The Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric gravity dam that spans the Yangtze River by the town of Sandouping, in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, China. The Three Gorges Dam has been the world's largest power station in terms of installed capacity (22,500MW) since 2012.[5][6] In 2014, the dam generated 98.8 terawatt-hours (TWh) and had the world record, but was surpassed by the Itaipú Dam, which set the new world record in 2016, producing 103.1 TWh.[7]
Except for the locks, the dam project was completed and fully functional as of July 4, 2012,[8][9] when the last of the main water turbines in the underground plant began production. The ship lift was complete in December 2015.[10] Each main water turbine has a capacity of 700MW.[11][12] The dam body was completed in 2006. Coupling the dam's 32 main turbines with two smaller generators (50MW each) to power the plant itself, the total electric generating capacity of the dam is 22,500MW.[11][13][14]
As well as producing electricity, the dam is intended to increase the Yangtze River's shipping capacity and reduce the potential for floods downstream by providing flood storage space. China regards the project as monumental as well as a success socially and economically,[15] with the design of state-of-the-art large turbines,[16] and a move toward limiting greenhouse gas emissions.[17] However, the dam flooded archaeological and cultural sites, displaced some 1.3million people, and had caused significant ecological changes including an increased risk of landslides.[18] The dam has been controversial both domestically and abroad.[19]

History

A large dam across the Yangtze River was originally envisioned by Sun Yat-sen in The International Development of China, in 1919.[21][22] He stated that a dam capable of generating 30million horsepower (22GW) was possible downstream of the Three Gorges.[22] In 1932, the Nationalist government, led by Chiang Kai-shek, began preliminary work on plans in the Three Gorges. In 1939, Japanese military forces occupied Yichang and surveyed the area. A design, the Otani plan, was completed for the dam in anticipation of a Japanese victory over China.
In 1944, the United States Bureau of Reclamation head design engineer, John L. Savage, surveyed the area and drew up a dam proposal for the 'Yangtze River Project'.[23] Some 54 Chinese engineers went to the U.S. for training. The original plans called for the dam to employ a unique method for moving ships; the ships would move into locks located at the lower and upper ends of the dam and then cranes with cables would move the ships from one lock to the next. In the case of smaller water craft, groups of craft would be lifted together for efficiency. It is not known whether this solution was considered for its water-saving performance or because the engineers thought the difference in height between the river above and below the dam too great for alternative methods.[24] Some exploration, survey, economic study, and design work was done, but the government, in the midst of the Chinese Civil War, halted work in 1947.
After the 1949 Communist takeover, Mao Zedong supported the project, but began the Gezhouba Dam project nearby first, and economic problems including the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution slowed progress. After the 1954 Yangtze River Floods, in 1956, Mao Zedong authored "Swimming", a poem about his fascination with a dam on the Yangtze River. In 1958, after the Hundred Flowers Campaign, some engineers who spoke out against the project were imprisoned.[25]
During the 1980s, the idea of a dam reemerged. The National People's Congress approved the dam in 1992: out of 2,633 delegates, 1,767 voted in favour, 177 voted against, 664 abstained, and 25 members did not vote.[26] Construction started on December 14, 1994.[27] The dam was expected to be fully operational in 2009, but additional projects, such as the underground power plant with six additional generators, delayed full operation until May 2012.[14][25] The ship lift was completed in 2015.[10][28] The dam had raised the water level in the reservoir to 172.5m (566ft) above sea level by the end of 2008 and the designed maximum level of 175m (574ft) by October 2010.[29][30]
Composition and dimensions

Made of concrete and steel, the dam is 2,335m (7,661ft) long and the top of the dam is 185m (607ft) above sea level. The project used 27.2×10^6m3 (35.6×10^6cuyd) of concrete (mainly for the dam wall), used 463,000 T of steel (enough to build 63 Eiffel Towers), and moved about 102.6×10^6m3 (134.2×10^6cuyd) of earth.[31] The concrete dam wall is 181m (594ft) high above the rock basis.
When the water level is at its maximum of 175m (574ft) above sea level, 110m (361ft) higher than the river level downstream, the dam reservoir is on average about 660km (410mi) in length and 1.12km (3,675ft) in width. It contains 39.3km3 (31,900,000acre⋅ft) of water and has a total surface area of 1,045km2 (403sqmi). On completion, the reservoir flooded a total area of 632km2 (244sqmi) of land, compared to the 1,350km2 (520sqmi) of reservoir created by the Itaipu Dam.[32]
Economics
The government estimated that the Three Gorges Dam project would cost 180billion yuan (US$22.5billion).[33] By the end of 2008, spending had reached 148.365billion yuan, among which 64.613billion yuan was spent on construction, 68.557billion yuan on relocating affected residents, and 15.195billion yuan on financing.[34] It was estimated in 2009 that the construction cost would be recovered when the dam had generated 1,000 terawatt-hours (3,600PJ) of electricity, yielding 250billion yuan. Full cost recovery was thus expected to occur ten years after the dam started full operation,[33] but the full cost of the Three Gorges Dam was recovered by December 20, 2013.[35]
Funding sources include the Three Gorges Dam Construction Fund, profits from the Gezhouba Dam, loans from the China Development Bank, loans from domestic and foreign commercial banks, corporate bonds, and revenue from both before and after the dam is fully operational. Additional charges were assessed as follows: Every province receiving power from the Three Gorges Dam had to pay ¥7.00 per MWh extra. Other provinces had to pay an additional charge of ¥4.00 per MWh. The Tibet Autonomous Region pays no surcharge.[36]

Power generation and distribution
Generating capacity

Power generation is managed by China Yangtze Power, a listed subsidiary of China Three Gorges Corporation (CTGC)—a Central Enterprise SOE administered by SASAC. The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest capacity hydroelectric power station with 34generators: 32 main generators, each with a capacity of 700MW, and two plant power generators, each with capacity of 50MW, making a total capacity of 22,500MW.[11] Among those 32 main generators, 14 are installed in the north side of the dam, 12 in the south side, and the remaining six in the underground power plant in the mountain south of the dam. Annual electricity generation in 2015 was 87TWh.[37]
Generators
The main generators weigh about 6,000tonnes each and are designed to produce more than 700MW of power. The designed head of the generator is 80.6 meters (264ft). The flow rate varies between 600–950 cubic metres per second (21,000–34,000cuft/s)  depending on the head available. The greater the head, the less water needed to reach full power. Three Gorges uses Francis turbines. Turbine diameter is 9.7/10.4m (VGS design/Alstom's design) and rotation speed is 75revolutions per minute. This means that in order to generate power at 50 Hz, the generator rotors have 80 poles. Rated power is 778 MVA, with a maximum of 840MVA and a power factor of 0.9. The generator produces electrical power at 20kV. The electricity generated is then stepped-up to 500 kV for transmission at 50 Hz. The outer diameter of the generator stator is 21.4/20.9m. The inner diameter is 18.5/18.8m. The stator, the biggest of its kind, is 3.1/3m in height. Bearing load is 5050/5500 tonnes. Average efficiency is over 94%, and reaches 96.5%.[38][39]

The generators were manufactured by two joint ventures: one of them Alstom, ABB Group, Kvaerner, and the Chinese company Haerbin Motor; the other Voith, General Electric, Siemens (abbreviated as VGS), and the Chinese company Oriental Motor. The technology transfer agreement was signed together with the contract. Most of the generators are water-cooled. Some newer ones are air-cooled, which are simpler in design and manufacture and are easier to maintain.[40]
Generator installation progress
The 14 north side main generators are in operation. The first (No.2) started on July 10, 2003. The north side became completely operational September 7, 2005, with the implementation of generator No.9. Full power (9,800MW) was only reached on October 18, 2006, after the water level reached 156m.[41]
The 12 south side main generators are also in operation. No.22 began operation on June 11, 2007, and No.15 started up on October 30, 2008.[12] The sixth (No.17) began operation on December 18, 2007, raising capacity to 14.1GW, finally surpassing Itaipu (14.0GW), to become the world's largest hydro power plant by capacity.[42][43][44][45]
As of May 23, 2012, when the last main generator, No. 27, finished its final test, the six underground main generators are also in operation, raising capacity to 22.5 GW.[8] After nine years of construction, installation and testing, the power plant is now fully operational.[14][46][47][48]
Output milestones

By August 16, 2011, the plant had generated 500TWh of electricity.[49][50] In July 2008 it generated 10.3TWh of electricity, its first month over 10TWh.[51] On June 30, 2009, after the river flow rate increased to over 24,000m3, all 28 generators were switched on, producing only 16,100MW because the head available during flood season is insufficient.[52] During an August 2009 flood, the plant first reached its maximum output for a short period.[53]
During the November to May dry season, power output is limited by the river's flow rate, as seen in the diagrams on the right. When there is enough flow, power output is limited by plant generating capacity. The maximum power-output curves were calculated based on the average flow rate at the dam site, assuming the water level is 175m and the plant gross efficiency is 90.15%. The actual power output in 2008 was obtained based on the monthly electricity sent to the grid.[54][55]
The Three Gorges Dam reached its design-maximum reservoir water level of 175m (574ft) for the first time on October 26, 2010, in which the intended annual power-generation capacity of 84.7 TWh was realized.[29] In 2012, the dam's 32 generating units generated a record 98.1 TWh of electricity, which accounts for 14% of China's total hydro generation.[56]

Distribution
The State Grid Corporation and China Southern Power Grid paid a flat rate of ¥250per MWh (US$35.7) until July 2, 2008. Since then, the price has varied by province, from ¥228.7–401.8per MWh. Higher-paying customers, such as Shanghai, receive priority.[67] Nine provinces and two cities consume power from the dam.[68]
Power distribution and transmission infrastructure cost about 34.387billion Yuan. Construction was completed in December 2007, one year ahead of schedule.[69]
Power is distributed over multiple 500 kilovolt (kV) transmission lines. Three direct current (DC) lines to the East China Grid carry 7,200 MW: Three Gorges – Shanghai (3,000 MW), HVDC Three Gorges – Changzhou (3,000 MW), and HVDC Gezhouba – Shanghai (1,200 MW). The alternating current (AC) lines to the Central China Grid have a total capacity of 12,000 MW. The DC transmission line HVDC Three Gorges – Guangdong to the South China Grid has a capacity of 3,000 MW.[70]
The dam was expected to provide 10% of China's power. However, electricity demand has increased more quickly than previously projected. Even fully operational, on average, it supports only about 1.7% of electricity demand in China in the year of 2011, when the Chinese electricity demand reached 4692.8 TWh.[71][72]
Environmental impact

