Joan, often called Joan of Constantinople (c. 1199 – 5 December 1244, Marquette-lez-Lille), ruled as Countess of Flanders and Hainaut from 1205 (at the young age of 6[1])  until her death. She was the elder daughter of Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders and Hainaut, and Marie of Champagne.[2]
Orphaned during the Fourth Crusade, Joan was raised in Paris under the tutelage of King Philip II of France. He arranged her marriage to Infante Ferdinand of Portugal in 1212. Ferdinand quickly turned against Philip, starting a war that ended with the defeat of Bouvines and his imprisonment. Joan then ruled her counties alone from the young age of 14.[1] She faced the rivalry of her younger sister, Margaret, as well as the revolt of her domains – guided by a man who claimed to be her father. After the end of the war, Ferdinand was released but died soon after. Joan then married Thomas of Savoy. She died in 1244 at the Abbey of Marquette near Lille, having survived her only child, a daughter by Ferdinand.
Joan's policies favored economic development in her counties; in fact, she granted several charters to the Flemish cities. She played an important role in the development of the Mendicant orders, the Beguines, the Victorines and hospital communities in her domains (without neglecting the traditional religious orders). Under her reign, women's foundations increased, transforming the place of women in both society and the church.
The Manessier's Continuation (also called the Third Continuation), one of the novels of the Story of the Grail was written for Joan, as well as the Life of St. Martha of Wauchier de Denain. The first novel in Dutch, Van den vos Reynaerde, was written by a cleric of her court.
There are several painted or sculpted representations of the Countess in France and Belgium, as well as two Géants du Nord.
Life
Childhood

Joan's exact date of birth is unknown. Contemporary sources indicate that, like her younger sister Margaret, she was baptized in the Church of St. John of Valenciennes.[3]
In 1202, Joan's father Baldwin left his lands to participate in the Fourth Crusade. After the capture of Constantinople, he was proclaimed Emperor by the crusaders on May 9, 1204.[4] His wife, Marie, decided to join him shortly after his departure, leaving their daughters Joan and Margaret in the care of their paternal uncle, Philip I, Marquis of Namur. Marie decided to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land before reuniting with her husband, but died after her arrival at Acre in August 1204.[2] One year later, on April 14, 1205, Baldwin IX vanished during the Battle of Adrianople against Bulgarians and Cumans under Tsar Kaloyan of Bulgaria. His fate is unknown.[4]
After the news of Baldwin IX's disappearance reached Flanders in February 1206, Joan succeeded her father as Countess of Flanders and Hainaut. Because she was still a child, the administration of both counties was assumed by a council composed of the Chancellor of Flanders, the Provost of Lille and the Castellans of Lille and Saint-Omer.
The guardianship and education of both Joan and her sister was supervised by their uncle Philip I of Namur,[4] who soon put his nieces in a difficult position. He became betrothed to Marie of France, a daughter of King Philip II.[5] He gave his future father-in-law custody of Joan and Margaret, who were raised in Paris alongside the young Theobald IV of Champagne (later King of Navarre).[4] During their time in France, they became familiar with the Cistercian Order, probably because of the future French queen Blanche of Castile.
In 1206, the French king demanded assurances from Philip I of Namur that he would not marry off his nieces without the former's consent. In 1208, they reached an agreement: Joan and Margaret were forbidden to marry before their legal majority without the consent of the Marquis of Namur. However, the Marquis would not oppose the royal choice of husbands. If either refused the candidate chosen by King Philip II, the agreement required the Marquis to find a husband—after compensation was made to the French king.[4]
In 1211 Enguerrand III of Coucy offered the King the sum of 50,000 livres to marry Joan, while his brother Thomas would marry Margaret. However, the Flemish nobility was hostile to the project. Matilda of Portugal, widow of Joan's granduncle Philip I of Flanders, then offered her nephew, Ferdinand of Portugal, as Joan's husband for the same amount. The marriage was celebrated in Paris in January 1212.[3][4][6] Ferdinand thus became Joan's co-ruler.
Youth

While on their way to Flanders, the newlyweds were captured by Joan's first cousin Louis of France (the future Louis VIII), eldest son of King Philip II. The French prince intended to recover a large portion of the territory that he considered as belonging to his late mother's dowry, including the Artois that Joan's father had taken back by force after the death of Louis' mother in 1190.
Joan and Ferrand only could obtain their release after signing the Treaty of Pont-à-Vendin (25 February 1212), under which they were forced to surrender the towns of Aire-sur-la-Lys and Saint-Omer to France, recognizing the previous occupation of Prince Louis over that lands.[7] After this event, Joan and Ferrand decided to join in an alliance with the former allies of Baldwin IX, King John of England and Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor. They obtained the support of the powerful bourgeoisie of Ghent (who initially refused to recognized Ferrand as Count) after Joan and Ferrand agreed to the annual election of four prudhommes chosen among the aldermen of the city; the granting to the people of Ghent and Ypres of permission to fortify their cities; and the resignation of the castellans of Bruges and Ghent, deemed pro-French.[8]

