The Battle of the Samichon River (24–26 July 1953) was fought during the final days of the Korean War between United Nations (UN) forces—primarily Australian and American—and the Chinese communist People's Volunteer Army (PVA). The fighting took place on a key position on the Jamestown Line known as The Hook and saw the defending UN troops, including the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR) from the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade and the US 7th Marine Regiment, fight off numerous assaults by the PVA 137th Division during two concerted night attacks, inflicting numerous casualties on the Chinese with heavy artillery and small arms fire. The action was part of a larger, divisional-sized Chinese attack against the US 1st Marine Division, with diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians. With the peace talks in Panmunjom reaching a conclusion, the Chinese had been eager to gain a last-minute victory over the UN forces and the battle was the last of the war before the official signing of the Korean Armistice.

During the action the Chinese had attempted to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary between the US 1st Marine Division and the 1st Commonwealth Division in order to turn the Marine division's flank. Yet with well-coordinated indirect fires from the divisional artillery, including 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery, and support from British Centurion tanks of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, 2 RAR successfully thwarted both assaults, holding The Hook. It was estimated that Chinese casualties numbered between 2,000 and 3,000 killed, with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners. Meanwhile, on the left flank, US Marines had endured the brunt of the attack, repelling the Chinese onslaught with infantry and artillery. Only a few hours later the Armistice Agreement was signed, ultimately ending the war. Both sides subsequently withdrew 2 kilometres (1.2mi) within 72 hours to create a 4-kilometre (2.5mi) demilitarised zone.
Background
Military situation

Following the Battle of Maryang San in early October 1951 the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade remained in defence for the rest of the month.[2] Amid heavy fighting on the afternoon of 4 November the Chinese recaptured Hill 317, which was by then held by the 1st Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers, in an action for which Private Bill Speakman was later awarded the Victoria Cross. The hill remained in Chinese hands until the end of the war.[3] The Battle of Maryang San subsequently proved to be one of the last UN actions in the war of manoeuvre, and with peace talks ongoing the fighting was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences, trench lines, bunkers, patrols, wiring parties and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915–17. Construction of defensive localities sited in all-round defence with interlocking arcs of fire began almost immediately, although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire which made such operations hazardous.[3] Patrolling and ambushing by both sides also began in order to prevent the other from gaining control of no man's land.[4] The 1st Commonwealth Division, which included British, Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and Indian troops, subsequently occupied part of the Jamestown Line—a UN defensive position which extended 250 kilometres (160mi) across central Korea—in the US I Corps sector on the US Eighth Army's left flank.[2] The war was no less bloody though, and the division remained in the line for all but two of the remaining nineteen months of the war.[5]

From 19 January 1952, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) was in defence on the Jamestown Line as part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade before going into reserve on 18 April, where they remained until the end of June.[6] Meanwhile, in early 1952 the Australian government had agreed to an American request to increase its forces in Korea, dispatching a second infantry battalion to join 3 RAR which had been fighting since September 1950. The 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) arrived in Korea on 6 April 1952, with both battalions forming part of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade under the command of an Australian brigadier.[6] The brigade re-entered the line on 30 June and 1 RAR spent the following fourteen weeks patrolling, ambushing and raiding, before the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade again went into reserve on 5 October. The brigade returned to the Jamestown Line in early November, with 1 RAR taking over the defences on Hill 355 from the Canadians.[6] The Australians were subsequently forced to clean up large quantities of rubbish left by the Canadians as well as repairing and camouflaging the defences which had recently been attacked by the Chinese.[6] 1 RAR implemented an aggressive patrol program in an effort to regain control of no-man's land from the Chinese, which had been allowed to establish hides close to the perimeter. Several Chinese outposts were subsequently destroyed during raids of up to company-size.[6]
3 RAR took over the defences on Hill 355 on 28 December 1952 and remained there until the 1st Commonwealth Division went into reserve at the end January 1953.[6] On 21 March, 1 RAR was replaced in Korea by the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR), after nearly twelve months operational service.[6] Heavy fighting occurred in March, with the Chinese moving back over to a limited offensive in the US I Corps sector, in an attempt to regain the initiative following the winter. Heavy fighting occurred around The Hook, which was by then held by the US 2nd Division following the relief of the 1st Commonwealth Division, the Old Baldy and Pork Chop Hill features held by the US 7th Division and in the western sector held by the US 1st Marine Division around the Vegas and Reno outposts.[7] Peace talks finally resumed at Panmunjom on 6 April and an agreement was soon made to exchange sick and wounded prisoners. Consequently, 648 UN and 6,670 Chinese and North Korean prisoners were subsequently repatriated as part of Operation Little Switch on 20 April, including five Australians[8][9] For a while the tempo of operations slackened, returning to the small-scale raids and probes of the winter months.[10] Yet during the final three months of the war the Chinese launched a series of offensives prior to the signing of a ceasefire agreement.[11]
In early April 1953 the 1st Commonwealth Division returned to the Jamestown Line.[6] By this time the division was commanded by Major General Michael West, a British officer who had taken over command in September the previous year.[12][13] The 28th British Commonwealth Brigade subsequently occupied the north-eastern sector.[14] 2 RAR occupied Hill 159 during 5 May to 16 June, while 3 RAR held Hill 355 during the period 7–27 May. 3 RAR then relieved 2 RAR on 16 June, and remained on Hill 159 until 10 July.[6] Meanwhile, The Hook was a key position on the left flank of the line held by the 1st Commonwealth Division, and was the division's most threatened sector on the Jamestown Line.[15] Held by the 29th British Infantry Brigade, the position consisted of a group of hills west of the Samichon River which dominated the Imjin River, 4 kilometres (2.5mi) to the south, and provided observation and fields of fire over a bend in the river as it turned towards Seoul.[15] Loss of The Hook would force the UN troops to withdraw nearly 8 kilometres (5.0mi) to the next tenable defensive line on the high ground south of the Imjin River.[16] As a result, the Chinese had made repeated attacks against it, with the 1st Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry repulsing the first Chinese attempt in late-March 1952.[17] The 1st Battalion, The Black Watch did so again in November 1952, while the 1st Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment had fought the heaviest battle there in May 1953 during the Third Battle of the Hook.[18][Note 1]

In the western sector, American outposts such as Detroit, Berlin, East Berlin, Reno, Carson, Elko and Vegas had been bitterly contested over the previous months by the US 1st Marine Division and the Turkish Brigade but by June the Reno, Elko and Vegas positions had been captured by the Chinese.[20] The front subsequently returned to its usual defensive routine, but following a temporary break-down in negotiations after the unilateral release of 25,000 anti-communist Chinese and North Korean prisoners of war by South Korean President Syngman Rhee, the Chinese had renewed large-scale attacks on 24 June.[21] Concentrating on the South Korean divisions in the eastern and central sectors, the Chinese launched another offensive in June in an attempt to convince the South Korean leader to come to terms.[22] The fighting continued until the end of the month as the Chinese successively drove back elements of ROK 9th Division in the US IX Corps sector and the ROK 1st Division in the US I Corps sector.[23]
By early July the Chinese launched a major offensive in the ROK II Corps and US X Corps sectors. The Americans and South Koreans subsequently responded with a series of counter-attacks to regain the ground lost, yet these met with only limited success. On 6 July the Chinese attacked elements of the US 7th Division on Pork Chop Hill on the US I Corps right flank, and succeeded in gaining the crest. The Americans were reinforced and counter-attacked over the following days, although again without success. Following another Chinese assault on 9 July the Americans again counter-attacked, yet neither side gained a clear advantage. The following day the Chinese launched a series of company and battalion-sized assaults, but were repulsed. Yet, with the Americans unprepared to accept further casualties for limited tactical gain, they evacuated Pork Chop Hill on 11 July.[24]
Prelude