Emissions
According to the National Development and Reform Commission of China, 366grams of coal would produce 1kWh of electricity during 2006.[73] At full power, Three Gorges reduces coal consumption by 31million tonnes per year, avoiding 100million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions,[74] millions of tonnes of dust, onemillion tonnes of sulfur dioxide, 370,000tonnes of nitric oxide, 10,000tonnes of carbon monoxide, and a significant amount of mercury.[75] Hydropower saves the energy needed to mine, wash, and transport the coal from northern China.
From 2003 to 2007, power production equaled that of 84million tonnes of standard coal, reducing carbon dioxide by 190million tonnes, sulfur dioxide by 2.29million tonnes, and nitrogen oxides by 980,000tonnes.[76]
The dam increased the Yangtze's barge capacity sixfold, reducing carbon dioxide emission by 630,000tonnes. From 2004 to 2007, a total of 198 million tonnes of goods passed through the ship locks. Compared to using trucking, barges reduced carbon dioxide emission by tenmillion tonnes and lowered costs by 25%.[76]
Erosion and sedimentation
Two hazards are uniquely identified with the dam.[77] One is that sedimentation projections are not agreed upon, and the other is that the dam sits on a seismic fault. At current levels, 80% of the land in the area is experiencing erosion, depositing about 40million tons of sediment into the Yangtze annually.[78] Because the flow is slower above the dam, much of this sediment will now settle there instead of flowing downstream, and there will be less sediment downstream.
The absence of silt downstream has three effects:
Some hydrologists expect downstream riverbanks to become more vulnerable to flooding.[79]
Shanghai, more than 1,600km (990mi) away, rests on a massive sedimentary plain. The "arriving silt—so long as it does arrive—strengthens the bed on which Shanghai is built... the less the tonnage of arriving sediment the more vulnerable is this biggest of Chinese cities to inundation..."[80]
Benthic sediment buildup causes biological damage and reduces aquatic biodiversity.[81]
Earthquakes and landslides
Erosion in the reservoir, induced by rising water, causes frequent major landslides that have led to noticeable disturbance in the reservoir surface, including two incidents in May 2009 when somewhere between 20,000 and 50,000 cubic metres (26,000 and 65,000cuyd) of material plunged into the flooded Wuxia Gorge of the Wu River.[82] Also, in the first four months of 2010, there were 97 significant landslides.[83]
Waste management

The dam catalyzed improved upstream wastewater treatment around Chongqing and its suburban areas. According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection, as of April 2007, more than 50 new plants could treat 1.84million tonnes per day, 65% of the total need. About 32 landfills were added, which could handle 7,664.5tonnes of solid waste every day.[84] Over onebillion tons of wastewater are released annually into the river,[78] which was more likely to be swept away before the reservoir was created. This has left the water looking stagnant, polluted and murky.[83]
Forest cover
In 1997, the Three Gorges area had 10% forestation, down from 20% in the 1950s.[78]
Research by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization research suggested that the Asia-Pacific region would, overall, gain about 6,000km2 (2,300sqmi) of forest by 2008. That is a significant change from the 13,000km2 (5,000sqmi) net loss of forest each year in the 1990s. This is largely due to China's large reforestation effort. This accelerated after the 1998 Yangtze River floods convinced the government that it must restore tree cover, especially in the Yangtze's basin upstream of the Three Gorges Dam.[85]
Wildlife

Concerns about the potential wildlife impact of the dam predate the National People's Congress's approval in 1992.[86] This region has long been known for its rich biodiversity. It is home to 6,388 species of plants, which belong to 238 families and 1508 genera. Of these plant species, 57 percent are endangered.[87] These rare species are also used as ingredients in traditional Chinese medicines.[88] Already, the percentage of forested area in the region surrounding the Three Gorges Dam has dropped from twenty percent in 1950 to less than ten percent as of 2002,[89] negatively affecting all plant species in this locality. The region also provides habitats to hundreds of freshwater and terrestrial animal species.[87] Freshwater fish are especially affected by dams due to changes in the water temperature and flow regime. Many other fish are hurt in the turbine blades of the hydroelectric plants as well. This is particularly detrimental to the ecosystem of the region because the Yangtze River basin is home to 361 different fish species and accounts for twenty-seven percent of all endangered freshwater fish species in China.[90] Other aquatic species have been endangered by the dam, particularly the baiji, or Chinese river dolphin,[78]  now extinct. In fact, Government Chinese scholars even claim that the Three Gorges Dam directly caused the extinction of the baiji.[91]
Of the 3,000 to 4,000 remaining critically endangered Siberian crane, a large number currently spend the winter in wetlands that will be destroyed by the Three Gorges Dam.[92] The dam contributed to the functional extinction of the baiji Yangtze river dolphin.  Though it was close to this level even at the start of construction, the dam further decreased its habitat and increased ship travel, which are among the factors causing what will be its ultimate demise.  In addition, populations of the Yangtze sturgeon are guaranteed to be "negatively affected" by the dam.[93]
Floods, agriculture, industry
An important function of the dam is to control flooding, which is a major problem for the seasonal river of the Yangtze. Millions of people live downstream of the dam, with many large, important cities like Wuhan, Nanjing, and Shanghai situated adjacent to the river. Plenty of farm land and China's most important industrial area are built beside the river.
The reservoir's flood storage capacity is 22 cubic kilometres (5.3cumi; 18,000,000acre⋅ft). This capacity will reduce the frequency of major downstream flooding from once every 10 years to once every 100years. The dam is expected to minimize the effect of even a "super" flood.[94][95] In 1954, the river flooded 193,000km2 (74,500sqmi), killing 33,169people and forcing 18,884,000people to move. The flood covered Wuhan, a city of eight million people, for over three months, and the Jingguang Railway was out of service for more than 100days.[96] The 1954 flood carried 50 cubic kilometres (12cumi) of water. The dam could only divert the water above Chenglingji, leaving 30 to 40km3 (7.2 to 9.6cumi) to be diverted.[97] Also, the dam cannot protect against some of the large tributaries downstream, including the Xiang, Zishui, Yuanshui, Lishui, Hanshui, and the Gan.
In 1998, a flood in the same area caused billions of dollars in damage; 2,039km2 (787sqmi) of farm land were flooded. The flood affected more than 2.3million people, killing 1,526.[98] In early August 2009, the largest flood in five years passed through the dam site. The dam limited the water flow to less than 40,000 cubic metres (1,400,000cuft) per second, raising the upstream water level from 145.13m (476.1ft) on August 1, 2009, to 152.88m (501.6ft) on August 8, 2009. A full 4.27km3 (1.02cumi) of flood water was captured and the river flow was cut by as much as 15,000m3 (530,000cuft) per second.[53]
The dam discharges its reservoir during the dry season between December and March every year.[99] This increases the flow rate of the river downstream, and provides fresh water for agricultural and industrial usage. It also improves shipping conditions. The water level upstream drops from 175 to 145m (574 to 476ft),[100] preparing for the rainy season. The water also powers the Gezhouba Dam downstream.
Since the filling of the reservoir in 2003, the Three Gorges Dam has supplied an extra 11km3 (2.6cumi) of fresh water to downstream cities and farms during the dry season.[101]

During the 2010 South China floods in July, inflows at the Three Gorges Dam reached a peak of 70,000m3/s (2,500,000cuft/s), exceeding the peak during the 1998 Yangtze River Floods. The dam's reservoir rose nearly 3m (9.8ft) in 24 hours and reduced the outflow to 40,000m3/s (1,400,000cuft/s) in discharges downstream, effectively alleviating serious impacts on the middle and lower river.[102][103]
Terrestrial impact
In 2010, NASA scientists calculated that shift of water mass stored by the dams would increase the length of the earth's day by 0.06 microseconds and make the earth slightly more round in the middle and flat on the poles. [104]
Navigating the dam
Locks

The installation of ship locks is intended to increase river shipping from tenmillion to 100million tonnes annually, as a result transportation costs will be cut between 30 and 37%. Shipping will become safer, since the gorges are notoriously dangerous to navigate.[76] Ships with much deeper draft will be able to navigate 2,400 kilometres (1,500mi) upstream from Shanghai all the way to Chongqing. It is expected that shipping to Chongqing will increase fivefold.[105][106]
There are two series of ship locks installed near the dam (). Each of them is made up of five stages, with transit time at around four hours. Maximum vessel size is 10,000tons.[107] The locks are 280m long, 35m wide, and 5m deep (918 × 114 × 16.4ft).[108][109] That is 30m (98ft) longer than those on the St Lawrence Seaway, but half as deep. Before the dam was constructed, the maximum freight capacity at the Three Gorges site was 18.0million tonnes per year. From 2004 to 2007, a total of 198million tonnes of freight passed through the locks. The freight capacity of the river increased sixtimes and the cost of shipping was reduced by 25%. The total capacity of the ship locks is expected to reach 100million tonnes per year.[76]
These locks are staircase locks, whereby inner lock gate pairs serve as both the upper gate and lower gate.  The gates are the vulnerable hinged type, which, if damaged, could temporarily render the entire flight unusable. As there are separate sets of locks for upstream and downstream traffic, this system is more water efficient than bi-directional staircase locks.
Ship lift