In retaliation for this alliance, King Philip II attacked Lille, which was burned (with the exception of the fortified castrum and churches) in 1213.[4] In Damme, the French fleet was destroyed by the English. At the Battle of Roche-au-Moine (2 July 1214), Prince Louis defeated the English army. Then King Philip II inflicted upon his opponents a decisive defeat at the Battle of Bouvines (27 July 1214), where Ferrand was captured.[9] During the twelve years that followed, while Ferrand remained a prisoner of the French, Joan governed alone.
One of her first rulings was to exempt certain groups from taxes to encourage industry: an example is that of settlers in Kortrijk, who did not have to pay property tax, to promote woollen weaving in the town. Also she ordered the reconstruction of Lille's ramparts, but fearing a new French offensive, she eventually was forced to sign the Treaty of Paris (24 October 1214), under which major fortresses in southern Flanders were destroyed; property was restored to French partisans; and Flanders was in effect ruled from Paris.[10]
In the meanwhile, the Countess began to petition the Pope for the annulment of her marriage, arguing that it had never been consummated. In 1221, she sought to marry Peter Mauclerc (Duke-Regent of Brittany and widower of Alix of Thouars) but King Philip II refused.[4]
Conflict with Margaret
Before 23 July 1212, Joan's younger sister Margaret married Bouchard of Avesnes, Lord of Etroen. The French King, viewing this union with suspicion, informed Pope Innocent III that Bouchard before his wedding had already taken holy orders as sub-deacon. In 1215, at the Fourth Lateran Council, the Pope annulled the marriage on this ground. Margaret and Bouchard, however, refused to submit. They took refuge at the Castle of Houffalize in the Ardennes under the protection of Waleran, Count of Luxembourg. In the following four years, they had three sons: Baldwin (who died in infancy), John and Baldwin.
In 1219, during a battle in Flanders against Joan, Bouchard was captured and imprisoned. Two years later (1221), he was released after agreeing to separation from his wife. Between 18 August and 15 November 1223, Margaret married William II of Dampierre.[4]
The next conflict to shake Joan's rule took place in 1224, when she wanted to acquire, through her advisor Arnoul of Audernarde, the castellany of Bruges, which King Philip II had entrusted to John of Nesle, bailiff of Flanders, after the Battle of Bouvines. She challenged the excessive sums demanded by the bailiff, and the dispute was judged by two knights. Joan then appealed to the new King Louis VIII of France at a meeting in his court at Melun, contending that, due to her rank, she could only be judged by her peers. The King ultimately gave his verdict in favour of John of Nesle, which was a cause of further humiliation for the Countess.[4]
Return of Baldwin
According to the Chroniques de Hainaut, the governor of Flanders and Hainaut Arnulf of Gavre would have recognized his uncle Josse Materne, who was now a Franciscan friar at Valenciennes. In his questioning to him, he would have learned that Baldwin IX and his companions were able to escape from the Bulgarians after twenty years of captivity.[11] The Chronique rimée of Philippe Mouskes reported at the same time that a mysterious stranger distributed large sums of money announcing the return of Baldwin.[11] In 1225, a hermit living near Mortagne-du-Nord, in the forest between Valenciennes and Tournai, admitted being actually Baldwin IX. He claimed the restitution by Joan of his sovereign rights over the Counties of Flanders and Hainaut.[12]
The supposed Baudouin created knights, sealed acts and behaved like a real Count.[11] Quickly, he was supported by the nobility of Hainaut, including Jean of Nesle and Robert III of Dreux. Then he received the support of the majority of the cities of Flanders and Hainaut,[11] including Lille and Valenciennes. King Henry III of England even offered to him the renewal of an alliance against Louis VIII, counting with the support of Dukes Henry I of Brabant and Waleran III of Limburg.[11] Joan sent her advisor Arnold of Oudenarde to meet the hermit; however, he returned convinced that he was the true Baldwin IX. Other witnesses were more skeptical, but they were accused by the people of being bribed by the Countess.[11]
Joan was forced to take refuge in Mons, the only city that remained faithful to her. Against the promise of 20,000 livres and the pledge of the cities of Douai and Lécluse, Louis VIII agreed to take his army to restore Joan's rights.[4] The French King demanded a high price for his support: Joan agreed to reimburse the costs of war, and confirmed the pledge over Douai and Lécluse.[11]
Before launching military operations, Louis VIII sent his aunt Sybille of Hainaut, Dowager Lady of Beaujeu and sister of Baldwin IX, to meet the hermit. She developed doubts about his identity. On 30 May 1225 the King met the hermit at Péronne and interrogated him about details of Baldwin IX's life:[11] he was unable to remember when and where he was knighted and even he did not remember his own wedding night. Philippe of Jouy (Bishop of Orléans) and Milo of Nanteuil (Bishop of Beauvais), recognized him as a juggler who already tried to pass himself off as Louis I, Count of Blois, who had also disappeared at the Battle of Adrianople.[11]
Convinced that he was an impostor, Louis VIII gave him three days to flee. The false Baldwin IX took refuge with his supporters to Valenciennes,[11] but the city was quickly retaken by the French. Joan required unconditional surrender.[11] The impostor then took refuge with Engelbert II of Berg, Archbishop of Cologne, but there he lost his last followers and fled. Caught near Besançon, he was sent to Joan.[11] Despite the promise to respect his life, he was put in a pillory between two dogs and then hanged at the gates of Lille.[4] It is likely that Bouchard of Avesnes, the former husband of Margaret, was behind the plot:[11] the false Baldwin IX had recognized the legitimate rights of his eldest son as heir of Flanders and Hainaut.
Following the recapture of the rebellious cities, Joan imposed heavy fines on them. This allowed her not only to pay her debts to the King of France the next year (instead of the 20 years previously agreed), but also to pay the ransom of her husband Ferrand.
Release of Ferrand

Whether as a ploy or out of genuine willingness to turn the page, Joan intensified her efforts to marry Peter Mauclerc, the widower Duke-Regent of Brittany. She then requested the annulment of her marriage under grounds of consanguinity from Pope Honorius III, who accepted her petition. However, King Louis VIII refused the consent to a marriage between Mauclerc and the Countess, fearing that the royal demesne, squeezed between their domains, would be too dangerous. To finally end Joan's marital pretensions, the French King obtained from the Pope the renewal of her marriage with Ferrand, while forcing her to a treaty and a ransom for her imprisoned husband.[13]
In April 1226, the Treaty of Melun was signed between Joan and Louis VIII, under which Ferrand's ransom was fixed at 50,000 livres parisis payable in two installments. The Treaty also stipulated that the cities of Lille, Douai and Lécluse would be surrendered to France as a pledge until full payment of this considerable amount was made. Joan was also forced to maintain her marital bond with Ferrand. Both Joan and Ferrand could be excommunicated if they betrayed the King, a deed which constituted perjury in feudal law. Finally, the knights and representatives of the main Flemish cities also had to swear allegiance to the King of France: at all, 27 cities and 350 nobles paid homage.[8] After the death of Louis VIII on 8 November, his widow Blanche of Castile and his son and successor Louis IX finally released Ferrand in January 1227 after Joan paid half of the ransom, reduced to 25,000 livres.[4]
In late 1227 or early 1228, Joan gave birth to a daughter, Marie. A few years later, on 27 July 1233[14] Ferrand died in Noyon from urinary stones, a disease that he suffered since his capture at Bouvines.[4] His heart was buried in Noyon Cathedral, while his body was interred in the Abbey of Marquette, in Flanders. After the death of her husband, Joan wanted to marry Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, but since he was still loyal to the English crown at this point, this did not sit well with Louis IX, who refused to give his consent. It was during that year of 1233 that Bouchard of Avesnes, jailed since his plot of the false Baldwin was released.[4]
After Ferdinand's death, the couple's daughter and heir presumptive, Marie, was sent to Paris to be educated there, following Louis IX's demands.[15] In June 1235[16] she was betrothed to Robert, Louis IX's brother. She died shortly after, leaving Joan childless.
Marriage with Thomas of Savoy, death