The peace talks resumed in early July as Rhee's position apparently softened, yet this proved the impetus for a final Chinese offensive as they sought to further influence the talks and improve their defensive positions at the same time.[25] On 14 July elements of five Chinese armies struck six South Korean divisions around the Kumsong salient.[26] By 20 July the ROK Capital Division and much of the ROK 3rd Division had been practically destroyed, exposing serious weaknesses despite two years of American training.[27] The South Koreans fell back and the UN line was penetrated to a depth of 9.7 kilometres (6.0mi).[21] Only American intervention restored the situation and ultimately nine South Korean and US divisions were required to stem the Chinese offensive and regain some of the lost ground.[21] Following a counter-attack by ROK II Corps a new defensive line was established south of the Kumsong River.[28] Meanwhile, in conjunction with the main offensive at Kumsong, the Chinese 19th Army Group had conducted a series of limited offensives against US I Corps, with the 46th Army conducting five separate assaults against the 1st Marine Division from 25 June to 27 July.[29] Chinese losses were heavy nonetheless, and they sustained more than 28,000 casualties for only temporary gain.[30]
During the second week of July, West had re-shuffled his brigades to allow the 29th British Infantry Brigade to recuperate in the 1st Commonwealth Division's central sector. The reliable 28th British Commonwealth Brigade, under the command of an Australian officer, Brigadier John Wilton, subsequently took over the battered defences on The Hook on 9–10 July 1953, on the division's left.[18] The brigade was the strongest in the division, consisting of the two Australian battalions—2 RAR and 3 RAR—and two British battalions—the 1st Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (1 DLI) and 1st Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (1 RF)—as well as supporting artillery and armour in direct support.[31] Among the later was the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery (16 RNZA) and C Squadron of the British 1st Royal Tank Regiment equipped with Centurion tanks.[32] The 25th Canadian Brigade was subsequently handed the responsibility for the equally exposed positions on Hills 355 and 159 on the right.[33] The ROK 1st Division held the line on the 1st Commonwealth Division's right flank, while the 1st Marine Division, under the overall command of Major General Randolph Pate, held the Nevada Complex on the left flank, having taken over the line on 7–8 July.[5][34] On the American right, the 7th Marine Regiment under Colonel Glenn C. Funk occupied a linear defensive position, with two battalions forward and one back.[35] The 5th Marine Regiment occupied the central sector, while the 1st Marine Regiment held the rear in divisional reserve. Indirect fire support was provided by the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment.[36] Meanwhile, by May 1953 the Chinese 1st, 46th, 63rd, 64th and 65th Armies of the 19th Army Group were operating against the US I Corps under the overall command of Huang Yongsheng.[37][38][Note 2][Note 3]
Wilton deployed the stronger Australian battalions forward, with 2 RAR occupying the left forward position on The Hook, while 3 RAR was deployed on the right, overlooking the Samichon River. 1 DLI was on the opposite side of the Samichon, while 1 RF was held in reserve as a brigade counter-penetration force.[15][39] 2 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Larkin, while 3 RAR was under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Arthur MacDonald.[40] Larkin deployed 2 RAR with three companies forward, and one back in reserve as a counter-attack force. In the centre, The Hook was held by B Company, while C Company held the left and A Company the right, with D Company in reserve.[19] MacDonald deployed 3 RAR with two companies forward and two in depth. A Company occupied Hill 146, on the boundary with 2 RAR, B Company held the south-eastern tip of the ridge, and C and D Companies were held in reserve.[19] British Centurion tanks were also deployed forward to support the Australians.[41] Directly confronting the Australians on The Hook was the 137th Division of the Chinese 46th Army which had been in the line since February 1953, under the command of Cheng Dengzhi.[26][29][Note 4]

The positions occupied by the Australians had been badly damaged by the Chinese assaults and bombardments in May and June, and recent rain had also collapsed some trenches and weakened many of the wire obstacles.[18] Yet the extensive tunnel system—dug by the Canadians the previous winter—remained intact and afforded some protection.[19] Efforts to repair the defences and assert control in no man's land began immediately, with an aggressive patrolling program by the Australians leading to numerous clashes with Chinese patrols, while they also endured heavy shelling during this time.[18] By day it was hot and humid making conditions in the bunkers uncomfortable, while by night the defenders worked hard digging, wiring and laying minefields.[19] The Chinese focused most of their attention on the 7th Marine Regiment, which was occupying positions south-west of 2 RAR after having relieved the Turkish Brigade there, and thereby allowed the Australians some time to prepare.[18] Light mortaring hit 2 RAR on 11 July, while one 3 RAR soldier was killed instantly by a 76-millimetre (3.0in) shell when he was observed walking along the crest-line by a Chinese position less than 200 metres (220yd) from the Australian perimeter. The gun crew was subsequently silenced by Australian sniper fire.[43]
Patrolling by the Australians continued in order to prevent the Chinese from harassing their forward positions. Small clashes occurred on the nights of 15/16, 21/22, 22/23 and 23/24 July, suggesting that the Chinese were preparing for a major attack.[20] Aerial reconnaissance subsequently detected a build up of Chinese forces and supplies west of the Samichon River. In response the Australians and Marines stepped up their defensive preparations, while at the same time rumours from the peace talks started to spread of a ceasefire.[20] Regardless, Chinese harassing artillery and mortar fire intensified, causing a constant stream of casualties among the Australians. Intense Chinese shelling struck Hill 121 and The Hook on the night of 19/20 July, with more than 300 rounds wounding four members of C Company, 2 RAR and further damaging the defences.[44] That night the Marines were driven off the Berlin and East Berlin features on the left flank, further exposing The Hook, which became a salient.[20] Yet on 21 July an expected Chinese assault in the 5th Marine Regiment sector failed to occur, while sightings of Chinese troops across the 1st Marine Division front declined as the fighting entered a lull.[45]

On 22 July B Company, 2 RAR was relieved on The Hook by D Company, and subsequently moved into reserve.[20] The following day, with the ceasefire believed to be imminent, Wilton limited patrols to only those considered essential for the security of his forward positions. Rumours spread quickly among the troops that the truce was expected to be signed on 26 July.[46] However, by 24 July the Chinese shelling had once again grown in intensity, while large bodies of Chinese infantry were increasingly seen on the forward slopes by the Australians.[46] Meanwhile, similar concentrations of Chinese were also reported by the Marines.[45] With the Chinese eager to gain a last-minute victory over the UN forces and the tactical advantage offered to the side that held The Hook after the truce, simultaneous attacks were soon launched against 2 RAR and the 7th Marine Regiment on the left flank, in two major actions on the nights of 24/25 and 25/26 July.[47]
Battle
First night, 24/25 July 1953

On the evening of 24 July a 50-strong Chinese force probed 2 RAR's forward outposts after dark, attacking C Company on Hill 121 and surrounding a bunker on the left flank, while the Marines had a similar contact on the left flank.[48] A forward Australian standing patrol from D Company subsequently clashed heavily with the Chinese probe, losing five wounded before directing tank and artillery fire which dispersed their attackers.[49] These attacks had been preceded by heavy artillery and mortar fire, with the Chinese subjecting C and D Companies, 2 RAR and the 2 RAR Mortar Platoon to a heavy bombardment. Waves of Chinese attacked the Australians at 20:50, penetrating between C Company on Hill 121 and the nearest Marines on Hill 111, before being turned back amidst the driving rain. A further attack followed another barrage at 23:25, but was again repelled and faltered before reaching the wire during fierce fighting with grenades and small-arms, with the assault failing largely due to the weight of defensive artillery fire.[50] More than 2,000 Chinese mortar and artillery rounds fell on the Australian positions during the night.[50] Two Australians were killed and 14 wounded during the night attack which was later estimated to have been made by a Chinese regiment of up to 4,000 men.[48][51] The defenders were soaking wet and exhausted, but had held their positions.[46] Yet despite the weight of the Chinese attack against the Australians their main objective had been Hill 119, another strong point in the American sector 500 metres (550yd) to the south-west of Hill 111, known as Boulder City, held by the 7th Marine Regiment.[52]
The Chinese engaged the Marines on Boulder City with preparatory fire from mortars and artillery at 19:30. Ten minutes later Chinese troops were observed massing for an assault north-west of the Berlin feature and were subsequently shelled by the Americans. At 20:30 the Chinese probed the right flank held by the 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines, first striking Hill 111 and then at Boulder City.[45] After infiltrating forward, the Chinese had hid in the paddy fields immediately in front of the American positions during the barrage, and had then rapidly assaulted as soon as the artillery had lifted.[53] The attack coincided with the ongoing relief in place of the defenders by the 1st Marine Regiment under the command of Colonel Wallace M. Nelson, and it subsequently succeeded in temporarily penetrating the American positions on Hill 111.[45] Yet the Chinese main effort fell on Boulder City, and two battalions subsequently succeeded in occupying a portion of the American trench line. From these positions the Chinese threatened to cut-off Company G, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines on Hill 119, repeatedly assaulting the Berlin Gate feature on the company's left flank and the East Berlin Gate on its right in an effort to exploit their gains. Throughout the fighting the Marines were strongly supported by heavy mortar, artillery and tank fire; however, due to the prevailing weather conditions no spotter aircraft were able to fly during the night which limited the effectiveness of the indirect fire available to them.[54]
In support of the Marines on Hill 111 at 21:10 Wilton had ordered one company of the 1 DLI to occupy a reserve position on the left of 2 RAR, in the rear of the 1st Marine Division where they ultimately remained for the rest of the evening. A reserve company from 3 RAR was also embussed in order to be ready to respond to any emergency.[46] The Americans eventually drove off the Chinese probes after their artillery broke up the attack, but not before they were forced to abandon some of their forward positions.[46] With the attack likely only a diversionary effort, by 21:20 the bulk of the Chinese had begun to withdraw from Hill 111.[55] Meanwhile, the fighting on Hill 119 continued.[56] A heavy bombardment fell on the American positions at 21:00, followed by a second assault on Hill 119 by two Chinese companies which succeeded in penetrating the Marine perimeter.[53] Hand-to-hand combat developed across the forward trenches and in the ensuing fighting Company G was reduced to half-strength, while their ammunition began to run low.[55] Under pressure, by midnight the Americans were forced back another 1,500 metres (1,600yd) to the reverse slope.[49] 3 RAR was subsequently left exposed, with the forward Chinese elements moving to within 1,200 metres (1,300yd) of the battalion's A Echelon area. Almost surrounded, the position was at risk of becoming untenable.[57] At 00:15 Company I, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines was ordered to reinforce Boulder City; they lost heavily after the Chinese intercepted a coded message and adjusted mortar and artillery fire onto the Marines as they approached the rear of Hill 119. In response the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment launched an intense counter-battery barrage.[55]

The Chinese also launched several assaults in the central sector against the 5th Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Harvey C. Tschirgi.[58] Successively striking outposts on the regimental right flank from 21:15, a reinforced Chinese company from the 408th Regiment then concentrated against outpost Esther, held by Marines from Company H. Amid heavy fighting both sides were reinforced. By early morning the Chinese had seized parts of the forward American trench-line and moved to isolate the position with indirect fire and patrols which penetrated between the outpost and the main defensive position to the rear; the Marines still controlled the rear trenches and, reorganising their defence, succeeded in checking the Chinese assault.[58] Defending strongly, the Marines used flamethrowers, machine-guns and mortars, supported by M46 Patton tanks and artillery fire and following several hours of fighting the Chinese attack was finally broken up by indirect fire. An entire Chinese battalion had been committed piecemeal to the attack, yet by 06:40 the following day the Marines reported Esther secure. More than 4,000 artillery and mortar rounds had fallen on the outpost during the night; Marine casualties included 12 killed and 35 wounded, while Chinese loses included 85 dead which were counted around the position, 110 more believed killed and an estimated 250 wounded.[58]
In the 7th Marine Regiment's sector, heavy shelling, small arms fire and hand-to-hand fighting continued around Boulder City into the early morning on 25 July. Chinese infantry had succeeded in breaking through and occupying a large part of the trench-line on the forward slopes, and for a while even temporarily occupied the crest.[58] At 01:30 Companies G and I, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines launched a rapid counter-attack and by 03:30 the American perimeter had been re-established, and was subsequently reinforced. By 05:30 Hill 119 was secured by the Marines, although scattered groups of Chinese remained on the forward slopes, while others attempted to reinforce the left flank.[58] Sporadic fighting and heavy shelling also continued on Hill 111 in the early morning hours, and at 04:00 another fight developed; by 05:30 the position was also controlled by the Americans.[49] Four M46 Patton tanks on Boulder City dispersed the Chinese concentrations with high explosive and machine-gun fire, while Marine infantry assault teams with flamethrowers and 3.5-inch rocket launchers subsequently cleared the remaining Chinese from their former bunkers.[58] In total, more than 3,000 Chinese troops had assaulted the front held by the 1st Marine Division during the night of 24/25 July.[58]
Throughout the night the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment had been heavily engaged, with the regiment and the 10 battalions under its operational control in the 1st Marine Division sector firing a total of 23,725 rounds, including those from batteries of the US 25th Division Artillery, the US I Corps Artillery and the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery.[59] The weight of indirect fire available to the defenders had been significant and the whole of the 1st Commonwealth Divisional Artillery (80 guns) had also been engaged during the fighting, firing in support of both the Australians on Hill 121 and the Marines on their left flank, defending Hill 111 and Boulder City.[16][56] Unhindered by the restrictions on ammunition usage which had applied to the Marines during this period, the supporting fires of the British-Commonwealth 3.45-inch (88mm) 25-pounder field guns proved of considerable assistance. A liaison officer from 16 RNZA was sent subsequently over to the Marine artillery regiment during the night to establish communication. More than 13,000 rounds were fired by the British and New Zealand gunners that night, with the close defensive fire having a devastating effect on the assaulting Chinese infantry. The artillery had also effectively halted the Chinese assault against Hill 121, resulting in a fair degree of frustration among the Australian infantry, some of whom later expressed disappointment at being prevented from getting to grips with the Chinese by the accurate New Zealand artillery fire.[56]
Before the battle, a section from the 2 RAR Medium Machine Gun Platoon had been stationed within the American perimeter near Hill 111 to provide covering fire across the area between the positions occupied by the Marines and the Australians.[52] Commanded by Sergeant Brian Cooper they soon found themselves in the thick of the fighting, firing their Vickers machine-guns in support of the Australian positions and to defend themselves from the weight of the Chinese main attack which fell on the Marines.[53] Three men were wounded during the night but the machine-gunners continued to fire in support, while the remainder of the section repelled Chinese assaults from the left.[52] Ultimately the Chinese were unable to dislodge them, with the Australians calling-in artillery on to their own positions during repeated Chinese attempts to overrun them as the Marines withdrew past their position, leaving them isolated.[46] When dawn came dozens of Chinese bodies were found strewn in front of the Australian machine-gunners.[53] As the Marines worked to clear the Chinese stragglers from their position the Australians had endeavoured to coax a Chinese soldier from a bunker, yet when he resisted they were forced to kill him with a grenade.[49] Cooper was later awarded the Military Medal for his leadership, with the stubborn defence of the Australians contributing to the break-up of the Chinese attack which at one stage had threatened to overrun the Marine position.[52] Large groups of Chinese remained though, occupying a number bunkers and trenches, and they were not finally dislodged by the Marines until the following afternoon.[60]
Second night, 25/26 July 1953

