first leg. Evans then swam a personal best of 63.01s, leaving the team almost level with the host nation at the halfway mark. Tonelli then swam his leg in 54.94s, almost two seconds faster than his previous best.[9] He did so with an uneven arm technique due to the disparity in the strength of his arms.[13] He began to lose ground in the last 50m and was a bodylength behind until a late surge brought him to within a metre of the lead by the end of his leg. Brooks then made a powerful, well-timed dive and surfaced almost even with his Soviet counterpart. At the halfway mark, he had drawn level and made a superior turn to take the lead. The Soviet freestyler Kopliakov pulled level at the 25m mark before Brooks again sprinted away to seal an Australian victory by 0.22s.[9] He did not breathe in the last ten metres, and claimed to be laughing for the final five metres, confident that his opponent could not pass him.[3] The Australian freestyler had finished his leg in 49.86s as he had vowed to his team mates.[14] The time of 3m 45.70s sealed Australia's first ever win in a medley relay at the Olympics, for men or women.[7][9][15] Brooks dedicated the team's win to his mother, who had died from cancer the previous Christmas.[3] Upon returning to Australia, he was greeted as a hero, but he considered retiring due to waning desire for success after his triumph in Moscow.[3] In 2000, Brooks and the other members of the quartet were each awarded the Australian Sports Medal for their victory in Moscow.[16]
In the individual event, which occurred after the relay, Brooks had come equal first in his heat with eventual bronze medallist Per Johansson from Sweden in a time of 52.11s. This made him the seventh fastest qualifier for the semi-finals,[17] but he suffered a severe asthma attack and had to be hospitalised. He swam the semi-final regardless, despite having a heart-rate before the start of race of 120, compared to his usual 72.[3][14] He finished seventh in a time of 52.70s, which saw him place 14th, missing the final by 0.83s.[17]
US college career
Brooks suffered from a lack of motivation after the Olympics. He was recruited to the Australian Institute of Sport by swimming coaches Bill Sweetenham and Dennis Pursley, but his stay was brief. The inaugural director Don Talbot, a former head coach of the Australian swimming team, expelled him for indiscipline.[18] He then won the 1981 Australian title in the 100m freestyle without training, but his time of 52.61s was substantially slower than his personal best. Brooks then accepted a scholarship to go to the University of Arkansas to train under Sam Freas. He enjoyed the more liberal culture in the American collegiate system, particularly the relationship between swimmers and their coaches. He enjoyed the less paternalistic treatment that the coaches accorded to their swimmers, saying that "In Australia, after a race they want to lock you in your room. In America, you can share a beer after the meet with the coach."[3] The shortcourse pools used in the United States played into the hands of Brooks, as his strong legs gave him an advantage in pushing away from the turns, which came twice as often in comparison to longcourse (50m) pools. He had initially planned to stay in the United States for only a year, but decided to extend his stay by a year, having enjoyed the high frequency of racing and the recognition accorded to university athletes in the United States. In both years, he won the 50m and 100m freestyle double in the Southwest Conference, and was fourth in the 100m freestyle at the 1981 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Championships. He also came second in the 100m freestyle at the AACC Championships to Rowdy Gaines,[3] who went on to win the event at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.