In addition to the canal locks, there is a ship lift, a kind of elevator for vessels. The ship lift can lift ships of up to 3,000tons.[10][110] The vertical distance traveled is 113m (371ft),[111] and the size of the ship lift's basin is 120m ×18m ×3.5m (394ft ×59ft ×11ft). The ship lift takes 30 to 40 minutes to transit, as opposed to the three to four hours for stepping through the locks.[112] One complicating factor is that the water level can vary dramatically. The ship lift must work even if water levels vary by 12 meters (39ft) on the lower side, and 30m (98ft) on the upper side.
The ship lift's design uses a helical gear system, to climb or descend a toothed rack.[113]
The ship lift was not yet complete when the rest of the project was officially opened on May 20, 2006.[114][115]
In November 2007, it was reported in the local media that construction of the ship lift started in October 2007.[28]
In February 2012, Xinhua reported that the four towers that are to support the ship lift had almost been completed.[116]
The report said the towers had reached 189m (620ft) of the anticipated 195m (640ft), the towers would be completed by June 2012 and the entire shiplift in 2015.
As of May 2014, the ship lift was expected to be completed by July 2015.[117] It was tested in December 2015 and announced complete in January 2016.[10][118] Lahmeyer, the German firm that designed the ship lift, said it will take a vessel less than an hour to transit the lift.[113]  An article in Steel Construction says the actual time of the lift will be 21 minutes.[119] It says that the expected dimensions of the 3,000 tonnes (3,000,000kg) passenger vessels the ship lift's basin was designed to carry will be 84.5 by 17.2 by 2.65 metres (277.2ft ×56.4ft ×8.7ft). The moving mass (including counterweights) is 34,000 tonnes.
The trials of elevator finished in July 2016, the first cargo ship was lifted in July 15, the lift time comprised 8 minutes.[120]
Shanghai Daily reported that the first operational use of the lift was on September 18, 2016, when limited "operational testing" of the lift began.[121]
Portage railways
Plans also exist for the construction of short portage railways bypassing the dam area altogether. Two short rail lines, one on each side of the river, are to be constructed. The 88-kilometre (55mi) long northern portage railway (北岸翻坝铁路) will run from the Taipingxi port facility (太平溪港) on the northern side of the Yangtze, just upstream from the dam, via Yichang East Railway Station to the Baiyang Tianjiahe port facility in Baiyang Town (白洋镇), below Yichang.[122] The 95-kilometre (59mi) long southern portage railway (南岸翻坝铁路) will run from Maoping (upstream of the dam) via Yichang South Railway Station to Zhicheng (on the Jiaozuo–Liuzhou Railway).[122]
In late 2012, preliminary work started along both future railway routes.[123]
Relocation of residents
Though the large size of the reservoir caused huge relocation upstream, it was considered justified by the flood protection it provides for communities downstream.[124] As of June 2008, China relocated 1.24million residents (ending with Gaoyang in Hubei Province) as 13 cities, 140 towns and 1350 villages either flooded or were partially flooded by the reservoir [A_2-M:CR3-1HP:S-15],[125][126][127] about 1.5% of the province's 60.3million and Chongqing Municipality's 31.44million population.[128] About 140,000residents were relocated to other provinces.[129]
Relocation was completed on July 22, 2008.[126] Some 2007 reports claimed that Chongqing Municipality will encourage an additional fourmillion people to move away from the dam to the main urban area of Chongqing by 2020.[130][131][132]
However, the municipal government explained that the relocation is due to urbanization, rather than the dam, and people involved included other areas of the municipality.[133]
Allegedly, funds for relocating 13,000 farmers around Gaoyang disappeared after being sent to the local government, leaving residents without compensation.[134]
Other effects
Culture and aesthetics
The 600km (370mi) long reservoir flooded some 1,300archaeological sites and altered the appearance of the Three Gorges as the water level rose over 91m (300ft).[135] Cultural and historical relics are being moved to higher ground as they are discovered, but the flooding inevitably covered undiscovered relics. Some sites could not be moved because of their location, size, or design. For example, the hanging coffins site high in the Shen Nong Gorge is part of the cliffs.[136]
National security
The United States Department of Defense reported that in Taiwan, "proponents of strikes against the mainland apparently hope that merely presenting credible threats to China's urban population or high-value targets, such as the Three Gorges Dam, will deter Chinese military coercion."[137]
The notion that the military in Taiwan would seek to destroy the dam provoked an angry response from the mainland Chinese media. People's Liberation Army General Liu Yuan was quoted in the China Youth Daily saying that the People's Republic of China would be "seriously on guard against threats from Taiwan independence terrorists."[138]
The Three Gorges Dam is a steel-concrete gravity dam. The water is held back by the innate mass of the individual dam sections. As a result, damage to an individual section should not affect other parts of the dam. Due to the sheer size of the dam, it is expected to withstand tactical nuclear strikes.
Structural integrity
Days after the first filling of the reservoir, around 80 hairline cracks were observed in the dam's structure.[139][140][141] The submerged spillway gates of the dam might pose a risk of cavitation, similar to that which severely damaged the poorly designed and cavitating spillways of the Glen Canyon Dam in the US state of Arizona, which was unable to properly withstand the Colorado river floods of 1983.[142] However, 163,000 concrete units of the Three Gorges dam all passed quality testing and the deformation was within design limits. An experts group gave the project overall a good quality rating.[143]
Upstream dams

In order to maximize the utility of the Three Gorges Dam and cut down on sedimentation from the Jinsha River,  the upper course of the Yangtze River,  authorities plan to build a series of dams on the Jinsha, including Wudongde Dam, Baihetan Dam, along with the now completed Xiluodu and Xiangjiaba dams. The total capacity of those four dams is 38,500MW,[144] almost double the capacity of the Three Gorges.[145] Baihetan is preparing for construction and Wudongde is seeking government approval. Another eight dams are in the midstream of the Jinsha and eight more upstream of it.[146]

See also

Baiheliang Underwater Museum
Energy policy of China
List of largest power stations in the world
List of largest hydroelectric power stations
List of power stations in China
List of dams and reservoirs in China
Three Gorges Museum
Liang Weiyan, one of the leading engineers who designed the water turbines for the dam

 on YouTube

How much energy does the Three Gorges Dam generate?


This is a list of broadcast television stations serving cities in the U.S. state of North Carolina.
Full-power stations
VC refers to the station's PSIP virtual channel. RF refers to the station's physical RF channel.

Defunct full-power stations
Channel 8: WFXI - Fox - Morehead City (1988-2017)
Channel 18: WFLB-TV - ABC/CBS/NBC - Fayetteville (8/29/1955-6/20/1958)
Channel 20: WCWG-TV - CW - Lexington
Channel 26: WTOB-TV - ABC/DuMont - Winston-Salem (9/18/1953-5/11/1957)
Channel 28: WNAO-TV - ABC/CBS/NBC/Dumont - Raleigh (7/12/1953-12/31/1957)
Channel 36: WAYS-TV - ABC/NBC/DuMont - Charlotte (12/7/1953-3/15/1955)
Channel 36: WUTV - ABC/CBS/NBC - Charlotte (9/5/1961-5/16/1963)
Channel 48: WUBC - Ind. - Greensboro (11/6/1967-7/26/1970)
Channel 62: WISE-TV - CBS - Asheville
Low-powered digital stations
Channel 8 (RF channel 8): WAUG-LD - Independent - Raleigh
Channel 10 (RF channel 15): WILM-LD - Independent/Me-TV - Wilmington
Channel 11 (RF channel 11): WMTO-LD - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 13 (RF channel 31): WUBX-CD - Durham, etc.
Channel 13: WBXU-CA - Raleigh
Channel 14 (RF channel 14): WPDZ-LD - Buxton (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 14 (RF channel 14): WTNG-CD - Religious independent/The Family Channel/PBJ/WLPS-FM - Lumberton, North Carolina-Pembroke (Myrtle Beach, SC)
Channel 17 (RF channel 17): W17CT-D - Silent - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 18 (RF channel 18): W18BB-D - America One - Elizabeth City (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 20 (RF channel 20): WDZA-LD - Silent - Wilmington
Channel 21 (RF channel 21): W21CK-D - 3ABN/Radio 74 - Charlotte
Channel 21 (RF channel 21): WTMH-LD - Heartland/Antenna TV/Retro TV - Kinston (Greenville)
Channel 21 (RF channel 48): WHWD-LD - Daystar/WSIC - Statesville (Charlotte)
Channel 22 (RF channel 22): W22EN-D - Silent - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 24 (RF channel 24): WILT-LD - (CBS/Me-TV) - Wilmington
Channel 24 (RF channel 24): W24CP-D - 3ABN/Radio 74 - Durham (Raleigh)
Channel 25 (RF channel 25): WDMC-LD - Daystar - Charlotte
Channel 26 (RF channel 26): WDRL-LD - Silent - Wilmington
Channel 26 (RF channel 40): WTNC-LD - GetTV/Bounce TV/UniMás/Univision - Durham (Raleigh)
Channel 27 (RF channel 22): WIRP-LD - Silent - Fayetteville
Channel 28 (RF channel 28): WGTB-CD - The Walk TV/WOGO - Charlotte
Channel 28 (RF channel 28): W28CJ-D - Silent - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 29 (RF channel 35): WTMV-LD - Cozi TV/Antenna TV/Heroes & Icons/Movies! - Ogden
Channel 29 (RF channel 41): WTMQ-LD - Heartland/Antenna TV/Tuff TV - Jacksonville (Wilmington)
Channel 31: W31AZ - Religious independent - Hendersonville
Channel 31 (RF channel 31): WHIG-CD - Independent - Rocky Mount (Raleigh)
Channel 33: WHIG-LP - Rocky Mount
Channel 34: WACN-LP - Raleigh
Channel 34 (RF channel 34): WARZ-CD - Retro TV - Smithfield-Selma (Raleigh)
Channel 34 (RF channel 40): WDRN-LD - Daystar - Fayetteville (Raleigh)
Channel 41: W41BQ - 3ABN - Asheville (Greenville, SC)
Channel 41 (RF channel 41): WRZY-LD - Buxton (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 41 (RF channel 21): WNCR-LD - Youtoo America - Tarboro (Raleigh)
Channel 43 (RF channel 43): WHFL-CD - Religious/The Walk TV - Goldsboro (Raleigh)
Channel 44 (RF channel 44): WYBE-CD - Pinehurst
Channel 45 (RF channel 45): W45CL-D - Silent - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 46 (RF channel 46): W46EU-D - HSN - Raleigh
Channel 46: WBFT-CA - Sanford
Channel 47 (RF channel 14): WIED-LD - Silent - Greenville
Channel 47: WPEM-LP - Religious independent - Lumberton (Myrtle Beach, SC)
Channel 47: W47CK - Shallote (Wilmington)
Channel 47 (RF channel 47): WGSR-LD - Independent - Reidsville (Greensboro)
Channel 49 (RF channel 49): WQDH-LD - Silent - Wilmington
Channel 50 (RF channel 50): WASV-LP - Heartland/Retro TV/PBJ/Tuff TV - Asheville (Greenville, SC)
Channel 50 (RF channel 50): WHOB-LD - GCN - Buxton (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 51: W51DF - Manteo
Channel 51 (RF channel 51): W51CW-D - TBN - Wilmington
Channel 54 (RF channel 44): WRTD-CD - Independent - Raleigh
Channel 56 (RF channel 24): W24EC-D - Silent - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 59 (RF channel 30): W30DN-D - Silent - Manteo (Norfolk, VA)
Channel 66 (RF channel 45): WWIW-LD - Daystar - Raleigh
Translators
Channel 6: WMTO-LP - Moyock
Channel 16 (RF channel 15): WNCB-LD - Estrella TV - Fayetteville
Channel 18 (RF channel 43): WADA-LD - Estrella TV - Wilmington
Channel 22 (RF channel 22): WDQB-LD - Silent - Wilmington
Channel 24 (RF channel 24): WILT-LD - Independent/Me-TV - Wilmington
Channel 26 (RF channel 15): W15EF-D - PBS/PBS Kids/PBS Encore/North Carolina Channel - Sparta
Channel 33 (RF channel 19): W19CR-D - PBS/PBS Kids/PBS Encore/North Carolina Channel - Tryon
Channel 41 (RF channel 41): WHEH-LD - Azteca America/Festiva TV/Informercials/Tuff TV/AccuWeather Channel/Newsmax TV/Informercials - Lumberton
Channel 49 (RF channel 50): W50EQ-D - Silent - Lumberton
See also
North Carolina media
List of newspapers in North Carolina
List of radio stations in North Carolina
Media of cities in North Carolina: Asheville, Charlotte, Durham, Fayetteville, Greensboro, High Point, Raleigh, Wilmington, Winston-Salem
List of Spanish-language television networks in the United States
Bibliography

 (Directory ceased in 2017)

List of television stations in North Carolina

Where is the Heroes & Icons network headquartered?


The Irish Confederate Wars, also called the Eleven Years' War (derived from the Irish language name Cogadh na hAon Bhliana Déag), took place in Ireland between 1641 and 1653. It was the Irish theatre of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms – a series of civil wars in the kingdoms of Ireland, England and Scotland (all ruled by Charles I). The conflict in Ireland essentially started by pitting the native Irish Catholics against English and Scottish Protestant colonists and their supporters, and ended with Royalists, Irish Catholics and Scottish Presbyterians fighting the ultimate winners, the English Parliament. It was both a religious and an ethnic conflict – fought over who would govern Ireland, whether it would be governed from England, which ethnic and religious group would own most of the land, and which religion would predominate in the country. It was the most destructive conflict in Irish history.[2]
Overview
The war in Ireland began with the Rebellion of 1641 in Ulster in October, during which many Scots and English Protestant settlers were killed. The rebellion spread throughout the country and at Kilkenny in 1642 the Association of The Confederate Catholics of Ireland was formed to organise the Catholic war effort. The Confederation was essentially an independent state and was a coalition of all shades of Irish Catholic society, both Gaelic and Old English. The Irish Confederates professed to side with the English Cavaliers during the ensuing civil wars, but mostly fought their own war in defence of the Catholic landed class's interests.
The Confederates ruled much of Ireland as a de facto sovereign state until 1649, and proclaimed their loyalty to Charles I. From 1642 to 1649, the Confederates fought against Scottish Covenanter and English Parliamentarian armies in Ireland. The Confederates, in the context of the English Civil War, were loosely allied with the English Royalists, but were divided over whether to send military help to them in the war there. Ultimately, they never sent troops to England, but did send an expedition to help the Scottish Royalists, sparking the Scottish Civil War.
The wars produced an extremely fractured array of forces in Ireland. The Protestant forces were split into three main factions (English Royalist, English Parliamentarian and Scottish Covenanter) as a result of the civil wars in England and Scotland. The Catholic Confederates themselves split on more than one occasion over the issue of whether their first loyalty was to the Catholic religion or to King Charles I (see the principal factions in the war).
The wars ended in the defeat of the Confederates. They and their English Royalist allies were defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell in 1649–53.[3] The wars following the 1641 revolt caused massive loss of life in Ireland, comparable in the country's history only with the Great Famine of the 1840s. The ultimate winner, the English parliament, arranged for the mass confiscation of land owned by Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion and to pay for the war. Although some of this land was returned after 1660 on the Restoration of the monarchy in England, the period marked the effective end of the old Catholic landed class.
The plot, October 1641

The rebellion was intended to be a swift and mainly bloodless seizure of power in Ireland by a small group of conspirators led by Phelim O’Neill. Small bands of the plotter’s kin and dependents were mobilised in Dublin, Wicklow and Ulster, to take strategic buildings like Dublin Castle. Since there were only a small number of English soldiers stationed in Ireland, this had a reasonable chance of succeeding. Had it done so, the remaining English garrisons could well have surrendered, leaving Irish Catholics in a position of strength to negotiate their demands for civil reform, religious toleration and Irish self-government. However, the plot was betrayed at the last minute and as a result, the rebellion degenerated into chaotic violence. Following the outbreak of hostilities, the resentment of the native Irish Catholic population against the British Protestant settlers exploded into violence. Shortly after the outbreak of the rebellion, O'Neill issued the Proclamation of Dungannon which offered justification for the rising. He claimed that he was acting on the orders of Charles I.
The Rebellion, 1641–42
From 1641 to early 1642, the fighting in Ireland was characterised by small bands, raised by local lords or among local people, attacking civilians of opposing ethnic and religious groups. At first, Irish Catholic bands, particularly from Ulster, took the opportunity given them by the collapse of law and order, to settle scores with Protestant settlers who had occupied Irish land in the plantations of Ireland. Initially, the Irish Catholic gentry raised militia forces to try and contain the violence[4] but afterwards, when it was clear that the government in Dublin intended to punish all Catholics for the rebellion,[5] participated in the attacks on Protestants and fought English troops sent to put down the rebellion. In areas where British settlers were concentrated, around Cork, Dublin, Carrickfergus and Derry, they raised their own militia in self-defence and managed to hold off the rebel forces. All sides displayed extreme cruelty in this phase of the war. Around 4,000 Protestants were massacred and a further 12,000 may have died of privation after being driven from their homes.[6][7] In one notorious incident, the Protestant inhabitants of Portadown were taken captive and then massacred on the bridge in the town.[8] The settlers responded in kind, as did the Government in Dublin, with attacks on the Irish civilian population. Massacres of Catholic civilians occurred at Rathlin Island and elsewhere.[9] The rebels from Ulster defeated a government force at Julianstown, but failed to take nearby Drogheda and were scattered when they advanced on Dublin.
By early 1642, there were four main concentrations of rebel forces; in Ulster under Phelim O'Neill, in the Pale around Dublin led by Viscount Gormanstown, in the south-east, led by the Butler family – in particular Lord Mountgarret and in the south-west, led by Donagh MacCarthy, Viscount Muskerry.
The Confederates' war, 1642–48

King Charles I sent a large army to Ireland in 1642 to put down the rebellion, as did the Scottish Covenanters. The Scottish army quickly drove the Irish rebels out of Ulster and the English force drove them back from around Dublin. In self-defence, Irish Catholics formed their own government, the Catholic Confederation, with its capital at Kilkenny and raised their own armies. The Confederates also held important port towns at Waterford and Wexford through which they could receive aid from Catholic powers in Europe.
The Confederates controlled two thirds of Ireland and commanded the allegiance of most Irish Catholics, with the enthusiastic support of the Catholic clergy. However, their support was weakest among the Catholic upper classes, who were often reluctant to disobey Royal authority and who feared losing their own lands if the plantation settlements were overturned. Some of them fought against the Confederation, while others like the Earl of Clanricarde, stayed neutral.[10]
For armed forces, the Confederates had available to them only the militias and lords' private levies, commanded by aristocratic amateurs like Lord Mountgarret. These were defeated in a series of encounters with English and Scottish troops at Liscarroll, Kilrush, New Ross and Glenmaquinn.
However, they were saved from defeat by the outbreak of the English Civil War. Most of the English troops in Ireland were recalled to fight on the Royalist side in the civil war.
In mid-1642 Charles signed the Adventurers Acts into law, whereby loans raised in London would eventually be paid off by the sale of Irish rebels' lands. This gave an extra impetus for the Confederate armies to succeed, but the Confederates also took advantage of Charles' weakening position in England after 1643 to try to negotiate with him.
The Irish Confederates mopped up the remaining garrisons within their territory, leaving only Ulster, Dublin and Cork in Scottish and English hands. Garret Barry, a returned Irish mercenary soldier, took Limerick in 1642, while the townspeople of Galway forced the surrender of the English garrison there in 1643. The remaining British forces were disunited by the events in England. The garrison of Cork, commanded by Murrough O'Brien, 1st Earl of Inchiquin, sided with the English Parliament, as did the Protestant settler army around Derry, whereas the troops on Ireland’s east coast, commanded by Earl of Ormonde, sided with the King. The Scottish Covenanter army, based around Carrickfergus, pursued the agenda of the Edinburgh based Scottish government, allied with the English Parliament up to 1647.
Stalemate
This gave the Confederates breathing space they needed to create regular, full-time armies. They supplied these by creating an extensive system of taxation throughout the country, centred on their capital at Kilkenny. They also received modest subsidies of arms and money from France, Spain and the Papacy. The Confederate armies were commanded mainly by professional Irish soldiers such as Thomas Preston and Owen Roe O'Neill, who had served in the Spanish army in the Eighty Years' War and Thirty Years' War. In total, the Confederates managed to put around 60,000 men into the field in different armies in the course of the war.
The Confederates arguably squandered the military opportunity presented to them by the English Civil War to conquer and reorganise all of Ireland. They signed a truce with the Royalists that was effective from 15 September 1643 (known then as the "cessation"), and spent the next three years in abortive negotiations with them. It was not until 1646 that they launched a determined offensive on the Protestant enclaves in Ireland. Between 1642 and 1646, the war in Ireland was dominated by raids and skirmishes. All sides tried to starve their enemies by burning the crops and supplies in their territory. This fighting caused great loss of life, particularly among the civilian population, but saw no significant battles between 1643 and 1646. The Confederates mounted an expedition against the Scots in Ulster in 1644, but failed to capture any significant territory.
In the south of the country, the Confederates took some territory around Cork in 1644–45, for example the town of Bandon, constricting the territory held by the English Parliamentarian force there, but failed to eliminate Inchiquin's garrison. Their major success of this period was Thomas Preston’s siege of Duncannon in January 1645, which took the town (on Ireland's southern coast) from its Parliamentarian garrison. However, an attempt by a combined Munster and Leinster force, commanded by Preston and Castlehaven, to follow up this success by besieging Youghal ended in failure. Youghal was held by a much stronger Parliamentarian force than Duncannon and problems of supply and money meant that the Confederates' siege broke up in March 1645.[11]
Refugees
The opening years of the war saw widespread displacement of civilians – both sides practising what would now be called ethnic cleansing. In the initial phase of the rebellion in 1641, the vulnerable Protestant settler population fled to walled towns such as Dublin, Cork and Derry for protection. Others fled to England. When Ulster was occupied by Scottish Covenanter troops in 1642, they retaliated for the attacks on settlers by attacks on the Irish Catholic civilian population. As a result, it has been estimated that up to 30,000 people fled Ulster in 1642, to live in Confederate held territory. Many of them became camp followers of Owen Roe O'Neill's Ulster Army, living in clan-based groupings called "creaghts" and driving their herds of cattle around with the army. Outside of Ulster, the treatment of civilians was less harsh, although the "no-mans-land" in between Confederate and British held territory in Leinster and Munster was repeatedly raided and burned, with the result that it too became de-populated.
Victory and defeat for the Confederates

However, the stalemate in Ireland was broken in 1646, with the end of the first English Civil War.
The Confederates, after their military ousted the Confederate Supreme Council who had signed a peace Treaty with the Royalists, abandoned further negotiations with the defeated Royalists and tried to re-take all of Ireland before the English Parliament could launch an invasion of the country. They were bolstered by the arrival in Ireland of the Papal Nuncio, Rinuccini, who brought with him large amounts of money and arms. They managed to capture a Parliamentarian stronghold at Bunratty castle in Clare and to smash the Scottish Covenanter army at the battle of Benburb and also take Sligo town. Late in the year, the Ulster and Leinster Confederate armies under Owen Roe O'Neill and Thomas Preston (a total of 18,000 men) laid siege to Dublin, trying to take the city from Ormonde’s Royalist garrison. However Ormonde had devastated the land around the capital and the Confederates, unable to supply their troops, had to lift the siege. In hindsight, this was the high tide for the Irish Confederates. Ormonde, who said that he "preferred English rebels to Irish ones", left Dublin and handed it over to a Parliamentarian army sent from England under Michael Jones. Further Parliamentarian reinforcements were sent to Cork in southern Ireland.
In 1647, these Parliamentarian forces inflicted a shattering series of defeats on the Confederates, ultimately forcing them to join a Royalist coalition to try to hold off a Parliamentarian invasion. Firstly, in August 1647, when it tried to march on Dublin, Thomas Preston's Leinster army was annihilated at the battle of Dungans Hill by Jones’ Parliamentarian army. This was the best trained and best equipped Confederate army and the loss of its manpower and equipment was a body blow to the Confederation. Secondly, the Parliamentarians based in Cork devastated the Confederates' territory in Munster, provoking famine among the civilian population. In September, they stormed Cashel, not only taking the town but also massacring its garrison and inhabitants, including several Catholic clerics. When the Irish Munster army brought them to battle at Knocknanauss in November, they too were crushed. Sligo also changed hands again – captured by the Ulster British settlers' army. The battles in this phase of the war were exceptionally bloody: in the battles of 1646–47, the losers had up to half of those engaged killed – most commonly in the rout after the battle was decided. In the three largest engagements of 1647, no less than 1% of the Irish male population (around 7,000–8,000 men) were killed in battle.
This string of defeats forced the Confederates to come to a deal with the Royalists, and to put their troops under their command. Amid factional fighting within their ranks over this deal, the Confederates dissolved their association in 1648 and accepted Ormonde as the commander in chief of the Royalist coalition in Ireland. Inchiquin, the Parliamentarian commander in Cork, also defected to the Royalists after the arrest of King Charles I.
The Confederates were fatally divided over this compromise. Rinuccini, the Papal Nuncio, threatened to excommunicate anyone who accepted the deal. Particularly galling for him was the alliance with Inchiquin, who had massacred Catholic civilians and clergy in Munster in 1647. There was even a brief period of civil war in 1648 between Owen Roe O'Neill's Ulster Army, as he refused to accept the Royalist alliance, and the new Royalist–Confederate coalition. O'Neill neglected to secure adequate supplies and was unable to force a change in policy on his former comrades. During this divisive period the Confederates missed a second strategic chance to reorganise while their opponents were engaged in the Second English Civil War (1648–49), which was lost by their royalist allies.
The Cromwellian War, 1649–1653

The Confederate/Royalist coalition wasted valuable months fighting with Owen Roe O'Neill and other former Confederates instead of preparing to resist the impending Parliamentarian invasion of Ireland. O'Neill later re-joined the Confederate side. Belatedly, in summer 1649, Ormonde tried to take Dublin from the Parliamentarians, and was routed by Michael Jones at the battle of Rathmines.
Oliver Cromwell landed shortly afterwards with the New Model Army. Whereas the Confederates had failed to defeat their enemies in eight years of fighting, Cromwell was able to succeed in three years in conquering the entire island of Ireland, because his troops were well supplied, well equipped (especially with artillery), and well trained. Moreover, he had a huge supply of men, money and logistics to fund the campaign.
The Cromwellian Conquest
His first action was to secure the east coast of Ireland for supplies of men and logistics from England. To this end, he took Drogheda and Wexford, perpetrating massacres of the defenders of both towns.[12][13] He also sent a force to the north to link up with the British settler army there. Those settlers who supported the Scots and Royalists were defeated by the Parliamentarians at the battle of Lisnagarvey.
Ormonde signally failed to mount a military defence of southern Ireland. He based his defences upon walled towns, which Cromwell systematically took one after the other with his ample supply of siege artillery. The Irish and Royalist field armies did not hold any strategic line of defence and instead were demoralised by a constant stream of defeats and withdrawals. Only at the siege of Clonmel did Cromwell suffer significant casualties (although disease also took a very heavy toll on his men). His losses were made good by the defection of the Royalist garrison of Cork, who had been Parliamentarians up to 1648, back to the Parliament side. Cromwell returned to England in 1650, passing his command to Henry Ireton.
In the north, the Parliamentarian/settler army met the Irish Ulster army at the battle of Scarrifholis and destroyed it. Ormonde was discredited and fled for France, to be replaced by Ulick Burke, Earl of Clanricarde. By 1651, the remaining Royalist/Irish forces were hemmed into an area west of the River Shannon, holding only the fortified cities of Limerick and Galway and an enclave in County Kerry, under Donagh MacCarthy, Viscount Muskerry.
Ireton besieged Limerick while the northern Parliamentarian army under Charles Coote besieged Galway. Muskerry made an attempt to relieve Limerick, marching north from Kerry, and was routed by Roger Boyle at the battle of Knocknaclashy. Limerick and Galway were too well defended to be taken by storm, and were blockaded until hunger and disease forced them to surrender, Limerick in 1651, Galway in 1652. Waterford and Duncannon also surrendered in 1651.
Guerrilla War

