The languages of Taiwan consist of several varieties of languages under families of Austronesian languages and Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in Taiwan. The Formosan languages, a branch of Austronesian languages, have been spoken by the Taiwanese aborigines in Taiwan for thousands of years. Researches on historical linguistics recognize Taiwan as the Urheimat (homeland) of the whole Austronesian languages family owing to the highest internal variety of the Formosan languages. In the last 400 years, several waves of Chinese emigrations brought several different Sino-Tibetan languages into Taiwan. These languages include Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and Mandarin.  These became the major languages of today's Taiwan, and make Taiwan an important center of Hokkien pop and Mandopop.
Formosan languages were the dominant language of the Prehistory of Taiwan. The long colonial and immigration history of Taiwan brought in several languages such as Dutch, Spanish, Hokkien, Hakka, Japanese and Mandarin. Due to its colonial history, Japanese is also spoken and a large amount of loanwords from Japanese exist in several languages of Taiwan.
After World War II, a long martial law era was held in Taiwan. Policies of the government in this era suppressed languages other than Mandarin in public use.  This has significantly damaged the evolution of local languages including Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, Formosan languages and Matsu dialect.  The situation has slightly changed after the 2000s. The government has put some efforts to protect and revitalize local languages.  Local languages is now a part of elementary school education in Taiwan.  Laws and regulations regarding local language protection were established for Hakka and Formosan languages.  Public TV and radio stations exclusively for the two languages were also established.  Currently, the government of Taiwan also maintains standards of several widely spoken languages listed below, the percentage of users are from the 2010 population and household census in Taiwan.[8]

Indigenous languages

The Taiwanese indigenous languages or Formosan languages are the languages of the aboriginal tribes of Taiwan. Taiwanese aborigines currently comprise about 2.3% of the island's population.[10] However, far fewer can still speak their ancestral language, after centuries of language shift. It is common for young and middle-aged Hakka and aboriginal people to speak Mandarin and Hokkien better than, or to the exclusion of, their ethnic languages. Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese aborigines, at least ten are extinct, another five are moribund,[11] and several others are to some degree  endangered. Currently the government recognized 16 languages and 42 accents of the indigenous languages, they are

The governmental agency — Council of Indigenous Peoples — maintains the orthography of the writing systems of Formosan languages. Due to the era of Taiwan under Japanese rule, a large number of loanwords from Japanese also appear in Formosan languages. There is also Yilan Creole Japanese as a mixture of Japanese and Atayal.
All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant Mandarin. In recent decades the government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan mother tongue education in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing.[12][13] Television station — Taiwan Indigenous Television, and radio station — Alian 96.3 were created as an efforts to revive the indigenous languages. Formosan languages were made an official language in July 2017.[1][14]
The Amis language is the most widely spoken aboriginal language. The government estimates put the number of Amis people at a little over 200,000, but number of people who speak Amis as their first language as lower than 10,000.[15] Amis has appeared in some mainstream popular music.[16] Other significant indigenous languages includes Atayal, Paiwan, and Bunun. In addition to the recognized languages, there are around 10 to 12 groups of Taiwanese Plains Indigenous Peoples with their respective languages. Some indigenous people and languages are recognized by local governments, these include Siraya, Makatao and Taivoan. Some other language revitalization movements are going on Basay, Pazeh, Babuza-Taokas.
Sinitic languages
Mandarin

Mandarin is commonly known and officially referred to as the national language (國語; Guóyǔ) in Taiwan. In 1945, following the end of World War II, Mandarin was introduced as the official language and made compulsory in schools. (Before 1945, Japanese was the official language and taught in schools.) Since then, Mandarin has been established as a lingua franca among the various groups in Taiwan: the majority Taiwanese-speaking Hoklo (Hokkien), the Hakka who have their own spoken language, the aboriginals who speak aboriginal languages; as well as Mainland Chinese immigrated in 1949 whose native tongue may be any Chinese variant.
People who emigrated from China after 1949 (12% of the population) mostly speak Mandarin Chinese.[17] Mandarin is almost universally spoken and understood.[18] It was the only officially sanctioned medium of instruction in schools in Taiwan from late 1940s to late 1970s, following the handover of Taiwan to the government of the Republic of China in 1945, until English became a high school subject in the 1980s and local languages became a school subject in the 2000s.
Taiwanese Mandarin (as with Singlish and many other situations of a creole speech community) is spoken at different levels according to the social class and situation of the speakers.  Formal occasions call for the acrolectal level of Standard Chinese of Taiwan (國語; Guóyǔ), which differs little from the Standard Chinese of China (普通话; Pǔtōnghuà).  Less formal situations may result in the basilect form, which has more uniquely Taiwanese features.  Bilingual Taiwanese speakers may code-switch between Mandarin and Taiwanese, sometimes in the same sentence.
Mandarin is spoken fluently by almost the entire Taiwanese population, except for some elderly people who were educated under Japanese rule, and thus speak one or both of Hakka or Hokkien and Japanese. In Taipei, many Mainland Chinese immigrants and refugees settled around the time of the Kuomintang retreat to Taiwan and soon thereafter. Few of these mainlander immigrants spoke any Hokkien natively, let alone Taiwanese Hokkien/Taiwanese; as a result of this and other mainlander immigration to Taipei, Mandarin is used in greater frequency than in southern Taiwan and more rural areas.[19] Many Taiwanese, particularly the younger generations, speak Mandarin better than Hakka or Hokkien, and it has become a lingua franca for the island amongst the Chinese dialects (fāngyán).[20] In recent years, many Taipei-based students report speaking Mandarin as the language of their daily life, and speaking better English than Hakka or Hokkien even if they are from those ethnic backgrounds.[19]
Taiwanese Hokkien

Commonly known as Taiwanese (臺語, Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tâi-gí) and officially referred as Taiwanese Hokkien (臺灣閩南語; Tâi-oân Bân-lâm-gú); Taiwanese Hokkien is the most-spoken native language in Taiwan, spoken by about 70% of the population.[21][22]  Linguistically, it is a subgroup of Southern Min languages variety originating in southern Fujian province and is spoken by many overseas Chinese throughout Southeast Asia.
There are both colloquial and literary registers of Taiwanese.  Colloquial Taiwanese has roots in Old Chinese.  Literary Taiwanese, which was originally developed in the 10th century in Fujian and based on Middle Chinese, was used at one time for formal writing, but is now largely extinct.  Due to the era of Taiwan under Japanese rule, a large amount of loanwords from Japanese also appear in Taiwanese.  The loanwords may be read in Kanji through Taiwanese pronunciation or simply use the Japanese pronunciation.  These reasons makes the modern writing Taiwanese in a mixed script of traditional Chinese characters and Latin-based systems such as pe̍h-ōe-jī or the Taiwanese romanization system derived from pe̍h-ōe-jī in official use since 2006.
Recent work by scholars such as , , and  (also known as Tavokan Khîn-hoāⁿ or Chin-An Li), based on former research by scholars such as Ông Io̍k-tek, has gone so far as to associate part of the basic vocabulary of the colloquial language with the Austronesian and Tai language families; however, such claims are not without controversy.  Recently there has been a growing use of Taiwanese Hokkien in the broadcast media.
Accent differences among Taiwanese dialects are relatively small but still exist.  The standard accent — Thong-hêng accent (通行腔) is sampled from Kaohsiung city,[23] while other accents fall into a spectrum between
Hái-kháu accent (海口腔): representing the accent spoken in Lukang, close to Quanzhou dialect in China, and
Lāi-po͘ accent (內埔腔): representing the accent spoken in Yilan, close to Zhangzhou dialect in China.
A great part of Taiwanese Hokkien is generally understood by other dialects of Hokkien as spoken in China and South-east Asia (such as Singaporean Hokkien), but also has a degree of intelligibility with the Teochew variant of Southern Min spoken in Eastern Guangdong, China.  It is, however, mutually unintelligible with Mandarin or other Chinese languages.
Hakka

Hakka (客家語; Hak-kâ-ngî) is mainly spoken in Taiwan by people who have Hakka ancestry. These people are concentrated in several places throughout Taiwan. The majority of Hakka Taiwanese reside in Taoyuan, Hsinchu and Miaoli. Hakka was made an official language in December 2017.[24]  Currently the Hakka language in Taiwan is maintained by the Hakka Affairs Council.  This governmental agency also runs Hakka TV and Hakka Radio stations. The government currently recognizes and maintains six Hakka dialects in Taiwan.[25]

Matsu dialect

Matsu dialect (馬祖話, Mā-cū-huâ) is the language spoken in Matsu islands.  It is a dialect of Fuzhou dialect, Eastern Min.
Written and sign languages
Chinese characters
Traditional Chinese characters is widely used in Taiwan to write Sinitic languages including Mandarin, Taiwanese Hokkien and Hakka. The Ministry of Education maintains standards of writing for these languages, publications including the Standard Form of National Characters and the recommended characters for Taiwanese Hokkien and Hakka.
Written vernacular Chinese is the standard of written Chinese used in official documents, general literature and most aspects of everyday life, and has grammar based on Modern Standard Mandarin.  Vernacular Chinese is the modern written variant of Chinese that supplanted the use of classical Chinese in literature following the New Culture Movement of the early 20th Century, which is based on the grammar of Chinese spoken in ancient times.  In recent times, following the Taiwan localization movement and an increasing presence of Taiwanese literature, written Hokkien based on the vocabulary and grammar of Taiwanese Hokkien is occasionally used in literature and informal communications.
Traditional Chinese characters are also used in Hong Kong.  A small number of characters are written differently in Taiwan; the Standard Form of National Characters is the orthography standard used in Taiwan and administered by the Ministry of Education, and has minor variations compared with the standardized character forms used in Hong Kong. Such differences relate to orthodox and vulgar variants of Chinese characters.
Latin alphabet and Romanization

Latin alphabet is native to Formosan languages and partially native to Taiwanese Hokkien and Hakka. With the early influences of European missionaries, writing systems such as Sinckan Manuscripts, Pe̍h-ōe-jī, and Pha̍k-fa-sṳ were based on in Latin alphabet.  Currently the official Writing systems of Formosan languages are solely based on Latin and maintained by the Council of Indigenous Peoples.  The Ministry of Education also maintains Latin based systems Taiwanese Romanization System for Taiwanese Hokkien, and Taiwanese Hakka Romanization System for Hakka.  The textbooks of Taiwanese Hokkien and Hakka are written in a mixed script of Traditional Chinese characters and Latin alphabet.
Chinese language romanization in Taiwan tends to be highly inconsistent.  Taiwan still uses the Zhuyin system and does not commonly use the Latin alphabet as the language phonetic symbols. Traditionally Wade–Giles is used.  The central government adopted Tongyong Pinyin as the official romanization in 2002 but local governments are permitted to override the standard as some have adopted Hanyu Pinyin and retained old romanizations that are commonly used.  However, in August 2008 the central government announced that Hanyu Pinyin will be the only system of Romanization of Standard Mandarin in Taiwan as of January 2009.
Phonetic symbols

Zhuyin Fuhao, often abbreviated as Zhuyin, or known as Bopomofo after its first four letters, is the phonetic system of Taiwan for teaching the pronunciation of Chinese characters, especially in Mandarin.  Mandarin uses 37 symbols to represent its sounds: 21 consonants and 16 rimes. Taiwanese Hokkien uses 45 symbols to represent its sounds: 21 consonants and 24 rimes. There is also a system created for Hakka language.
These phonetic symbols sometimes appear as ruby characters printed next to the Chinese characters in young children's books, and in editions of classical texts (which frequently use characters that appear at very low frequency rates in newspapers and other such daily fare). In advertisements, these phonetic symbols are sometimes used to write certain particles (e.g., ㄉ instead of 的); other than this, one seldom sees these symbols used in mass media adult publications except as a pronunciation guide (or index system) in dictionary entries.  Bopomofo symbols are also mapped to the ordinary Roman character keyboard (1 = bo, q = po, a = mo, and so forth) used in one method for inputting Chinese text when using a computer.
The sole purpose for Zhuyin in elementary education is to teach standard Mandarin pronunciation to children.  Grade one textbooks of all subjects (including Mandarin) are entirely in zhuyin.  After that year, Chinese character texts are given in annotated form.  Around grade four, presence of Zhuyin annotation is greatly reduced, remaining only in the new character section.  School children learn the symbols so that they can decode pronunciations given in a Chinese dictionary, and also so that they can find how to write words for which they know only the sounds.
Sign language
Taiwan has a national sign language, the Taiwanese Sign Language, which was developed from Japanese Sign Language during Japanese colonial rule. TSL has some mutual intelligibility with Japanese Sign Language and the Korean Sign Language as a result. TSL has about a 60% lexical similarity with JSL.[26]
Other languages
Japanese

The Japanese language was compulsorily taught while Taiwan was under Japanese rule (1895 to 1945). Although fluency is now largely limited to the elderly, most of Taiwan's youth who look to Japan as the trend-setter of the region's youth pop culture now might know a bit of Japanese through the media, their grandparents, or classes taken from private "cram schools".
South-East Asian languages
There are a significant immigrant and spouses in Taiwan are from South-East Asia.
Indonesian: Indonesian is the most widely spoken language among the approximately 140,000 Indonesians in Taiwan.
Javanese: Javanese is also spoken by Javanese people from Indonesia who are in Taiwan.
Tagalog: Tagalog is also widely spoken by Filipinos by the approximately 108,520 Filipinos in Taiwan.
Vietnamese: There are somewhere around 200,000 Vietnamese in Taiwan, many of whom speak Vietnamese. There has been some effort, particularly beginning in 2011, to teach Vietnamese as a heritage language to children of Vietnamese immigrants.[27]
European languages
Dutch: Dutch was taught to the residents of the island during the Dutch colonial rule of Taiwan. After the withdrawal of Dutch presence in Taiwan, the use of the language disappeared.
Spanish: Spanish was mainly spoken by the northern part of the island during the establishment of a Spanish colony in Formosa until 1642.
Sino-Tibetan languages
Cantonese: Cantonese is spoken by many recent and early immigrants from southeastern China, Hong Kong, and Macau. Furthermore, Taiwan has been one of the largest consumers of Hong Kong cinema, cantopop, and pop culture in the late 1900s. As a result, many educated Taiwanese still continue to learn the language.
English
English: English is a common foreign language, with some large private schools providing English instruction.  English is compulsory in students' curriculum once they enter elementary school.   English as a school subject is also featured on Taiwan's education exams. In 2018, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education has been planning to make English an official language of the country.[28]
See also

Taiwanese Aborigines
Han Taiwanese — Hoklo Taiwanese, Hakka Taiwanese
Formosan languages
Taiwanese Hokkien
Taiwanese Hakka
Taiwanese Mandarin

Citations

Sources


Main Page

Big Bad Beetleborgs (later Beetleborgs Metallix) is an American live-action television series by Saban Entertainment and was co-produced with Renaissance-Atlantic Films, Toei Company and Bugboy Productions.[1] It aired for two seasons on Fox Kids between September 7, 1996, and March 2, 1998.
The series adapted combat footage from the Metal Hero tokusatsu-series Juukou B-Fighter (first season) and B-Fighter Kabuto (second season).[2] Unlike its contemporaries, such as Power Rangers, the show had a greater emphasis on sitcom elements, rather than a villain of the week.
Synopsis
Season 1
Set in the fictional town of Charterville, three "typical average kids"—two siblings, Drew (Wesley Barker) and Jo (Shannon Chandler/Brittany Konarzewski), and their friend Roland (Herbie Baez)—enter the supposedly haunted Hillhurst Mansion after accepting a dare from rich snobs Van and Trip. The house is revealed to be the home of real monsters in the likes of Universal monsters and are set to eat the kids. However, in the midst of a chase, the kids accidentally bump a pipe organ, releasing a phasm named Flabber (Billy Forester). He proves to be friendly, and in return for releasing him, offers to grant them one wish. They wish to become their comic book heroes, the Big Bad Beetleborgs. However, this also brings the Beetleborgs' sworn enemies to life: the Magnavores, led by the evil Vexor, who would summon monsters from the comic books to battle the Beetleborgs. Roland's mom and dad run the comic book shop along with his grandmother Nano. In a 6-parter, Vexor created his own Beetleborg, Shadowborg, which was a match for the Beetleborgs and briefly took their powers. They had to call a temporary Beetleborg (White Blaster Beetleborg) Josh, and after Shadowborg was destroyed, Josh lost his powers. The Beetleborgs would meet the Beetleborgs comic creator, Art Fortunes, during this six-part story in order for him to create the White Blaster Beetleborg and the Mega Blue Beetleborg.
In the penultimate episode of the first season, the Magnavores steal a picture of a new villain named Nukus from Art Fortunes' office. They bring him to life to enlist his help in destroying the Beetleborgs. Nukus assists them by planning devastating attacks on the city and creating Borgslayer, a hybrid of all the Magnavore monsters. Unbeknownst to the Magnavores, Nukus was actually plotting to get rid of them. Nukus tells Van and Trip (who were fleeing Charterville during Borgslayer's attack to their father's country estate) how to defeat Borgslayer, and orders them to take the information to the Beetleborgs. They succeed in destroying Borgslayer, causing the Magnavores to be swept back into the comics.
Season 2
At the start of Season 2, Nukus has challenged the Beetleborgs. Despite Art's warning that Nukus is too powerful, they face him anyway. Nukus quickly wipes them out, destroying their Beetleborgs armor, weapons, and powers in one fell swoop.
These events lead directly into the second season Beetleborgs Metallix. In it, the Crustaceans have replaced the Magnavores as the Beetleborgs' new arch-enemy. Nukus discovers that his creator is actually Art's incarcerated brother Les Fortunes. Nukus busts Les out of prison. Les now serves him by creating new villains to serve him and monsters for him to use. In response, Art creates new powers, armor, vehicles, and weapons, which Flabber then brings to life again for the kids, who rechristen themselves as Beetleborgs Metallix, hence the title. They are later assisted by the Astralborgs, four Beetleborgs created by Art Fortunes as a child when he and Les worked together on their only collaboration, the Lost Comic.
Nukus formed his own evil group called the Crustaceans. He would later recruit more faithful followers from the Lost Comic in the form of the Mantrons. Nukus and Vilor eventually gained upgraded Mega forms. To counteract this, the Beetleborgs were given an upgrade by Roboborg who fused their Metallix powers with their original powers creating the Mega Spectra Beetleborgs. Vilor's "mega" form did not last long and he quietly returned to his original look without explanation. However, Mega Nukus retained his upgraded look.
The series concluded with the Beetleborgs gaining the enemy Boron as an ally, stripping Nukus of his greatest weapon during the fight against Repgillian. Les Fortunes makes the decision to return willingly to Charterville Prison, disabling Nukus' ability to create new monsters out of illustrations. With no known way of returning the Crustaceans to the comic world, the Beetleborgs were left with an unresolved final battle with what was left of their foes.
Characters
Beetleborgs
Andrew "Drew" McCormick (played by Wesley Barker) – The Blue Stinger Beetleborg, and later the Chromium Gold Beetleborg in the second season, is the leader of the Beetleborgs. He was granted the ability of telekinesis by Flabber, which he activated by pointing at an object and nodding his head. Drew received an upgrade, Mega Blue Beetleborg, after he used the energy axis that powered Shadowborg on his original armor. After Roboborg arrived, Drew received a new upgrade, Mega Spectra Chromium Gold Beetleborg, after Nukus and Vilor went Mega themselves. His armor was modeled after a Japanese rhinoceros beetle.
Roland Williams (played by Herbie Baez) – The Green Hunter Beetleborg, and later the Titanium Silver Beetleborg in the second season, his family owns a local comic book shop named Zoom Comics, where he, Jo, and Drew usually hang out. He was granted the ability of super speed by Flabber, which he activated by snapping his fingers. After Roboborg arrived, Roland received an upgrade, Mega Spectra Titanium Silver Beetleborg, after Nukus and Vilor went Mega themselves. His armor was modeled after a stag beetle.
Josephine "Jo" McCormick (played by Shannon Chandler in episodes 1–39, Brittany Konarzewski in 39–88) – The Red Striker Beetleborg, and later the Platinum Purple Beetleborg in the second season, Drew's little sister, she was granted the ability of super strength by Flabber, which she activated by cracking her knuckles. After Roboborg arrived, Jo received an upgrade, Mega Spectra Platinum Purple Beetleborg, after Nukus and Vilor went Mega themselves. Her Red Striker armor was modeled after a female Japanese rhinoceros beetle, and her Platinum Purple armor after a ladybug. Jo is often shown wearing a baseball cap backwards. A unique casting change occurred and instead of an official departure removing the character Jo from the cast, when Shannon Chandler left the series, her character remained. Halfway through Season 1, Wolfgang (while playing with a magic book) accidentally cast a spell that caused Jo to change in appearance. Brittany Konarzewski took over Chandler's role in the guise of actually being the original Jo with a new look and voice. To counteract this, Flabber used his magic to make her look and sound the way she always had, but it didn't work on anyone who actually watched the spell being cast. So the viewers, Flabber, Drew, Roland, and Jo herself could still see Jo in her new appearance, but the Hilhurst monsters as well as their family and friends saw her as she looked before. According to Flabber, the spell would eventually wear off (this didn't happen during the series).
Josh Baldwin (played by Warren Berkow) – The White Blaster Beetleborg, granted the ability of invisibility by Flabber, which he activated by dusting his hands. He was on the team for a very short period of time. The White Blaster Beetleborg was created after Shadowborg, an evil clone of the Beetleborgs, stole their powers. He succeeded in getting their powers back. However, it was soon discovered that the White Blaster and Shadowborg were linked in a fashion of yin and yang (mainly because the White Blaster powers were created solely to battle Shadowborg), meaning if one was destroyed, the other would lose his power forever (it could be assumed that it didn't really bother him, seeing as he felt he couldn't handle a superhero life). Josh and Drew were rivals to fall for Heather. Josh accompanied the Beetleborgs in the final battle against Shadowborg, where he transformed for the final time. Shadowborg was defeated by Drew (in his Mega Blue Beetleborg form) and due to the link, Josh lost his powers at which point Josh returned to a normal life. Josh has suggested to Art Fortunes that he should include the White Blaster Beetleborg in his later comics alongside the Mega Blue Beetleborg form. Although he said that if the others ever needed him again, he'd be there (but this was the last we saw of him). It was slightly hinted that Jo had a crush on him. His armour was modeled after a Hercules beetle.
Hillhurst Inhabitants
An old mansion outside of Charterville had fallen into disrepair since the passing of Old Man Hillhurst and became home to some rather goofy monsters. With the exception of Flabber, all the monsters attempt to eat any humans who trespass in their home. As a running gag, they never learn their lesson about trying to go after the Beetleborgs who always manage to outwit or clobber them. Wolfgang and Little Ghoul later move in throughout the series.
Flabber (played by Billy Forester) – As described above, Flabber is a phantasm (phasm) who was trapped inside a pipe organ, and was freed by the kids. Out of gratitude he granted their wish to become their comic book heroes, the Big Bad Beetleborgs. This event also unintentionally released the Magnavores. Flabber was released by playing 3 notes on the organ. (He later revealed that playing those same 3 notes, then playing them in reverse would re-entrap him inside the organ). He acts as an advisor and best friend, and offers needed magic to the kids when fighting the Magnavores, and later the Crustaceans, though his magic does not always work the way he may hope for it to work. He is the head of the Hillhurst Mansion and is usually the one to keep the house monsters in check. The producers of the show said that he was based on Elvis Presley, but owing to his prominent chin, he bears a stronger resemblance to the comedian Jay Leno.
Mums (voiced by Michael Sorich in the pilot episode, Blake Torney in later episodes) – Mums is a 5,000-year-old Egyptian mummy that used to be a prince, but he can unwrap his bandages to reveal a "Grim Reaper"-like form under his bandages (which only occurred once. This appearance is considerably more scary. He has 703 brothers and sisters. In "Curse of the Mums' Tomb," two archaeologists came to return Mums to the crypt in which they found him in order to get rid of a curse placed on them upon waking him; he would need a "magical beetle", but using a Beetleborg would cause loss of their powers. In the same episode, Mums mentions that he was mummified alive after he was caught kissing Cleopatra in public. His mother also has a family heirloom that can turn others (such as Fangula) into monsters by shouting "Eureka!"
Frankenbeans (played by David Fletcher) – Frankenbeans (called "Frankie" for short) is a strange, lumbering Frankenstein's monster-type monster. He was once kidnapped by the Magnavores on Halloween, and held for ransom in exchange for the Beetleborgs' Beetle Bonders. He allows Wolfie to stay in a dog house kept in his room. He has little ability to speak, often roaring or saying toddler-like sentences; in short, he's the more stupid of the monsters. He actually has no brain (literally), something that often causes a lot of jokes involving him (but a benefit in one episode, as it made him immune to the attack of the "Brain-Sucker" monster created by Nukus). His creator Dr. Baron von Frankenbeans showed up in a few episodes.
Count Fangula (played by Joe Hackett) – Loosely modeled after Count Dracula, Count Fangula is a vampire (albeit one of questionable aptitude in the Dark Arts). He seems to be the only one to understand what Wolfie may be saying. He mentioned in Wolfie's introductory episode that they were roommates "in the old country." He once succeeded into getting two victims in Van and Trip, temporarily turning them into vampires that were turned back to normal by kisses from Jo. If his victims quota is too low, a high ranking vampire will come to evaluate him like his boss Vlad did in "Fangula's Last Bite." He's also known to have an ex-wife who he's very afraid of.
The Pipettes (played by Traci Bellusci) – A multicolor spirit-like trio of ladies who live in the pipe organ. They look identical except for the colors. The Pipettes act as Flabber's back-up singers. They stop appearing midway through the first series.
Ghoulum (performed by Dan Letlow) – A living stone statue monster that resides in Hillhurst Mansion who often had little to say or do other than what statues do best, stand in place. While not the most active monster of Hillhurst Mansion on rare occasions, he would join in on the other monsters' mischief. In one episode, he was accidentally exposed to a "Bad Potion" turning him evil and causing him to grow into a giant under Noxic's control.
Wolfgang "Wolfie" Smith (played by Frank Tahoe, voiced by Michael Sorich in the first appearance, Scott Page-Pagter in later appearances) – Wolfie is a werewolf and is treated more like a family dog than a monster at Hillhurst. His voice sounds similar to Scooby-Doo. Only Fangula can translate what Wolfie is saying most of the time since Fangula was once Wolfie's roommate. Probably the bravest and most cunning of the Hillhurst Monsters because he's the only one of the group who tangled with the bad guys at least once. Wolfie was once responsible for using a spellbook to accidentally change Jo's appearance which got him in trouble with Flabber. He bargained with the Beetleborgs to be let on a mission with them in exchange for the final Astralborg coin he was ransoming.
Little Ghoul (played by Lina Godouse) – A Jawa-like ghoul who was the latest addition to the Hillhurst group in season two. She lives in the basement and rarely comes out. As the niece of the Grim Reaper, Little Ghoul is a grim reaper-in-training who loves collecting. She also has a short temper, which scares the other monsters even more than her true appearance under her hood. She has little to no respect for anyone. She does however have a great deal of respect for the Astralborgs. In one episode, she possessed a head that originally belonged to the Headless Horseman. In another episode, Little Ghoul became attached to a monster she named Emily after it bloomed from the Seed of Evil which Horribelle had given her during her brief obsession with gardening.
Allies
"Nano" Williams (played by Vivian Smallwood) – Roland's grandmother, Aaron's mother, and Abbie's mother-in-law. Nano is one hip granny and a trained martial artist. When she's not running Zoom Comics or practicing her moves, she's often seen riding her motorcycle. Nano often helps out the kids when they're in a jam. If nothing else, she enjoys teasing her son Aaron.
Aaron Williams (played by Kim Delgado) – Roland's father. He ran Zoom Comics full-time and is often embarrassed by his mother's antics. Aaron was soon called away on business, leaving the shop in the hands of his wife.
Abbie Williams (played by Channe Nolen) – Roland's mother. She primarily works as a real estate agent. When her husband, Aaron, gone on business, she assumed running Zoom Comics. She and her mother in-law don't see eye to eye but she didn't really know how to run a comic book shop. With a little help from Flabber's magic, Abbie's heart opened up and rekindled fond childhood memories of a comic she once loved reading. She ran the shop for the remainder of the series.
Heather (played by Elizabeth Z. Lund) – Drew's crush. No matter what, Drew could never tell Heather what he really felt. She would sometimes help out at the comic shop, and she also enjoyed reading them. During the Shadowborg saga, she developed a crush on Josh.
Trip & Van (played by Todd Hurst & Patrick Seaborn) – These brothers constantly pestered the kids daily lives by flaunting their wealth and self-acclaimed superiority. Trip was the smarter of the two whereas Van was a bit slow. They often came up with get-rich-quick schemes, ways to humiliate the kids, or simply to cause trouble where they would often dragging Dudley into their schemes. They were the one's who dared Jo, Roland, and Drew to enter Hillhurst, which led to them becoming Beetleborgs. During the Borgslayer fiasco they left town to go live at their father's country estate, only to be mentioned once in season 2. Before they left town, Nukus forced them to return to town to tell the Beetleborgs how to defeat Borgslayer in order to get rid of the Magnavores.
Dudley (played by Dudley Davis) – Dudley is the chauffeur who works for Trip and Van's parents. He would be unwittingly dragged into Trip and Van's schemes. Like Trip and Van, Dudley isn't seen again after Season One.
Dr. Baron von Frankenbeans (played by Don Altman) – A mad scientist who is based on Victor Frankenstein and is the creator of Frankenbeans. He treated the monsters like servants. Whenever he announced his full name, he would be spotlighted by moonlight as lightning would flash and a wolf would howl outside (even if it was daylight). He first appeared to visit his son and do medical treatment on the monsters. Dr. Frankenbeans even helped the Beetleborgs by giving them a suggestion on how to defeat Cyber-Serpent by opening fire on him while he's standing over his comic. In "Operation Frankenbeans," Dr. Frankenbeans returned where he implanted a new brain into Frankenbeans. While it made Frankenbeans smart, it also made him not see Dr. Frankenbeans as his father. In "Bride of Frankenbeans," Dr. Frankenbeans returned where he had assembled a mate for Frankenbeans (who was based off the Bride of Frankenstein). Even though the Beetleborgs stopped Crimson Creep from crashing the wedding, Frankenbeans' relationship with the "bride" was short and she was deactivated and dismantled. In "Son of Frankenbeans," Dr. Frankenbeans returned where he had created a "son" for Frankenbeans. In "Experiment of Evil," Dr. Frankenbeans created the "Monster Mother: Root of all Evil", for the Hillhurst monster who wanted to end the danger posed to their home; he claims that in order to defeat evil, one must be eviler.
Arthur "Art" Fortunes (played by Rigg Kennedy) – Creator of the Beetleborgs comics, who shows up time and time again with new ways to help the kids. He often collaborates with Flabber's magic to bring new arsenal to the kids. Art Fortunes has a brother named Les Fortunes where they had a sibling rivalry. When they were young, Art and Les had a brief collaboration on the "Lost Comic" where Art created the Astralborgs and Les created the Mantrons. A running gag is that the Hillhurst monsters focus on trying to eat him instead of the kids when they're out fighting the villains.
Karato (voiced by Richard Epcar) and Silver Ray – Two other comic book superheroes that the kids are fans of. When the Magnavores released an army of monsters while trying to kidnap Art Fortunes from a comic book convention, the Beetleborgs were afraid of being unable to beat them all by themselves. Flabber agreed to use his magic on just that one occasion to summon other superheroes from the comics to help. In B-Fighter, Karato was one of the other Metal Hero protagonists Janperson while Silver Ray was his rival-turned ally Gun Gibson, and Goldex was the main villain Bill Goldy (used by the villains as a pawn after being revived), but was absorbed into Borgslayer. The B-Fighters also teamed up with the Blue SWAT team, but they weren't adapted into Beetleborgs.
Astralborgs – Four heroes of the Lost Comic that were created by Art Fortunes and Les Fortunes. When the Beetleborgs acquired their coins, they are able to summon the Astralborgs to help them fight Nukus' forces.
Dragonborg (voiced by Doug Stone impersonating Sean Connery) – Modeled after a dragonfly, Dragonborg is the leader of the Astralborgs. His astral laser comes with a powerful sting.
Fireborg (voiced by Gene Holliday) – An Astralborg that is modeled after a firefly. He can shoot balls of fire from his fingertips.
Lightingborg (voiced by Richard Epcar) – An Astralborg who is modeled after a cicada. He can shoot electrical currents from the blades of his two swords or the antennae on his helmet.
Ladyborg (voiced by Barbara Goodson) – An Astralborg who is modeled after a butterfly. Her large cannon opens up like a flower to fire a powerful beam.
Villains
Magnavores (2–53) – The first set of villains the Beetleborgs faced, who originated from the Beetleborgs comic series. They were released due to Flabber granting the kids' wish which unintentionally released them. While in Charterville, the Magnavores use the old Charterville cemetery as their lair. By the end of Season One, the Magnavores were sent back into the comics as a side effect of Borgslayer's destruction.
Vexor (first played by Rick Tane and later by Kisu, voiced by Joey Pal) – The leader of the Magnavores. He loses patience with his Magnavores' incompetence and does not appear in every episode. He appeared to have been destroyed by the combined efforts of all three Beetleborgs stabbing their Beetle Battlers into his body and pulling him to the ground, after Drew battled with and destroyed Shadowborg, but quickly revived himself, sprouting a new body and face and even managed to grow giant. In his following appearance, he somehow switched back to his old self/appearance.
Typhus (played by Kyle Jordan, voiced by Dave "Foots" Footman) – A Chimera/composite-like humanoid monster, prefers brawn over brain and his whale-like flattop is an extra mouth with which he eats food or other objects. In battle, he sometimes wields a sword-like weapon that latches to his arm or his mouth. This weapon can also blast lasers when latched to his extra mouth. On one occasion, he emitted bees from his extra mouth. He was temporarily turned into Mega Typhus.
Noxic (played by Lee Whey, voiced by David Umansky) – An android with coils for hair who wears a white labcoat-like jacket. He can control machinery and other objects by removing his head and attaching it to them. In a dream of his, Noxic took control of a bulldozer with his head and tried to destroy the Beetleborgs. He later used this same technique to take control of Ghoulum, when he went bad from the "Bad Potion." He has an unseen wicked friend from the comic books as well named Dr. Cackle who created the Bad Potion. Noxic prefers to eat donuts all day long instead of doing Vexor's bidding. He has an older brother named Super Noxic though technically Noxic was created first. In battle, he sometimes wields an umbrella-like weapon.
Jara (played by Balinda English in U.S. Footage, voiced by Rajia Baroudi): A female humanoid clad in red attire and a white mask. She speaks with a Russian accent. Despite her face being remade 3-dimensional, she cannot consume food or smile in the real world because the mouth on her mask could never open (she emphasizes this by saying that she has no mouth). She was bitten by Wolfgang in one episode and became a werewolf and enamored with Wolfgang. By the end of the episode, Jara was returned to her normal form by a rubber arrow shot by Flabber which contained antidote and retained none of her affection for Wolfgang. In battle, she sometimes wields a whip that when cracked releases destructive energy.
Shadowborg (voiced by Bob Papenbrook) (26–31) – A black evil Beetleborg created by Vexor from ionic DNA and insectite material stolen from the Blue Stinger Beetleborg. Not only is Shadowborg created from the basic materials as Blue Stinger, but he is enhanced with some of the powers of the other Beetleborgs. Shadowborg can run faster than the Green Hunter, jump higher than Red Striker, and remain underwater for 51 minutes. Shadowborg's architectural armor is modeled after a longicorn beetle. With his Shadow Claw, Shadowborg can cut through any substance known to the planet. He was finally destroyed by the Blue Stinger Beetleborg in his Mega Blue Form.
Scabs (3–53) – Yellow-black creatures who are the foot soldiers of the Magnavores. Unlike in most Saban adaptations, these grunt soldiers were barely used.
Magnavore Jet Fighters (3–53)- Air-borne, wasp-resembling machine jets. Summoned to attack the Beetleborgs on several occasions.
"Crustaceans" (52–88) – Villains created by Les Fortunes, the second set of villains the Beetleborgs faced. After the Magnavores were defeated, the "Crustaceans" used the old Charterville cemetery as their lair.
Nukus (played and voiced by Christopher Cho) (52–81) – A creation of Les Fortunes, Nukus is the Triceratops-based Overlord of the 2nd Dimension. His drawing was hidden away in Art Fortune's vault until the Magnavores took the picture and Vexor brought him to life. Nukus quickly set a plan to dispose the Magnavores and take over as the new villain which involved combining the energies of the monsters he brought out into Borgslayer. When Borgslayer was destroyed, the Magnavores returned to the comics and Nukus went to confront the Beetleborgs. Nukus had an advantage over the Beetleborgs as he destroyed both the paper he came out of. Nukus also destroyed the Beetleborgs' original armor, weapons, and powers. When he raided Hillhurst, Nukus turned Flabber into ice and discovered Art Fortunes with another picture of Nukus which was actually drawn by his brother Les. With this knowledge, Nukus broke Les out of prison, brought Horribelle, Vilor, and the Dregs to life, and used Les' skills to create deadly monsters that could be brought to life with the use of his sword where he would say the name of Les' creation and quote "Arise" where the drawing came to life. He later gained a mega form called Mega Nukus (81–88) from touching Les Fortunes' transmographier device which he destroyed soon after to ensure no one else received an upgrade from it.
Horribelle (played and voiced by Claudine Barros) (54–88) – Second-in-command of the Crustaceans, an insect-based sword-toting fighter and Nukus' right-hand woman upon being brought to life by Nukus from Les' drawing of her. Like Nukus, she can summon a face-mask in battle. She also wields two swords that resemble mantis arms. Horribelle once rebelled against the Crustaceans by having Les Fortunes create the Astral Axe, so she could control its powers out of a scorn for not receiving a mega form like the main male villains.
Vilor (played by Kyle Jordan, voiced by Dave "Foots" Footman) (54–88) – Third-in-command of the Crustaceans, a fish-based and trident-toting fighter. He was created by Les in prison and brought to life by Nukus. Vilor briefly gains a second form called Super Vilor in "Wolfie's Wild Ride" in which while the Mantrons takeover fighting, he makes Les Fortunes a deal: a new form in exchange for a new drawing table. When defeated Super Vilor returned to where the drawing was made, and falls on Les Fortunes' new drawing table as regular Vilor. Later, Vilor got a brief mega form called Mega Vilor (81) after touching Les Fortunes' transmographier device prior to its destruction. Though he somehow reverted to his normal state.
Lester "Les" Fortunes (played by Marshal Hilton) (54–88) – The black sheep in the Fortunes family and Art's older brother who has the same artistic talents as his brother. When they were young, Les and Art had a brief collaboration on the "Lost Comic" where Art created the Astralborgs and Les created the Mantrons. Les was responsible for drawing the picture of Nukus which the Magnavores brought to life. He was in prison when Nukus recruited him to his cause. Despite creating Horribelle, Vilor, the Dregs, and all the Crustacean monsters and their arsenal, Les never gets any respect or credit for it. After Repgillian's destruction, Les and Nukus decided to finally part ways after Les decided to go back to jail for some peace and quiet. He remarked that the Crustaceans were going to miss him while stating that he created them and he can erase them. As he left, Horribelle remarked she never really did like him.
Mantrons (75–82) – Evil counterparts of the Astralborgs. Created by Les Fortunes as a child to rival Art Fortunes' Astralborgs in their only collaboration the Lost Comic. They were there to aid Nukus in his plans to get Roboborg who ultimately made it to the good hands of the Beetleborgs. In "Roboborg" (part 8 of the Lost Comic saga), the Mantrons were finally sent back to the Lost Comic for good by the combined attacks of the Beetleborgs, Astralborgs, and Roboborg.
Scorpix (voiced by Bob Papenbrook) – Modeled after a scorpion, Scorpix is the leader of the Mantrons.
Centipix (voiced by Lee Hondo Woodford) – A Mantron that is modeled after a centipede.
Mantix (voiced by Ethan Murray) – A Mantron that is modeled after a mantis.
Hornix (voiced by Bob Johnson) – A Mantron that is modeled after a hornet.
Dregs (55–88) – Assorted monsters used as foot soldiers that were created by Les Fortunes when he was in jail and brought to life by Nukus. Dregs came in two groups. One group was based on land animals and wore brown slacks and black boots (consisting of the Spider Dreg and Stego Dreg). The other based on sea creatures and wore blue spandex pants and white boots (consisting of the Fish Dreg, Jellyfish Dreg, Squid Dreg). Each group consisted of five different types of Dregs.
Worm Tanks (55–88) – Giant worm like vehicles summoned to attack the Beetleborgs on several occasions.
Crustacean Jet Fighters (56–88) – Air-borne machines based on the design of the Worm Tank summoned to attack the Beetleborgs on several occasions.
Monsters

Arsenal
Big Bad Beetleborgs
Beetle Bonders – The Beetleborgs' transformation devices. Once summoned, the kids transformed into the Beetleborgs with a cry of "Beetle Blast!" To change back, the kids say "Back Blast!"
Sonic Laser Saber
Sonic Lasers – The Beetleborgs' fire-arms, complete with a 12-button numbered keypad to type in codes for attacks.
Pulsabers – Small swords used by the Beetleborgs. It can combine with the Sonic Laser to become the Sonic Laser Saber for more firepower.
Beetle Battlers – The Beetleborgs' main weapons of their own design;
Stinger Blade – The Blue Stinger Beetleborg's weapon.
Stinger Drill – The Blue Stinger Beetleborg's more powerful enhanced Beetle Battler.
Hunter Claw – The Green Hunter Beetleborg's weapon.
Striker Blaster – The Red Striker Beetleborg's weapon.
Thunder Stinger – More powerful than any Sonic Laser, only the Blue Stinger Beetleborg can use it. Utilizing dual pistol and shotgun modes, this weapon also helps transform Blue Stinger Beetleborg into the Mega Blue Beetleborg.
Beetleborgs Metallix
"Bug Out" – In the first episode of Metallix (or the last episode of Big Bad BeetleBorgs), Drew and his teammates use Flabber's book of spells (or Phasm Handbook) to try to change him back to normal after Nukus turns him to ice. One spell gives all three the power to change into somewhat larger versions of their respective insects (about the size of their fists), then revert to human. By saying "Bug out!", they change into bugs. To become human again, they say "Bug back!" The trio are able to use this ability in either human or Beetleborg form, and will never lose it. When in insect mode, their colors are the same as those on their new Metallix armor.
Data Bonders – The Beetleborgs' transformation devices. Unlike the Beetle Bonders, the kids had to insert Input Cards into the Data Bonders after they were summoned. The kids transformed into the Metallix Beetleborgs with a cry of "Beetle Blast!". To change back, the kids say "Back Blast!" The Data Bonders and their Input Cards could also be used to summon their Sector Cycles (in both regular and Mega Spectra modes).
Metallix Battlers – The Beetleborgs' main weapons of their own design;
Metallix Lancer – The Chromium Gold Beetleborg's weapon.
Metallix Grappler – The Titanium Silver Beetleborg's weapon. Much like the Hunter Claw, it could also grab an enemy.
Metallix Baton – The Platinum Purple Beetleborg's weapon.
Sector Cycles – The Beetleborgs' new bikes used when they need to get to another part of the city. To summon them, the kids used their Data Bonders and Input Cards. When Roboborg arrived, he changed the cycles into the new Mega Spectra Sector Cycles by combining their old powers with their Metallix powers, with laser beams called Spectra Fire.
Chromium Gold Sector Cycle – Chromium Gold Beetleborg's Sector Cycle. Turns blue and gold after turning into the Chromium Gold Mega Spectra Sector Cycle.
Titanium Silver Sector Cycle – Titanium Silver Beetleborg's Sector Cycle. Turns green and silver after turning into the Titanium Silver Mega Spectra Sector Cycle.
Platinum Purple Sector Cycle – Platinum Purple Beetleborg's Sector Cycle. Turns red and purple after turning into the Platinum Purple Mega Spectra Sector Cycle.
Astral Sword: See Battleborgs – Roboborg.
Astral Blaster – Combination of a Data Laser, Astral Laser, Astral Datadex and Astral Pulsar, usually held by Chromium Gold Beetleborg.
Data Lasers – The Beetleborgs' fire-arms. Unlike the Sonic Lasers, they utilize different Input Cards for each attack; though the cards used are different from the ones for the Data Bonders.
Astral Laser – Laser weapon used by either Dragonborg or Chromium Gold Beetleborg.
Astral Pulsar – Hand-held weapon used by Platinum Purple Beetleborg to ruin or restore. Presented by Fireborg.
Astral Datadex – Weapon used by the Titanium Silver Beetleborg. Presented by Lightningborg.
Astral Bonders – The Astralborgs use this device to give the Beetleborgs new weapons to use in battle.
Astral Arsenal – Weapons used by either the Beetleborgs or Astralborgs.
Astral Launcher – Arm-cannon used by Fireborg.
Astral Sabers – Long swords used by Lightningborg.
Astral Sonic Cannon – Weapon on Lightningborg's chest used to give his enemy ear aches, later involving a laser blast afterwards.
Astral Bazooka – Large gun used by Ladyborg. When in use, the gun's barrel opens up to look like a flower and fires a powerful fireball.
Mega Spectra Weapons – As Mega Spectra Beetleborgs, the borgs wield new weapons.
Wrist Rocket – Chromium Gold's weapon.
Spectra Lance – Titanium Silver's weapon.
Cross-Bow – Platinum Purple's weapon.
Astral Ax – See Battleborgs – Boron.
Assault vehicles
Attack Vehicles – The A.V.'s are the Beetleborgs' heavy artillery to use when the city is attacked by Magnavore Jet Fighters. Housed in the Beetle Battle Base, minus Gargantis. The Beetle Battle Base and the A.V.'s were destroyed by the Magnavore Jet Fighters' missiles at the end of the first season.
Gargantis Mega Cannon – Combination of the Beetleborgs A.V.'s and Gargantis. It is their most powerful weapon of all.
Blue Stinger A.V. – Blue Stinger Beetleborg's A.V.
Green Hunter A.V. – Green Hunter Beetleborg's A.V.
Red Striker A.V. – Red Striker Beetleborg's air-borne A.V.
Gargantis the Attack Mobile Carrier – Most powerful attack vehicle the Beetleborgs had, it can open its back so the smaller A.V.s can ride atop of it for the Gargantis Mega Cannon. Gargantis was destroyed by the powerful Borgslayer at the end of the first season.
Battle Vehicles – The B.V.'s are the Beetleborgs' heavy artillery to use when the city is attacked by Crustacean Jet Fighters & Worm Tanks. Housed in the Beetle Battle Station.
Chromium Gold B.V. – Chromium Gold Beetleborg's B.V.
Titanium Silver B.V. – Titanium Silver Beetleborg's B.V.
Platinum Purple B.V. – Platinum Purple Beetleborg's air-borne B.V.
Battleborgs
Roboborg (voiced by Michael Sorich) – Arrived on Earth when all eight of the Astral Coins were reunited with the Astral Sword. Roboborg is summoned when the Chromium Gold Beetleborg holds the Astral Sword in the air and shouts "Roboborg!" He wields a weapon called Robo Sword with which he can perform the Robo Cyclone.
Boron (voiced by Y.I. Otta) – Les Fortunes created the Astral Axe (the evil counterpart to the Astral Sword) and, with it, Roboborg's evil counterpart Boron. Used by Mega Nukus to summon Boron simply by shouting out "Boron, Arise!" He wields an unnamed weapon similar to that of Roboborg's Robo Sword. In the battle against Repgillian, the Beetleborgs tricked the Crustaceans into giving up the Astral Axe so it could fall into the hands of Titanium Silver Beetleborg. In the possession of the Beetleborgs, Boron then switched to the side of good and helped Roboborg destroy Repgillian.
Production
It was not uncommon to see cardboard cut-outs and wall decorations of the Beetleborgs characters on the walls of Zoom Comics where the three kids worked. Other decorations used included the costume heads of King Sphinx of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers and the original head from the monster costume Kappa from Ninja Sentai Kakuranger (the monster was used as "Parrot Top" in MMPR) whose body was used to create the costume Malavex. Toys from the Bandai Beetleborgs toyline could also be seen in various displays. Including the Special Edition Deluxe Shadowborg figure, in an episode which preceded Shadowborg's character ever appearing on the show.
Like other adaptations, some of the original source footage was altered for Beetleborgs. The Input Magnums, the original B-Fighter's guns, looked very realistic due to the black-and-silver coloring. In Beetleborgs, the gun's colors were changed to bright red and purple, and all Japanese footage of the Input Magnum's keypad being used was replaced with American footage using the red and purple gun. However, the colors of the guns changed from time to time due to the blending in of the B-Fighter footage. Similarly, the American version of the toy was done in red and purple colors instead of the Input Magnum's black and silver coloring. In Metallix, the Input Cardgun colors remained unchanged (grey and black), but the toy line changed the weapons to a white-and-blue color scheme. More violent scenes from B-Fighter were either covered up with large, Batman-esque sound effects or were cut out through comic-book-panel transitions.
The episode "Convention Dimension" had The Beetleborgs attending the comic convention. Among costumes worn at the convention were: Spider-Man, The Tick and Guido Anchovy. At that time Saban owned airing rights to Spider-Man: The Animated Series, The Tick and Samurai Pizza Cats. In Episode 54, Saban featured in "Gravesoul Owns."
Big Bad Beetleborgs and Beetleborgs Metallix ultimately ended because the Saban crew were left with no more Juukou B-Fighter and B-Fighter Kabuto footage to adapt. Their predecessor VR Troopers also ended for the same reason.
Music
The show's theme music was performed by Jeremy Sweet and series star Billy Forester. A newer version of the song was made for the Beetleborgs Metallix episodes. The background score, composed by Inon Zur, had several cues which were also used on Saban's concurrent Power Rangers Turbo. Currently, Beetleborgs has never had any official soundtrack releases.
Reuse of Monsters
Various monster suits from both Beetleborgs seasons were re-used along with un-used Juukou B-Fighter and B-Fighter Kabuto monsters as enemy monsters in the Power Rangers series:
In Power Rangers in Space, Terror Bear, Triplesaurus Rex, a Stego Dreg, Count Fangula's Bat Monster form, and unused B-Fighter Kabuto monster Baeria (who was repainted and referred to as "Aunt Ant") were seen at the Onyx Tavern in "Flashes of Darkonda." In "Invasion of the Body Switcher," the monsters Body Switcher transformed into included Rocket Man, Cataclaws, LottaMuggs, Unctuous, and Firecat. In "A Date with Danger," Mole Monster was used as Destructoid where the monster suit was given a different hair style. Aqualungs, Cataclazmic, Crimson Creep, Furocious, Kombat Knat, LottaMuggs, Porkasaurus, Torch Mouth, Triplesaurus Rex, Ultra Vulture, and Unctuous were each seen with each army in the two-part episode "Countdown to Destruction." Unused B-Fighter monsters Anemolala, Kapparapa, and Pineappler also appeared there.
In National Lampoon and Saban Entertainment's Men in White, the costumes for Kombat Knat and Furocious were used as two of the aliens that work for Glaxxon.
In Power Rangers Lost Galaxy, a Stego Dreg, Cataclaws, and Ultra Vulture were seen at the Onyx Tavern. Cataclaws and Furocious were seen at the auction of the Pink Quasar Saber there. Unused B-Fighter Kabuto monster Meltzura also appeared as Rojomon.
Some of the monsters costumes from Beetleborgs appeared in The Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog with some of them in repainted form. Among these costumes are Scorpix, Shellator, Emily the Seed of Evil, Count Fangula's Bat Monster form, Fernzilla, and 2 monsters from B-Fighter Kabuto that were unused in this series (the ant monster Baneria and the porcupine/stingray monster Porcuray). The costumes for Shellator, Count Fangula's Bat Monster form, and B-Fighter monsters Baneria and Porcuray were used to portray the Spectres of Banshee Woods in Episode 24.
In Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue, Emily the Seed of Evil, Hagfish of Gar, and Torch Mouth were seen in the Shadow World in "The Fate of Lightspeed" Pt. 2.
Five Beetleborgs suits were re-used in the Power Rangers Wild Force episode Forever Red as remnants of the Machine Empire who would plan to reactivate Serpentera. Shadowborg's suit was used for General Venjix, Ladyborg's suit was used for Tezzla, Green Hunter Borg's suit was used for Gerrok, Dragonborg's suit was used for Steelon with the dragonfly wings on the head not being seen, and Automon has the head of Fireborg and the body of Lightningborg.
In Power Rangers S.P.D.. Mucant appeared at Piggy's diner in "Shadow" Pt. 1. El Scorpio was re-used in the episode "S.W.A.T." Part 1 as the scorpion monster that was a holographic monster Sergent Silverback used as a way to train the Rangers to use S.W.A.T. Mode.
On location
The show was filmed in a number of locations.
Much of the show was filmed in Santa Paula, California, a small rural town in Ventura County.
Power Rangers Turbo vs. Beetleborgs Metallix
In 1997, Acclaim Comics published a one-shot entitled Power Rangers Turbo vs. Beetleborgs Metallix featuring the Beetleborgs battling the Turbo Rangers before teaming with them against Divatox and Nukus.
Release history
After ending a two-season run on the Fox network, the series was rerun on UPN Kids from 1998 to 1999. In Australia, Big Bad Beetleborgs began airing on Network Ten's Cheez TV morning block during February 1998.[3] In Europe, the series aired on the international version of Fox Kids, which was later rebranded as Jetix.  On May 7, 2010, as part of the sale of the Power Rangers franchise, the copyright for Beetleborgs was transferred from BVS Entertainment to Saban Capital Group.
On June 15, 2011. all episodes of Big Bad Beetleborgs and Beetleborgs Metallix were made available on Netflix.
There have been 3 VHS releases in the US and Australia: The Curse of Shadow Borg, The Vampire Files, and Metallix – The Movie. They were all released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.
Shout! Factory began putting the series out on DVD with the October 16, 2012 release of Beetleborgs: Season 1, Part 1.  Season 1, Part 2 was released on February 12, 2013. Season 2, Part 1 was released on June 11, 2013. Season 2, Part 2 was released on May 5, 2015.

 on IMDb
 on IMDb
 at TV.com


Irrigation is the application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals. Irrigation helps to  grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection,[1] suppressing weed growth in grain fields[2] and preventing soil consolidation.[3] In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming.
Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, from Asia to the Southwestern United States.
History

Archaeological investigation has found evidence of irrigation in areas lacking sufficient  natural rainfall to support crops for rainfed agriculture. The earliest known use of the technology dates to the 6th millennium BCE in  Khuzistan in the south-west of present-day Iran.[4][5]
Irrigation was used as a means of manipulation of water in the alluvial plains of the Indus valley civilization, the application of it is estimated to have begun around 4500 BC and drastically increased the size and prosperity of their agricultural settlements.[6] The Indus Valley Civilization developed sophisticated irrigation and water-storage systems, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from c. 2600 BCE. Large-scale agriculture was practiced, with an extensive network of canals used for the purpose of irrigation.[7][8]
Farmers in the Mesopotamian plain used irrigation from at least the third millennium BCE.[9]
They developed perennial irrigation, regularly watering crops throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in the field.[10]
Ancient Egyptians practiced basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate land plots which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water remained until the fertile sediment had settled before the engineers returned the surplus to the watercourse.[11] There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800  BCE) using the natural lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during dry seasons.  The lake swelled annually from the flooding of the Nile.[12]

The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a waterwheel-like device called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia some time between the third and second millennia BCE.[13] It largely depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other rivers in what is now the Sudan.[14]

In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet-season flooding and water harvesting.[15][16]
Evidence of terrace irrigation occurs in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China.[11] In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists have found remains of three irrigation canals radiocarbon-dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and the 9th century CE. These canals provide the earliest record of irrigation in the New World. Traces of a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th-millennium canal.[17]
Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) used irrigation as far back as the 6th millennium BCE to grow barley in areas with insufficient natural rainfall.[18] The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today. They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system comprises a network of vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into the sides of cliffs and of steep hills to tap groundwater.[19] The noria, a water wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of the stream (or by animals where the water source was still), first came into use at about this time among Roman settlers in North Africa. By 150 BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother filling as they were forced into the water.[20]
The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCE in the reign of King Pandukabhaya, and under continuous development for the next thousand years, were one of the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground canals, the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. These reservoirs and canal systems were used primarily to irrigate  paddy fields, which require a lot of water to cultivate. Most of these irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, because of the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and further extended during the reign of King Parakrama Bahu (1153–1186 CE).[21]
China

The oldest known hydraulic engineers of China were Sunshu Ao (6th century BCE) of the Spring and Autumn period and Ximen Bao (5th century BCE) of the Warring States period, both of whom worked on large irrigation  projects. In the Sichuan region belonging to the  state of Qin of ancient China, the Dujiangyan Irrigation System devised by the Qin Chinese hydrologist and irrigation engineer Li Bing was built in 256 BCE to irrigate a vast area of farmland that today still supplies water.[22] By the 2nd century AD, during the Han Dynasty, the Chinese also used chain pumps which lifted water from a lower elevation to a higher one.[23] These were powered by manual foot-pedal, hydraulic waterwheels, or rotating mechanical wheels pulled by oxen.[24] The water was used for public works, providing water for urban residential quarters and palace gardens, but mostly for irrigation of farmland canals and channels in the fields.[25]
Korea
Korea,  Jang Yeong-sil, a Korean engineer of the Joseon Dynasty, under the active direction of the king, Sejong the Great, invented the world's first rain-gauge, uryanggye (Korean:우량계) in 1441. It was installed in irrigation tanks as part of a nationwide system to measure and collect rainfall for agricultural applications. With this instrument, planners and farmers could make better use of the information gathered in the survey.[26]
North America

The earliest agricultural irrigation canal system known in the area of the present-day  United States dates to between 1200 B.C. and 800 B.C. and was discovered in Marana, Arizona (adjacent to Tucson) in 2009.[27] The irrigation-canal system predates the Hohokam culture by two thousand years and belongs to an unidentified culture. In North America, the Hohokam were the only culture known to rely on irrigation canals to water their crops, and their irrigation systems supported the largest population in the Southwest by AD 1300. The Hohokam constructed an assortment of simple canals combined with weirs in their various agricultural pursuits. Between the 7th and 14th centuries they built and maintained extensive irrigation networks along the lower  Salt and middle Gila Rivers that rivaled the complexity of those used in the ancient Near East, Egypt, and China. These were constructed using relatively simple excavation tools, without the benefit of advanced engineering technologies, and achieved drops of a few feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. The Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton, tobacco, maize, beans and squash, as well as harvesting an assortment of wild plants. Late in the Hohokam Chronological Sequence, they also used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to grow agave for food and fiber. Their reliance on agricultural strategies based on canal irrigation, vital in their less-than-hospitable desert environment and arid climate, provided the basis for the aggregation of rural populations into stable urban centers.[28]
Present extent

In year 2000, the total fertile land was 2,788,000km² (689 million acres) and it was equipped with irrigation infrastructure worldwide. About 68% of this area is in Asia, 17% in the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areas of high irrigation density are found:
In Northern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers
In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China
Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan
In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin, the Southern Great Plains, and in parts of California
Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the world.[29]
Only eight years later, in 2008, the area of irrigated land had increased to an estimated total of 3,245,566km² (802 million acres), which is nearly the size of India.[30]
Types of irrigation
There are several methods of irrigation.  They vary in how the water is supplied to the plants.  The goal is to apply the water to the plants as uniformly as possible, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.
Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years.  In surface ( flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of an  agricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood .irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land and is still used in most parts of the world.
Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to the level of the land. The water application efficiency of surface irrigation is typically lower than other forms of irrigation.

Surface irrigation is even used to water landscapes in certain areas, for example, in and around Phoenix, Arizona.  The irrigated area is surrounded by a berm and the water is delivered according to a schedule set by a local irrigation district.[31]
Micro-irrigation

Micro-irrigation, sometimes called localized irrigation, low volume irrigation, or trickle irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation using individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), micro-spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation, and mini-bubbler irrigation all belong to this category of irrigation methods.[32]
Drip irrigation

Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this system water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation,[33] if managed properly, evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed correctly.
In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.
Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from a computerized set of valves.
Sprinkler irrigation

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system using sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 275 to 900 kPa (40 to 130 psi) and flows of 3 to 76 L/s (50 to 1200 US gal/min), usually with nozzle diameters in the range of 10 to 50mm (0.5 to 1.9 in). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging.
Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of these use a length of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinkler arrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a "waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation, and land application of waste water.
Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is pulled by a cable.
Center pivot

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation utilising several segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminium) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length.[34]
The system moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and used in all parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler heads as shown in the image that follows.
As of 2017 most center pivot systems have drops hanging from a U-shaped pipe attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a circle to conform to the center pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Originally, most center pivots were water-powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems (T-L Irrigation) and electric-motor-driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivots feature GPS devices.[35]
Irrigation by lateral move (side roll, wheel line, wheelmove)[36][37]
A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint, and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together. Water is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient irrigation has been applied to one strip of the field, the hose is removed, the water drained from the system, and the assembly rolled either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers are moved to a different position across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated in a pattern until the whole field has been irrigated.
This system is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor-intensive to operate – it does not travel automatically across the field: it applies water in a stationary strip, must be drained, and then rolled to a new strip.   Most systems use 100 or 130mm (4 or 5 inch) diameter aluminum pipe.  The pipe doubles both as water transport and as an axle for rotating all the wheels.  A drive system (often found near the centre of the wheel line) rotates the clamped-together pipe sections as a single axle, rolling the whole wheel line.  Manual adjustment of individual wheel positions may be necessary if the system becomes misaligned.
Wheel line systems are limited in the amount of water they can carry, and limited in the height of crops that can be irrigated.  One useful feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected, adapting to field shape as the line is moved. They are most often used for small, rectilinear, or oddly-shaped fields, hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive.
Lawn sprinkler systems
A lawn sprinkler system is permanently installed, as opposed to a hose-end sprinkler, which is portable.  Sprinkler systems are installed in residential lawns, in commercial landscapes, for churches and schools, in public parks and cemeteries, and on golf courses. Most of the components of these irrigation systems are hidden under ground, since aesthetics are important in a landscape.  A typical lawn sprinkler system will consist of one or more zones, limited in size by the capacity of the water source.  Each zone will cover a designated portion of the landscape.  Sections of the landscape will usually be divided by microclimate, type of plant material, and type of irrigation equipment.  A landscape irrigation system may also include zones containing drip irrigation, bubblers, or other types of equipment besides sprinklers.
Although manual systems are still used, most lawn sprinkler systems may be operated automatically using an irrigation controller, sometimes called a clock or timer.  Most automatic systems employ electric solenoid valves.  Each zone has one or more of these valves that are wired to the controller.  When the controller sends power to the valve, the valve opens, allowing water to flow to the sprinklers in that zone.
There are two main types of sprinklers used in lawn irrigation, pop-up spray heads and rotors.  Spray heads have a fixed spray pattern, while rotors have one or more streams that rotate.  Spray heads are used to cover smaller areas, while rotors are used for larger areas.  Golf course rotors are sometimes so large that a single sprinkler is combined with a valve and called a 'valve in head'.  When used in a turf area, the sprinklers are installed with the top of the head flush with the ground surface.  When the system is pressurized, the head will pop up out of the ground and water the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off that zone. Once there is no more pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into the ground. In flower beds or shrub areas, sprinklers may be mounted on above ground risers or even taller pop-up sprinklers may be used and installed flush as in a lawn area.

Hose-end sprinklers
There are many types of hose-end sprinklers.  Many of them are smaller versions of larger agricultural and landscape sprinklers, sized to work with a typical garden hose.  Some have a spiked base allowing them to be temporarily stuck in the ground, while others have a sled base designed to be dragged while attached to the hose.
Subirrigation
Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the water table.
Subirrigation is also used in commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants. Water is delivered from below, absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of time, 10–20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhouses requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are water and nutrient conservation, and labor savings through reduced system maintenance and automation. It is similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation.
Another type of subirrigation is the self-watering container, also known as a sub-irrigated planter.  This consists of a planter suspended over a reservoir with some type of wicking material such as a polyester rope.  The water is drawn up the wick through capillary action.[38][39]
Subsurface textile irrigation

Subsurface Textile Irrigation (SSTI) is a technology designed specifically for subirrigation in all soil textures from desert sands to heavy clays. A typical subsurface textile irrigation system has an impermeable base layer (usually polyethylene or polypropylene), a drip line running along that base, a layer of geotextile on top of the drip line and, finally, a narrow impermeable layer on top of the geotextile (see diagram). Unlike standard drip irrigation, the spacing of emitters in the drip pipe is not critical as the geotextile moves the water along the fabric up to 2m from the dripper.  The impermeable layer effectively creates an artificial water table.
Water sources

Irrigation water can come from groundwater (extracted from springs or by using wells), from surface water (withdrawn from rivers, lakes or reservoirs) or from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater, desalinated water, drainage water, or fog collection. A special form of irrigation using surface water is spate irrigation, also called floodwater harvesting. In case of a flood (spate), water is diverted to normally dry river beds (wadis) using a network of dams, gates and channels and spread over large areas. The moisture stored in the soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate irrigation areas are in particular located in semi-arid or arid, mountainous regions. While floodwater harvesting belongs to the accepted irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting is usually not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting is the collection of runoff water from roofs or unused land and the concentration of this.
Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture uses untreated wastewater as a source of irrigation water. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. Significant health hazards can result from using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water. The International Water Management Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a 'multiple-barrier' approach to wastewater use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.[40] The World Health Organization has developed guidelines for safe water use.
There are numerous benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the low cost (when compared to other sources, particularly in an urban area), consistency of supply (regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions), and general consistency of quality. Irrigation of recycled wastewater is also considered as a means for plant fertilization and particularly nutrient supplementation. This approach carries with it a risk of soil and water pollution through excessive wastewater application. Hence, a detailed understanding of soil water conditions is essential for effective utilization of wastewater for irrigation.[41]
In countries where humid air sweeps through at night, water can be obtained by condensation onto cold surfaces. This is practiced in the vineyards at Lanzarote using stones to condense water.  Fog collectors are also made of canvas or foil sheets.  Using condensate from air conditioning units as a water source is also becoming more popular in large urban areas.

Efficiency
Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.[42] Water use efficiency in the field can be determined as follows:
Field Water Efficiency (%) = (Water Transpired by Crop ÷ Water Applied to Field) x 100
Until 1960s, the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now more than seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising, and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation and biofuel crops. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.[43]
Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. With regards to agriculture, the  targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that is fostering a growing debate.[44] Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in water-scarce areas.[45]
Technical challenges

Irrigation schemes involve solving numerous engineering and economic problems while minimizing negative environmental impact.[46]
Competition for surface water rights.[47]
Overdrafting (depletion) of underground aquifers. In the mid-20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that could pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than drainage basins could refill them. This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subsidence, and other problems. The future of food production in such areas as the North China Plain, the Punjab, and the Great Plains of the US is threatened by this phenomenon.[48][49]
Ground subsidence (e.g. New Orleans, Louisiana)
Underirrigation or irrigation giving only just enough water for the plant (e.g. in drip line irrigation) gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent buildup of toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to remove these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away. When using drip lines, the leaching is best done regularly at certain intervals (with only a slight excess of water), so that the salt is flushed back under the plant's roots.[50][51]
Overirrigation because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution.[52]
Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables which in some instances will lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface land drainage.[53][54]
Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure owing to the formation of alkaline soil
Clogging of filters: It is mostly algae that clog filters, drip installations and nozzles. UV[55] and ultrasonic[56] method can be used for algae control in irrigation systems.
Assisting smallholders in sustainably and collectively managing irrigation technology and changes in technology[57].
Impact on society
A 2016 study found that countries whose agriculture depended on irrigation are more likely to be autocratic than other countries. The authors of the study "argue that the effect has historical origins: irrigation allowed landed elites in arid areas to monopolize water and arable land. This made elites more powerful and better able to oppose democratization."[58]
See also

Deficit irrigation
Environmental impact of irrigation
Farm water
Gezira Scheme
Irrigation district
Irrigation management
Irrigation statistics
Leaf Sensor
Lift irrigation schemes
List of countries by irrigated land area
Nano Ganesh
Paddy field
Qanat
Surface irrigation
Tidal irrigation

Further reading
Elvin, Mark. The retreat of the elephants: an environmental history of China (Yale University Press, 2004)
Hallows, Peter J., and Donald G. Thompson. History of irrigation in Australia ANCID, 1995.
Howell, Terry. "Drops of life in the history of irrigation." Irrigation journal 3 (2000): 26–33. the history of sprinker systems
Hassan, John. A history of water in modern England and Wales (Manchester University Press, 1998)
Vaidyanathan, A. Water resource management: institutions and irrigation development in India (Oxford University Press, 1999)
Journals
Irrigation Science, ISSN (electronic) 0342-7188 (paper), Springer
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ISSN, ASCE Publications
Irrigation and Drainage, ISSN, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Agricultural Water Management, ISSN, Elsevier.

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: 19th century Irrigation in India

 at the Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture
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What is the earliest known example of irrigation?


Olaf or Olav (/ˈoʊləf/, /ˈoʊlɑːf/, or British Ōleifr, Anleifr /ˈoʊlæf/; Old Norse: Áleifr, Ólafr) is a Scandinavian, German, and Dutch given name. It is presumably of Proto-Norse origin, reconstructed as *Anu-laibaz, from anu "ancestor, grand-father" and laibaz "heirloom, descendant".
Old English forms are attested as Ǣlāf, Anlāf. The corresponding Old Novgorod dialect form is Uleb. A later English form of the name is Olave.
In the Norwegian language, Olav and Olaf are equally common, but Olav is traditionally used when referring to Norwegian royalty. The Swedish form is Olov or Olof and was borrowed into Old Irish and Scots with the spellings Amlaíb and Amhlaoibh, giving rise to modern version Aulay (see also Mac Amhlaoibh and Mac Amhalghaidh (Irish septs)).
The name is Latinized as Olaus.

Notable people
Scandinavians
Olaf Haraldsson Geirstadalf, petty king
Olaf I of Norway Tryggvason, 969 – 9 September 1000
Olaf II of Norway, or Saint Olaf, ruled 1015–1030
Olaf III of Norway, king 1067–1093
Olaf Magnusson (formerly IV) of Norway, 1103–1110
Olaf IV of Norway, king 1370 – 23 August 1387; was also Olaf II of Denmark
Olaf I of Denmark, king 1086–1095
Olaf II of Denmark, also Olaf IV of Norway
Olaf of Sweden (disambiguation) (I, II and III)
Oluf Haraldsen (died c. 1143), Danish nobleman who ruled Scania for a few years from 1139
Norse-Gaelic
Not all the following were strictly Norse-Gaels, but they share the most common Norse-Gaelic names.
Olaf the Black, 13th-century Norse king
Amlaíb Conung (King Olaf), King of Dublin, possibly identical with Olaf the White
Olaf III Guthfrithson (Emlaíb mac Gofraid), King of Dublin
Amlaíb Ua Donnubáin (Auliffe O'Donovan), regional Irish king
Mann and the Isles
Olaf I of Mann, also called Olaf Godredsson (c. 1080–1153)
Olaf II the Black, also called Olaf Godredsson (1173/4–1237), King of Mann and the Isles 1229–1237.
Novgorod Republic (in Russia)
Uleb Ragnvaldsson, son of Ragnvald Ulfsson jarl of Staraja Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg), military leader of Novgorod Republic in conquering of Yugra in 1032.
Modern people
Olav V of Norway, king 1957–1991
Olaf Fink (1914-1973), American educator and state senator
Oluf van Steenwinckel (died 1659), Danish building master and engineer
Olaf C. Seltzer (1877-1957), Danish-born American painter
Olaf Stapledon (1886–1950), British author and historian
Count Oluf of Rosenborg (1923–1990)
Erwin Olaf (Erwin Olaf Springveld), Dutch photographer
Fictional characters
Count Olaf, a fictional character and the main antagonist in the series of novels A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket
Olaf, a fictional character in Jungle Jam and Friends: The Radio Show!
Olaf (Disney), a fictional anthropomorphic snowman in the 2013 film Frozen
Olaf, the Berserker, a character in the action real-time strategy PC game League of Legends
Olaf "the Stout", a fictional character in the video game series The Lost Vikings
Olaf the Troll, a fictional character in  the TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Olaf, one of Snoopy's siblings in Peanuts
Olaf Potato, a fictional anthropomorphic potato in the British animated short series Small Potatoes
Olaf the Smug Anteater, a fictional character from Animal Crossing: New Leaf
Septs and clans
McAuliffe (surname)
Mac Amhlaoibh and Mac Amhalghaidh (Irish septs)
Clan Macaulay of Lewis
Clan MacAulay
See also
Aulay, the Anglicized Scottish form of the name
Ólafur, the Icelandic form of the name
Olavi, the Finnish form of the name
Olavo, the Portuguese form of the name
Ole and Oluf, the Danish forms of the name
Ola and Olov, the Swedish forms of the name
Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav