In the August 21 chemical weapons attack in Syria, large quantities of the nerve agent sarin were deployed by President Bashar al-Assad’s regime against rebel forces, sparking international outrage and resulting in over 1,400 deaths according to U.S. estimates.
Sarin gas is classified as a Schedule one substance by the Chemical Weapons Convention.
“That means it’s outright banned,” said Michael Allen, Ph.D a political science professor at Boise State. “Sarin gas is considered to be a weapon of mass destruction.”
In 1992, the United Nations ratified the CWC to work to eliminate chemical warfare worldwide by banning the development and stockpiling of chemical weapons by its members, according to the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Warfare (OPCW).
CWC members currently represent 98 percent of the international chemical industry.
“The tricky thing here is that Syria is not currently party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Syria submitted to be part of the CWC just last Friday,” Allen said.
Before Syria agreed to submit to the convention, there was no international body monitoring the development of chemical weapons in Syria.
“The ones to stop them are the Syrians themselves or other nations that contemplate invading or stopping them using some other method,” Allen said.
According to Allen, the amount of deaths attributed to chemical weapons have been only a small percentage of the total deaths in the Syrian conflict
Allen stated the outrage caused by the use of chemical weapons in Syria is attributable to the international norm established by the CWC.
“Nations that are considered good at war consider this type of weapon to be immoral,” Allen said. “They are globally considered to be the poor man’s option for a weapon of mass destruction. People who die from chemical weapons die in a lot of nasty ways. You can have a strong and demoralizing impact on the opposition by using them because chemical weapons are generally considered to be a horrible weapon.”
Sarin gas is a particularly potent chemical weapon because of the speed it takes effect and is potent even in low
“Sarin is 26 times more deadly than cyanide,” said Don Warner Ph.D, a chemistry professor at Boise State.
“Sarin gas can be ingested via inhalation or even absorption through the skin. It’s fairly persistent as well, and that’s one of the big problems,” Warner said. “It has a long enough life time that if it is absorbed in your clothing you can still inhale it, and if you come into contact with others and you’re releasing these vapors then other folks can inhale
it as well.”
According to Warner, sarin gas is an organic phosphate which exhibits an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase by forming a bond causing the body’s nervous system to transfer an overload of signals to muscle tissues in the body.
“What this does is it allows something called acetylcholine to accumulate in the body. The nerves keep firing, it doesn’t shut off. If you’re breathing then basically it’s like you die from suffocation,”
According to Warner the modern history of chemical weapons as warfare agents can be traced back to World War I.
“In World War I, most of the chemical weapons that were used were more of the mustard gases, which are blistering agents,” Warner stated. “Usually what happens with these types of compounds is they generate a strong acid when they are exposed to moisture, like mucus and things like that in the body, and that causes blistering. If you inhale it, it will cause blistering in your lungs.”
Modern day nerve agents work much faster than chemical weapons used historically.
“Modern chemical weapons are more effective, because they can react more quickly and smaller amounts can cause more death,” Warner said.
Warner explained Sarin gas works just as quickly as the bodies nervous system is able to communicate.
“You can imagine that this is a fast, rapid, very quick enzyme, because these responses by nature have to be quick,”


🎯 INDOOR SIGHTING-IN, A FAST WAY TO ZEROING 🎯
There’s nothing more frustrating than missing an easy shot at a target or an animal. It happens to everyone, of course, but it usually happens because of human error. Still, we blame the weather, even the animal. Some of us even blame the gun.
“It’s usually not the gun. Even inexpensive guns shoot pretty well these days,” says Jerry Charles Miculek Jr, an American professional speed and competition shooter known for his many world records. “The scope may be loose or damaged, but pretty much any modern bolt-action rifle will shoot well enough. You should make sure your gun is sighted-in before you go hunting. That should never be an excuse for missing an animal.”
Get More Accuracy In Shooting!
Sighting with a rifle should be quick and easy, and the success of your shot can highly depend on it. However, that isn’t always the case, and you might end up spending a lot of money on wasted ammunition in an attempt to get a gun wearing a new optic zero in, which can be quite frustrating. But what if I told you there’s a way to get your rifle on target and fine-tune it without wasting ammo and frustration on it? Introducing The Laser Bore Sighter Pro™, suitable for firearms from .20 to .50 caliber. Great for rifles, pistols, and even shotguns.
When you need to zero a new firearm or you got a new scope, red-dot, or any other sights, this Laser Bore Sighter Pro™ will get you on paper rapidly, without leaving the comfort of your home. Once done, you're ready to test the point of impact with live-fire and make adjustments for final zeroing.
✔ VERY ACCURATE: Get precise shooting while you hunt with this laser that will point to your target with maximum accuracy!
✔ ADJUSTABLE: It is windage and elevation adjustable, and you can also quickly and accurately reset any sights!
✔ LIGHT AND PORTABLE: You can carry this laser no matter how far and long you go hunting because it is very lightweight!
✔FULL PACKAGE: With this laser bore sighter you will also get all the tools, four adapters, and extra batteries!
Get more precision when shooting with our Laser Bore Sighter Pro™. Attach it to your .17 to .78 caliber hunting handgun and when inserted into the chamber, it will project a laser beam through the barrel onto the target, providing you with more accuracy.
The Laser Bore Sighter Pro™ will allow you to quickly and accurately reset any sights (iron, optical, laser, holographic, etc). It is also windage and elevation adjustable, so it won’t be a problem for you to use it any way you need it.
The Laser Bore Sighter Pro™ comes with tools, four adapters, and extra batteries (six total), so you will get everything you need. You can carry it easily when you go hunting because it is very lightweight and portable. You will have a long sighting range with no hustle!
This week's special event: Randomly selected 270 lucky customers to get double the order product every day. We will send you an email, please remember to check, thanks for your support!
How To Use:
Assemble the battery
1. Remove the shrink wrap around the battery
2. Insert batteries (in the right direction) into the black battery holder
Insert the black battery holder into the bore sighter's battery compartment
1. Insert the black battery holder into the bore sighter's battery compartment
2. As the picture shows, when the 2 points are aligned, the bore sighter is ON; when they're not aligned, the boresight is OFF.
3. Rotate the black battery holder to make the points be aligned or not be aligned
Choose the right size adapter for your barrel
1. Choose the right size adapter for your barrel (Please check the detail size of the adapter on this product page).
2. Use the screwdriver to tighten the screw into the adapter. Just make the size is fine to fix in your barrel.


Alien Robotic Villain
A mysterious alien intelligence working for the Syndicate.
Has a robotic body created using an unknown alloy.
Has hypnotic beams, powerful energy weapons, and the ability to access machines and technology.
An alien artificial intelligence, the origins of Teknomance are unknown. Speculation as to its purpose has ranged from meglamania to power-control envy.
It is capable of building and designing its own weaponry. The source of its power stems from massive electro-magnetic fields. Some form of stable cold fusion seems to fuel the energy weapons, but its creation is unknown.
A variation of Teknomance’s processing algorithim is being used to encrypt Syndicate communications online and through telecomm.


A bit info for the trigger happy players here, and what can they expect from the shooting aspect of scum. So lets talk a bit about the rifle skill.
Skill which indicates that character is familiar with usage of rifles of any type. This skill is not only used for firing, it is also used for fixing and maintaining the rifles. Even players without this skill can still use rifles and eventually by practice learn the skill. However, skilled rifleman will fire more accurately, will be able to reload faster and fix jammed weapon


INS Vikramaditya is an Indian aircraft carrier. - True or False? Navy Day Quiz Answers Today
Updated Dec 02, 2023
INS Vikramaditya is an Indian aircraft carrier. - True or False? The Answer is True
Yes, that statement is true. INS Vikramaditya is indeed an Indian aircraft carrier. It is a modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier that was originally built for the Soviet Navy. The ship underwent an extensive modernization and refurbishment process in Russia before being commissioned into the Indian Navy.
INS Vikramaditya is the flagship of the Indian Navy and plays a crucial role in enhancing the country's maritime capabilities. It is a versatile aircraft carrier capable of operating a mix of fixed-wing aircraft, including MiG-29K fighter jets, and rotary-wing aircraft like helicopters.
The carrier is named after the legendary king Vikramaditya of the Gupta Dynasty. It has been a significant asset for the Indian Navy, providing strategic maritime projection and air power capabilities. INS Vikramaditya symbolizes India's commitment to maintaining a robust naval presence and securing its maritime interests.
Navy Day Quiz - FAQs


Buying a firearm for the first time can be an exciting experience. However, those that are new to this buying experience can be unsure as to their options or the factors that will play the biggest roles during this purchase.
Take Advantage Of Used Firearms Dealers
A firearm can be a fairly expensive item to purchase, but it is possible for individuals to purchase a firearm from a dealer that offers used guns. These firearms will be able to provide the same level of performance that you were expecting while costing far less than what new firearms would require. When buying a used firearm, it is important to be sure to only purchase from a reputable dealer. These professionals will have assessed the firearm to ensure it is in good condition that will allow for it to be safely fired.
Always Hold A Firearm Before Buying It
When choosing a firearm to buy, the way that it fits in your hand will be a critical consideration. As the firearm is discharged, it will generate a tremendous amount of force, and if you have a gun that does not properly fit your hand, you could lose control. This could lead to you suffering an injury, and it could also put you out of position if you are needing to fire another shot. When holding a gun to test its grip, you will want to assume your firing stance with both hands holding the gun. While you may not be able to discharge the gun as part of the test, this will give you a good idea as to how well you will be able to grasp the firearm.
Invest In A Suitable Holster For The Firearm
The holster that securely holds the firearm to your body can be an important accessory for individuals to buy. In addition to those that would like to conceal a handgun when they are in public settings, holsters can also be important for those that intend to use their gun for hunting or other sports. These individuals will often need to use large rifles, and these firearms can be very cumbersome to carry. A holster can make this a simple task for even long rifles. For example, there are back holsters that will allow you to conveniently carry your firearm when you are in the field. It is important to ensure that any holster that you are using is designed for your firearm. Otherwise, it may not fit properly, which can lead to the gun coming lose or otherwise being uncomfortable. Contact us to learn more about our firearms for sale.Share
21 September 2020
Growing up in a family of entrepreneurs, I was always interested in how business worked. I spent a lot of time in my family's businesses watching the operations and trying to learn how to ultimately work for myself when I got older. Now that I am an adult, I'm still putting time into learning about entrepreneurship, start-ups, and small business management. I know that there are many people who would love to work for themselves but don't know where to start. I hope this site helps you to work through some of the basics and get started with launching your own business.


Secretary of State Mike Pompeo’s announcement that the United States is suspending the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty should worry everyone. […] The National Nuclear Security Administration announced that it has begun production of a new low-yield nuclear weapon […] Welcome to the new age of nuclear instability. This is a perilous time in which agreements that have restrained the most dangerous weapons on the planet are dissipating and threatening new technologies — including cyberweapons that could attack nuclear command and control systems — are advancing quickly. The likelihood of a nuclear accident or blunder seems to be growing by the day, 1 Feb 2019, The New York Times.
Donald Trump has announced he will impose “the highest level of economic sanctions” on Iran, violating an international nuclear agreement and a UN resolution, breaking decisively with US allies in Europe, and potentially triggering a new crisis in the Gulf, 9 May 2018, The Guardian.
President Donald Trump recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital on Wednesday and announced plans to relocate the US Embassy there, a move expected to inflame tensions in the region and unsettle the prospects for peace, 6 Dec 2017, Cnn.
You do have a military-industrial complex. They do like war, Donald Trump.
We Came, We Saw, He (Muammar Gaddafi) Died, Hillary Clinton.
We are waking up in a more dangerous world. Military escalation is always dangerous, France’s deputy minister for foreign affairs, Amelie de Montchalin told RTL after a U.S. drone strike at Baghdad International Airport killed one of Iran’s top military leader, Major-General Qasem Soleimani.


Luger pistol partsPistol Parts : luger for sale at Ebang, the Gun Search Engine. Luger P-08 Pistol Parts (11) Luger Pistol Presentation Cases (10) Luger Pistol Books (14) Luger Pistol Accessories (55) Walther-> (3) Luger Parabellum; Pistols; Systems; Parts & Accessories; American Origin; Long Guns; Hunting; Revolver; Edged-Weapons; Militaria; Miscellaneous; Tue Jul 24 2012. This section contains all pieces related to weapons - cleaning, loading, carrying, cartridges or ammunition, barrels, gun sights, grips, security mechanisms, trigger.