This was the end of formal Irish resistance. Because the Cromwellian surrender terms were so harsh, many small units of Irish troops fought on as guerrillas, or tories as they were called at the time. The tories, who were usually former Confederate soldiers, operated from rugged areas such as the Wicklow Mountains, attacking vulnerable groups of Parliamentarian soldiers and looting their supplies. In response, the Parliamentarians forcibly evicted the civilian populations from areas which had been helping the tories and burned their crops.
The result of this fighting was famine throughout the country, which was aggravated by an outbreak of bubonic plague. The last organised Irish troops surrendered in Cavan in April 1653, when the Cromwellians agreed to let them be transported to serve in the French army – the English Royalist Court was in exile in France. Any troops captured in this phase of the war were either executed or transported to penal colonies in the West Indies. After the formal surrender, Ireland was plagued with small scale violence for the remainder of the 1650s.
Shifting allegiances
The Irish Confederate wars was a complex conflict in which no less than four major armies fought in Ireland. These were the Royalists loyal to King Charles, the Scottish Covenanters (sent into Ulster in 1642 to protect Protestant planters after the massacres that marked the Irish rebellion of 1641 in that region), the Parliamentarian army, and the Irish Confederate army to whom most of the inhabitants of Ireland gave their allegiance.[14] During the wars, all of these forces came into conflict at one stage or another. To add to the turmoil, a brief civil war was fought between Irish Confederate factions in 1648.
The Royalists under Ormonde were in conflict with Irish Catholic forces from late 1641 to 1643. Their main enclave was in Dublin. A ceasefire with the Confederate Catholics lasted from 1643 until 1646, when the Confederates again came into conflict with the Royalists. After 1648 most of the Confederates and the Scots joined an alliance with the Royalists. This was the array of forces that was to face Cromwell's army in 1649. Ormonde's handling of the defence of Ireland was however rather inept so that by mid-1650 the defence of Ireland was conducted mainly by Irish Confederate leaders.
The Irish Confederates: formed in October 1642, the Confederation of Kilkenny was initially a rebel Irish Catholic movement, fighting against the English troops sent to put down the rebellion, though they insisted they were at war with the king's advisers and not with Charles himself. They also had to fight the Scottish army that landed in Ulster. From 1642 to 1649, the Confederates controlled most of Ireland except for east and west Ulster, Cork city and Dublin. A cessation was arranged with the Royalists in 1643 after the outbreak of civil war in England and negotiations began to bring the Confederates into the English conflict on the Royalist side. A strongly Catholic faction under the influence of the Irish Bishops and Nuncio Rinuccini emerged in 1646, which opposed signing a peace treaty that did not recognise the position of the Catholic Church in Ireland or return confiscated Catholic land. When this faction ousted the Confederate 'peace party' or pro-Royalists, the Confederates once again clashed with the English Royalists, who abandoned most of their positions in Ireland to the Parliamentarians during 1646. However, after fresh negotiations, an alliance was arranged between the Royalists and Confederates in 1648. Some Confederates (most notably the Ulster army) were however opposed to this treaty initiating a brief Irish Catholic civil war in 1648 in which the Ulster Confederate army was supported by the English Parliament.
The Scottish Covenanters arrived in Ireland in early 1642 to put down the uprising and thereby protect the lives and property of the Scottish Protestant settlers in Ulster. They held most of eastern Ulster for the duration of the war, but were badly weakened by their defeat by the Confederates at the battle of Benburb in 1646. They fought the Confederates (with the support of the English Parliament) from their arrival in Ulster in 1642 until 1648. After the English Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters' alliance broke down, the Scottish forces in Ulster joined the Confederates and Royalists in an alliance against their former allies in 1649.
The Parliamentarian Army gained a major foothold in Ireland for the first time in 1644, when Inchiquin's Cork-based Protestant force fell out with the Royalists over their ceasefire with the Confederates. The Protestant settler forces in the north west of Ireland, known as the Lagan Army (or Lagan Force), also came over to the Parliamentarians after 1644, deeming them to be the most reliably anti-Catholic of the English forces. The city of Dublin fell into Parliamentarian hands in 1646, when the Royalists surrendered it to an English Parliamentarian expeditionary force after the city was threatened by Confederate armies. In 1648 the Parliamentarians briefly gave support to Owen Roe O'Neill's Ulstermen after his fall out with the Confederates: Thus the extreme Catholic and Puritan forces were briefly allied for mutual expediency. The Ulster Catholic army however joined the Confederate-Royalist alliance after the shock of Cromwell's invasion in August 1649. The most potent Parliamentarian force was the New Model Army, which proceeded to conquer Ireland over the next four years and to enforce the Adventurers Act by conquering and selling Irish land to pay off its financial backers.
Aftermath
The death toll of the conflict was huge. William Petty, a Cromwellian who conducted the first scientific land and demographic survey of Ireland in the 1650s (the Down Survey), concluded that at least 400,000 people and maybe as many as 620,000 had died in Ireland between 1641 and 1653. The true figure may well be lower given Petty's outmoded methodology, but the lowest suggested is about 200,000. At the time, according to William Petty, the population of Ireland was only around 1.5 million inhabitants. It is estimated that about two thirds of the deaths were civilian. The Irish defeat led to the mass confiscation of Catholic owned land and the English Protestant domination of Ireland for over two centuries.[15]
The wars, especially the Cromwellian conquest, were long remembered in Irish culture. Gaelic Poetry of the post-war era laments lack of unity among Irish Catholics in the Confederation and their constant infighting, which was blamed for their failure to resist Cromwell. Other common themes include the mourning of the old Irish Catholic landed classes, which were destroyed in the wars, and the cruelty of the Parliamentarian forces. See Also Irish Poetry
See also
Soldiers: Alasdair MacColla, Hugh Dubh O'Neill, George Monck, Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnel, Michael Jones, Theobald Taaffe 1st Earl of Carlingford
Political figures: Patrick D'Arcy, Richard Martyn, James Tuchet, 3rd Earl of Castlehaven, Richard Bellings, Nicholas French, Patrick O'Neill, Giovanni Battista Rinuccini, Nicholas Plunkett, Charles II
Places: Clonmel, Rathfarnham Castle, Trim Castle, Cahir Castle, Narrow Water, Ross Castle, Rock of Cashel, Charlemont Fort
Chronology of the Irish Confederate Wars
Irish Rebellion of 1641
Confederate Ireland
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
List of Irish rebellions
List of Irish battles
Notes

McKeiver Philip. A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign, (Advance Press), Manchester, ISBN978-0-9554663-0-4
Hull, Eleanor (1931). .
Kenyon, John & Ohlmeyer, Jane (editors). The Civil Wars, Oxford 1998.
Royle, Trevor (2004), Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638–1660, London: Abacus, ISBN0-349-11564-8
Lenihan, Padraig, Confederate Catholics at War, Cork 2001, ISBN1-85918-244-5
McCoy, G. A. Hayes. Irish Battles, Belfast 1990, ISBN0-86281-250-X.
Plant, David. ,  Retrieved 23-09-2008
Scott-Wheeler, James. Cromwell in Ireland, Dublin 1999, ISBN978-0-7171-2884-6


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Vogue is a fashion and lifestyle magazine covering many topics including fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. Vogue began as a weekly newspaper in 1892 in the United States, before becoming a monthly publication years later.
The British Vogue was the first international edition launched in 1916, while the Italian version has been called the top fashion magazine in the world.[2] As of today, there are 23 international editions.
History

1892–1905: Early years
In 1892, Arthur Baldwin Turnure, an American business man, founded Vogue as a weekly newspaper in the United States, sponsored by Kristoffer Wright;[3] the first issue was published on December 17 of that year, with a cover price of 10 cents (equivalent to $2.79in 2018).[4] Turnure's intention was to create a publication that celebrated the "ceremonial side of life"; one that "attracts the sage as well as debutante, men of affairs as well as the belle."[4] From its inception, the magazine targeted the new New York upper class. Vogue glamorously "recount[ed] their habits, their leisure activities, their social gatherings, the places they frequented, and the clothing they wore...and everyone who wanted to look like them and enter their exclusive circle."[5] The magazine at this time was primarily concerned with fashion, with coverage of sports and social affairs included for its male readership.[4] Despite the magazine's content, it grew very slowly during this period.
1905–1920: Condé Nast
Condé Montrose Nast purchased Vogue in 1905 one year before Turnure's death and gradually grew the publication. He changed it to a unisex magazine and started Vogue overseas in the 1910s. Under Nast, the magazine soon shifted its focus to women, and in turn the price was soon raised. The magazine's number of publications and profit increased dramatically under Nast's management. By 1911, the Vogue brand had garnered a reputation that it continues to maintain, targeting an elite audience and expanding into the coverage of weddings. According to Condé Naste Russia, after the First World War made deliveries in the Old World impossible, printing began in England. The decision to print in England proved to be successful causing Nast to release the first issue of French Vogue in 1920.
1920–1970: Expansion
The magazine's number of subscriptions surged during the Great Depression, and again during World War II. During this time, noted critic and former Vanity Fair editor Frank Crowninshield served as its editor, having been moved over from Vanity Fair by publisher Condé Nast.[6]
In July 1932, American Vogue placed its first color photograph on the cover of the magazine. The photograph was taken by photographer Edward Steichen and portrays a woman swimmer holding a beach ball in the air.[7]
Laird Borrelli notes that Vogue led the decline of fashion illustration in the late 1930s, when they began to replace their celebrated illustrated covers, by artists such as Dagmar Freuchen, with photographic images.[8]
Nast was responsible for introducing color printing and the "two-page spread."[5] He greatly impacted the magazine and turned it into a "successful business" and the "women's magazine we recognize today" and greatly increased the sales volumes until his death in 1942.[9]
In the 1960s, with Diana Vreeland as editor-in-chief and personality, the magazine began to appeal to the youth of the sexual revolution by focusing more on contemporary fashion and editorial features that openly discussed sexuality. Toward this end, Vogue extended coverage to include East Village boutiques such as Limbo on St. Mark's Place, as well as including features of "downtown" personalities such as Andy Warhol's "Superstar" Jane Holzer's favorite haunts.[10] Vogue also continued making household names out of models, a practice that continued with Suzy Parker, Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Lauren Hutton, Veruschka, Marisa Berenson, Penelope Tree, and others.[11]
In 1973, Vogue became a monthly publication.[12] Under editor-in-chief Grace Mirabella, the magazine underwent extensive editorial and stylistic changes to respond to changes in the lifestyles of its target audience.[13] Mirabella states that she was chosen to change Vogue because "women weren't interested in reading about or buying clothes that served no purpose in their changing lives." [14] She was selected to make the magazine appeal to "the free, working, "liberated" woman of the seventies.[14] She changed the magazine by adding text with interviews, arts coverage, and serious health pieces. When that type of stylistic change fell out of favor in the 1980s, Mirabella was brutally fired. Her take on it: "For a magazine devoted to style, this was not a very stylish way of telling me."[14]
1988–present: Anna Wintour leadership
In July 1988, after Vogue had begun to lose ground to three-year-old upstart Elle, Anna Wintour was named editor-in-chief.[15][16] Noted for her trademark bob cut and sunglasses, Wintour sought to revitalize the brand by making it younger and more approachable;[17] she directed the focus towards new and accessible concepts of "fashion" for a wider audience.[18] Wintour's influence allowed the magazine to maintain its high circulation, while staff discovered new trends that a broader audience could conceivably afford.[18] For example, the inaugural cover of the magazine under Wintour's editorship featured a three-quarter-length photograph of Michaela Bercu, an Israeli model, wearing a bejeweled Christian Lacroix jacket and a pair of jeans, a departure from her predecessors' tendency to portray a woman's face alone; according to The New York Times, this gave "greater importance to both her clothing and her body".[19] As fashion editor Grace Coddington wrote in her memoirs, the cover "endorsed a democratic new high/low attitude to dressing, added some youthful but sophisticated raciness, and garnished it with a dash of confident energy and drive that implied getting somewhere fast. It was quintessential Anna."[17] Throughout her reign at Vogue, Wintour accomplished her goals to revitalize the magazine and managed to produce some very large editions of the magazine. In fact, the "September 2004 edition clocked in at 832 pages, the most ever for a monthly magazine." [16] Wintour continues to be American Vogue's editor-in-chief to this day.
The contrast of Wintour's vision with that of her predecessors was noted as striking by observers, both critics and defenders. Amanda Fortini, fashion and style contributor for Slate, argues that her policy has been beneficial for Vogue:[20]
When Wintour was appointed head of Vogue, Grace Mirabella had been editor in chief for 17 years, and the magazine had grown complacent, coasting along in what one journalist derisively called "its beige years". Beige was the color Mirabella had used to paint over the red walls in Diana Vreeland's office, and the metaphor was apt: The magazine had become boring. Among Condé Nast executives, there was worry that the grand dame of fashion publications was losing ground to upstart Elle, which in just three years had reached a paid circulation of 851,000 to Vogue's stagnant 1.2 million. And so Condé Nast publisher Si Newhouse brought in the 38-year-old Wintour, who through editor-in-chief positions at British Vogue and House & Garden, had become known not only for her cutting-edge visual sense, but also for her ability to radically revamp a magazine to shake things up.
Although she has had great impact on the magazine, throughout her career, Wintour has been pinned as being cold and difficult to work with. In an article on Biography.com, Wintour admits that she is  "very driven by what [she does]," and has said "I am certainly very competitive. I like people who represent the best at what they do, and if that turns you into a perfectionist then maybe I am." [16]
Features
As of August 2017, eight men have been featured on the cover of the American edition:[21][22][23]
Richard Gere, with Cindy Crawford in November 1992
George Clooney, with Gisele Bündchen in June 2000
LeBron James, with Gisele Bündchen in April 2008
Ryan Lochte, with Hope Solo and Serena Williams in June 2012
Kanye West, with Kim Kardashian in March 2014
Ben Stiller, with Penélope Cruz in February 2016
Ashton Eaton, with Gigi Hadid in August 2016
Zayn Malik, with Gigi Hadid in August 2017
Particularly noteworthy Vogue covers
December 1892: The first cover of the magazine features a debutante at her début.[7]
July 1932: The first cover with a color photograph, featuring Edward Steichen's image of a swimmer holding a beach ball.[7]
September 1933: The cover features model Toto Koopman who is both bisexual and biracial. She portrays a woman that readers during the Great Depression would dream to be like.[7][24]
May 1961: Sophia Loren covers the magazine, and is one of the first celebrities to do so.[7]
August 1974: Beverly Johnson becomes the first black woman to cover American Vogue.[25]
November 1988: Anna Wintour's first cover features Israeli model Michaela Bercu.[26]
April 1992: Vogue's 100th anniversary cover featuring 10 supermodels, and is the highest-selling issue ever.[27][28]
December 1998: Hillary Clinton becomes the first American first lady to cover the magazine.[7]
September 2012: Lady Gaga covers the largest edition of Vogue, the magazine weighing in at 4.5 pounds.[7]
April 2014: Kim Kardashian and Kanye West appear on the cover in one of the most controversial cover shoots for Vogue. Kardashian is the first reality television star on the cover and West is the first rapper on the cover. They are also the first interracial couple to appear on the cover of the magazine.[29]
September 2018: Beyoncé is given "unprecedented" total editorial control of the magazine's cover and feature.[30] She hires 23-year-old black photographer Tyler Mitchell to shoot the cover, making him the first black photographer to shoot a cover for Vogue in its 126-year history.[31]
Healthy body initiative
May 2013 marked the first anniversary of a healthy body initiative that was signed by the magazine's international editors—the initiative represents a commitment from the editors to promote positive body images within the content of Vogue</i>'s numerous editions. Vogue Australia editor Edwina McCann explained:
In the magazine we're moving away from those very young, very thin girls. A year down the track, we ask ourselves what can Vogue do about it? And an issue like this [June 2013 issue] is what we can do about it. If I was aware of a girl being ill on a photo shoot I wouldn't allow that shoot to go ahead, or if a girl had an eating disorder I would not shoot her.[32]
The Australian edition's June 2013 issue was entitled Vogue Australia: "The Body Issue" and featured articles on exercise and nutrition, as well as a diverse range of models. New York-based Australian plus-size model Robyn Lawley, previously featured on the cover of Vogue Italia, also appeared in a swimwear shoot for the June issue.[32]
Jonathan Newhouse, Condé Nast International chairman, states that "Vogue editors around the world want the magazines to reflect their commitment to the health of the models who appear on the pages and the wellbeing of their readers."[33] Alexandra Shulman, one of the magazine's editor, comments on the initiative by stating "as one of the fashion industry's most powerful voices, Vogue has a unique opportunity to engage with relevant issues where we feel we can make a difference."[33]
Style and influence

The name Vogue means "style" in French. Vogue was described by book critic Caroline Weber in a December 2006 edition of The New York Times as "the world's most influential fashion magazine":[19] The publication claims to reach 11 million readers in the US and 12.5 million internationally.[34][35] Furthermore, Wintour was described as one of the most powerful figures in fashion.[36]
Technological
Google partnered with Vogue to feature Google Glass in the September 2013 issue, which featured a 12-page spread.[37] Chris Dale, who manages communications for the Glass team at Google, stated:
The Vogue September issue has become a cultural touchstone ahead of New York's Fashion Week. Seeing Glass represented so beautifully in this issue is a huge thrill for the entire Glass team.[37]
In the September 2015 issue, technology such as Apple Music, Apple Watch, and Amazon Fashion were all featured within the issues 832 pages.[38]
Economic
Wintour's "Fashion Night" initiative was launched in 2009 with the intention of kickstarting the economy following the Financial collapse of 2007–2008, by drawing people back into the retail environment and donating proceeds to various charitable causes. The event was co-hosted by Vogue in 27 cities around the US and 15 countries worldwide, and included online retailers at the beginning of 2011.[39] Debate occurred over the actual profitability of the event in the US, resulting in a potentially permanent hiatus in 2013; however, the event continues in 19 other locations internationally.[40] Vogue also has the ability to lift the spirits of readers during tough times and revels that "even in bad times, someone is up for a good time." The article states that Vogue "make[s] money because they elevate the eye and sometimes the spirit, take the reader someplace special."[41][37] These fantasy tomes feel a boost during economic distress—like liquor and ice cream and movie ticket sales."[41]
Political
In 2006, Vogue acknowledged salient political and cultural issues by featuring the burqa, as well as articles on prominent Muslim women, their approach to fashion, and the effect of different cultures on fashion and women’s lives.[42] Vogue also sponsored the "Beauty Without Borders" initiative with a US$25,000 donation that was used to establish a cosmetology school for Afghan women. Wintour stated: "Through the school, we could not only help women in Afghanistan to look and feel better but also give them employment." A documentary by Liz Mermin, entitled The Beauty Academy of Kabul, which highlighted the proliferation of Western standards of beauty, criticized the school, suggesting that "the beauty school could not be judged a success if it did not create a demand for American cosmetics."[43]
Leading up to the 2012 US Presidential election, Wintour used her industry clout to host several significant fundraising events in support of the Obama campaign. The first, in 2010, was a dinner with an estimated US$30,000 entry fee.[44] The "Runway To Win" initiative recruited prominent designers to create pieces to support the campaign.[45]
In October 2016, the magazine stated that "Vogue endorses Hillary Clinton for president of the United States". This was the first time that the magazine supported as a single voice a presidential candidate in its 120 years of history.[46][47][48]
Social
The Met Ball is an annual event that is hosted by Vogue magazine to celebrate the opening of the Metropolitan Museum's fashion exhibit. The Met Ball is the most coveted event of the year in fashion that is attended by A-list celebrities, politicians, designers and fashion editors. Vogue has hosted the themed event since 1971 under Editor in Chief, Diana Vreeland. In 2013, Vogue released a special edition of Vogue entitled Vogue Special Edition: The Definitive Inside Look at the 2013 Met Gala.[49]
Music
In 2015, Vogue magazine listed their “15 Roots Reggae Songs You Should Know”; and in an interview with Patricia Chin of VP Records, Vogue highlighted an abbreviated list of early “reggae royalty” that recorded at Studio 17 in Kingston, Jamaica which included Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, Gregory Isaacs, Dennis Brown, Burning Spear, Toots and the Maytals, The Heptones, and Bunny Wailer.[50][51] In addition to their coverage of historically significant artists, Vogue is a source for contemporary music news on artists such as Jay-Z, Eminem, Tom Petty, and Taylor Swift, as well as being an influencer that introduces new artists to the scene such as Suzi Analogue in 2017.[52][53]
Criticism

As Wintour came to personify the magazine's image, both she and Vogue drew critics. Wintour's one-time assistant at the magazine, Lauren Weisberger, wrote a roman à clef entitled The Devil Wears Prada. Published in 2003, the novel became a bestseller and was adapted as a highly successful, Academy Award-nominated film in 2006.[54] The central character resembled Weisberger, and her boss was a powerful editor-in-chief of a fictionalized version of Vogue. The novel portrays a magazine ruled by "the Antichrist and her coterie of fashionistas, who exist on cigarettes, Diet Dr Pepper, and mixed green salads", according to a review in The New York Times. The editor is described by Weisberger as being "an empty, shallow, bitter woman who has tons and tons of gorgeous clothes and not much else".[55] The success of both the novel and the film brought new attention from a wide global audience to the power and glamour of the magazine, and the industry it continues to lead.[56]
In 2007, Vogue drew criticism from the anti-smoking group, "Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids", for carrying tobacco advertisements in the magazine. The group claims that volunteers sent the magazine more than 8,000 protest emails or faxes regarding the ads. The group also claimed that in response, they received scribbled notes faxed back on letters that had been addressed to Wintour stating, "Will you stop? You're killing trees!"[57] In response, a spokesperson for Condé Nast released an official statement: "Vogue does carry tobacco advertising. Beyond that we have no further comment."[57]
In April 2008, American Vogue featured a cover photo by photographer Annie Leibovitz of Gisele Bündchen and the basketball player LeBron James. This was the third time that Vogue featured a male on the cover of the American issue (the other two men were actors George Clooney and Richard Gere), and the first in which the man was black. Some observers criticized the cover as a prejudicial depiction of James because his pose with Bündchen was reminiscent of a poster for the film King Kong.[58] Further criticism arose when the website Watching the Watchers analyzed the photo alongside the World War I recruitment poster titled Destroy This Mad Brute.[59] James reportedly however liked the cover shoot.
In February 2011, just before the 2011 Syrian protests unfolded, Vogue published a controversial piece by Joan Juliet Buck on Asma al-Assad, wife of the Syrian president Bashar al-Assad.[60] A number of journalists criticized the article as glossing over the poor human rights record of Bashar al-Assad.[61][62] According to reports, the Syrian government paid the U.S. lobbying firm Brown Lloyd James US$5,000 per month to arrange for and manage the article.[63][64]
Media
Documentaries

In 2009, the feature-length documentary The September Issue was released; it was an inside view of the production of the record-breaking September 2007 issue of U.S. Vogue, directed by R. J. Cutler. The film was shot over eight months as Wintour prepared the issue, and included testy exchanges between Wintour and her creative director Grace Coddington. The issue became the largest ever published at the time; over 5 pounds in weight and 840 pages in length, a world record for a monthly magazine [65] Since then, that record has been broken by Vogue's 2012 September issue, which came in at 916 pages.[66]
Also in 2012, HBO released a documentary entitled , in conjunction with the 120th anniversary of the magazine. Drawing on Vogue's extensive archives, the film featured behind-the-scenes interviews with longtime Vogue editors, including Wintour, Coddington, Tonne Goodman, Hamish Bowles, and Phyllis Posnick. Celebrated subjects and designers in the fashion industry, such as Nicole Kidman, Sarah Jessica Parker, Linda Evangelista, Vera Wang, and Marc Jacobs, also appear in the film. The editors share personal stories about collaborating with top photographers, such as Leibovitz, and the various day-to-day responsibilities and interactions of a fashion editor at Vogue. The film was directed and produced by Fenton Bailey and Randy Barbato. In October 2012, Vogue also released a book titled Vogue: The Editor's Eye to complement the documentary.[67]
Video channel
In 2013, Vogue launched the Vogue video channel that can be accessed via their website. The channel was launched in conjunction with Conde Nast's multi-platform media initiative. Mini-series that have aired on the video channel include Vogue Weddings, The Monday Makeover, From the Vogue Closet, Fashion Week, Elettra's Goodness, Jeanius, Vintage Bowles, The Backstory, Beauty Mark, Met Gala, Voguepedia, Vogue Voices, Vogue Diaries, CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund, and Monday's with Andre.[68]
Books
Books published by Vogue include In Vogue: An Illustrated History of the World's Most Famous Fashion Magazine, Vogue: The Covers, Vogue: The Editor's Eye, Vogue Living: House, Gardens, People, The World in Vogue, Vogue Weddings: Brides, Dresses, Designers, and Nostalgia in Vogue.[69]
Voguepedia
Launched in 2011 by Condé Nast Digital, Voguepedia is a fashion encyclopedia that also includes an archive of every issue of Vogue's American edition since 1892.[70] Only Vogue staff are permitted to contribute to the encyclopedia, unlike the VogueEncyclo—hosted by Vogue Italia—that receives contributions from anyone.[71] As of May 9, 2013, the site is not fully functional, as code still shows in search results and only certain search terms yield results.[72]
Website
Vogue has also created an easily navigable website that includes six different content categories for viewers to explore. The website includes an archive with issues from 1892 forward for those whom subscribe for the website. The magazines online are the same as those that were printed in that time and are not cut or shortened from the original content.[73]
Podcast
Vogue launched the teaser for their podcast series on September 10, 2015. The magazine announced that star André Leon Talley would host the podcasts and the inaugural twenty-one minute podcast was released on September 14, 2015, featuring Anna Wintour. Talley comments that he has "been a longtime storyteller at Vogue and it’s just another format for telling stories—as at Vogue, we love to tell the story of style, fashion, and what is absolutely a part of the culture at the moment," hence why the magazine has decided to create podcasts.[74]
Vogue App
The app was introduced on April 26, 2016 as a way for the magazine to become more mobile friendly. The Vogue app displays content on mobile devices and gives people the ability to view the magazine content wherever they go. The app has new content everyday and people can choose to receive content recommended just for their taste. In addition, the app allows one to save stories for later and or read offline. Lastly, the app provides notifications for fashion outbreaks and for new stories that are published pertaining to that viewer's particular taste.[75]
Other editions
In 2005, Condé Nast launched Men's Vogue. The magazine ceased publication as an independent publication in October 2008, being the December/January 2009 their last issue. It was intended to be published as a supplement of Vogue, being the Spring 2009 the last issue of the magazine altogether.[76][77][78]
Vogue Australia (ISSN 0042-8019)[79] covers Australian fashion and lifestyle. Early magazines have running title: Vogue supplement for Australia (since 1952).[80][81] Has occasional supplements: Vogue Business Australia, Vogue Man Australia, Vogue Fashion Week Australia. In Australia, Vogue Living was first published in 1967.[82]
Condé Nast also publishes Teen Vogue,[83][84] a version of the magazine for teenage girls in the United States. South Korea and Australia publish a Vogue Girl magazine (currently suspended from further publication), in addition to the Vogue Living and Vogue Entertaining + Travel editions.
Vogue Hommes International is an international men's fashion magazine based in Paris, France, and L'uomo Vogue is the Italian men's version.[85] Other Italian versions of Vogue include Vogue Casa and Bambini Vogue.
Until 1961, Vogue was also the publisher of Vogue Patterns, a home sewing pattern company. It was sold to Butterick Publishing which also licensed the Vogue name. Vogue China was launched in September 2005,[86] with Australian model Gemma Ward on the cover flanked by Chinese models. In 2007, an Arabic edition of Vogue was rejected by Condé Nast International. October 2007 saw the launch of Vogue India,[87] and Vogue Turkey was launched in March 2010.
On March 5, 2010, 16 International editors-in-chief of Vogue met in Paris to discuss the 2nd Fashion's Night Out. Present in the meeting were the 16 International editors-in-chief of Vogue: Wintour (American Vogue), Emmanuelle Alt (French Vogue), Franca Sozzani (Italian Vogue), Alexandra Shulman (British Vogue), Kirstie Clements (Australian Vogue), Aliona Doletskaya (Russian Vogue), Angelica Cheung (Chinese Vogue), Christiane Arp (German Vogue), Priya Tanna (Indian Vogue), Rosalie Huang (Taiwanese Vogue), Paula Mateus (Portuguese Vogue), Seda Domaniç (Turkish Vogue), Yolanda Sacristan (Spanish Vogue), Eva Hughes (Mexican Vogue), Mitsuko Watanabe (Japanese Vogue), and Daniela Falcao (Brazilian Vogue).
Since 2010, seven new editors-in-chief joined Vogue: Victoria Davydova replaced Aliona Doletskaya as editor-in-chief of Russian Vogue;[88] Emmanuelle Alt became French Vogue 's editor-in-chief after Carine Roitfeld resigned;[89]  Edwina McCann became Australian Vogue's editor-in-chief after Kirstie Clements was fired;[90]  Kelly Talamas replaced Eva Hughes at Vogue Mexico and Vogue Latin America,[91]  when Hughes was named CEO of Condé Nast Mexico and Latin America in 2012;[91] and Karin Swerink, Kullawit Laosukrsi, and Masha Tsukanova were appointed editors-in-chief of the newly launched Netherlands, Thailand, and Ukraine editions, respectively.[92][93][94]
At the beginning of 2013 the Japanese version, Vogue Hommes Japan, ended publication.[95] In July 2016, the launch of Vogue Arabia was announced, first as a dual English and Arabic language website, then with a print edition to follow in spring 2017.[96]
On January 11, 2017, it was announced that Eugenia de la Torriente will become the new editor-in-chief of Vogue Spain.[97] On January 20, it was officially announced that Emanuele Farneti will become the new editor-in-chief of Vogue Italia, after the unexpected passing of long-time editor, Franca Sozzani in December 2016.[98] On January 25, it was announced that Vogue British</i>'s editor-in-chief, Alexandra Shulman, will leave the magazine in June 2017, after 25 years.[99] On April 10, 2017, it was announced that Edward Enninful will become the new editor-in-chief of British Vogue, the first male editor of the 100 years magazine.[100] On April 13, 2017, it was revealed that Vogue Arabia's first editor-in-chief, Deena Aljuhani, was fired and a new editor it is set to be announced.[101]
In June 2017, it was announced that the Polish edition, Vogue Polska, was in preparation, with Filip Niedenthal as editor-in-chief.[102] The local publisher, Visteria, signed a 5-year licence deal with Condé Nast. The printed magazine and its website launched on February 14, 2018.[103]
In February 2018, the Czech-language edition was announced. It premiered in August 2018 under license with V24 Media, and titled Vogue CS, it covers the Czech and Slovak markets.[104]
In September 2018, it was announced that the Greek edition, Vogue Greece, was in preparation, with Thaleia Karafyllidou as editor-in-chief and the youngest ever editor in the history of Vogue. The local publisher, Kathimerines Ekdoseis, signed a 5-year licence deal with Condé Nast. The printed magazine and its website will launch on March 31, 2019 [105]
In October 2018, the Hong Kong edition was announced, slated to lunch in 2019 under a license agreement with Rubicon Media Ltd., with digital and print presence.[106]
Editors of international editions

The following highlights circulation dates as well as individuals who have served as editor-in-chief of Vogue:

See also
Didier Guérin, executive in charge of new releases
Cover models

List of Vogue (US) cover models
List of Vogue Arabia cover models
List of Vogue Australia cover models
List of Vogue Brasil cover models
List of British Vogue cover models
List of Vogue China cover models
List of Vogue CS cover models
List of Vogue España cover models
List of Vogue Deutsch cover models
List of Vogue India cover models
List of Vogue Italia cover models
List of Vogue Japan cover models
List of Vogue Korea cover models
List of Vogue México cover models
List of Vogue Nederland cover models
List of Vogue Paris cover models
List of Vogue Polska cover models
List of Vogue Portugal cover models
List of Vogue Russia cover models
List of Vogue Taiwan cover models
List of Vogue Thailand cover models
List of Vogue Türkiye cover models
List of Vogue Ukraine cover models

What is currently the most popular fashion magazine?