Following Blanche of Castile's suggestion, Joan agreed to marry Thomas of Savoy, Count of Maurienne and Lord of Piedmont, maternal uncle of Margaret of Provence, wife of Louis IX. They wed on 2 April 1237,[17] although without Papal dispensation despite consanguinity within the prohibited degrees between them (both were descendants of Humbert II, Count of Savoy).[18] For this marriage, Joan was forced to pay 30,000 livres to the King of France and renew her oath of loyalty. With her new husband, she gave support to Louis IX against the rebellion led by Hugh X of Lusignan.[4]
Joan died on 5 December 1244 at the Abbey of Marquette near Lille, where she retired shortly before as a nun,[19] and was buried next to her first husband in the mausoleum that she had previously built for him.[20] Without surviving issue, she was succeeded by her sister Margaret, while her widower Thomas returned to Savoy.[4] Her tomb was rediscovered in 2005 on the site of the later destroyed Abbey of Marquette;[21] however, further excavations in 2007 revealed that the Countess' remains weren't present in this tomb.[22]
Political role
Economy
Countess Joan, in the early years of her personal reign (1214–1226), conducted a policy favorable to the development of Flemish cities. She provided legal and tax privileges to Dunkirk, Ghent, Lille, Mardyck, Seclin (1216), Biervliet and Ypres (1225).[8] In Kortrijk, in 1217, she promoted the influx of workers for the wool industry by exempting from the taille tax to people who come to settle in this city.[8] After the return of her husband Ferrand, she confirmed this political orientation, by granting Douai, Ghent, Ypres, Bruges and Lederzeele new privileges, which gave them greater autonomy vis-à-vis from the Comital power. After the death of Ferrand (1233), she maintained the Lille Charter and authorized the construction of a belfry at Valenciennes.

Then, after her marriage with Thomas of Savoy (1237–1244), she complemented this policy through tax exemptions, reorganization of the judicial system, measures to promote river commerce and sea ports, concerning the cities of Bergues, Bourbourg, Bruges, Damme, Veurne, Muiden and Kaprijke.[8] In less urban areas, particularly in Hainaut, the comital power remained strong. Under constant pressure from the Flemish bourgeoisie, aware of Joan's need of their support against the King of France, she pursued a policy that promoted economic development and urban autonomy, not without tax counterparties.[8]
To promote river commerce, Joan ordered in 1237 the construction of water gates at Menen and Harelbeke, making the Leie river navigable. Then in 1242, with Thomas of Savoy, she authorized the aldermen of Lille to create three locks in Marquette-lez-Lille to Wambrechies and Lille itself, extending the network to the Deûle river. The latter was ultimately not built, but replaced by a double door in Le Quesnoy.[23]
Religion

On good relations with the Cistercians, Joan founded the Abbey of Marquette-lez-Lille, and confirmed, supported or helped the foundation of several other monasteries of Cistercian nuns. Until the 12th century, the abbeys of both Flanders and Hainaut were exclusively male; however, twenty female monasteries in Flanders (most notably the Abbey of La Byloke in Ghent), and five in Hainaut were founded during the 13th century. They were supported by Joan and her sister Margaret – for some of them, the role of foundresses was assigned a posteriori in modern times.[24]
Joan also supported the foundation of the Mendicant orders in her counties. At Valenciennes, (to which a small community of Franciscans moved in 1217), she granted them the usufruct of the old Donjon of the city with for the foundation of a convent there; however, she had to face the resistance of the local Franciscan community. Finally, the two communities merged before 1241.[25] In the case of the Franciscans of Lille, Joan sent her general contractor and carpenters to help build the church and convent.[26]
The Countess also promoted and established several monasteries, abbeys and Béguinages in her domains:[2] the most notable of them were located in Mons and Valenciennes (in Hainaut), Bruges, Ghent and Ypres (in Flanders), all founded between 1236 and 1244. Douai and Lille were founded in 1245 by her sister Margaret. It is possible that the influence of the Dominicans played a role in these foundations, some of which are under their spiritual direction.[27]

By the end of the 12th century, the religious Victorines are implanted in Flanders and Hainaut. A dozen monasteries were founded between 1217 and 1262. Joan encouraged this movement, and directly supported, in 1244 the creation of the Bethlehem Priory at Mesvin in the Diocese of Cambrai.[28] These monasteries, which enjoyed considerable autonomy, had a charitable and urban land use. They responded well to the demands of the new women's spirituality of the 13th century.[28]
Joan also supported hospitals (including Saint-Sauveur and Saint-Nicolas in Lille) and leper colonies. In 1228, with her husband Ferrand, she provided a way for the founding of the Biloke in Ghent.[26] In February 1237, she founded the Hospice Comtesse, for which she donated the gardens of her residence in the castrum of Lille at the site of the old donjon which was destroyed by the French in 1213.[4] She also founded the Hospital of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary in Valenciennes, four years after her canonization. This foundation was used by the beguines.[26]
Influence on medieval literature