Luger gun partsClick on the link below to see details of the services listed: GUN RESTORATION SERVICE. GUN PARTS RESTORATION SERVICE. BABY LUGER CONVERSIONS. LUGER CARBINE CONVERSION Luger Parts all parts are original $10 flat shipping with insurance for website orders in. Plastic Pistol Grips, Erma Pistol Barrels, Erma Rifle Barrels, Erma Rifle Stocks, Erma Firinmg Pins, Erma Rifle Springs, Erma Pistol Springs, Erma Luger Parts, Erma Gun. These are very old reproductions and are without the hardware. Luger Parabellum; Pistols; Systems; Parts & Accessories; American Origin; Long Guns. Fitting to your gun is included in the price. $1600: 2: Reference Number: Parts. Along with the Luger firearms for sale, the site is.
Luger pistol parts saleBuyers and Sellers negotiate direct, no more disappointment of losing an auction. Pistol Parts : luger for sale at Ebang, the Gun Search Engine. Luger Pistols for sale, gun auctions and gun classifieds for Luger Pistols at.


The make use of as well as possession of firearms through individuals are actually commonly legal in the United States. A firearm is any type of hand gun designed to become effortlessly brought and used by an individual. The word is typically officially described in a number of various other nations too. 80 Lowers
Like other weapons, the ownership of guns is actually solely moderated through condition law. Unlike a lot of other types of weapons, firearms can easily certainly not be acquired by anyone without a special certificate coming from the condition. Despite the fact that licenses are actually called for, it is actually not uncommon for law enforcement to release non-licensing licenses to some people.
If you want to acquire a weapon, an individual will initially need to secure a gun purchase authorization coming from their condition or county. In a lot of states, this is pertained to as a handgun authorization. Some conditions make it possible for guns managers to lug hand guns without a certificate; nonetheless, these authorizations are actually looked at to be much less powerful than a basic permit and are actually certainly not identified through government legislation.
Federal legislation carries out certainly not recognize gun sales between conditions. It is unlawful to get or even market firearms between states, also if the states do enable the exact same interstate deals. It is actually unlawful to move weapons across condition series since of this. Some folks may select to accomplish this for private explanations, such as when transporting guns coming from one condition to one more, however numerous opt for to perform this given that it protests the law. People cutting this law skin notable penalties.
Prior to making any type of firearms purchases, it is actually really crucial that buyers recognize and recognize the normal prices connected along with these weapons. There are different measurements as well as weights of firearms, as well as the various dimensions and body weights of weapons call for matching rates.
Federal law calls for certified guns suppliers to be actually accredited through an FFL or Federal Government Weapons License (FFL). All guns purchases have to go via a registered dealer, as well as all guns deliveries should be actually created through a dealership.
When taking into consideration acquiring weapons, the purchaser must take in to profile the gain policy. All firearms sales need that shoppers deliver the weapons back to the homeowner once they have actually been paid for.
The investment, storage, and use of firearms are actually very moderated through each condition as well as government legislations. Every firearm in the United States should be actually signed up along with the National Firearms Affiliation (NFA) prior to it can be acquired, offered, or traded. The NFA additionally manages the guns transaction computer system registry referred to as NICS. The major objective of both the NFA as well as NICS is actually to stop straw acquisitions and also to regulate guns in the USA.
Prior to a weapon purchase, the shopper needs to acquire a permit coming from the seller to purchase weapons. After getting a permit to buy, all firearms sales are actually merely short-lived, except for an especially spared purchase that is kept for a pick amount of hours.
An NFA permit holder may additionally import weapons in to the United States if all of the adhering to administer: The candidate is an USA citizen; the applicant resides at least 18 months from the date of acquisition; and the candidate possesses all applicable income taxes, documents, and enrollment papers for the weapons. If the products are actually enrolled with the proper government companies, importation of guns is actually merely legal. International merchants of weapons have to register all guns they import along with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, as well as Firearms before creating the actual investment. Some states allow a personal to create an unrestricted amount of firearm acquisitions without needing to enroll, while others possess extremely details requirements relating to the number of guns to become obtained.
If a private selects to buy weapons coming from a personal person without a certificate or even an NFA certification, they may be actually subject to instant detention and prosecutor. An individual that is recorded in the action of breaching weapons sale rules might be called for to pay for a penalty, be actually placed in prison, or both.


The pneumatic power module used in Aerodyne Controls’ weapon release is a lighter, cleaner, more efficient and reliable product than its pyrotechnic ejection-charged device counterparts. Pyrotechnics leave gunpowder residue over ejectors and manifold systems causing build-up and subsequent cleaning requirements. The pneumatic technology eliminates the need for pyrotechnic ejection. Cylinders containing compressed air or nitrogen can simply be reset and recharged when the compression is exhausted.
The Aerodyne Controls’ pneumatic power module weapon release is
designed for next generation fighters and is currently installed
on UAV systems.


by Robert Donnelly
The story of the schooner Glynn of Brunswick, Georgia is one of which Americans and especially the good citizens of Brunswick, can be extremely proud.
The Glynn, a wooden sailing schooner, was built by Captain J.H. Leo’s Brunswick Shipbuilding Company in late 1916. By the time she made her maiden voyage, she was owned by Mr. James S. Brailey, a Vice President of the Yaryan Rosin and Turpentine Company of Brunswick.
Because of the unlimited submarine warfare declared by Germany in February, 1917, Mr. Brailey requested that the U.S. Navy fit the Glynn with some guns with which she could defend herself if attacked by a submarine. Despite the U.S. not declaring war against Germany until 6 April, the Navy was willing to provide guns, making the Glynn one of the first American merchantmen so equipped. The Navy assigned six sailors and a warrant officer to work the two six pound cannon provided. The guns were located amidships and disguised to enable the surprise of an attacker. Surprise was important because submarines carried cannon with longer range than a six pounder and, if they were aware of the Glynn’s armament, would not have come close enough for Glynn’s guns to have been effective.
The Brunswick News reported (3 April 1917) the Glynn sailed from Brunswick on 1 April 1917 with a “...cargo of rosin, turpentine and other naval stores...”, bound for Genoa, Italy with a stop in Gibraltar. After a rather rough 47 day trip across the Atlantic, which necessitated some repairs at Gibraltar, the Glynn entered the Mediterranean on the morning of 7 June, 1917.
Chief Gunner Bernard Patrick Donnelly, the warrant officer in charge of the gun crews, reported to the Secretary of the Navy that “The Schooner Glynn in Lat.36 , 44' N., .Long. 00 , 22' W. at 6:45 P.M. , June 14, 1917, sighted submarine approaching from southwesterly direction at high speed. At 6:55 P.M. submarine opened fire at about 4500 yards distance, closing rapidly to what I estimated to be 3,000 to 3,500 yards. The submarine fired five shots before getting our range. The sixth exploded about 50 feet off our starboard beam, fragments going through the foresail, fore-topsail and jib. The seventh exploded about 100 feet off our port quarter.” A later report stated that some 42 holes had been made in the sails, rigging and hull.
To continue with Donnelly’s report, “ We then engaged, having held fire until the enemy came to its closest range. Our first shot...fell short and to the right. Brought range up to...3500 yards... The shots then fell close aboard the submarine, which immediately began diving to evade fire. Last shots I believed took effect, but the enemy was evading fire by diving rapidly. Action over at 7:15 P.M.”
Donnelly later reported that the Glynn stood by until morning with no further sign of the submarine. In a report dated 8 August, he stated that while ships in the area where the battle was fought had been sunk almost daily before 14 June, none were sunk thereafter, confirming, seemingly, that the Glynn sank the submarine she had battled. Donnelly was later awarded the Navy Cross for his actions.
The Glynn was sold to a French company after her successful arrival in Genoa. Thus she made only one voyage as an American ship. The Glynn may be the only wooden sailing ship ever to battle and sink a submarine, a fact of which the people of Brunswick should be justly proud. I am proud of both the Glynn and Mr. Donnelly and his gun crews. I know the story because Chief Gunner Donnelly happens to have been my Grandfather.
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D3.1 - Radar as an emerging and growing technology for industrial applications: A short overview
- AMA Conferences 2017
2017-05-30 - 2017-06-01
- Proceedings Sensor 2017
- D3 - Radar Sensors
- C. Waldschmidt, P. Hügler, M. Geiger - Ulm University (Germany)
- 460 - 465
After a brief introduction of classical radar applications, a short overview of state-of-the-art radar technology is presented. For basic radar understanding, the chirp-sequence frequency modulation scheme and its advantages are shortly described. As an outlook, four future application areas for modern radar sensors are shown. A 160 GHz flexible sniffing probe is proposed for security and industrial applications. For human gesture recognition and unmanned aerial vehicle altimeter a 77 GHz radar is presented. The ground penetrating capability of radar is shown, using a low frequency FMCW radar for buried landmine detection.


Regular price $34.99 ✓ free shipping w/ $75+ (US)
Regular price $34.99 — Sold Out ✓ free shipping w/ $75+ (US)
Super Stroke Pistol GT grips are counterbalance grips featuring a classic pistol shape combined with modern non-tapered design. The Pistol GTR version is the same grip, except without the 50g countercore weight. Available in Tour, 1.0, and 2.0 sizes.


On January 9, 1941, the Avro Lancaster — a British four-engined Second World War heavy bomber — took its first flight. It was designed and manufactured by Avro as a contemporary of the Handley Page Halifax, both bombers having been developed to the same specification, as well as the Short Stirling, all three aircraft being four-engined heavy bombers adopted by the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the same wartime era.
The Lancaster had its origins in the twin-engine Avro Manchester which had been developed during the late 1930s in response to the Air Ministry Specification P.13/36 for a capable medium bomber for “world-wide use”. Originally developed as an evolution of the Manchester (which had proved troublesome in service and was retired in 1942), the Lancaster was designed by Roy Chadwick and powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlins and in one version, Bristol Hercules engines. It first saw service with RAF Bomber Command in 1942 and as the strategic bombing offensive over Europe gathered momentum, it was the main aircraft for the night-time bombing campaigns that followed. As increasing numbers of the type were produced, it became the principal heavy bomber used by the RAF, the RCAF and squadrons from other Commonwealth and European countries serving within the RAF, overshadowing contemporaries such as the Halifax and Stirling.
A long, unobstructed bomb bay meant that the Lancaster could take the largest bombs used by the RAF, including the 4,000-pound (1,800 kg), 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) and 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) blockbusters, loads often supplemented with smaller bombs or incendiaries. The “Lanc”, as it was affectionately known, became one of the more famous and most successful of the Second World War night bombers, “delivering 608,612 long tons of bombs in 156,000 sorties”. The versatility of the Lancaster was such that it was chosen to equip 617 Squadron and was modified to carry the Upkeep “Bouncing bomb” designed by Barnes Wallis for Operation Chastise, the attack on German Ruhr valley dams. Although the Lancaster was primarily a night bomber, it excelled in many other roles, including daylight precision bombing, for which some Lancasters were adapted to carry the 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) Tallboy and then the 22,000 lb (10,000 kg) Grand Slam earthquake bombs (also designed by Wallis). This was the largest payload of any bomber in the war.
In 1943, a Lancaster was converted to become an engine test bed for the Metropolitan-Vickers F.2 turbojet. Lancasters were later used to test other engines, including the Armstrong Siddeley Mamba and Rolls-Royce Dart turboprops and the Avro Canada Orenda and STAL Dovern turbojets. Postwar, the Lancaster was supplanted as the main strategic bomber of the RAF by the Avro Lincoln, a larger version of the Lancaster. The Lancaster took on the role of long range anti-submarine patrol aircraft (later supplanted by the Avro Shackleton) and air-sea rescue. It was also used for photo-reconnaissance and aerial mapping, as a flying tanker for aerial refuelling and as the Avro Lancastrian, a long-range, high-speed, transatlantic passenger and postal delivery airliner. In March 1946, a Lancastrian of BSAA flew the first scheduled flight from the new London Heathrow Airport.
In the 1930s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) was primarily interested in twin-engine bombers. These designs put limited demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were already stretched with the introduction of so many new types into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of huge engines in the 2,000 horsepower (1,500 kW) class in order to improve performance. During the late 1930s, none of these was ready for production. Both the United States and the Soviet Union were pursuing the development of bombers powered by arrangements of four smaller engines, the results of these projects proved to possess favourable characteristics such as excellent range and fair lifting capacity. Accordingly, in 1936, the RAF also decided to investigate the feasibility of the four-engined bomber.
The origins of the Lancaster stem from a twin-engined bomber design that had been submitted in response to Specification P.13/36, which had been formulated and released by the British Air Ministry during the mid 1930s. This specification had sought a new generation of twin-engined medium bombers suitable for “worldwide use”. Further requirements of the specification included the use of a mid-mounted cantilever monoplane wing, all-metal construction; the adoption of the in-development Rolls-Royce Vulture engine was also encouraged”. Various candidates were submitted for the specification by such manufacturers as Fairey, Boulton Paul, Handley Page and Shorts; all submissions were designed around two-engine configurations, using the Rolls-Royce Vulture, Napier Sabre, Fairey P.24 or Bristol Hercules engines. The majority of these engines were under development at this point; while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B.12/36 for a heavy bomber, wings which mounted two pairs of engines were still in the experimental stage and required testing at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), the resulting increase in overall weight of adopting a stronger wing also necessitated further strengthening of the overall aircraft structure.
In response, British aviation company Avro decided to submit their own design, designated the Avro 679, to meet Specification P.13/36. In February 1937, following consideration of the designs by the Air Ministry, Avro’s design submission was selected along with Handley Page’s bid being chosen as “second string”. Accordingly, during April 1937, a pair of prototypes of both designs were ordered. The resulting aircraft, named the Manchester, entered RAF service in November 1940. Although considered to be a capable aircraft in most areas, the Manchester proved to be underpowered and troubled by the unreliability of the Vulture engine. As a result, only 200 Manchesters were constructed and the type was quickly withdrawn from service in 1942.
As early as mid-1940, Avro’s chief design engineer, Roy Chadwick, had been working on an improved Manchester design. This redesign was powered by four of the more reliable but less powerful Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, specifically adopted the form of the Merlin “Power Plant” installations which had been developed by Rolls-Royce for the earlier Beaufighter II, installed on a larger wing. Initially, the improved aircraft was designated as the Type 683 Manchester III, it was subsequently renamed as the Lancaster. The prototype aircraft, serial number BT308, was assembled by the Avro experimental flight department at Ringway Airport, Manchester; the prototype was constructed from a production Manchester airframe, which was combined with a new centre section designed to accommodate the additional engines. On January 9, 1941, test pilot H. A. “Sam” Brown performed the prototype’s maiden flight at RAF Ringway, Cheshire.
Flight testing of the new aircraft quickly proved it to be a substantial improvement on its predecessor, aviation author Jim Winchester referred to the Lancaster as being “one of the few warplanes in history to be ‘right’ from the start.” The first prototype was initially outfitted with a three-finned tail layout, a result of the design having been adapted from the Manchester I; this was quickly revised on the second prototype, DG595, and subsequent production Lancasters to the familiar larger elliptical twin-finned tail unit that had also been adopted for the later-built Manchesters, discarding the stubby central third tail fin. The adoption of the enlarged twin fins not only increased stability but also provided for a greater field of fire from the dorsal gun turret position. The second prototype was also outfitted with more powerful Merlin XX engine.
Some of the later orders for Manchesters were converted in favor of the Lancaster; both bombers shared various similarities and featured identical design features, such as the same distinctive greenhouse cockpit, turret nose and twin tail. The designs were so similar that an entire batch of partially constructed Manchesters could be completed as Lancaster B I aircraft instead. Based upon its performance, a decision was taken early on to reequip twin-engine bomber squadrons with the Lancaster as quickly as possible. In October 1941, the first production Lancaster, L7527, powered by Merlin XX engines, conducted its first flight.
Avro received an initial contract for 1,070 Lancasters. The majority of Lancasters that were manufactured during the war years were constructed by Avro at their factory at Chadderton near Oldham, Greater Manchester and were test-flown from Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire. As it was quickly recognised that Avro’s capacity was exceeded by the wartime demand for the type, it was decided to form the Lancaster Aircraft Group, which comprised a number of companies that undertook the type’s manufacture, either performing primary assembly themselves or producing various subsections and components for the other participating manufacturers.
In addition to Avro, further Lancasters were constructed by Metropolitan-Vickers (1,080, also tested at Woodford) and Armstrong Whitworth. They were also produced at the Austin Motor Company works in Longbridge, Birmingham, later in the Second World War and post-war by Vickers-Armstrongs at Chester as well as at the Vickers Armstrong factory, Castle Bromwich, Birmingham. Belfast-based aircraft firm Short Brothers had also received an order for 200 Lancaster B Is, but this was cancelled before any aircraft had been completed. Only 300 of the Lancaster B II, which was outfitted with Bristol Hercules engines, were constructed; this had been produced as a stopgap modification as a result of a shortage of Merlin engines due to fighter production having higher priority for the engines at that time.
The Lancaster was also produced overseas. During early 1942, it was decided that the bomber should be produced in Canada, where it was manufactured by Victory Aircraft in Malton, Ontario. Of later variants, only the Canadian-built Lancaster B X was produced in significant numbers. A total of 430 of this type were built, earlier examples differing little from their British-built predecessors, except for using Packard-built Merlin engines and American-style instruments and electrics. In August 1942, a British-built Lancaster B I, R5727, was dispatched to Canada as a pattern aircraft, becoming the first of the type to conduct a transatlantic crossing. The first Lancaster produced in Canada was named the “Ruhr Express”. The first batch of Canadian Lancasters delivered to England suffered from faulty ailerons; this error was subsequently traced to the use of unskilled laborers.
The Lancaster B I was never fully superseded in production by a successor model, remaining in production until February 1946. According to aviation authors Brian Goulding and M. Garbett, the Lancaster B I altered little during its production life, partially as a result of the sound basic structure and design; of the visible changes, the fuselage side-windows were deleted, the Perspex chin of the bomb-aimer was enlarged, and a larger astrodome was provided. Various additional bumps and blisters were also added, which would typically house radar equipment and radio navigational aids. Some Lancaster B I bombers were outfitted with bulged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate increased armament payloads.
Early production Lancaster B Is were outfitted with a ventral gun turret position. In response to feedback on the lack of application for the ventral turret, the ventral turret was often eliminated during the course of each aircraft’s career. While some groups chose to discard the position entirely, various trials and experiments were performed at RAF Duxford, Cambridgeshire and by individual squadrons. A total of 50 Austin-built Lancaster B Is were constructed to a non-standard configuration, having a Frazer Nash turret installed directly above the bomb bay; this modification was largely unpopular due to its obstruction of the internal walkway, hindering crew movements. Various other turret configurations were adopted by individual squadrons, which included the removal of various combinations of turrets.
The Lancaster B III was powered by Packard Merlin engines, which had been built overseas in the United States, but was otherwise identical to contemporary B Is. In total, 3,030 B IIIs were constructed, almost all of them at Avro’s Newton Heath factory. The Lancaster B I and B III were manufactured concurrently and minor modifications were made to both marks as further batches were ordered. The B I and B III designated was effective interchangeable simply by exchanging the engines used, which was occasionally done in practice. Examples of modifications made include the relocation of the pitot head from the nose to the side of the cockpit and the change from de Havilland “needle blade” propellers to Hamilton Standard or Nash Kelvinator made “paddle blade” propellers.
The typical aircraft was powered by an arrangement of four wing-mounted Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engines, each of which drove a set of 13 ft diameter de Havilland Hydromatic three-bladed propellers. While not optimal, the Lancaster was capable of flying the return journey home on only two operational engines, along with very limited distances on a single running engine. Goulding and Garbett have claimed that experienced Lancaster pilots were often able to out-manoeuver Luftwaffe fighters. It possessed largely favourable flying characteristics, having been described by aviation authors Brian Goulding and M. Garbett as being: “a near-perfect flying machine, fast for its size and very smooth…such a delightfully easy aeroplane to fly…there are instances of Lancasters having been looped and barrel-rolled, both intentionally and otherwise”.
The Lancaster benefited from a structure that possessed considerable strength and durability, which had been intentionally designed to maximize structural strength-per-weight; this resulted in the Lancaster being capable of withstanding some levels of damage resulting from attacks by hostile interceptor aircraft and ground-based anti-aircraft batteries. However, during the first year of the type’s career, some instances of structural failures were encountered on Lancaster B Is and a number of aircraft were lost in accidents as a result of the design limitations having been greatly exceeded. Compared with other contemporary aircraft, the Lancaster was not an easy aircraft to escape from; in a Halifax, 25 per cent of downed aircrew bailed out successfully, and in American bombers (albeit in daylight raids) it was as high as a 50 per cent success rate while only 15 per cent of the Lancaster crew were able to bail out.
The Lancaster uses a mid-wing cantilever monoplane configuration. The wing is constructed from five separate main sections while the fuselage is likewise composed of five sections. Aside from a few elements, such as the fabric-covered ailerons, the Lancaster’s oval-shaped fuselage had an all-metal covering. All of the wing and fuselage sections were manufactured separately, during which they were outfitted with all of the required equipment in advance of final assembly being performed, as a measure intended to accelerate the rate of production. The Lancaster was equipped with a retractable main undercarriage and fixed tailwheel; the hydraulically-actuated main landing gear raised rearwards into recesses within the inner engine nacelles. The distinctive tail unit of the aircraft was outfitted with a large twin elliptical fins and rudder arrangement.
During early 1942, No. 44 Squadron, based at RAF Waddington, Lincolnshire, became the first RAF squadron to convert to the Lancaster; it was quickly followed by No. 97 Squadron, which was also based at Waddington. On March 2, 1942, the first operational mission of the Lancaster, deploying naval mines in the vicinity of Heligoland Bight, was performed by aircraft of No. 44 Sqn. On March 10, 1942, the first bombing mission was conducted over the German city of Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia.
While the Lancaster had been designed to conduct night-time operations, daylight raids were occasionally performed by the type as well. The existence of the Lancaster was revealed after a daytime raid upon an engine factory located in Augsburg, Swabia, Bavaria conducted by Nos. 44 and 97 Sqns on April 17, 1942. Due to the high loss rates typically involved in such operations, daytime bombing missions were performed sparingly until the Allies had achieved a level of aerial supremacy over the Axis powers.
On October 17, 1942, another audacious daytime raid was performed by 90 Lancasters of No. 5 Group, bombing the Schneider Works at Le Creusot, France; only one aircraft was lost during the course of the mission. During 1942, the Lancaster remained in relatively short supply, which meant that training and crew conversion courses typically had to be performed by the squadrons themselves; there were no aircraft furnished with dual controls at this time, thus pilots would have to perform their first flight without the instructor being capable of directly acting on the controls themselves.
Throughout July 1943, large numbers of Lancasters participated in the devastating round-the-clock raids on the city of Hamburg during Air Chief Marshal Harris’s “Operation Gomorrah”. A particularly famous mission performed by the Lancaster was the mission flown May 16-17, 1943, codenamed Operation Chastise, to destroy the dams of the Ruhr Valley. The operation was carried out by 617 Squadron in modified Mk IIIs carrying special drum-shaped bouncing bombs, which had been designed by British engineer Barnes Wallis. The story of the operation was later made into a film, The Dam Busters.
During the latter half of 1944, a series of high-profile bombing missions were performed by the Lancaster against the German battleship Tirpitz. Executed by Nos. 617 and 9 Sqns, a combination of Lancaster B I and B III bombers were armed with 12,000 lb ‘Tallboy’ bombs and were adapted with enlarged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate their special payloads and additional fuel tanks to provide the necessary endurance. A total of three attacks, individually codenamed Operation Paravane, Operation Obviate and Operation Catechism, were conducted against Tirpitz, which was anchored in a fjord in Occupied Norway. The first of these attacks disabled the vessel while the third mission was responsible for sinking the ship. As a result of actions such as Operation Chastise and the sinking of Tirpitz, No. 617 Sq was perhaps the most famous of all Lancaster squadrons.
During early 1945, a total of 33 Lancaster B Is were modified so that they could deploy the 22,000 lb Grand Slam bomb; the Grand Slam, considered to be the ultimate conventional bomb to be used during the conflict, was so heavy that the bomb and the Lancaster itself weighed roughly the same. On March 13, 1945, the first operational use of the Grand Slam was performed by a Lancaster of No. 617 Sqn against the Schildesche viaduct at Bielefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia. Amongst the final wartime operations performed by the Lancaster was the destruction of Eagle’s Nest, the extensive holiday home complex used by German leader Adolf Hitler.
RAF Lancasters dropped food into the Holland region of the occupied Netherlands, with the acquiescence of the occupying German forces, to feed people who were in danger of starvation. The mission was named ‘Operation Manna’ after the food manna which is said to have miraculously appeared for the Israelites in the Book of Exodus. The aircraft involved were from 1, 3, and 8 Groups, and consisted of 145 Mosquitos and 3,156 Lancasters, flying between them a total of 3,298 sorties. The first of the two RAF Lancasters chosen for the test flight was nicknamed “Bad Penny” from the old expression: “a bad penny always turns up.” This bomber, with a crew of seven men (five Canadians including pilot Robert Upcott of Windsor, Ontario), took off in bad weather on the morning of April 29, 1945, without a ceasefire agreement from the German forces, and successfully dropped its cargo.
The Lancaster conducted a total of 156,000 sorties and dropped 608,612 long tons (618,378 tonnes) of bombs between 1942 and 1945. Only 35 Lancasters completed more than 100 successful operations each, and 3,249 were lost in action. The most successful survivor completed 139 operations, and was ultimately retired from service and scrapped in 1947. From 1942 onwards, the Lancaster became the mainstay of the British heavy bomber fleet; by the end of the war in Europe, there were roughly 50 squadrons equipped with the Lancaster, the majority of these being the Lancaster B I model. From its entry into service, the original model of the Lancaster was operated in almost every major bombing raid of the European conflict.
Adolf Galland (commander of the Luftwaffe fighters) considered the Lancaster to be “the best night bomber of the war”, as did his adversary, Arthur “Bomber” Harris, who referred to it as the RAF Bomber Command’s “shining sword”. Goulding and Garbett wrote that: “The achievements of the Lancaster and the men who flew it have been widely acclaimed, and the aircraft has been described as the greatest single factor in winning WWII, an exaggeration but a pardonable one”.
Lancasters from Bomber Command were to have formed the main strength of Tiger Force, the Commonwealth bomber contingent scheduled to take part in Operation Downfall, the codename for the planned invasion of Japan in late 1945. Aircraft allocated to the Tiger Force were painted in white with black undersides and outfitted with additional radio units and navigational aids to facilitate their use in the Pacific theatre. The addition of large saddle-type external fuel tanks was considered and trialled in Australia and India, but this was discontinued due to their perceived vulnerability to attack. Together with the new Avro Lincoln and Liberators, the bombers would have operated from bases on Okinawa; the envisioned invasion did not happen when such action was made unnecessary by the surrender of Japan.
As a byproduct of its sound design and operational success, various developments and derivatives of the Lancaster were produced for both military and civilian purposes. One of these was the Avro Lincoln bomber, initially known as the Lancaster IV and Lancaster V. These two marks became the Lincoln B1 and B2 respectively. A civilian airliner was based on the Lancaster, known as the Lancastrian. Other developments were the York, a square-bodied transport and, via the Lincoln, the Shackleton which continued in RAF service as an airborne early warning (AEW) system, being in use until its retirement in 1992.
In the post-war climate, the Lancaster continued to see use for several more years, during which a number of high-profile operations were conducted. Immediately following the end of hostilities, the Lancaster was used as a crude transport aircraft, being used to ferry thousands of prisoners of war (POWs) back to the British Isles from across the continent. Aerial tours of the devastated German cities were also performed using the type. Repatriation flights returning POWs and ordinary troops alike continued until November 1945. During the summer of 1946, Lancasters of No. 35 Squadron performed a tour of the United States. These aircraft were autographed by various American movie stars during the tour, and continued to bear these up to their retirements. A pair of Lancasters, PD328 and PB873, performed several ground-breaking long distance flights, including round-the-world and trans-polar trips.
In RAF service, the Lancaster remained at the forefront of Bomber Command; the Lancaster B I was gradually replaced by the improved Lancaster B I (F/E) models. During 1947–1948, No. 82 Squadron received new dedicated photo-reconnaissance models of the Lancaster B.1; these aircraft were painted silver and lacked any defensive turrets. Photo-reconnaissance Lancasters with used to aerially survey Central and East Africa and at least one was later operated by the Ministry of Aviation. Coastal Command received a small quantity of Lancasters, which were normally based at RAF Kinloss, Moray Firth.
The Lancaster continued to be operated in significant numbers until the introduction of the new Avro Lincoln, being itself a derivative of the Lancaster; the Lincoln was not available in quantity for several years following the end of the conflict. In December 1953, the final Lancaster in service with Bomber Command was retired. In late 1954, the last Lancaster in active service with the RAF, an aircraft which had been used for aerial reconnaissance missions, is believed to have been retired.
A total of 59 Lancaster B.Is and B.VIIs were overhauled by Avro at Woodford and Langar and delivered to the Aeronavale (France) during 1952-1953. These were flown until the mid-1960s by four squadrons stationed in France and New Caledonia in the maritime reconnaissance and search-and-rescue roles.
Between 1948 and 1949, a total of 15 former RAF Lancasters were overhauled at Langar for use by the Argentine Air Force. During its Argentine service, Lancasters were used offensively in suppressing and supporting military coups.
Beginning in 1946, Lancaster Mk Xs were modified for service with the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Fourteen aircraft were modified to perform aerial and photo-reconnaissance missions; these would go on to perform much of the mapping of northern Canada until as late as 1962. Throughout the 1950s, the RCAF operated seventy modified Lancasters, designated Lancaster 10MR/MPs, as Maritime Reconnaissance and Patrol aircraft in an anti-submarine role. Modifications involved the installation of radar and sonobuoy operators’ positions, removal of the rear and mid-upper gun turrets, installation of a 400-gallon fuel tank in the bomb bay to increase the patrol range, upgraded electronics, radar, and instrumentation, and a cooking stove in the centre section. They served throughout the 1950s, when they were replaced by the Lockheed Neptune and Canadair Argus.
Civil conversions of the type continued during the initial postwar years. In 1946, four Lancasters were converted by Avro at Bracebridge Heath, Lincolnshire as freighters for use by British South American Airways, but proved to be uneconomical, and were withdrawn after a year in service. In addition, four Lancaster IIIs were converted by Flight Refuelling Limited as two pairs of tanker and receiver aircraft for development of in-flight refuelling. In 1947, one aircraft was flown non-stop 3,459 miles (5,567 km) from London to Bermuda. Later on, these two tanker aircraft were joined by another converted Lancaster; these saw use during the Berlin Airlift, achieving 757 tanker sorties.
From 1943 to 1947, the Canadian Government Trans-Atlantic Air Service (CGTAS) provided a trans-Atlantic military passenger and postal delivery service using a modified long-distance transport version of the Lancaster Mark X. Nine of these aircraft were produced, referred to as Lancaster XPPs (for Lancaster Mk.X Passenger Planes), and each was equipped with rudimentary passenger facilities. The inaugural flight from Dorval (Montreal) to Prestwick, Scotland on July 22, 1943, was completed non-stop in a record 12:26 hours; the average crossing time was about 13:25 hours. By the end of the war, these aircraft had completed hundreds of trips across the Atlantic. CGTAS ushered in the era of commercial air travel across the North Atlantic, and in 1947 the service became part of Trans-Canada Air Lines, which carried paying civilian passengers in the Lancaster XPPs until they were replaced by Douglas DC-4s in 1947.
Of the 17 surviving and largely intact Lancasters known to exist, two are airworthy; one, PA474, based in Coningsby, the UK, is operated by The Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, and the other, called Vera (coded VR-A, FM213), is in Canada, operated by the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Mount Hope, a suburb of Hamilton, Ontario. Another Lancaster, Just Jane, NX611, a B MkVII, based in East Kirkby Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre is able to taxi but is not currently airworthy, though there are plans to return her to flight in the future. The fourth Lancaster with working engines and able to taxi is Bazalgette FM159 based at the Bomber Command Museum of Canada in Nanton, Alberta. It has been carefully restored from a vandalised state and is now a main tourist attraction.
In 2014, the Canadian aircraft toured the UK in a series of joint displays with the BBMF aircraft.
In 2017, formerly retired after its Cold War service and more than 50 years on display in Edmundston, New Brunswick, Lancaster KB 882 moved to its new home at the National Air Force Museum of Canada in Trenton, Ontario where it will be restored and placed alongside the museums’ restored RAF Handley Page Halifax heavy bomber. NA 337.
For the 2018 flying season, to commemorate the 75th anniversary of Operation Chastise, the Canadian Warplane Heritage Lancaster was painted in the markings of Guy Gibson’s 617 Squadron aircraft (Code AJ-G, ED932) when he commanded the “Dambusters” raids.
Scott #1759 was released by Royal Mail in Great Britain on June 10, 1997, part of a five-stamp “Architects of the Air” set which acknowledged the designers along with their best known aircraft. The 20-pence stamp honored Reginald Mitchell and the Supermarine Spitfire MkIIA (Scott #1758), the Avro Lancaster Mk1 was featured on a 26-pence stamp which mentioned designer Roy Chadwick, Ronald Bishop and the De Havilland Mosquito B MkXVI are commemorated with the 37-pence value (Scott #1760), the 43-pence denomination call attention to George Carter and the Gloster Meteor T Mk7 (Scott #1761), and the 63-pence high value remembers Sir Sidney Camm and the Hawker Hunter FGA Mk9 (Scott #1762). Designed by Turner Duckworth, the stamps were printed by Harrison & Sons Ltd. using the photogravure process, perforated 15 x 14.


A vulnerability lethality model for the combat
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Ajem stands for advanced joint effectiveness model ajem is a lethality, vulnerability, and endgame computer simulation code capable of analyzing one or more threats attacking a single rotary-wing or fixed-wing aircraft or gound-mobile target. A cyber vulnerability assessment of the us navy in the 21st century january 31, and training methods more like special forces units: highly trained, specialized, lethal, shadowy, and with greater autonomy within their specialization is adopting the nist risk management framework as its information security policy model, implementing. Survivability/lethality analysis the arl survivability/lethality directorate is the premier source of expertise in survivability, lethality and vulnerability (slv) assessments, for senior leaders, developers and evaluators helping to ensure that us personnel and equipment survive and function effectively in hostile circumstances.
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A vulnerability lethality model for the combat
Surviac is a us department of defense information analysis center (iac) sponsored by the defense information systems agency (disa), defense technical information center (dtic) combat survivability analysis and design” set the standards for all survivability including the covart vulnerability/lethality model and the jsem endgame. Description while the focus of this book is on ground combat system vulnerability, many of the principles, methodologies, and tools discussed are also applicable to the air and sea system communities. Document about fundamentals of ground combat system ballistic vulnerability/lethality (progress in astronautics and aeronautics) download is available on print and digital edition. (4) the term realistic lethality testing means, in the case of a major munitions program or a missile program (or a covered product improvement program for such a program), testing for lethality by firing the munition or missile concerned at appropriate targets configured for combat.
- A vulnerability/lethality model for the combat soldier, a new paradigm – basis and initial development a vulnerability/lethality model for the combat soldier, paradigm – basis and.
- Ballistics data is required by vulnerability and lethality models to calculate the angle of fall and penetration power of a weapon when striking a target ballistics data may also be required by combat simulations to model.
- Using combat simulation and sensitivity analysis to support evaluation of land combat vehicle configurations chau, w, gill, aw and grieger, d, using combat simulation and sensitivity analysis to support evaluation of land combat vehicle configurations 1 introduction output metrics pertaining to lethality, vulnerability, knowledge.
Ukely combat renarios 2 scenario characteristies 3 mission succen criteria 4 verification is the process of determining that a model accurately represents the vulnerability/lethality taxonomy was needed to clarify terms and definitions. The results are threat-specific vulnerability modules in a format common across the dod laser com-munity laser lethality is one of a number of areas in hel technology development where the. Fundamentals of ground combat system ballistic vulnerability lethality progress in download pdf added by keira stone on october 08 2018 this is a book of fundamentals of ground combat system ballistic vulnerability lethality progress in that visitor could be downloaded this for free at wwwwa-coporg fyi, this site. In developing a ground combat vehicle (gcv), four major performance functions of gcv including firepower, mobility, vulnerability, and operability should be carefully designed and tested using modeling and simulation technology vulnerability is a function to be minimized for the target (gcv) to.