Despite his successes in America, the Australian Swimming Union did not offer to fund a return home for Brooks for the 1982 Australian Championships, but the University of Arkansas paid his fare as a reward for his performances in collegiate competition.[3] Despite failing to defend his 100m title,[19] he qualified for the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane. The team then went into a five-week training camp in the seaside Sydney suburb of South Coogee. The team resided at a migrant hostel, which at the time was primarily occupied by Vietnamese refugees from the Vietnam War. Brooks spoke out about the quality of the accommodation, leading officials to make improvements.[3]
Brief suspension for disciplinary reasons and 1982 Commonwealth Games
Brooks' protests against the accommodation was overshadowed by a much-publicised physical confrontation with a team official. He telephoned his coach in the United States to make return travel arrangements for the conclusion of the Commonwealth Games. Due to the difference in time zones, he made his call after the team curfew, prompting team manager Jeff Hare to attempt to disconnect the line.[3] After Hare threatened to expel him from the team, Brooks lost his temper and pinned the manager against the wall.[3] The swimmer was summoned to a meeting with ASU officials the following day, where he remained unrepentant. He received a one-month ban, effective after the conclusion of the Commonwealth Games.[3] Brooks demanded that if the ASU were to suspend him, they should do so immediately for the Commonwealth Games, rather than letting him compete and win medals before punishing him.[20] His complaints about the training conditions had gained the attention of his team-mates, and several senior swimmers threatened to leave if he was banned. In the end, the ASU rescinded the suspension.[20] Brooks has remained strongly critical of the attitude of swimming bureaucracy, claiming that "too many officials expect unquestioning obedience",[20] calling for the formation of a swimmers' committee.[20]
Arriving in Brisbane for the Commonwealth Games, Brooks and some of his fellow sprinters shaved their heads, something that received much attention from the Australian public. He won his heat of the 100m freestyle in a Commonwealth and Commonwealth Games record of 51.09s. He swam slower in the final, but his time of 51.14s was enough to secure the gold medal in a close contest. Just 0.43s separated him and the bronze and silver medallists Greg Fasala and Michael Delany, both of Australia.[20]
Brooks then won gold as part of the winning 4×100m freestyle relay, anchoring the team of Fasala, Delany and Graeme Brewer to a victory by almost three seconds, putting in a split of 50.56s. The shaven-headed quartet was dubbed the Mean Machine.[20] He collected another gold in the medley relay, combining with David Orbell, Evans and Jon Sieben, this time completing his freestyle anchor leg in 50.44s.[20] Canada had finished the race far ahead of the Australians, but were disqualified for an early changeover.[13] After the games, Brooks completed the American college season before returning to Australia. He was named as Western Australia's Sportsman of the Year.[20]
Second Olympics
Brooks came into the 1984 Australian Championships as the favourite, but this time he was on the receiving end of a close result. He placed third in the 100m freestyle behind Mark Stockwell and Delany, missing individual selection by 0.05s. The trio was separated by a total of only 0.15s. Selected as a relay swimmer only, he went to Los Angeles hoping to win the 4×100m freestyle relay, an event that the United States had always won.[20]
During the heats, the Australian team of Brooks, Fasala, Delany and Stockwell showed their intention to deny the Americans the gold for the first time at Olympic level.[20] Drawn alongside the Americans in the third and final heat, the Australians set a new Olympic record of 3m 19.94s. Brooks led off in the heat, setting a time of 50.36s, before Stockwell made up a deficit of 0.41s during the anchor leg to beat the hosts by 0.20s. Australia and the United States had stamped their authority on the event, qualifying almost four seconds faster than third-placed Sweden.[21] However, the Americans had more speed in reserve, having rested 200m freestyle silver medalist Mike Heath and 100m freestyle gold medallist Rowdy Gaines, whereas Australia used its full-strength team.[21]
In the final, Australian coach Terry Buck switched the swimming order, putting Fasala as the leadoff leg, while the Americans brought in Heath and Gaines.[20][21] Fasala's time of 51.00s put the Australians second at the first change, behind the Americans, for whom Chris Cavanaugh had built a 0.17s lead. After the first leg, the race was still close—0.90s separated all the teams. Brooks completed his leg in 49.36s, the fourth fastest in the race, 0.24s faster than his American counterpart Heath, giving the Australians a slender 0.07s lead at the halfway point. Australia and the United States had broken away from the field, which was now the best part of two seconds in arrears. However, the Australian lead was short-lived. Matt Biondi took 0.59s from Delany and Gaines took another 0.13s from Stockwell, as the United States won in a world record time of 3m 19.03s. Australia were 0.65s behind with Sweden a further 2.99s in arrears.[14][21] Brooks remained adamant that either he or Stockwell should have led off, stating that "the gold was there for the taking".[20][22]
Brooks collected a bronze in the medley relay after swimming the freestyle leg in the heats before being replaced by first-choice Stockwell in the final.[20] Competing in the third and final heat, Australia and the United States were equal at the last change before Brooks posted the fastest freestyle leg in the heats, pulling out a 0.40s margin over Tom Jager.[23] Australia again qualified fastest, but the Americans again had more in reserve, having rested all of their first-choice quartet in the heats.[23] Stockwell combined with Kerry, Evans and Glenn Buchanan to finish behind the United States and Canada in the final,[22][24] missing silver by just 0.02s. Australia improved on their qualifying time by only 0.68s, while the Americans sped up by 5.03s.[23]
In 1985, Brooks dead-heated with Stockwell in the 100m freestyle at the Australian Championships, clocking a time of 51.12s. He then combined with Tom Stachewicz, Paul Lee and Barry Armstrong, as Western Australia won the 4×100m freestyle relay for the first time.[19] Brooks maintained his form and despite not defending his Australian 100m title, was selected for the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, where he came second to Fasala in the 100m freestyle in a time of 51.01s. He claimed gold in the 4×100m freestyle relay along with Fasala, Stockwell and Matthew Renshaw, anchoring the quartet in setting a Commonwealth Games record.[14][25] On the return flight, he consumed 46 cans of beer and was banned for six months after he talked about the incident during a television interview.[19] In his memoirs, Talbot, a non-drinker, cited Brooks and his Mean Machine teammates as being one of the biggest proponents of a hard-drinking culture that had permeated the Australian swimming scene at the time.[18] In particular, he singled out Brooks as being a focal point of disruptive activity during his time at the Australian Institute of Sport.[18] Talbot sees alcohol as the main reason behind the collapse of Australia's standing in the swimming world in the 1970s and the subsequent prolonged period of international uncompetitiveness in the 1980s.[18]
After swimming
Brooks retired thereafter, moving to Nambour, Queensland and starting a rock band called The Union. He played the electric guitar, and also wrote his own music and songs. He also represented Western Australia in water polo and indoor cricket and played Australian rules football at district level.[19]
Having graduated from the University of Arkansas with a degree in journalism in 1985, Brooks entered the media. Before his graduation, he had been a cadet with the Seven Network in Perth for five years, reading the sports segment on the weekday evening news. He was a television commentator at the 1988, 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics. Aside from covering the swimming and water polo, he also commentated on volleyball and in 1998, he called various downhill skiing events at the Nagano Winter Olympics.[26][27] Domestically, Brooks called Australian Football League matches and read the sports segment on the weekday evening news for the Seven Network. For three years, he hosted Brooksy's Footy Show, a Western Australian travel/holiday show called Wild West, and in the lead-up to the Sydney Olympics, co-hosted The Games with Tracey Holmes.[26][27]
However, Brooks' career began to unravel in the late-1990s. He became addicted to alcohol, leading to a series of on-screen incidents. He once read the sports news segment while inebriated, and was then involved in a drunken argument with the Nine Network's Australian rules football pundit Sam Newman.[28] In early 1999, Seven suspended Brooks from on-screen duties for six weeks after he made comments that they deemed to be "tasteless and offensive".[29] In an interview with a magazine that had not been authorised by Seven, Brooks was asked what event he was looking forward to most at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and replied "The after-Olympics piss-up".[30] He was eventually sacked, denying him the opportunity to commentate on the swimming events and costing him an annual salary of AUD700,000.[28]
In late 2000, Brooks was declared bankrupt by the Federal Court in Perth after failing to repay a A$14,941.64 debt to BankWest.[31] In May 2001, the police raided Brooks' Perth home and found a metre-high cannabis plant. Brooks claimed that the plant belonged to a friend, and then announced that he would be leaving the state.[32] Having moved to South Australia in 2003, Brooks started Local, which he billed as the state's leading lifestyle magazine.[33] The venture was run solely by him and his wife, and was dominated by advertising.[33] Journalist Peter FitzSimons criticised the lack of grammar checking and copyediting, citing a quote from Kieren Perkins, which was rendered thus in the publication: "I was over the moon. Winning is something you strive to do but when I consider all the factors being married two children twenty seven years of age competing in my third Games and I broke fifteen minutes twice in two days it really was quite outstanding and whichever way you cut it Grant Hackett was just the next generation of swimmer [sic]."[33] Brooks stood 200cm and weighed 95kg during his career,[19] but in the early part of the 21st century fought a battle with obesity, after ballooning to 150kg. As of 2007, he had lost substantial weight and fought off his alcohol problems.[28]
Brooks later became a partner in Nitro Energy Drink Company, which was involved in motorsport sponsorship. However, the firm suffered from financial trouble and he had a falling out with his business partner.[34] In 2009, Brooks was removed from the board and the company was put into administration, and both he and his former partner have started legal proceedings.[34]
Brooks' first marriage was to Lynette Quinlivan in January 1985. Their son Luke is a member of the Australian water polo team, playing as a goalkeeper.[35] In 2000, he married his third wife Elle.[27]
On 13 October 2017 Linda Brooks was arrested in Perth after returning there from Bali. An extradition request to Queensland was granted. Police there wish to question her over an alleged fraud in 2008 relating to a sports clothing company which she was a director of. They also wish to question her husband Neil. On 13 November she is due to appear before a Brisbane magistrate’s court.[36]
See also
List of Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming (men)
List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)
Notes

 on IMDb

Who was Neil Brooks' coach when he went to the 1980 Olympics?