Two known manuscripts are considered to have belonged to Joan's library. The first is a Psalter preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Lat. 238), made around 1210, which could have been offered by Blanche of Navarre to her aunt when she married Ferrand of Portugal.[29] The second, dating from 1210–1220 is a copy of the Story of the Grail, kept at the British Library (Add. 36614). This second manuscript would have involved the Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes, which Joan would have added the Continuations and the Life of St. Mary of Egypt.[30] Both come from a workshop of Champagne.[29]
The writing of the Story of the Grail is strongly linked to the Counts of Flanders. Chrétien de Troyes wrote under the protection of Joan's grand-uncle, Philip of Alsace. Manessier, author of the Third continuation, dedicated his work to Joan.[29] It's likely that his predecessor Wauchier de Denain, author of the Second continuation was also part of her court, without being able to demonstrate with certainty that the book was written for her.[31] However, was widely known that he dedicated his Life of St. Martha to the young Countess, around 1212. Despite his character hagiographic, this text appears to have been designed both as a book for the instruction and edification of his teenage dedicatee, but also as a wonderful story, near the chivalric romance, including the episode of the Tarasque. Martha is presented as a great speaker, able to defeat the insurgency cities where St. Front de Passais and St. George were unsuccessful.[31]
The Van den vos Reynaerde is the first version of Reynard the Fox in the Netherlands and one of the first literary works written in that language.[32] It contains the original episodes, which do not belong to the Romanesque release. His author, "Willem die Madocke maecte" was identified as the lay Cistercian Guillaume de Boudelo,[33] who died in 1261. This talented clerk was recruited by Countess, who made the request to the Cistercian General Chapter in 1238.[34] He was appointed as director of the Hospice Comtesse in Lille, after his foundation, from 1238 to 1244[35] and then to the convent of Marke, near Kortrijk.[36]
Nevertheless, Joan's activity as literary patron seems to have been limited. It is possible that to succeed in a world dominated by men, she had to voluntarily dismiss this role usually assigned to women.[31]
Cultural legacy

Later medieval chroniclers, such as Matthew Paris, are generally hostile to her; almost all consider that the hermit was indeed the true Baldwin IX of Flanders and by killing him, she committed parricide.[11] In the middle of the 15th century, the book Baudouin, Count of Flanders, presents Joan as the illegitimate child of the Count with a Saracen possessed by a demon, who commits patricide after a tortuous romantic plot.[11]
In 1823 Sismondi repeats this thesis of parricide in his Histoire des Français,  like the playwrights Fontan and Victor Herbin in their play Jeanne de Flandre in 1835. In response, Emile Gachet began a process to rehabilitate the Countess in the recently founded Revue du Nord.[11] Finally, in 1840 Jules de Saint-Genois, father of the Belgian historical novel, wrote A false Baudouin, then the following year, Edward le Glay published his Histoire de Jeanne de Constantinople, comtesse de Flandre et de Hainaut, who for a long time was an authority on the subject and helps to rehabilitate the Countess.[11]
The Museum of the Hospice Comtesse has two tapestries of Guillaume Werniers, after drawings of Arnould de Vuez representing Countess Joan. One, made of wool and silk, showed Joan sat between her two successive husbands, Ferrand of Portugal and Thomas of Savoy, identified by their faces; it is marked "Joan of Constantinople, Countess of Flanders / founder of this house in 1233", which shows that the tapestry was made to the Hospice Comtesse. The other shows Count Baldwin IX, with his wife and two daughters, the future Countesses Joan and Margaret.[37] In the same museum, an anonymous painting of 1632, called "Foundation of the Notre-Dame Hospital", shows Countesses Joan and Margaret, surrounded by the Virgin, St. Augustine and St. Elizabeth of Hungary, as well as monks and nuns of the Hospice Comtesse.[37]
There are statues of Joan in the béguinage of Kortrijk and the Old Saint Elisabeth in Ghent. The mother-child hospital in the Regional University Hospital of Lille bears her name.[38] The city of Wattrelos has created Géants du Nord for Joan and her two husbands.[39] This is also the case of the city of Marquette-lez-Lille, where the Countess was buried.[40]
In the autumn of 2009, an exhibition entitled Joan of Constantinople, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut, was devoted to her.[41] It was the opportunity of an artistic creation dedicated to both Countesses Joan and Margaret by photographer Laura Henno.[42]
Notes

Sources
Abulafia, David: The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 1198-c. 1300, 1999.

CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Le Glay, Edward: Histoire de Jeanne de Constantinople, comtesse de Flandre et de Hainaut, Lille, Vanackere, 1841.
Luykx, Theo: Johanna van Constantinopel, gravin van Vlaanderen en Henegouwen, Leuven, 1947.
De Cant, Geneviève: Jeanne et Marguerite de Constantinople, Racine ed., Brussels, 1995.
Dessaux, Nicolas (ed.): Jeanne de Constantinople, comtesse de Flandre et de Hainaut, Somogy, 2009. [Catalog of the exposition of Lille, September–November 2009. 22 contributions of American, Belgian, French and Swiss authoris, with knowledge on the subject] –  in Histara, November 2010.

 Media related to Joan of Constantinople at Wikimedia Commons

Did Joan of Constantinople have children?


