Dog fighting is a type of blood sport generally defined as two or more game dogs against one another in a ring or a pit for the entertainment of the spectators or the gratification of the dogfighters, who are sometimes referred to as dogmen.[1]
In rural areas, fights are often staged in barns or outdoor pits; in urban areas, fights may occur in garages, basements, warehouses, abandoned buildings, back alleys, neighborhood playgrounds, or in the streets.[2][3] Dog fights usually last until one dog is declared a winner, which occurs when one dog fails to scratch, one dog dies, or one dog jumps out of the pit.[4] Sometimes dog fights end without declaring a winner; for instance, the dog's owner may call the fight.[4]
Dog fighting generates revenue from stud fees, admission fees and gambling. Worldwide, several countries have banned dog fighting, but it is still legal in some countries like Japan, Honduras, and parts of Russia.[2]
European history

Blood sports in general can be traced back to the Roman Empire.[5] In 13 BC, for instance, the ancient Roman circus slew 600 African beasts.[6] Likewise, under Emperor Claudius's reign, as spectators cheered, 300 bears and 300 Libyan beasts were slain in the Colosseum.[6] Dog fighting, more specifically, can also be traced to ancient Roman times. In 43 AD, for example, dogs fought alongside the Romans and the British in the Roman Conquest of Britain.[5] In this war, the Romans used a breed that originated from Greece called Molossus; the Britons used broad-mouth Mastiffs, which were thought to descend from the Molossus bloodline and which also originated from Greece.[7] Though the British were outnumbered and ultimately lost this war, the Romans were so impressed with the English Mastiffs that they began to import these dogs for use in the Colosseum, as well as for use in times of war.[5] While spectators watched, the imported English Mastiffs were pitted against animals such as wild elephants, lions, bears, bulls, and gladiators.[5]
Later, the Romans bred and exported fighting dogs to Spain, France and other parts of Europe until eventually these dogs made their way back to England.[5] Though bull baiting and bear baiting were popular throughout the Middle Ages up to the 19th century in Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands, the British pitted dogs against bulls and bears on a scale like no other.[7] In 12th century England during the feudal era, the landed aristocracy, who held direct military control in decentralized feudal systems and thus owned the animals necessary for waging war, introduced bull baiting and bear baiting to the rest of the British population.[7] In later years, bull baiting and bear baiting became a popular source of entertainment for the British royalty.[7] For instance, Queen Elizabeth I, who reigned from 1558–1603, was an avid follower of bull and bear baiting; she bred Mastiffs for baiting and would entertain foreign guests with a fight whenever they visited England.[7] In addition to breeding Mastiffs and entertaining foreign guests with a fight, Queen Elizabeth, and later her successor, King James I, built a number of bear gardens in London.[8] The garden buildings were round and roofless, and housed not only bears, but also bulls and other wild animals that could be used in a fight.[8] Today, a person can visit the Bear Garden museum near the Shakespeare Global Complex in Bankside, Southwark.
With the popularity of bull and bear baiting, bears needed for such fights soon became scarce.[7] With the scarcity of bear population, the price of bears rose and, because of this, bull baiting became more common in England over time.[7] Bulls who survived the fights were slaughtered afterwards for their meat, as it was believed that the fight caused bull meat to become more tender.[7] In fact, if a bull was offered for sale in the market without having been baited the previous day, butchers were liable to face substantial fines.[7] Animal fights were temporarily suspended in England when Oliver Cromwell seized power, but were reinstated again after the Restoration.[8] Dog fighting, bear baiting, and bull baiting were officially outlawed in England by the Humane Act of 1835.[2] The official ban on all fights, however, actually served to promote dog fighting in England.[8] Since a small amount of space was required for the pit where a dog fight took place, as compared to the ring needed for bull or bear baiting, authorities had a difficult time enforcing the ban on dog fighting.[8]
U.S. history
In 1817, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier dog breed was brought to America and dog fighting slowly became part of American culture.[1] Yet, though historical accounts of dog fighting in America can be dated back to the 1750s, it was not until the end of the Civil War (1861–1865) that widespread interest and participation in the blood sport began in the United States.[3] For instance, in 1881, the Mississippi and Ohio railroads advertised special fares to a dog fight in Louisville; public forums such as Kit Burns' Tavern, "The Sportman's Hall," in Manhattan regularly hosted matches.[1] Many of these dogs thrown into the "professional pits" that flourished during the 1860s came from England and Ireland—where citizens had turned to dogs when bear-baiting and bull-baiting became illegal in their countries.[3]
In twentieth century America, despite the expansion of laws to outlaw dog fighting, dog fighting continued to flourish underground.[3] Aiding in the expansion of dog fighting were the police and firemen, who saw dog fighting as a form of entertainment amongst their ranks.[3] In fact, the Police Gazette served as a "go to" source for information about where one could attend a fight.[3] When Henry Bergh, who started the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), witnessed police involvement in these fights, he was motivated to seek and receive authority for the ASPCA Humane Law Enforcement Agents to have arresting power in New York.[3] Additionally, Bergh's 1867 revision to New York's animal cruelty law made all forms of animal fighting illegal.[3] However, According to the ASPCA website, the Humane Law Enforcement department of ASPCA has been disbanded and NYPD has taken over its duty.[3] As laws were passed to outlaw the activity, high-profile organizations, such as the United Kennel Club, who once endorsed the sport by formulating rules and sanctioning referees, withdrew their endorsement.[1]
On July 8, 2009, the ASPCA also participated in one of the largest federal dog fighting raids in U.S. history. Most of the dogs rescued were pit bulls (over 400 of them). This raid took place in eight states and had 26 arrests, of which two defendants are required to spend at least 10 years in prison.[9]
Breed origins

According to one scholar, Richard Strebel, the foundation for modern fighting dogs came from: 1. The Tibetan Mastiff; 2. The English Mastiff, out of which came the French Mastiff, the English Bulldog, and the Pug; 3. The Great Dane, out of which came the Danish Mastiff and the Boxer; 4. The Newfoundland; and 5. The Saint Bernard, out of which came the Leonberger.[8] However, Dieter Fleig disagreed with Strebel and offered the following list as composing of the foundation for modern fighting dogs: 1. The Tibetan Mastiff; 2. The Molossus; 3. The Bull Biter; 4. The Great Dane; 5. The English Mastiff; 6. The Bulldog; 5. The Bull and Terrier; and 6. The Chincha Bulldog.[8]
The foundation breed of the fighting dog was, in its outward appearance, a large, low, heavy breed with a powerful build and strongly developed head, and tremendously threatening voice.[8] Additionally, these foundation breeds were also bred for a powerful jaw that would enable them to defend and protect humans, to overpower and pull down large animals on a hunt, and to control large, unmanageable domestic animals.[8] These dogs were also sometimes equipped with metal plates, chains, and collars with sharp spikes or hooked knives in order to be used in wars throughout history.[8]
When bullbaiting became popular in England due to the shortage of bears, bull baiters soon realized that large fighting dogs were built too heavy and too slow for this type of combat.[7] When fighting a bull, dogs were trained to grab onto the bull's nose and pin the bull's head to the ground.[7] If the dog failed to do this, the bull would fling the dog out of the ring with its horns.[7] The British therefore decided to selectively breed fighting dogs for shorter legs and a more powerful jaw.[7] These efforts resulted in the Old English Bulldog.[7]
However, when countries started outlawing bull and bear baiting, dog fighters started pitting dogs against other dogs.[7] With the prevalence of such combat, dogfighters soon realized bulldogs were inadequate and began to breed bulldogs with terriers for more desired characteristics.[7] Terriers were most likely crossbred with bulldogs due to their "generally rugged body structure," speed, aggression, and "highly developed gameness."[7] Yet, there is a debate over which type of terrier was bred with bulldogs in order to create the Bull and Terrier. For instance, Joseph L. Colby claimed that it was the old English White Terrier that the Bull and Terrier is descended from, while Rhonda D. Evans and Craig J. Forsyth contend that its ancestor is the Rat Terrier.[7] Carl Semencic, on the other hand, held that a variety of terriers produced the Bull and Terrier.[7]
Eventually, out of cross breeding bulldogs and terriers, the English created the Staffordshire Bull Terrier.[3] When the Staffordshire Bull Terrier came to America in 1817, Americans began to selectively breed for gameness and created the American Pit Bull Terrier (originally known as the Pit Bull Terrier), which is a unique breed due to its absence of threat displays when fighting and its docility towards humans.[7] Staffordshire Bull Terriers, American Pit Bull Terriers, American Staffordshire Terriers, and Bull Terriers are all breeds that are commonly labeled as pit bulls.[10] The fact that "pit bulls" were historically bred to fight bulls and bears has been used as justifications in some U.S. cities to implement Breed Specific Legislation.[11]
Societal aspects
After interviewing 31 dogmen and attending 14 dog fights in the Southern United States, Evans, Gauthier, and Forsyth theorized on what attracts men to dog fights.[12] In their study, Evans, et al., discussed dog fighting's attractiveness in terms of masculinity and class immobility.[12] In the United States, masculinity embodies the qualities of strength, aggression, competition, and striving for success. By embodying these characteristics, a man can gain honor and status in his society.[12] Yet, working class occupations, unlike middle or upper class occupations, provide limited opportunities to validate this culturally accepted definition of masculinity.[12] So, working class men look for alternative ways to validate their masculinity and obtain honor and status. One way to do this is through dogfighting.[12] This is supported by the Evans, et al. findings: the majority of committed dogmen were mostly drawn from the working class, while the middle and upper classes were barely represented.[12] Men from middle and upper classes have opportunities to express their masculinity through their occupations; dog fighting, therefore, is just a hobby for them while it plays a central role in the lives of working class men.[12] Those from the higher classes are drawn in by the thrill and excitement of the fight.
Aside from enjoyment of the sport and status, people are also drawn to dog fighting for money.[3] In fact, the average dog fight could easily net more money than an armed robbery, or a series of isolated drug transactions.[13]
Bait animals

"Bait" animals are animals used to test a dog's fighting instinct; they are often mauled or killed in the process. Many of the training methods involve torturing and killing of other animals.[13] Often "bait" animals are stolen pets, puppies, kittens, rabbits, small dogs and even stock (pit bulls acquired by the dogfighting ring which appear to be passive or less dominant).[14] Other sources for bait animals include wild or feral animals, animals obtained from a shelter, or animals obtained from "free to good home" ads.[15] The snouts of bait animals are often wrapped with duct tape to prevent them from fighting back and they are used in training sessions to improve a dog's endurance, strength or fighting ability.[16] A bait animal's teeth may also be broken to prevent them from fighting back.[14] If the bait animals are still alive after the training sessions, they are usually given to the dogs as a reward, and the dogs finish killing them.[13]
Types of dog fighters
Street fighters
Often associated with gang activity, street fighters fight dogs over insults, turf invasions, or simple taunts like "my dog can kill your dog."[3] These type of fights are often spontaneous; unorganized; conducted for money, drugs, or bragging rights; and occur on street corners, back alleys, and neighborhood playgrounds.[3] Urban street fighters generally have several dogs chained in backyards, often behind privacy fences, or in basements or garages.[2] After a street fight, the dogs are often discovered by police and animal control officers either dead or dying.[3] Due to the spontaneity and secrecy of a street fight, they are very difficult to respond to unless reported immediately.[3]
Hobbyists and professionals often decry the techniques street fighters use to train their dogs.[3] Such techniques include starving, drugging, and physically abusing the dog.[3]
Hobbyists
Hobbyists fight dogs for supplemental income and entertainment purposes.[3] They typically have one or more dogs participating in several organized fights and operate primarily within a specific geographic network.[3] Hobbyists are also acquainted with one another and tend to return to predetermined fight venues repeatedly.[2]
Professionals
Professional fighters breed generations of skilled "game dogs" and take a great pride in their dogs' lineage.[2] These fighters make a tremendous amount of money charging stud fees to breed their champions, in addition to the fees and winnings they collect for fighting them.[2] They also tend to own a large number of dogs—sometimes 50 or more.[3] Professionals also use trade journals, such as Your Friend and Mine, Game Dog Times, The American Warrior, and The Pit Bull Chronicle, to discuss recent fights and to advertise the sale of training equipment and puppies. Some fighters operate on a national or even international level within highly secret networks.[2] When a dog is not successful in a fight, a professional may dispose of it using a variety of techniques such as drowning, strangulation, hanging, gunshot, electrocution or some other method.[3] Sometimes professionals and hobbyists dispose of dogs deemed aggressive to humans to street fighters.[3]
Gang and criminal activities

Dog fighting is a felony in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.[2] While dog fighting statutes exist independently of general anti-cruelty statutes and carry stiffer penalties than general state anti-cruelty statutes, a person can be charged under both or can be charged under one, but not the other—depending on the evidence.[2] In addition to felony charges for dog fighting, forty-eight states and the District of Columbia, have provisions within their dogfighting statutes that explicitly prohibit attendance as a spectator at a dogfighting exhibition.[2] Since Montana and Hawaii do not have such provisions, a person can pay an entrance fee to watch a dog-fight in either state and not be convicted under these statutes. Additionally, forty-six states, and the District of Columbia, make possessing, owning or keeping a fighting dog a felony.[2]
While dog fighting was previously seen as isolated animal welfare issues—and therefore rarely enforced, the last decade has produced a growing body of legal and empirical evidence that has revealed a connection between dog-fighting and other crimes within a community, such as organized crime, racketeering, drug distribution, and/or gangs.[2] Within the gang community, fighting dogs compete with firearms as the weapon of choice; indeed, their versatile utility arguably surpasses that of a loaded firearm in the criminal underground. Drug dealers distribute their illicit merchandise, wagers are made, weapons are concealed, and the dogs mutilate each other in a bloody frenzy as crowds cheer on.[2] Violence often erupts among the usually armed gamblers when debts are to be collected and paid.[2] There is also a concern for children who are routinely exposed to dogfighting and are forced to accept the inherent violence as normal.[2] The routine exposure of the children to unfettered animal abuse and neglect is a major contributing factor in their later manifestation of social deviance.[2]
Animal welfare and rights
Animal advocates consider dog fighting to be one of the most serious forms of animal abuse, not only for the violence that the dogs endure during and after the fights, but because of the suffering they often endure in training, which ultimately can lead to death.
According to a filing in U.S. District Court in Richmond by federal investigators in Virginia, which was obtained under the Freedom of Information Act and published by the Baltimore Sun on July 6, 2007, a losing dog or one whose potential is considered unacceptable faces "being put to death by drowning, strangulation, hanging, gun shot, electrocution or some other method".[17]
Some of the training of fighting dogs may entail the use of small animals (including kittens) as prey for the dogs.
Status by region
Dog fighting has been popular in many countries throughout history and continues to be practiced both legally and illegally around the world.
In the 20th and 21st centuries, dog fighting has increasingly become an unlawful activity in most jurisdictions of the world, despite in cultural practice it may be common.
Africa
Morocco
Dog fighting is now illegal in Morocco, with dogs previously being imported from France on the black market.[18]
South Africa
Dog fighting has been declared illegal in the Republic of South Africa. However, it is still very popular in the underground world, with dog fighting being a highly syndicated and organized crime. The NSPCA (National Council of SPCAs) is the largest animal welfare organization in Africa, and has been the organization that has conducted the most raids and busts, of which the most recent was in 2013, where 18 people were arrested, and 14 dogs were involved. Dog fighting is mostly practiced in the Western Cape, in the townships area where gangs and drugs are mostly associated with dog fighting.
Dog fighting has been well documented in South Africa, particularly in the Western Cape region of Stellenbosch. The Stellenbosch Animal Welfare Society (AWS) frequently responds to complaints of night-time dog fighting in the town of Cloetesville in which hundreds of dogs fight. Young children may be used to transport fighting dogs to avoid arrest of the owners.[19][20]
Asia
Afghanistan
Previously banned by the Taliban during their rule, dog fighting has made a resurgence throughout Afghanistan as a common winter weekend pastime.
Especially in Kabul, where the fights are public and often policed to maintain safety to the spectators. Dogs are not fought to the death, but to submission. Top dogs are worth as much as a new car.[21]
China
Dog fighting is allowed under Chinese law, although gambling remains illegal.[22]
India
Dog fighting is extremely rare, but it can be found in some very small parts of Eastern India. The practice is illegal as defined by Indian law.
Japan
According to historical documents, Hōjō Takatoki, the 14th shikken (shōgun's regent) of the Kamakura shogunate was known to be obsessed with dog fighting, to the point where he allowed his samurai to pay taxes with dogs. During this period dog fighting was known as inuawase(犬合わせ).
Dog fighting was considered a way for the Samurai to retain their aggressive edge during peaceful times. Several daimyōs (feudal lords), such as Chōsokabe Motochika and Yamauchi Yōdō, both from Tosa Province (present-day Kōchi Prefecture), were known to encourage dog fighting. Dog fighting was also popular in Akita Prefecture, which is the origin of the Akita breed.
Dog fighting evolved in Kōchi to a form that is called tōken(闘犬). Under modern rules, dogs fight in a fenced ring until one of the dogs barks, yelps, or loses the will to fight. Owners are allowed to throw in the towel, and matches are stopped if a doctor judges if is too dangerous. Draws usually occur when both dogs will not fight or both dogs fight until the time limit. There are various other rules, including one that specifies that a dog will lose if it attempts to copulate. Champion dogs are called yokozuna, as in sumo. Dog fighting is not banned at a nationwide level, but the prefectures of Tokyo, Kanagawa, Fukui, Ishikawa, Toyama and Hokkaidō all ban the practice.[23] Currently, most fighting dogs in Japan are of the Tosa breed which is native to Kōchi.[24]
Pakistan
Dog fighting and other forms of animal fighting are extremely popular in all parts of rural Pakistan, and is deeply rooted in the rural culture, where some 70 percent of the population resides. It has been a way for tribes, clans and the rural people to socialize while being entertained.[25]
Even though it has recently been banned by law, it is still being practiced in rural Pakistan, especially in provinces such as Punjab, Azad Kashmir, Sindh and Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa. Now Karachi.Sindhi is the most popular city about Pitbull fighting with the proper rules There can apparently be as much as millions of rupees at stake for the owners of winning dogs,[26] so different breeds have carefully been bred and selected specifically for the purpose, such as the Bully Kutta.
Philippines
Dog fighting is illegal in the Philippines, with those involved being convicted under animal cruelty laws.[27]
Australia
Dog fighting and the possession of any fighting equipment designed for dog fighting is illegal in all Australian states and territories.[28] The illegal nature of dogfighting in Australia means that injured dogs rarely get veterinary treatment placing the dog's health and welfare at even greater risk.[28] "Restricted Breed Dogs" cannot be imported into Australia. These include the Dogo Argentino, the Japanese Tosa, the Fila Brasileiro, the Perro de Presa Canario and the American Pit Bull Terrier. Of these, the Pit Bull Terrier and the Perro de Presa Canario are the only breeds currently known to exist in Australia and there are strict regulations on keeping these breeds, including a prohibition on transferring ownership.[29]
Europe
Ireland
Dog fighting has been illegal in Ireland for over 150 years, although the sport is still popular in underground circles.[30]
Russia
Although animal cruelty laws exist in Russia, dog fighting is widely practiced. Laws prohibiting dogfights have been passed in certain places like Moscow by order of that city's mayor. In much of Russia dogfights are legally held generally using Caucasian Shepherd Dog, Georgian shepherd, Central Asian Shepherd Dog. Temperament tests, which are a common and relatively mild form of dog fighting used for breeding purposes, are fairly commonplace. Most dog fights are traditional contests used to test the stamina and ability of working dogs used to protect livestock. Unlike fights with pit bulls and other fighting breeds, a veterinarian is always on hand and the contests are never to the death, and serious injuries are very rare. Most fights are over in minutes when its clear which dog is superior. At the end of three rounds the contest is declared a draw.[31]
United Kingdom
Dog fighting remains illegal under UK law.[32] Despite periodic dog-fight prosecutions, however, illegal canine pit battles continued after the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 of England and Wales.[33] The Protection of Animals Act 1911 was specific in outlawing "the fighting or baiting of animals", however the sport remains popular in underground circles.[34]
Sporting journals of the 18th and 19th centuries depict the Black Country and London as the primary English dog fight centres of the period.[35]
New Zealand
In accordance with the Animal Welfare Act 1999, dog fighting is illegal within New Zealand. Breeding, training or owning dogs for fighting is also illegal.[36]
North America

Dog fighting has been illegal in Canada since 1892; however, the current law requires police to catch individuals during the unlawful act, which is often difficult.[37]
Dog fighting is a felony in all 50 U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.[2]  In most of the United States a spectator at a dog fight can be charged with a felony while some areas only consider it a misdemeanor offense.
In addition, the federal U.S. Animal Welfare Act makes it unlawful for any person to knowingly sell, buy, possess, train, transport, deliver, or receive any dog for purposes of having the dog participate in an animal fighting venture. The act also makes it unlawful for any person to knowingly use the mail service of the United States Postal Service or any instrumentality of interstate commerce for commercial speech for purposes of advertising a dog for use in an animal fighting venture, promoting or in any other manner furthering an animal fighting venture except as performed outside the limits of the States of the United States.[38]
In the second largest dog fighting raid in U.S. history in August 2013, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Alabama handed down the longest prison term ever handed down in a federal dog fighting case: eight years.[39]
According to a study by the College of Law of Michigan State University published in 2005, in the United States, dog fighting was once completely legal and was sanctioned and promoted during the colonial period through the Victorian and well into the 20th century. In the second half 19th century dog fighting started to be criminalized in the United States.
There is a US$5,000 reward for reporting dog fighting to The Humane Society of the United States[40] From the HSUS: How to spot signs of dogfighting in your community: An inordinate number of pit bull-type dogs being kept in one location, especially multiple dogs who are chained and seem unsocialized; Dogs with scars on their faces, front legs, and stifle area (hind end and thighs); Dogfighting training equipment such as "breaking sticks" or "break sticks" used to pry apart the jaws of dogs locked in battle which are foot long, flat on one side, appearing to be sharpened; tires or "spring poles" (usually a large spring with rope attached to either end) hanging from tree limbs; or unusual foot traffic coming and going from a location at odd hours.
CNN estimated that in the United States more than 100,000 people are engaged in dog fighting on a non-professional basis and roughly 40,000 individuals are involved as professionals in the sport of dog fighting as a commercial activity. Top fights are said to have purses of $100,000 or more.[41]
In Costa Rica, dogfights were illegal for decades as a misdemeanor, since 2014 and after a legal reform became a felony and is punished with up to three years of imprisonment.[42][43]
South America
Dog fighting is illegal in much of South America. The American Pit Bull Terrier is by far the most common breed involved in the bloodsport. The Dogo Argentino was also used as fighting dog. The Dogo Cubano and Cordoba Fighting Dog were used for fighting a century ago, but have become extinct.
Dog Fighting terms
Cur - Cowardly dog[44][45]
Gamesness - willingness to fight[46]
Rollin - Practice fight
See also
Cockfight
Cricket fighting
List of dog fighting breeds
Spider fighting

General information

News articles
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The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain, in humans and other mammals. It is separated into two cortices, by the longitudinal fissure that divides the cerebrum into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres are joined beneath the cortex by the corpus callosum. The cerebral cortex is the largest site of neural integration in the central nervous system.[1] It plays a key role in memory, attention, perception, awareness, thought, language, and consciousness.
In large mammals, the cerebral cortex is folded, providing a greater surface area in the confined volume of the cranium. Apart from minimising brain and cranial volume cortical folding is crucial for the wiring of the brain and its functional organisation. In mammals with a small brain there is no folding and the cortex is smooth.[2][3]
A fold or ridge in the cortex is termed a gyrus (plural gyri) and a groove is termed a sulcus (plural sulci). These surface convolutions appear during fetal development and continue to mature after birth through the process of gyrification. In the human brain the majority of the cerebral cortex is not visible from the outside, but buried in the sulci.[4]
There are between 14 and 16 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex. These are organised into  cortical columns and minicolumns of neurons that make up the layers of the cortex. Most of the cerebral cortex consists of the six-layered neocortex. Cortical areas have specific functions.
Structure
The cerebral cortex is the outer covering of the surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres and is folded into peaks called gyri, and grooves called sulci. It is between two and three millimetres thick.[1] It makes up 40 per cent of the brain's mass. There are between 14 and 16 billion neurons in the cortex,[1] and these are organized in cortical columns, and minicolumns of the layers of the cortex.
Folds

The cerebral cortex is folded in a way that allows a large surface area of neural tissue to fit within the confines of the neurocranium. When unfolded, each hemispheric cortex has a total surface area of about 1.3 square feet (0.12m2).[5] The folding is inward away from the surface of the brain, and is also present on the medial surface of each hemisphere within the longitudinal fissure. Most mammals have a cerebral cortex that is convoluted with the peaks known as gyri and the troughs or grooves known as sulci. Some small mammals including some small rodents have smooth cerebral surfaces without gyrification.[3]
Thickness
For species of mammals, larger brains (in absolute terms, not just in relation to body size) tend to have thicker cortices.[6] The smallest mammals, such as shrews, have a neocortical thickness of about 0.5mm; the ones with the largest brains, such as humans and fin whales, have thicknesses of 2.3–2.8mm. There is an approximately logarithmic relationship between brain weight and cortical thickness.[6]
Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain (MRI) makes it possible to get a measure for the thickness of the human cerebral cortex and relate it to other measures. The thickness of different cortical areas varies but in general, sensory cortex is thinner than motor cortex.[7] One study has found some positive association between the cortical thickness and intelligence.[8]
Another study has found that the somatosensory cortex is thicker in migraine sufferers, though it is not known if this is the result of migraine attacks or the cause of them.[9][10]
A later study using a larger patient population reports no change in the cortical thickness in migraine sufferers.[11]
A genetic disorder of the cerebral cortex, whereby decreased folding in certain areas results in a microgyrus, where there are four layers instead of six, is in some instances seen to be related to dyslexia.[12]
Layers of neocortex

The six cortical layers of the neocortex each contain a characteristic distribution of different neurons and their connections with other cortical and subcortical regions. There are direct connections between different cortical areas and indirect connections via the thalamus. One of the clearest examples of cortical layering is the line of Gennari in the primary visual cortex. This is a band of whiter tissue that can be observed with the naked eye in the fundus of the calcarine sulcus of the occipital lobe. The line of Gennari is composed of axons bringing visual information from the thalamus into layer IV of the visual cortex.
Staining cross-sections of the cortex to reveal the position of neuronal cell bodies and the intracortical axon tracts allowed neuroanatomists in the early 20th century to produce a detailed description of the laminar structure of the cortex in different species. After the work of Korbinian Brodmann (1909) the neurons of the cerebral cortex are grouped into six main layers, from outside (pial surface) to inside (white matter):
Layer I
Layer I is the molecular layer, and contains few scattered neurons, including GABAergic rosehip neurons.[13] Layer I consists largely of extensions of apical dendritic tufts of pyramidal neurons and horizontally oriented axons, as well as glial cells.[14] During development Cajal-Retzius cells[15] and subpial granular layer cells[16] are present in this layer. Also, some spiny stellate cells can be found here. Inputs to the apical tufts are thought to be crucial for the feedback interactions in the cerebral cortex involved in associative learning and attention.[17] While it was once thought that the input to layer I came from the cortex itself,[18] it is now realized that layer I across the cerebral cortex mantle receives substantial input from matrix or M-type thalamus cells[19] (in contrast to core or C-type that go to layer IV).[20]
Layer II
Layer II, the external granular layer, contains small pyramidal neurons and numerous stellate neurons.
Layer III
Layer III, the external pyramidal layer, contains predominantly small and medium-size pyramidal neurons, as well as non-pyramidal neurons with vertically oriented intracortical axons; layers I through III are the main target of interhemispheric corticocortical afferents, and layer III is the principal source of corticocortical efferents.
Layer IV
Layer IV, the internal granular layer, contains different types of stellate and pyramidal cells, and is the main target of thalamocortical afferents from thalamus type C neurons (core-type )[20] as well as intra-hemispheric corticocortical afferents. The layers above layer IV are also referred to as supragranular layers (layers I-III), whereas the layers below are referred to as infragranular layers (layers V and VI).
Layer V
Layer V, the internal pyramidal layer, contains large pyramidal neurons. Axons from these leave the cortex and connect with subcortical structures including the basal ganglia. In the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe, layer V contains giant pyramidal cells called Betz cells, whose axons travel through the internal capsule, the brain stem, and the spinal cord forming the corticospinal tract, which is the main pathway for voluntary motor control.
Layer VI
Layer VI, the polymorphic or multiform layer, contains few large pyramidal neurons and many small spindle-like pyramidal and multiform neurons; layer VI sends efferent fibers to the thalamus, establishing a very precise reciprocal interconnection between the cortex and the thalamus.[21] That is, layer VI neurons from one cortical column connect with thalamus neurons that provide input to the same cortical column. These connections are both excitatory and inhibitory. Neurons send excitatory fibers to neurons in the thalamus and also send collaterals to the thalamic reticular nucleus that inhibit these same thalamus neurons or ones adjacent to them.[22] One theory is that because the inhibitory output is reduced by cholinergic input to the cerebral cortex, this provides the brainstem with adjustable "gain control for the relay of lemniscal inputs".[22]
Columns
The cortical layers are not simply stacked one over the other; there exist characteristic connections between different layers and neuronal types, which span all the thickness of the cortex. These cortical microcircuits are grouped into cortical columns and minicolumns. It has been proposed that the minicolumns are the basic functional units of the cortex.[23] In 1957, Vernon Mountcastle showed that the functional properties of the cortex change abruptly between laterally adjacent points; however, they are continuous in the direction perpendicular to the surface. Later works have provided evidence of the presence of functionally distinct cortical columns in the visual cortex (Hubel and Wiesel, 1959),[24] auditory cortex,
and associative cortex.
Cortical areas that lack a layer IV are called agranular. Cortical areas that have only a rudimentary layer IV are called dysgranular.[25] Information processing within each layer is determined by different temporal dynamics with that in the layers II/III having a slow 2Hz oscillation while that in layer V having a fast 10–15Hz one.[26]
Types of cortex

Based on the differences in laminar organization the cerebral cortex can be classified into two types, the large area of neocortex which has six cell layers, and the much smaller area of allocortex that has three or four layers:
The neocortex is also known as the isocortex or neopallium and is the part of the mature cerebral cortex with six distinct layers. Examples of neocortical areas include the granular primary motor cortex, and the striate primary visual cortex. The neocortex has two subtypes, the true isocortex and the proisocortex which is a transitional region between the isocortex and the regions of the periallocortex.
The allocortex is the part of the cerebral cortex with three or four layers, and has three subtypes, the paleocortex with three cortical laminae, the archicortex which has four or five, and a transitional area adjacent to the allocortex, the periallocortex. Examples of allocortex are the olfactory cortex and the hippocampus.
There is a transitional area between the neocortex and the allocortex called the paralimbic cortex, where layers 2, 3 and 4 are merged. This area incorporates the proisocortex of the neocortex and the periallocortex of the allocortex. In addition, the cerebral cortex may be classified into four lobes: the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the occipital lobe, named from their overlying bones of the skull.
Brodmann areas

Different parts of the cerebral cortex are involved in different cognitive and behavioral functions. The differences show up in a number of ways: the effects of localized brain damage, regional activity patterns exposed when the brain is examined using functional imaging techniques, connectivity with subcortical areas, and regional differences in the cellular architecture of the cortex. The neocortex is described as having six layers but not all layers are apparent in all areas, and even when a layer is present, its thickness and cellular organization may vary. Scientists have constructed maps of cortical areas on the basis of variations in the appearance of the layers as seen with a microscope. One of the most widely used schemes came from Korbinian Brodmann, who split the cortex into 51 different areas and assigned each a number (many of these Brodmann areas have since been subdivided). For example, Brodmann area 1 is the primary somatosensory cortex, Brodmann area 17 is the primary visual cortex, and Brodmann area 25 is the anterior cingulate cortex.[27]
Blood supply and drainage

Blood supply to the cerebral cortex is part of the cerebral circulation. Cerebral arteries supply the blood that perfuses the cerebrum. This arterial blood carries oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients to the cortex. Cerebral veins drain the deoxygenated blood, and metabolic wastes including carbon dioxide, back to the heart.

Development

The prenatal development of the cerebral cortex is a complex and finely tuned process called corticogenesis, influenced by the interplay between genes and the environment.[28]
Neural tube
The cerebral cortex develops from the most anterior part, the forebrain region, of the neural tube.[29][30] The neural plate folds and closes to form the neural tube. From the cavity inside the neural tube develops the ventricular system, and, from the neuroepithelial cells of its walls, the neurons and glia of the nervous system. The most anterior (front, or cranial) part of the neural plate, the prosencephalon, which is evident before neurulation begins, gives rise to the cerebral hemispheres and later cortex.[31]
Cortical neuron development

Cortical neurons are generated within the ventricular zone, next to the ventricles. At first, this zone contains neural stem cells, that transition to radial glial cells–progenitor cells, which divide to produce glial cells and neurons.[32]
Radial glia

The cerebral cortex is composed of a heterogenous population of cells that give rise to different cell types. The majority of these cells are derived from radial glia migration that form the different cell types of the neocortex and it is a period associated with an increase in neurogenesis. Similarly, the process of neurogenesis regulates lamination to form the different layers of the cortex. During this process there is an increase in the restriction of cell fate that begins with earlier progenitors giving rise to any cell type in the cortex and later progenitors giving rise only to neurons of superficial layers. This differential cell fate creates an inside-out topography in the cortex with younger neurons in superficial layers and older neurons in deeper layers. In addition, laminar neurons are stopped in S or G2 phase in order to give a fine distinction between the different cortical layers. Laminar differentiation is not fully complete until after birth since during development laminar neurons are still sensitive to extrinsic signals and environmental cues.[33]
Although the majority of the cells that compose the cortex are derived locally from radial glia there is a subset population of neurons that migrate from other regions. Radial glia give rise to neurons that are pyramidal in shape and use glutamate as a neurotransmitter, however these migrating cells contribute neurons that are stellate-shaped and use GABA as their main neurotransmitter. These GABAergic neurons are generated by progenitor cells in the medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) that migrate tangentially to the cortex via the subventricular zone. This migration of GABAergic neurons is particularly important since GABA receptors are excitatory during development. This excitation is primarily driven by the flux of chloride ions through the GABA receptor, however in adults chloride concentrations shift causing an inward flux of chloride that hyperpolarizes postsynaptic neurons.[34]
The glial fibers produced in the first divisions of the progenitor cells are radially oriented, spanning the thickness of the cortex from the ventricular zone to the outer, pial surface, and provide scaffolding for the migration of neurons outwards from the ventricular zone.[35][36]
At birth there are very few dendrites present on the cortical neuron's cell body, and the axon is undeveloped. During the first year of life the dendrites become dramatically increased in number, such that they can accommodate up to a hundred thousand synaptic connections with other neurons. The axon can develop to extend a long way from the cell body.[37]
Asymmetric division
The first divisions of the progenitor cells are symmetric, which duplicates the total number of progenitor cells at each mitotic cycle. Then, some progenitor cells begin to divide asymmetrically, producing one postmitotic cell that migrates along the radial glial fibers, leaving the ventricular zone, and one progenitor cell, which continues to divide until the end of development, when it differentiates into a glial cell or an ependymal cell. As the G1 phase of mitosis is elongated, in what is seen as selective cell-cycle lengthening, the newly-born neurons migrate to more superficial layers of the cortex.[38] The migrating daughter cells become the pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex.[39] The development process is time ordered and regulated by hundreds of genes and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms.[40]
Layer organisation
The layered structure of the mature cerebral cortex is formed during development. The first pyramidal neurons generated migrate out of the ventricular zone and subventricular zone, together with reelin-producing Cajal–Retzius neurons, from the preplate. Next, a cohort of neurons migrating into the middle of the preplate divides this transient layer into the superficial marginal zone, which will become layer I of the mature neocortex, and the subplate,[41] forming a middle layer called the cortical plate. These cells will form the deep layers of the mature cortex, layers five and six. Later born neurons migrate radially into the cortical plate past the deep layer neurons, and become the upper layers (two to four). Thus, the layers of the cortex are created in an inside-out order.[42] The only exception to this inside-out sequence of neurogenesis occurs in the layer I of primates, in which, in contrast to rodents, neurogenesis continues throughout the entire period of corticogenesis.[43]
Cortical patterning

The map of functional cortical areas, which include primary motor and visual cortex, originates from a 'protomap',[44] which is regulated by molecular signals such as fibroblast growth factor FGF8 early in embryonic development.[45][46] These signals regulate the size, shape, and position of cortical areas on the surface of the cortical primordium, in part by regulating gradients of transcription factor expression, through a process called cortical patterning. Examples of such transcription factors include the genes EMX2 and PAX6.[47] Together, both transcription factors form an opposing gradient of expression. Pax6 is highly expressed at the rostral lateral pole, while Emx2 is highly expressed in the caudomedial pole. The establishment of this gradient is important for proper development. For example, mutations in Pax6 can cause expression levels of Emx2 to expand out of its normal expression domain, which would ultimately lead to an expansion of the areas normally derived from the caudal medial cortex, such as the visual cortex. On the contrary, if mutations in Emx2 occur, it can cause the Pax6-expressing domain to expand and result in the frontal and motor cortical regions enlarging. Therefore, researchers believe that similar gradients and signaling centers next to the cortex could contribute to the regional expression of these transcription factors.[34]
Two very well studied patterning signals for the cortex include FGF and retinoic acid. If FGFs are misexpressed in different areas of the developing cortex, cortical patterning is disrupted. Specifically, when Fgf8 is increased in the anterior pole, Emx2 is downregulated and a caudal shift in the cortical region occurs. This ultimately causes an expansion of the rostral regions. Therefore, Fgf8 and other FGFs play a role in the regulation of expression of Emx2 and Pax6 and represent how the cerebral cortex can become specialized for different functions.[34]
Rapid expansion of the cortical surface area is regulated by the amount of self-renewal of radial glial cells and is partly regulated by FGF and Notch genes.[48] During the period of cortical neurogenesis and layer formation, many higher mammals begin the process of gyrification, which generates the characteristic folds of the cerebral cortex.[49][50] Gyrification is regulated by a DNA-associated protein Trnp1[51] and by FGF and SHH signaling[52][53]
Evolution
Of all the different brain regions, the cerebral cortex shows the largest evolutionary variation and has evolved most recently.[3] In contrast to the highly conserved circuitry of the medulla oblongata, for example, which serves critical functions such as regulation of heart and respiration rates, many areas of the cerebral cortex are not strictly necessary for survival. Thus, the evolution of the cerebral cortex has seen the advent and modification of new functional areas—particularly association areas that do not directly receive input from outside the cortex.[3]
A key theory of cortical evolution is embodied in the radial unit hypothesis and related protomap hypothesis, first proposed by Rakic.[54] This theory states that new cortical areas are formed by the addition of new radial units, which is accomplished at the stem cell level. The protomap hypothesis states that the cellular and molecular identity and characteristics of neurons in each cortical area are specified by cortical stem cells, known as radial glial cells, in a primordial map. This map is controlled by secreted signaling proteins and downstream transcription factors.[55][56][57]
Function

Connections
The cerebral cortex is connected to various subcortical structures such as the thalamus and the basal ganglia, sending information to them along efferent connections and receiving information from them via afferent connections. Most sensory information is routed to the cerebral cortex via the thalamus. Olfactory information, however, passes through the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex (piriform cortex). The majority of connections are from one area of the cortex to another, rather than from subcortical areas; Braitenberg and Schüz (1998) claim that in primary sensory areas, at the cortical level where the input fibres terminate, up to 20% of the synapses are supplied by extracortical afferents but that in other areas and other layers the percentage is likely to be much lower.[58]
Cortical areas

The cortex is commonly described as comprising three parts: sensory, motor, and association areas.
Sensory areas
The sensory areas are the cortical areas that receive and process information from the senses. Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the thalamus are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex and primary somatosensory cortex respectively. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual field. The organization of sensory maps in the cortex reflects that of the corresponding sensing organ, in what is known as a topographic map. Neighboring points in the primary visual cortex, for example, correspond to neighboring points in the retina. This topographic map is called a retinotopic map. In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus, where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with lots of sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation.
Motor areas
The motor areas are located in both hemispheres of the cortex. They are shaped like a pair of headphones stretching from ear to ear. The motor areas are very closely related to the control of voluntary movements, especially fine fragmented movements performed by the hand. The right half of the motor area controls the left side of the body, and vice versa.
Two areas of the cortex are commonly referred to as motor:
Primary motor cortex, which executes voluntary movements
Supplementary motor areas and premotor cortex, which select voluntary movements.
In addition, motor functions have been described for:
Posterior parietal cortex, which guides voluntary movements in space
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which decides which voluntary movements to make according to higher-order instructions, rules, and self-generated thoughts.
Just underneath the cerebral cortex are interconnected subcortical masses of grey matter called basal ganglia (or nuclei). The basal ganglia receive input from the substantia nigra of the midbrain and motor areas of the cerebral cortex, and send signals back to both of these locations. They are involved in motor control. They are found lateral to the thalamus. The main components of the basal ganglia are the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the globus pallidus, the substantia nigra, the nucleus accumbens, and the subthalamic nucleus. The putamen and globus pallidus are also collectively known as the lentiform nucleus, because together they form a lens-shaped body. The putamen and caudate nucleus are also collectively called the corpus striatum after their striped appearance.[59][60]
Association areas
The association areas are the parts of the cerebral cortex that do not belong to the primary regions. They function to produce a meaningful perceptual experience of the world, enable us to interact effectively, and support abstract thinking and language. The parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes - all located in the posterior part of the cortex - integrate sensory information and information stored in memory. The frontal lobe or prefrontal association complex is involved in planning actions and movement, as well as abstract thought. Globally, the association areas are organized as distributed networks.[61] Each network connects areas distributed across widely spaced regions of the cortex. Distinct networks are positioned adjacent to one another yielding a complex series of interwoven networks. The specific organization of the association networks is debated with evidence for interactions, hierarchical relationships, and competition between networks.[62]

In humans, association networks are particularly important to language function. In the past it was theorized that language abilities are localized in Broca's area in areas of the left  inferior frontal gyrus, BA44 and BA45,  for language expression and in Wernicke's area BA22, for language reception. However, the processes of language expression and reception have been shown to occur in areas other than just those structures around the lateral sulcus, including the frontal lobe, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and pons.[63]
Clinical significance

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Lafora disease, show as a marker, an atrophy of the grey matter of the cerebral cortex.[64]
The cerebral cortex can be adversely affected by a wide range of genetic disorders, and chromosome abnormalities some of which may be acquired. These can result in neurodevelopmental disorders such as fragile X syndrome and Rett syndrome.
Other diseases of the central nervous system include neurological disorders such as epilepsy, movement disorders, and difficulties in speech (aphasia).
Brain damage from disease or trauma, can involve damage to a specific lobe such as in frontal lobe disorder, and associated functions will be affected. The blood-brain barrier
that serves to protect the brain from infection can become compromised allowing entry to pathogens.
The developing fetus is susceptible to a range of environmental factors that can cause birth defects and problems in later development. Maternal alcohol consumption for example can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder.[65] Other factors that can cause neurodevelopment disorders are  toxicants such as drugs, and exposure to radiation as from X-rays.
A disorder of neuronal migration is lissencephaly a condition in which the cerebral surface is smooth without
the convulutions of gyrification.
A type of electrocorticography called cortical stimulation mapping is an invasive procedure that involves placing electrodes directly onto the exposed brain in order to localise the functions of specific areas of the cortex. It is used in clinical and therapeutic applications including pre-surgical mapping.[66]
Other animals
The cerebral cortex is derived from the pallium, a layered structure found in the forebrain of all vertebrates. The basic form of the pallium is a cylindrical layer enclosing fluid-filled ventricles. Around the circumference of the cylinder are four zones, the dorsal pallium, medial pallium, ventral pallium, and lateral pallium, which are thought respectively to give rise to the neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and olfactory cortex.
Until recently no counterpart to the cerebral cortex had been recognized in invertebrates. However, a study published in the journal Cell in 2010, based on gene expression profiles, reported strong affinities between the cerebral cortex and the mushroom bodies of the ragworm Platynereis dumerilii.[67] Mushroom bodies are structures in the brains of many types of worms and arthropods that are known to play important roles in learning and memory; the genetic evidence indicates a common evolutionary origin, and therefore indicates that the origins of the earliest precursors of the cerebral cortex date back to the early Precambrian era.
Additional images

Motor and sensory regions of the cerebral cortex
Motor and sensory regions of the cerebral cortex

See also

Brain-computer interface
Cortical dysplasia
Cortical homunculus
Eloquent cortex
EMX1
Gray matter heterotopia
Limbic system
List of regions in the human brain

 at NeuroNames
 at the BrainMaps project
, Webvision: Comprehensive article about the structure and function of the primary visual cortex.
, Webvision: Image of the basic cell types of the monkey cerebral cortex.

What is the surface area of the human cortex?


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In social studies, a political ideology is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how society should work and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used. Some political parties follow a certain ideology very closely while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. The popularity of an ideology is in part due to the influence of moral entrepreneurs, who sometimes act in their own interests. Political ideologies have two dimensions: (1) goals: how society should be organized; and (2) methods: the most appropriate way to achieve this goal.
An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers to be the best form of government (e.g. democracy or autocracy) and the best economic system (e.g. capitalism or socialism). The same word is sometimes used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system. The same term may also be used to refer to multiple ideologies and that is why political scientists try to find consensus definitions for these terms. For instance, while the terms have been conflated at times communism has come in common parlance and in academics to refer to Soviet-type regimes and Marxist–Leninist ideologies whereas socialism has come to refer to a wider range of differing ideologies distinct from Marxism–Leninism. [1] Political ideology is a term fraught with problems, having been called "the most elusive concept in the whole of social science".[2] However, ideologies tend to identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (such as the left, the centre or the right), though this is very often controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g. populism as it is commonly defined) and from single issues around which a party may be built (e.g. opposition to European integration or the legalization of marijuana), although either of these may be central to a particular ideology. There are several studies that show that political ideology is heritable within families.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]
The following list is strictly alphabetical and attempts to divide the ideologies found in practical political life into a number of groups and each group contains ideologies that are related to each other. The headers refer to names of the best-known ideologies in each group. The names of the headers do not necessarily imply some hierarchical order or that one ideology evolved out of the other. They are merely noting that the ideologies in question are practically, historically and ideologically related to each other. One ideology can belong to several groups and there is sometimes considerable overlap between related ideologies. The meaning of a political label can also differ between countries and political parties often subscribe to a combination of ideologies.
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Anti-nuclear movement
Bioregionalism
Ecocentrism
Eco-communalism
Back-to-the-land movement
Green anarchism
Anarcho-primitivism
Inclusive democracy
Social ecology
Green municipalism
Neo-Luddism
Radical environmentalism
Animal rights movement
Deep Green Resistance
Earth liberation
Light green environmentalism

Free market environmentalism
Eco-capitalism
Sustainable capitalism
Green libertarianism
Green conservatism
Fiscal environmentalism
Green liberalism
Other
Ecofeminism
Eco-nationalism
Green Zionism
Green left
Eco-socialism
Green politics
Localism
Queer ecology
Regional variants
Australia
New Zealand
South Africa
Switzerland
United States
Religious variants

Christian environmentalism
Ecotheology
Evangelical environmentalism
Islamic environmentalism
Jewish environmentalism
Maori environmentalism
Spiritual ecology
Fascism

General
Alt-right
Anarcho-fascism
Antisemitism
New antisemitism
Racial antisemitism
Religious antisemitism
Corporate statism
Crypto-fascism
Dark Enlightenment
Ecofascism
Homonationalism
Integralism
Brazilian integralism
French integralism
Lusitanian integralism
Integral nationalism
National syndicalism
Fascist syndicalism
Sorelianism
Left-wing fascism
Regressive left
Nashism
National radicalism
Neo-fascism
Neo-Nazism
Racial nationalism
Reactionary modernism
Revolutionary nationalism
Right-wing authoritarianism
Supremacism
Third Position
Nouvelle Droite
Identarianism
Peronism
Tropical fascism
Ultranationalism
Palingenetic ultranationalism
Regional variants
African

Rwanda
South Africa
Zaire
American

Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Nazism
Canada
Chile
Nazism
Mexico
Peru
United States
Nazism
Asian/Pacific

China
Japan
New Zealand
European

Austria
Belgium
Croatia
France
Germany
Hitlerism
Strasserism
Greek
Hungary
Italy
Actual idealism
Mussolinism
Sansepolcrismo
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Slovakia
Spain
Francoism
Sweden
United Kingdom
Yugoslavia
Middle Eastern/Indian

India
Iran
Israel
Lebanon
Syria
Religious variants
Christofascism
Christian Identity
Positive Christianity
Clerical fascism
Esoteric Nazism
Ariosophy
Neo-völkisch movements
Islamofascism
Feminism and identity politics

Political internationals
International Council of Women (feminism)
Minority Rights Group International (minority rights)
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (self-determination and indigenous rights)
Age-related rights movements
Children's rights movement
Elder rights movement
Intergenerational equity
Youth rights movement
Disability-related rights movements
Disability rights movement
Deaf rights movement
Neurodiversity movement
Autism rights movement
Mad pride movement
Psychiatric survivors movement
Fat acceptance movement
Fat feminism
Feminism

General
Analytical feminism
Anarcha-feminism
Antifeminism
Conservative feminism
Anti-abortion feminism
Individualist feminism
Cultural feminism
Cyberfeminism
Difference feminism
New feminism
Ecofeminism
Vegetarian ecofeminism
Equality feminism
Feminist economics
Feminist urbanism
Gender feminism
Labor feminism
Lesbian feminism
Liberal feminism
Equity feminism
Libertarian feminism
Lipstick feminism
Neofeminism
Material feminism
Maternal feminism
Postmodern feminism
Radical feminism
Women's liberation movement
Separatist feminism
Sex-positive feminism
Social feminism
Socialist feminism
Marxist feminism
Standpoint feminism
State feminism
Transfeminism
Chronological variants
Protofeminism
First-wave feminism
Second-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism
Fourth-wave feminism
Postfeminism
Ethnic and social variants
Black feminism
Hip-hop feminism
Womanism
Africana womanism
Chicana feminism
Dalit feminism
French feminism
Post-structural feminism
Indigenous feminism
Native American feminism
Kurdish feminism
Postcolonial feminism
Global feminism
Third-world feminism
Transnational feminism
White feminism
Regional variants
African

Congo
Ethiopia
Ghana
Mali
Nigeria
South Africa
American

Argentina
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Haiti
Honduras
Mexico
Paraguay
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Asian/Pacific

Australia
China
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Japan
Malaysia
New Zealand
Philippines
South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
Vietnam
European

Albania
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Russia
Sweden
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Middle Eastern/Indian

Bangladesh
Egypt
India
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Lebanon
Nepal
Northern Cyprus
Pakistan
Syria
Turkey
Religious variants

Atheist feminism
Buddhist feminism
Christian feminism
Hindu feminism
Islamic feminism
Jewish feminism
Orthodox Jewish feminism
Mormon feminism
Neopagan feminism
Reclaiming
Sikh feminism
LGBT social movements

Gay liberation
Gay pride
Homonationalism
LGBT conservatism
Queer anarchism
Queer ecology
Queer nationalism
Queer socialism
Transfeminism
Men's movement

Antifeminism
Men's rights movement
Fathers' rights movement
Intactivism
Incelism
Masculism
Mythopoetic men's movement
Profeminism
Men's liberation movement
Racial separatist and supremacist movements

Black

Black nationalism
Black separatism
White

Alt-right
White nationalism
White separatism
Self-determination movements

African-American

African-American self-determination
Black anarchism
Black capitalism
Black conservatism
Black feminism
Womanism
Africana womanism
Black power
Pan-Africanism
Indigenous peoples

Canadian First Nations self-determination
Indigenismo
Maori self-determination
Native American self-determination
American Indian Movement
Pan-Indianism
Self-determination of Australian Aborigines
Latin American

Chicanismo
Chicano movement
Hispanismo
Indigenismo
Pan-americanism
Panhispanism
Liberalism

Political internationals
Liberal International (liberalism)
Transnational Radical Party (radicalism)
General
Agonistic liberalism
Classical liberalism
Left-libertarianism
Georgism
Geolibertarianism
Neoclassical liberalism
Right-libertarianism
Neoliberalism
Conservative liberalism
Constitutionalism
Constitutional liberalism
Cultural liberalism
Democratic liberalism
Green liberalism
Muscular liberalism
National liberalism
Progressivism
Republicanism
Classical republicanism
Secular liberalism
Social liberalism
Technoliberalism
Other
Centrism
Moderatism
Radical centrism
Syncretism
Third Way
Communitarianism
Liberal autocracy
Liberal conservatism
Liberal corporatism
Liberal feminism
Equity feminism
Liberal socialism
Pirate politics
Radicalism
Social democracy
Nordic model
Social corporatism
Welfare capitalism
Whiggism
Christian democracy
Christian corporatism
Distributism
Social credit movement
Ordoliberalism
Social market economy
Popolarismo
Regional variants
African
Nigeria
Senegal
South Africa
Zimbabwe
American
Canada
Latin America
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Ecuador
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
Venezuela
United States
Democratism
Modern
Progressivism
Asian/Pacific
Australia
China
Hong Kong
Japan
New Zealand
Philippines
South Korea
Taiwan
Thailand
European
Europe
Albania
Armenia
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Czech lands
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Moldova
Montenegro
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Middle Eastern/Indian
Cyprus
Egypt
India
Iran
Israel
Tunisia
Turkey
Libertarianism

Political internationals
International Alliance of Libertarian Parties (right-libertarianism)
General
Autarchism
Classical liberalism
Neoclassical liberalism
Neoliberalism
Free-market anarchism
Agorism
Anarcho-capitalism
Left-wing market anarchism
Georgism
Geolibertarianism
Green libertarianism
Libertarian feminism
Libertarian paternalism
Libertarian transhumanism
Neo-libertarianism
Right-libertarianism
Consequentialist libertarianism
Fusionism
Libertarian conservatism
Minarchism
Natural-rights libertarianism
Objectivist libertarianism
Paleolibertarianism
Panarchism
Propertarianism
Voluntaryism
Regional variants
African
South Africa
American
Canada
United States
Asian/Pacific
Australia
Hong Kong
European
United Kingdom
Religious variants
Christian libertarianism
Nationalism

Political internationals
International Conference of Asian Political Parties (pan-Asianism and regionalism)
The Movement (neo-nationalism)
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (nationalism and self-determination)
General
Anti-imperialism
Bourgeois nationalism
Chauvinism
Welfare chauvinism
Civic nationalism
Corporate nationalism
Eco-nationalism
Economic nationalism
Business nationalism
Developmentalism
Ethnic nationalism
Expansionist nationalism
Homonationalism
Imperialism
Globalism
Neocolonialism
Neo-imperialism
Jingoism
Left-wing nationalism
Liberal nationalism
National mysticism
Nativism
Neo-nationalism
Pan-nationalism
Queer nationalism
Religious nationalism
Romantic nationalism
Territorial nationalism
Ultranationalism
Other
National-anarchism
National Bolshevism
National communism
National conservatism
National liberalism
National populism
National syndicalism
Regional variants
African

Afrikan
Algeria
Berber
Congo
Lumumbism
Egypt
Ethiopia
Madagascar
Nigera
Somalia
American
Argentina
Brazil
Canada
Quebec
Greenland
United States
Hawaiian sovereignty movement
Independence movement in Puerto Rico
Neo-Confederate movement
Asian/Pacific
Cambodia
China
East Turkistan
Taiwan
Tibet
Indonesia
Japan
Karen
Korean
Malaysia
Philippines
Vetnam
Degar
European
Albania
Kosovo
Armenia
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
Flanders
Walloonia
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
Czech
Slovakia
Estonia
Faroe Islands
Finland
France
Alsace
Brittany
Corsica
Gaullism
Occitania
Georga
Germany
Bavaria
Golus
Greek
Cyprio
Hungary
Ireland
Irish republicanism
Ulster unionism
Italy
Padania
Sardinia
Latvia
Lithuania
Moldova
Norway
Poland
Silesia
Portugal
Romania
Poporanism
Székely
Russia
Chechnya
Circassia
Spain
Basque
Blaverism
Canary Islands
Catalonia
Galicia
Ukaraine
United Kingdom
British unionism
Cornwall
England
Northern Ireland
Ulster loyalism
Ulster nationalism
Scotland
Welsh
Yugoslavia
Bosnia
Croatia
Serbia
Macedonia
Montenegro
Slovenia
Middle Eastern/Indian
Arab
Lebanon
Palestine
Assyria
Azerbajan
India
Bangladesh
Dravidian
Punjabi
Iran
Israel
Christian Zionism
Green Zionism
Labor Zionism
Neo-Zionism
Religious Zionism
Revisionist Zionism
Kurdistan
Pakistan
Kashmir
Sri Lanka
Tamil
Turkey
Kemalism
Unification movements

Anti-globalization movement
Alter-globalization
Global citizens movement
Global justice movement
Anti-nationalism
Anationalism
Antipatriotism
Cosmopolitanism
Democratic globalization
Internationalism
Indigenism
Indigenismo
Pan-Indianism
Multiculturalism
Interculturalism
Pluriculturalism
Plurinationalism
Polyculturalism
Pan-Africanism
Pan-Americanism
Pan-Arabism
Ba'athism
Nasserism
Pan-Asianism
Pan-Celticism
Pan-Europeanism
Pan-European nationalism
United States of Europe
Pan-Germanism
Pan-Hellenism
Pan-Hispanism
Patria Grande
Pan-Iberism
Pan-Iranism
Pan-Irishism
Pan-Islamism
Pan-Latin Americanism
Pan-Latinism
Pan-Scandinavianism
Pan-Slavism
Pan-Somalism
Pan-Turanism
Pan-Turkism
Postnationalism
Regionalism
Religious variants

Christian nationalism
Hindu nationalism
Jewish nationalism
Anti-Zionism
Religious anti-Zionism
Diaspora nationalism
Religious Zionism
Muslim nationalism
Sikh nationalism
Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism
Populism and direct democracy movements

Political internationals
Pirate Parties International (pirate politics)
General
Agrarianism
Agrarian reformism
Land reform movements
Anticipatory democracy
Anti-corruption movements
Anti-establishmentarianism
Anti-particracy movements
Cellular democracy
Collaborative governance
Consensus democracy
Copyright reform movements
Cyber-utopianism
Deliberative democracy
Delegative democracy
E-democracy
Collaborative e-democracy
E-government
E-participation
Interactive democracy
Empowered democracy
Grassroots democracy
Localism
Net neutrality movements
Open-source governance
Pirate politics
Popular democracy
Producerism
Semi-direct democracy
Sociocracy
Left-wing populism

Agrarian socialism
Anti-corporation movements
Anti-corporate activism
Anti-globalization movement
Alter-globalization
Global justice movement
Global citizens movement
Anti-nuclear movement
Economic democracy
Council democracy
Industrial democracy
Workers' self-management
Workplace democracy
Egalitarianism
Inclusive democracy
Labour movement
Occupy movement
Participism
Parecon
Participatory budgeting
Parpolity
Participatory democracy
Participatory justice
Participatory planning
Peace movement
Anti-militarism
Anti-war movement
Pacifism
Radical democracy
Right-wing populism

Alt-lite
Alt-right
Antisemitism
New antisemitism
Chauvinism
Welfare chauvinism
Islamophobia
National conservatism
Nativism
Anti-immigration movements
Neo-nationalism
Neoreactionary movement
Paleoconservatism
Penal populism
Völkisch movement
Neo-völkisch movements
Regional variants
American
Latin America
Argentina
Kirchnerism
Peronism
Bolivia
Movement for Socialism
Brazil
Bolsonarism
Lulism
Petismo
Podemos
Ecuador
PAIS Alliance
Correanism
Mexico
Nicaragua
Sandinismo
Venezuela
Bolivarianism
Chavism
Fifth Republic Movement
North America
Canada
United States
Black populism movement
Bull Moose populism
Coffee Party movement
Jacksonian democracy
Jeffersonian democracy
Longism
People's Party populism
Perotism
Progressive populism
Tea Party movement
Trumpism
European
Athenian democracy
Euroscepticism
Hard Euroscepticism
Soft Euroscepticism
Greek Syriza movement
Italian Five Star movement
Roman Populares
Russian agrarian populism
Romanian agrarian populism
Spanish anti-austerity movement
Spanish Podemos movement
Swiss semi-direct democracy
Landsgemeinde
Popular initiative
UKIP movement
Brexit movement
Middle Eastern/Indian
Ambedkarism (India)
Erdoğanism (Turkey)
Hindutva (India)
Modism
Kemalism (Turkey)
Tehreek-e-Insaf (Pakistan)
Religio-political ideologies

Political internationals
Centrist Democrat International (Christian democracy)
Hizb ut-Tahrir (Islamism)
Muslim Brotherhood (Islamism)
General
Anti-Masonry
Christian anti-Masonry
Muslim anti-Masonry
Antisemitism
New antisemitism
Racial antisemitism
Religious antisemitism
Clericalism
Confessionalism
Divine right of kings
Feminist theology
Thealogy
Womanist theology
Freemasonry
Humanism
Religious humanism
Secular humanism
Islamophobia
Political religion
Progressive Reconstructionism
Religious anarchism
Religious anti-Zionism
Religious apoliticism
Religious communism
Religious environmentalism
Spiritual ecology
Religious liberalism
Religious nationalism
Religious pacifism
Religious socialism
Secularism
Anti-clericalism
Cult of Reason
Disestablishmentarianism
Laïcité
Secular religion
Secular state
Spiritual left
State religion
Antidisestablishmentarianism
Cult of the Supreme Being
Theophilanthropy
Theocracy
Theonomy
Political atheism and agnosticism
Atheist feminism
Marxist-Leninist atheism
Secular humanism
State atheism
Political Buddhism
Buddhist anarchism
Buddhist feminism
Buddhist modernism
Engaged Buddhism
Humanistic Buddhism
Secular Buddhism
Buddhist nationalism
969 Movement
Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism
Buddhist socialism
Political Christianity

Caesaropapism
Christian antisemitism
Christian democracy
Christian corporatism
Popolarismo
Social market economy
Christian environmentalism
Ecotheology
Evangelical environmentalism
Christian feminism
Christian humanism
Christian left
Christian anarchism
Tolstoyan movement
Christian communism
Hutterites
Proto-communism
Shakers
Christian socialism
Utopian socialism
Diggers
Levellers
Evangelical left
Liberal Christianity
Liberation theology
Progressive Christianity
Social Gospel
Christian pacifism
Christian right
Christian fundamentalism
Traditionalist Catholicism
Christian libertarianism
Christian nationalism
Christian Zionism
Christofascism
Clerical fascism
National Catholicism
Christian reconstructionism
Dominionism
Theoconservatism
Distributism
Social credit movement
Jesuism
Political Catholicism
Ultramontanism
Neo-ultramontanism
Political Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
New Confucianism
Political Hinduism
Gandhism
Gandhian socialism
Hindu feminism
Hindu nationalism
Akhand Bharat
Hindu revolution
Hindutva
Integral humanism
Hindu revivalism
Political indigenous religions
Maori environmentalism
Political Islam

Gülen movement
Islamic anarchism
Islamic antisemitism
Islamic democracy
Islamic environmentalism
Islamic feminism
Islamic fundamentalism
Islamism
Islamic fascism
Islamic liberalism
Islamic Modernism
Islamic nationalism
Islamic Zionism
Muslim nationalism in South Asia
Islamic pacifism
Islamic socialism
Khilafat movement
Pan-Islamism
Political Judaism

Cultural Zionism
Jewish anarchism
Jewish anti-Zionism
Jewish Autonomism
Jewish democracy
Jewish environmentalism
Jewish feminism
Orthodox Jewish feminism
Jewish fundamentalism
Jewish humanism
Homaranismo
Jewish left
Bundism
Jewish nationalism
Halachic state
Religious Zionism
Jewish secularism
Kibbutzim
Kibbutz Movement
Religious Kibbutz Movement
Political Mormonism
Mormon feminism
Theodemocracy
Political Neopaganism
Neopagan feminism
Reclaiming
Neo-völkisch movements
Political Shinto
State Shinto
Political Sikhism
Khalistan movement
Sikh feminism
Socialism

Political internationals
Foro de São Paulo (socialism of the 21st century)
Progressive Alliance (social democracy)
Socialist International (democratic socialism)
World Socialist Movement (impossibilism)
Authoritarian

Blanquism
State socialism
Lassallism
Leninism
State capitalism
Libertarian

Classical Marxism
Orthodox Marxism
Impossibilism
World socialism
Communard movement
Democratic socialism
Inclusive democracy
Left-libertarianism
Classical liberal radicalism
Chartism
Georgism
Geolibertarianism
Mutualism
Free-market socialism
Social anarchism
Steiner–Vallentyne school
Libertarian Marxism
Autonomism
Workerism
Open Marxism
Instrumental Marxism
Kautskyism
Situationism
Socialisme ou Barbarie
Solidarity
Participism
Parecon
Syndicalism
De Leonism
Libertarian possibilism
Wobblyism
Western Marxism
Austro-Marxism
Frankfurt School
Freudo-Marxism
Marxist humanism
Neo-Marxism
Analytical Marxism
Conflict theories
Dependency theory
Social conflict theory
World-systems theory
Gramscianism
Neo-Gramscianism
Structural Marxism
Post-Marxism
Other
Agrarian socialism
Centrist Marxism
Eco-socialism
Economic democracy
Council democracy
Industrial democracy
Workers' self-management
Workplace democracy
Egalitarianism
Ethical socialism
Fabian socialism
Guild socialism
Kibbutz Movement
Labourism
Liberal socialism
Market socialism
Ricardian socialism
Veblenian socialism
Marxist revisionism
Bernsteinism
Lassalleanism
Classical social democracy
Democratic socialism
Municipal socialism
Post-capitalism
Proto-socialism
Chartists
Communards
Diggers
Jacobins
Levellers
Radicals
Reformist socialism
Evolutionary socialism
Gradualism
Immediatism
Possibilism
Social democracy
Revolutionary socialism
Scientific socialism
Socialism of the 21st century
Socialist feminism
Marxist feminism
Socialist nationalism
Utopian socialism
Fourierism
Icarians
Owenism
Regional variants
African
Africa
American
Latin America
Argentine
Bolivia
Brazil
Caribbean
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Mexico
Magonism
Neozapatismo
Nicaragua
Paraguay
Uruguay
Venezuela
North America
Canada
United States
African-American leftism
Asian/Pacific
Australia
Bangladesh
Burma
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Korea
Melanesia
New Zealand
Tanzanian
European
Catalonia
France
Germany
Social democracy
Netherlands
Russia
Narodniks
Social democracy
Bolsheviks
Mensheviks
Scandinavia
Popular socialism
United Kingdom
Middle Eastern/Indian
Arab
Nasserism
Tunisia
India
Gandhian socialism
Naxalism
Nehruism
Iran
Rojava
Israel
Pakistan
Religious variants

Buddhist socialism
Christian socialism
Diggers
Levellers
Liberation theology
Proto-socialism
Social Gospel
Islamic socialism
Jewish socialism
Kibbutzim
Mazdakism
See also
Ideology
List of communist ideologies
List of forms of government
List of ideologies named after people
Political international
Political party

. TV Tropes.

What are the types of political ideology?