A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.[4][5][6][7][8] Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge. However, in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the term molecule is often used less strictly, also being applied to polyatomic ions.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are monatomic molecules.[9]
A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, as with oxygen (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not considered single molecules.[10]
Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle, and core of the Earth, contain many chemical bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond, quartz, or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating units that characterizes crystals.
Molecular science
The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on whether the focus is on chemistry or physics. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) composed of two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals, molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms as in Bose–Einstein condensate.
History and etymology

According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "molecule" derives from the Latin "moles" or small unit of mass.
Molecule (1794)– "extremely minute particle", from French molécule (1678), from New Latin molecula, diminutive of Latin moles "mass, barrier". A vague meaning at first; the vogue for the word (used until the late 18th century only in Latin form) can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes.[11][12]
The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties.[13] This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large crystalline networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules.

Bonding
Molecules are held together by either covalent bonding or ionic bonding. Several types of non-metal elements exist only as molecules in the environment. For example, hydrogen only exists as hydrogen molecule. A molecule of a compound is made out of two or more elements.[14]
Covalent

A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are termed shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is termed covalent bonding.[15]

Ionic

Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (termed cations) and atoms that have gained one or more electrons (termed anions).[16] This transfer of electrons is termed electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complicated nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH4+ or SO42−. Basically, an ionic bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal for both atoms to obtain a full valence shell.

Molecular size
Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, but there are exceptions. DNA, a macromolecule, can reach macroscopic sizes, as can molecules of many polymers. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter. Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.
The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a bond length of 0.74 Å.[17]
Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution.[18][19]
The table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples.
Molecular formulas
Chemical formula types

The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are limited to one typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts.
A compound's empirical formula is a very simple type of chemical formula.[20] It is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute it.[21] For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1 ratio. However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely– dimethyl ether has the same ratios as ethanol, for instance. Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers. Also carbohydrates, for example, have the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen= 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule.
The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes different molecules. However different isomers can have the same atomic composition while being different molecules.
The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always. For example, the molecule acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH.
The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass units equal to 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom. For network solids, the term formula unit is used in stoichiometric calculations.

Structural formula

For molecules with a complicated 3-dimensional structure, especially involving atoms bonded to four different substituents, a simple molecular formula or even semi-structural chemical formula may not be enough to completely specify the molecule. In this case, a graphical type of formula called a structural formula may be needed. Structural formulas may in turn be represented with a one-dimensional chemical name, but such chemical nomenclature requires many words and terms which are not part of chemical formulas.

Molecular geometry

Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries—bond lengths and angles— about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions. A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure. The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity. Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures. Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomer, may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time different biochemical activities.
Molecular spectroscopy

Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to Planck's formula). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or emission.[24]
Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal).
Microwave spectroscopy commonly measures changes in the rotation of molecules, and can be used to identify molecules in outer space. Infrared spectroscopy measures changes in vibration of molecules, including stretching, bending or twisting motions. It is commonly used to identify the kinds of bonds or functional groups in molecules. Changes in the arrangements of electrons yield absorption or emission lines in ultraviolet, visible or near infrared light, and result in colour. Nuclear resonance spectroscopy actually measures the environment of particular nuclei in the molecule, and can be used to characterise the numbers of atoms in different positions in a molecule.
Theoretical aspects
The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron bond. H2+ is composed of two positively charged protons and one negatively charged electron, which means that the Schrödinger equation for the system can be solved more easily due to the lack of electron–electron repulsion. With the development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions for more complicated molecules became possible and are one of the main aspects of computational chemistry.
When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule, IUPAC suggests that it "must correspond to a depression on the potential energy surface that is deep enough to confine at least one vibrational state".[4] This definition does not depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms, but only on the strength of the interaction. In fact, it includes weakly bound species that would not traditionally be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state[25] and is so loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures.
Whether or not an arrangement of atoms is sufficiently stable to be considered a molecule is inherently an operational definition. Philosophically, therefore, a molecule is not a fundamental entity (in contrast, for instance, to an elementary particle); rather, the concept of a molecule is the chemist's way of making a useful statement about the strengths of atomic-scale interactions in the world that we observe.

See also

Atom
Chemical polarity
Covalent bond
Diatomic molecule
List of compounds
List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
Molecular biology
Molecular design software
Molecular engineering
Molecular geometry
Molecular Hamiltonian
Molecular ion
Molecular modelling
Molecular orbital
Non-covalent bonding
Periodic systems of small molecules
Small molecule
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Van der Waals molecule
World Wide Molecular Matrix


In Japanese, sentai(戦隊) is a military unit and may be literally translated as "squadron", "task force", "group" or "wing". The terms "regiment" and "flotilla", while sometimes used as translations of Sentai, are also used to refer to larger formations.
World War II
The term "Sentai" was used during World War II by the military of the Empire of Japan for Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAS) and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS) military aviation units equivalent to a group or wing in other air forces. However, the term had slightly different meanings in the IJAAS and the IJNAS.
An IJAAS Sentai was made up of two to four squadrons (chūtai). In the IJAAS, two or more Sentai comprised a hikōdan (air brigade). In the later stages of World War II, the IJAAS abolished chūtai and divided its sentai into hikōtai (flying units) and seibitai (maintenance units). A sentai commander (sentaichō) was generally a lieutenant colonel.
In the IJNAS, a sentai was a larger unit: a Kōkūtai was the equivalent of an IJAAS sentai. Several sentai made up a kantai (air fleet). In the IJNAS, a Sentaichō was usually a Naval Captain.
Imperial Japanese Navy Fleets
Sentai in the Japanese Navy was prescribed by a law the Naval military command No. 10, Kantairei(艦隊令) on 30 November 1914. It is as follows if paraphrase them.
Sentai(戦隊, Battleship Division, Battlecruiser Division, Cruiser Division, Minelayer Division or Coast defence ship Division): organized by and over two warships as surface combatant.
Kōkū Sentai(航空戦隊, Carrier Division or Air Flotilla): organized by and over two aircraft carriers, seaplane tenders or air groups.
Suirai Sentai(水雷戦隊, Torpedo Squadron or Cruiser-Destroyer Squadron): organized by a few warships (cruiser as destroyer squadron leader) and some destroyer divisions.
Sensui Sentai(潜水戦隊, Submarine Squadron): organized by a few warships (submarine tender or cruiser as submarine squadron leader) and some submarine divisions. The 1st Sensui Sentai (ex-4th Suirai Sentai) was independent from Suirai Sentai on 1 April 1919.
Yusō Sentai(輸送戦隊, Landing ship Squadron): organized by some landing ship divisions. First unit the 1st Yusō Sentai was organized on 25 September 1944.
Tokkō Sentai(特攻戦隊, Suicide Attack Division): organized by mother ship and suicide weapon Kaiten, Kairyū, Kōryū and Shin'yō. First unit the 1st Tokkō Sentai was organized on 20 March 1945.
Cultural references

The Super Sentai Series(スーパー戦隊シリーズ,Sūpā Sentai Shirīzu) is a franchise of Japanese tokusatsu television dramas airing on TV Asahi that uses the word sentai to describe a group of three or more costumed superheroes who often pilot fictional robotic vehicles to fight kaiju.
See also
Sailor Senshi
Bibliography
Series 100 year histories from Meiji Era, Ministry of the Navy, printed by Hara Shobō (Japan)
Vol. 173, Histories of Naval organizations #3 (1), original plot in 1939, reprint in May 1971
Vol. 174, Histories of Naval organizations #3 (2), original plot in 1939, reprint in July 1971


A lightning strike or lightning bolt is an electric discharge between the atmosphere and an Earth-bound object. They mostly originate in a cumulonimbus cloud and terminate on the ground, called cloud to ground (CG) lightning.  A less common type of strike, called ground to cloud (GC), is upward propagating lightning initiated from a tall grounded object and reaches into the clouds. About 25% of all lightning events worldwide are strikes between the atmosphere and earth-bound objects. The bulk of lightning events are intra-cloud (IC) or cloud to cloud (CC), where discharges only occur high in the atmosphere.[1][2]
A single lightning event is a "flash", which is a complex, multi-stage process, some parts of which are not fully understood.  Most cloud to ground flashes only "strike" one physical location, referred to as a "termination".  The primary conducting channel, the bright coursing light that may be seen and is called a "strike", is only about one inch in diameter, but because of its extreme brilliance, it often looks much larger to the human eye and in photographs.  Lightning discharges are typically miles long, but certain types of horizontal discharges can be upwards of tens of miles in length.  The entire flash lasts only a fraction of a second. Most of the early formative and propagation stages are much dimmer and not visible to the human eye.

Strikes
Lightning strikes can injure humans in several different ways:[3]
Direct
Direct strike – the person is part of a flash channel.  Enormous quantities of energy pass through the body very quickly, resulting in internal burns, organ damage, explosions of flesh and bone, and nervous system damage.  Depending on the flash strength and access to medical services, it may be instantaneously fatal or cause permanent injury and impairment.
Contact injury – an object, generally a conductor, is electrified by a strike that a person was touching.
Side splash – branches of currents "jumping" from the primary flash channel, electrify the person.
Blast injuries – being thrown and suffering blunt force trauma from the shock wave (if very close) and possible hearing damage from the thunder.[4]
Indirect
Ground current or "step potential" – Earth surface charges race towards the flash channel during discharge. Because the ground has high impedance, the current "chooses" a better conductor, often a person's legs, passing through the body. The near-instantaneous rate of discharge causes a potential (difference) over distance, which may amount to several thousand volts per linear foot.  This phenomenon is responsible for more injuries and deaths than the above three combined, with reports such as "hundreds of reindeer killed by a lightning storm..." being a classic example.[5]
EMPs – the discharge process produces an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) which may damage an artificial pacemaker, or otherwise affect normal biological processes.
Secondary or resultant
Explosions
Fires
Accidents
Injuries

Lightning strikes can produce severe injuries, and have a mortality rate of between 10% and 30%, with up to 80% of survivors sustaining long-term injuries. These severe injuries are not usually caused by thermal burns, since the current is too brief to greatly heat up tissues; instead, nerves and muscles may be directly damaged by the high voltage producing holes in their cell membranes, a process called electroporation.[3]
In a direct strike, the electrical currents in the flash channel pass directly through the victim. The relatively high voltage drop around poorer electrical conductors (such as a human being), causes the surrounding air to ionize and break down, and the external flashover diverts most of the main discharge current so that it passes "around" the body, reducing injury.
Metallic objects in contact with the skin may "concentrate" the lightning's energy, given it is a better natural conductor and the preferred pathway, resulting in more serious injuries, such as burns from molten or evaporating metal. At least two cases have been reported where a strike victim wearing an iPod suffered more serious injuries as a result.[6]
However, during a flash, the current flowing through the channel and around the body will generate large electromagnetic fields and EMPs, which may induce electrical transients (surges) within the nervous system or pacemaker of the heart, upsetting normal operations. This effect might explain cases where cardiac arrest or seizures followed a lightning strike that produced no external injuries.  It may also point to the victim not being directly struck at all, but just being very close to the strike termination.[3]
Another effect of lightning on bystanders is to their hearing.  The resulting shock wave of thunder can damage the ears.  Also, electrical interference to telephones or headphones may result in damaging acoustic noise.
Epidemiology

About 240,000 people are injured by lightning strikes each year.[7]
One estimate is that the annual global death toll is 6,000.[8]
According to the NOAA, over the last 20 years, the United States averaged 51 annual lightning strike fatalities, placing it in the second position, just behind floods for deadly weather.[9][10]  In the US, between 9% and 10% of those struck die,[11] for an average of 40 to 50 deaths per year (28 in 2008).[12]
In Kisii in western Kenya, some 30 people die each year from lightning strikes. Kisii's high rate of lightning fatalities occurs because of the frequency of thunderstorms and because many of the area's structures have metal roofs.[13]
These statistics do not reflect the difference between direct strikes, where the victim was part of the lightning pathway, indirect effects of being close to the termination point, like ground currents, and resultant, where the casualty arose from subsequent events, such as fires or  explosions.  Even the most knowledgeable first responders may not recognize a lightning related injury, let alone particulars, which a medical examiner, police investigator or on the rare occasion a trained lightning expert may have difficulty identifying to record accurately.  This ignores the reality that lightning, as the first event, may assume responsibility for the overall and resulting accident.
Direct strike casualties could be much higher than reported numbers.[14]
Effect on nature
Impact on vegetation

Trees are frequent conductors of lightning to the ground.[15] Since sap is a relatively poor conductor, its electrical resistance causes it to be heated explosively into steam, which blows off the bark outside the lightning's path. In following seasons trees overgrow the damaged area and may cover it completely, leaving only a vertical scar. If the damage is severe, the tree may not be able to recover, and decay sets in, eventually killing the tree.
In sparsely populated areas such as the Russian Far East and Siberia, lightning strikes are one of the major causes of forest fires.[16] The smoke and mist expelled by a very large forest fire can cause electric charges, starting additional fires many kilometers downwind.[16]
Shattering of rocks
When water in fractured rock is rapidly heated by a lightning strike, the resulting steam explosion can cause rock disintegration and shift boulders. It may be a significant factor in erosion of tropical and subtropical mountains that have never been glaciated. Evidence of lightning strikes includes erratic magnetic fields.[17][18]
Electrical and structural damage

Telephones, modems, computers and other electronic devices can be damaged by lightning, as harmful overcurrent can reach them through the phone jack, Ethernet cable, or electricity outlet.[19] Close strikes can also generate electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) – especially during "positive" lightning discharges.
Lightning currents have a very fast rise time, on the order of 40kA per microsecond.  Hence, conductors of such currents exhibit marked skin effect, causing most of the currents to flow through the outer surface of the conductor.[20]
In addition to electrical wiring damage, the other types of possible damage to consider include structural, fire, and property damage.
Prevention and mitigations
The field of lightning protection systems is an enormous industry worldwide due to the impacts lightning can have on the constructs and activities of humankind.  Lightning, as varied in properties measured across orders of magnitude as it is, can cause direct effects or have secondary impacts; lead to the complete destruction of a facility or process or simply cause the failure of a remote electronic sensor; it can result in outdoor activities being halted for safety concerns to employees as a thunderstorm nears an area and until it has sufficiently passed; it can ignite volatile commodities stored in large quantities or interfere with the normal operation of a piece of equipment at critical periods of time.
Most lightning protection devices and systems protect physical structures on the earth, aircraft in flight being the notable exception. While some attention has been paid to attempting to control lightning in the atmosphere, all attempts proved extremely limited in success. Chaff and silver iodide crystal concepts were devised to deal directly with the cloud cells and were dispensed directly into the clouds from an overflying aircraft. The chaff was devised to deal with the electrical manifestations of the storm from within, while the silver iodide salting technique was devised to deal with the mechanical forces of the storm.
Lightning protection systems

Hundreds of devices, including lightning rods and charge transfer systems, are used to mitigate lightning damage and influence the path of a lightning flash.
A lightning rod (or lightning protector) is a metal strip or rod connected to earth through conductors and a grounding system, used to provide a preferred pathway to ground if lightning terminates on a structure.  The class of these products are often called a "finial" or "air terminal".  A lightning rod or "Franklin rod" in honor of its famous inventor, Benjamin Franklin, is simply a metal rod, and without being connected to the lightning protection system, as was sometimes the case in the old days, will provide no added protection to a structure.  Other names include "lightning conductor", "arrester", and "discharger"; however, over the years these names have been incorporated into other products or industries with a stake in lightning protection.  Lightning arrester, for example, often refers to fused links that explode when a strike occurs to a high voltage overhead power line to protect the more expensive transformers down the line by opening the circuit.  In reality, it was an early form of a heavy duty surge protection device (SPD). Modern arresters, constructed with metal oxides, are capable of safely shunting abnormally high voltage surges to ground while preventing normal system voltages from being shorted to ground.
Monitoring and warning systems

The exact location of a lightning strike or when it will occur is still impossible to predict.  However, products and systems have been designed of varying complexities to alert people as the probability of a strike increases above a set level determined by a risk assessment for the location's conditions and circumstances.  One significant improvement has been in the area of detection of flashes through both ground and satellite-based observation devices.  The strikes and atmospheric flashes are not predicted, however the level of detail recorded by these technologies has vastly improved in the past 20 years.
Although commonly associated with thunderstorms at close range, lightning strikes can occur on a day that seems devoid of clouds. This occurrence is known as "A Bolt From the Blue";[21] lightning can strike up to 10 miles from a cloud.
Lightning interferes with AM (amplitude modulation) radio signals much more than FM (frequency modulation) signals, providing an easy way to gauge local lightning strike intensity.[22] To do so, one should tune a standard AM medium wave receiver to a frequency with no transmitting stations, and listen for crackles amongst the static. Stronger or nearby lightning strikes will also cause cracking if the receiver is tuned to a station. As lower frequencies propagate further along the ground than higher ones, the lower medium wave (MW) band frequencies (in the 500–600kHz range) can detect lightning strikes at longer distances; if the longwave band (153–279kHz) is available, using it can increase this range even further.
Lightning detection systems have been developed and may be deployed in locations where lightning strikes present special risks, such as public parks. Such systems are designed to detect the conditions which are believed to favor lightning strikes and provide a warning to those in the vicinity to allow them to take appropriate cover.
Personal safety
The U.S. National Lightning Safety Institute[23] advises American citizens to have a plan for their safety when a thunderstorm occurs and to commence it as soon as the first lightning is seen or thunder heard. This is important as lightning can strike without rain actually falling. If thunder can be heard at all, then there is a risk of lightning. The safest place is inside a building or a vehicle. Risk remains for up to 30 minutes after the last observed lightning or thunder.
The National Lightning Safety Institute recommends using the F-B (flash to boom) method to gauge distance to a lightning strike. The flash of a lightning strike and resulting thunder occur at roughly the same time. But light travels 300,000 kilometers in a second, almost a million times the speed of sound. Sound travels at the slower speed of 344m/s, so the flash of lightning is seen before thunder is heard. A method to determine the distance between lightning strike and viewer, involves counting the seconds between the lightning flash and thunder. Then, dividing by three to determine the distance in kilometers, or by five for miles. Immediate precautions against lightning should be taken if the F-B time is 25 seconds or less, that is, if the lightning is closer than 8km (5.0mi).
Reports differ regarding what to do if caught outside during a storm. One study shows that prostration is safer than lying down flat when there are no other alternatives.[24] A contrasting report suggested that it did not matter whether a person was standing up, squatting, or lying down when outside during a thunderstorm, because lightning can travel along the ground; this report suggested it was safest to be inside a solid structure or vehicle.[25] In the United States, the average annual death toll from lightning is 51 deaths per year, although there were only 23 deaths in 2013, which was a record low; the riskiest activities include fishing, boating, camping, and golf.[25] A person injured by lightning does not carry an electrical charge, and can be safely handled to apply first aid before emergency services arrive. Lightning can affect the brainstem, which controls breathing.[26]
Several studies conducted in South Asia and Africa suggest that the dangers of lightning are not taken sufficiently seriously there. A research team from the University of Colombo found that even in neighborhoods which had experienced deaths from lightning, no precautions were taken against future storms. An expert forum convened in 2007 to address how to raise awareness of lightning and improve lightning protection standards, and expressed concern that many countries had no official standards for the installation of lightning rods.[27]
Notable incidents
All events associated or suspected of causing damage are called "lightning incidents" due to four important factors.
Forensic evidence of a lightning termination, in the best investigated examples, are minuscule (a pit in metal smaller than a pen point) or inconclusive (dark coloration).
The object struck may explode or subsequent fires destroy all of the little evidence that may have been available immediately after the strike itself.
The flash channel and discharge itself are not the only causes of injury, ignition or damages, i.e., ground currents or explosions of flammables.
Human sensory acuity is not as fine as that of the milliseconds duration of a lightning flash, and our ability to observe this event is subject to the brain's inability to comprehend it.  Lightning detection systems are coming online, both satellite and land based, however their accuracy is still measured in the hundreds to thousands of feet, rarely allowing them to pinpoint the exact location of the termination.
As such it is often inconclusive, albeit highly probably a lightning flash was involved, hence categorizing it as a "lightning incident" covers all bases.
Earth-bound
1660s: In 1660, lightning ignited the gunpowder magazine at Osaka Castle, Japan; the resultant explosion set the castle on fire. In 1665, lightning again terminated on the main tower of the castle, igniting a fire which subsequently burned it to its foundation.
1769: A particularly deadly lightning incident occurred in Brescia, Italy. Lightning struck the Church of St. Nazaire, igniting the 90tonnes of gunpowder in its vaults; the resulting explosion killed 3,000people and destroyed a sixth of the city.[28]
1902: A lightning strike damaged the upper section of the Eiffel Tower, requiring the reconstruction of its top.[29]
1970 July 12: The central mast of the Orlunda radio transmitter in central Sweden collapsed after a lightning strike destroyed its foundation insulator.
1994 November 2: A lightning incident led to the explosion of fuel tanks in Dronka, Egypt, causing 469fatalities.[30]
2005 October 31: Sixty-eight dairy cows, all full of milk, died on a farm at Fernbrook on the Waterfall Way near Dorrigo, New South Wales, after being involved in a lightning incident. Three others were temporarily paralyzed for several hours, later making a full recovery. The cows were sheltering near a tree when it was struck by lightning and the ground potential followed the path of least resistance through the animals' bodies.[31]
2007 July: A lightning incident killed up to 30people when it struck Ushari Dara, a remote mountain village in northwestern Pakistan.[32]
2011 June 8: A lightning strike sent 77AirForce cadets to the hospital when it struck in the middle of a training camp at Camp Shelby, Mississippi.[33]
2013 February: Nine South African children were hospitalized after a lightning incident occurred on a cricket field at their school, injuring five children on the pitch and four girls who were walking home.[34]
2016 May–June:  Rock am Ring festival near Frankfurt was cancelled after at least 80 people were injured due to lightning in the area.[35] Additionally 11 children in France and three adults in Germany were injured and one man killed in southern Poland around the same dates.[36]
2016 August 26: A herd of wild reindeer was struck on the Hardangervidda in central Norway, killing 323. Norwegian Environment Agency spokesman Kjartan Knutsen said it had never heard of such a death toll before. He said he didn't know if multiple strikes occurred, but that they all died in "one moment".[37]
2017: The first live recording of a lightning strike on a cardiac rhythm strip occurred in a teenage male who had an implanted loop recorder as a cardiac monitor for neurocardiogenic syncope.[38]
2018: A lightning strike killed at least 16 people and injured dozens more at a Seventh-Day Adventist church in Rwanda.[39]
In-flight
1963 December 8: Pan Am Flight 214 crashed outside Elkton, Maryland, during a severe electrical storm, with a loss of all 81passengers and crew. The Boeing707-121, registered as N709PA, was on the final leg of a San Juan–Baltimore–Philadelphia flight.
1969 November 14: The Apollo12 mission's SaturnV rocket and its ionized exhaust plume became part of a lightning flash channel  36.5seconds after lift-off. Although the discharge occurred "through" the metal skin and framework of the vehicle, it did not ignite the rocket's highly combustible fuel.
1971 December 24: LANSA Flight 508, a Lockheed L-188A Electra turboprop, registered OB-R-941, operated as a scheduled domestic passenger flight by Lineas Aéreas Nacionales Sociedad Anonima (LANSA), crashed after a lightning strike ignited a fuel tank while it was en route from Lima, Peru, to Pucallpa, Peru, killing 91people – all of its 6crew-members and 85of its 86passengers. The sole survivor was Juliane Koepcke, who fell 2 miles (3.2km) down into the Amazon rainforest strapped to her seat and remarkably survived the fall, and was then able to walk through the jungle for 10days until she was rescued by local lumbermen.
2012 November 4: there were reports of a plane exploding off the coast of Herne Bay, Kent, while in flight. This did not turn out to be the case, rather the plane became part of the flash channel, causing observers to report the plane and surrounding sky appeared bright pink.[40]
Most-stricken human
Roy Sullivan holds a Guinness World Record after surviving 7 different lightning strikes.[41] He had multiple injuries across his body.[42]
See also
Fulgurites – a cloud-to-ground lightning discharge event can produce "petrified lightning", demonstrating the enormous, albeit brief, amount of energy transferred by lightning column. They can visually demonstrate how energy may internally or externally diffuse from one or several central nodes of the termination, and differences between the diameters of these channels, which range from only a few mm to several cm. The possible range of forms and compositions of fulgurites vary dramatically, reflecting the complex electrical, chemical, and physical properties of a target sediment, rock, or biological mass.
Geomagnetically induced currents (GIC) – phenomena related to space radiation causing transients and electrical irregularities that impact electrical and data transmission systems on a broad scale.  Flash EMPS and ground currents operate in the same manner; however, they are more frequent and have much more localized effects on our technological world.
Keraunopathy – the medical study of lightning casualties and associated treatment

How many Americans die of stroke each year?


Columbus is a consolidated city-county located on the west central border of the U.S. state of Georgia. Located on the Chattahoochee River directly across from Phenix City, Alabama, Columbus is the county seat of Muscogee County, with which it officially merged in 1970.[4] Columbus is the third-largest city in Georgia and the fourth-largest metropolitan area. According to the 2017 estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, Columbus has a population of 194,058 residents, with 303,811 in the Columbus metropolitan area.[2] The metro area joins the nearby Alabama cities of Auburn and Opelika to form the Columbus–Auburn–Opelika Combined Statistical Area, which has a 2017 estimated population of 499,128.
Columbus lies 100 miles (160km) southwest of Atlanta. Fort Benning, the United States Army's Maneuver Center of Excellence and a major employer, is located south of the city in Chattahoochee County. Columbus is home to museums and tourism sites, including the National Infantry Museum, dedicated to the United States Army's Infantry Branch. It has the longest urban whitewater rafting course in the world constructed on the Chattahoochee River.
History

Beginnings

This was for centuries and more the traditional territory of the Creek Indians, who became known as one of the Five Civilized Tribes of the Southeast after European contact. Those who lived closest to white-occupied areas conducted considerable trading and adopted some European-American ways.
Founded in 1828 by an act of the Georgia Legislature, Columbus was situated at the beginning of the navigable portion of the Chattahoochee River and on the last stretch of the Federal Road before entering Alabama. The city was named for Christopher Columbus, its founders likely influenced by the writings of Washington Irving. The plan for the city was drawn up by Dr. Edwin L. DeGraffenried, who placed the town on a bluff overlooking the river. Across the river to the west, where Phenix City, Alabama is now located, Creek Indians still lived until they were forcibly removed in 1836 by the federal government to make way for European-American settlers.
The river served as Columbus's connection to the world, particularly enabling it to ship its commodity cotton crops from the plantations to the international cotton market via New Orleans and ultimately Liverpool, England. The city's commercial importance increased in the 1850s with the arrival of the railroad. In addition, textile mills were developed along the river, bringing industry to an area reliant upon agriculture. By 1860, the city was one of the more important industrial centers of the South, earning it the nickname "the Lowell of the South," referring to an important textile mill town in Massachusetts.[5]
Civil War and Reconstruction

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, the industries of Columbus expanded their production; this became one of the most important centers of industry in the Confederacy. During the war, Columbus ranked second to Richmond in the manufacture of supplies for the Confederate army. The Eagle Manufacturing Company made textiles of various sorts but especially woolens for Confederate uniforms. The Columbus Iron Works manufactured cannons and machinery, Greenwood and Gray made firearms, and Louis and Elias Haimon produced swords and bayonets. Smaller firms provided additional munitions and sundries. As the war turned negative, each faced exponentially growing struggled shortages of raw materials and skilled labor, as well as worsenting financial opportunities.[6] In addition to textiles, the city had an ironworks, a sword factory, and a shipyard for the Confederate Navy.
Unaware of Lee's surrender to Grant and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, Union and Confederates clashed in the Battle of Columbus, Georgia, on Easter Sunday, April 16, 1865, when a Union detachment of two cavalry divisions under Maj. Gen. James H. Wilson attacked the lightly-defended city and burned many of the industrial buildings. John Stith Pemberton, who later developed Coca-Cola in Columbus, was wounded in this battle.  Col. Charles Augustus Lafayette Lamar, owner of the last slave ship in America, was also killed here. A historic marker has been erected in Columbus. It notes that this was the site of the "Last Land Battle in the War from 1861 to 1865."
Reconstruction began almost immediately and prosperity followed. Factories such as the Eagle and Phenix Mills were revived and the industrialization of the town led to rapid growth; the city outgrew its original plan. The Springer Opera House was built on 10th Street, attracting such notables as Irish writer Oscar Wilde. The Springer is now the official State Theater of Georgia.
By the time of the Spanish–American War, the city's modernization included the addition of trolleys extending to outlying neighborhoods such as Rose Hill and Lakebottom, and a new water works. Mayor Lucius Chappell also brought a training camp for soldiers to the area. This training camp named Camp Benning would grow into present-day Fort Benning, named for General Henry L. Benning, a native of the city.

Confederate Memorial Day

In the spring of 1866 the Ladies Memorial Association of Columbus passed a resolution to set aside one day annually to memorialize the Confederate dead. The secretary of the association, Mrs. Charles J. (Mary Ann) Williams, was directed to write a letter inviting the ladies of every Southern state to join them in the observance.[7]  was written in March 1866 and sent to representatives of all of the principal cities in the South, including Atlanta, Macon, Montgomery, Memphis, Richmond, St. Louis, Alexandria, Columbia, and New Orleans. This was the beginning of the influential work by ladies' organizations to honor the war dead.
The date for the holiday was selected by Elizabeth "Lizzie" Rutherford Ellis.[8] She chose April 26, the first anniversary of Confederate General Johnston's final surrender to Union General Sherman at Bennett Place, North Carolina. For many in the South, that act marked the official end of the Civil War.[7]
In 1868, General John A. Logan, commander in chief of the Union Civil War Veterans Fraternity called the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), launched the Memorial Day holiday that has become observed in the entire United States. General Logan's wife said he had borrowed from practices of Confederate Memorial Day. She wrote that Logan "said it was not too late for the Union men of the nation to follow the example of the people of the South in perpetuating the memory of their friends who had died for the cause they thought just and right."[9]
While two dozen cities across the country claim to have originated the Memorial Day holiday, Bellware and Gardiner firmly establish that the holiday began in Columbus. In The Genesis of the Memorial Day Holiday in America, they show that the Columbus Ladies Memorial Association’s call to observe a day annually to decorate soldiers’ graves inaugurated a movement first in the south and then in the north to honor the soldiers who died during the Civil War.[10]
20th century
With the expansion of the city, leaders who promoted establishing a university, founded Columbus College, a two-year institution which later was developed as Columbus State University, now a comprehensive center of higher learning.
The city government became consolidated with the county in 1971, the first of its kind in Georgia (and one of only 16 in the U.S. at the time).
Expanding on its industrial base of textile mills, the city has been the home of the headquarters for Aflac, Synovus, TSYS and Carmike Cinemas.

During the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, the subsidized construction of highways and suburbs resulted in drawing off the middle and upper classes, with urban blight, white flight, and prostitution in much of downtown Columbus and adjacent neighborhoods. Early efforts to halt the gradual deterioration of downtown began with the saving and restoration of the Springer Opera House in 1965. It was designated as the State Theatre of Georgia, helping spark a historic preservation movement in the city. This has documented and preserved various historic districts in and around downtown.
Through the late 1960s and early 1970s, large residential neighborhoods were built to accommodate the soldiers coming back from the Vietnam War and for those associated with Ft. Benning. These range from Wesley woods to Leesburg to Brittney and Willowbrook and the high end Sears woods and Windsor park. Large tracts of blighted areas were cleaned up. A modern Columbus Consolidated Government Center was constructed in the city center. A significant period of urban renewal and revitalization followed in the mid to late 1990s.
With these improvements, residents and businesses have been attracted to formerly blighted areas. Municipal projects have included construction of a softball complex, which hosted the 1996 Olympic softball competition; construction of the Chattahoochee RiverWalk; construction of the National Civil War Naval Museum at Port Columbus, construction of the Coca-Cola Space Science Center, the expansion of the Columbus Museum, and road improvements to include a new downtown bridge crossing the Chattahoochee River to Phenix City.  During the late 1990s, commercial activity expanded north of downtown along the I-185 corridor.
21st century
During the 2000s, expansion and historic preservation continued throughout the city. South Commons has been revitalized. This area combines the 1996 Olympic softball competition complex, A. J. McClung Memorial Stadium, Golden Park, the Columbus Civic Center, and the recently added Jonathan Hatcher Skateboard Park. The National Infantry Museum has been constructed in South Columbus, located outside the Fort Benning main gate.
Columbus has a center for the fine and performing arts. RiverCenter for the Performing Arts, which opened in 2002, houses Columbus State University's music department. In 2002 Columbus State's art and drama departments moved to downtown locations. Such initiatives have provided Columbus with a cultural niche and with vibrant and modern architecture mixed among older brick facades.
The "Ready to Raft 2012" campaign is a project that created an estimated 700 new jobs and is projected to bring in $42 million annually to the Columbus area. The project resulted in the longest urban whitewater rafting venue in the world.[11] This, in addition to other outdoor and non-outdoor tourist attractions, led to around 1.8 million visitors coming to Columbus during the fiscal year 2015, according to the Columbus Convention and Visitors Bureau.[12]
In upcoming years, the city predicts that an additional 30,000 soldiers will be trained annually at Fort Benning due to base realignment and closure of other facilities.[13] As a result of this, Columbus is expected to see a major population increase.
Geography

Columbus is one of Georgia's three Fall Line Cities, along with Augusta and Macon. The Fall Line is where the hilly lands of the Piedmont plateau meet the flat terrain of the coastal plain. As such, Columbus has a varied landscape of rolling hills on the north side and flat plains on the south. The fall line causes rivers in the area to decline rapidly towards sea level. Textile mills were established here in the 19th and early 20th centuries to take advantage of the water power from the falls. Columbus was developed along the Chattahoochee River.
Interstate 185 runs east of the city, with access from exits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, and 14 to the city. Interstate 185 runs north 96mi (154km) to Atlanta. U.S. Route 27, U.S. Route 280, and Georgia State Route 520 (known as South Georgia Parkway) all meet in the interior of the city. U.S. Route 80 runs north of the city, locally known as J.R. Allen Parkway; Alternate U.S. Route 27 and Georgia State Route 85 run northeast from the city, locally known as Manchester Expressway.
The city is located at .[14]
According to the US Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 221.0 square miles (572km2), of which 216.3 square miles (560km2) is land and 4.7 square miles (12km2) (2.14%) is water.
Climate
Columbus has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa). Daytime summer temperatures often reach highs in the mid-90s, and low temperatures in the winter average in the upper 30s. Columbus is often considered a dividing line or "natural snowline" of the southeastern United States with areas north of the city receiving snowfall annually, with areas to the south typically not receiving snowfall every year or at all.  Columbus is within USDA hardiness zone 8b in the city center and zone 8a in the suburbs.

Cityscape

Columbus is divided into five geographic areas:
Downtown,  also sometimes called "Uptown" (though "Uptown" is actually the title given to both a non-profit organization operating to encourage area growth and development or "urban renewal" in the city and also to the actual physical area of that development itself, which is an expanding subsection of the Downtown district located in the areas from Broadway to the Chattahoochee River[18]) is the city's central business district, and home to multiple historic districts, homes, and churches, such as the Columbus Historic Riverfront Industrial District, the Mott House, and the Church of the Holy Family.
East Columbus is a predominantly residential area located directly east of the central business district.

MidTown is a residential and commercial area; several historic districts have been designated. It is the location of the corporate headquarters of Aflac.
North Columbus, also called "Northside," is a diverse suburban area, home to established neighborhoods and subdivisions, such as Green Island Hills and . It has multiple shopping and lifestyle areas.
South Columbus is situated just below the MidTown region, and directly north of Fort Benning. It is the site of the National Infantry Museum, honoring the history of infantry forces in the U.S. Army. the museum was located here in an effort to introduce jobs and attract visitors to stimulate a variety of activities. It has had bars, honky tonks, and other businesses that appeal to young male soldiers from Fort Benning.
Surrounding cities and towns

The Columbus Metropolitan Area includes four counties in Georgia, and one in Alabama. The Columbus-Auburn-Opelika, GA-AL Combined Statistical Area includes two additional counties in Alabama. A 2013 Census estimate showed 316,554 in the metro area, with 501,649 in the combined statistical area.
Demographics

Historical populationCensusPop.%±18301,152—18403,114170.3%18505,94290.8%18609,62161.9%18707,401−23.1%188010,12336.8%189017,30370.9%190017,6141.8%191020,55416.7%192031,12551.4%193043,13138.6%194053,28023.5%195079,61149.4%1960116,77946.7%1970155,02832.8%1980169,4419.3%1990178,6815.5%2000186,2914.3%2010189,8851.9%Est. 2017194,058[2]2.2%U.S. Decennial Census[19]
2013 Estimate[20]

As of the 2010 U.S. Census, Columbus had a total population of 189,885, up from 186,291 in the 2000 Census. The 2010 Census reported 189,885 people, 72,124 households, and 47,686 families residing in the city.  The population density was 861.4 people per square mile (332.6/km2).  There were 82,690 housing units at an average density of 352.3 per square mile (136.0/km2).  The racial makeup of the city was 46.3% White, 45.5% African American, 2.2% Asian, 0.2% Native American, 0.14% Pacific Islander, and 1.90% from other races.  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.4% of the population.
There were 69,819 households out of which 34.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.7% were married couples living together, 19.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 26.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.08.
In the city, the population was spread out with 25.6% under the age of 18, 11.9% from 18 to 24, 29.8% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $41,331, and the 2000 median income for a family was 41,244. Males had a median income of $30,238 versus $24,336 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,514.  About 12.8% of families and 15.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.0% of those under age 18 and 12.1% of those age 65 or over.
Religion
Columbus contains approximately 200 Christian churches, with the Southern Baptist Convention being the largest denomination by number of churches.[24] Columbus is also home to three Kingdom Halls for Jehovah's Witnesses, and one Greek Orthodox Church. Other religions are represented by two synagogues, two Seventh-day Adventist churches, three mosques, a Hindu temple (the latter two reflecting an increasing number of immigrants in the region from Asia) and a Unitarian Universalist congregation.
Economy
Companies headquartered in Columbus include Aflac, TSYS, Realtree, Synovus, and the W. C. Bradley Co.
Top employers
According to Columbus' 2017 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[25] the top employers in the city are:

Arts and culture
Points of interest
Museums
Founded in 1953, the Columbus Museum (accredited by the American Alliance of Museums) contains artifacts of regional history as well as works of American art. It mounts displays from its permanent collection as well as temporary exhibitions. It is the largest art and history museum in the state of Georgia.
Columbus is home to the National Civil War Naval Museum, a 40,000-square-foot (3,700 m2) facility that opened in 1962. It features two original American Civil War military vessels, uniforms, equipment and weapons used by the Union and Confederate navies.
The Coca-Cola Space Science Center opened in 1996 for the purpose of public education in science, physics, and astronomy. It includes four flight simulators and a planetarium.[26]
The National Infantry Museum and Soldier Center opened in June 2009; it includes displays related to the history of the Infantry from the founding of the nation to the present. Its IMAX theatre is used to show related films and special productions.
Shopping
Columbus is served by one major indoor shopping mall, Peachtree Mall, which is anchored by major department stores Dillard's, Macy's, and J.C. Penney. The total retail floor area is 821,000 square feet (76,300 m2). Major strip malls include Columbus Park Crossing, which opened in 2003, and The Landings, which opened in 2005. Columbus is also served by The Shoppes at Bradley Park, a lifestyle center.
MidTown contains two of the city's early suburban shopping centers (the Village on 13th and St. Elmo), both recently renovated and offering local shops, restaurants, and services.
Major venues

Below is the list of major venues in the city of Columbus:
A. J. McClung Memorial Stadium, a football stadium. It was the site of the football games between the Georgia Bulldogs and the Auburn Tigers (the Deep South's Oldest Rivalry) from 1916 to 1958.  It became the home of college football's Pioneer Bowl in December 2010, and hosts annual rivalry games between Tuskegee University and Morehouse College as well as between Albany State University and Fort Valley State University.
The Bradley Theater, a performance theatre that opened in mid-1940 by Paramount Pictures.
Columbus Civic Center, a 10,000-seat multi-purpose arena that opened in 1996 and is home to the Columbus Lions (NAL). It is also the primary arena used for concert events in Columbus.
Golden Park, a 5,000 seat baseball stadium, is the former home to the Columbus Catfish and the minor-league Columbus Redstixx. It was also the site of the softball events of the 1996 Summer Olympics that were held in the city of Columbus. It opened in 1926, making it the oldest baseball park in the city.
RiverCenter for the Performing Arts, a 2,000-seat modern performance theatre that first opened in 2002 and is operated by the Columbus not-for-profit organization RiverCenter Inc. The theatre is commonly frequently used for local events, and occasionally used for nationally recognized performances.
Springer Opera House, a historic live performance theater located in Downtown that opened in early 1871. Former United States President Jimmy Carter proclaimed it the State Theatre of Georgia for the 1971-72 season. The legislature made the designation permanent in 1992.[27]
Historic districts

Columbus is home to 8 historic districts, all listed in the NRHP. They are as follows:
Bibb City Historic District
Columbus Historic District
Columbus Historic Riverfront Industrial District
Dinglewood Historic District
Peacock Woods-Dimon Circle Historic District
Weracoba-St. Elmo Historic District
Wynn's Hill-Overlook-Oak Circle Historic District
Wynnton Village Historic District
Sports

Parks and recreation

Columbus is home to upwards of fifty parks, four recreation centers, four senior centers and parks, and Standing Boy Creek State Park.
Walking trails
The Chattahoochee RiverWalk is a 15-mile (24km) walking/bike trail that connects users from Downtown to South Columbus and the northern section of Fort Benning.
The Columbus Fall Line Trace is an 11-mile (18km) fitness trail that runs from Downtown to the northeastern section of the city.[28]
The Black Heritage Trail is a National Recreation Trail of historic and cultural significance.[29]
Whitewater kayaking, rafting and zip-line
The Chattahoochee River white water opened in 2012. After the Eagle & Phenix Dam was breached, river flow was restored to natural conditions allowing the course to be created. The 2.5-mile (4.0km) course is the longest urban whitewater rafting and kayaking in the world, and has been ranked the world's best manmade whitewater course by USA Today.[30] It also features the Blue Heron Adventure, a zip-line connecting users from the Georgia side of the river to the Alabama side with a ropes course on the Alabama side and another zip-line back to Georgia.[31]
Law and government

Elected officials
Mayor
Teresa Tomlinson
City Council
Jerry Barnes (District 1)
Glenn Davis   (District 2)
Bruce Huff (District 3)
Evelyn Turner-Pugh (District 4)
Mike Baker (District 5)
R. Gary Allen (District 6)
Evelyn Woodson (District 7)
Walker Garrett (District 8)
Judy Thomas (District 9 At-large)
John House (District 10 At-large)
District Attorney
Julia Slater[32]
Sheriff
Donna Tompkins[33]
Tax Commissioner
Lula Huff[34]
Clerk of Court
Shasta Glover[35]
Education
Primary and secondary education
The Muscogee County School District holds pre-school to grade twelve, and consists of thirty-five elementary schools, twelve middle schools, and nine high schools.[36][37] The district has over 2,000 full-time teachers and over 31,899 students.[38]
Libraries

Columbus is served by four branches of the Chattahoochee Valley Libraries:
Columbus Public Library
Mildred L. Terry Public Library
North Columbus Public Library
South Columbus Public Library
Higher education
Public
Columbus State University
Columbus Technical College
Georgia Military College - main campus in Milledgeville, Georgia
Troy University - main campus in Troy, Alabama
Private, for profit
Christian Life School of Theology
Miller-Motte Technical College - main campus in Wilmington, North Carolina
Rivertown School of Beauty
Southeastern Beauty School
Strayer University - main campus in Baltimore, Maryland
University of Phoenix - main campus in Phoenix, Arizona
Virginia College - main campus in Birmingham, Alabama
Private, non-profit
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Fort Benning - main campus in Daytona Beach, FL
Media and communications

Infrastructure
Transportation
Airport
The Columbus Airport (IATA: CSG, ICAO: KCSG, FAALID: CSG) is the metro area's primary airport and the fourth busiest airport in Georgia. It is located just off I-185, exit 8. It is served by ExpressJet Airlines' Delta Connection service, offering several daily flights to Atlanta.[39]
Highways
Interstate 185
Interstate 14 (Future)
U.S. Routes
 U.S. Route 27
 U.S. Route 27 Alternate
 U.S. Route 80
 U.S. Route 280
Georgia state routes
 S.R. 1
 S.R. 22
 State Route 22 Connector
 State Route 22 Spur
 S.R. 85
 S.R. 219
 S.R. 411 (unsigned designation for I-185)
 S.R. 520
 S.R. 540 (Fall Line Freeway) (future)
Public transit
METRA Transit System is the primary provider of mass transportation in Muscogee County, currently operating twelve routes in Columbus. The current public transportation services are operated as a function of the Columbus Consolidated Government under METRA.[40]
Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service with the Columbus station located on Veterans Parkway, Downtown Columbus.[41]
Into the 1960s, passenger trains of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and the Central of Georgia made stops there, including the north-south Chicago-Miami trains, the City of Miami and the Seminole. Other trains included local Central of Georgia trains to Atlanta and Albany.
Notable people

Sister cities
Columbus has four official sister cities:[42]
 Zugdidi, Georgia
 Kiryū, Gunma, Japan
 Bistriţa, Romania
 Taichung, Taiwan
See also

Downtown Columbus
MidTown Columbus
List of neighborhoods in Columbus, Georgia
List of mayors of Columbus, Georgia
List of schools in Muscogee County, Georgia
Metro Columbus
Black Heritage Trail (Columbus, Georgia) – a National Recreation Trail going through the city
Shannon Hosiery Mill
Further Reading
 by Roger Harris, 1992, Historic Columbus Foundation
 by Judith Grant, 1999, Arcadia Publishing
 by Pamela Baker and Delane Chappell, 1999, Community Communications Inc.
 by James Pickett Jones, 2000, University Press of Kentucky
 by Kenneth H. Thomas, Jr., 2001, Arcadia Publishing
Enriching Lives: A History of Columbus State University, by Reagan L. Grimsley, 2008. Donning Publishing.
 by Linda J. Kennedy, 2004, Arcadia Publishing
 by Scott Walker, 2007, University of Georgia Press
 by The Columbus Museum, 2007, Arcadia Publishing
 by Charles A. Misulia, 2010, University of Alabama Press

Sources

Bibliography

 (entry in the New Georgia Encyclopedia)