IUPAC definition of 'plastic':
Generic term used in the case of polymeric material that may contain other substances to improve performance or reduce costs.

Note 1: The use of this term instead of polymer is a source of confusion and thus is not recommended.
Note 2: This term is used in polymer engineering for materials often compounded that can be processed by flow.[1]

Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid objects.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can deform irreversibly without breaking but, in the class of moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree that their actual name derives from this specific ability.
Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass and often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however, an array of variants are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.[2]
Due to their low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in a multitude of products of different scale, including paper clips and spacecraft. They have prevailed over traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, metal, glass, and ceramic, in some products previously left to natural materials.
In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding.[3] Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic[3]), furniture, and toys.[3] In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ — 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[3]
Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, with the introduction of polymer implants and other medical devices derived at least partially from plastic. The field of plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic materials, but rather the meaning of the word plasticity, with regard to the reshaping of flesh.
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland[4] who coined the term 'plastics'.[5] Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics".[6]
The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century led to environmental concerns regarding its slow decomposition rate after being discarded as trash due to its composition of large molecules.  Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling.
Etymology
The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning "capable of being shaped or molded" and, in turn, from πλαστός (plastos) meaning "molded".[7][8]
The plasticity, or malleability, of the material during manufacture allows it to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes, such as: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, amongst many others.
The common noun plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic. The adjective is applicable to any material which undergoes a plastic deformation, or permanent change of shape, when strained beyond a certain point.
For example, aluminum which is stamped or forged exhibits plasticity in this sense, but is not plastic in the common sense. By contrast, some plastics will, in their finished forms, break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in the technical sense.
Structure
Most plastics contain organic polymers.[9] The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, 'pure' or with the addition of: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. The chains comprise many repeat units, formed from monomers. Each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units.
The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the "main path", linking together a large number of repeat units.
To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" from this backbone. These pendant units are usually "hung" on the monomers, before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain.  It is the structure of these side chains that influences the properties of the polymer.
The molecular structure of the repeating unit can be fine tuned to influence specific properties in the polymer.
Properties and classifications
Plastics are usually classified by: the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains; some important groups in these classifications are: the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics.
Plastics can also be classified by: the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as: condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.[10]
Plastics can also be classified by: their various physical properties, such as: hardness, density, tensile strength, resistance to heat and glass transition temperature, and by their chemical properties, such as the organic chemistry of the polymer and its resistance and reaction to various chemical products and processes, such as: organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt upon heating to a few hundred degrees celsius.[11]
Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such qualities and classes are: thermoplastics and thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics and engineering plastics and other plastics with particular structures, such as elastomers.
Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers

One important classification of plastics is by the permanence or impermanence of their form, or whether they are: thermoplastics or thermosetting polymers.
Thermoplastics are the plastics that, when heated, do not undergo chemical change in their composition and so can be molded again and again.  Examples include: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[12] Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight.
Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid.[13] In the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is irreversible. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of a thermosetting process: before heating with sulfur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is rigid and non-tacky.
Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics
Many plastics are completely amorphous,[14] such as: all thermosets; polystyrene and its copolymers; and polymethyl methacrylate.
However, some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point, the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome, and also one or more glass transitions, the temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased. These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.
Conductive polymers
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While plastics can be made electrically conductive, with a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene,[15] they are still no match for most metals like copper which have a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. Nevertheless, this is a developing field.
Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or ultra-violet radiation, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation.
Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface (aerobic), whereas other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems (anaerobic).
Some companies produce biodegradable additives, to enhance biodegradation. Plastic can have starch powder added as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but this still does not lead to the complete breaking down of the plastic.
Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as Biopol; however, these are expensive at present.[16]
Bioplastics

While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials such: as cellulose and starch.[17] Due both to the finite limits of the petrochemical reserves and to the threat of global warming, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.
However, bioplastic development begins from a very low base and, as yet, does not compare significantly with petrochemical production.  Estimates of the global production capacity for bio-derived materials is put at 327,000 tonnes/year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world’s leading petrochemical derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[18]
Types
Common plastics

This category includes both commodity plastics, or standard plastics, and engineering plastics.
Polyamides (PA) or (nylons) – fibers, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line and low-strength machine parts such as engine parts or gun frames
Polycarbonate (PC) – compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights and lenses
Polyester (PES) – fibers and textiles
Polyethylene (PE) – a wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags and plastic bottles
High-density polyethylene  (HDPE) – detergent bottles, milk jugs and molded plastic cases
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower curtains and clamshell packaging
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter jars, plastic film and microwavable packaging
Polypropylene (PP) – bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers, appliances, car fenders (bumpers) and plastic pressure pipe systems
Polystyrene (PS) – foam peanuts, food containers, plastic tableware, disposable cups, plates, cutlery, compact-disc (CD) and cassette boxes
High impact polystyrene (HIPS) – refrigerator liners, food packaging and vending cups
Polyurethanes (PU) – cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings and printing rollers: currently the sixth or seventh most commonly-used plastic, for instance the most commonly used plastic in cars
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – plumbing pipes and guttering, electrical wire/cable insulation, shower curtains, window frames and flooring
Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) – food packaging, such as: Saran
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe
Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and mobile phone bodies
Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PE/ABS) – a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings
Specialist plastics

Polyepoxide (epoxy) – used as an adhesive, potting agent for electrical components, and matrix for composite materials with hardeners including amine, amide, and boron trifluoride
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic) – contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, Oroglas), aglets, fluorescent light diffusers, rear light covers for vehicles. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon – heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides
Phenolics or phenol formaldehyde (PF) – high modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant polymer. Used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g. Formica), thermally insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be molded by heat and pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam (e.g. Oasis). Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors (red, green, brown), and as thermoset it is difficult to recycle.
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) – one of the aminoplasts, used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics, for instance in moldings (e.g. break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the paper laminates (e.g. Formica)
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) – one of the aminoplasts, used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings.
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) – strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications, aerospace moldings. One of the most expensive commercial polymers.
Maleimide/bismaleimide – used in high temperature composite materials
Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) – a high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize
Polyimide – a high temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape
Plastarch material – biodegradable and heat-resistant thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch
Polylactic acid (PLA) – a biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety of aliphatic polyesters derived from lactic acid, which in turn can be made by fermentation of various agricultural products such as cornstarch, once made from dairy products
Furan – resin based on furfuryl alcohol used in foundry sands and biologically derived composites
Silicone – heat resistant resin used mainly as a sealant but also used for high temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints
Polysulfone – high temperature melt processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other high temperature applications
History

The development of plastics has evolved from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified, natural materials (e.g., natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines.[3] Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages.  Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins (casein) with lye.
In the nineteenth century, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, many materials were reported.  The development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber.

Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first man-made plastic. The plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, in Birmingham, England in 1856.[19]  It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London.[20] Parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 World's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated.[21] By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
In 1897, the Hanover, Germany mass printing press owner Wilhelm Krische was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards.[22] The resultant horn-like plastic made from the milk protein casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). The final result was unsuitable for the original purpose.[23] In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith.[22]
In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset, was reported by Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland by using phenol and formaldehyde.
After World War I, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s (around World War II).[24]  Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (PS), first produced by BASF in the 1930s,[3] and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s.[3]  In 1923, Durite Plastics Inc. was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins.[25]  In 1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.[3]
In 1954, polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.[3]
In 1954, expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[3]
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)'s discovery is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe.[3]
Plastics industry

Plastics manufacturing is a major part of the chemical industry, and some of the world's largest chemical companies have been involved since the earliest days, such as the industry leaders BASF and Dow Chemical.
In 2014, sales of the top fifty companies amounted to US$961,300,000,000.[26] The firms came from some eighteen countries in total, with more than half of the companies on the list being headquartered in the US. Many of the top fifty plastics companies were concentrated in just three countries:
United States – 12
Japan – 8
Germany – 6
BASF was the world's largest chemical producer for the ninth year in a row.[26]
Trade associations which represent the industry in the US include the American Chemistry Council.
Industry standards
Many of the properties of plastics are determined by standards specified by ISO, such as:
ISO 306 – Thermoplastics
Many of the properties of plastics are determined by the UL Standards, tests specified by Underwriters Laboratories (UL), such as:
Flammability – UL94
High voltage arc tracking rate – UL746A
Comparative Tracking Index
Additives
Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds.  The average content of additives is a few percent.  Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to the additives:[27] organotin compounds are particularly toxic.[28]
Typical additives include:
Stabilizers
Polymer stabilizers prolong the lifetime of the polymer by suppressing degradation that results from UV-light, oxidation, and other phenomena.  Typical stabilizers thus absorb UV light or function as antioxidants.
Fillers
Many plastics contain fillers, to improve performance or reduce production costs.[29] Typically fillers are mineral in origin, e.g., chalk. Other fillers include: starch, cellulose, wood flour, ivory dust and zinc oxide.
most fillers are relatively inert and inexpensive materials, make the product cheaper by weight.
stabilizing additives include fire retardants, to lower the flammability of the material.
some fillers are more chemically active and are called: reinforcing agents.[30]
Plasticizers
Plasticizers are, by mass, often the most abundant additives.[28] These oily but nonvolatile compounds are blended in to plastics to improve rheology, as many organic polymers are otherwise too rigid for particular applications.

Colorants
Colorants are another common additive, though their weight contribution is small.
Toxicity
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic.[31] For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the United States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child care articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens.[32] Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.[28]
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of the parent polymers may be toxic.  In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.[32]
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that "almost all plastic products" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.[33]
The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food.[32] Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals' offspring.[34] A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.[35]
As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA being linked to cancer.[36]
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell.
The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the United States government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.[37]
Environmental effects

Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly, as their chemical structure renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation. There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s.[38] Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with a recycling rate of only 9%.[39] Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber.
The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations.[40] The long-term effects of plastic in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009, it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,[24] although estimates vary according to region.[40] Meanwhile, 50–80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.[40]
Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were commonly used in the manufacture of polystyrene, and as such the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer.
Climate change
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum. If the plastic is incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it is placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink[41] although biodegradable plastics have caused methane emissions.
[42] Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy.[3]
Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 62 to 108 MJ/Kg (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 230 to 235 MJ/Kg of silicon, and about 3,000 MJ/Kg of semiconductors.[43] This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials, e.g. iron (from iron ore) requires 20-25 MJ/Kg of energy, glass (from sand, etc.) 18–35 MJ/Kg, steel (from iron) 20–50 MJ/Kg, paper (from timber) 25–50 MJ/Kg.[44]
Incineration of plastics
Controlled high-temperature incineration, above 850°C for two seconds,[45] performed with selective additional heating, breaks down toxic dioxins and furans from burning plastic, and is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration.[45] Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally include flue gas treatments to reduce pollutants further.[45] This is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, a carcinogen (cancer causing chemical). The problem occurs because the heat content of the waste stream varies.[46] Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures, and normally releases such toxic fumes.
Pyrolytic disposal
Plastics can be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbon fuels, since plastics include hydrogen and carbon. One kilogram of waste plastic produces roughly a liter of hydrocarbon.[47]
Decomposition of plastics
Plastics contribute to approximately 10% of discarded waste. Depending on their chemical composition, plastics and resins have varying properties related to contaminant absorption and adsorption. Polymer degradation takes much longer as a result of saline environments and the cooling effect of the sea. These factors contribute to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments.[40] Recent studies have shown that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than was once thought, due to exposure to sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down.[48] The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products. It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable nappy will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade.[49]
In 2018 a survey of Global Oceanic Environmental Survey (GOES) Foundation find that the ecosystem in seas and oceans can collapse in the next 25 years what would fail the terrestrial ecosystem and end the life on earth as we know them. The main causes: Plastic, Ocean acidification, Ocean pollution. For prevent that scenario from happen, we need a total single use plastic ban, ban on wood burning, planting as many trees as possible, " pollution-free recycling of electronics and by 2030 all industries to be zero toxic discharge." "special protection and perservation of peat bogs, wetlands, marshlands and mangrove swamps to ensure carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere.[50]"
Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, and some are potentially useful for the disposal of certain classes of plastic waste.
In 1975 a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory, discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that digested certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate.[51] Nylon 4 or polybutyrolactam can be degraded by the (ND-10 and ND-11) strands of Pseudomonas sp. found in sludge. This produced γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as a byproduct.[52]
Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane.[53] This includes two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis that can consume polyurethane aerobically and also in anaerobic conditions such as those at the bottom of landfills.[54]
Methanogenic consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source.[55] Pseudomonas putida can convert styrene oil into various biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates.[56][57]
Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene.[58]
The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively degrades plasticized PVC.[59] Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.[60] Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus sydowii can also effectively degrade PVC.[61] Phanerochaete chrysosporium was grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.[60]
Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade low molecular weight polyethylene oligomers.[52] When used in combination, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months.[62] The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found capable of using low-density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 degrees Celsius. Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the degradation.[63]
Less desirably, hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations, molds that degrade rubber into a digestible form.[64]
Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites.[65]
In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea, bacteria have been found that consume various types of plastic; however it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply releasing them into the marine microbial ecosystem.
Plastic eating microbes also have been found in landfills.[66]
Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.[67]
The fungus Geotrichum candidum, found in Belize, has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in CDs.[68][69]
Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium.[70]
The futuro house was made of fibreglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and poly(methylmethacrylate.) One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by Cyanobacteria and Archaea.[71][72]
Recycling

Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken down to a feedstock state.
The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor-intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic which is not recyclable, which presents additional problems for the sorting process. Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase the capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling.
While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy to sort, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may result in more product components being reused or recycled. Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable as well. For example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because the process is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-energy plants.
An early success in the recycling of plastics is Vinyloop, an industrial process to separate PVC from other materials through dissolution, filtration and separation of contaminants. A solvent is used in a closed loop to elute PVC from the waste. This makes it possible to recycle composite PVC waste, which is normally incinerated or put in a landfill. Vinyloop-based recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventionally produced PVC. The global warming potential is 39 percent lower. This is why the use of recycled material leads to a significantly better ecological outcome.[73] This process was used after the Olympic Games in London 2012. Parts of temporary Buildings like the Water Polo Arena and the Royal Artillery Barracks were recycled. In this way, the PVC Policy could be fulfilled, which says that no PVC waste should be left after the games had ended.[74]
In 1988, to assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the U.S. Society of the Plastics Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. Under this scheme, a plastic container is marked with a triangle of three "chasing arrows", which encloses a number denoting the plastic type:

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Polystyrene (PS)
Other types of plastic (see list below)
Representative polymers

Bakelite

The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in New York state. Baekeland was looking for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. He found that combining phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass and later found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create strong and fire resistant "composite" materials. The new material tended to foam during synthesis, requiring that Baekeland build pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product, as he announced in 1909, in a meeting of the American Chemical Society.[76] Bakelite was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, coming into widespread use in consumer goods and jewelry in the 1920s.  Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not derived from living matter. It was also an early thermosetting plastic.
Polystyrene

Unplasticised polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and similar knick-knacks. It also is the basis for some of the most popular "foamed" plastics, under the name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Like most other foam plastics, foamed polystyrene can be manufactured in an "open cell" form, in which the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell", in which all the bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas-filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, high impact styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.
Polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC, commonly called "vinyl")[77] incorporates chlorine atoms.  The C-Cl bonds in the backbone are hydrophobic and resist oxidation (and burning). PVC is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, properties that recommend its use in devices for plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.
All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen chloride is released into the atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs.[78] Because hydrogen chloride readily combines with water vapor in the air to form hydrochloric acid,[79] polyvinyl chloride is not recommended for long-term archival storage of silver, photographic film or paper (mylar is preferable).[80]
Nylon

The plastics industry was revolutionized in the 1930s with the announcement of polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City.
In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.
His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as polyesters.[81]

It took DuPont twelve years and US$27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania".
Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the US entered World War II. The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so-called nylon riots.
Subsequently, polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are ring compounds; e.g. caprolactam. Nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation polymerization.
Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant, particularly if oil-impregnated, and so is used to build gears, plain bearings, valve seats, seals and because of good heat-resistance, increasingly for under-the-hood applications in cars, and other mechanical parts.
Poly(methyl methacrylate)

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well as by the trade names Plexiglas, Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex among several others (see below), is a transparent thermoplastic often used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative to glass.  The same material can be utilised as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses.
Rubber
Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that originally was derived from latex, a milky colloidal suspension found in specialised vessels in some plants. It is useful directly in this form (indeed, the first appearance of rubber in Europe was cloth waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil). However, in 1839, Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber; a form of natural rubber heated with sulfur (and a few other chemicals), forming cross-links between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and durability.
In 1851, Nelson Goodyear added fillers to natural rubber materials to form ebonite.[30]
Synthetic rubber

The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev in 1910. In World War II, supply blockades of natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in development of synthetic rubber, notably styrene-butadiene rubber. In 1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes which increased to 840,000 tonnes in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.
See also

Plastics engineering
Nurdle
Self-healing plastic
Plasticulture
Plastic recycling
Plastic film
Plastics extrusion
Molding (process)
Injection molding
Rotational molding
Corn construction
Films
Light activated resin
Organic light emitting diode
Progressive bag alliance
Roll-to-roll processing
Thermal cleaning
Thermoforming
Timeline of materials technology

Substantial parts of this text originated from  / 1 March 2001 / greg goebel / public domain.

 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.

, from BBC Magazine

What is the most common type of plastic?


This is a list of historical forts in the United States. World War II military reservations containing 8-inch and larger gun batteries are also included.
Alabama
Fort Bowyer, later site of Fort Morgan
Fort Blakely
Fort Charlotte
Fort Claiborne
Fort Tombecbe/Fort Confederación[1]
Fort Deposit
Fort Gaines, historic fort open to the public
Fort Jackson
Fort Louis de la Mobile
Fort McClellan
Fort Mims
Fort Montgomery[2]
Fort Morgan, historic fort open to the public
Old Spanish Fort
Fort Rucker
Fort Stoddert
Fort Strother
Fort Toulouse
Alaska
Fort Abercrombie
Fort Babcock[3]
Fort Brumback[3]
Fort Bulkley[3]
Fort Greely
Fort Learnard[4]
Fort McGilvray
Fort Randall
Fort Raymond
Fort Richardson
Fort Peirce[5]
Fort Rousseau
Fort Schwatka
Fort J. H. Smith[6]
Fort Tidball[7]
Fort Wainwright
Fort William H. Seward
Fort Yukon
Post of Sitka[8]
Redoubt St. Gabriel
Fort Kodiak[9]
Fort Kenay[10]
Fort St. Nicholas
Fort St. George
Fort Wrangell
Redoubt St. Dionysius[11]
Fort Tongass
Fort St. Paul[12]
Fort St. Michael
Fort Egbert
Chilkoot Barracks
Camp Skagway[6]
Camp Dyea[13]
Fort Gibbon
Camp Rampart[5]
Fort Davis
Arizona
Fort Apache
Fort Flanders
Fort Bowie
Fort Buchanan
Fort Crittenden
Fort Defiance
Fort Grant
Fort Huachuca
Lee's Fort
Fort Lowell
Fort McDonald
Fort McDowell
Fort Milligan
Fort Misery
Fort Mojave
Fort Rock
Fort Tyson (Charles)
Fort Utah
Fort Verde, historic buildings open to the public
Fort Whipple
Fort Yuma
Arkansas
Fort Smith
Fort Roots
California

Colorado

Connecticut
Fort Griswold
Fort Nathan Hale, reconstructed historic fort open to the public
Fort Trumbull, historic fort open to the public
Fort Stamford Site
Delaware
Fort Casimir
Fort Christina
Fort Delaware, historic fort open to the public
Fort du Pont
Fort Miles, one tower open to public while in renovation
Fort Saulsbury
Florida

Georgia
Fort Benning
Fort Gaines
Fort Gordon
Fort Greene, destroyed by hurricane 1804[14]
Fort Frederica
Fort Gillem
Fort Hawkins, partial re-creation sometimes open to the public
Fort James Jackson (aka Old Fort Jackson or Fort Oglethorpe), historic fort open to the public
Fort King George, re-constructed fort, now a state historic park
Fort McAllister, state park with preserved earthwork fortification and museum
Fort McPherson
Fort at Point Petre, aka Fort Point Peter
Fort Pulaski, historic fort open to the public
Fort Scott
Fort Screven
Fort Stewart
Hawaii
Fort Armstrong
Fort Barrette[15]
Fort DeRussy
Fort Hase
Fort Kamehameha
Russian Fort Elizabeth
Fort Ruger
Schofield Barracks, a large installation, the home of the 25th Infantry Division
Fort Weaver[16]
Idaho
Fort Boise
Camp Connor
Fort Hall, re-constructed fort (in Pocatello) open to the public
Fort Lapwai
Fort Sherman
Illinois

Fort Armstrong
Fort de Chartres
Fort Dearborn
Fort Johnson
Fort Kaskaskia, 1759
Fort Massac
Fort Sheridan

Indiana
Fort Benjamin Harrison
Fort Finney renamed Fort Steuben
Fort Harrison
Fort Clark, a stockade built around  Clarksville in 1783
Fort Ouiatenon (not a U.S. military fort)
Fort Vincennes (including Fort Knox I & II, Fort Sackville and Fort Patrick Henry)
Fort Wayne / Fort Miami
Iowa
Fort Atkinson (1840–1849)
Fort Des Moines I, II, and III (1834–present)
Fort Dodge (1850–1853)
Fort Madison (1808–1813)
Kansas
Fort Atkinson
Fort Aubrey
Aubry's Post
Fort Bain
Barnesville's Post
Fort Belmont
Fort Bissell (a trading post at what is now Phillipsburg, KS)
Fort Blair (Fort Scott)
Fort Brooks
Burlingame's Fort
Camp Ben Butler
Fort de Cavagnial (sometimes seen as Fort Cavagnolle)
Chapman's Dugout
A.P. Chouteau's Fort
Fort Clifton
Fort Clinton
Coldwater Grove's Post
Council Grove's Post
Camp Defiance
Fort Dodge
Fort Downer
Fort Drinkwater
Camp Drywood
Eggert House
Fort Ellsworth
Fort Expedient
Fort Fletcher
Fort Folly
Fort Harker
Fort Hays
Fort Henning
Fort Humboldt
Camp Hunter
Indian Home Guard Camp (Baxter Springs)
Fort Insley
Fort Jewell
Fort Kansas
Fort Kanses
Fort Lane
Fort Larned
Fort Leavenworth
Fort Lecompton
Fort Lincoln
Fort Lincoln blockhouse
Fort Lookout
Fort Mann
Fort McKean
Fort Montgomery (Eureka)
Fort Montgomery (Linn County)
Fort Monument
Mount Oread Civil War posts
Fort Podunk
Fort Pyramid
Fort Riley
Fort Roach
Fort Row
Fort Saunders
Fort Scott
Fort Simple
Fort Solomon
Fort Sully (Fort Leavenworth)
Fort Sumner
Fort Titus
Fort de la Trinité
Fort Village
Fort Wakarusa
Fort Wallace
Fort Wichita
Fort Wyncoop
Fort Zarah
Kentucky
Fort at the Falls
Fort Boonesborough, Fort Boonesborough State Park
Fort Campbell
Fort Harrod, Old Fort Harrod State Park
Fort Hartford, Hartford, KY
Fort Knox
Fort Nelson
Newport Barracks
Fort Vienna, Calhoun, KY
Fort William
Spring Fort
Louisiana
Fort Jackson
Fort Livingston
Fort Macomb
Fort Pike
Fort Polk
Fort Proctor/Fort Beauregard
Fort St. Philip

Maine
Fort Allen
Fort Baldwin, historic fort open to the public
Fort Edgecomb, historic fort open to the public
Fort Foster, historic fort open to the public
Fort George, state park
Fort Gorges, historic fort open to the public
Fort Halifax, reconstructed fort
Fort Kent, a blockhouse remains
Fort Knox, now a state park, historic fort
Fort Levett, on a privately owned island
Fort Lyon
Fort McClary, now a state memorial, historic blockhouse is a museum
Fort McKinley
Fort O'Brien, state park
Fort Pentagouet
Peaks Island Military Reservation
Fort Popham, historic fort open to the public
Fort Preble
Fort Scammel, on a privately owned island
Fort Sullivan
Fort Sumner
Fort Williams, now a town park open to the public
Fort William Henry, reconstructed as a park
Maryland
Fort Armistead, abandoned historic fort
Fort Carroll, abandoned historic fort
Fort Cumberland
Fort Defiance, abandoned historic fort
Fort Detrick
Fort Foote
Fort Frederick, now a state park, restored historic fort
Fort George G. Meade
Fort Howard
Fort Madison, at US Naval Academy, demolished[17]
Fort McHenry, premier restored historic fort
Fort Severn, at US Naval Academy, demolished
Fort Smallwood
Fort Washington
Massachusetts
Acushnet Fort
Fort Andrews
Fort Banks, historic battery
Fort Dawes
Fort Defiance
Fort Devens
Fort Duvall
East Point Military Reservation
Eastern Point Fort
Fort Heath
Fort Independence, historic fort open to the public
Fort Miller
Fort Phoenix
Fort Pickering
Fort Revere
Fort Rodman
Fort Ruckman
Fort Sewall
Fort Standish (Boston)
Fort Standish (Plymouth)
Fort Strong
Fort Taber
Fort Warren, historic fort open to the public
Fort Winthrop
Michigan

Fort de Buade
Fort Detroit
Fort Holmes
Fort Mackinac
Fort Miami
Fort Michilimackinac
Fort St. Joseph (Niles)
Fort St. Joseph (Port Huron), rebuilt as Fort Gratiot
Fort Wayne (Detroit)
Fort Wilkins
Minnesota
Fort Beauharnois
Fort L'Huillier
Fort Ridgely
Fort St. Charles
Fort Snelling
Mississippi
Fort Massachusetts
Fort Maurepas

Missouri
Fort Bellefontaine
Fort Cap au Gris
Fort Leonard Wood
Fort Osage, open to the public, operated by Jackson County Parks
Jefferson Barracks
Montana

Fort Assinniboine
Fort C. F. Smith
Fort Ellis
Fort Keogh
Fort Parker
Fort William Henry Harrison
Fort Missoula
Fort Benton
Nebraska

Alkali Station
Armas de Francia
Fort Atkinson
Camp Augur
Beauvais Station Post
Fort Beaver Valley
Fort Bellevue
Bordeaux Trading Post
Cabanne's Trading Post
Fort Calhoun
Fort Carlos
Fort Charles
Fort Childs
Fort Clarke
Columbia Fur Co. Post
Columbus Post
Fort Cottonwood
Post Cottonwood Springs
Camp Council Bluff
Cantonment Council Bluffs
Fort Crook
Crooks & McClelland Post
Cruzatte's Post
Elm Creek Fort
Fontenelle's Post
Fort Gillette
Gilman's Station Post
Post at Grand Island
Fort Grattan
Fort Hartsuff
Fort Heath
Fort Independence
Junction Station Post
Fort Kearny
Camp Keya Paha
Fort Kiowa
Liberty Pole Camp
Fort Lisa
Little Blue Station Post
Mackay's House
Camp McKean
Cantonment McKean
Fort McPherson
Camp Meiklejohn
Military Bridge Camp
Fort Mirage Flats
Camp Missouri
Cantonment Missouri
Camp Mitchell
Fort Mitchell
Fort Montrose
Mullaly's Ranch Post
Fort Niobrara
North Platte Station
O'Fallon's Bluffs Post
Omaha Barracks
Fort Omaha
Omaha Post
Post of the Otos
Pawnee Post
Pawnee Ranch Post
Pilcher's Post
Plum Creek Post
Ponca Fort (Nanza)
Ponca Post
Camp Recovery
Camp Red Willow
Robideaux Pass Post
Camp Robinson
Fort Robinson
St. Deroin Fort
Camp Sargent
Sarpy's Post
Camp Saunders
Camp Sheridan
Fort Sheridan
Sherman Barracks
Camp Sherman
Camp Shuman
Sidney Barracks
Fort Sidney
Post at Spotted Tail Agency
Nevada
Fort Churchill
Fort Halleck

New Hampshire
Fort Constitution, now a state park, lighthouse tower open only for tours
Fort at Number 4, re-created as a living history museum
Fort Dearborn
Fort Stark
Fort Washington
Fort Wentworth
Fort William and Mary (a.k.a. Fort Constitution)
New Jersey
Fort Billingsport
Cape May Military Reservation
Fort Dix
Highlands Military Reservation
Fort Lee
Fort Hancock
Fort Mercer
Fort Monmouth
Fort Mott
Fortifications of New Netherland
Fort Nonsense
New Mexico
Fort Bascom
Fort Bayard
Fort Craig
Fort Cummings
Fort Fauntleroy (aka Fort Wingate)
Fort Fillmore
Fort Marcy
Fort McRae[18]
Fort Selden
Fort Stanton
Fort Sumner
Fort Thorn (aka Fort Thorne)
Fort Tularosa
Fort Union
Fort Webster[19]
Fort Wingate (aka Fort Lyon)
New York
Fort Amsterdam
Castle Clinton
Fort Clinton
Fort Columbus
Fort Crown Point
Fort Drum
Fort Edward
Fort Gansevoort
Fort Gibson
Fort Greene
Fort Hamilton
Camp Hero
Fort Jay
Fort Lafayette
Fort Lévis
Madison Barracks, begun as Fort Pike
Fort Michie
Fort Montgomery (Hudson River)
Fort Montgomery (Lake Champlain)
Forts of New Netherland
Fort Niagara
Fort Ontario
Fort de La Présentation
Fort Schuyler
Fort Slocum
Fort Stanwix, reconstructed living history museum
Fort Terry
Fort Ticonderoga
Fort Tilden
Fort Tompkins (Buffalo, New York)
Fort Tompkins (Plattsburgh, New York)
Fort Tompkins (Sackets Harbor, New York)
Fort Tompkins (Staten Island)
Fort Totten
Fort Tyler
Fort Wadsworth
Fort Washington
Battery Weed
Fort William Henry
Castle Williams
Fort Wood
Fort H. G. Wright
North Carolina
Fort Bragg
Fort Branch
Fort Caswell, now private property
Fort Fisher, partly reconstructed fortifications with museum and guided tours
Fort Greene
Fort Hampton
Fort Johnston
Fort Lane
Fort Macon, restored historic fort open to the public
North Dakota
Fort Abercrombie
Fort Abraham Lincoln
Fort Buford
Fort Clark
Fort Mandan
Fort Ransom
Fort Seward
Fort Stevenson
Fort Totten
Fort Union
Ohio

This list is incomplete; Ohio has a few dozen forts. The list does not include most civil war and later forts.
Colonial era forts
Fort Pickawillany
Fort Gower
Fort Au Glaize
Fort Junandat (possibly mis-transliteration of "Wyandot"), a trading post
Fort Laurens (occasionally spelled Lawrence)
Fort Sandoské
Fort Sandusky (1761)
post-revolutionary forts
Campus Martius
Fort Adams
Fort Defiance (in 1812, Fort Winchester was erected on the same site)
Fort Deposit
Fort Dille also known as Dillies Fort and Dilles Bottom
Fort Finney
Fort Frye
Fort Greene Ville
Fort Hamilton
Fort Harmar
Fort Industry, a possibly temporary fortification on the upper Maumee River where the Treaty of Fort Industry was signed, sometimes named as one of Gen. Anthony Wayne's forts in the Northwest Indian War
Fort Jefferson, originally Fort Deposit
Fort Loramie (or Laramie)
Fort Miamis
Fort Piqua
Fort Recovery
Fort St. Clair
Fort St. Mary's (in 1812, Fort Barbee was erected on the same site)
Fort Steuben
Fort Washington
War of 1812 era forts
Fort Amanda
Fort Ball
Fort Barbee, also called Fort St. Mary's
Fort Brown
Fort Feree (also spelled Ferree)
Fort Findlay
Fort Huntington, originally Camp Harrison
Fort Jennings
Fort McArthur
Fort Meigs
Fort Seneca; also see Old Fort, Ohio
Fort Stephenson originally Fort Sandusky (not the same as Fort Sandusky (1761))
Fort Winchester
Civil War forts
Fort Hayes, originally Columbus Arsenal, an Ohio Militia depot
20th century forts
Oklahoma
Fort Arbuckle
Fort Cobb
Fort Gibson
Camp Gruber
Fort McCulloch
Fort Nichols
Fort Reno
Fort Sill
Fort Supply
Fort Towson
Fort Washita
Fort Wayne
Oregon
Fort Astoria
Fort Clatsop
Fort Dalles
Fort Hoskins
Fort Klamath
Fort Lane
Fort Stevens
Fort William
Fort Yamhill
Pennsylvania

Fort Augusta
Fort Bedford
Fort Crawford
Fort Duart A French and Indian War work along the Forbes Road.
Fort Duquesne
Fort Granville
Fort Halifax
Fort Hunter
Fort Jones (Mount Oliver)
Fort Laughlin
Fort Le Boeuf
Fort Ligonier
Fort Machault
Fort McIntosh
Fort Mifflin
Fort Necessity
Fort Pitt
Fort Presque Isle
Fort Robert Smalls
Fort Roberdeau
Fort Venango
Puerto Rico
Fort Amezquita
Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico
El Cañuelo
Fort San Cristóbal (Puerto Rico)
Fort San Felipe del Morro
Fortín de San Gerónimo
Fuerte de Vieques
Rhode Island
Fort Adams
Fort Anne
Fort Barton
Fort Burnside
Fort Church
Conanicut Battery
Fort Dumpling
Fort Getty
Fort Greble
Fort Greene
Fort Hamilton
Fort Kearny
Fort Mansfield
Fort Ninigret
Queen's Fort
Fort Varnum
Fort Wetherill
Fort Wolcott

South Carolina

The Battery
Fort Charlotte
Fort Fremont
Fort Howell
Fort Jackson
Fort Johnson
Fort Lyttleton, also called Fort Marion
Fort Motte
Fort Moultrie
Old Ninety Six and Star Fort
Castle Pinckney
Fort Prince George
Fort Sumter
Fort Wagner
Fort Walker, also called Fort Welles

South Dakota

Fort Bennett
Fort Brule
Fort Buckingham
Fort Cedar
Camp Cheyenne
Fort Dakota
Fort Defiance
Fort Dole
Camp Edwards
Camp George Dewey
Post at Grand River Indian Agency
Fort Hutchinson
Fort James
Fort Lookout
Fort Meade
Fort Randall
Camp Rapid
Camp Reynolds
Post at Rosebud Indian Agency
Fort Sisseton
Fort Sully
Fort Thompson
Camp Warren
Post at Whetstone Indian Agency
Fort Yankton

Tennessee

Texas

The Alamo
Fort Bliss
Fort Brown
Fort Concho
Fort Crockett
Fort D. A. Russell
Fort Davis
Fort Hood
Fort Saint Louis
Fort San Jacinto
Fort Travis
Fort Worth
Utah
Fort Buenaventura
Cove Fort
Fort Deseret
Fort Douglas
Fort Duchesne
Fort Utah
Vermont

Virginia
Fort A.P. Hill
Fort Albany
Craney Island Fort
Fort Ethan Allen
Fort Eustis
Fort Hunt
Fort John Custis
Fort Lee
Fort Loudoun
Fort Monroe
Fort Nelson
Fort Norfolk
Fort Myer
Fort Pickett
Fort Powhatan[20]
Fort Richardson
Battery Rodgers
Fort Scott
Fort Story
Fort Ward
Fort Wool
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Fort Christian
Fort Frederik
Fort Segarra
Fort Willoughby, Hassel Island
Washington
Fort Canby
Fort Casey, now a state park, some guns mounted
Fort Columbia, now a state park, one building open to the public
Fort Colville
Fort Dent
Fort Ebey
Fort Flagler
Fort George Wright
Camp Hayden, now a state park, bunkers remain
Fort Lawton
Fort Lewis
Fort Nez Percés (aka Old Fort Walla Walla)
Fort Nisqually, rebuilt as a living history museum
Fort Okanogan
Fort Simcoe, now a state park, recreated and partially open to the public
Fort Spokane
Fort Townsend
Fort Vancouver, fully recreated and open to the public
Fort Walla Walla, museum and living history pioneer village
Fort Ward, now a state park, some bunkers remain
Fort Whitman
Fort Worden, now a state park, bunkers remain, one building partially open to the public
Washington, D.C.

Fort DeRussy
Fort McNair
Fort Stevens
Fort Totten
West Virginia
Fort Ashby
Fort Blair, a precursor to Fort Randolph
Fort Milroy
Fort Pearsall
Prickett's Fort
Fort Randolph
Wisconsin
Fort Crawford
Fort Howard
Fort McCoy
Fort Shelby/Fort McKay
Fort Winnebago
Wyoming
Camp Augur
Fort Bridger
Camp Brown
Fort Caspar
Fort D.A. Russell
Fort Fetterman
Fort Francis E. Warren, now the Francis E. Warren Air Force Base
Fort Fred Steele
Fort Halleck
Fort Laramie
Fort Phil Kearny
Fort Platte
Fort Reno
Fort Sanders
Camp Stambaugh
Fort Washakie
Fort Yellowstone
Cities and areas with Fort in the name
Fort Smith, Arkansas
Fort Bridger, Wyoming
Fort Collins, Colorado
Fort Garland, Colorado
Fort Hunt, Virginia
Fort Kent, Maine
Fort Laramie, Wyoming
Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Fort Lawn, South Carolina
Fort Lee, New Jersey
Fort Lee, Virginia
Fort Lupton, Colorado
Fort Mill, South Carolina
Fort Montgomery, New York
Fort Myers, Florida
Fort Pierre, South Dakota
Fort Rock, Oregon
Fort Thomas, Kentucky
Fort Washakie, Wyoming
Fort Wayne, Indiana
Fort Worth, Texas
Ticonderoga, New York
See also

List of forts (worldwide)
List of coastal fortifications of the United States
List of United States Army installations
List of fortifications
List of castles

Bibliography

 at the Coast Defense Study Group, Inc. website


The President of Russia, officially the President of the Russian Federation (Russian:Президент Российской Федерации, tr.Prezident Rossiyskoy Federatsii) is the elected head of state of the Russian Federation, as well as holder of the highest office in Russia and commander-in-chief of the Russian Armed Forces.
In 1991, the office was briefly known as the President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian: Президент Российской Советской Федеративной Социалистической Республики) until 25 December 1991. According to the 1978 Russian Constitution, the President of Russia was head of the executive branch and headed the Council of Ministers of Russia. According to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia, the President of Russia is not a part of the Government of Russia, which exercises executive power.[5]
In all cases where the President of the Russian Federation is unable to fulfill his duties, they shall be temporarily delegated to the Prime Minister, who becomes Acting President of Russia.[6] The Chairman of the Federation Council is the third important position after the President and the Prime Minister. In the case of incapacity of both the President and Prime Minister, the chairman of the upper house of parliament becomes acting head of state.[7][8]
The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal ministers, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the State Duma and the Federation Council. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn the Federal Assembly under extraordinary circumstances. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Federation.
The president is elected directly through a popular vote to a six-year term. The law prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third consecutive term. In all, three individuals have served four presidencies spanning six full terms. On 7 May 2012, Vladimir Putin became the fourth and current president.
Selection process
Eligibility
A candidate for office must be a citizen of the Russian Federation who is at least 35 years old and has "permanently resided" in Russia for at least 10 years.[9]
The Constitution of Russia limits the election of one person to the Presidency to two consecutive terms. Since the constitution contains no ruling on a total number of terms that a President may serve, a former president may seek re-election after sitting out one complete term.[10]
Election

The election of the President is mainly regulated by the Presidential Election Law (PEL) and the Basic Guarantees of Electoral Rights (BGL).[11]
The Federation Council calls the presidential elections.[12] If it does not call a presidential election that is due, the Central Election Commission will call the presidential election.[13] The Election Day is the second Sunday of the month and the presidential electoral constituency is the territory of the Russian Federation as a whole.
Each faction in the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian parliament has the right to nominate a candidate for the presidential elections. The minimum number of signatures for a presidential candidate fielded by a political party with no parliamentary representation is 100,000, down from 2 million before amendments to the law.[14]
Terms were extended from four to six years in 2008, during Dmitry Medvedev's administration.[15] The President is elected in a two-round system every six years, with a two consecutive term limitation.[16] If no candidate wins by an absolute majority in the first round, a second election round is held between two candidates with the most votes.[16] The last presidential election was in 2018, and the next is expected in 2024.[17]
Inauguration

Russia
This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
the Russian Federation
ConstitutionLaw
Mental Health Law
Russian Criminal Code
Tax Code
Presidency
President: Vladimir Putin

Presidential Administration
Security Council
State Council

Executive
Government
Prime Minister: Dmitry Medvedev

Cabinet (55th)

Legislature
Federal Assembly

Federation Council
Members
Chairwoman: Valentina Matviyenko

State Duma
7th convocation
Chairman: Vyacheslav Volodin
JudiciaryLaw enforcement
Constitutional Court
Supreme Court
Prosecutor General
Legal system
Elections
Central Election Commission

Presidential elections

1991
1996
2000
2004

2008
2012
2018
2024

Legislative elections

1990
1993
1995
1999
2003

2007
2011
2016
2021

Gubernatorial elections
Regional elections

Referendums

1991
1993 (Apr)
1993 (Dec)

Electoral geography
Political parties
Federalism
Federal subjects
Heads of federal subjects
Regional parliaments
Foreign relations
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Minister: Sergey Lavrov

Diplomatic missions of / in Russia

Nationality law
Passports
Visa requirements
Visa policy

Russia and the United Nations
United Nations Security Council
P5

Union State
EAEU
CIS

SCO
BRICS
APEC
EAS
G20

European Union
China
United States
India
NATO
Arab League
Arctic policy
Related topics
Administrative divisions
Armed forces
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vt
Inauguration of the President of Russia is conducted six years after the previous inauguration (since 2000, this 7 May). If the President was elected in early elections, he takes the oath, thirty days after the announcement of the results.

Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:[18]I swear in exercising the powers of the President of the Russian Federation to respect and safeguard the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, to observe and protect the Constitution of the Russian Federation, to protect the sovereignty and independence, security and integrity of the State, to faithfully serve the people.

Vacancy or disability

Vacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office. In all cases when the President is unable to perform his duties, his powers are temporarily transferred to the Prime Minister until the new President takes office.
Insignia
After the oath of office has been taken by the elected president, these following insignia are handed over to the president. These devices are used to display the rank of his office and are used on special occasions.
Chain of office

The first insignia that is issued is the chain of office with an emblem. The central emblem is the red cross of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", with arms in equal size, charged with the Russian coat of arms. On the reverse of the cross, the words "Benefit, Honor and Glory" appear in the form of a circle. A golden wreath is used to connect the cross with the rest of the chain. There are 17 "links" in the emblem, with nine consisting of the Russian coat of arms. The other eight consist of a rosette, also bearing the motto "Benefit, Honor and Glory." At the inauguration of Vladimir Putin, the emblem was placed on a red pillow, positioned on the left side of the podium. According to the Presidential website, the emblem is placed inside the Kremlin and is used only on certain occasions.
Standard (flag)
The standard is a square version of the Russian flag, charged in the center with the Russian coat of arms. Golden fringe is added to the standard. Copies of the standard are used inside his office, at the Kremlin, other state agencies, and while the president is traveling in a vehicle inside Russia. A 2:3 ratio version of the flag is used when the President is at sea. This is the most used symbol to denote the presence of the Russian President.
Special copy of the Constitution
The President also has a special copy of the Russian Constitution that is used during the inauguration. This copy has a hard, red cover with gold lettering. An image of the Russian coat of arms appears in silver. The special copy is kept in the Presidential Library.
Legal basis of the insignia
These insignia and the procedure were established by the presidential decree 1138 from 5 August 1996,[19] and modified by decree 832 from 6 May 2000.[20] In the new decree the special copy of the Constitution was removed as the third symbol of the Russian Presidency; the other two symbols remained intact because they were and are regulated by separate decrees. Nonetheless, the special copy of the Constitution still exists and serves for inauguration purposes only without being officially presented as a symbol of the Russian Presidency.
Powers and duties

Guarantor of the Constitution
As the guarantor of the Constitution and the entire system of constitutional law, the President ensures that the constitutions, laws and regulations of the constituent territories of the Russian Federation be in full compliance with the country’s Constitution and federal laws.
Nominations
The President is highly active in appointing top officials in the country. He nominates candidates for official state positions, who must ultimately be appointed based on parliamentary vote. The President submits nominations to the Federation Council, the upper house of the parliament, for judges of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Arbitration Court, as well as for Prosecutor General of Russia. A proposal to relieve the Prosecutor General of his duties must also be submitted to the Federation Council. The President submits to the State Duma, the lower house of parliament, nominations for appointment to the office of the Chairman of the Central Bank, and likewise submits to the State Duma any proposal to relieve the Chairman of the Central Bank of his duties.[21]
Legislation
Under the procedure stipulated by the Constitution, the President exercises his right to submit draft legislation, as well as the right to sign bills into law or to veto them.
The President has the right to suspend laws and regulations issued by executive bodies of Russia’s constituent territories if such laws and regulations contravene the Constitution, federal laws or international obligations of the Russian Federation, or violate human and civil rights and liberties, pending the resolution of the issue in an appropriate court.
The President is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of the Federal Assembly under extraordinary circumstances.
Other powers of the President in the sphere of legal activities and in his interaction with the Parliament include calling elections to the State Duma, dissolving the State Duma in certain cases, and calling referendum.
Domestic policy
Under the Constitution, the President is not empowered to determine the full range of short-, middle-, and long-term objectives and targets of domestic policy, but only its basic guidelines. In practice, he determines it with the Prime Minister and the Government of the Federation. They are to be implemented both by the President himself and by the Government of Russia within the bounds of their authority. The President’ fundamental positions on domestic policy issues are expressed in his written decisions regarding draft federal constitutional laws and draft federal laws, as well as his letters explaining the reasons for rejecting draft federal laws.
Within the bounds of the authority granted to the head of state by the Constitution and other laws, the President also shapes the basic domestic policy guidelines by issuing legal regulations and through organizational and regulatory activity, such as issuing decrees and executive orders. Each year the President is required to make an Address to the Federal Assembly regarding the situation in the country and the internal and foreign policy of the state.
Foreign policy

The President is invested with extensive rights to implement the state's foreign policy. The President determines Russia's position in international affairs, alongside with the Prime Minister and the Government of the Federation, and represents the state in international relations, conducts negotiations and signs ratification documents. The President appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of Russia to foreign states and international organizations. These appointments are preceded by consultations with the respective committees or commissions of the two houses of the Federal Assembly. The President signs international treaties.
Ceremonial duties
An important ceremonial role of the President is awarding state awards. State Awards of the Russian Federation are the highest form of official recognition given to individuals for service to the nation in the fields of defense, state-building, economics, science, culture, art, education, health care, public safety, rights advocacy and charity. The state awards of the Russian Federation include the title of Hero of the Russian Federation, Hero of Labour of the Russian Federation as well as orders, medals, emblems and honorary titles. New state honors and awards can be established by the President, who also presents these honors to the recipients in an official ceremony. A Commission for State Honors, which works on a voluntary basis, helps the President to objectively assess potential recipients.
Residences

The primary working President's residence is the Senate building (also known as 1st building) in the Moscow Kremlin complex.[22] Also the President can use the Grand Kremlin Palace (used for official ceremonies and meetings). Earlier, the President also could use the socalled 14th Administrative Corpus Building (the reserve residence), but in 2016 it was demolished.[22][23]
Since 2000 the current home residence of the President is Novo-Ogaryovo (Russian: Ново-Огарёво). It was planned that it would remain at the disposal of Vladimir Putin after his term ended, as Gorki-9 (Russian: Горки-9) (also called Barvikha (Russian: Барвиха), but actually near it) had remained at the disposal of Boris Yeltsin after his retirement.
Also, the President has several vacation residences outside of Moscow.[24]
Rus' (Russian: Русь), Zavidovo, Tver Oblast
Congress Palace or Constantine Palace complex (Russian: Дворец конгрессов, Константиновский дворец), Strelna, Saint Petersburg, reconstructed for 300th Saint Petersburg anniversary
Bocharov Ruchey (Russian: Боча́ров Руче́й, lit. Bocharov creek), Sochi
Shuyskaya Chupa (Russian: Шу́йская Чупа́) at a distance of 25km from Petrozavodsk, Karelia
Dolgiye Borody (Russian: Долгие Бороды) (also known as Uzhin Russian: Ужи́н)  at a distance of 20km from Valday, Novgorod Oblast
Volzhskiy Utyos sanatorium (Russian: Во́лжский утёс, lit. Cliff-upon-Volga) on Kuybyshev Reservoir shore
Tantal tourist centre (Russian: Танта́л, lit. Tantalum) on Volga bank, at a distance of 25km from Saratov
Sosny (Russian: Со́сны, lit. pines) on Yenisei bank, near Krasnoyarsk
Angarskie hutora (Russian: Анга́рские хутора́, lit. Steadings of Angarsk) at a distance of 47km from Irkutsk
Maly istok (Russian: Ма́лый исто́к, lit. The small headspring) inside Ekaterineburg forestry
Political affiliation
None of the Russian presidents to date have ever been a member of a political party while in office. In 2012, commenting on stepping down from the post of United Russia party leader, Vladimir Putin said "The constitution doesn’t forbid the president to be a member of any party, but in the spirit of how our political life has evolved, a president is first and foremost a consolidating figure for all the political forces of the country, for all citizens".[25]
Transport
National transport services for the Russian President and the Presidential state car are provided by the Special Purpose Garage (SPG).[26]  The SPG is a unit within the Federal Protective Service.
Limousines
ZiL 41047
Mercedes-Benz S600 Pullman Guard
Aurus Senat
Escort cars
Mercedes-Benz (including G-Class)
Chevrolet
Honorary escort (motorcycles)
Ural
BMW

Air transport services for the President are provided by the airline company Rossiya Airlines.[27]

Airplanes for long-distance travel
Ilyushin Il-96-300PU (long-range) – main aircraft
Ilyushin Il-62M (long-range)
Dassault Falcon 900 (long-range)
Tupolev Tu-154 (medium-range)
Yakovlev Yak-40 (short-range)
Tupolev Tu-214PU
Helicopters
Mil Mi-8
The presidential aircraft uses the same colour scheme as standard Rossiya aircraft, except for the use of the Russian coat of arms or the Presidential Standard on the empennage instead of the flag of Russia.
In the spring of 2013 a helipad was constructed in the Moscow Kremlin. According to the Chief of the Kremlin Property Agency construction of a helicopter pad for the President cost 200 million rubles (about $6.4 mln). The helipad is located in the Kremlin's Tainitsky Garden close to exterior walls.[28]
Post-presidency

On 16 August 1995, President Boris Yeltsin signed a decree "On some social guarantees of persons holding public positions of the Russian Federation and the position of federal public servants." 15 June 1999 went to President Yeltsin's decree on amendments and additions to the previous decree. On 11 November 1999 Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed a decree on the implementation of the amended decree of 15 June 1999.
On 31 December 1999, the day of the resignation of Boris Yeltsin, the president issued a decree "On guarantees of the Russian Federation President, stop exercising his powers, and his family," and the eponymous federal law was adopted by 25 January 2001.
This law establishes the legal, social and other guarantees of the Russian Federation President, stops the execution of its powers in connection with the expiration of his term of office or in advance in the event of his resignation or permanent incapacity for health reasons to exercise the powers belonging to him and his family:
President of Russia, ceased to carry out its mandate, regardless of age, is entitled to a monthly lifetime pay of 75% of the monthly remuneration of the President of Russia.
In the case of the President's death his family members are entitled to a monthly allowance in the amount equal to six times the minimum old-age pension, established by the federal law on the day of his death.
President of Russia, ceased to carry out its mandate, has immunity. He can not be held criminally or administratively liable for acts committed by them during the execution of the President's powers, as well as arrested, detained, interrogated and subjected to a personal search, if these actions are carried out in the course of proceedings relating to the execution of his powers as President.
Beginning in 1999, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times. Retired presidents receive a pension based on the salary of the government. All former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 are protected by the Federal Protective Service until the president's death. A spouse who remarries or divorced from president is no longer eligible for Federal Protective Service protection.
Living former Presidents
As of September 2019, there is only one living former president (if Vladimir Putin, who was president from 2000 to 2008 and became president again in 2012, is excluded). The most recent death of a former president was that of Boris Yeltsin (1991–1999) on April 23, 2007, aged 76.

Dmitry Medvedev
(2008–2012)
 (1965-09-14) September 14, 1965

Presidential centers

In May 2008, the Federal law №68, "On centers of historical heritage of presidents of the Russian Federation ceased to carry out its powers", was adopted.[29] According to this law, the objectives of the centers are the study and public presentation of historical heritage of presidents of Russia as an integral part of the modern history of Russia, the development of democratic institutions and the rule of law. The centers will be built for each former president of Russia. The first such center dedicated to Boris Yeltsin was opened in 2015 in Yekaterinburg. In the future the creation of presidential centers for Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev is also planned.[30]
List of Presidents

Presidential administrations

Presidency of Boris Yeltsin
Presidency of Vladimir Putin
Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev

See also

List of Presidents of Russia
List of Russian presidential candidates
Lifespan timeline of Presidents of Russia
Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
First Lady of Russia
Prime Minister of Russia
Acting President of Russia
List of heads of state of Russia
List of leaders of Russia
President of the Soviet Union
Russian presidential administration
Security Council of Russia

Attribution note: Material from the powers and duties section of this article was originally published by the website of the Office of the President of Russia.

Is there a term limit to the Russian presidency?


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 Switzerlandportalvt
The four national languages of Switzerland are German, French, Italian and Romansh.[3] All but Romansh maintain equal status as official languages at the national level within the Federal Administration of the Swiss Confederation.[4]  In some situations, Latin is used, particularly as a single language to denote the country.
In 2016, the population of Switzerland was 62.8% native speakers of German (59.4% speak Swiss German and/or 10.6% Standard German at home); 22.9% French (mostly Swiss French, but including some Arpitan dialects); 8.2% Italian (mostly Swiss Italian, but including Lombard dialects); and 0.5% Romansh.[5]  The German region (Deutschschweiz) is roughly in the east, north and center; the French part (la Romandie) in the west and the Italian area (Svizzera italiana) in the south. There remains a small Romansh-speaking native population in Graubünden in the east. The cantons of Fribourg, Bern and Valais are officially bilingual; the canton of Graubünden is officially trilingual.
History
The main languages of Swiss residents from 1950 to 2015, in percentages, were as follows:[5]

In 2012, for the first time, respondents could indicate more than one language, causing the percentages to exceed 100%.[5]
National languages and linguistic regions
German

The German-speaking part of Switzerland (German: Deutschschweiz, French: Suisse alémanique, Italian: Svizzera tedesca, Romansh: Svizra tudestga) constitutes about 65% of Switzerland (North Western Switzerland, Eastern Switzerland, Central Switzerland, most of the Swiss Plateau and the greater part of the Swiss Alps).
In seventeen of the Swiss cantons, German is the only official language (Aargau, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Appenzell Innerrhoden, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft, Glarus, Luzern, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, St. Gallen, Thurgau, Uri, Zug, and Zürich).[6]
In the cantons of Bern, Fribourg and Valais, French is co-official; in the trilingual canton of Graubünden, more than half of the population speaks German, while the rest speak Romansh or Italian. In each case, all languages are official languages of the respective canton.
While the French-speaking Swiss prefer to call themselves Romands and their part of the country is the Romandy, the German-speaking Swiss used to (and, colloquially, still do) refer to the French-speaking Swiss as "Welsche", and to their area as Welschland, which has the same etymology as the English Welsh (see Walha). In Germany Welsch and Welschland refer to Italy; there, the term is antiquated, rarely used, and somewhat disparaging.
The German-speaking Swiss do not feel like a uniform group: the average German-speaking Swiss sees himself belonging foremost to his canton, and does not consider himself as a speaker of Swiss German, but, for example, Baseldytsch (dialect of Basel), Bärndütsch (dialect of Bern) or Züridütsch (dialect of Zurich).[7] This is hardly surprising, however, since there is no single unifying or standard form of Swiss German itself: rather the term "Swiss German" is simply a generic umbrella term referring in general to all of the various different Alemannic German dialects within German-speaking Switzerland. The marked subsidiarity of the Swiss federalism, where many political decisions are taken at municipal or cantonal level, supports this attitude.
Nevertheless, in 2016, 10.6%, or about 871,800 of the Swiss residents speak Standard German ("Hochdeutsch") at home, but this statistic is probably mainly due to German (and Austrian) immigrants.[8]
By the Middle Ages, a marked difference had developed within the German-speaking part of Switzerland between the rural cantons (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Glarus, Zug, Appenzell, Schaffhausen) and the city cantons (Lucerne, Berne, Zurich, Solothurn, Fribourg, Basel, St. Gallen), divided by views about trade and commerce. After the Reformation, all cantons were either Catholic or Protestant, and the denominational influences on culture added to the differences. Even today, when all cantons are somewhat denominationally mixed, the different historical denominations can be seen in the mountain villages, where Roman Catholic Central Switzerland abounds with chapels and statues of saints, and the farm houses in the very similar landscape of the Protestant Bernese Oberland show Bible verses carved on the housefronts instead.
In addition to this more widespread notion of Swiss German dialect, there is also Walser German, another Highest Alemannic speech brought by Walser emigrants from Valais.
French

Romandy (French: Romandie, la Suisse romande, German: Romandie, Welschland, Welschschweiz, or in some contexts: Westschweiz,[note 1] Italian: Svizzera romanda) is the French-speaking part of Switzerland. It covers the area of the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, and Jura as well as the French-speaking parts of the cantons of Bern (German-speaking majority), Valais (French-speaking majority), and Fribourg (French-speaking majority). 1.9 million people (or 24.4% of the Swiss population) live in Romandy.[9]
Standard Swiss French and the French of France are the same language, with some differences. For example, like some other regions of the French-speaking world, Swiss people (as well as most Francophone Belgians) use septante (seventy) instead of soixante-dix (literally, "sixty ten") and nonante (ninety) instead of "quatre-vingt-dix" ("four twenties and ten"). In the cantons of Vaud, Valais and Fribourg, speakers use huitante (eighty) instead of the Standard French "quatre-vingts" (four twenties).[10] "Sou" is used throughout Romandy for a 5-centime coin, as is "tune" (or "thune") when referring to a 5-Swiss-franc piece.
Historically, the vernacular language used by inhabitants of most parts of Romandy was Franco-Provençal. Franco-Provençal (also called Arpitan) is a language sometimes considered to be halfway between the langue d'oïl (the historical language of northern France and ancestor of French) and Occitan (the langue d'oc, spoken in southern France). Standard French and Franco-Provençal/Arpitan, linguistically, are distinct and mutual intelligibility is limited. Increasingly, Franco-Provençal/Arpitan is used only by members of the older generations.
The term Romandy does not formally exist in the political system, but is used to distinguish and unify the French-speaking population of Switzerland. The television channel Télévision Suisse Romande (TSR) serves the Romande community across Switzerland, is syndicated to TV5 and CanalSat Romande.
Italian

Italian Switzerland (Italian: Svizzera italiana, Romansh: Svizra taliana, French: Suisse italienne, German: italienische Schweiz) is the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, which includes the canton of Ticino and the southern part of Graubünden. Italian is also spoken in the Gondo Valley (leading to the Simplon Pass, on the southern part of the watershed) in Valais.
The linguistic region covers an area approximately 3,500km² and has a total population of around 350,000 inhabitants,[11] with the number of Italophones residing in Switzerland being 545,274 (about 7% of the Swiss population).[12]
The proportion of Italian-speaking inhabitants had been decreasing since the 1970s, after reaching a high of 12% of the population during the same decade. This was entirely because of the reduced number of immigrants from Italy to Switzerland, but gained again during the last decade.[5]
Romansh

On the cantonal level, Romansh is an official language only in the trilingual canton of Graubünden, where the municipalities in turn are free to specify their own official languages.
Significant communities of Romansh speakers remain in the Surselva, the Sursés/Oberhalbstein, the lower Engadin and the Val Müstair.
Romansh has been recognized as one of four "national languages" by the Swiss Federal Constitution since 1938. It was also declared an "official language" of the Confederation in 1996, meaning that Romansh speakers may use their language for correspondence with the federal government and expect to receive a Romansh response. (Although Romansh is split into several dialects, the federal authorities use the standardized version ("Romansh Grischun") exclusively.)
Other languages
Besides the national languages and the many varieties of Swiss German, several regional Romance languages are spoken natively in Switzerland: Franco-Provençal and Lombard. About 20,000 Romani speak Sinte, an Indic language. Five sign languages are used: Swiss-German, French, Italian, Austrian,[13] and German.[13]

Neo-Latin

To avoid having to translate the name of Switzerland in the four national languages,[note 2] Latin is used on the coins of the Swiss franc (Helvetia or Confoederatio Helvetica) and on Swiss stamps (Helvetia). The country code top-level domain for Switzerland on the internet is .ch, the abbreviation of the Latin name, Confoederatio Helvetica (Swiss Confederation); similarly, the International vehicle registration code for Swiss automobiles is "CH". The Federal Palace of Switzerland bears the inscription Curia Confoederationis Helveticae.
To have a unique name across the country (without favoring German or English), several Swiss foundations and associations have Latin names, such as Pro Helvetia, Pro Infirmis, Pro Juventute, Pro Natura, Pro Patria, Pro Senectute, Pro Specie Rara, etc.
See also
Swiss people
Demographics of Switzerland
Röstigraben, referring to the asserted difference in mentality between German Swiss and the French-speaking Romands
Swiss literature
List of multilingual countries and regions
Notes

 Information portal on current linguistic research in Switzerland
 Information Services on Swiss Private Schools and Universities
 Pimsleur Swiss German Course

What are the official languages of Switzerland?