Christchurch (/ˈkraɪstʃɜːrtʃ/; Māori: Ōtautahi) is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. The Christchurch urban area lies on the South Island's east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula. It is home to  residents,[2] making it New Zealand's third-most populous city behind Auckland and Wellington.
The Avon River flows through the centre of the city, with an urban park located along its banks. At the request of the Deans brothers—whose farm was the earliest settlement in the area—the river was named after the River Avon in Scotland, which rises in the Ayrshire hills near to where their grandfather's farm was located.[3]
Archaeological evidence has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by humans in about 1250. Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Canterbury Association, which settled the Canterbury Plains, named the city after Christ Church, Oxford. The new settlement was laid out in a grid pattern centred on Cathedral Square; during the 19th century there were few barriers to the rapid growth of the urban area, except for the Pacific to the east and the Port Hills to the south.
Agriculture is the historic mainstay of Christchurch's economy. The early presence of the University of Canterbury and the heritage of the city's academic institutions in association with local businesses has fostered a number of technology-based industries.
The city suffered a series of earthquakes between September 2010 and early 2012, with the most destructive of them occurring at 12.51 p.m. on Tuesday, 22 February 2011, in which 185 people were killed and thousands of buildings across the city collapsed or suffered severe damage. By late 2013, 1,500 buildings in the city had been demolished, leading to an ongoing recovery and rebuilding project.
Names
The name of "Christchurch" was agreed on at the first meeting of the Canterbury Association on 27 March 1848. It was suggested by founder John Robert Godley, whose alma mater was Christ Church, Oxford.[4]
The Māori name Ōtautahi ("the place of Tautahi") was adopted in the 1930; originally it was the name of a specific site by the Avon River (near present-day Kilmore Street).[5] The site was a seasonal dwelling of Ngāi Tahu chief Te Potiki Tautahi, whose main home was Port Levy on Banks Peninsula. Prior to that the Ngāi Tahu generally referred to the Christchurch area as Karaitiana,[6] a transliteration of the English word Christian.
History

Early history
Archaeological evidence found in a cave at Redcliffs in 1876 has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by moa-hunting tribes about 1250 CE. These first inhabitants were thought to have been followed by the Waitaha tribe, who are said to have migrated from the East coast of the North Island in the 16th century. Following tribal warfare, the Waitaha (made of three peoples) were dispossessed by the Ngāti Māmoe tribe. They were in turn subjugated by the Ngāi Tahu tribe, who remained in control until the arrival of European settlers.
Following the purchase of land at Putaringamotu (modern Riccarton) by the Weller brothers, whalers of Otago and Sydney, a party of European settlers led by Herriott and McGillivray established themselves in what is now Christchurch, early in 1840. Their abandoned holdings were taken over by the Deans brothers[7] in 1843 who stayed. The First Four Ships were chartered by the Canterbury Association and brought the first 792 of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton Harbour. These sailing vessels were the Randolph, Charlotte Jane, Sir George Seymour, and Cressy. The Charlotte Jane was the first to arrive on 16 December 1850. The Canterbury Pilgrims had aspirations of building a city around a cathedral and college, on the model of Christ Church in Oxford.[8]
The name "Christ Church" was decided prior to the ships' arrival, at the Association's first meeting, on 27 March 1848. The exact basis for the name is not known. It has been suggested that it is named for Christchurch, in Dorset, England; for Canterbury Cathedral; or in honour of Christ Church, Oxford. The last explanation is the one generally accepted.[9]
Captain Joseph Thomas, the Canterbury Association's Chief Surveyor, surveyed the surrounding area. By December 1849 he had commissioned the construction of a road from Port Cooper, later Lyttelton, to Christchurch via Sumner.[10] However this proved more difficult than expected and road construction was stopped while a steep foot and pack horse track was constructed over the hill between the port and the Heathcote valley, where access to the site of the proposed settlement could be gained. This track became known as the Bridle Path, because the path was so steep that pack horses needed to be led by the bridle.[11]
Goods that were too heavy or bulky to be transported by pack horse over the Bridle Path were shipped by small sailing vessels some eight miles (13km) by water around the coast and up the estuary to Ferrymead. New Zealand's first public railway line, the Ferrymead Railway, opened from Ferrymead to Christchurch in 1863. Due to the difficulties in travelling over the Port Hills and the dangers associated with shipping navigating the Sumner bar, a railway tunnel was bored through the Port Hills to Lyttelton, opening in 1867.[12]

Christchurch became a city by royal charter on 31 July 1856, the first in New Zealand. Many of the city's Gothic Revival buildings by architect Benjamin Mountfort date from this period. Christchurch was the seat of provincial administration for the Province of Canterbury, which was abolished in 1876. Christchurch buildings were damaged by earthquakes in 1869, 1881 and 1888.[13] In 1947, New Zealand's worst fire disaster occurred at Ballantyne's Department Store in the inner city, with 41 people killed in a blaze which razed the rambling collection of buildings.[14] The Lyttelton road tunnel between Lyttelton and Christchurch was opened in 1964.[15] Christchurch hosted the 1974 British Commonwealth Games.
Antarctic exploration
Christchurch has a history of involvement in Antarctic exploration – both Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton used the port of Lyttelton as a departure point for expeditions, and in the central city there is a statue of Scott sculpted by his widow, Kathleen Scott. Within the city, the Canterbury Museum preserves and exhibits many historic artefacts and stories of Antarctic exploration.
Modern history
2010–12 earthquakes

On Saturday 4 September 2010, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck Christchurch and the central Canterbury region at 4:35am. Located near Darfield, west of the city at a depth of 10 kilometres (6.2mi), it caused widespread damage to the city and minor injuries, but no direct fatalities.[17][18][19]
Nearly six months later on Tuesday 22 February 2011, a second earthquake measuring magnitude 6.3 struck the city at 12:51pm. It was located closer to the city, near Lyttelton at a depth of 5km (3mi).[20]
Although lower on the moment magnitude scale than the previous earthquake, the intensity and violence of the ground shaking was measured to be IX (Violent), among the strongest ever recorded globally in an urban area[21] and in total 185 people were killed.[22][23] People from more than 20 countries were among the victims.[24] The city's iconic ChristChurch Cathedral was severely damaged and lost its spire.[25][26] The collapse of the CTV Building resulted in the majority of fatalities. Widespread damage across Christchurch resulted in loss of homes, major buildings and infrastructure. Significant liquefaction affected the eastern suburbs, and the total cost to insurers of rebuilding has been estimated at NZ$20–30billion.[27][28]
There were continuing aftershocks for some time, with 4,558 above a magnitude 3.0 recorded in the Canterbury region from 4 September 2010 to 3 September 2014.[29] Particularly large events on 13 June 2011,[30] 23 December 2011,[31][32][33] and 2 January 2012[34] all caused further damage and minor injuries; but no further deaths.
Following the earthquakes over 1500 buildings in the city had been demolished or partly demolished by September 2013.[35]

The city has been experiencing rapid growth following the earthquakes, with the central city rebuild, which is outlined in the Christchurch Central Recovery Plan, starting to ramp up, and massive growth in the residential sector, with around 50,000 new houses expected to be constructed in the Greater Christchurch area by 2028, as outlined in the Land Use Recovery Plan (LURP).
2013 to present
On 13 February 2017, two bush fires started on the Port Hills. These merged over the next two days and the single very large wild fire extended down both sides of the Port Hill almost reaching Governors Bay in the south-west, and the Westmorland, Kennedys Bush, and Dyers Pass Road almost down to the Sign of the Takahe. Eleven houses were destroyed by fire, over one thousand residents were evacuated from their homes, and over 2,076 hectares (5,130 acres) of land has been burned.[36]
Geography

Christchurch lies in Canterbury, near the centre of the east coast of the South Island, east of the Canterbury Plains. It is located near the southern end of Pegasus Bay, and is bounded to the east by the Pacific Ocean coast and the estuary of the Avon and Heathcote Rivers. To the south and south-east the urban portion of the city is limited by the volcanic slopes of the Port Hills separating it from Banks Peninsula. To the north the city is bounded by the braided Waimakariri River.
Christchurch is one of a group of only four cities in the world to have been carefully planned following the same layout of a central city square, four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that embrace the city centre. The first city built with this pattern was Philadelphia. Later came Savannah and Adelaide, before Christchurch.
Christchurch has one of the highest-quality water supplies in the world, with its water rated among the purest and cleanest in the world.[37] Untreated, naturally filtered water is sourced, via more than 50 pumping stations surrounding the city, from aquifers emanating from the foothills of the Southern Alps.[38]
Central City

At the city's centre is Cathedral Square, surrounding the now-earthquake-damaged – landmark Anglican cathedral, Christ Church. The area around this square and within the Four Avenues of Christchurch (Bealey Avenue, Fitzgerald Avenue, Moorhouse Avenue and Deans Avenue[39]) is considered to be the central business district (CBD) of the city. The central city also has a number of residential areas, including Inner City East, Inner City West, Avon Loop, Moa Neighbourhood and Victoria, but many of the residential buildings in the CBD were demolished following the February 2011 earthquakes. Cathedral Square is located at the crossing of two major central streets, Colombo Street and Worcester Street.
Cathedral Square, the heart of the city, hosted attractions such as (until the February 2011 earthquake)[40] the Wizard of New Zealand, Ian Brackenbury Channell, and evangelist Ray Comfort; regular market days; free standing food and coffee carts; an aquarium, pubs and restaurants and the city's chief tourist information centre. it is expected that activities in Cathedral Square will increase as the rebuild progresses. The Wizard of New Zealand now operates from New Regent Street.[41]
The central city also includes the pedestrianised sections of Cashel and High streets commonly known pre-earthquakes as 'City Mall'. Refurbished in 2008/09 the mall featured especially designed seating, flower and garden boxes, more trees, paving, and an extension to the central city tram route. The tram route extension was nearly complete when the February 2011 earthquake struck. Following the earthquakes, most buildings in Cashel Mall were demolished. A shopping area called Re:START opened on Cashel Street adjacent to Ballantyne's Department Store in October 2011. The Re:START mall is made of colourful shipping containers that have been converted to house retail stores. The Bridge of Remembrance commemorating war dead stands at the western end of the mall, was repaired rededicated on Anzac Day, Monday 25 April 2016.[42][43]
The Cultural Precinct[44] provided a backdrop to a vibrant scene of ever-changing arts, cultural, and heritage attractions within an area of less than one square kilometre. The Arts Centre, the Canterbury Museum and the Art Gallery are located in the Cultural Precinct. The majority of the activities were free and a printable map was provided. There areas are slowly being reopened follow earthquake repair and strengthening work.
In 2010, the Christchurch City Council released "A City For People Action Plan", a programme of work through to 2022 to improve public spaces within the central city to entice more inner city residents and visitors. A primary action was to reduce the impact of motorised private vehicles and increase the comfort of pedestrians and cyclists. The plan was based on a report prepared for the council by renowned Danish design firm Gehl Architects. Since the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake Wellington architect Ian Athfield has been selected to re-plan, although many varied suggestions have been promoted for rebuilding the central city.[45][46][47][48]
The Central City, which was fully closed off following 22 February earthquake, opened in stages and was fully reopened in June 2013. There are still some streets closed off due to earthquake damage, infrastructure repair work, and damaged buildings.[49]
Inner suburbs
(clockwise, starting north of the city centre)

Mairehau
Shirley
Dallington
Richmond
Avonside
Linwood
Phillipstown
Woolston
Opawa
Waltham
St Martins
Beckenham
Sydenham
Somerfield
Spreydon
Addington
Riccarton
Ilam
Upper Riccarton
Burnside
Fendalton
Bryndwr
Strowan
Merivale
Papanui
St Albans
Edgeware

Outer suburbs
(clockwise, starting north of the city centre)

Marshland
Bottle Lake
Burwood
Parklands
Prestons
Highfield
Waimairi Beach
Avondale
North New Brighton
New Brighton
Bexley (now largely defunct)
Aranui
Wainoni
South Brighton
Southshore
Bromley
Mt Pleasant
Redcliffs
Moncks Bay
Clifton
Richmond Hill
Sumner
Scarborough Hill
Ferrymead
Heathcote Valley
Hillsborough
Murray Aynsley
Huntsbury
Cashmere
Westmorland
Hoon Hay
Hillmorton
Aidanfield
Halswell
Kennedys Bush
Oaklands
Westlake
Longhurst
Knight Stream Park
Wigram
Middleton
Sockburn
Hornby
Hei Hei
Broomfield
Islington
Yaldhurst
Russley
Avonhead
Harewood
Bishopdale
Northcote
Casebrook
Redwood
Regents Park
Styx Mill
Northwood
Groynes Park
Belfast
Spencerville
Brooklands

Satellite towns

Leeston
Lyttelton
Governors Bay
Diamond Harbour
Tai Tapu
Little River
Lincoln
Prebbleton
Rolleston
Templeton
West Melton
Rangiora
Woodend
Waikuku
Pegasus Town
Kaiapoi
Kainga
Pines Beach
Akaroa
Motukarara

Climate

Christchurch has a temperate oceanic climate with a mild summer, cool winter, and regular moderate rainfall. It has mean daily maximum air temperatures of 22.5°C (73°F) in January and 11.3°C (52°F) in July.[50] Under the Köppen climate classification, Christchurch has an oceanic climate (Cfb). Summer in the city is mostly warm but is often moderated by a sea breeze from the Northeast. A record temperature of 41.6°C (107°F) was reached in February 1973. A notable feature of the weather is the nor'wester, a hot föhn wind that occasionally reaches storm force, causing widespread minor damage to property.[51] Like many cities, Christchurch experiences an urban heat island effect; temperatures are slightly higher within the inner city regions compared to the surrounding countryside.[52]
In winter it is common for the temperature to fall below 0°C (32°F) at night. There are on average 80 days of ground frost per year.[53] Snowfalls occur on average three times per year, although in some years no snowfall is recorded.[54] The coldest temperature recorded was −7.1°C (19°F) on 18 July 1945, the third lowest recorded temperature of New Zealand's major cities.[54][55]
On cold winter nights, the surrounding hills, clear skies, and frosty calm conditions often combine to form a stable inversion layer above the city that traps vehicle exhausts and smoke from domestic fires to cause smog. While not as bad as smog in Los Angeles or Mexico City, Christchurch smog has often exceeded World Health Organisation recommendations for air pollution.[56] To limit air pollution, the regional council banned the use of open fires in the city in 2006.[57] In 2008 council prohibited the use of woodburners more than 15 years old, while making funding available to upgrade domestic home heating systems.[58]

Demographics

The area administered by the Christchurch City Council has a population of 388,400(June 2018),[2] making it the second-largest in New Zealand, and the largest city in the South Island.
The Christchurch urban area at 404,500 is the third-largest in the country by population, after Auckland and Wellington. The urban area differs from the city by including Kaiapoi in the Waimakariri District and Prebbleton in the Selwyn District, while excluding most of the Banks Peninsula.

Culture and identity

The following table shows the ethnic profile of Christchurch's population, as recorded in the 2001 and 2006 New Zealand census. The percentages add up to more than 100%, as some people counted themselves as belonging to more than one ethnic group. Figures for 2006 refer to just Christchurch City, not the whole urban area. The substantial percentage drop in the numbers of 'Europeans' was mainly caused by the increasing numbers of people from this group choosing to define themselves as 'New Zealanders'–even though this was not one of the groups listed on the census form.
Approximately 62% of the South Island's Pacific Islander community reside in Christchurch and the surrounding Canterbury region, equalling approximately 11,500 people.[65] People of Samoan descent comprise about half the Pacific Islander population.[65] There are also smaller communities of Cook Islanders, Fijians, Niueans, Tokelauans and Tongans residing in the city.[65]

The 2006 Census also provides information about the multilinguality of the region. Of those people in Christchurch City who provided data, 86% spoke one language only, 12% spoke two, and 2% could converse in three or more languages.[67]
Economy
Farming

The agricultural industry has always been the economic core of Christchurch.[68] The city has long had industry based on the surrounding farming country – part of the original "package" New Zealand was sold to immigrants as.[69] PGG Wrightson, New Zealand's leading agribusiness, is based in Christchurch.[70] Its local roots go back to Pyne Gould Guinness, an old stock and station agency serving the South Island.[71] Other agribusinesses in Christchurch have included malting, seed development and dressing, wool and meat processing, and small biotechnology operations using by-products from meat works.[68] Dairying has grown strongly in the surrounding areas with high world prices for milk products and the use of irrigation to lift grass growth on dry land. With its higher labour use this has helped stop declines in rural population. Many cropping and sheep farms have been converted to dairying. Conversions have been by agribusiness companies as well as by farmers, many of whom have moved south from North Island dairying strongholds such as Taranaki and the Waikato.
Cropping has always been important in the surrounding countryside. Wheat and barley and various strains of clover and other grasses for seed exporting have been the main crops. These have all created processing businesses in Christchurch. In recent years, regional agriculture has diversified, with a thriving wine industry springing up at Waipara, and beginnings of new horticulture industries such as olive production and processing. Deer farming has led to new processing using antlers for Asian medicine and aphrodisiacs. The high quality local wine in particular has increased the appeal of Canterbury and Christchurch to tourists.[72]
Industry
Christchurch is the second largest manufacturing centre in New Zealand behind Auckland, the sector being the second largest contributor to the local economy,[73] with firms such as Anderson's making steel work for bridges, tunnels, and hydro-electric dams in the early days of infrastructure work. Now manufacturing is mainly of light products and the key market is Australia, with firms such as those pioneered by the Stewart family among the larger employers. Before clothing manufacture largely moved to Asia, Christchurch was the centre of the New Zealand clothing industry, with firms such as LWR Industries. The firms that remain mostly design and market, and manufacture in Asia. The city also had five footwear manufacturers, but these have been replaced by imports.
In the last few decades, technology-based industries have sprung up in Christchurch.[74] Angus Tait founded Tait Electronics, a mobile-radio manufacturer, and other firms spun off from this, such as Dennis Chapman's Swichtec. In software, Cantabrian Gil Simpson founded a company that made LINC and Jade programming languages and a management buyout spawned local firm Wynyard Group.
There have also been spin-offs from the electrical department of the University of Canterbury engineering school. These included Pulse Data, which became Human Ware (making reading devices and computers for blind people and those with limited vision) and CES Communications (encryption). The Pulse Data founders had moved from the Canterbury University engineering school to work for Wormald Inc. when they set up Pulse Data through a Management buyout of their division.
In recent times, the University of Canterbury engineering school and computer science department play an important role in supplying staff and research for the technology industries, and the Christchurch Polytechnic Institute of Technology provides a flow of trained technicians and engineers. Locally and nationally, the IT sector is known not for its size (the third largest in New Zealand) but for producing innovative and entrepreneurial solutions, products and concepts.[75]
Tourism
Tourism is also a significant factor of the local economy. The close proximity of the ski fields and other attractions of the Southern Alps, and hotels, a casino, and an airport that meet international standards make Christchurch a stopover destination for many tourists. The city is popular with Japanese tourists,[76] with signage around Cathedral Square in Japanese.
Gateway to the Antarctic
The International Antarctic Centre provides both base facilities and a museum and visitor centre focused upon current Antarctic activities. The United States Navy and United States Air National Guard, augmented by the New Zealand and Australian air forces, use Christchurch Airport as the take-off point for the main supply route to McMurdo and Scott Bases in Antarctica. The Clothing Distribution Center in Christchurch had more than 140,000 pieces of extreme cold weather gear for issue to nearly 2,000 US Antarctic Program participants in the 2007–08 season.[77]
Government
Local government

Christchurch's local government is a democracy with various elements including:
Christchurch City Council, comprising the Mayor of Christchurch, and 16 councillors elected in 16 wards: Spreydon, Cashmere, Halswell, Riccarton, Hornby, Fendalton, Waimairi, Papanui, Innes, Central, Linwood, Heathcote, Harewood, Burwood, Coastal, and Banks Peninsula.
Community boards (six in the pre-amalgamation city area), each covering 2-3 wards with 2 members elected and one Councillor appointed from each: Spreydon-Cashmere, Papanui-Innes, Linwood-Central-Heathcote, Fendalton-Waimairi-Heathcote, Coastal-Burwood; and one covering Banks Peninsula but with members elected from 4 subdivisions.
District councils in surrounding areas: Selwyn, and Waimakariri. The Banks Peninsula district council was amalgamated into Christchurch City in March 2006 after a vote by the Banks Peninsula residents to disestablish in November 2005.
Canterbury Regional Council, known as 'Environment Canterbury', including four Christchurch constituencies with two members from each constituency.[78]
District Health Board (Canterbury), with five members for Christchurch.[79]
Some of the local governments in Canterbury and the NZ Transport Agency have created the Greater Christchurch Urban Development Strategy to facilitate future urban planning.[80]
Central government
Christchurch is covered by seven general electorates (Christchurch Central, Christchurch East, Ilam, Port Hills, Selwyn, Waimakariri and Wigram) and one Māori electorate (Te Tai Tonga),[81] each returning one member to the New Zealand House of Representatives. As of the New Zealand general election, 2017 there are four members of the Labour party and three members of the National party.
Education

Secondary schools
Christchurch is home to the fourth largest school in New Zealand, co-educational state school Burnside High School, with 2526 pupils. Cashmere High School, Papanui High School and Riccarton High School are other large schools. There are four single-sex state schools: Shirley Boys' High School, Christchurch Boys' High School, Avonside Girls' High School and Christchurch Girls' High School.
Christchurch is also well known for several independent schools and church schools, some of them of the traditional English public school type. These include St Thomas of Canterbury College, St Margaret's College, Christ's College, St Bede's College, Marian College, Catholic Cathedral College, St Andrew's College, Villa Maria College and Rangi Ruru Girls' School. Less conventional schools in the city include Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti and Hagley Community College.
Tertiary institutions
A number of tertiary education institutions have campuses in Christchurch, or in the surrounding areas.
Ara Institute of Canterbury
Lincoln University
University of Canterbury
University of Otago, Christchurch
Transport

Christchurch is served by Christchurch International Airport and by buses (local and long-distance) and trains. The local bus service, known as Metro,[82] is provided by Environment Canterbury. The car, however, remains the dominant form of transport in the city, as with the rest of New Zealand.
Christchurch has over 2,300 km of roads, of this 360 km is unpaved and 26 km is motorway.[83] Christchurch has three motorways consisting of the Christchurch Northern Motorway (includes the Western Belfast Bypass), Christchurch Southern Motorway and the Christchurch-Lyttelton Motorway.[84][85]
Christchurch has an extensive bus network with bus routes serving most areas of the city and satellite towns. Nearly all bus routes travelled through the central city Bus Exchange before the earthquake but due to reduced passenger numbers since the earthquakes, especially in the central city, the bus network was reorganised to direct more localised services to 'hubs', such as major shopping centres, where they connect to the central station via core bus routes. Before the 2011 earthquakes, in addition to normal bus services, Christchurch also had a pioneering zero-fare hybrid bus service, the Shuttle, in the inner city. The service has been suspended following the earthquakes and it is unclear whether it will resume again in the future.[86] Bus services are also available leaving Christchurch, daily passenger bus services[87] operates between Dunedin and Christchurch on the State Highway 1.

Historically, Christchurch has been known as New Zealand's cycling city[88] and currently still attracts about 7% of commuters cycling. The central city has very flat terrain and the Christchurch City Council has established a network of cycle lanes and paths, such as the Railway Cycleway. Post-quake public consultation on rebuilding the city expressed a strong desire for a more sustainable transport system, particularly greater use of cycling again, and this has been reflected in the Council's strategic transport plan.[89]  The Christchurch City Council has committed NZ$68.5million to build a network of modern cycleways over the next five years.
There is a functioning Christchurch tramway system in Christchurch, but as a tourist attraction; its loop is restricted to a circuit of the central city. The trams were originally introduced in 1905 as a form of public transport, and ceased operating in 1954,[90] but returned to the inner city (as a tourist attraction) in 1995. However, following the February 2011 earthquake, the system was damaged and within the cordoned off 'Red Zone' of the central city. The tramway reopened in November 2013 on a limited route, with plans to extend the tram route in 2014, first to reopen the complete pre-earthquake circuit, and then to open the extension travelling through the Re:Start Mall and High Street, which was being constructed when the 2011 earthquake struck.
There is a cable car system called the Christchurch Gondola which operates as a tourist attraction, providing transport from the Heathcote Valley to the top of Mount Cavendish in the city's south-east.
Rail services, both long-distance and commuter, used to focus on the former railway station on Moorhouse avenue. Commuter trains were progressively cancelled in the 1960s and 1970s. The last such service, between Christchurch and Rangiora, ceased in 1976. After the reduction in services a new Christchurch railway station was established at Addington Junction. The Main North Line railway travels northwards via Kaikoura to Picton and is served by the Coastal Pacific passenger train, while the Main South Line heads to Invercargill via Dunedin and was used by the Southerner until its cancellation in 2002. The most famous train to depart Christchurch is the TranzAlpine, which travels along the Main South Line to Rolleston and then turns onto the Midland Line, passes through the Southern Alps via the Otira Tunnel, and terminates in Greymouth on the West Coast. This trip is often regarded as one of the ten great train journeys in the world for the amazing scenery through which it passes. The TranzAlpine service is primarily a tourist service and carries no significant commuter traffic.
The Christchurch International Airport serves as the major base for the New Zealand, Italian and United States Antarctic programs.
Culture and entertainment

Christchurch is a distinctly English city, however it contains various European elements, with strong Gothic Revival architecture. As early settlers of New Zealand, Māori culture is also prevalent in the city. It features many public open spaces and parks, river beds and cafés and restaurants situated in the city centre and surrounding suburbs.
Cinema
While historically most cinemas were grouped around Cathedral Square,[91] only two cinemas remain there. The Regent complex was rebuilt as 'Regent on Worcester' in 1996. In 2009 Metro Cinemas opened in Worcester Street with three screens.
Only one of the first generation of suburban cinemas, the Hollywood in Sumner, remains open.[92] The largest multiplexes were the Hoyts 8 in the old railway station on Moorhouse Avenue (now demolished) and Reading Cinemas (also eight screens) in the Palms shopping centre in Shirley. Hoyts in Riccarton opened in 2005[93] with one of its screens for a time holding the record for the largest in New Zealand.
The Rialto Cinemas on Moorhouse avenue specialised in international films and art house productions. The Rialto also hosted the majority of the city's various film festivals and was home to the local film society. The Rialto was closed following the February 2011 earthquake.
The Christchurch Arts Centre includes two art house cinemas, Cloisters and The Academy, screening a wide selection of contemporary, classic and foreign language films.
The Canterbury Film Society is active in the city.[94]
The matricidal Peter Jackson film Heavenly Creatures (1994), starring Melanie Lynskey and Kate Winslet, was set in Christchurch.[95]
Parks and nature
The large number of public parks and well-developed residential gardens with many trees has given Christchurch the name of The Garden City.[96] Hagley Park and the 30-hectare (75 acre) Christchurch Botanic Gardens, founded in 1863, are in the central city, with Hagley Park being a site for sports such as golf, cricket, netball, and rugby, and for open-air concerts by local bands and orchestras. To the north of the city is the Willowbank wildlife park. Travis Wetland, an ecological restoration programme to create a wetland, is to the east of the city centre in the suburb of Burwood.
Television
Christchurch had its own regional television station Canterbury Television. CTV was first formed in 1991 and ceased broadcasting on 16 December 2016. It aired both local, national and international content, including DW-TV and Al-jazeera World. Since 19 December 2016  CTV has operated as a web-based platform under the Star Media brand.
VTV, a Korean TV channel airs in Christchurch (also Auckland). It offers English content about Korea, from arirang World, and Korean-speaking content in SBS. This channel broadcasts many of the latest dramas airing in Korea.
The city's main television transmitter is located atop Sugarloaf, in the Port Hills due south of the city centre, and broadcasts all major national television channels as well as the two local channels. All television channels in Christchurch have been broadcast in digital since analogue switch-off on 28 April 2013.
Theatre
Christchurch has one full-time professional theatre, the Court Theatre,[97] founded in 1971. Originally based in the Christchurch Arts Centre, the Court Theatre has been located in the suburb of Addington in temporary accommodation following the 2011 earthquakes. Alongside the Court, the co-operative and experimental Free Theatre Christchurch was established in 1979 and based in the Arts Centre from 1982.[98] There is also an active recreational theatre scene with community based theatre companies, such as the Christchurch Repertory Society,[99] Elmwood Players,[100] Riccarton Players,[101] and Canterbury Children's Theatre,[102] producing many quality shows. The Ngaio Marsh Theatre, located at the University of Canterbury, hosts a range of student drama groups, as well as other theatre groups. The Isaac Theatre Royal was originally opened in 1863, and has since been rebuilt four times, most recently following the 2011 Christchurch earthquake.[103] The Isaac Theatre Royal reopened to the public on 17 November 2014.
Music
The city is known for its many live acts,[104][105][106][107] has a professional symphony orchestra,[108] and is the base of professional opera company, Southern Opera.[109]
Christchurch is a home for the experimental music scene of New Zealand. The town is the home to such bands as The Bats, The Narcs, Shocking Pinks and Bailter Space.
There are usually buskers around the town square and Christchurch also hosts the World Buskers Festival in January each year.
Singer/songwriter Hayley Westenra launched her international career by busking in Christchurch. Soon she was signed to Universal Music Group New Zealand, then later to Decca Label Group in London, England, where she now bases her career.
Christchurch also has a Metal scene, with metal acts playing in various locations around the central city.
Some of New Zealand's acts such as Shapeshifter, Ladi6, Tiki Taane and Truth are from Christchurch. Promoters, Venues and clubs such as Bassfreaks, The Bedford and Dux Live regularly have international and New Zealand acts within the Drum and Bass scene performing live in Christchurch, along with dance parties, raves and gigs all featuring NZ and local Drum and Bass DJs, with often two or three happening on a single night or weekend (e.g. 2010 when UK Dubstep DJ Doctor P with Crushington was playing at The Bedford, while simultaneously Concord Dawn featuring Trei and Bulletproof was playing at Ministry). Independent Christchurch based radio station Pulzar FM is one of the few radio stations in New Zealand that plays Drum and Bass during the day.
In recent developments, hip hop has effectively landed in Christchurch. In 2000, First Aotearoa Hip Hop Summit was held there. And in 2003, Christchurch's own Scribe released his debut album in New Zealand and has received five times platinum in that country, in addition to achieving two number one singles.[110][111]
Venues

The Horncastle Arena is New Zealand's second largest permanent multipurpose arena, seating between 5000 and 8000, depending on configuration. It is home of the Canterbury Tactix netball side. It was the venue for the 1999 World Netball championships and has been host to many concerts in recent years.
The Christchurch Town Hall auditorium (2500 seats, opened 1972) was the first major auditorium design by architects Warren and Mahoney and acoustician Marshall Day. It is still recognised as a model example of concert-hall design with an excellent modern pipe organ. The town hall is currently closed for repair after the significant damage caused by the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake.
Christchurch also has a casino,[112] and there are also a wide range of live music venues[104][113]—some short-lived, others with decades of history. Classical music concerts are held at the Christchurch Music Centre.
In late 2014 it was announced that a 284 million dollar project was underway to build a convention centre located on the block defined by Armagh Street, Oxford Terrace, Worcester Street and Colombo Street. Gloucester Street will become part of the Centre itself, but will allow for retail use and public access. The convention centre will be able to host several events at the same time; starting with space for up to 2,000 people, this will complement facilities in Auckland and Queenstown. The scheduled opening of the convention centre is uncertain.[114]
Sport
Teams
Crusaders, formerly the 'Canterbury Crusaders', are a rugby union team based in Christchurch that compete in the Super Rugby competition.
The Canterbury Rugby Football Union, which governs rugby union in Christchurch and the surrounding region, fields a team that represents the city in the ITM Cup.
Canterbury Kings are Christchurch's men's cricket team in New Zealand's State Championship while the Canterbury Magicians play in the counterpart women's tournament
Canterbury Cavaliers and Cats play in the National Hockey League (NHL)
Canterbury Tactix play in the national ANZ Premiership, after the trans-Tasman ANZ Championship netball league finished in 2016. Prior to 2008, the Canterbury Flames played in the national netball league, competing for the National Bank Cup.
Canterbury United play in the New Zealand Football Championship.
Canterbury Rams play in the National Basketball League.
Canterbury Red Devils play in the New Zealand Ice Hockey League (NZIHL).
In addition, Christchurch Football Club, an amateur rugby union club, was founded in 1863, believed to be the oldest club of any code in New Zealand.[115]

Events
1974 British Commonwealth Games
1982 Women's Cricket World Cup
1989 XVI World Games for the Deaf (Now known Deaflympics) This was the first time the World Deaf Games was held in the Southern Hemisphere, in Christchurch
1992 Cricket World Cup
1999 World Netball Championships
2000 Women's Cricket World Cup
2011 IPC Athletics World Championships
2015 Cricket World Cup
Venues

Addington Raceway at Addington has been a venue for harness racing since 1899. Racing is conducted by the New Zealand Metropolitan Trotting Club and it is regarded as the premier venue for the sport in New Zealand.[116]
Alpine Ice is an ice skating rink home to the Canterbury Red Devils. It has hosted many national and international Ice Hockey tournaments, figure skating and speed skating events. The rink is home to Ice Sports in Canterbury, in turn hosting numerous Ice Sports Clubs including the Canterbury Ice Hockey Association.
English Park in St Albans is the home venue for the Canterbury United Football team that plays in the national league.
Golf courses: Christchurch has more than a dozen golf courses, and has hosted the PGA Tour of Australasia/Nationwide Tour co-sanctioned Clearwater Classic/NZ PGA Championship at Clearwater Resort since 2002.
Hagley Oval, located within the southern portion of Hagley Park, has been used on-and-off as a venue for local, national and international cricket matches for decades, and was upgraded in 2014 as part of preparation for the 2015 Cricket World Cup.[117] This included the construction of a new pavilion and embankment for seating, since which point the ground has returned to prominence as a dedicated cricket ground for all levels of the game.
Horncastle Arena in Addington, Christchurch. Hosted the 1999 Netball World Championships and continues to host international basketball and netball games.
Lancaster Park (formerly Jade Stadium & AMI Stadium) was Christchurch's premier outdoor sporting ground, which played host to rugby union in the winter months and cricket in the summer months. It was home to the Crusaders Super Rugby and Canterbury Air New Zealand Cup rugby teams. It was also used by the New Zealand national cricket team and occasionally hosted a New Zealand Warriors rugby league match. Is had a capacity of around 40,000 people for sporting fixtures, and around 50,000 for concerts. Damaged during the 2011 February earthquake, the facility's future is uncertain.[118]
Malvern Park in St Albans hosts inter-high school competition matches as well as minor league matches. Also training grounds for the Canterbury Crusaders.
Nunweek Park in Bishopdale is the main hockey venue in the city. Porritt Park in Avonside was the main venue until the 2010 Canterbury earthquake, when it was damaged by liquefaction.
Queen Elizabeth II Park was built for the 1974 British Commonwealth Games, which Christchurch hosted. It is used primarily as an athletics park, but also contains a newly upgraded swimming pool complex. It has hosted major concerts from bands such as AC/DC and the Red Hot Chili Peppers. The facility has been demolished due to damage sustained in the 22 February earthquake.[119]
Riccarton Park is a major thoroughbred racing venue.
Utilities
Electricity
Orion owns and operates the local distribution network servicing the city, with electricity fed into it from two Transpower substations at Islington and Bromley.
The electricity distribution network in Christchurch suffered significant damage in the 2011 earthquakes, especially in the northeast where the 66,000-volt subtransmission cables supplying the area were damaged beyond repair.[120] This necessitated major repairs to the existing infrastructure, as well as building new infrastructure to supply new housing developments. Despite the challenges, Orion disclosed for the year ending March 2018 that the average customer on its network spent just 65 minutes without power,[121] compared to 55 minutes in Wellington[122] and 211 minutes in Auckland.[123]
At the 2013 census, 94.0% of Christchurch homes were heated wholly or partly by electricity, the highest in the country.[124]
Sister cities
Christchurch has seven sister cities around the world. They are:[125]
 Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (1972)
 Christchurch, Dorset, United Kingdom (1972)
 Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan (1973)
 Seattle, Washington, United States of America (1981)
 Lanzhou, Gansu, China (1984)
 Songpa-gu, Seoul, South Korea (1995)
 Wuhan, Hubei, China (2006)
See also
Christchurch City Council
Christchurch City Holdings
List of radio stations in Christchurch
List of tallest buildings in Christchurch
List of people from Christchurch

Notes

Bibliography
Reed, A.W. (2002) The Reed dictionary of New Zealand place names. Auckland: Reed Books. ISBN0-790-00761-4.
Rice, Geoffrey (with assistance from Jean Sharfe)(1999) Christchurch changing: an illustrated history Christchurch: Canterbury University Press. ISBN0-908812-53-1 (pbk.)

 (official council website)
 (official tourism guide & visitor information)


Argentina is provided with a vast territory and a huge variety of climates and microclimates ranging from tundra and polar in the south to the tropical climate in the north, through a vast expanse of temperate climate and natural wonders like the Aconcagua, the highest  mountain in the world outside the Himalayas, the widest river and estuary of the planet (the River Plate), the huge and very mighty Iguazú Falls, some of the flattest and wide meadows-plains of planet Earth (as the Humid Pampas, a large ocean-sea coast in the Argentine Sea), culture, customs and gastronomies famous internationally, a higher degree of development (very high compared to other Latin American countries), good quality of life and people and relatively well prepared infrastructure make this country one of the most visited of America.
Mainly for its beautiful landscapes and then for its cultural heritage, Argentina receives massive numbers of travelers. The Argentine territory stretches from the highest peaks of the Andes in the west to colita del norte rivers and extensive beaches and cliffs of Argentine Sea in the east; from the tropical rainforest of the Yungas north to the valleys, glaciers, lakes and cold forests of Andean Patagonia in the south, and to Argentine Antarctica. Through the warm landscapes of tropical climates contrasting, in a huge gradient microclimates, the polar climates or extensive and very fertile grasslands with the World´s most flatter plains contrasting with the highest mountains outside Asia, contrasted with also vast desert areas plethoric of geoforms for the annual running extensive and extreme Dakar rally race, the high mountain ranges, the pleasant Pampeanas mountains and the temperate Atlantic beaches and its extensive coastlines. The huge distances require in most cases air travel. The Misiones rainforest, Argentine Yungas and areas of the Andean Patagonia are scientifically considered as biodiversity hotspots large areas worldwide. The great biodiversity and the large number of different landscapes and climates make Argentina a diverse country where appear to meet multiple countries together harmoniously (fertile temperates, deserts, cold forest, warm tropicals and subtropical jungles, glacier areas, cold forests, maritimes with cliffs, rias and fjords, etc).
The country presents entire range of possible climates: temperate, dry warm, humid warm, cold dry, cold humid, semi-arid, steppe, subantarctic, subtropical, snowy, cold mountain, and a huge variety of microclimates.
Argentina has been upgrading its worldwide presence as a tourism destination by increasing the investment on international tourism. The latest push can be seen by Aerolineas Argentinas, the country's national airline, adding international routes from the United States and Europe. There are also rumors that they will join a major airline alliance soon.
Argentina has enjoyed the visit of 5.80 million tourists in the year 2011 according to the World Tourism Organization, the first most visited country in South America and the second most visited of all of Latin America, after Mexico.[2]
Foreign tourists mainly come from Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, United States, Canada, China, South Korea, Japan, Australia, Spain, Italy, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Portugal and Russia.
Main destinations

City of Buenos Aires is in the midst of a tourism boom, according to the World Travel & Tourism Council,[3]  it reveals strong growth for Argentina Travel and Tourism in 2007[4] and in coming years,  and the prestigious travel and tourism publication; Travel + Leisure Magazine, a monthly publication leader in the worldwide market of travel magazines,  travelers voted Buenos Aires the second most desirable city to visit after Florence, Italy.[5] Buenos Aires, regarded as the “Paris of South America,” offers elegant architecture, exquisite cuisine,  legendary nightlife, and fashionable shopping.
The most popular tourist sites are found in the historic city core, comprising Montserrat and San Telmo. The city was originally constructed around the Plaza de Mayo, the administrative center of the Spanish Empire. To the east of the square is the Casa Rosada, the official seat of the executive branch of the government of Argentina. To the north, the Catedral Metropolitana which has stood in the same location since colonial times, and the Banco de la Nación Argentina building, a parcel of land originally owned by Juan de Garay. Other important colonial institutions were Cabildo, to the west, which was renovated during the construction of Avenida de Mayo and Julio A. Roca. To the south is the Congreso de la Nación (National Congress), which currently houses the Academia Nacional de la Historia (National Academy of History). Lastly, to the northwest, is City Hall.
Avenida de Mayo links the Casa Rosada with the Argentine National Congress. On this avenue there are several buildings of cultural, architectural and historical importance, such as Casa de la Cultura, the Palacio Barolo and Café Tortoni. Underneath the avenue, the first subte (metro) line  in South America, was opened in 1913. The avenue ends at Plaza del Congreso, which features a number of monuments and sculptures, including one of Auguste Rodin's few surviving original casts of "The Thinker".
The Manzana de las Luces ("Illuminated Block") area features the San Ignacio church, the Colegio Nacional Buenos Aires and the old city council building (1894 to 1931). This area features tunnels and catacombs, which crossed underneath the Plaza de Mayo during colonial times.
In the neighbourhood of San Telmo, Plaza Dorrego hosts an antiques fair on Sundays, complete with tango shows. They also have tango shows daily at the famous plaza. On weekends they involve many tourists to learn how to dance. Frequent tours and activities are also available at the Church of Nuestra Señora de Bethlehem, the San Pedro Telmo Parish and the Antonio Ballvé Penintetiary Museum. The National Historical Museum in Parque Lezama is a few blocks south. The Ayres Porteños Hostel is a very famous hostel and a tourist attraction, it is decorated and painted by artists from La Boca and possesses a unique collection of local paintings among its walls.
The borough of Recoleta is home to a number of places of interest, including the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, the Biblioteca Nacional, the Centro Cultural Recoleta, the Faculty of Law of the Universidad de Buenos Aires, the Basílica Nuestra Señora de Pilar, the Palais de Glace, the Café La Biela and the Cementerio de la Recoleta, where Eva Perón's crypt can be visited, among those of many other Argentine historical and cultural figures.
Iguazú Falls, located in the northeast, area of subtropical forest, on the border with Brazil are one of the world's natural wonders, has good infrastructure development and touristic with very different walks. Lined with dense forests, the Iguazú river flows into 275 waterfalls, plunging more than 70 meters with a deafening noise over 2.7km. As this huge volume of water reaches the bottom, spray rises, and rainbows are formed in the sky. A variety of the original fauna and flora completes the setting for the waterfalls within the protection of the Iguazú National Park. This park, located at eighteen kilometres from Puerto Iguazú, was declared Natural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The famous falls are inside this park. The frontier with Brazil goes through the Garganta del Diablo (Devil's Throat). The National Park is full of the exotic subtropical vegetation which surrounds the falls and has 2,000 plant species - gigantic trees, ferns, lianas, orchids, - 400 bird species - parrots, hummingbirds, toucans - jaguars and yacarés (caimans) from the area. Its most impressive fall is called Garganta del Diablo. Other important are called Dos Hermanas, Bossetti or Álvar Núñez in honor of its discoverer, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca.

Salta is a city of colonial architecture with tourist attractions such asch as: Quebrada de San Lorenzo, Calchaquí Valleys, Reservoir Cabra Corral (Embalse General Belgrano), Cafayate, Salinas Grandes, Iruya (step bound by the Quebrada de Humahuaca and Purmamarca) Cachi (through the Cuesta del Obispo) Molinos, La Caldera, Los Cardones National Park, El Rey National Park or Baritú National Pand tae hrk, hot springs of Rosario de la Frontera. The Tren a las Nubes is a train ride through the area of the Puna. Puna, a land full of mountain ranges, steep mountain paths, valleys,  and gorges. Villages have been built in the small valleys with multi-colored and monochromatic hills covered with huge cacti on the slopes surrounding the village. This region offers landscapes full of contrast, from the high peaks to the salt pans, and the subtropical rain forests, where Latin American culture took root, located in the Northern provinces (Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, Tucumán and Santiago del Estero[6]). In Northern provinces feature traces of pre-Columbian cultures, mingled with ruins of natives’ villages, as well as forts and constructions dating back to the time of the Conquest and Colonization. The service of this train was interrupted momentarily in July 2005 for repairs, reactivated quickly. Currently, the final destination is the city of San Antonio de los Cobres. The whole Northern provinces combines natural attractions with suitable areas for diverse activities such as mountaineering, trekking, horseback riding, mountain biking, ecotourism, bird-watching, rural tourism, archaeological trips, sailing, canoeing and windsurfing.

Perito Moreno Glacier, a part of Southern Patagonian Ice Field is a huge glacier that bisects the Argentino Lake and cyclically locks until it produces the breaking of the ice plug. It is located in the Los Glaciares National Park near the Argentine Patagonian city of El Calafate. In any season of the year continuous landslides of huge blocks of ice are produced from massive glaciers forming beautiful icebergs in Argentine lakes. The Perito Moreno Glacier and its neighbors is framed by a landscape of rugged mountains like the Chaltén and large lakes.
Bariloche: This city is the capital of the southern lakes and important part of the tourist circuit of the Seven Lakes with Villa La Angostura and mountains (Tronador, Cerro Catedral, Cerro López). It is famous for skiing but also great for family trips for older children and sight-seeing, water sports, winter sports, fishing, windsurfing, trekking or hiking, climbing, camping in the Andean forest, sky diving, boat tours and private boats, horseback riding and scuba diving and more. Cerro Catedral is one of the most important ski  centers in South America.  Today, thanks to the investments of entrepreneurs and of municipality has a large tourist flow throughout the year. Also it make similar activities in San Martín de los Andes, Junín de los Andes, El Bolsón, Esquel, Trevelin, Los Antiguos activities are also developed Copahue, Caviahue.

Ushuaia, The southernmost city in the world, in Tierra del Fuego, typical destination of the south of the country, attracts visitors with a very important tourist with excursions and gastronomy. North of the island, the city of Rio Grande is attracted by the old neighborhood of wooden houses painted varied or subtly and by excellent trout fishing. Further south, it is famous railway from Ushuaia and reaches the Tierra del Fuego National Park, bayside of Lapataia. Cruises are also offered by the Beagle Channel, observing colonies of South American sea lions, and a visit to Lighthouse Les Eclareurs, the beautiful Lake Fagnano (or Kami) or almost inaccessible Staten Island where is the Lighthouse of the End of the World, the landscape of Fueguan forests takes an almost magical appearance during the austral autumn to be covered with reddish the foliage of the dense forests.

Sierras de Córdoba,  A mountain range of mild climate and landscapes ranging from the bucolic and wild, there are the main tourist centers: Villa General Belgrano and La Cumbrecita, touristic towns with large central European influence in the Sierras de Córdoba. Other major cities are Villa Carlos Paz, Cosquín, La Falda, Capilla del Monte, Mina Clavero, Jesús María or the Great Salt Lake of Mar Chiquita. The Unidad Turística Embalse is the destination of social tourism. the Córdoba Province It has little towns, historical antiques and cave paintings are found in a pleasant valley landscape, high plains and gorges. The City of Córdoba also has a great tourist attraction, especially in its valuable building of colonial period or in its urban landscapes. It also has a very good tourist infrastructure with major 5 star hotels, shopping centers of excellence, as well as highlights in the field of gastronomy and fun. The city of Córdoba is one of the most picturesque of Argentina because it has a historical center with beautiful Baroque Colonial architecture mixed with tall modern buildings that give the city a great tourist attraction. With many contrasting features— it is both a cultural and tourist-like destination, a traditional and modern city, with an industrialized as well as a home-made production. Large portions of landscape and favorable weather conditions are distinctive in Córdoba, natural sceneries are mixed with colonial monuments. They are part of the “Sierras pampeanas” mountain range, reaching 2,790 m high in the Champaqui hill. These hills are fertile valleys, deserts and salt mines. All along the way northward, many 17th and 18th century chapels and farmhouses inherited from the Jesuits can be found.
The Jesuit estancias (large cattle ranches) in Córdoba are a singular sample of the productive organization of the religious members of Compañía de Jesús in the country, and this can still be seen in a preserved architecture. Though history demonstrated that the farms were acquired for economic purposes in order to support schools and universities, the estancias were of course used “for missionary purposes, thus turning into religious centers.” Estancias in Jesús María, Caroya, Santa Catalina, La Candelaria and Alta Gracia can be visited along a 250km circuit. These farms that date back to the 17th century —together with the Jesuit Block in the City of Córdoba— are all national historical monuments that were declared World Cultural Heritage in 2000.

Ischigualasto, also known as The Moon Valley, offers a strange landscape where the scarcity of vegetation and the more varied range vegetation of its soils plus the unusual forms of its rocks (geoforms) and mountains, make this a favorite place for tourists, both domestic and foreign. This provincial park, declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO, is located at the northern end of the province of San Juan. It is also a major paleontological center became famous because it is the only place where it can be seen completely exposed and perfectly differentiated the whole Triassic period as complete and orderly, where the oldest fossils in the world were found. The Moon Valley, so named because of the diverse forms and colours of its landscape shaped by erosion, continues in the Argentinian province of La Rioja with the Talampaya National Park. The Talampaya River Canyon reveals multi-shaped layers in its high red walls. Pink flamingos, Andean ducks, “vicuñas” and “guanacos” cohabit freely in parks and natural reserves, while condors fly over the area.

The Quebrada de Humahuaca, the Calchaquí Valleys, the Puna de Atacama (including cono de Arita, the Laguna de Pozuelos, the Campo de Piedra Pómez etc.), Ischigualasto, Talampaya, the Aconcagua, Caviahue and Copahue, near snow-capped mountains with temperate rainforests and glacial lakes; Andean Patagonic national parks, etc. constitute the tourist corridor called the Andean Footprint (Huella Andina) which is largely covered by National Route 40.

Other destinations

Mar del Plata is a tourist city with huge beaches on the Atlantic and the other beaches on the Argentine Atlantic Coast such as Necochea, Cariló, Villa Gesell, Monte Hermoso, Pehuen-Có, Las Grutas (in Río Negro), Rada Tilly in Chubut; the Aconcagua (6,959 m), the highest peak in America. Its steep slopes are renowned and respected by mountain climbers worldwide. Las Leñas; Talampaya, of great geological interest; San Rafael heart of Mendoza, where the best wines in Argentina are made, with its imposing Atuel Canyon, the valleys of Barreal of Iglesia, in San Juan highlighting the adventure tourism. Whales-watching in Puerto Madryn on the coast of Argentine Patagonia.
Other very attractive destinations are the valley of Tafí in Tucumán, ancient populations of Yavi and Iruya, the ruins of ancient pre-Columbian cities like Tastil, Tilcara, Shincal, the Pucará of Aconquija, a fort built by the humahuacas.
In La Rioja, the path of Riojan warlords, with Olta and Malanzán as main cities. In the first are monuments to Chacho Penaloza and the tango Caminito, inspired there, while in Malanzán is the birthplace of Facundo Quiroga.[8][9]
It can also visit the oldest city in Argentina, the mother of cities Santiago del Estero, between the city Santiago del Estero halfway to San Miguel de Tucumán is located one of the most famous tourist destinations of mild winter in Argentina: the Hot springs of Río Hondo.
Are very attractive traditional events like the fair of Simoca in Tucumán, the Fiesta of the Lord and the Virgin of the Miracle in Salta or the pilgrimages to Luján and Punta Corral in Jujuy, the parade of faith to the Difunta Correa. An ample diversity of natural landscapes and dramatic contrasts such as the densely vegetated Yunga forests, or the mountains, hills and brooks of the Calchaquí Valleys, provide great conditions for fishing for sport fishing. Sport fishing of sea and river (of trout and sea bass in the Fueguan city of Río Grande, or dorado in Paso de la Patria, Juramento, Lipeo, Iruya and Bermejo). For it part -it has been said- Ushuaia is a privileged access to the Argentine Antarctica, the picturesque Route of the Adobe and the Tatón Dunes in the Province of Catamarca; rugged adventure tourism in the provinces of Santiago del Estero and La Pampa or in the Yungas and Calchaquí Valleys, the high Andean desert and jungles of Chaco, the northern Entre Ríos (Montiel Forest) and Misiones.
The Province of Buenos Aires is the most populous and largest province of Argentina (if territorial claims in the Antarctica and South Atlantic islands are not taken into account). The nation's rail and road network fans out from Buenos Aires and into the province, the area centered on the Pampas. This region is characterized by its estancias (large cattle ranches) the oldest of them being featured in architectural styles, located in the middle of the Pampas. The province is also known by its many and different beaches in the coast of the Atlantic Ocean (the most visited being Mar del Plata). The hilly region of Tandil and Ventana offers golf courses, paragliding rides and trekking. They are very different landscapes from each other and distant from the mouth of the Paraná River, which islands are also visited by tourists.
Many ruins of the ancient Jesuit missions - some of which have been covered by the jungle - are located near Posadas. The most well-known ruins are in San Ignacio Miní, 56km away from the province’s capital. The ones in Candelaria, Loreto, Santa Ana and Santa María are also very interesting. These Jesuit reductions were declared World Heritage by the UNESCO.
Fifty kilometers to the north of Colón lies El Palmar National Park, housing the last samples of Yatay palm trees, which are almost eight centuries old. The city of Concordia is connected to the city of Salto (Uruguay) through the Salto Grande hydroelectric plant.
The Esteros del Iberá, a humid zone of 700.000 hectares can be reached from Posadas, Concepción or Mercedes. In Guaraní, Iberá means "Shining water". Its lagoons cover 31,500 hectares, its marshlands 52,000, and its inlands 260,000. This eco-system which gives life to turtles, yacarés (caimans), monkeys, swamp deer, capybaras - the largest rodent in the world - and up to 400 bird species, besides an extraordinary flora, extends over one million hectares.
The city of Rosario lies on the banks of the Paraná River in the Province of Santa Fe. It has developed into an industrial and commercial center and destination for a significant number of people on business. On its riverside promenade stands the Monumento Nacional a la Bandera (National Monument to the Flag), where the Argentine National Flag was raised for the first time. Parque Independencia has statues, a racecourse, and the Provincial History Museum.
Punta Tombo is a coastal location where abundant wildlife congregates-specifically the seasonal breeding ground of large numbers of Magellanic penguins.[10]
Peninsula Valdés is widely considered to be one of the best places in the world for the observation of wildlife, mainly sea mammals. Although southern right whales are the main attraction elephant seals, sea lions, Magellanic penguins and orcas are also well represented.
Laguna del Carbon (the lowest geographical point in the Americas), Mount Fitz Roy, and the Petrified Forests National Monument, as well as the vast patagonian plateau.
Main circuits
Overall Argentina has the following tourist circuits (north to south):
The Argentine Northwest, with contrasting landscapes like walking the Tren a las Nubes (train to the clouds) the arid and the cold of high embellished by curious landforms, saline, alkaline lakes where abound flamingos, geysers and high volcanoes, the transition zone of Valleys and Quebradas with mild climates as for cultivation of vine in Cafayate and good vegetation and, further east the dense rainforest called the Yungas. The spectacular cuestas as Obispo (in Salta) or the Portezuelo, Piedras Blancas and Capillitas in Catamarca or the Miranda in the Argentine province of La Rioja.[11]
The Argentine Northeast that is characterized by its warm subtropical climate, its dense forests, parks, wetlands (marshes), large rivers with abundant fishing and big waterfalls.
The sphere of the Sierras de Córdoba and San Luis, with Mediterranean climate-type and abundant natural attractions.
The circuit of Cuyo with the highest mountains of America, rugged landscapes (canyons like the Atuel, or the Jáchal, several spectacular landforms: bridges like the Puente del Inca and castles like Castillos de Pincheira of natural rocks), ice formations like Los Penitentes, caves and caverns, large volcanic extensions as in the Payún, ski resorts or pleasant valleys where stand crops temperate fruits, olive trees and vines.
The Pampas: a vast plain of temperate climate crossed by million cattle, dotted with numerous lakes and possessing a long coastline with long sandy beaches and dunes where thriving cities and seaside villages.
The Western Patagonia and more precisely Andean Patagonia, with beautiful landscapes who meet mountains always snowy, ice fields, glaciers, cold forests, large and deep lakes of glacial origin and very running rivers, winter sports centers and beautiful "alpine" aspect towns.
The Eastern Patagonia or outAndean: large region of plateaus, mountains, canyons, moors and steppes whose coastline has high cliffs, gulfs, peninsulas where seabirds abound (especially penguins) pinnipeds, and whales.
Carnivals
Carnivals in Argentina are very important and usually take place during the last days of February (before the lent), at a time that remains still quite summer (summer in the Southern Hemisphere). Almost every carnival in Argentina comes from European carnivals in Spain and Italy, so it is spoken in them of murgas and corsos, with its masquerades and cabezudos although there have also influences of African elements from colonial times (the rate of drum in the murgas is almost obviously of African origin), and in the Quebrada de Humahuaca (in the northern province of Jujuy) and in the small town of Chamical (in Argentine La Rioja) are held a "carnavalito"  and a "chaya" more influenced by Andean American Indians. During the second half of the 20th century the cities of the province of Corrientes (mainly Paso de los Libres) and the Province of Entre Ríos have had a strong influence from the Rio carnival in Brazil the same way as the Carnival de Río in San Luis generally celebrated on the banks of Potrero de los Funes Lake in Province of San Luis.[12]
World Heritage

These are the UNESCO's World Heritage Sites in Argentina:[13][14]
Los Glaciares National Park (1981)
Jesuit reductions: San Ignacio Mini, Nuestra Señora de Santa Ana, Nuestra Señora de Loreto and Santa María la Mayor (1984)
Iguazú National Park (1984)
Cave of the Hands (1999)
Península Valdés (1999)
Ischigualasto / Talampaya National Parks (2000)
Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba (2000)
Quebrada de Humahuaca (2003)
Los Alerces National Park (2017)
Useful information
90% of tourists come to Ministro Pistarini International Airport in Ezeiza, 35km from Buenos Aires, but to continue the journey to some of the destinations of the interior must move to Aeroparque Jorge Newbery (center of Buenos Aires), it is desirable that the trip or transfer between the two airports is included in the ticket.
Exchange: To date (October 2014) there official change and one parallel (called "blue") that is higher. At the airport there is a branch of Banco de la Nación Argentina although a convenient way to get pesos is an automated teller machine. As much of the world now uses currencies that can be changed are the USD (US dollar) and euro, then followed the real, the pound sterling and yen (in 2014 almost any other foreign currency is accepted for the usual change in Argentina). The best option in 2014 is to change dollar bills for pesos at exchange houses (it should be noted that from late 2012 to late August there is a large disparity between the official rate of the dollar in Argentina (which ranges between 8.50 Argentine pesos by US dollar and in the black market the price is called "'dollar blue'" (euphemism for dollar of black market) that comes to be around 15 pesos per US dollar, but it is inadvisable the clandestine change as many tourists that change with arbolitos (currency changers out of the legal system) are often cheated with counterfeit currency or directly be assaulted.
It is not suitable to do exhibit large amounts of cash or jewelry.
Gratuitys: in Argentina no is mandatory tip, however, is a habitual gesture, considering that the attention was correct then tip around 10% of what is consumed (in bars, restaurants, pizzerias, restobars and related and other services -server of hotels). In taxis and remises tip are a few extra pesos with the cost of the ticket. In bars, restaurants, cinemas, hotels and theaters around 5% to 10% of the cost of consumption or service.
Gastronomy: The national infusion is the mate, followed by coffee. The fastest and most popular street food is the choripán, which is a sandwich which uses chorizo in a cooked criollo style in situ on a grill using  "French bread" (In Argentina, French bread refers to white bread with wheat flour), the cooked chorizo of the choripán is flavored with the typical chimichurri. Another fast food available in almost all bars and restaurants is the "lomito" which is a hot beef sandwich attached with lettuce leaves, slices of tomato, etc.; but more common is the sandwich of milanesa, similar to the above but with the flesh overflowing in breadcrumbs and egg and then fried. The "bife" or the "costeleta" or the most succulent "bife de chorizo" are based on roast beef or hot griddle, which is usually accompanied by french fries, mashed potatoes or salads. The "Asado" or "barbecue" includes several cuts of meat on the grill, but offals or visceral as kidney and gut are not necessarily please the consumer is not accustomed. Also consume roasted goat meat, chicken and pork. Pastas as noodle, dumplings and ravioli are very accessible dishes and derivatives large influx of Italian immigration. In the main cities of Argentina abound pizzerias which can be consumed, along with other dishes, pizzas in some cases very different from the typical Italian pizzas (some Italian travelers object that generally the Argentine Neapolitan pizza is not made with real mozzarella of buffalo but with Argentine musarela based on sheep's milk or even based on cow milk), plus pizzerias are very common the ice cream shops also tend to inherit the styles of the Italian gelateries. Other very common "boliches" in the Argentine cities are the cafés and cafetines (Spanish heritage but also with strong Italian influences) and breweries. In some places, mainly in towns of Argentine Northwest and of Cuyo can be found pulperías and "peñas" in where predominates the Criollo folk food: asados, empanadas, tamales, locro, such establishments, especially if they are "peñas", often have presentations of Argentine folk music and even tango. Higher level restaurants and confectionery have a very complete menu with dishes more sophisticated. The wines are generally very good and economic.

Iguazú Falls, one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World.
Summer view (in winter is snow and autumn in shimmering red and ochre leaves of trees) of Nahuel Huapi Lake, in the provinces of Neuquén and Río Negro.
The Cerro Catedral in Bariloche during winter, Río Negro, is the largest ski resort of Latin America. Bariloche is also the largest tourist destination in the Andean Patagonia
The Faro Les Éclaireurs during summer in Ushuaia internationally recognized city as the southernmost of the planet.
The Mount Chaltén during summer (in winter the landscape is snowed).
San Martín de los Andes at the Lácar Lake in summer (in winter the landscape is snowed)
Summer view of a lake in the Calamuchita Valley, Province of Córdoba, in winter the valley is usually snowed.
Jesuit reducciones of San Ignacio Miní, near the town of San Ignacio, in the province of Misiones
Llao Llao Hotel, Bariloche in summer.
Los Cardones National Park, Salta
Jesuit Estancias of Córdoba (Alta Gracia, Jesús María, Santa Catalina, Caroya, La Candelaria)
Jesuit Block
View of the coast of the city of Junín annexed to the Laguna de Gómez in the heart of the Pampas Plains
Quetrihué Isthmus  seen from the viewpoint of Bahía Mansa, Villa La Angostura in summer.
Glacier cave in Los Glaciares National Park in the austral summer.
Río Pinturas
Colonial cabildo of the city of Salta, today Museo Histórico del Norte

Rock formation or geoform in Cafayate (note its size compared to erect human beings)
Salinas Grandes located on the border between the provinces of Salta and Jujuy
Balcozna Village in Catamarca
pre-Columbian ruins of Pucará of Tilcara
Cliffs at the entrance of Talampaya National Park, La Rioja
The Quebrada del Zonda in the Province of San Juan.
Overview of Las Grutas, province of Río Negro.
El Palmar National Park in Entre Ríos.
Miramar cordobesa: the current summer beach on the south coast of Ansenuza Sea, Province of Córdoba (Argentina).
Iruya
Rosario and the Paraná River
Mar del Plata

Ethical traveler destination
Argentina has been included in 2010, 2011 and 2012 in the list of "The Developing World's 10 Best Ethical Destinations". This is an annual ranking produced by Ethical Traveler magazine, which is based on a study of developing nations from around the world to identify the best tourism destinations among them. The benchmarking uses categories such as environmental protection, social welfare, and human rights.[15][16][17]
Safety and security

The U.S. Department of State warns travelers in Argentina that "drivers frequently ignore traffic laws[18] and vehicles often travel at excessive speeds... traffic accidents are the primary threat to life and limb in Argentina."[19] Argentina has the highest traffic mortality rate in South America, with Argentine drivers causing 20 deaths each day (about 7,000 a year), with more than 120,000 people injured or maimed each year. These deaths have included tourists from various parts of the world.[20]
See also
Visa policy of Argentina
Culture of Argentina
Cuisine of Argentina
Notes

(in Spanish)  (INDEC), Encuesta de Turismo Internacional (ETI)

(in English)
(in English) (in French) (in German) (in Italian) (in Portuguese) (in Spanish)
(in Spanish) (in English)
(in English)
(in English)
(in English) (in Spanish) (in Portuguese)
(in English) (in Spanish) (in Portuguese)
(in English) (in German) (in Spanish) (in French) (in Portuguese) (in Italian)

How many people visit Buenos Aires each year?


The National Bureau of Economic Research published a data series overviewing the history of education in the United States leading up to the 20th and 21st centuries, stating that "formal education, especially basic literacy, is essential for a well-functioning democracy, and enhances citizenship and community."[1] In the 19th century, literacy rates amongst the United States population were relatively high despite the decentralized educational system.[1] Though there has been a notable increase in American citizens' educational attainment since then, studies have indicated declining reading performance starting in the 1970s.[2] Though in the past, entities such as the U.S. Adult Education and Literacy System (AELS) and legislation such as the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 have highlighted education as a topic of national importance,[3] the push for high levels of mass literacy has been a recent development. Expectations concerning literacy have sharply increased over the past decades.[4] Contemporary standards for adequate literacy have become more difficult to meet in comparison to historical criteria. Whereas such standards were only applied to the elite in the past, due to the proliferation of and increased accessibility to education in the form of public schools, the expectation of mass literacy has been applied to the entirety of the U.S. population.
Being literate has particular importance once an individual reaches adulthood, as the changing dynamics of the American job market demand greater skills and knowledge of entry-level workers. In the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy, young adults without postsecondary education experienced difficulties obtaining career positions. A multivariable analysis revealed that low and below basic literacy rates were characteristic of individuals lacking higher education.[5] Thus, improving and sustaining mass literacy at earlier stages in education has also become a main focus of American leaders and policymakers. Dating back to when A Nation at Risk was published in 1983, there has been great interest in the performance of American students relative to that of youth populations across the globe. It has been observed that adolescents undergo a critical transition during their grade school years, which prepares them to learn and apply knowledge to their actions and behavior in the real world.[6] Similarly to how the jobs market has become more demanding, the rigor of educational institutions has also increased to prepare students for the more complex tasks that will be expected of them moving forward.[7] Addressing the issue of subpar reading performance and low literacy rates amongst the youth is particularly pertinent to achieving high levels of mass literacy because the issue of subpar academic performance is compounded. Essentially, students who struggle at an early age continue to struggle throughout their educational years because they do not have the same foundation of understanding and breadth of knowledge to build upon as their peers. This often translates below average poor literacy levels in later grades and even adulthood.[8]
Literacy levels at both adult and adolescent ages have been brought under greater scrutinization in the U.S., with numerous reports and studies being published year to year to monitor the nation's status. Initiatives to improve literacy rates have taken the form of government provisions and external funding, which have been driving forces behind national education reform from primary school levels to higher education.[1]
Defining literacy
Governments may label that as literate those individuals who can read a few thousand simple words they learned by sight in the first four grades in school. Other sources may term such individuals functionally illiterate if they are unable to use basic sources of written information like warning labels and driving directions.
Thus, if this bottom quantile of the study is equated with the functionally illiterate, and these are then removed from those classified as literate, then the resultant literacy rate for the United States would be at most 65-85% depending on where in the basic, minimal competence quantile one sets the cutoff.
The 15% figure for full literacy, equivalent to a university undergraduate level, is consistent with the notion that the "average" American reads at a 7th or 8th grade level which is also consistent with recommendations, guidelines, and norms of readability for medication directions, product information, and popular fiction.
The CIA The World Fact book states that "There are no universal definitions and standards of literacy" and that their statistics are based on the most common definition - "the ability to read and write at a specified age." It is also noted in The Fact book that "Detailing the standards that individual countries use to assess the ability to read and write is beyond the scope of the Factbook. Information on literacy, while not a perfect measure of educational results, is probably the most easily available and valid for international comparisons."[9]
Rates of literacy in the United States depend on which of the various definitions of literacy is used. Governments may label as literate those individuals who can read a couple of thousand simple words they learned by sight in the first four grades in school. Other sources may term such individuals functionally illiterate if they are unable to use basic sources of written information like warning labels and driving directions. The CIA World Fact book uses the common definition of literacy as "age 15 and over can read and write" but notes that the Factbook is used for country comparisons, not detailed standards, which is beyond the scope of the Fact book.[9]
Measuring literacy
Functional literacy can be broken down further as useful literacy, informational literacy, and pleasurable literacy. Useful literacy reflects the most common practice of using understanding of written text to navigate daily life, as in the aforementioned examples. Informational literacy can essentially be defined as text comprehension and the ability to connect the new information presented in the text to previous knowledge. Pleasurable literacy is simply the ability of an individual to read, understand, and engage with texts that he or she enjoys.[10] In a more abstract sense, multiple literacies can be classified into school, community, and personal conceptions. These categories refer to an individual's ability to learn about academic subjects, understand social and cultural contexts, as well as learn about themselves from examination of their own backgrounds.[10]
In 1988, the U.S. Department of Education was asked by Congress to undertake a national literacy survey of American adults.[11]:xi The National Adult Literacy Survey undertaken in 1992, was the first literacy survey that provided "accurate and detailed information on the skills of the adult population as a whole." The U. S. has participated in cyclical, large-scale assessment programs undertaken by the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) and sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) since 1992. The survey revealed that the literacy competence of about 40 million adults was limited to the lowest level, Level 1 which meant they could only understand the simplest written instructions.[12]
The Institute of Education Sciences conducted large scale assessments of adult proficiency in 1992 and 2003 using a common methodology from which trends could be measured. The study measures Prose, Document, and Quantitative skills and 19,000 subjects participated in the 2003 survey. There was no significant change in Prose or Document skills and a slight increase in Quantitative attributes. As in 2008, roughly 15% of the sample could function at the highest levels in all three categories. Roughly 50% were at either basic or below basic levels of proficiency in all three categories.[11] This government study showed that 21% to 23% of adult Americans were not "able to locate information in text", could not "make low-level inferences using printed materials", and were unable to "integrate easily identifiable pieces of information." Approximately one-quarter of the individuals who performed in this level reported that they were born in another country, and some of them were undoubtedly recent immigrants with a limited command of English. In addition, 62 percent of the individuals on that level of the prose scale stated they had not completed high school; 35 percent, in fact, had finished no more than 8 years of schooling. Relatively high percentages of the respondents in this level were Black, Hispanic, or Asian/Pacific Islander, and many — approximately 33 percent — were age 65 or older. Further, 26 percent of the adults who performed in Level 1 said they had a physical, mental, or health condition that kept them from participating fully in work and other activities, and 19 percent reported having vision problems that made it difficult for them to read print. In sum, the individuals in this level of literacy had a diverse set of characteristics that influenced their performance in the assessment. Additionally, this study showed that 41% to 44% of U.S. adults in the lowest level on the literacy scale were living in poverty.[11]
A NAAL follow-up study by the same group of researchers using a smaller database (19,714 interviewees) was released in 2006 that showed some upward movement of low end (basic and below to intermediate) in U.S. adult literacy levels and a decline in the full proficiency group.[13]
In 2003 United States was one of seven countries that participated in the large-scale collaborative effort, the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL) with results published in 2005. Starting in 2011, the U.S., along with dozens of other countries, participated in the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), a large-scale assessment of adult skills, including literacy, under the auspices of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The NCES describes the PIACC as the "most current indicator of the nation's progress in adult skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments."[14]
United States Department of Education surveys
English Language Proficiency Survey (1982)
In 1982, funded by the United States Department of Education,[15] the United States Census Bureau conducted an in-home literacy test of 3,400 adults known as the English Language Proficiency Survey (ELPS).[16] The Education department considered this direct measure of literacy more accurate than a previous estimate in 1979, which inferred literacy based on years of education completed.[17] The data from the test were presented in the 1986 Census Bureau report, concluding that 13% of the adults living in the United States were illiterate in English.[17] Nine percent of adults whose native language was English (native speakers), were illiterate while 48% of nonnative speakers were illiterate in English but not necessarily illiterate in their maternal language.[17]
In his 1985 book Illiterate America,, Jonathan Kozol ascribed the very high figures for literacy to weaknesses in methodology.[18]  The Census Bureau reported literacy rates of 86% based on personal interviews of a relatively small portion of the population and on written responses to Census Bureau mailings. They also considered individuals literate if they simply stated that they could read and write, and made the assumption that anyone with a fifth grade education had at least an 80% chance of being literate. Finally, he suggests that because illiterate people are likely to be unemployed and may not have telephones or permanent addresses, the census bureau would have been unlikely to find them.
National Adult Literacy Survey (1992)
In 1988, the U.S. Department of Education was asked by Congress to undertake a national literacy survey of American adults.[11]:xi The National Center for Education Statistics, which is part of the United States Department of Education, awarded a contract to the Educational Testing Service and a subcontract to Westat to design and conduct the survey.[19]
The 1992 survey, National Adult Literacy Survey provided "accurate and detailed information on the skills of the adult population as a whole. The survey interviewed around 26,000 people ages 16 and older:  a nationally representative sample of around 14,000 people and an additional 12,000 surveys from states which opted in to state-level assessments. Results were published in 1993.[12]:xiv In 1993 the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) was used as a "nationally representative and continuing assessment of English language literary skills of American Adults.[20] The study explicitly avoided a single standard of literacy or illiteracy, instead assessing individuals in three aspects of literacy, with each aspect defined on a 500 point scale. Scores in each individual aspect (prose, document, quantitative) were grouped together in five levels: level 1 (0-225), level 2 (226-275), level 3 (276-325), level 4 (326-375), and level 5 (376-500).
National Assessment of Adult Literacy (2003)
The  National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), is sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) as one of their assessment programs.[21]
The study included comparisons to the 1992 survey. Adults (over sixteen years of age) were scored on their prose, document and quantitative literacy. There was "no significant change in prose and document literacy between 1992 and 2003; but quantitative literacy improved.[14] The study maintained the practice from the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey of dividing literacy into three different aspects, each measured on a 500 point scale. Scores in each aspect were again grouped into five different levels, but using a new numerical scale which was different for each aspect.
International surveys
The Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey
The United States was a participant in the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL), along with Bermuda, Canada, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, and the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon. Data was collected in 2003 and the results were published in 2005.[22] Adults were scored on "five levels of difficulty in prose, document and numeracy literacy. In 2003, only 8% of the population aged 16 to 65 in Norway fell into the lowest skill level, level 1; the highest percentage was 47% in Italy. The United States was third highest at 20% in 2003.[22]:17
Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies

The United States participated in studies as part of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) which was "developed under the auspices" of the "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The PIACC is a "collaborative endeavour involving the participating countries, the OECD Secretariat, the European Commission and an international Consortium led by Educational Testing Service (ETS)".[23] According to National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), the PIACC, provides the "most current indicator of the nation's progress in adult skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments" is a "large-scale assessment of adult skills."[14]
In 2012, twenty four countries, including the United States participated in this large-scale study.[24]
In 2014 thirty three countries, including the United States, participated in the survey.[24]
The 2013 OECD report entitled "First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills", which published results of test undertaken in 2011 and 2012, revealed that the "skills of adults in the United States [had] remained relatively unchanged in the decade since the previous report,3 while other countries have been showing improvements, especially among adults with low basic skills."[25] showed that [26]
In 2016, PIAAC 2012 and 2014 data were released.[24] Participating adults from Singapore and the United States had the largest number of adults scoring "at or below Level 1 in literacy proficiency" compared to other participating countries in their performance in "all three reading components". The authors of the OECD report stated, "These results may be related to the language background of the immigrant population in the United States."[23]
Other studies
Central Connecticut State University
Between 2005 and 2009, Dr. Jack Miller of the Central Connecticut State University  conducted annual studies aimed at identifying America's most literate cities drawing from a variety of available data resources, the America’s Most Literate Cities study ranks the largest cities (population 250,000 and above) in the United States. This study focuses on six key indicators of literacy: newspaper circulation, number of bookstores, library resources, periodical publishing resources, educational attainment, and Internet resources[27]

See also
Books in the United States

What percentage of the U.S. population is illiterate?