Part of a series on
 Slavery
Contemporary
Child labour
Child soldiers
Conscription
Debt
Forced marriage
Bride buying
Wife selling
Forced prostitution
Human trafficking
Peonage
Penal labour
Contemporary Africa
21st-century Islamism
Sexual slavery
Wage slavery
Historical
Antiquity
Ancient Rome
Ancient Greece
Asia
Babylonia
Medieval Europe
The Muslim World
Byzantine Empire
Ottoman Empire
Topics and practices
Atlantic slave trade
Middle Passage
Arab slave trade
Ghilman
Mamluk
Saqaliba
Harem
Ottoman slave trade
Circassian beauties
Devshirme
Millet system
Imperial Harem
Odalisque
Barbary slave trade
Barbary corsairs
The Barbary Coast
Turkish Abductions
Aztec
Blackbirding
Coolie
Corvée labor
Field slaves in the United States
House slaves
Kholop
Panyarring
Thrall
Serfs
History
Russia
Slave market
Slave raiding
Child soldiers
Naval
Galley slave
Impressment
Pirates
Shanghaiing
Slave ship
By country or region
Sub-Saharan Africa
Contemporary Africa
Slave Coast
Angola
Chad
Ethiopia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Seychelles
North and South America
Americas indigenous
U.S. Natives
Brazil
Lei Áurea
Canada
Caribbean
Barbados
Code Noir
Cuba
Haiti
revolt
Restavek
Latin America
(Encomienda)
Puerto Rico
Trinidad
United States
colonial
maps
female
partus
penal labor
Slave codes
interregional
Human trafficking
Virgin Islands
Central, East, and South Asia
Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
Bhutan
China
Booi Aha
Laogai
penal system
India
Debt bondage
Chukri System
Japan
comfort women
South Korea
Yankee princess
North Korea
Vietnam
Australia and Oceania
Blackbirding
Human trafficking in Australia
Slave raiding in Easter Island
Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
Blackbirding in Polynesia
Europe and North Asia
Sex trafficking in Europe
Britain
Denmark
Dutch Republic
Germany in World War II
Malta
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Spain
colonies
Sweden
North Africa and West Asia
Iran
Libya
Human trafficking in the Middle East
Yemen
Religion
Slavery and religion
Bible
Christianity
Catholicism
Mormonism
Islam
21st century
Mukataba
Ma malakat aymanukum
Judaism
Bahá'í Faith
Opposition and resistance
Abolitionism
U.K.
U.S.
Anti-Slavery International
Blockade of Africa
U.K.
U.S.
Colonization
Liberia
Sierra Leone
Compensated emancipation
Freedman
manumission
Freedom suit
Abolitionists
Slave Power
Underground Railroad
songs
Slave rebellion
Slave Trade Acts
International law
Third Servile War
13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
Related
Common law
Indentured servitude
Unfree labour
Fugitive slaves
laws
Great Dismal Swamp maroons
List of slaves
owners
Slave narrative
films
songs
Slave name
Slave catcher
Slave patrol
Slave Route Project
Treatment in U.S.
breeding
court cases
Washington
Jefferson
Adams
Lincoln
40 acres
Freedmen's Bureau
bit
Emancipation Dayvt

Part of a series onEuropean colonization
of the Americas

First wave of European colonization
British
Couronian
Danish
Dutch
French
German
Hospitaller
Norse
Portuguese
Russian
Scottish
Spanish
Swedish
Italian
Colonization of Canada
Colonization of the United States
Decolonization

 Colonialismportalvt
Slavery in the Spanish American colonies was an economic and social institution central to the operation of the Spanish Empire – it bound Africans and indigenous people to a relationship of colonial exploitation. Spanish colonists provided the Americas with a colonial precedent for slavery; however, early on opposition from the enslaved Indians and  influential Spaniards moved the Crown to limit the bondage of indigenous people, and initiated debates that challenged the idea of slavery based on race. Spaniards regarded some indigenous people as tribute under  the encomienda system during the late 1400s and part of the 1500s.[1]
Spanish slavery in the Americas did not diverge drastically from that in other European colonies. It reshuffled the Atlantic World's populations through forced migrations, helped transfer American wealth to Europe, and promoted racial and social hierarchies (castas) throughout the empire.[2] Spanish enslavers justified their wealth and status earned at the work of the mines at the expense of captive workers by considering them inferior beings with limited capacities and holding them as personal property (chattel slavery), often under barbarous conditions.[3] In fact, Spanish colonization set some egregious records in the field of slavery.[4] The Asiento, the official contract for trading in slaves in the vast Spanish territories was a major engine of the Atlantic slave trade. When Spain first enslaved Native Americans on Hispaniola, and then replaced them with captive Africans, it established unfree labor as the basis for colonial mass-production. Subsequently, in the mid-nineteenth century when most countries in the hemisphere reformed to disallow chattel slavery, Cuba and Puerto Rico – the last two remaining Spanish American colonies – maintained slavery the longest.[lower-alpha 1][5]
Enslaved people challenged their captivity in ways that ranged from introducing non-European elements into Christianity (syncretism) to mounting alternative societies outside the plantation system (Maroons). The first open black rebellion occurred in Spanish plantations in 1521.[6] Resistance, particularly to the enslavement of indigenous people, also came from Spanish religious and legal ranks.[7]  The first speech in the Americas for the universality of human rights and against the abuses of slavery was also given on Hispaniola, a mere nineteen years after the first contact.[8] Resistance to Amerindian captivity in the Spanish colonies produced the first modern debates over race and the legitimacy of slavery.[lower-alpha 2] And uniquely in the Spanish American colonies, laws like the New Laws of 1542, were enacted early in the colonial period to protect natives from bondage.[9][10] To complicate matters further, Spain's haphazard grip on its extensive American dominions and its erratic economy acted to impede the broad and systematic spread of plantations similar to those of the French in Saint Domingue or of the British in Jamaica. Altogether, the struggle against slavery in the Spanish American colonies left a notable tradition of opposition that set the stage for current conversations about human rights.[11]
Iberian antecedents to slavery in the Americas
The Spanish had established precedents for regimes of forced labor prior to their encounter with New World peoples. Over centuries in Iberia, Muslims had enslaved Christians, and with the Christian reconquest, the victors enslaved the Moors. Slavery was an institution that was economic in function, but it had strong social dimensions as well. Enslaved persons were outsiders of some kind, by ethnicity, language, or religion or some combination. In Iberia, slaves were considered human and possessed some rights, but were at the bottom of the status hierarchy. There were some Muslim slaves remaining in Christian Spain after 1492, but increasingly enslaved Africans via the Portuguese slave trade became part of Spain's social mosaic. Black slaves in Spain were overwhelmingly domestic servants, and increasingly became prestigious property for elite Spanish households though at a much smaller scale than the Portuguese.  Artisans acquired black slaves and trained them in their trade, increasing the artisans' output.[12]
Both the Spanish and the Portuguese colonized the Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa, where they engaged in sugar cane production following the model of Mediterranean production. The sugar complex consisted of slave labor for cultivation and processing, with the sugar mill (ingenio) and equipment established with investor capital.  When plantation slavery was established in Spanish America and Brazil, they replicated the elements of the complex in the New World on a much larger scale.[13]
Another form of forced labor used in the New World with origins in Spain was the encomienda, the award of the labor to Christian victors over Muslims during the reconquest. This institution of forced labor was employed by the Spaniards in the Canary Islands following their conquest. The institution was much more widespread following the Spanish contact and conquest of indigenous in the New World, but the precedents were set prior to 1492.[14]
Indigenous People

Prior to the Spanish colonization of the Americas, slavery was a common institution among various Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples. The Spanish conquest and settlement in the New World quickly led to large-scale subjugation of indigenous peoples, mainly of the Native Caribbean people, by Columbus on his four voyages. Initially, forced labor represented a means by which the conquistadores mobilized native labor and met production quotas, with disastrous effects on the population. Unlike the Portuguese Crown's support for the slave trade, los Reyes Católicos (English: Catholic Monarchs) opposed the introduction of slavery in the newly conquered lands on religious grounds.  When Columbus returned with indigenous slaves, they ordered the survivors to be returned to their homelands. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced to protect the rights of the natives in the New World and secure their freedom. The papal bull Sublimus Dei of 1537, to which Spain was committed, also officially banned enslavement of indigenous people, but it was rescinded a year after its promulgation. The other major form of coerced labor in their colonies, the encomienda system, was also abolished, despite the considerable anger this caused in local criollo elites. It was replaced by the repartimiento system.[15][16][17]
After passage of the 1542 New Laws, also known as the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians, the Spanish greatly restricted the power of the encomienda system, which effectively caused abuse by the encomenderos, and officially abolished the enslavement of the native population. The statutes of 1573, within the "Ordinances Concerning Discoveries," forbade unauthorized operations against independent Indian peoples.[18] It required appointment of a "protector de indios", an ecclesiastical representative who acted as the protector of the Indians and represented them in formal litigation.[19][20][20] Later in the 16th century, in the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, thousands of indigenous people were forced to hard work as underground miners in the mines of Potosi, Guanajuato, and Zacatecas, in Peru, by means of the continuation of the pre-Hispanic Inca mita tradition.
Africans during the Spanish Conquest
When Spain first enslaved Native Americans on Hispaniola, and then replaced them with captive Africans, it established unfree labor as the basis for colonial mass-production. It was believed by Europeans that Africans had developed immunities to European diseases, and would not be as susceptible to fall ill as the Native Americans because they had not been exposed to the pathogens yet.[21] In 1501, Spanish colonists began importing enslaved Africans from the Iberian Peninsula to their Santo Domingo colony on the island of Hispaniola.  These first Africans, who had been enslaved in Europe before crossing the Atlantic, may have spoken Spanish and perhaps were even Christians.  About 17 of them started in the copper mines, and about a hundred were sent to extract gold.  As introduced diseases decimated Caribbean indigenous populations in the first decades of the 1500s, enslaved Blacks from Africa ("bozales") gradually replaced their labor, but they also mingled and joined in flights from slavery, creating mixed maroon communities in all the islands where Europeans had established chattel slavery.[22] The newly enslaved workers continued to arrive in Spanish colonies as colonials imported them directly from Portuguese traders, who in turn purchased them from African traders on the Atlantic coast. With the increased dependency on enslaved Blacks developed also distinctive racial hierarchy and the hardening of racial ideologies, buttressed by prior ideologies of differentiation as that of the Limpieza de Sangre (en: Blood Purity).[23] In the vocabulary of the time, each enslaved African who arrived at the Americas was called "Pieza de Indias" (en: a piece of India).  Asiento (en: chair) was the name for the agreement between the Spanish authorities and slave traders.  During the 16th century, the Spanish colonies were the most important customers of the Atlantic slave trade, claiming several thousands in sales, but the Dutch, French and British soon dwarfed these numbers when their demand for enslaved workers began to drive the slave market to unprecedented levels.[24]
Some of the earliest black immigrants to the Americas were "Atlantic Creoles", as the charter generation is described by the American historian Ira Berlin. Mixed-race men of African and Portuguese/Spanish descent, some slaves and others free, sailed with Iberian ships and worked in the ports of Spain and Portugal; some were born in Europe, others in African ports as sons of Portuguese trade workers and African women. African slaves were also taken to Portugal, where they married local women.  The mixed-race men often grew up bilingual, making them useful as interpreters in African and Iberian ports.[25]
Some famous black Spaniards soldiers in the first stages of the Spanish conquest of America were Juan Valiente and Juan Beltrán in Chile, Juan Garrido (credited with the first harvesting of wheat planted in New Spain) and Sebastián Toral, in Mexico, Juan Bardales in Honduras and Panama, or Juan García in Peru.
The first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States, an interracial union between a free black woman and a Spanish conquistador, happened in 1565 in the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine, Florida, between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville, and a Castillan soldier.
Estevanico, recorded as a black slave from Morocco, survived the disastrous Narváez expedition from 1527 to 1536 when most of the men died. After the ships, horses, equipment and finally most of the men were lost, with three other survivors, Estevanico spent six years traveling overland from present-day Texas to Sinaloa, and finally reaching the Spanish settlement at Mexico City. He learned several Native American languages in the process. He went on to serve as a well-respected guide.  Later, while leading an expedition in what is now New Mexico in search of the Seven Cities of Gold, he was killed in a dispute with the Zuñi local people.
Miguel Henríquez, known as the "Black Demon", was a prominent black Spaniard who served as a buccaneer at Spain's service during the 17th century in the Caribbean waters. He was known for his brutality against British and Dutch prisoners.
Spanish enslavement of Africans
Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566) recorded the effects of slavery on the Native populations and argued for an end to it and for the rights of the people. He acquiesced to the Crown's decision to replace Natives with imported African slaves. Its counselors insisted on a source of labor to develop Caribbean plantations.[26] However, he later spoke against African slavery as well, once he saw it in action.[27]
In 1501 the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, allowed the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves. This permission was granted in the form of the Asiento, the official contract for trading in slaves in the vast Spanish territories was a major engine of the Atlantic slave trade. Opponents cited the weak Christian faith of the Africans and their penchant for escaping to the mountains. Proponents argued that the rapid decline of the Native American population required a consistent supply of reliable workers.  In addition, the first years of Spanish presence in the Americas were marked by an outbreak of a tropical epidemic influenza that decimated both the native and Spanish populations. It was argued that the population would never be large enough to carry out all the labour needed to assure the economic viability of the Spanish colonies.  In 1501, a first shipment of African-born slaves was sent to the West Indies (Hispaniola). The Spaniards chiefly purchased the slaves from the Portuguese and English traders in Africa.  They did not engage directly in the trade and overall imported fewer slaves to the New World than did the Portuguese, British, or French.
The Spanish used enslaved Africans as workers to develop their agriculture and settlements.  They also used them in defense of the colonies. Originally the Crown relied on private initiative and resources to protect colonial shipping and settlements. In some cases, colonists hired out their slaves or donated them for this purpose; in other cases, the Crown bought the slaves. Building forts and defense works relied on slave labor, but most were privately owned.
The slave populations were extremely low on Cuba and Puerto Rico until the 1760s, when the British took Havana, Cuba, in 1762. After that, the British imported more than 10,000 slaves to Havana, a number that would have taken 20 years to import on other islands. They used it as a base to supply the Caribbean and the lower Thirteen Colonies.[28] This change is almost directly related to the opening of Spanish slave trade to other powers in the 18th century.  Spain and Great Britain made a contract in 1713 by which the British would provide the slaves. The Spanish outlawed its own slave trade of Africans.
While historians have studied the production of sugar on plantations by enslaved workers in nineteenth-century Cuba, they have sometimes overlooked the crucial role of the Spanish state before the 1760s. Cuba ultimately developed two distinct but interrelated sources using enslaved labor, which converged at the end of the eighteenth century. The first of these sectors was urban and was directed in large measure by the needs of the Spanish colonial state, reaching its height in the 1760s. As of 1778, it was reported by Thomas Kitchin that "about 52,000 slaves" were being brought from Africa to the West Indies by Europeans, with approximately 4,000 being brought by the Spanish.[29]
The second sector, which flourished after 1790, was rural and was directed by private slaveholders/planters involved in the production of export agricultural commodities, especially sugar. After 1763, the scale and urgency of defense projects led the state to deploy many of its enslaved workers in ways that were to anticipate the intense work regimes on sugar plantations in the nineteenth century. Another important group of workers enslaved by the Spanish colonial state in the late eighteenth century were the king's laborers, who worked on the city's fortifications.
The Spanish colonies were late to exploit slave labor in the production of sugarcane, particularly on Cuba.  The Spanish colonies in the Caribbean were among the last to abolish slavery. While the British colonies abolished slavery completely by 1834, Spain abolished slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. On the mainland of Central and South America, Spain ended African slavery in the eighteenth century. Peru was one of the countries that revived the institution for some decades after declaring independence from Spain in the early 19th century.
Liberation of British and American slaves in Spanish Florida

Since the beginning of the 18th century, Spanish Florida attracted numerous African slaves who escaped from British slavery in the Thirteen Colonies. Since 1623 the official Spanish policy was that any and all slaves that touched Spanish soil and asked for refuge would be made a free man, alphabetized if he wasn't, helped to establish his own workshop if he had a trade or given a lot of land as his own to cultivate as a farmer. In exchange they would be required to serve for a number of years in the Spanish National Guard and convert to Catholicism. Francisco Menéndez escaped from South Carolina and traveled to St. Augustine, Florida for freedom.[30]
Once the slaves reached Florida, the Spanish freed them if they converted to Roman Catholicism. Most settled in a community called Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first settlement of free slaves in North America.
The former slaves also found refuge among the Creek and Seminole, Native Americans who had established settlements in Florida at the invitation of the Spanish government. In 1771, Governor John Moultrie wrote to the English Board of Trade, "It has been a practice for a good while past, for negroes to run away from their Masters, and get into the Indian towns, from whence it proved very difficult to get them back."[31] When British government officials pressured the Native Americans to return the fugitive slaves, they replied that they had "merely given hungry people food, and invited the slaveholders to catch the runaways themselves."[31]
After the American Revolution, slaves from the State of Georgia and the Low Country escaped to Florida. The U.S. Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including the 1817–1818 campaign by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War. The United States afterwards effectively controlled East Florida. According to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, the US had to take action there because Florida had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them.".[32] Spain requested British intervention, but London declined to assist Spain in the negotiations. Some of President James Monroe's cabinet demanded Jackson's immediate dismissal, but Adams realized that it put the U.S. in a favorable diplomatic position. Adams negotiated very favorable terms.[33]
As Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons, the Crown decided to cede the territory to the United States. It accomplished this through the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819, effective 1821.
Ending of slavery

Support for abolitionism rose in Great Britain. Slavery was abolished under the French Revolution, for the French Caribbean colonies, (the slavery was abolished in European part of France in 1315 by Louis X) but was restored under Napoleon I. Slaves in Saint-Domingue established independence, founding the republic of Haiti in 1804.
Later slave revolts were arguably part of the upsurge of liberal and democratic values centered on individual rights and liberties which came in the aftermath of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in Europe. As emancipation became more of a concrete reality, the slaves' concept of freedom changed. No longer did they seek to overthrow the whites and re-establish carbon-copy African societies as they had done during the earlier rebellions; the vast majority of slaves were  creole, native born where they lived, and envisaged their freedom within the established framework of the existing society.
The Spanish American wars of independence emancipated most of the overseas territories of Spain; in Central and South America, various nations emerged from these wars. The wars were  influenced by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and economic affairs, which also led to the reduction and ending of feudalism. It was not a unified process. Some countries, including Peru and Ecuador, reintroduced slavery for some time after achieving independence.
In the treaty of 1814, the king of Spain promised to consider means for abolishing the slave trade. In the treaty of September 23, 1817, with Great Britain, the Spanish Crown said that "having never lost sight of a matter so interesting to him and being desirous of hastening the moment of its attainment, he has determined to co-operate with His Britannic Majesty in adopting the cause of humanity." The king bound himself "that the slave trade will be abolished in all the dominions of Spain, May 30, 1820, and that after that date it shall not be lawful for any subject of the crown of Spain to buy slaves or carry on the slave trade upon any part of the coast of Africa." The date of final suppression was October 30. The subjects of the king of Spain were forbidden to carry slaves for any one outside the Spanish dominions, or to use the flag to cover such dealings.³
The Assembly of Year XIII (1813) of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata declared the freedom of wombs. It did not end slavery completely, but emancipated the children of slaves. Many slaves gained emancipation by joining the armies, either against royalists during the War of Independence, or during the later Civil Wars. For example, the Argentine Confederation ended slavery definitely with the sanction of the Argentine Constitution of 1853.

See also

Atlantic slave trade
European colonization of the Americas
Slavery in the British and French Caribbean
Slavery in Latin America
Slavery in Spain
Peon
Race and ethnicity in Latin America

Further reading
Primary sources
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, The Devastation of the Indies, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, 1992.
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, History of the Indies, translated by Andrée M. Collard, Harper & Row Publishers, New York, 1971,
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, In Defense of the Indians, translated by Stafford Poole, C.M., Northern Illinois University, 1974.
Secondary readings

Aguirre Beltán, Gonzalo. La población negra de México, 1519-1819: Un estudio etnohistórico. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1972, 1946.
Aimes, Hubert H. A History of Slavery in Cuba 1511 to 1868, New York, NY: Octagon Books Inc, 1967.
Bennett, Herman Lee. Africans in Colonial Mexico. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
Blanchard, Peter, Under the flags of freedom: slave soldiers and the wars of independence in Spanish South America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, c2008.
Bowser, Frederick. The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974.
Bush, Barbara. Slave Women in Caribbean Society, London: James Currey Ltd, 1990.
Carroll, Patrick James. Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity, and Regional Development. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
Curtin, Philip. The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.
Davidson, David M. "Negro Slave Control and Resistance in Colonial Mexico, 1519-1650." Hispanic American Historical Review 46 no. 3 (1966): 235–53.
Ferrer, Ada. , Chapel Hill; London: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.
Figueroa, Luis A. . University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
Foner, Laura, and Eugene D. Genovese, eds. Slavery in the New World: A Reader in Comparative History. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969.
Fuente, Alejandro de la. "Slave Law and Claims Making in Cuba: The Tannenbaum Debate Revisited." Law and History Review (2004): 339–69.
Fuente, Alejandro de la. "From Slaves to Citizens? Tannenbaum and the Debates on Slavery, Emancipation, and Race Relations in Latin America," International Labor and Working-Class History 77 no. 1 (2010), 154–73.
Fuente, Alejandro de la. "Slaves and the Creation of Legal Rights in Cuba: Coartación and Papel", Hispanic American Historical Review 87, no. 4 (2007): 659–92.
García Añoveros, Jesús María. El pensamiento y los argumentos sobre la esclavitud en Europa en el siglo XVI y su aplicación a los indios americanos y a lost negros africanos. Corpus Hispanorum de Pace. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2000.
Geggus, David Patrick. "Slave Resistance in the Spanish Caribbean in the Mid-1790s," in A Turbulent Time: The French Revolutionn and the Greater Caribbean, David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1997, pp.130–55.
Gibbings, Julie. "In the Shadow of Slavery: Historical Time, Labor, and Citizenship in Nineteenth-Century Alta Verapaz, Guatemala", Hispnaic American Historical Review 96.1, (February 2016): 73–107.
Grandin, Greg. , Macmillan, 2014.
Helg, Aline, Liberty and Equality in Caribbean Colombia, 1770-1835. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
Heuman, Gad, and Trevor Graeme Burnard, eds. The Routledge History of Slavery. New York: Taylor and Francis, 2011.
Hünefeldt, Christine. Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labor among Lima's Slaves, 1800-1854. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994.
Johnson, Lyman L. "Manumission in Colonial Buenos Aires, 1776-1810." Hispanic American Historical Review 59, no. 2 (1979): 258-79.
Johnson, Lyman L. "A Lack of Legitimate Obedience and Respect: Slaves and Their Masters in the Courts of Late Colonial Buenos Aires," Hispanic American Historical Review 87, no. 4 (2007), 631–57.
Klein, Herbert S. The Middle Passage: Comparative Studies in the Atlantic Slave Trade. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Klein, Herbert S., and Ben Vinson III. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Landers, Jane. Black Society in Spanish Florida. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999.
Landers, Jane and Barry Robinson, eds. Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.
Lockhart, James. Spanish Peru, 1532–1560: A Colonial Society. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.
Love, Edgar F. "Negro Resistance to Spanish Rule in Colonial Mexico," Journal of Negro History 52, no. 2 (April 1967), 89–103.
Mondragón Barrios, Lourdes. Esclavos africanos en la Ciudad de México: el servicio doméstico durante el siglo XVI. Mexico: Ediciones Euroamericanas, 1999.
Palacios Preciado, Jorge. La trata de negros por Cartagena de Indias, 1650-1750. Tunja: Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, 1973.
Palmer, Colin. Slaves of the White God: Blacks in Mexico, 1570-1650. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976.
Palmer, Colin. Human Cargoes: The British Slave Trade to Spanish America, 1700-1739. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981.
Proctor, Frank T., III "Damned Notions of Liberty": Slavery, Culture and Power in Colonial Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010.
Proctor III, Frank T. "Gender and Manumission of Slaves in New Spain," Hispanic American Historical Review 86, no. 2 (2006), 309–36.
Restall, Matthew, and Jane Landers, "The African Experience in Early Spanish America," The Americas 57, no. 2 (2000), 167–70.
Rout, Leslie B. The African Experience in Spanish America, 1502 to the Present Day. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
Seijas, Tatiana. Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Sharp, William Frederick. Slavery on the Spanish Frontier: The Colombian Chocó, 1680-1810. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976.
Shepherd, Verene A., ed. Slavery Without Sugar. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2002. Print.
Solow, Barard I. ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Tannenbaum, Frank. Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Americas. New York Vintage Books, 1947.
Toplin, Robert Brent. Slavery and Race Relations in Latin America. Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1974.
Vinson, Ben, III, and Matthew Restall, eds. Black Mexico: Race and Society from Colonial to Modern Times. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2009.
Walker, Tamara J. "He Outfitted His Family in Notable Decency: Slavery, Honour, and Dress in Eighteenth-Century Lima, Peru," Slavery & Abolition 30, no. 3 (2009), 383–402.

Notes

 ()
 (CUNY Dominican Studies Institute)
(
 (
 (

Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies