Dora Sakayan (classical Armenian orthography: Դորա Սաքայեան Dora Sak'ayean; reformed: Դորա Սաքայան Dora Sak'ayan; born January 24, 1931), Professor of German Studies (retired), McGill University. Specializing initially as a Germanist, today she is known for her work in various areas of Applied Linguistics. Sakayan is also noted for pioneering Armenology in Canada, and introducing the two branches of the Armenian language, Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian, to the English-speaking world.
Early life, education and career
Sakayan was born in 1931 in Salonica, Greece, to Armenian parents who had escaped the Armenian Genocide. She grew up in a multilingual environment, with her first languages being Western Armenian and Modern Greek, and she received early exposure to German, French and Turkish. After immigrating to Soviet Armenia, she received her education in Eastern Armenian and Russian. Later on, she mastered English and learned other languages.
Sakayan received her elementary education at the Armenian Gulabi Gulbenkian School in Salonica. She then attended the local German high school Deutsche Schule Saloniki. She was 11years old when her family moved to Vienna, Austria, where she pursued her high school education at the Gymnasium for girls in the 7th District of Vienna "Oberschule für Mädchen, Wien VII."
In 1946, Sakayan's family repatriated to Soviet Armenia where she completed her secondary education. In 1948, she was admitted to the Yerevan State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages (YSPL) where she graduated with a diploma in Germanic linguistics and in Pedagogy in 1952. She was then appointed as an instructor of German at YSPL, where she taught from 1952 to 1956. Subsequently, she was invited to teach in the Department of Romance and Germanic Philology at Yerevan State University (YSU, 1956–1958).
Sakayan began her graduate studies in Germanic philology in 1958 at the Lomonosov Moscow State University (LMSU), completing them in 1961. Over the following four years, she shared her time between Moscow and Yerevan to pursue her teaching duties in Germanic Philology at YSU and complete her PhD thesis while raising her two young children. She obtained her PhD in Germanic Philology from Moscow Lomonosov University in 1965.
In 1965, Sakayan became Head of the Department of Foreign languages of YSU, a position she held for ten years. At the same time, she delivered lectures in the Department of Romance-Germanic Philology of YSU.
Sakayan immigrated to Canada in January 1975 and began to teach German at two universities: McGill University, (Department of German Studies) and the Université de Montréal (Department of Études des langues anciennes et modernes). In 1977, she was offered a full-time position at McGill and left Université de Montréal. Due to her high ratings as an instructor of German at McGill, in 1978 she was offered a joint appointment with the Department of Russian and Slavic Studies where she taught for ten years. Over the years, Sakayan rose to the rank of Full Professor at McGill University.
In 1981, Sakayan began her groundbreaking work in Armenian Studies at McGill. At the Centre of Continuing Education, she founded and supervised a program of credited Armenian courses anchored in the Department of Russian and Slavic Studies. She edited and prepared for publication a number of Armenological manuscripts of linguistic, literary and historic  interest,[1][2][3] translated several books and articles from Armenian into other languages and vice versa,[4][5][6] and made book tours. She became a regular participant at international Armenological conferences and congresses,[7] and she also organized Armenological conferences in Canada and Armenia.[8] Seeing her mission as presenting Armenian language and culture to non-Armenians, she founded the series "Armenian Studies for the English Speaking World" and published a number of scholarly books and articles under this heading. To promote the publication of her Armenological books, in 1997 she founded a small press under the name AROD Books in Montreal.
After 25years of service at McGill University, Sakayan retired from the Department of German Studies in 2000 and dedicated herself fully to Armenian Studies. She renewed her ties with Yerevan State University, where she regularly spends a few months every year, participating in scholarly projects, organizing international linguistic conferences, publishing her books with YSU Press and organizing book launches at YSU and elsewhere in Armenia. Among many activities in her homeland, she is the supervisor and participant of an ongoing translation project that she carries out with one of her former students, Evelina Makaryan, a researcher at the Institute for Armenian Studies[9] at YSU.
At the same time, Sakayan continues the promotion of Armenian Studies in Canada. In 2005, she founded an Armenian language program at the Diocese of the Armenian Apostolic Church in Montreal, carrying on a tradition that she established more than three decades ago (in 1981) at the Centre of Continuing Education at McGill University.
Works
Contrastive grammar
As a Germanist and educator in the East European tradition, Sakayan has received training in Germanic linguistics and language pedagogy. This background has led her to applied linguistics, and from the great variety of its interdisciplinary branches Sakayan has concentrated on the following areas: a) contrastive linguistics, b) foreign language acquisition, c) translation studies.
Sakayan includes into the contrastive discussion, besides German, other Indo-European languages: Russian, English, French, and Modern Greek. As an innovation, she also includes Armenian, a non-European language whose agglutinative properties set it apart from other languages in the Indo-European family. In fact, in Sakayan's work, contrastive analysis is predominantly based on Armenian, and other languages are viewed through the prism of this language. The objectives of such an endeavor are to establish language typologies and to identify areas of difficulty in foreign language acquisition. Her work also incorporates the findings of Armenian and Russian data — not always accessible to Western linguists.
Sakayan introduces to the Western reader the idiosyncrasies of Eastern Armenian morphology and syntax, with a special focus on the verb system and its rich paradigm of non-finite verb forms, called derbays (դերբայ = participle). Over the years, she has dealt extensively with East Armenian deverbal nominalizations, deriving from certain derbays: the Armenian infinitive and three participles: the present, past and the future participle. Within the framework of "Nominalizations of various degrees" Sakayan discusses the regular relative clause (RC), the ‘relative participles’[10] (RP based on the present, past and the future participle), as well and other phenomena of relativization in Eastern Armenian.
Sakayan contrasts Armenian clausal nominalizations with their semantic counterparts in a selective number of European languages. A noteworthy monograph in this respect is Formen der Textkohärenz: Nominalisierung als sententiale Anapher im Ostarmenischen.[11] This book explores East Armenian clausal nominalizations that are based on the Armenian infinitive. Sakayan describes the transformation process of finite clauses into economical nominal phrases, gives the morphosyntactic characteristics of these nominalizations, identifies the functions of the agglutinative segments in a synthetic nominalized infinitive (SNI).
Contrastive phraseology
Sakayan has also taken a keen interest in contrastive phraseology in the general sense of the term. Recognizing the importance of ready-made expressions in human communication, she has based her research on self-collected linguistic corpora of phraseological units, such as proverbs and sayings, idiomatic expressions, and routine formulae (gambits).
Sakayan has explored the reproduction of routine formulae (gambits) and their role for turn-taking in conversation and for organizing discourse[12] She has created thematically and pragmatically grouped bilingual concordances of routine formulae (gambits) for language learning. See the use of such concordances in Sakayan's textbooks.[13][14]
Sakayan's interest in proverbs resulted in a major paremiological study accompanied by a bilingual (Armenian-English), thematically arranged anthology of 2,500 proverbs.[15] An extensive introduction addresses the language and structure,[16] as well as the origin of Armenian proverbs (international, borrowed and specifically Armenian proverbs).
Contrastive paremiology being an ongoing project, Sakayan's next volume became a language-pair-oriented paremiological study with special focus on German-Armenian connections and discussions on cross-cultural translatability.[17][18] In 2001, the German counterpart of this paremiological study appeared[19] with a new introduction that provides an in-depth analysis of the structure and language of Armenian proverbs. Along with the extreme conciseness of the Armenian proverbs, Sakayan points to their capacity to function in various sizes and shapes, from extremely short and compact units to more elaborate and wordy structures (e.g. dialogues). Some of them encapsulate people's everyday talk, citations of reported or direct speech. Since dialogue proverbs or dramatized proverbs are not a universal genre and can be found only in a few languages, Sakayan explores them extensively.[20]
Foreign language acquisition
Sakayan's scholarly interest in foreign language acquisition is apparent not only in the titles of her published articles, but also in the list of authored and co-authored textbooks, instructional manuals and methodological guides, for the instruction of both German and Armenian as foreign languages[21][22][23] Some of these projects demonstrate the benefits of applying the latest trends in linguistics to instructional development.[24]
In the 1960s and 1970s, while chairing the Department of Foreign Languages at Yerevan State University (YSU) in Soviet Armenia, Sakayan authored and co-authored several textbooks, manuals and methodological guides for the instruction of German in Armenian high schools and universities.[25][26][27][28][29] However, in accordance with Soviet censorship rules that deprived expatriate authors of authorship, the production of all books carrying her name had to be discontinued after Sakayan's departure to Canada in 1975.
After resettling in Canada, Sakayan continued her research in Foreign Language Methodology. In close collaboration with Professor Christine Tessier of Université Laval in Quebec City, Canada, Sakayan conducted the research project dedicated to German Stereotyped Speech Forms in Mini-Dialogues. Sakayan and Tessier laid the groundwork for a new method of communicative exercises that has received widespread recognition in the area of DaF (Deutsch als Fremdsprache, or German as a Foreign Language). The project resulted in a book called Rede und Antwort,[30] widely used as a supplement to other DaF textbooks at universities; in 1991 it was declared in the AOL-Reference Manual as "a hit textbook for DaF."
The innovative method is based on the introduction of German Stereotyped Speech Forms, or gambits, known for their important role in languages while turn-taking in interaction. Gambits used at the beginning of an utterance are seen as cues that signal not only the illocutionary feature of an utterance, but also its syntactic-semantic unfolding. The method broadly applies speech act theory and text linguistics, as well as some insights of "grammar of expectancy," to the teaching of DaF. The Rede und Antwort exercises have proven to be an effective means for promoting oral skills in the classroom, which are readily applicable in real life-settings.
Inspired by the success of the Rede und Antwort, in the 1990s Sakayan launched and carried out a completely new project: an introductory university textbook for Western Armenian (Western Armenian for the English-speaking World: A Contrastive Approach). The textbook, which first appeared in 2000,[31] draws on more recent achievements of linguistics in the instruction of Western Armenian. It demonstrates the great potential that contrastive linguistics has for the advancement of foreign language teaching by outlining Armenian-English contrasts throughout the course. It also applies the insights of text linguistics and grammar of expectancy by enhancing the production of correct grammatical forms anticipated by the reproduction of certain ready-made routine formulae. The textbook is conceptualized pragmatically, enabling students to carry out speech acts fundamental for communication. Although grammar receives proper attention, other linguistic aspects such as word formation, semantic vocabulary groups, pronunciation, orthography, etc. are also treated on a regular basis. The textbook was received positively and was adopted by Armenian Studies Programs at universities and schools worldwide.
In 2007, Sakayan published a new Armenian textbook, this time on Eastern Armenian,[32] also accompanied by a CD-Rom featuring Eastern Armenian native speakers. To bring the level of the existing Western Armenian textbook to that of its Eastern Armenian counterpart, in 2012 Sakayan published a second and revised edition (with CD-Rom).[13]
Both titles are now published by YSU Press. They are consistent in methodology and structure, with a vast amount of linguistic material proportionally distributed among 12 Units, which each consist of 12 sections. These twin Armenian textbooks are considered to be the highlight of Sakayan's career, reflecting a lifetime of pedagogical and scholarly experience in foreign language teaching and research in applied linguistics.
Armenian genocide
Sakayan is also a major contributor to the study of the Armenian Genocide. In 1993, she came across the journal of her maternal grandfather, Dr. Garabed Hatcherian, and has since dedicated herself to its publication and dissemination. The journal is a chronicle of the Smyrna catastrophe of 1922, which describes how the ancient port city in Asia Minor was destroyed by a massive fire, whereby the entire Christian population was either massacred or forced to flee. The journal is also a detailed account of the hardship Dr. Hatcherian and his family of eight endured in September 1922. Dr. Hatcherian's diary is considered to be the most widely translated book about the Armenian Genocide. So far, the journal has appeared in nine languages, three of which were translated by Sakayan, who is also the general editor of all editions. All volumes include a detailed biography of the author, a literary analysis of the journal in an expanded introduction, 52 annotations of an historical and cultural nature, an afterword, and a bibliography. The meticulous editorial work has made An Armenian Doctor in Turkey a book that has received a highly favorable international reception[33][34][35][36][37] Sakayan is also the editor-in-chief of an important book documenting the Armenian Genocide: the newest edition of Theodik's (Theodoros Lapchindjian) book Memorial to April 11 (Armenian: Յուշարձան ապրիլ 11-ի- Hushartsan Abril 11-i), which was created with the assistance of renowned journalist and human-rights activist and publisher Ragip Zarakolu (Istanbul: Belge Publishers) and appeared in 2010.[38] This book was first compiled and published in Turkish by Theodik in 1919 in Istanbul to pay tribute to the murdered intellectuals and community leaders of 1915—writers, journalists, editors, clergymen, academics, teachers, and jurists.
This latest edition of Theodik's Hushartsan, published in commemoration of the 95th Anniversary of the Armenian Genocide, is a bilingual production (Armenian and Turkish) with a trilingual introductory section (Armenian, Turkish, and English) dedicated to the memory of Hrant Dink, the Armenian journalist who was murdered in Istanbul in 2007. Also included in this volume is an Armenian and Turkish index of the names of the 761 Armenian martyrs of April 11 (April 24 according to the Gregorian calendar).[39]
Over the last decade, Sakayan has been working on a translation project with one of her former students, Evelina Makaryan, a researcher at the Institute for Armenian Studies at YSU. This project has yielded six books that Sakayan and Makaryan translated from German into Armenian and published with YSU Press. The translations are predominantly eyewitness testimonies of the Armenian Genocide[4][40][41] that Sakayan has collected from libraries in German-speaking countries.
Sakayan's latest (and most important) work is a book entitled «Man treibt sie in die Wüste»; Clara und Fritz Sigrist-Hilty als Augenzeugen des Völkermordes an den Armeniern 1915–1918 ["They drive them into the desert": Clara and Fritz Sigrist-Hilty as eyewitnesses of the Armenian Genocide 1915-1918] on the writings of Clara Sigrist-Hilty (1884–1988). One day after their church wedding in April 1915, the civil engineer Fritz Sigrist and the nurse Clara Hilty take the train from Werdenberg (Switzerland) and travel through the war zone to South-Eastern Turkey, where Fritz has been working at the construction of the Baghdad railway since 1910. They settle in Keller (today's Fevzipaşa), a little town on the flank of the Amanus mountains. Shortly after their arrival, the Armenian deportations start and thousands of Armenians walk past their window. For three years the couple has to witness «the lapsing of human lights down there in the steep gorge» while they live their everyday life in their little house on the remote hillside. A visit to Aleppo makes them realize that what they were seeing in Keller on a daily basis was nothing but premeditated death marches. Things deteriorate when the skilled Armenian workers at the Baghdad railway construction site must also join those death marches. Clara feels obliged to record the atrocities, first in her journal, and later in a special eyewitness account. Fritz in his turn writes some important essays on the subject.
Sakayan has deciphered and transcribed the documents written in Gothic handwriting; she has meticulously processed the data and embedded them in the historic events of the time. Moreover, based on a memoir by Haig Aramian, Sakayan recounts the adventurous story of how in June 1916 the couple Sigrist-Hilty helped their Armenian storehouse manager Aramian to escape certain death. The structure of the book presented itself from the available archival materials. The book consists of three parts, each centered around one main character: Clara and Fritz Sigrist-Hilty, and Haig Aramian. Through a thoughtful interplay of primary and secondary texts, Sakayan tells a coherent story of endless human suffering, but also of Christian compassion and selflessness.
Translations
At an early stage of her career, Sakayan's knowledge of languages directed her towards translation and interpretation, and some of her translations were published early on.[42][43][44] Sakayan has translated texts of various length and genres, from books to mini-texts, from poems[45] to novels, and from gambits[46] to proverbs. This furthered her interest in the theoretical aspects of translation. During the Summer semesters between 1981 and 1986, her contact and collaboration with the Translation Department of Saarbrücken University in Germany (Chairman: Dr. Wolfram Wilss) intensified her involvement and productivity in that field and resulted in several articles published in scholarly journals and books, as well as in several papers presented at international conferences.
List of works
Selected books
(2017) Սաքայան, Դորա. «Նրանց քշում են անապատները...» Կլարա և Ֆրից Զիգրիստ-Հիլթիները Հայոց ցեղասպանության ականատեսներ (1915-1918), ԵՊՀ-ի հրատարակչություն, ISBN978-5-8084-2210-0
(2016) Sakayan, Dora. «Man treibt sie in die Wüste»: Clara und Fritz Sigrist-Hilty als Augenzeugen des Völkermordes an den Armeniern 1915–1918 [«They drive them into the desert»: Clara and Fritz Sigrist-Hilty as eyewitnesses of the Armenian Genocide 1915-1918], Zürich: Limmat-Verlag. ISBN978-3-85791-815-5
(2012) Sakayan, Dora. Western Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-5-8084-0890-6
(2009) Armenian Proverbs in English Translation, Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN978-0-9699879-6-3
(2008) Sakayan, Dora. Eastern Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Revised Edition. Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-5-8084-0-8
(2003) Jahukian, Gevork and Sakayan, Dora. A Universal Theory of Language. Prolegomena to Substantional Linguistics, Ann Arbor: Caravan Books. ISBN0-88206-105-4
(2001) Sakayan, Dora. Armenische Sprichwörter. Որտեղ հաց, այնտեղ կաց, որտեղ գինի, այնտեղ քնի: Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN3-447-04379-2
(2000) Sakayan, Dora. Modern Western Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN0-9699879-2-7
(1994/1995) Sakayan, Dora. Armenian Proverbs. A Paremiological Study with an Anthology of  2,500 Armenian Folk Sayings Selected and Translated into English, Delmar & New York: Caravan Books, First edition: 1994, 477 pp., Second and revised edition: 1995. ISBN0-88206-084-8
(1986) Sakayan, Dora. Formen der Textkohärenz. Nominalisierung als sententiale Anapher im Ostarmenischen [Forms of text coherence. Nominalization as sentential anaphora in East Armenian], Tübinger Beiträge zur Linguistik, 299 – [Tübingen contributions to Linguistics, Nr. 299], Tübingen: Gunter Narr. ISBN3-87808-299-1
Selected articles
(2015) Լեզվի տնտեսական սկզբունքը հայերենի դերբայական հարացույցում. Տիպաբանական քննություն [Language economy in the Armenian participial paradigm: A typological examination], in: Issues of Modern Philology: Proceedings of the International Conference, Dedicated to the 150th Anniversary of Manouk Abeghyan, Vanadzor State University, October 3–6, 2015. [Արդի բանասիրության խնդիրները. Միջազգային գիտաժողովի նյութերի ժողովածու նվիրված Մանուկ Աբեղյանի ծննդյան 150-ամյակին, Վանաձորի Հովհաննես Թումանյանի անվան պետական համալսարան, հոկտեմբեր 3-6, 2015] Yerevan, 2015. pp.233–242.
(2014) Խնդրառության մի քանի հարցեր [On some problems of governing], in: Djahukian Readings: International Symposium Reports, Yerevan, June 11–12, 2014. [Ջահուկյանական ընթերցումներ, Երևան 2014, հունիսի 11-12, ՀՀ ԳԱԱ Հ. Աճառյանի անվան ինստիտուտ] Institute of Linguistics, National Academy of Sciences, Republic of Armenia. pp.179–186.
(2011) Հայերենի բնօրինակ հասկացությունների ընկալման և այլ լեզուների թարգմանելու հնարավորությունների մասին [On understanding and translating "genuine" Armenian words], in: D. Sakayan et al. Sign, System, Communications. Selected Papers dedicated to the Memory of Edward Atayan. [Նշան, համակարգ, Հաղորդակցում. Հոդվածների ժողովածու` նվիրված Էդվարդ Աթայանին]. Yerevan State University Press. pp.334–347.
(2011) Sakayan, Dora. Հայերենի անորոշ դերբայը նոր լույսի տակ [The Armenian infinitive revisited]. In: D. Sakayan et al. (eds,) Sign, System, Communications. Selected Papers dedicated to the Memory of Edward Atayan. [Նշան, համակարգ, Հաղորդակցում. Հոդվածների ժողովածու` նվիրված Էդվարդ Աթայանին]. Yerevan State University Press. pp.207–216.
(2001) "On newer trends in Foreign language teaching. Expectancy Grammar." In: Semiotics and Language Teaching. Theoretical Principles and Practical Applications. Ann Arbor: Caravan Books, 2001, pp.9–14.
(1999) Sakayan, Dora. "On Reported and Direct Speech in Proverbs. Dialogue Proverbs in Armenian." In: Proverbium: Yearbook of International Proverb Scholarship, Vol. 16, 1999, pp.303–324.
(1998) Sakayan, Dora. "Ein Freund kann dir das Gesicht weiß oder schwarz machen: Zum Problem der Übersetzbarkeit von Sprichwörtern" [Problems of proverb translatability]. In: Ferdinand van Ingen and Christian Juranek (eds.). Ars et Amicitia, Festschrift für Martin Bircher zum 60. Geburtstag am 3. Juni 1998. Chloe. Beihefte zum Daphnis. Bd. 28. Amsterdam and Atlanta, Rodopi, 1998, pp.57–73.
(1998) Sakayan, Dora (1998). "On Cross-Cultural Understanding of Language-Specific Notions and Concepts in Folklore." In: Alice Sarkösi (ed.), Festschrift for Edmond Schütz, Budapest: Academy of Sciences Press, 1998, pp.130–145.
(1997) Sakayan, Dora. "Folk Beliefs in Armenian Proverbs." In:  N. Awde (ed.), Armenian Perspectives. 10th Anniversary Conference of the Association Internationale des Études Arméniennes. School of Oriental and African Studies, London: Caucasus World/Curzon Press, 1997, pp.157–182 and 393-394.
(1993) Sakayan, Dora. "On Armenian Relative Participles and their Access to the AH (Accessibilty Hierarchy)." In: Proceedings of the XVth  International Congress of Linguists, Université Laval, 1992, Quebec: Université Laval Press, 1993, vol. 2, pp.361–364.
(1992) Sakayan, Dora. "On the Grammar of Armenian Proverbs." In: John A. C. Greppin (ed.), Proceedings. Fourth International Conference on Armenian Linguistics. Cleveland State University, Cleveland, September 14–19, 1991, Delmar & New York: Caravan Books, 1992, pp.171–201.
(1990) Sakayan, Dora. "Übersetzung im Dienste der Sprachbeschreibung. Zur Zusammenführung von Relativkonstruktionen" [Translation serving linguistic description. How to unify relative constructions]. In: R. Arntz/G. Thome (eds.), Übersetzungswissenschaft. Ergebnisse und Perspektiven. Festschrift für W. Wilss zum 65. Geburstag, Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1990, pp.453–465.
(1990) Sakayan, Dora. "Translation as a Means of Defining Grammatical Structures," Meta  35/No 1, 1990, pp.80–88.
(1989) Sakayan, Dora. On Factive/Non-Factive Connectors in Natural Languages" [On factive and non-factive connectors in natural languages]. In: W. Bahner et al. (eds.), Fourteenth International Congress of Linguists, Berlin/GDR, August 10–15, 1987, Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1989, pp.1056–101059.
(1984) Sakayan, Dora. "Transposition...or Literary Translation?" Meta, Vol. 31, No 4, 1986: pp.377–386.
(1984) Sakayan, Dora. "Zur didaktischen Behandlung der Rekurrenz in mehrsprachigen Texten" [On the didactic treatment of recurrence in multilingual texts]. In: W. Wilss/ G. Thome (eds.), Translation Theory and its Implementation in the Teaching of Translating and Interpreting, Tübingen: Narr, pp.165–175.
(1983) Sakayan, Dora; Tessier, Christine (1983). "Acquiring Oral Skills through Stereotype Speech Forms." Co-Author: Chr. Tessier, Unterrichtspraxis 1983/3, pp.91–98.
(1983) Sakayan, Dora; Tessier, Christine (1983). "Deutsche Gesprächsformeln in Mikrodialogen" [German Speech Formulae in Mini-Dialogues]. Zielsprache Deutsch 1983/3: pp.9–14.
(1963) "Сложные прилагательные, обозначающие цвет в современном немецком языке." [Compound Adjectives of Color in German], UZEU, 1963, pp.120–136.
(1963) "Структурноьсемантические особенности сложных прилагательных типа rotgelb" [Structural and Semantic Features of Compound Adjectives in German], NTEGU, 1963, pp.177–195.
Textbooks
(2007) Sakayan, Dora. Eastern Armenian for the English-speaking World.. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-978-58084-0-7
(1989) Sakayan, Dora and Christine Tessier. Rede und Antwort. Übungen zum dialogischen Ausdruck. (with cassette) Coauthor: Chr. Tessier. Ismaning: Hueber Verlag. ISBN3-19-001482-5
(1970) Sakayan, Dora and Zaruhi Svazlian. Մեթոդական ուղեցույց գերմաներենի 5րդ դասարանի դասագրքի համար (A Methodological Guide for the use of the German textbook for the 5th grade). Yerevan: Louys Press.
(1970) Sakayan, Dora and Zaruhi Svazlian. Deutsch für die 6. Klasse. (German for the 6th grade of Armenian secondary schools). Coauthor: Z. Svazlian. Yerevan: Louys Press, 1970 (1st ed.), 1972 (2nd ed.), 1973 (3rd ed.).
(1969) Sakayan, Dora and Zaruhi Svazlian. Deutsch für die 5. Klasse (German for the 5th grade of Armenian secondary schools). Yerevan: Louys Press, 1969 (1st ed.), 1971 (2nd ed.), 1973 (3rd ed).
(1968) Sakayan, Dora. Deutsches Lesebuch. [An anthology of German literary]. Yerevan State University Press, 1968 (1st ed.), 1972 (2nd ed.).
(1968) Sakayan, Dora. Lies Deutsch, Erzähl Deutsch! (A reader for Armenian secondary schools with German-Armenian commentary and glossary.) Yerevan: Louys Press.
(1967) Sakayan, Dora. Deutsches Lesebuch. [An anthology of literary texts for graduate students in philology, with German-Armenian commentary and glossary]. Yerevan: University Press, 1967 (1st ed.), 1972 (2nd ed.).
Translations
(2011) Jakob Künzler, Im Lande des Blutes und der Tränen. Zürich: Chronos 1999/2004. [English Edition: In the Land of Blood and Tears, Massachusetts 2007]. Transla¬ted from German into East Ar¬me¬nian by Dora Sakayan and Evelina Makarian Յակոբ Քյունցլեր, Արյան և արցունքի երկրում, Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-5-8084-1518-8
(2010) Wilhelm Baum, Die Türkei und ihre christlichen Minderheiten, Klagenfurt-Wien: Kitab 2005 [English edition: The Christian Minorities in Turkey, Klagenfurt: Kitab 2006]. Transla¬ted from German into Eastern Armenian by Dora Sakayan and Evelina Makarian (Վիլհելմ Բաում, Թուրքիան և նրա քրիստոնյա փոքրամասնությունները), Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-5-8084-1277-4
(2008) Jakob Künzler, Dreissig Jahre Dienst am Orient [Thirty Years of Service in the Orient] Basel 1933, Translated from German into East Armenian by Dora Sakayan and Evelina Makarian (Յակոբ Քյունցլեր, Երեսուն տարի ծառայություն Արևելքում), Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-5-8084-1026-8
(2008) Günther Fuchs/Hans-Ulrich Lüdemann, Mördermord [The Murder of a Murderer], Rostock 2002. Translated into East Armenian by Dora Sakayan and Evelina Makarian (Գյունթեր Ֆուքս/Հանս Ուլրիխ Լյուդեման, Մարդասպանի սպանությունը), Yerevan State University Press. ISBN978-5-8084-1004-6
(2006) Dora Sakayan. An Armenian Doctor in Turkey. Montreal: Arod Books, 1997. Translated from English into German by Sakayan. Published in Dora Sakayan (Hg.), Smyrna 1922. Das Tagebuch des Garabed Hatscherian [Smyrna 1922. Garabed Hatcherian's Journal], Klagenfurt: Kitab-Verlag. ISBN3-902005-87-4
(1997) Կարապետ Խաչերեան. Զմիւռնիական արկածներս1922-ին [Garabed Hatcherian's journal My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922] Montreal: Arod Books 1997. Translated from Western Armenian into English by Dora Sakayan. Published in Dora Sakayan, An Armenian Doctor in Turkey. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN0-9699879-0-0
(1982) Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Translated into Eastern Armenian by Dora Sakayan, München: Verlag für armenische Fragen. OCLC
(1975) Manouk Abeghian  (1865–1944) Der armenische Volksglaube [Armenian Folk Beliefs]. Translated from German into East Armenian by Dora Sakayan. In: Collected Works of Manouk Abeghian, Vol. 7. Yerevan: Academy Press.[43]
(1969) Ruzan Nanumian, Stepanos Nazarian. Letters, Yerevan: Academy Press 1969. (The Deciphering of Stepanos Nazarian's (1812–1879) German letters from the Gothic handwriting and the preparation of the German texts for publication, as well as the revising of the Armenian translations in R. Nanumian's Stepanos Nazarian. Letters: by Dora Sakayan).
Editions
(2011): (Ed. Sakayan et al.) Sign, System, Communications. Selected Papers dedicated to the Memory of Edward Atayan. (Նշան, համակարգ, հաղորդակցում. Հոդվածների ժողովածու` նվիրված Էդվարդ Աթայանին), Yerevan State University Press.
(2010): (Ed. Sakayan) ՅՈՒՇԱՐՁԱՆ Ապրիլ 11-ի – MEMORIAL to April 11. Istanbul: Belge International Publishing.
(2006/2013): (Ed. Sakayan) Smyrna 1922: Das Tagebuch des Garabed Hatscherian. [Smyrna 1922. The diary of Garabed Hatcherian]. Introduction by Tessa Hofmann. Klagenfurt: Kitab-Verlag, 2006. Translated into German by Dora Sakayan. ISBN978-3-902005-87-8
(2005): (Ed. Sakayan) Смирна 1922. Дневник Карапета Хачеряна  Ереван, ААН, 2005. [Smyrna 1922. The diary of Garabed Hatcherian. Yerevan, Academy Press, 2005] Introduction by Tessa Hofmann. Translated into Russian from the English edition by Lusine Engibarian-Hammel. ISBN99941-39-40-1
(2005): (Ed. Sakayan) Զմյուռնիա 1922. Բժիշկ Կարապետ Խաչերյանի օրագիրը: [Smyrna 1922. The diary of the physician Garabed Hatcherian], Yerevan, Academy Press, 2005. Introduction by Tessa Hofmann. Transferred into East Armenian by Larissa Gevorkyan. ISBN99941-39-39-8
(2005): (Ed. Sakayan) Bir Ermeni Doktorun Yaşadıkları. Garabet Haçeryan’ın Ízmir Güncesi. [An Armenian physician's ordeal. The chronicle of Garabet Hatcherian]. Istanbul: Belge, 2005. Translated from the English edition into Turkish by Atilla Tuygan.
(2001): (Ed. Sakayan) Μεταξύ πυρός, ξύφους και θαλάσσης. Στην Σμύρνη το 1922 [Between the fire, sword and sea. In Smyrna in 1922]. Montréal: Arod, 2001. Translated from the English edition into Greek by Nakos Protopapas. ISBN0-9699879-4-3
(2001): (Ed. Sakayan) Esmirna 1922: Entre el fuego, el sable y el agua. El diario del Dr. Hatcherian 1922 [Between the fire, sword and sea. The Diary of Dr. Hatcherian in 1922]. Montréal: Arod, 2001. Translated from the English edition into Spanish by Juan R. S. Yelanguezian. ISBN0-9699879-3-5
(2001): (Ed. Sakayan) Semiotics and Language Teaching. Theoretical Principles and Practical Applications. Selected Papers Presented at the II Conference on Semiotics and Language Teaching Held at Yerevan State University 20–22 May 1996. Ann Arbor: Caravan Books. ISBN0-88206-103-8
(2000): (Ed. Sakayan) Smyrne 1922: Entre le feu, le glaive et l’eau. Les épreuves d’un médecin arménien [Between the fire, sword and sea. An Armenian physician's ordeal]. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2000. Translated from English edition into French by Ethel Groffier. ISBN2-7475-0046-2
(1997): (Ed. Sakayan) An Armenian Doctor in Turkey: Garabed Hatcherian, My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922. Dr. G. Hatcherian's journal is translated from the original into English by Dora Sakayan. This volume contains an introduction, 62 annotations, an afterword, photos, a bibliography. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN978-0-9699879-1-8
(1995/1997): (Ed. Sakayan) Տօքթ. Կարապետ Խաչերեանի օրագիրը. Զմիւռնիական արկածներս 1922-ին  [The Diary of Dr. Garabed Hatcherian. My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922]. Editor: Dora Sakayan. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN978-0-9699879-0-1
(1996): (Ed. Sakayan) Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Armenian Linguistics, May 1–5, 1995, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Delmar & New York: Caravan Books. ISBN0-88206-085-6
Awards and distinctions
September 27, 2012: Awarded the degree of Honorary Doctor of Yerevan State University "for her public and patriotic activities and outstanding achievements in Armenian Studies."[47]
November 6, 2011: Gold Medal of the RA (Republic of Armenia) Science and Education Ministry "For outstanding contributions to science and education."[48]
October 26, 2011: Certificate of Distinction by the RA Ministry of Diaspora.[49]
June 2, 2008: Certificate of Recognition for the book Eastern Armenian for the English-speaking World, "...a valuable contribution to the study of Armenia and its culture." The Certificate of Recognition was issued by the California State Assembly, forty-third District.
October 9, 2005: Saint Sahak - Saint Mesrop Medal of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, Armenia, for decades of scholarly and pedagogical services in Armenia and Canada.[50]
October 20, 2002: Outstanding Citizenship Award by the Montreal Citizenship Council.
June 28, 2001: Bundesverdienstkreuz, Federal Republic of Germany (the Cross of the Order of Merit) for 50years of contributions to the German language and culture.[51]
May 1996: "Semiotics and Language Teaching. Theoretical Principles and Practical Applications," A conference dedicated to Dora Sakayan on her 65th Birthday Anniversary as a special tribute to her contributions to the field of linguistics and Armenology), 1996, Yerevan State University, Armenia.[52]

 (Official website)

 Page saved by the Wayback Machine


The sport of cricket has a known history beginning in the late 16th century. Having originated in south-east England, it became the country's national sport in the 18th century and has developed globally in the 19th and 20th centuries. International matches have been played since 1844 and Test cricket began, retrospectively recognised, in 1877. Cricket is the world's second most popular spectator sport after association football. Governance is by the International Cricket Council (ICC) which has over one hundred countries and territories in membership although only twelve play Test cricket.
Early cricket

Part of a series onCricket
Forms of cricket
Test cricket
One Day International
Twenty20 International
First-class cricket
Limited overs cricket
List A cricket
Twenty20
100-ball cricket
Club cricket
History of cricket
History of cricket to 1725
History of cricket (1726–1763)vt
Origin
Cricket was probably created during Saxon or Norman times by children living in the Weald, an area of dense woodlands and clearings in south-east England that lies across Kent and Sussex.[1] The first definite reference is dated Monday, 17 January 1597 ("Old Style" Julian date, the year equating to 1598 in the modern calendar).
There have been several speculations about the game's origins including some that it was created in France or Flanders. The earliest of these speculative references is dated Thursday, 10 March 1300 and concerns the future King Edward II playing at "creag and other games" in both Westminster and Newenden. It has been suggested that "creag" was an Olde English word for cricket but expert opinion is that it was an early spelling of "craic", meaning "fun and games in general".[2]
It is generally believed that cricket survived as a children's game for many generations before it was increasingly taken up by adults around the beginning of the 17th century. Possibly cricket was derived from bowls, assuming bowls is the older sport, by the intervention of a batsman trying to stop the ball from reaching its target by hitting it away. Playing on sheep-grazed land or in clearings, the original implements may have been a matted lump of sheep’s wool (or even a stone or a small lump of wood) as the ball; a stick or a crook or another farm tool as the bat; and a stool or a tree stump or a gate (e.g., a wicket gate) as the wicket.[3]
First definite reference

A 1597 (Old Style – 1598 New Style) court case in England concerning an ownership dispute over a plot of common land in Guildford, Surrey mentions the game of creckett. A 59-year-old coroner, John Derrick, testified that he and his school friends had played creckett on the site fifty years earlier when they attended the Free School. Derrick's account proves beyond reasonable doubt that the game was being played in Surrey circa 1550, and is the earliest universally accepted reference to the game.[4][5]
The first reference to cricket being played as an adult sport was in 1611, when two men in Sussex were prosecuted for playing cricket on Sunday instead of going to church.[6] In the same year, a dictionary defined cricket as a boys' game and this suggests that adult participation was a recent development.[4]
Derivation of the name of "cricket"
A number of words are thought to be possible sources for the term "cricket". In the earliest definite reference,it was spelled creckett. The name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick(-e), meaning a stick; or the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff, or the French word criquet meaning a wooden post.[3] The Middle Dutch word krickstoel means a long low stool used for kneeling in church; this resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket.[7] According to Heiner Gillmeister, a European language expert of the University of Bonn, "cricket" derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey, met de (krik ket)sen (i.e., "with the stick chase").[8]
It is more likely that the terminology of cricket was based on words in use in south-east England at the time and, given trade connections with the County of Flanders, especially in the 15th century when it belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy, many Middle Dutch[9] words found their way into southern English dialects.[10]
Early 17th century
A number of references occur up to the English Civil War and these indicate that cricket had become an adult game contested by parish teams, but there is no evidence of county strength teams at this time. Equally, there is little evidence of the rampant gambling that characterised the game throughout the 18th century. It is generally believed, therefore, that village cricket had developed by the middle of the 17th century but that county cricket had not and that investment in the game had not begun.[11]
The Commonwealth
After the Civil War ended in 1648, the new Puritan government clamped down on "unlawful assemblies", in particular the more raucous sports such as football. Their laws also demanded a stricter observance of the Sabbath than there had been previously. As the Sabbath was the only free time available to the lower classes, cricket's popularity may have waned during the Commonwealth. However, it did flourish in public fee-paying schools such as Winchester and St Paul's. There is no actual evidence that Oliver Cromwell's regime banned cricket specifically and there are references to it during the interregnum that suggest it was acceptable to the authorities provided that it did not cause any "breach of the Sabbath".[11] It is believed that the nobility in general adopted cricket at this time through involvement in village games.[4]
Gambling and press coverage
Cricket certainly thrived after the Restoration in 1660 and is believed to have first attracted gamblers making large bets at this time. In 1664, the "Cavalier" Parliament passed the Gaming Act 1664 which limited stakes to £100, although that was still a fortune at the time,[11] equivalent to about £15thousand in present-day terms [12]. Cricket had certainly become a significant gambling sport by the end of the 17th century. There is a newspaper report of a "great match" played in Sussex in 1697 which was 11-a-side and played for high stakes of 50 guineas a side.[6]
With freedom of the press having been granted in 1696, cricket for the first time could be reported in the newspapers. But it was a long time before the newspaper industry adapted sufficiently to provide frequent, let alone comprehensive, coverage of the game. During the first half of the 18th century, press reports tended to focus on the betting rather than on the play.[11]
18th century cricket

Patronage and players
Gambling introduced the first patrons because some of the gamblers decided to strengthen their bets by forming their own teams and it is believed the first "county teams" were formed in the aftermath of the Restoration in 1660, especially as members of the nobility were employing "local experts" from village cricket as the earliest professionals.[4] The first known game in which the teams use county names is in 1709 but there can be little doubt that these sort of fixtures were being arranged long before that. The match in 1697 was probably Sussex versus another county.
The most notable of the early patrons were a group of aristocrats and businessmen who were active from about 1725, which is the time that press coverage became more regular, perhaps as a result of the patrons' influence. These men included the 2nd Duke of Richmond, Sir William Gage, Alan Brodrick and Edwin Stead. For the first time, the press mentions individual players like Thomas Waymark.
Cricket moves out of England
Cricket was introduced to North America via the English colonies in the 17th century,[10] probably before it had even reached the north of England. In the 18th century it arrived in other parts of the globe. It was introduced to the West Indies by colonists[10] and to India by British East India Company mariners in the first half of the century. It arrived in Australia almost as soon as colonisation began in 1788. New Zealand and South Africa followed in the early years of the 19th century.[4]
Cricket never caught on in Canada, despite efforts by an imperial-minded elite to promote the game as a way of identifying with the British Empire. Canada, unlike Australia and the West Indies, witnessed a continual decline in the popularity of the game during 1860–1960. Linked to upper class British-Canadian elites, the game never became popular with the general public. In the summer season it had to compete with baseball. During the First World War, Canadian units stationed in Britain played baseball, not cricket.[13][14]
Development of the Laws

The basic rules of cricket such as bat and ball, the wicket, pitch dimensions, overs, how out, etc. have existed since time immemorial. In 1728, the Duke of Richmond and Alan Brodick drew up Articles of Agreement to determine the code of practice in a particular game and this became a common feature, especially around payment of stake money and distributing the winnings given the importance of gambling.[6]
In 1744, the Laws of Cricket were codified for the first time and then amended in 1774, when innovations such as lbw, middle stump and maximum bat width were added. These laws stated that "the principals shall choose from amongst the gentlemen present two umpires who shall absolutely decide all disputes". The codes were drawn up by the so-called "Star and Garter Club" whose members ultimately founded MCC at Lord's in 1787. MCC immediately became the custodian of the Laws and has made periodic revisions and recodifications subsequently.[15]
Continued growth in England
The game continued to spread throughout England and, in 1751, Yorkshire is first mentioned as a venue.[16] The original form of bowling (i.e., rolling the ball along the ground as in bowls) was superseded sometime after 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball and study variations in line, length and pace.[11] Scorecards began to be kept on a regular basis from 1772 and since then an increasingly clear picture has emerged of the sport's development.[17]

The first famous clubs were London and Dartford in the early 18th century. London played its matches on the Artillery Ground, which still exists. Others followed, particularly Slindon in Sussex which was backed by the Duke of Richmond and featured the star player Richard Newland. There were other prominent clubs at Maidenhead, Hornchurch, Maidstone, Sevenoaks, Bromley, Addington, Hadlow and Chertsey.
But far and away the most famous of the early clubs was Hambledon in Hampshire. It started as a parish organisation that first achieved prominence in 1756. The club itself was founded in the 1760s and was well patronised to the extent that it was the focal point of the game for about thirty years until the formation of MCC and the opening of Lord's Cricket Ground in 1787. Hambledon produced several outstanding players including the master batsman John Small and the first great fast bowler Thomas Brett. Their most notable opponent was the Chertsey and Surrey bowler Edward "Lumpy" Stevens, who is believed to have been the main proponent of the flighted delivery.
It was in answer to the flighted, or pitched, delivery that the straight bat was introduced. The old "hockey stick" style of bat was only really effective against the ball being trundled or skimmed along the ground.
Cricket and crisis

Cricket faced its first real crisis during the 18th century when major matches virtually ceased during the Seven Years' War. This was largely due to shortage of players and lack of investment. But the game survived and the "Hambledon Era" proper began in the mid-1760s.
Cricket faced another major crisis at the beginning of the 19th century when a cessation of major matches occurred during the culminating period of the Napoleonic Wars. Again, the causes were shortage of players and lack of investment.[18] But, as in the 1760s, the game survived and a slow recovery began in 1815.
On 17 June 1815, on the eve of the Battle of Waterloo British soldiers played a cricket match in the Bois de la Cambre park in Brussels. Ever since the park area where that match took place has been called La Pelouse des Anglais (the Englishmen's lawn).
MCC was itself the centre of controversy in the Regency period, largely on account of the enmity between Lord Frederick Beauclerk and George Osbaldeston. In 1817, their intrigues and jealousies exploded into a match-fixing scandal with the top player William Lambert being banned from playing at Lord's Cricket Ground for life. Gambling scandals in cricket have been going on since the 17th century.
In the 1820s, cricket faced a major crisis of its own making as the campaign to allow roundarm bowling gathered pace.
19th century cricket

The game also underwent a fundamental change of organisation with the formation for the first time of county clubs. All the modern county clubs, starting with Sussex in 1839, were founded during the 19th century. No sooner had the first county clubs established themselves than they faced what amounted to "player action" as William Clarke created the travelling All-England Eleven in 1846. Though a commercial venture, this team did much to popularise the game in districts which had never previously been visited by high-class cricketers. Other similar teams were created and this vogue lasted for about thirty years. But the counties and MCC prevailed.

The growth of cricket in the mid and late 19th century was assisted by the development of the railway network. For the first time, teams from a long distance apart could play one other without a prohibitively time-consuming journey. Spectators could travel longer distances to matches, increasing the size of crowds. Army units around the Empire had time on their hands, and encouraged the locals so they could have some entertaining competition. Most of the Empire embraced cricket, with the exception of Canada.[19]
In 1864, another bowling revolution resulted in the legalisation of overarm and in the same year Wisden Cricketers' Almanack was first published. W. G. Grace began his long and influential career at this time, his feats doing much to increase cricket's popularity. He introduced technical innovations which revolutionised the game, particularly in batting.
International cricket begins
The first ever international cricket game was between the US and Canada in 1844. The match was played at the grounds of the St George's Cricket Club in New York.[20]

In 1859, a team of leading English professionals set off to North America on the first-ever overseas tour and, in 1862, the first English team toured Australia. Between May and October 1868, a team of Australian Aborigines toured England in what was the first Australian cricket team to travel overseas.[21]

In 1877, an England touring team in Australia played two matches against full Australian XIs that are now regarded as the inaugural Test matches. The following year, the Australians toured England for the first time and the success of this tour ensured a popular demand for similar ventures in future. No Tests were played in 1878 but more soon followed and, at The Oval in 1882, the Australian victory in a tense finish gave rise to The Ashes.
South Africa became the third Test nation in 1889.
National championships
A significant development in domestic cricket occurred in 1890 when the official County Championship was constituted in England. This organisational initiative has been repeated in other countries. Australia established the Sheffield Shield in 1892–93. Other national competitions to be established were the Currie Cup in South Africa, the Plunkett Shield in New Zealand and the Ranji Trophy in India.
The period from 1890 to the outbreak of the First World War has become one of nostalgia, ostensibly because the teams played cricket according to "the spirit of the game", but more realistically because it was a peacetime period that was shattered by the First World War. The era has been called The Golden Age of cricket and it featured numerous great names such as Grace, Wilfred Rhodes, C. B. Fry, Ranjitsinhji and Victor Trumper.
Balls per over
Cricket started with four balls per over. In 1889 the four balls per over was replaced by a five balls per over and then this was changed to the current six balls per over in 1900. Subsequently, some countries experimented with eight balls per over. In 1922, the number of balls per over was changed from six to eight in Australia only. In 1924 the eight balls per over was extended to New Zealand and in 1937 to South Africa. In England, the eight balls per over was adopted experimentally for the 1939 season; the intention was to continue the experiment in 1940, but first-class cricket was suspended for the Second World War and when it resumed, English cricket reverted to the six ball over. The 1947 Laws of Cricket allowed six or eight balls depending on the conditions of play. Since the 1979/80 Australian and New Zealand seasons, the six balls per over has been used worldwide and the most recent version of the Laws in 2000 only permits six ball overs.
20th century cricket
Growth of Test cricket

When the Imperial Cricket Conference (as it was originally called) was founded in 1909, only England, Australia and South Africa were members. West Indies (1928), New Zealand (1930) and India (1932) became Test nations before World War II and Pakistan (1952) soon afterwards. The international game grew with several ICC Affiliate Members being appointed and, in the last quarter of the 20th century, three of those became full members: Sri Lanka (1982), Zimbabwe (1992) and Bangladesh (2000). They were followed in the early 21st century by Ireland and Afghanistan (both 2018).
Test cricket remained the sport's highest level of standard throughout the 20th century but it had its problems, notably in the infamous "Bodyline Series" of 1932–33 when Douglas Jardine's England used so-called "leg theory" to try and neutralise the run-scoring brilliance of Australia's Don Bradman.
Suspension of South Africa (1970–91)

The greatest crisis to hit international cricket was brought about by apartheid, the South African policy of racial segregation. The situation began to crystallise after 1961 when South Africa left the Commonwealth of Nations and so, under the rules of the day, its cricket board had to leave the International Cricket Conference (ICC). Cricket's opposition to apartheid intensified in 1968 with the cancellation of England's tour to South Africa by the South African authorities, due to the inclusion of "coloured" cricketer Basil D'Oliveira in the England team. In 1970, the ICC members voted to suspend South Africa indefinitely from international cricket competition.
Starved of top-level competition for its best players, the South African Cricket Board began funding so-called "rebel tours", offering large sums of money for international players to form teams and tour South Africa. The ICC's response was to blacklist any rebel players who agreed to tour South Africa, banning them from officially sanctioned international cricket. As players were poorly remunerated during the 1970s, several accepted the offer to tour South Africa, particularly players getting towards the end of their careers for which a blacklisting would have little effect.
The rebel tours continued into the 1980s but then progress was made in South African politics and it became clear that apartheid was ending. South Africa, now a "Rainbow Nation" under Nelson Mandela, was welcomed back into international sport in 1991.
World Series Cricket

The money problems of top cricketers were also the root cause of another cricketing crisis that arose in 1977 when the Australian media magnate Kerry Packer fell out with the Australian Cricket Board over TV rights. Taking advantage of the low remuneration paid to players, Packer retaliated by signing several of the best players in the world to a privately run cricket league outside the structure of international cricket. World Series Cricket hired some of the banned South African players and allowed them to show off their skills in an international arena against other world-class players. The schism lasted only until 1979 and the "rebel" players were allowed back into established international cricket, though many found that their national teams had moved on without them. Long-term results of World Series Cricket have included the introduction of significantly higher player salaries and innovations such as coloured kit and night games.
Limited-overs cricket
In the 1960s, English county teams began playing a version of cricket with games of only one innings each and a maximum number of overs per innings. Starting in 1963 as a knockout competition only, limited-overs cricket grew in popularity and, in 1969, a national league was created which consequently caused a reduction in the number of matches in the County Championship.
Although many "traditional" cricket fans objected to the shorter form of the game, limited-overs cricket did have the advantage of delivering a result to spectators within a single day; it did improve cricket's appeal to younger or busier people; and it did prove commercially successful.
The first limited-overs international match took place at Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1971 as a time-filler after a Test match had been abandoned because of heavy rain on the opening days. It was tried simply as an experiment and to give the players some exercise, but turned out to be immensely popular. limited-overs internationals (LOIs or ODIs—one-day internationals) have since grown to become a massively popular form of the game, especially for busy people who want to be able to see a whole match. The International Cricket Council reacted to this development by organising the first Cricket World Cup in England in 1975, with all the Test-playing nations taking part.
Analytic and graphic technology
Limited-overs cricket increased television ratings for cricket coverage. Innovative techniques introduced in coverage of limited-over matches were soon adopted for Test coverage. The innovations included presentation of in-depth statistics and graphical analysis, placing miniature cameras in the stumps, multiple usage of cameras to provide shots from several locations around the ground, high-speed photography and computer graphics technology enabling television viewers to study the course of a delivery and help them understand an umpire's decision.
In 1992, the use of a third umpire to adjudicate run-out appeals with television replays was introduced in the Test series between South Africa and India. The third umpire's duties have subsequently expanded to include decisions on other aspects of play such as stumpings, catches and boundaries. From 2011, the third umpire was being called upon to moderate review of umpires' decisions, including LBW, with the aid of virtual-reality tracking technologies (e.g., Hawk-Eye and Hot Spot), though such measures still could not free some disputed decisions from heated controversy.[22]
21st century cricket
In June 2001, the ICC introduced a "Test Championship Table" and, in October 2002, a "One-day International Championship Table". As indicated by ICC rankings,[23] the various cricket formats have continued to be a major competitive sport in most former British Empire countries, notably the Indian subcontinent, and new participants including the Netherlands. In 2017, the number of countries with full ICC membership was increased to twelve by the addition of Afghanistan and Ireland.
The ICC expanded its development programme, aiming to produce more national teams capable of competing at the various formats. Development efforts are focused on African and Asian nations, and on the United States. In 2004, the ICC Intercontinental Cup brought first-class cricket to 12 nations, mostly for the first time. Cricket's newest innovation is Twenty20, essentially an evening entertainment. It has so far enjoyed enormous popularity and has attracted large attendances at matches as well as good TV audience ratings. The inaugural ICC Twenty20 World Cup tournament was held in 2007.[24] The formation of Twenty20 leagues in India – the unofficial Indian Cricket League, which started in 2007, and the official Indian Premier League, starting in 2008 – raised much speculation in the cricketing press about their effect on the future of cricket.[25][26][27][28]
Historical sources
"First-class cricket" was not officially defined until May 1894 and became effective from the start of the 1895 English cricket season.[29] Cricket of a recognised first-class standard (i.e., in important matches) had, however, been recorded in England for two centuries before then, and in other countries from the middle of the 19th century. There is no official term for cricket of this high standard before 1895 and many loose terms were used for convenience including "first-class" itself and other adjectives like "major", "great" and "important", the latter being coined by the ACS for its A Guide to Important Cricket Matches Played in the British Isles 1709–1863 (1981).[29] It is generally agreed by the main historical sources that the earliest known example of what was contemporarily called a "great match" was the one played for fifty guineas in June 1697 between two eleven-a-side teams at an unspecified location in Sussex.[6] It is entirely feasible, and is indeed believed by some historians, that major matches were played for many years before 1697.[30][31] In 1695, the English Parliament decided against a renewal of the 1662 Licensing Act and so cleared the way for a free press on the Act's expiry in 1696.[32] The main reason for matches before 1697 being unknown is that, while the Licensing Act was in force, it effectively imposed censorship upon the press and sport was not deemed to be a suitable subject for newspaper coverage. After the restrictions were removed, sport was gradually introduced into the newspapers but it would be decades before coverage became anything substantial, let alone comprehensive.[32]
From 1895, there is no question about first-class status because of the official definition.[29] The concept became global from 1947 when it was re-defined by the ICC, although there has been hardly any controversy about match status outside Great Britain before 1947.[33] Status of limited overs matches, which began in 1963, is governed by the official List A categorisation and there are similarly no issues about major Twenty 20 matches. Although the experts are in general agreement about match status, there have been exceptions although these account for a tiny percentage of the total number of matches recorded. Apart from one tour of India and Ceylon by a privately organised team in the winter of 1930–31, all the "disputed" matches took place in England before 1895: see Variations in published cricket statistics for further information.
The list below is by no means exhaustive, but the works included are widely held in cricketing circles to be significant and substantial sources of information about the development of the sport from the end of the 17th century to the commencement of officially defined first-class cricket in 1895. These are widely used to determine the status of individual matches, teams, venues and players. In a more general sense, all of the sources listed in Bibliography of cricket, though again this is not an exhaustive list, are reliable but it should be noted that autobiographies and other works with a narrow scope are not necessarily suitable, certainly not if used in isolation, to determine match status.
Books and other printed works

Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)

 (also volumes 2 to 14, covering the 1827 to 1878 seasons)

 (annual review – seasons 1849 to 1866)
 (annual review – seasons 1871 to 1899)
 (annual review – seasons 1864 to 1884)

Examples of substantial season-specific sources

Examples of substantial subject-specific sources

Selected online sources
Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)

Cite uses deprecated parameter |subscription= (help)
Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)

Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)
See also
History of women's cricket

Bibliography

Bateman, Anthony. Cricket, literature and culture: symbolising the nation, destabilising empire (Routledge, 2016).

Lang, Andrew. "" in Steel A. G.; Lyttelton R. H. Cricket, Longmans 1898 (6th edn)
Light, Rob. "‘In a Yorkshire Like Way’: Cricket and the Construction of Regional Identity in Nineteenth-century Yorkshire." Sport in History 29.3 (2009): 500–518.

McKibbin, Ross.  Classes and Cultures. England 1918–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).  pp. 332–39
Russell, Dave. "Sport and identity: the case of Yorkshire County Cricket Club, 1890–1939." Twentieth Century British History 7.2 (1996): 206–30.
Stone, Duncan. "Cricket's regional identities: the development of cricket and identity in Yorkshire and Surrey." Sport in Society 11.5 (2008): 501–16.

Wisden Cricketers' Almanack (annual): various editions


The nematodes (UK: /ˈnɛmətoʊdz/, US: /ˈniːməˌtoʊdz/) or roundworms  constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes).[2][3] They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Taxonomically, they are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, and unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems  with openings at both ends.
Nematode species can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematode species described to date vary by author and may change rapidly over time. A 2013 survey of animal biodiversity published in the mega journal Zootaxa puts this figure at over 25,000.[4][5] Estimates of the total number of extant species are subject to even greater variation. A widely referenced[6] article published in 1993 estimated there may be over 1million species of nematode,[7] a claim which has since been repeated in numerous publications, without additional investigation, in an attempt to accentuate the importance and ubiquity of nematodes in the global ecosystem (rather than as a sign of agreement with the estimated taxonomic figure). Many other publications have since vigorously refuted this claim on the grounds that it is unsupported by fact, and is the result of speculation and sensationalism. More recent, fact-based estimates have placed the true figure closer to 40,000species worldwide.[8]
Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem: from marine (salt) to fresh water, soils, from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are ubiquitous in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts, and are found in locations as diverse as mountains, deserts, and oceanic trenches. They are found in every part of the earth's lithosphere,[9] even at great depths, 0.9–3.6km (3,000–12,000ft) below the surface of the Earth in gold mines in South Africa.[10][11][12][13][14] They represent  90% of all animals on the ocean floor.[15] Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of lifecycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point to an important role in many ecosystems.[16] The roughly 2,271genera are placed in 256families.[17] The many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals. A third of the genera occur as parasites of vertebrates; about 35nematode species occur in humans.[17]
Nathan Cobb, a nematologist, described the ubiquity of nematodes on Earth as thus:In short, if all the matter in the universe  except the nematodes were swept away, our world would still be dimly recognizable, and if, as disembodied spirits, we could then investigate it, we should find its  mountains, hills, vales, rivers, lakes, and  oceans represented by a film of nematodes. The location of towns would  be decipherable, since for every massing of human beings, there would be a corresponding massing of certain nematodes. Trees would still stand  in ghostly rows representing  our streets and highways. The location of the various plants and  animals would still be decipherable, and, had  we sufficient knowledge, in many cases even their species could be determined by an examination of their erstwhile nematode parasites.[18]
Taxonomy and systematics

History
In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera (e.g., Ascaris), then included in the Vermes.
The name of the group Nematoda, informally called "nematodes", came from Nematoidea, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi (1808),[19] from Ancient Greek νῆμα (nêma, nêmatos, 'thread') and -eiδἠς (-eidēs, 'species'). It was treated as family Nematodes by Burmeister (1837).[19]
At its origin, the "Nematoidea" erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold (1843). Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda, and Cestoidea, it formed the obsolete group Entozoa,[20] created by Rudolphi (1808).[21] They were also classed along with Acanthocephala in the obsolete phylum Nemathelminthes by Gegenbaur (1859).
In 1861, K. M. Diesing treated the group as order Nematoda.[19] In 1877, the taxon Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae (horsehair worms), was promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester. The first clear distinction between the nemas and gordiids was realized by Vejdovsky when he named a group to contain the horsehair worms the order Nematomorpha. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum.[22] He argued they should be called "nema" in English rather than "nematodes" and defined the taxon Nemates (later emended as Nemata, Latin plural of nema), listing Nematoidea sensu restricto as a synonym.
However, in 1910, Grobben proposed the phylum Aschelminthes and the nematodes were included in as class Nematoda along with class Rotifera, class Gastrotricha, class Kinorhyncha, class Priapulida, and class Nematomorpha (The phylum was later revived and modified by Libbie Henrietta Hyman in 1951 as Pseudoceolomata, but remained similar). In 1932, Potts elevated the class Nematoda to the level of phylum, leaving the name the same. Despite Potts' classification being equivalent to Cobbs', both names have been used (and are still used today) and Nematode became a popular term in zoological science.[23]
Since Cobb was the first to include nematodes in a particular phylum separated from Nematomorpha, some researchers consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda,[24] because of the zoological rule that gives priority to the first used term in case of synonyms.
Phylogeny
The phylogenetic relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own, but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa together with moulting animals, such as arthropods. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always been considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a sister taxon to the parasitic Nematomorpha; together, they make up the Nematoida. Along with the Scalidophora (formerly Cephalorhyncha), the Nematoida form the clade Cycloneuralia, but much disagreement occurs both between and among the available morphological and molecular data. The Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum.[25]
Nematode systematics
Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious. An earliest and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood[26] — later revised by Chitwood[27] — who divided the phylum into two — the Aphasmidia and the Phasmidia. These were later renamed Adenophorea (gland bearers) and Secernentea (secretors), respectively.[28] The Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division. This scheme was adhered to in many later classifications, though the Adenophorea were not in a uniform group.
Initial studies of incomplete DNA sequences[29] suggested the existence of five clades:[30]
Dorylaimida
Enoplia
Spirurina
Tylenchina
Rhabditina
As it seems, the Secernentea are indeed a natural group of closest relatives, but the "Adenophorea" appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage of roundworms simply retaining a good number of ancestral traits. The old Enoplia do not seem to be monophyletic, either, but to contain two distinct lineages. The old group "Chromadoria" seems to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the Monhysterida representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the Diplogasteria may need to be united with the Rhabditia, while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia.[31]
The understanding of roundworm systematics and phylogeny as of 2002 is summarised below:
Phylum Nematoda
Basal order Monhysterida
Class Dorylaimida
Class Enoplea
Class Secernentea
Subclass Diplogasteria (disputed)
Subclass Rhabditia (paraphyletic?)
Subclass Spiruria
Subclass Tylenchia (disputed)
"Chromadorea" assemblage
Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades.[32] The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea.
A major effort to improve the systematics of this phylum is in progress and being organised by the 959 Nematode Genomes.[33]
A complete checklist of the world's nematode species can be found in the World Species Index: Nematoda.[34]
An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid[35]
subclass Dorylaimia
orders Rhabditida, Trichinellida and Mermithida
suborder Rhabditina
infraorders Spiruromorpha and Oxyuridomorpha
The Ascaridomorpha, Rhabditomorpha, and Diplogasteromorpha appear to be related.
The suborders Spirurina and Tylenchina and the infraorders Rhabditomorpha, Panagrolaimomorpha, and Tylenchomorpha are paraphytic.
The monophyly of the Ascaridomorph is uncertain.
Anatomy

Nematodes are small, slender worms: typically about 5 to 100µm thick, and 0.1 to 2.5mm long.[36] The smallest nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as 5cm (2in), and some parasitic species are larger still, reaching over 1m (3ft) in length.[37]:271 The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, bristles, or other distinctive structures.[38]
The head of a nematode is relatively distinct. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid 'head-shields' radiating outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear a series of teeth on their inner edges. An adhesive 'caudal gland' is often found at the tip of the tail.[39]
The epidermis is either a syncytium or a single layer of cells, and is covered by a thick collagenous cuticle. The cuticle is often of complex structure, and may have two or three distinct layers. Underneath the epidermis lies a layer of longitudinal muscle cells. The relatively rigid cuticle works with the muscles to create a hydroskeleton, as nematodes lack circumferential muscles. Projections run from the inner surface of muscle cells towards the nerve cords; this is a unique arrangement in the animal kingdom, in which nerve cells normally extend fibres into the muscles rather than vice versa.[39]
Digestive system
The oral cavity is lined with cuticle, which is often strengthened with ridges or other structures, and especially in carnivorous species, may bear a number of teeth. The mouth often includes a sharp stylet, which the animal can thrust into its prey. In some species, the stylet is hollow, and can be used to suck liquids from plants or animals.[39]
The oral cavity opens into a muscular, sucking pharynx, also lined with cuticle. Digestive glands are found in this region of the gut, producing enzymes that start to break down the food. In stylet-bearing species, these may even be injected into the prey.[39]
No stomach is present, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single-cell-thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.[39]
Excretory system
Nitrogenous waste is excreted in the form of ammonia through the body wall, and is not associated with any specific organs. However, the structures for excreting salt to maintain osmoregulation are typically more complex.[39]
In many marine nematodes, one or two unicellular 'renette glands' excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialised cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.[39]
Nervous system

Four peripheral nerves run the length of the body on the dorsal, ventral, and lateral surfaces. Each nerve lies within a cord of connective tissue lying beneath the cuticle and between the muscle cells. The ventral nerve is the largest, and has a double structure forward of the excretory pore. The dorsal nerve is responsible for motor control, while the lateral nerves are sensory, and the ventral combines both functions.[39]
The nervous system is also the only place in the nematode body that contains cilia, which are all nonmotile and with a sensory function.[40][41]
At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense, circular nerve (nerve ring) round surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head.[39]
The bodies of nematodes are covered in numerous sensory bristles and papillae that together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on the head lie two small pits, or 'amphids'. These are well supplied with nerve cells, and are probably chemoreception organs. A few aquatic nematodes possess what appear to be pigmented eye-spots, but whether or not these are actually sensory in nature is unclear.[39]
Reproduction

Most nematode species are dioecious, with separate male and female individuals, though some, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, are androdioecious, consisting of hermaphrodites and rare males. Both sexes possess one or two tubular gonads. In males, the sperm are produced at the end of the gonad and migrate along its length as they mature. The testis opens into a relatively wide seminal vesicle and then during intercourse into a glandular and muscular ejaculatory duct associated with the vas deferens and cloaca. In females, the ovaries each open into an oviduct (in hermaphrodites, the eggs enter a spermatheca first) and then a glandular uterus. The uteri both open into a common vulva/vagina, usually located in the middle of the morphologically ventral surface.[39]
Reproduction is usually sexual, though hermaphrodites are capable of self-fertilization. Males are usually smaller than females or hermaphrodites (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically bent or fan-shaped tail. During copulation, one or more chitinized spicules move out of the cloaca and are inserted into the genital pore of the female. Amoeboid sperm crawl along the spicule into the female worm. Nematode sperm is thought to be the only eukaryotic cell without the globular protein G-actin.
Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into larvae, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the lifecycle is often much more complicated.[39]
Nematodes as a whole possess a wide range of modes of reproduction.[43] Some nematodes, such as Heterorhabditis spp., undergo a process called endotokia matricida: intrauterine birth causing maternal death.[44] Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes  then ingest the parent nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low food supply.[44]
The nematode model species C. elegans and C. briggsae exhibit androdioecy, which is very rare among animals. The single genus Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes) exhibits a range of reproductive modes, including sexual reproduction, facultative sexuality (in which most, but not all, generations reproduce asexually), and both meiotic and mitotic parthenogenesis.
The genus Mesorhabditis exhibits an unusual form of parthenogenesis, in which sperm-producing males copulate with females, but the sperm do not fuse with the ovum. Contact with the sperm is essential for the ovum to begin dividing, but because  no fusion of the cells occurs, the male contributes no genetic material to the offspring, which are essentially clones of the female.[39]
Free-living species
Different free-living species feed on materials as varied as algae, fungi, small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms, and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the meiobenthos. They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments, and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note, C. elegans, lives in the soil and has found much use as a model organism. C. elegans has had its entire genome sequenced, the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped.
Parasitic species

Nematodes commonly parasitic on humans include ascarids (Ascaris), filarias, hookworms, pinworms (Enterobius), and whipworms (Trichuris trichiura). The species Trichinella spiralis, commonly known as the 'trichina worm', occurs in rats, pigs, bears, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. Baylisascaris usually infests wild animals, but can be deadly to humans, as well. Dirofilaria immitis is known for causing heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats. Haemonchus contortus is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are mostly considered beneficial by humans, but some attack beneficial insects.
One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens.
A newly discovered parasitic tetradonematid nematode, Myrmeconema neotropicum,  apparently induces fruit mimicry in the tropical ant Cephalotes atratus. Infected ants develop bright red gasters (abdomens), tend to be more sluggish, and walk with their gasters in a conspicuous elevated position. These changes likely cause frugivorous birds to confuse the infected ants for berries, and eat them. Parasite eggs passed in the bird's feces are subsequently collected by foraging C. atratus and are fed to their larvae, thus completing the lifecycle of M. neotropicum.[45]
Similarly, multiple varieties of nematodes have been found in the abdominal cavities of the primitively social sweat bee, Lasioglossum zephyrum. Inside the female body, the nematode hinders ovarian development and renders the bee less active, thus less effective in pollen collection.[46]

Plant-parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses. The most common genera are Aphelenchoides (foliar nematodes), Ditylenchus, Globodera (potato cyst nematodes), Heterodera (soybean cyst nematodes), Longidorus, Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes), Nacobbus, Pratylenchus (lesion nematodes), Trichodorus, and Xiphinema (dagger nematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is Xiphinema index, vector of grapevine fanleaf virus, an important disease of grapes, another one is Xiphinema diversicaudatum, vector of arabis mosaic virus.
Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the pine wood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently discovered in Europe.
Agriculture and horticulture
Depending on the species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural and horticulture perspectives, the two categories of nematodes are the predatory ones, which  kill garden pests such as  cutworms and corn earworm moths, and the pest nematodes, such as the root-knot nematode, which attack plants, and those that act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants.[47] Predatory nematodes can be bred by soaking a specific recipe of leaves and other detritus in water, in a dark, cool place, and can even be purchased as an organic form of pest control.
Rotations of plants with nematode-resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effect is cumulative), can be used to control nematodes.[48] Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as the fungus Gliocladium roseum. Chitosan, a natural biocontrol, elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasitic cyst nematodes on roots of soybean, corn, sugar beet, potato, and tomato crops without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil.[49] Soil steaming is an efficient method to kill nematodes before planting a crop, but indiscriminately eliminates both harmful and beneficial soil fauna.
The golden nematode Globodera rostochiensis is a particularly harmful variety of nematode pest that has resulted in quarantines and crop failures worldwide. CSIRO has found a 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots having Indian mustard Brassica juncea green manure or seed meal in the soil.[50]
Epidemiology

A number of intestinal nematodes cause diseases affecting human beings, including ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm disease. Filarial nematodes cause filariasis.
Soil ecosystems
About 90% of nematodes reside in the top 15cm of soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic matter, but, instead, are parasitic and free-living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial population and community composition — they may eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Also, nematodes can play an important role in the nitrogen cycle by way of nitrogen mineralization.[36]
One group of carnivorous fungi, the nematophagous fungi, are predators of soil nematodes. They set enticements for the nematodes in the form of lassos or adhesive structures.[51][52][53]
Society and culture
Nematode worms (C. elegans), part of an ongoing research project conducted on the Space Shuttle Columbia mission STS-107, survived the re-entry breakup. It is believed to be the first known life form to survive a virtually unprotected atmospheric descent to Earth's surface.[54][55]
See also
Biological pest control
Capillaria
List of organic gardening and farming topics
List of parasites of humans
Toxocariasis: A helminth infection of humans caused by the dog or cat roundworm, Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati
Notes

Further reading

 [in Russian].

 Cite uses deprecated parameter |dead-url= (help)

CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: uses editors parameter (link)

 on the UF / *IFAS Featured Creatures Web site