At 08:20 on the morning of 25 July the Chinese again assaulted the Marines on Hill 119 in company strength, but were soon halted by American artillery and mortar fire which inflicted heavy losses; skirmishing continued for the remainder of the day. While no major assaults against Hill 111 occurred, a heavy barrage by the Chinese targeted the position at 11:00. F9F Panthers provided air support to the Marines throughout the day, while American tanks continued to engage Chinese targets in support of the defenders on Hill 111 and Boulder City. Finally, at 13:35 the last of the Chinese infantry were forced off the forward slopes of Boulder City by the Marines. Chinese casualties were estimated by the Americans to have included another 75 killed and 425 wounded.[61] The Chinese continued to heavily shell the American positions, and by late afternoon 13,500 mortar and artillery rounds had fallen on the sector held by 7th Marine Regiment. The Americans fired many counter-battery missions in response, firing 36,794 rounds. The ongoing relief of the 7th Marine Regiment continued throughout the day.[62] Meanwhile, the Australian positions on The Hook were also heavily shelled throughout the day, forcing many of the defenders underground into the network of tunnels then being extended by a team of New Zealand sappers.[56]
Realising that they had only faced a series of probes the previous night, rather than a major attack, and as these actions may have been in preparation for a heavier attack, a vigorous defence was subsequently prepared by the Australians with the reserve companies moved into blocking positions to strengthen the forward defences.[60] The defenders endured steady shelling and harassing fire, while after dark The Hook was probed again, this time by a group of about 20 Chinese. The force was subsequently engaged by an Australian standing patrol from D Company at 21:00 and forced to withdraw, leaving behind one dead at a cost of one Australian killed and one wounded.[48] At 21:20 the Chinese fire became more intense, and a heavy blow was launched by the Chinese against the Marines on Hill 119 shortly after.[56] Beginning at 21:30, elements of the 1st and 7th Marines were attacked by two Chinese companies.[63] A heavy concentration by the entire US I Corps artillery was fired in response, and the Chinese were forced to withdraw.[56][63] At 23:00 the Chinese shelling intensified to thirty-rounds per minute, and was followed fifteen minutes later by another determined charge by the Chinese infantry against the Marines on the left flank on Hill 111 and Boulder City during a furious attack.[60] The Australian positions were not directly attacked during the night, although C Company engaged the Chinese in no man's land sporadically at long range in support of the Americans.[48] As on the previous night, 3 RAR was not attacked. In total more than 4,200 mortar and artillery rounds were fired by the Chinese at 2 RAR during the night, and three Australians were killed and nine wounded.[64]

In contrast, the Marines were more heavily engaged, with the fighting occurring at close quarters for more than an hour before they repelled their attackers and counter-attacked.[48] An Australian bunker between the Marines on Hill 111 and C Company, 2 RAR on Hill 121 was also the scene of heavy fighting, after the Chinese penetrated the undefended space between the two positions. Manned by just six Australians under the command of Lance Corporal Kenneth Crockford, the position was attacked by the Chinese simultaneously from several sides following a determined charge at 23:40.[65] During bitter hand-to-hand fighting in the trenches around the bunker the under-strength Australian section ejected the Chinese and prevented them from advancing any further. They then directed artillery fire onto their position to break up subsequent attacks.[64] Further Chinese probes were launched against Hills 111 and 119 in the early hours of 26 July, and they succeeded in temporarily seizing parts of the American trench line.[56] Between 01:30 and 03:00 heavy fighting continued before the Chinese were driven from the position by the Marines.[63] Meanwhile, Wilton ordered D Company, 3 RAR to move across to occupy the position behind B Company, 2 RAR to support the Marines if required, while at 02:18 he placed A Company, 1 DLI on five minutes notice to move to another blocking position.[66] American casualties were 19 killed and 125 wounded, while Chinese losses included 30 men countered dead, and another 84  estimated to have been killed and 310 wounded.[63]
The 2 RAR Machine Gun Platoon on Hill 111 again found itself heavily engaged, suffering five badly wounded.[48] The Chinese had managed to establish an artillery forward observer on Hill 111 and Marine casualties were particularly heavy as a result. Eight critically injured Americans were subsequently evacuated through 2 RAR for urgent medical treatment.[60] Small-arms fire continued to be exchanged between the Marines and the Chinese for the next two hours, only subsiding by 03:00, with the Marines finally driving out the Chinese.[48] D Company, 3 RAR was subsequently released and it returned to battalion's main defensive position.[65] The Australian outpost section also succeeded in holding through the night and the following morning they found 35 Chinese dead around their positions. During the fighting Crockford had repeatedly exposed himself to Chinese fire, and had even run across no man's land to provide situation reports to the Marine command post on Hill 111. He was later awarded the Military Medal for his actions.[64] By dawn the only activity in front of The Hook were Chinese stretcher bearers collecting their wounded, which were subsequently allowed to do so unmolested by the Australians.[48] In the 1st Marine Division's sector the fighting had also ceased, while small groups of Chinese moved to reinforce their positions and were engaged with rifle and machine-gun fire.[63]

As with the first night, indirect fire had again played a crucial role in the defence, with the New Zealand gunners firing another 5,700 rounds (out of a divisional total of 9,500 rounds) in support of the Australians and the Marines.[56] Dug-in to the east, 16 RNZA had been forced to fire with minimum crest clearance over the Australian lines in order to bring effective fire to bear on the assaulting Chinese from their 25-pounders. Using both variable time proximity and time-set fuses, the New Zealand gunners used air bursts to break up the Chinese assaults, causing heavy casualties. Despite the risk of causing casualties among their own soldiers no serious casualties were incurred by the Australians, although one suffered a broken shoulder after a brass nose cone from a faulty time-of-flight fused shell exploded over his position.[67] High explosive was also provided by C Company's 60mm mortar which operated against the Chinese in no man's land despite being exposed and unprotected from fire, while the mortars also provided battlefield illumination which had allowed the Australian riflemen and machine-gunners to bring accurate fire to bear on the Chinese crossing 2 RAR's front to attack Hills 111 and 121.[60] The Chinese had suffered heavily during the fighting, with over 300 dead counted in front of Hill 111 alone.[60] Throughout the following day the Australians observed a steady stream of Chinese casualties evacuating Hill 111 and crossing the paddy fields on the left flank. Later, a group of 20 armed Chinese had also attempted to withdraw but were engaged by the 2 RAR Anti-Tank Platoon, resulting in at least six casualties.[65] In the area held by the 1st Marine Division, Chinese shelling continued sporadically, while at 13:30 the 1st Marine Regiment assumed operational control of the right sector.[63]
Aftermath
Casualties
The battle illustrated the power of concentrated artillery fire and the wastefulness of massed attacks by infantry against modern firepower.[51] Hundreds of Chinese dead lay in front of the UN positions, with the valley floor "almost covered with dead Chinese". Wilton later recounted that on "the approaches to 2 RAR the bodies literally carpeted the ground sometimes two deep".[68] Later, it was estimated that Chinese casualties numbered between 2,000 and 3,000 killed, with the majority of them inflicted by the New Zealand gunners.[69] At least nine Chinese battalions were believed to have been involved in the attacks.[16] The fighting between 24–26 July had cost the Australians five killed and 24 wounded, while during the previous two weeks on The Hook 2 RAR had lost a total of 17 men killed and 31 wounded.[48][69] It had been a bitter struggle to the very end and as a testimony to the ferocity of the fighting, the Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honour "The Samichon".[70] Many Australians were later awarded bravery decorations for their actions.[Note 5] The New Zealand gunners had played a crucial role in stemming the Chinese assault and during these final actions the commander of 163 Battery, 16 RNZA—Major James Spence—had positioned himself well-forward in order to effectively co-ordinate the indirect fires of his guns. Spence was subsequently awarded the Military Cross, while a member of his tactical party, Gunner Arthur Bolton, was later Mentioned in Despatches.[72] In total over the three nights more than 23,000 rounds were fired by the Commonwealth Divisional Artillery.[66]

During the final month of the war heavy fighting had occurred across the central and eastern fronts.[73] Yet in the Commonwealth sector itself the only Chinese attacks had been made against 2 RAR holding The Hook on the nights of 24–25 and 25–26 July. The action was part of a larger attack against the 1st Marine Division, with only diversionary assaults mounted against the Australians.[21] 1st Commonwealth Division intelligence staff believed that the Chinese had been attempting to make a breakthrough to the Imjin River along the divisional boundary in order to turn the 1st Marine Division's flank, yet with well-coordinated indirect fires from the divisional artillery and support from the British tanks, 2 RAR had been able to successfully thwart both assaults.[74] Meanwhile, the Marines had endured the brunt of a divisional-size attack, repelling the Chinese onslaught for the loss of 43 killed and 316 wounded over the two nights; total Marine casualties for July included 181 killed and 1,430 wounded.[75][76][Note 6] Indeed, with the Chinese determined to gain local territorial advantage prior to signing the ceasefire, the UN Command had suffered 65,000 casualties during the final three months of the war, while the Chinese lost at least 135,000.[5]
Subsequent operations
On 26 July Wilton had ordered Lieutenant Colonel Peter Jeffreys to prepare a counter-attack by 1 DLI to recover some of the ground lost to the Chinese the night before, but after preparatory fire failed to clear the Chinese from the objective the assault was cancelled.[78] The Chinese subsequently made another attempt against the Marines on Hill 119 on the night of 26/27 July, but it lacked the weight of those of the previous nights and was easily repelled.[79] In a final attempt to capture Boulder City at 21:30 a Chinese platoon had advanced on the wire at Hill 119, defended by Company E, 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines. Just after midnight another Chinese platoon-sized assault was also halted by the Marines. At 00:45 a Chinese platoon probed the Marines on Hill 111, yet after an hour and twenty minutes it was also checked.[80] Meanwhile, despite the clashes nearby on Hill 111 the Australians suffered no more casualties.[69] The Armistice Agreement was subsequently signed at 10:00 on 27 July.[81] Sporadic fighting continued, and the New Zealand gunners fired several counter-battery tasks, engaging several Chinese guns. The Commonwealth Divisional Artillery fired 1,300 rounds during the day; by evening the front was largely silent.[79] In the last four hours of the war the Chinese fired 44,000 artillery rounds into the US Eighth Army positions, although none against the 1st Commonwealth Division.[81] There were no further attacks and the ceasefire came into effect at 22:00 the same day.[66] The following day some soldiers from both sides moved forward into no man's land to exchange greetings, although relatively few Australians did so and the Marines were under orders not to fraternise or communicate with the Chinese.[79][82][83]

With the war over both sides were required to withdraw 2 kilometres (1.2mi) within 72 hours to create a 4-kilometre (2.5mi) demilitarised zone,[68] and preparations began to hastily evacuate the forward positions.[82] During August and September sappers from the 1st Commonwealth Division were subsequently engaged clearing minefields and demolishing many of their former defended localities and field defences, while new battle positions were established to the rear.[84] A similar process occurred across the entire front.[85] Meanwhile, under the terms of the agreement all prisoners who wished to be repatriated were to be returned, and 12,773 UN and 75,000 Chinese and North Korean prisoners were subsequently exchanged during this period, including 21 Australians and one New Zealander.[82][84][Note 7] The period that followed proved uneventful, yet the UN forces were required to maintain combat readiness and the ability to react quickly in case the North Koreans violated the ceasefire. In April 1954, 2 RAR returned to Australia and was replaced by 1 RAR which remained in South Korea until March 1956. 3 RAR finally returned to Australia in September 1954 after four years of continuous service in Korea and five years before that in Japan.[86] British Commonwealth forces remained in Korea until they were finally withdrawn in August 1957.[87] Meanwhile, the last Chinese elements did not leave Korea until 1958.[88]
Notes
Footnotes

Citations

Further reading

Coordinates:

How long was the Battle of the Samichon River?


A pencil is an implement for writing or drawing, constructed of a narrow, solid pigment core in a protective casing that prevents the core from being broken and/or marking the user’s hand.
Pencils create marks by physical abrasion, leaving a trail of solid core material that adheres to a sheet of paper or other surface. They are distinct from pens, which dispense liquid or gel ink onto the marked surface.
Most pencil cores are made of graphite powder mixed with a clay binder. Graphite pencils (traditionally known as 'lead pencils') produce grey or black marks that are easily erased, but otherwise resistant to moisture, most chemicals, ultraviolet radiation and natural aging. Other types of pencil cores, such as those of charcoal, are mainly used for drawing and sketching. Coloured pencils are sometimes used by teachers or editors to correct submitted texts, but are typically regarded as art supplies—especially those with waxy core binders that tend to smear when erasers are applied to them. Grease pencils have a softer, crayon-like waxy core that can leave marks on smooth surfaces such as glass or porcelain.
The most common pencil casing is thin wood, usually hexagonal in section but sometimes cylindrical or triangular, permanently bonded to the core. Casings may be of other materials, such as plastic or paper. To use the pencil, the casing must be carved or peeled off to expose the working end of the core as a sharp point. Mechanical pencils have more elaborate casings which are not bonded to the core; instead, they support separate, mobile pigment cores that can be extended or retracted through the casing's tip as needed. These casings can be reloaded with new cores (usually graphite) as the previous ones are exhausted.
History

Camel's hair pencil
Pencil, from Old French pincel, from  Latin penicillus  a "little tail" (see penis; pincellus is Latin from the post-classical period[1]) originally referred to an artist's fine brush of camel hair, also used for writing before modern lead or chalk pencils.[2]
Though the archetypal pencil was an artist's brush, the stylus, a thin metal stick used for scratching in papyrus or wax tablets, was used extensively by the Romans[3] and for palm-leaf manuscripts.
Discovery of graphite deposit
As a technique for drawing, the closest predecessor to the pencil was Silverpoint until in 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), a large deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish, Cumbria, England.[4][5][6][7] This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and solid, and it could easily be sawn into sticks. It remains the only large-scale deposit of graphite ever found in this solid form.[8] Chemistry was in its infancy and the substance was thought to be a form of lead. Consequently, it was called plumbago (Latin for "lead ore").[9][10] Because the pencil core is still referred to as "lead", or a "lead", many people have the misconception that the graphite in the pencil is lead,[11] and the black core of pencils is still referred to as lead, even though it never contained the element lead.[12][13][14][15][16][17] The words for pencil in German (bleistift), Irish (peann luaidhe), Arabic (قلم رصاص qalam raṣāṣ), and some other languages literally mean lead pen.
The value of graphite would soon be realised to be enormous, mainly because it could be used to line the moulds for cannonballs; the mines were taken over by the Crown and were guarded. When sufficient stores of graphite had been accumulated, the mines were flooded to prevent theft until more was required.
The usefulness of graphite for pencils was discovered as well, but graphite for pencils had to be smuggled. The news of the usefulness of these early pencils spread far and wide, attracting the attention of artists all over the known world. Because graphite is soft, it requires some form of encasement. Graphite sticks were initially wrapped in string or sheepskin for stability. England would enjoy a monopoly on the production of pencils until a method of reconstituting the graphite powder was found in 1662 in Italy. However, the distinctively square English pencils continued to be made with sticks cut from natural graphite into the 1860s. The town of Keswick, near the original findings of block graphite, still manufactures pencils, the factory also being the location of the Cumberland Pencil Museum.[18] The meaning of "graphite writing implement" apparently evolved late in the 16th century.[19]
Wood holders added

Around 1560,[20] an Italian couple named Simonio and Lyndiana Bernacotti made what are likely the first blueprints for the modern, wood-encased carpentry pencil.  Their version was a flat, oval, more compact type of pencil. Their concept involved the hollowing out of a stick of juniper wood. Shortly thereafter, a superior technique was discovered: two wooden halves were carved, a graphite stick inserted, and the halves then glued together—essentially the same method in use to this day.[21]
New pencils from graphite powder, and graphite and clay
The first attempt to manufacture graphite sticks from powdered graphite was in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1662. It used a mixture of graphite, sulphur, and antimony.[22][23][24][25]
English and German pencils were not available to the French during the Napoleonic Wars; France, under naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, was unable to import the pure graphite sticks from the British Grey Knotts mines – the only known source in the world. France was also unable to import the inferior German graphite pencil substitute. It took the efforts of an officer in Napoleon's army to change this. In 1795, Nicolas-Jacques Conté discovered a method of mixing powdered graphite with clay and forming the mixture into rods that were then fired in a kiln. By varying the ratio of graphite to clay, the hardness of the graphite rod could also be varied. This method of manufacture, which had been earlier discovered by the Austrian Joseph Hardtmuth, the founder of the Koh-I-Noor in 1790, remains in use.[26] In 1802, the production of graphite leads from graphite and clay was patented by the Koh-I-Noor company in Vienna.[27]
In England, pencils continued to be made from whole sawn graphite. Henry Bessemer's first successful invention (1838) was a method of compressing graphite powder into solid graphite thus allowing the waste from sawing to be reused.[28]
The pencil in America

American colonists imported pencils from Europe until after the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin advertised pencils for sale in his Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729, and George Washington used a three-inch pencil when he surveyed the Ohio Country in 1762.[29] It is said that William Munroe, a cabinetmaker in Concord, Massachusetts, made the first American wood pencils in 1812. This was not the only pencil-making occurring in Concord. According to Henry Petroski, transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau discovered how to make a good pencil out of inferior graphite using clay as the binder; this invention was prompted by his father's pencil factory in Concord, which employed graphite found in New Hampshire in 1821 by Charles Dunbar.
Munroe's method of making pencils was painstakingly slow, and in the neighbouring town of Acton, a pencil mill owner named Ebenezer Wood set out to automate the process at his own pencil mill located at Nashoba Brook. He used the first circular saw in pencil production. He constructed the first of the hexagon- and octagon-shaped wooden casings. Ebenezer did not patent his invention and shared his techniques with anyone. One of those was Eberhard Faber of New York, who became the leader in pencil production.[30]
Joseph Dixon, an inventor and entrepreneur involved with the Tantiusques granite mine in Sturbridge, Massachusetts, developed a means to mass-produce pencils.  By 1870, The Joseph Dixon Crucible Company was the world’s largest dealer and consumer of graphite and later became the contemporary Dixon Ticonderoga pencil and art supplies company.[31][32]
By the end of the 19th century, over 240,000 pencils were used each day in the US. The favoured timber for pencils was Red Cedar as it was aromatic and did not splinter when sharpened. In the early 20th century supplies of Red Cedar were dwindling so that pencil manufacturers were forced to recycle the wood from cedar fences and barns to maintain supply.
One effect of this was that "during World War II rotary pencil sharpeners were outlawed in Britain because they wasted so much scarce lead and wood, and pencils had to be sharpened in the more conservative manner – with knives."[33]
It was soon discovered that Incense cedar, when dyed and perfumed to resemble Red Cedar, was a suitable alternative and most pencils today are made from this timber which is grown in managed forests. Over 14billion pencils are manufactured worldwide annually.[34] Less popular alternatives to cedar include basswood and alder.[33]
In Southeast Asia the wood Jelutong may be used to create pencils (though the use of this rainforest species is controversial).[35] Environmentalists prefer the use of Pulai – another wood native to the region and used in pencil manufacturing.[36][37]
Eraser attached
On 30 March 1858, Hymen Lipman received the first patent for attaching an eraser to the end of a pencil.[38] In 1862, Lipman sold his patent to Joseph Reckendorfer for $100,000, who went on to sue pencil manufacturer Faber-Castell for infringement.[39] In 1875, the Supreme Court of the US ruled against Reckendorfer declaring the patent invalid.[40]
Pencil extenders

Historian Henry Petroski notes that while ever more efficient means of mass production of pencils has driven the replacement cost of a pencil down, before this people would continue to use even the stub of a pencil. For those who "did not feel comfortable using a stub, pencil extenders were sold. These devices function something like a porte-crayon...the pencil stub can be inserted into the end of a shaft...Extenders were especially common among engineers and draftsmen, whose favorite pencils were priced dearly. The use of an extender also has the advantage that the pencil does not appreciably change its heft as it wears down."[33] Artists currently use extenders to maximize the use of their colored pencils.
Types
By marking material

Graphite pencilsThese are the most common types of pencil, and are encased in wood. They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black. Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes.
Solid graphite pencilsThese are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite (as found in a 'graphite pencil'), about the diameter of a common pencil, which have no casing other than a wrapper or label.  They are often called "woodless" pencils. They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily, creating different effects, and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used.  They are available in the same darkness range as wood-encased graphite pencils.
Liquid graphite pencilsThese are pencils that write like pens.  The technology was first invented in 1955 by Scripto and Parker Pens.  Scripto's liquid graphite formula came out about three months before Parker's liquid lead formula.  To avoid a lengthy patent fight the two companies agreed to share their formulas.[41]
Charcoal pencilsAre made of charcoal and provide fuller blacks than graphite pencils, but tend to smudge easily and are more abrasive than graphite. Sepia-toned and white pencils are also available for duotone techniques.
Carbon pencilsThey generally are made of a mixture of clay and lamp black, but are sometimes blended with charcoal or graphite depending on the darkness and manufacturer.  They produce a fuller black than graphite pencils, but are smoother than charcoal.
Colored pencils, or pencil crayonsThese have wax-like cores with pigment and other fillers. Multiple colours are often blended together.[42]
Grease pencilsThey write on virtually any surface (including glass, plastic, metal and photographs). The most commonly found grease pencils are encased in paper (Berol and Sanford Peel-off), but they can also be encased in wood (Staedtler Omnichrom).[42]
Watercolor pencilsThese are designed for use with watercolour techniques. The pencils can be used by themselves for sharp, bold lines. Strokes made by the pencil can also be saturated with water and spread with brushes.[42]
By use

Carpenter's pencilsThese are pencils that have two main properties: their shape prevents them from rolling, and their graphite is strong.[43] The oldest surviving pencil is a German carpenter's pencil dating from the 17th Century and now in the Faber-Castell collection.[44][45]

Copying pencils (or indelible pencils)These are graphite pencils with an added dye that creates an indelible mark. They were invented in the late 19th century for press copying and as a practical substitute for fountain pens.  Their markings  are often visually indistinguishable from those of standard graphite pencils, but when moistened their markings dissolve into a coloured ink, which is then pressed into another piece of paper. They were widely used until the mid 20th century when ball pens slowly replaced them. In Italy their use is still mandated by law for voting paper ballots in elections and referenda.[46]
Eyeliner pencilsEyeliner pencils are used for make-up. Unlike traditional copying pencils, eyeliner pencils usually contain non-toxic dyes.[47]
Erasable colour pencilsUnlike wax-based coloured pencils, these can be easily erased. Their main use is in sketching, where the objective is to create an outline using the same colour that other media (such as wax pencils, or watercolour paints) would fill[48] or when the objective is to scan the colour sketch.[49] Some animators prefer erasable colour pencils as opposed to graphite pencils because they don't smudge as easily, and the different colours allow for better separation of objects in the sketch.[50] Copy-editors find them useful too, as their markings stand out more than graphite but can be erased.[51]
Non-reproducingor non-photo blue pencils make marks that are not reproduced by photocopiers[52] (Sanford's Copy-not or Staedtler's Mars Non-photo) or by whiteprint copiers (Staedtler's Mars Non-Print).
Stenographer's pencilAlso known as a steno pencil. These pencils are expected to be very reliable, and their lead is break-proof. Nevertheless, steno pencils are sometimes sharpened at both ends to enhance reliability. They are round to avoid pressure pain during long texts.[53]
Golf pencilGolf pencils are usually short (a common length is 9cm (3.5in)) and very cheap. They are also known as library pencils, as many libraries offer them as disposable, unspillable writing instruments.
By shape
Triangular (more accurately a Reuleaux triangle)
Hexagonal
Round
Bendable (flexible plastic)
By size
TypicalA standard, hexagonal, "#2 pencil" is cut to a hexagonal height of 1⁄4-inch (6mm), but the outer diameter is slightly larger (about 9⁄32-inch (7mm))
A standard, #2, hexagonal pencil is 19cm (7.5in) long.
BiggestOn 3 September 2007, Ashrita Furman unveiled his giant US$20,000 pencil – 76 feet (23m) long, 18,000 pounds (8,200kg) (with over 4,500 pounds (2,000kg) for the graphite centre) – after three weeks of creation in August 2007 as a birthday gift for teacher Sri Chinmoy. It is longer than the 65-foot (20m) pencil outside the Malaysia HQ of stationers Faber-Castell.[54][55][56]
By manufacture
Mechanical pencils

There are also pencils which use mechanical methods to push lead through a hole at the end. These can be divided into two groups: propelling pencils use an internal mechanism to push the lead out from an internal compartment, while clutch pencils merely hold the lead in place (the lead is extended by releasing it and allowing some external force, usually gravity, to pull it out of the body). The erasers (sometimes replaced by a sharpener on pencils with larger lead sizes) are also removable (and thus replaceable), and usually cover a place to store replacement leads. Mechanical pencils are popular for their longevity and the fact that they may never need sharpening. Lead types are based on grade and size; with standard sizes being 2.00mm (0.079in), 1.40mm (0.055in), 1.00mm (0.039in), 0.70mm (0.028in), 0.50mm (0.020in), 0.35mm (0.014in), 0.25mm (0.0098in), 0.18mm (0.0071in), and 0.13mm (0.0051in) ()—the 0.90mm (0.035in) size is available, but is not considered a standard ISO size.
Pop a Point Pencils
Pioneered by Taiwanese stationery manufacturer Bensia Pioneer Industrial Corporation in the early 1970s, the product is also known as Bensia Pencils, stackable pencils or non-sharpening pencils. It is a type of pencil where many short pencil tips are housed in a cartridge-style plastic holder. A blunt tip is removed by pulling it from the writing end of the body and re-inserting it into the open-ended bottom of the body, thereby pushing a new tip to the top.
Plastic pencils
Invented by Harold Grossman[57] for Empire Pencil Company in 1967 and subsequently improved upon by Arthur D. Little for Empire from 1969 through the early 1970s; the plastic pencil was commercialised by Empire as the "EPCON" Pencil. These pencils were co-extruded, extruding a plasticised graphite mix within a wood-composite core.[58]
Other aspects
By factory state: sharpened, unsharpened.
By casing material: wood, paper, plastic.
Health
Residual graphite from a pencil stick is not poisonous, and graphite is harmless if consumed.
Although lead has not been used for writing since antiquity, lead poisoning from pencils was not uncommon. Until the middle of the 20th century the paint used for the outer coating could contain high concentrations of lead, and this could be ingested when the pencil was sucked or chewed.[59]
Manufacture
The lead of the pencil is a mix of finely ground graphite and clay powders. Before the two substances are mixed, they are separately cleaned of foreign matter and dried in a manner that creates large square cakes. Once the cakes have fully dried, the graphite and the clay squares are mixed together using water. The amount of clay content added to the graphite depends on the intended pencil hardness (lower proportions of clay makes the core softer),[60] and the amount of time spent on grinding the mixture determines the quality of the lead. The mixture is then shaped into long spaghetti-like strings, straightened, dried, cut, and then tempered in a kiln. The resulting strings are dipped in oil or molten wax, which seeps into the tiny holes of the material and allows for the smooth writing ability of the pencil. A juniper or incense-cedar plank with several long parallel grooves is cut to fashion a "slat," and the graphite/clay strings are inserted into the grooves. Another grooved plank is glued on top, and the whole assembly is then cut into individual pencils, which are then varnished or painted. Many pencils feature an eraser on the top and so the process is usually still considered incomplete at this point. Each pencil has a shoulder cut on one end of the pencil to allow for a metal ferrule to be secured onto the wood. A rubber plug is then inserted into the ferrule for a functioning eraser on the end of the pencil.[61]
Grading and classification

Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil.[62][63][64] There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead.
Manufacturers distinguish their pencils by grading them, but there is no common standard.[65] Two pencils of the same grade but different manufacturers will not necessarily make a mark of identical tone nor have the same hardness.[66]
Most manufacturers, and almost all in Europe, designate their pencils with the letters H (commonly interpreted as "hardness") to B (commonly "blackness"), as well as F (usually taken to mean "fineness", although F pencils are no more fine or more easily sharpened than any other grade. Also known as "firm" in Japan[67]).  The standard writing pencil is graded HB.[68][lower-alpha 1] This designation might have been first used in the early 20th century by Brookman, an English pencil maker. It used B for black and H for hard; a pencil's grade was described by a sequence or successive Hs or Bs such as BB and BBB for successively softer leads, and HH and HHH for successively harder ones.[69] The Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth pencil manufacturers claim to have first used the HB designations, with H standing for Hardtmuth, B for the company's location of Budějovice, and F for Franz Hardtmuth, who was responsible for technological improvements in pencil manufacture.[70][71]
As of 2009, a set of pencils ranging from a very soft, black-marking pencil to a very hard, light-marking pencil usually ranges from softest to hardest as follows:

Koh-i-noor offers twenty grades from 10H to 8B for its 1500 series;[72] Mitsubishi Pencil offers twenty-two grades from 10H to 10B for its Hi-uni range;[73] Derwent produces twenty grades from 9H to 9B for its graphic pencils[74] and Staedtler produces sixteen from 6H to 8B for its Mars Lumograph pencils.[75]
Numbers as designation were first used by Conté and later by John Thoreau, father of Henry David Thoreau, in the 19th century.[76]
Although Conté/Thoreau's equivalence table is widely accepted, not all manufacturers follow it; for example, Faber-Castell uses a different equivalence table in its Grip 2001 pencils: 1 = 2B, 2 = B, 2½ = HB, 3 = H, 4 = 2H.
Pencil hardness test
Graded pencils can be used for a rapid test that provides relative ratings for a series of coated panels but can't be used to compare the pencil hardness of different coatings. This test defines a "pencil hardness" of a coating as the grade of the hardest pencil that does not permanently mark the coating when pressed firmly against it at a 45 degree angle.[77][78] For standardized measurements, there are Mohs hardness testing pencils on the market.

External colour and shape of pencils

The majority of pencils made in the US are painted yellow.[79] According to Henry Petroski,[80] this tradition began in 1890 when the L. & C. Hardtmuth Company of Austria-Hungary introduced their Koh-I-Noor brand, named after the famous diamond. It was intended to be the world's best and most expensive pencil, and at a time when most pencils were either painted in dark colours or not at all, the Koh-I-Noor was yellow.
As well as simply being distinctive, the colour may have been inspired by the Austro-Hungarian flag; it was also suggestive of the Orient at a time when the best-quality graphite came from Siberia. Other companies then copied the yellow colour so that their pencils would be associated with this high-quality brand, and chose brand names with explicit Oriental references, such as Mikado (renamed Mirado)[81][82] and Mongol.[83][84]
Not all countries use yellow pencils. German and Brazilian pencils, for example, are often green, blue or black, based on the trademark colours of Faber-Castell, a major German stationery company which has plants in those countries. In southern European countries, pencils tend to be dark red or black with yellow lines, while in Australia, they are red with black bands at one end. In India, the most common pencil colour scheme was dark red with black lines, and pencils with a large number of colour schemes are produced by various companies.
Pencils are commonly round, hexagonal, or sometimes triangular in section. Carpenters' pencils are typically oval or rectangular, so they cannot easily roll away during work.
Notable pencil users
Thomas Edison had his pencils specially made by Eagle Pencil. Each pencil was three inches long, was thicker than standard pencils and had softer graphite than was normally available.[34]
Vladimir Nabokov rewrote everything he had ever published, usually several times, in pencil.[34]
John Steinbeck was an obsessive pencil user and is said to have used as many as 60 a day. His novel East of Eden took more than 300 pencils to write.[34]
Vincent van Gogh used only Faber pencils as they were "superior to Carpenters pencils, a capital black and most agreeable".[34][85]
Johnny Carson regularly played with pencils at his Tonight Show desk. These pencils were specially made with erasers at both ends to avoid on-set accidents.[86]
Roald Dahl used only pencils with yellow casing to write his books. He had 6 sharpened pencils ready at the beginning of each day and only when all 6 pencils became unusable did he resharpen them.[87]
Manufacturers

The following table lists the prominent manufacturers of wood-cased (including wood-free) pencils around the world.

See also

Blackwing 602
IKEA pencil
Pencil drawing
Tortillon
I, Pencil
Pencil fighting
Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

 at the Encyclopædia Britannica
 (video)
 on YouTube
 NYTimes, January 12, 2018

When was the first graphite pencil made?


This page lists and links to information on the various versions of Microsoft Windows, a major computer operating system developed by Microsoft.
Personal computer versions
In this section, a client version of Windows is a version that end-users or OEMs can install on personal computers, including desktop computers, laptops and workstations.

Server versions

Device versions
Appliances

Mobile devices
Mobile devices include smartphones, handheld tablet computers and personal digital assistants
Windows 10
Windows 10 Mobile
Windows 10 Mobile Enterprise
Windows 10 IoT Mobile Enterprise
Windows Phone
Windows Phone 8.1
Windows Phone 8
Windows Phone 7.8
Windows Phone 7.5
Windows Phone 7
Windows Mobile
Windows Mobile 6.5
Windows Mobile 6.1
Windows Mobile 6.0
Windows Mobile 5.0
Windows Mobile 2003 SE
Windows Mobile 2003
Pocket PC 2002
Pocket PC 2000
Embedded devices
Windows Embedded
Windows Embedded 8
Windows Embedded Automotive
Windows Embedded Industry
Windows XP Embedded
Windows NT 4.0 Embedded – Abbreviated NTe, it is an edition of Windows NT 4.0 that was aimed at computer-powered major appliances, vending machines, ATMs and other devices that cannot be considered computers per se. It is the same system as the standard Windows NT 4.0, but it comes packaged in a database of components and dependencies, from which a developer can choose individual components to build customized setup CDs and hard disk boot images. Windows NT 4.0 Embedded includes Service Pack 5.
Windows Embedded Compact
Windows Embedded Compact 2013
Windows Embedded Compact 7
Windows Embedded CE 6.0 (2006)
Windows CE 5.0 (2005), with version for smart phones and PDAs sold as Windows Mobile 5.0
Windows CE 4.2 (2004), with version for smart phones and PDAs sold as Windows Mobile 2003 SE
Windows CE 4.1 (2003), with version for smart phones and PDAs sold as Pocket PC 2003
Windows CE 4.0 (2002), with version for smart phones and PDAs sold as Pocket PC 2002
Windows CE 3.0 (June 2000), with version for smart phones and PDAs sold as Pocket PC 2000
Windows CE 2.12 (1999 August)
Windows CE 2.11 (1998 October)
Windows CE 2.1 (1998 July)
Windows CE 2.0 (September 1997)
Windows CE 1.0 (November 1996)
Canceled versions
Windows Odyssey – a version intended to be an update to the Microsoft Windows NT 5.x codebase. The teams working on Neptune and Odyssey combined to work on Windows XP.
Windows Mobile 7 or Photon - originally a successor of Windows Mobile, it had been scrapped for Windows Phone 7 with Metro UI.[3][4]
Windows Neptune (December 27, 1999) – the first planned version of Microsoft Windows NT to have a consumer edition variant, based on the Windows 2000 codebase. A version was sent out to testers but was never released.[5]
Windows Nashville (May 2, 1996) – also known as Windows 96
Cairo (February 29, 1996) – a "true object-oriented OS", planned after Windows NT 4.0.
Timeline

See also
History of Microsoft Windows
List of Microsoft software codenames
Comparison of Microsoft Windows versions
List of Microsoft operating systems

What is the latest version of Windows OS?