Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and ArmorDK, Roger Ford, R.G. Grant, A. Gilbert, Philip Parker, R. Holmes
A spectacular visual guide to the epic 4,000-year history of weaponry, created in association with the Smithsonian Institution.
Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and Armor tells this epic story of the entire spectrum of weaponry through stunning photography and authoritative coverage, from the stone axes of the earliest warfare to the heavy artillery of today's armies. Take a journey through the centuries, from the Viking sword to the Baker rifle to the AK-47, as you explore the forms and functions of the greatest arms of all time, the warrior types that changed history, and the weapons that changed the face of warfare. Richly detailed catalogs showcase many weapons at their actual size, outlining the timeframe, weight, size, and country of origin to create a comprehensive profile of each.
Now revised and updated to include brand-new content and expanded sections on cannons and modern guns, Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and Armor provides a stunning overview of the tools that have been at the cutting edge of history, determining the rise of kingdoms and the fall of empires.
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weapon b a visual history of arms and armor weapon weapon A V I S U A L h is t o r y o f a r m s a n d a r m o r London, New York, Melbourne, munich and delhi Senior Art Editors Sunita Gahir, Sharon Spencer Art Editors Paul Drislane, Michael Duffy Designers Philip Fitzgerald, Tim Lane, Peter Radcliffe DTP Designers John Goldsmid, Sharon McGoldrick Senior Editor Paula Regan Project Editors May Corfield, Tarda Davison-Aitkins, Nicola Hodgson, Cathy Marriott, Steve Setford, Andrew Szudek US Editor Jenny Siklos Picture Researcher Sarah Smithies DK Picture Librarian Romaine Werblow Photography Gary Ombler Illustrations KJA-artists.com Foreword 6 great warriors: Medieval Knight 90 Introduction 8 European Mail Armor 92 European Plate Armor 94 the ancient world (3000 bce–1000 ce) 24 The First Weapons 30 THE early modern world (1500–1775) 96 Mesopotamian Weapons and Armor 32 Two-handed Swords 102 Ancient Egyptian Weapons and Armor 34 European Infantry and Cavalry Swords 104 Ancient Greek Weapons and Armor 40 great warriors: Landsknecht 108 great warriors: Greek Hoplite 42 European Rapiers 110 Ancient Roman Weapons and Armor 44 European Smallswords 112 great warriors: Roman Legionary 46 European Hunting Swords 116 Bronze- and Iron-Age Weapons and Armor weapon showcase: Hunting Trousse 118 48 Japanese Samurai Swords 120 Anglo-Saxon and Frankish Weapons and Armor weapon showcase: Wakazashi Sword 124 50 great warriors: Samurai 126 Viking Weapons and Armor 52 Indian and Sri Lankan Swords 128 European Daggers 130 Production Controller Elizabeth Warman Managing Art Editor Karen Self Art Director Bryn Walls Managing Editor Debra Wolter Publisher Jonathan Metcalf Consultants at the Royal Armouries Philip Abbott, Head of Library Services Ian Bottomley, Senior Curator of Arms and Armour Mark Murray Flutter, Senior Curator of Firearms Thom Richardson, Keeper of Armour Bob Woosnam Savage, Senior Curator of Edged Weapons Peter Smithhurst, Keeper of Weapons the middle ages (1000–1500) Asian Daggers 134 56 European One-Handed Staff Weapons 136 European Swords 62 European Two-Handed Staff Weapons 140 Japanese and Chinese Swords 66 Indian and Sri Lankan Staff Weapons 142 European Daggers 68 European Crossbows 144 European Staff Weapons 72 Asian Bows 146 Asian Staff Weapons 74 Matchlock and Flintlock Long Guns 148 great warriors: Mongol Warrior 76 weapon showcase: Matchlock Musket 150 Longbows and Crossbows 78 European Hunting Guns 1600–1700 152 weapon showcase: Crossbow 80 European Hunting Guns From 1700 154 First American Edition, 2006 DK Publishing 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Aztec Weapons and Shields 82 Asian Matchlocks 156 European Helms and Basinets 86 Combination Weapons 158 A Penguin company European Jousting Helms, Barbutes, and Sallets European Pistols 1500–1700 160 88 European Pistols 1700–1775 162 Copyright © 2006 Dorling Kindersley Limited Foreword © 2006 Richard Holmes 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Weapon. -- 1st American ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7566-2210-7 ISBN-10: 0-7566-2210-7 1. Military weapons--History. U800.W37 2006 623.4--dc22 2006016165 ISBN-13: 978-0-7566-2210-7 ISBN-10: 0-7566-2210-7 Color reproduction by GRB, Italy Printed and bound in China by Hung Hing Discover more at www.dk.com contents European Tournament Armor 166 weapon showcase: Baker Rifle 234 Self-Loading Pistols From 1950 294 European Tournament Helmets 168 Percussion Cap Muskets and Rifles 236 Revolvers 1900–1950 296 Asian Armor and Helmets 170 weapon showcase: Le Page Sport Gun 238 Revolvers From 1950 298 Samurai Armor 172 Percussion Cap Breech Loaders 240 Manually Loaded Repeater Rifles 300 great warriors: British Redcoat 242 great warriors: Sport Guns 244 Ottoman Empire Firearms 246 248 The revolutionary world (1775–1900) 174 European Swords 180 Single-Shot Breech-Loading Rifles American Civil War Swords 184 Ottoman Empire Swords 186 weapon showcase: Chinese and Tibetan Swords 188 Indian Swords 190 Indian and Nepalese Daggers 192 European and American Bayonets 194 Indian Staff Weapons 196 African Edged Weapons Enfield Rifle-Musket Manually Loaded Repeater Rifles 1855–1880 Manually Loaded Repeater Rifles 1881–1891 250 252 256 Red Army Infantryman 302 Self-Loading Rifles 1914–1950 304 weapon showcase: AK47 306 Self-Loading Rifles 1950–2006 308 weapon showcase: 310 SA80 Sport Guns 312 Shotguns 314 Sniper Rifles 1914–1985 318 Sniper Rifles 1985–2006 320 Recoil-Operated Machine Guns 322 198 Manually Loaded Repeater Rifles 1892–1898 258 Gas-Operated Machine Guns 324 great warriors: Zulu Warrior 200 Indian Firearms 260 weapon showcase: 326 Oceanian Clubs and Daggers 202 Asian Firearms 262 Light Machine Guns 1914–1945 328 North American Knives and Clubs 204 Multi-Shot Firearms 264 Light Machine Guns Since 1945 330 North American Hunting Bows 208 Ammunition Pre-1900 266 Submachine Guns 1920–1945 332 Australian Boomerangs and Shields 210 Indian Armor and Shields 268 weapon showcase: 334 Flintlock Pistols From 1775 212 African Shields 270 Submachine Guns Since 1945 336 Flintlock Pistols To 1850 214 Oceanian Shields 272 Ammunition Since 1900 338 Percussion Cap Pistols 216 Man-Portable Anti-Tank Weapons 340 American Percussion Cap Revolvers 218 Rifle-Mounted Grenade Launchers 342 Stand-alone Grenade Launchers 344 346 great warriors: the modern world (1900–2006) 274 MG43 MP5 220 African Edged Weapons 280 great warriors: British Percussion Cap Revolvers 222 Bayonets and Knives 1914–1945 284 Improvised Guns 1950–1980 348 Brass Cartridge Pistols 224 great warriors: Helmets From 1900 350 weapon showcase: Colt Navy Pistols 226 Self-Loading Pistols 228 Self-Loading Pistols 1900–1920 290 Index 354 Flintlock Muskets and Rifles 232 Self-Loading Pistols 1920–1950 292 Acknowledgments 360 US Civil War Infantryman French WWI Infantryman US Navy SEAL 288 foreword Joining the Board of Trustees of the Royal Armouries in 2005 spun my life full circle. As a Cambridge undergraduate I spent a summer working at the Armouries, then located in the Tower of London. Had my career taken a different turn, I might easily have become a curator rather than a military historian. In one sense the two paths are not that divergent, for military history is never far from the battlefield: it is hard to think of men in battle without considering the weapons they use. Warfare is older than civilization—in fact it is older than the human race itself, as clues from our hominid ancestors show—and weapons are the tools of the soldier’s trade. The following pages reveal the importance of weapons, showing how they grew quickly from primitive implements used for hunting wild animals, and soon took on the characteristics that were to define them for thousands of years. First there were percussion weapons, used to strike an opponent directly, beginning with the club and proceeding through axes to swords, daggers and thrusting-spears. There were also missile weapons, propelled from a distance, starting with the sharpened stick—hurled as a javelin—and developing into throwing spears, arrows, and crossbow bolts. Gunpowder weapons, which made their presence felt from the 15th century, did not immediately replace percussion or missile weapons. In the 17th century musketeers were protected by pikemen, and Napoleonic cavalry plied swords in close-quarter combat. Even at the beginning of the 21st century the bayonet, descendent of the edged weapons of yesteryear, is still part of the infantry soldier’s equipment. The huge chronological and geographical spread of this book reveals illuminating similarities between weapons in entirely different cultures and periods.The appearance of firearms was not immediately decisive, and historians argue whether the period of change spanning the first half of the 17th century was rapid and thorough enough to constitute a “military revolution.” However, their impact was certainly profound. Fortresses built to withstand siege-engines crumbled before artillery, and in this respect the fall of Constantinople in 1453 was a landmark. So too were battles like Pavia in 1525, when infantry armed with muskets repulsed armored horsemen. Firearms were essential to the advent of mass armies, for they became subject to mass production. Their development has been rapid: little more than a century and a half separates the muzzle-loading flintlock musket—short-ranged, inaccurate, and unreliable—from the modern assault rifle. But weapons are more than the soldier’s tools, and leafing through the pages you will be amazed at the ingenuity and creativity that weaponry induces for hunting, self-defence, and law-enforcement. Some weapons had religious or magical connotations and others, like the pair of swords worn by the Japanese samurai or the smallsword at the hip of the 18th century European gentleman, were badges of status, and reflections of wealth too. There has been a long connection between the right to carry weapons and social position, and some societies, such as the city-states of ancient Greece, saw a direct connection between civic rights and bearing arms. It is impossible to consider arms without reflecting on armor too, and this book also illustrates how armor has striven to do more than safeguard its wearers. It is often intended to impress or terrify as well as advertise its wearer’s wealth or status: the horned helmet of the bronze-age warrior and the mempo face-guard of the samurai have much in common. The past century has witnessed its rediscovery, and the contemporary soldier, with his Kevlar helmet and body armor, has a silhouette which is both ancient and modern. It has been a real pleasure to have been involved in this project, which embodies the scholarship of the Royal Armories’ curatorial staff and provides a showcase for the Armories’ world-class collection. richard holmes introduction bows, arrows, AND spears Leaf-shaped point Corroded metal point Shaft Bow Head crossbow bolt Butt Stirrup Stock Trigger (not shown) north indian composite bow Groove Nut 15th-century crossbow Wooden shaft Bowstring Handle or grip saxon spears Nock Bowstring Nock for attaching bowstring to each end of bow Arrow pass Upper limb Nock Lower limb assyrian simple bow and arrow Flights or feathers P rojectile weapons, such as bows and spears, allow the exercise of force at a distance, and the evident utility of this in hunting led to their use from the very earliest times. The simplest form is the throwing spear, a pole with a pointed end. The principal disadvantage is that once thrown, the weapon is lost and might indeed be hurled back by an enemy. The Roman pilum solved this by having an iron shank that bent on contact, rendering further use impossible. Simple bows are made up of a shaft of wood with a drawstring attached at both ends. In this form, they are easy to construct and operate, and saw use throughout the Ancient World. The composite bow, made of several pieces of wood glued together, its core strengthened with bone and sinew, has greater elasticity, and Shaft Foot Head therefore a greater range. In the hands of nomadic peoples such as the Mongols, it could devastate infantry formations that would be picked off at a distance. From the 13th century, the English made extensive use of the longbow, a simple bow up to 6½ ft (2 m) long made of yew. It combined range and rapidity of fire, and proved key to victory against the Scots at Falkirk (1298) and the French at Crécy (1346) and Agincourt (1415). without a string being held taut by hand. First attested in Han China (206 bce–220 ce), they were widely used in medieval Europe from the crusades onward. As time went on, the mechanism to reload (or span) the crossbow became increasingly complex, including the use of footoperated levers and the cranequin. Such devices allowed the crossbow to be made more powerful, but meant it was slower to reload. By the late 16th century, it had almost disappeared from the battlefield. the crossbow Japanese arrow The crossbow is a form of mechanical bow shooting wooden or metal bolts with a stock that enables it to be kept loaded Japanese samurai used a variety of arrowheads. This type of bifurcated arrowhead, known as a kurimata, could inflict multiple wounds and was used for hunting as well as in battle. GLOSSARY AXES AND CLUBS Angled surface to allow parabolic flight Painted design in ocher and white pipe clay australian boomerang Plain wooden handle Head carved with geometric motifs polynesian cleaver Iron tobacco bowl Axehead north american pipe tomahawk Binding to secure axhead Wooden shaft egyptian Ax Heavy bronze head Carved wooden shaft r ocks and sharpened stones would have been the most primitive form of weaponry. When these were mounted on a stick the result —a club or ax—immediately gave greater range and increased the force, through leverage, of the blow. Clubs could deliver crushing blows to armored opponents, while even a glancing strike from an ax could lead to massive bleeding. Simple clubs appeared very early, but their effectiveness is proved by their appearance in such diverse forms as the Zulu’s knobkerrie club, whalebone clubs from the Arctic regions of the Americas, and highly decorated wooden clubs from New Zealand. In the Pacific, such clubs were the most widespread weapon before European colonization. Composite clubs, with a head bound or socketed to a shaft, often added spikes or flanges, with a corresponding increase in lethality. In Australia, throwing clubs, or boomerangs, were developed, some curved in such a way that their flight carried back to the thrower should they miss their target. forging ahead Hand axes were first used about 1.5 million years ago and were probably used as scrapers. Bronze-headed axes appeared in the Near East in the 3rd millennium bce and became commonplace as far apart as Egypt and Scandinavia. The invention of iron and steel made the forging of sharper heads with thinner blades more practical. Although the Romans did not make extensive use of the ax, some of their ARROW PASS Position on bow touched by arrow when bow is drawn or loosed BACK Side of the bow toward the target BELLY Side of the bow toward the archer BRIDLE Binding used to tie bow portion of crossbow to stock BUTT Back section of crossbow stock COMPOUND BOW Bows made of multiple layers, combining wood with bone, horn, or sinew CRANEQUIN Rack and pinion device for respanning DAO Swordlike ax of the Assamese Naga FLETCHING Use of feathers or flights to give stability GOATSFOOT Device for respanning using pivots and a tiller LAMINATED BOW Bow of multiple layers of the same material, most often wood LATHI Long bamboo club with metal head used for riot control LONGBOW Simple bow up to 6½ ft (2 m) long of yew or elm MORNING STAR Club with spiked ball on a chain NOCK Notch in arrow to keep it in place as bowstring is drawn; notch in bow to attach string QUIVER Container for arrows SHILLELAGH Irish club cut from blackthorn wood SIMPLE BOW Bow made of a single material, often wood SIMPLE CLUB Club made of one material, often bone or wood Stirrup Device in which crossbowman placed his foot while respanning the string Spanning The act of cocking a crossbow Stock Wooden spine of crossbow used for gripping and to which bow section attaches Tomahawk North American ax, often combined with a tobacco pipe Windlass Mechanical device with winding levers to respan crossbow barbarian opponents employed them, such as the Frankish throwing ax (or francisca). The Vikings used a large two-handed battle ax as a principal weapon, and some forms persisted into the Middle Ages in modified form as halberds. In societies that retained a strong hunting tradition, however, axes remained in common use, from the North American tomahawk to the dao, a hybrid sword ax, of the Assamese Naga people. Elite club Although wooden clubs were used for fighting in South Africa, this beautifully produced example, with the ball at its end carved into 19 segments, is as likely to have been a prestige object belonging to a notable. introduction Grip swords and daggers Turkish yataghan Knuckle-bow Ivory hilt inlaid with gemstones Hilt of steel inlaid with gold Pommel indian talwar Knuckle-bow or guard Grip italian renaissance sword Ricasso Guard Wooden scabbard covered with leather Backwardcurved blade Edge smallsword Hilt arms rapier Forwardcurved blade Shell guard Quillons Shell guard Tsuba Edge Japanese wakazashi Menuki Shinogo Kashira T he sword is one of the most widespread of weapons. In essence a long knife with a grip, its greater length and variations in the blade’s shape and areas of sharpness mean it can be adapted for cutting or thrusting. The earliest blades were constructed of flint or obsidian, and it was not until the invention of bronze around the 3rd millennium bce that swords really came into their own, with blades of increased strength and durability. Minoan and Mycenaean short swords (c.1400 bce) lack sophisticated grips, but already flanges cup-hilt Rapier 10 Hilts, such as the cup-shaped hilt on this rapier, became common in the 17th century. On other examples the quillons sweep down to deflect an opponent’s stroke. Hamon between the grip and hilt had been designed to protect the wearer’s hand. By 900 bce, with the invention of iron, and subsequently pattern-welding to blend the parts of the blade into a stronger and flexible whole, swords became more lethal. swords The Greek hoplite’s sword, however, was still a secondary weapon and it was not until the advent of the Roman legionaries’ short gladius hispaniensis, designed for an upward stabbing stroke at close quarters, that swordplay in its own right became a part of infantry tactics. Kissaki By the Middle Ages in Europe, the carrying of a sword became the mark of a military elite. At first they tended to be broad-bladed for cutting and delivering crushing blows against mail armor. With the appearance of plate armor from the 14th century, swords tended to become narrower, more adapted to thrusting at vulnerable joints between the plates. They ultimately developed into the rapiers of the 16th and 17th centuries. Hilts became ever more elaborate, often with cups and baskets of metal bars to protect the bearer’s hands. Outside Europe, the sword reached the apogee of its development in 14th-century Japan. GLOSSARY Pommel Slot Claymore Scottish basket-hilted broadsword Fuller Groove running along blade to lighten it Hamon Pattern of hardened steel on Japanese sword Hilt Handle of sword or dagger, made up of guard, grip, and pommel Sharp steel points Brass hilt Hammershaped pommel Rifle socket Grip chassepot bayonet Side ring guard S-shaped quillons african throwing knife Elongated blade Blade Grip bound with leather Toothed blade to trap and break opponent’s blade medieval dagger swordbreaker Long concave arms Reinforced point for penetrating mail Cross-bar grip indian katar (punching dagger) Knuckle-duster hilt Cutting edge swept upward for stabbing knuckle-knife The katana long sword of the Japanese samurai was both a badge of rank and, with its layered folded steel blade, a lethally effective blade. The Islamic world, too, had a long history of swordmaking, with Damascus long acting as a center for sword manufacture and trade. The Ottoman Empire, with its emphasis on cavalry, produced many fine types, such as the curved kilij and yataghan sabers: from Mughal India came the talwar, with its characteristic disc-shape pommel. ceremonial swords The advent of hand-held firearms, however, rendered the sword—as many other closequarters arms—almost redundant. In Western armies, the sword survived longest as a combat weapon in the cavalry, where a downward stroke at the gallop with a curved saber could inflict severe wounds. But by the 20th century, the sword was largely a ceremonial weapon, confined to the dress uniforms of officers. Daggers Daggers were some of the earliest weapons, an evolution of a cutting knife for use in combat. Because of the relative shortness of their blades—from 6 to 19½ in (15 to 50 cm) —daggers are principally a close-quarters weapon, used for thrusting or stabbing. In Africa, however, throwing knives evolved, with a variety of points designed to pierce at whatever angle they struck the target. Some daggers, such as the Indian katar, had reinforced blades and enhanced gripping surfaces to allow the penetration of mail armor. In the 17th century, as fencing techniques Kilic Thin Turkish blade with a curved grip Kissaki Point of Japanese sword blade Kris Malay dagger, often with wavy blade kukri Short, curved sword from Nepal menuki Hand-grip of Japanese sword Mune Back surface of Japanese sword Pommel Counterweight, often spherical, at top of sword grip to provide balance Quillon Guard crosspieces lying at rightangles to the blade and hilt of a sword Rapier Thrusting sword with long blade, common from 16th century Ricasso Unsharpened section of blade above sword guard Rondel Narrowbladed medieval dagger Saber Curved-bladed weapon, typically used by cavalry Schiavona Italian twoedged sword with basket-hilt Scramasax Iron dagger used by Franks and Saxons Shamshir Persian saber Shinogo Ridge-line of Japanese sword Smallsword Light, one-handed sword that evolved from the rapier Spatha Longer, Roman cavalry sword Stiletto Italian stabbing dagger with no cutting edge Tang Hidden portion of the blade running through the hilt to the pommel Tanto Japanese dagger tsuba Hand guard of Japanese sword became more elaborate, the dagger emerged, wielded in the other hand from the sword to allow parrying and close-in stabbing under the opponent’s guard. Occasionally, daggers with toothed edges were used that could catch and break an enemy’s weapon. From the 17th century, the dagger gave rise to the bayonet—essentially a dagger attached to a firearm should hand-to-hand combat occur. The dagger continues to find use among warriors who are liable to find themselves in close contact with the enemy, such as those in the special forces. Machete A South American weapon with a characteristic curved blade that can be used both for cutting through undergrowth and hacking at enemies. This lightweight palm-wood example is from Ecuador. 11 introduction Spike staff weapons bardiche Long, curved steel blade Knife-shaped blade etched with imperial monogram Pick point horseman’s hammer Four-sided hammer head Grip Shaft Hook Flanged steel mace glaive Spike Grip Acorn-shaped finial Shaft t he attaching of a blade or club to a long, commonly wooden, shaft to create a staff weapon gave foot soldiers some means to attack cavalry, or at least to keep them at bay. The greatest variety of types were seen in the later Middle Ages and Renaissance in Europe, just at the time social changes pitted infantry militias from Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Italy against armies of mounted knights. Yet in origin, they are far more ancient than this. The principal weapon of the Greek hoplite in the 6th century bce was a spear used in a phalanx formation as a thrusting weapon to create an almost impenetrable metal hedgehog. Alexander the Great’s Macedonians in the 12 4th century bce employed an extended—almost 20 ft (6 m) long—pike (or sarissa), but thereafter long-shafted staff weapons largely fell out of favor until the 13th century. crushing weapons Among those staff weapons used primarily for close-quarters fighting was the mace, which came to be a symbol of authority in some countries. The Egyptian ruler is seen wielding one on the Palette of Narmer (c.3000 bce), while in late medieval Europe, the mace became associated with civic and royal power. Its military use was as a crushing weapon that could break bones even when they were shielded by armor. Steel flanges were often used to focus the force of the blow and to inflict even more severe injuries upon oponents. Many of the staff weapons that appeared from the 14th century onward had their origins in the modification of agricultural implements. The bill, for example, which had a sharp edge on the inside of the blade, is a modified scythe, while the military fork or trident is an adaptation of the farmer’s pitch fork. Jousting lance Tournament lances such as this, with a tapering wooden shaft, were designed to shatter on impact with armor or a shield. If the point, or fragments of the wood, penetrated the neck or helmet, the injuries caused could be fatal. GLOSSARY Bardiche Staff weapon with long, curved blade, commonly used in eastern Europe Bill Staff weapon with wide, curved cutting blade Boar spear Staff with long spearpoint, and lugs to prevent an injured boar working its way up the shaft Glaive Staff weapon with long, single-edged knifelike blade Halberd Short, wide, ax-like blade, with a spearpoint, and a back spike for penetrating armor Spearlike point Spear point pike Fluke halberd Pole Point Blade Shaft cerEmonial halberd turkish mace Hollow steel head with raised ribs Grip Ax blade Grip Shaft The pike, a simple variant of the ancient form, became the most widespread staff weapon, having earlier fallen out of favor. Wielded in dense formation by infantrymen, most notably the Swiss, and in mixed formations, such as the Spanish tercio, as a defensive shield behind which musketeers could fire, it would prove to be a useful multipurpose weapon. The pike showed its effectiveness in battles such as Courtrai (1302) where Flemish militiamen armed with long spears and wooden clubs (or goedendags) disrupted a charge by French knights and then hacked them to pieces. later staff weapons The addition of an axhead to a pike point, along with a spike on the back of the head, created a halberd, a versatile weapon that— shorter than a pike—could be used for thrusting, hooking cavalrymen from horses, or clubbing. A common type of staff weapon in eastern Europe was the bardiche, which had a long cutting edge similar to an ax, but lacked the pointed end of the halberd. Particularly in use among cavalrymen was the war-hammer—with a hammer head on one side of the shaft-head and a picklike blade on the other. The hammer was used to stun opponents, the pick to penetrate armor to finish them off. The increasing importance of firearms, however, meant fewer infantrymen were equipped with staff weapons. Increasingly they became badges of office for noncommissioned officers, lingering on into Langet Metal strips attached to shaft of staff weapon, protecting the joint with the weapon head Lochaber Ax Wide, curved blade with a narrow curled hook for unseating cavalry Lucerne Hammer Staff weapon with hammer head and pick point Mace Metal ball attached to a staff, often spiked or flanged Magari Yari A Japanese form of trident Naginata Japanese staff weapon with curved blade, similar to glaive Partisan Wide-bladed weapon with a spearpoint and projecting winglike lugs at the base Pike A long staff weapon, up to 23 ft (7 m) with spearpoint Poleax Staff weapon surmounted by an axhead. Often used by knights. Quarterstaff Simple staff without weapon head Sode garami Japanese “sleeve-tangler” used to unhorse enemies wearing loose-sleeved clothing Spontoon Short half-pike commonly carried by European noncommissioned officers in the 17th and 18th centuries the 18th and 19th century as the spontoon. Yet just at this time, staff weapons in the form of the lance gained wider use in cavalry formations. Having their origins in the jousting weapons of medieval knights, lances were reintroduced in Napoleonic times as a shock weapon for units of Uhlans. As late as World War I, lances were still carried by the cavalry of some armies, but by then, both staff weapons and cavalry itself were relics of a past era. German Partisan Almost the last type of staff weapon to survive was the partisan. Decorative versions, such as this late-17th century German example, were used as badges of office by sergeants and other non-commissioned officers. 13 introduction firearms Lock plate set into stock Powder and Ball Match holder Pan cover Serpentine how it works Gunpowder and ball were inserted separately into the barrel, which was drilled through to form a vent to a pan containing a small measure of powder. Ignited by a match (shown below) or sparks from a flint, it produced a flash, which set off the main charge. Stock Lead ball Charge Vent Pan cover english Matchlock musket Pan Trigger Trigger guard extends to form grip Brass serpentine Pan Japanese matchlock musket Brass mainspring Shaft Trigger Pan Match Primer Serpentine Match ignites primer Cock Trigger Fore sight Barrel german Wheellock musket Trigger acts on serpentine Primer ignites charge via vent Serpentine retracts Pulling the trigger plunges the match into the pan. This produces a Trigger guard grip 14 Smouldering end of match smouldering match to liven it, and by moving the pan cover aside. Cock pivot point T how it works The first guns were set off by applying a coal to the pan by hand, but soon they acquired their first simple mechanical component—a bar that held a lighted slow-match in position above the pan. Later a pan cover and a spring-loaded trigger were added. Trigger guard Serrated wheel Stock Burning match Before firing, the gun is made ready by blowing on the already- Button trigger “Flint” is iron pyrites Primer Matchlock Pan cover drawn back manually Lacquered stock Pan flash that ignites the charge via a vent in the side of the barrel. here is no certainty as to where gunpowder was invented; China, India, The Middle East, and Europe all have their supporters. As to when, most agree that it took place sometime during the 13th century, though it may have been earlier. We can be a little more precise about the invention of the gun, however. This took place prior to 1326, for two separate contemporary manuscripts tell us so, and from that date onward, references to guns become more frequent. The earliest known example of a gun was found in the ruins of the castle of Monte Varino, in Italy, which was destroyed in 1341. The gun was a simple tube, closed at one end and drilled through near that end to allow the charge of powder inside to be ignited with a glowing wire or coal. It was fitted with a pole at the breech, and probably required two men to fire it. matchlocks The first improvement to this simple design, which created the matchlock, saw the addition of a serpentine (so-called because it was S-shaped and resembled a snake) which held a length of string (or “slow-match”), treated with saltpeter to keep it alight. The serpentine was pivoted around its center; pulling back on its lower arm pushed its upper arm forward, touching the glowing end of the string into the priming powder. The latter lay in a pan outside the barrel, but was connected to the main charge of powder and ball by a touch-hole. The chief advantage of this design was that one man could use it on his own. A trigger was added later, to act upon the serpentine by way of a connecting sear, along with a spring that held the match off the pan until positive pressure was applied to the trigger. A version was also produced in which the spring worked the other way (when the sear was released, it propelled the match forward)—but the impact often extinguished the match. Wheellock pistol Known as the wheellock, the first attempt to detonate the charge mechanically used a wheel, wound against a spring and released by the trigger. Iron pyrites held to the wheel gave off sparks, which lit the priming. GLOSSARY Barrel Striking steel Cock Flintlock pistol Feather spring Pan Flintlock how it works Because matches were unreliable, they were replaced by a device that produced sparks—a flint, propelled by a spring to strike a serrated steel. A link between trigger and pan cover was added, plus a spring to move the pan as the flint fell. Steel Trigger Top-jaw screw Brass butt Prawl prevents slipping Pan cover closed Striking steel and pan cover Flint Cock Lock plate Flint Cock Barrel retained in stock by pin Trigger Spring in compression Pan Before firing, the cock is retained by a mainspring (not shown here), which is connected to the trigger by a sear. A second spring holds the pan cover closed over the pan. Trigger Pan Mainspring acts on both cock and pan cover English miquelet dueling pistol Cock plunges forward Flint strikes against steel Steadying spur on trigger guard Trigger retracted Saw-handle butt with incised checkering Cock Pulling the trigger propels the cock forward to hit the edge of the steel. This releases a second spring, which acts on the steel, forcing the latter to retract and reveal the pan. Striking steel and pan cover Flint Pan cover open Cock fully forward Concealed box lock Brass barrel Sparks ignite primer Spring-loaded bayonet Bayonet release trigger Spring flicks the pan cover open Trigger Despite various improvements, however, the matchlock remained a cumbersome and unpredictable device. Far more reliable was the wheellock, invented around 1500, which used a wheel turned by a coiled spring to strike sparks from pyrites into the pan. Though complicated, it made it possible for the gun to be used onehanded and for it to be held ready for use. flintlocks The next step was to find a simpler way of creating sparks. This was achieved by using a spring-loaded flint (which lasted longer than pyrites) and bringing it into contact with a suitably-shaped serrated steel, flintlock Blunderbuss pistol Spring released Sparks caused by the flint striking the steel fall into the pan to ignite the primer. This produces a flash that ignites the charge via a vent in the side of the barrel. striking sparks from it in the process. The first such lock was known in English as a snaphance, or snaphaunce, a corruption of a Dutch phrase, schnapp hahn, “pecking hen,” which described the action of what became known as the cock. The snaphance originated in northern Europe, but at around the same time, a very similar device was coming into use in Italy. It had shortcomings, notably the way the pan cover was displaced by an awkward linkage to the trigger, but these were overcome in Spain about halfway through the 16th century by the simple expedient of extending the foot of the steel to become the pancover, and flicking it out of the way ACTION The method of loading and/or firing a gun. AUTOMATIC A firearm that will continue to load and fire while the trigger is pressed. BATTERY The state of a gun’s action when it is ready to fire. BENT A notch on the cock, hammer or striker in which the sear engages, to hold it off. BELT FEED A way of supplying ammunition to the breech of an automatic weapon. BLOWBACK A way of operating an automatic or semi-automatic weapon in which the breech is not locked, but held closed by a spring or by inertia. BOLT The part of the weapon that closes and seals the breech. It may also load and extract cartridges and carry the firing pin. BOLT ACTION A firearm relying on a turning bolt to lock its breech closed. BORE The number of shot of a given size which can be cast from 1 lb of lead; the diameter of a barrel. BOX-LOCK A flintlock in which the action is contained within a central box behind the breech. BREECH The closed rear end of a gun’s barrel. BREECH-BLOCK Analogous to the bolt. BULLET The projectile a weapon fires. It may be spherical, cylindro-conical (a cylinder with a coneshaped point) or cylindroogival (a cylinder with a rounded point), or even hollow-pointed. BULLPUP A rifle that has its mechanism set well back in the shoulder stock, allowing a normal barrel length in an abbreviated weapon. BUTT The stock between shoulder and trigger; the part of a pistol held in the hand. CALIBER The internal diameter of the barrel. CARBINE A shortbarreled rifle or musket. CARTRIDGE CASE The container for the propellant, primer and projectile. 3 at the vital moment by means of the exposed mainspring, creating the miquelet lock. About 60 years later, a French gunmaker, Marin le Bourgeois, combined the one-piece steel and pan cover of the miquelet lock with the internal mainspring of the snaphance to produce the first true flintlock. Later improvements were minor, and saw the addition of roller bearings and strengthening bridles. Hadley Flintlock Sport gun, 1770 The flintlock was perfected by about 1750, having acquired roller bearings to act on the springs and bridles to hold the components in perfect alignment. This shotgun is an example of the flintlock in its heyday. 15 introduction firearms Percussion Cap Round barrel how it works The cap is formed of two layers of copper foil between which a mixture of fulminate of mercury, potassium chlorate, and sulfur or antimony. The composition bursts into flame when it is struck, the flame burning through the foil and passing down the bore of the anvil to ignite the powder. Percussion cap Combined mainspring and hammer Flat-planed butt underhammer percussion cap pistol Ring trigger Hammer falls vertically Anvil (or “nipple”) Hammer Round barrel Loading / ejection gate Flash travels down hole in anvil Hammer strikes capped anvil Ejector rod Lefaucheux pinfire revolver Vent to barrel Trigger Trigger guard steadying spur The hammer acts on a mainspring and is retained, holding it under pressure, by a sear connected to the trigger. Tripping the sear releases the hammer, driving it onto an anvil on which the percussion cap has been placed. The primer in the cap bursts into flame when it is struck. The flame passes down a bore in the anvil and into the powder charge in the barrel. Trigger Rear sight Hammer Fore sight Tool compartment Barrel Breechblock is raised and lowered by breech lever Trigger Sling swivel Breechopening lever Sharps percussion cap Carbine Rear sight Barrel band Side-mounted hammer Butt with high comb Five-chamber cylinder Trigger Percussion caps 16 Even in its most efficient form, the flintlock had its drawbacks. Chief among these were the need for the flint to be kept in precisely the right shape and place, and for the touch-hole to be kept clear of residue. There was also a delay between the cock falling and the gun firing. Fulminating salts, which exploded on impact, had been known for over a century, but they were still too volatile to be a practical substitute for flint. Then, in 1800, Edward Howard synthesized fulminate of mercury, which was relatively docile. The Reverend Alexander Forsyth (a keen wildfowler) combined it with potassium chlorate and used the new priming to detonate gunpowder. It was another 20 years before a reliable system of delivering fulminate primer to the breech, in the shape of percussion Colt percussion cap Revolving Rifle Brass trigger guard caps, was developed, but when it was (probably by British-born artist Joshua Shaw, working in the US in 1822), it rendered all other ignition systems obsolete. revolvers The first firearms produced to exploit the new development were conversions of existing weapons (single-shot muzzle-loading pistols and rifles), but they were soon joined by multiplebarreled pistols, known as pepperboxes, in which a group of barrels was mounted on an axial rod which was turned, complete with charge and percussion cap, to present a fresh barrel to the hammer. And then, in 1836, a young American named Samuel Colt patented the cylinder revolver, and began producing both pistols and rifles in this form. Colt’s guns could fire six shots in a few seconds, but they were still slow to load, even though the loading process had become easier with the invention of the waterproof cartridge, which contained both charge and projectile and didn’t have to be introduced via the muzzle. Pepperbox Revolver, 1849 The pepperbox revolver, with its barrels mounted on an axial pin, was a successful, though expensive, way of producing a multiple-shot pocket pistol. It was soon superceded by the cylinder revolver. 4 Fore sight Nipple Hammer Trigger Barrel band retains barrel in stock Rear sight Barrel band held in place by a leaf spring Ramrod doubles as cleaning rod Springfield M1863 Percussion cap rifle Trigger guard Hammer Fore sight Barrel retained by pin Nipple Heavy octagonal barrel Rear sight Butt with incised chequering to improve grip Ramrod English percussion cap dueling pistol Preset trigger Trigger guard Steadying spur Fore sight Bolt handle Small of stock sized to fit hand Trigger Barrel Rear sight Cleaning rod Mauser M71 bolt action rifle Trigger guard Fore sight Breech block Cocking lever Rear sight Trigger Cocked / uncocked indicator Martini-Henry breech-loading rifle Colt enjoyed a monopoly until 1857, but by the 1850s gunmakers on both sides of the Atlantic had begun to consider afresh the thorny problem of how to load a gun at the breech and then to make a gas-tight seal there—a process called obturation. brass cartridges Already, by about 1840, Parisian gunmaker Louis Flobert had produced the first brass cartridges—tiny affairs (used for indoor target practice) in which the propellant was fulminate. Flobert showed his cartridges at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, and thus to every gunmaker of note in the world. One of these, Daniel Wesson, took the idea further, and combined fulminate primer, contained in the rim of a brass case, with gunpowder and a bullet; Fore sight Forestock continues almost to muzzle the unitary brass cartridge was born. This new type of cartridge solved two problems at once. It combined all the elements of a gun’s ammunition into one package, and it guaranteed perfect obturation, since the brass casing itself formed the seal at the breech. Rim-fire cartridges were imperfect and soon disappeared in all but the smallest calibers, but more robust center-fire cartridges were available by 1866, and soon the world’s armies were clamoring for them. Just as the first percussion weapons had been converted flintlocks, so the first martial breech-loaders were converted muzzle-loaders, but these were stop-gap measures, Sling attachment point Cleaning rod GLOSSARY CHARGER A frame that holds cartridges, allowing them to be loaded into a magazine. CLIP See charger. CLOSED BOLT A configuration found in automatic and semi-automatic weapons in which battery is with the bolt in the closed position, with a cartridge chambered; see also open bolt. COCK The clamp that holds the flint in a flintlock weapon; the act of pulling back a hammer, bolt or cock to ready a weapon for firing. COMPENSATOR A device that reduces the muzzle’s tendency to lift or swing. CYCLE The series of operations necessary to fire a round and return the gun to battery. CYCLIC RATE The notional rate of fire of an automatic weapon. DELAYED BLOWBACK A type of blowback action in which the bolt is briefly delayed to allow chamber pressure to drop to a safe level. DOUBLE-ACTION A pistol in which the act of pulling the trigger first cocks, then releases, the action. EJECTOR A device that throws a spent cartridge case clear after it has been extracted from the chamber. EXTRACTOR A device that grips the cartridge case and pulls it clear of the chamber. FLASH ELIMINATOR An attachment at the muzzle that cools the propellant gas below its flash point. GAS OPERATION A weapon in which the cycle is effected by the propellant gas. GENERAL-PURPOSE MACHINE GUN (GPMG) A machine gun that can be used as a light machine gun or in the sustained-fire role. GRIP SAFETY A device that keeps the weapon from being fired unless held correctly. GROOVES The parallel spirals cut into the barrel that give spin to the bullet. GUNPOWDER A mixture of saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur. HEAD The closed end of a cartridge case, where the primer is located. 3 and it was only a few years before the first purpose-designed breech-loaders, such as the Martini-Henry and the Mauser M71, were being issued. The Gatling Gun, 1875 Richard Gatling produced his first workable hand-cranked multiple-barrel machine gun in 1862. Cartridges were introduced from a top-mounted hopper into the open breech of the barrel in the twelve o’clock position. The breech closed on its way down to six o’clock, where that barrel was fired, and opened again on its way back up. 17 introduction firearms Barrel band Barrel Exposed hammer Rear sight Fore sight Ring to hang rifle on saddle Tubular magazine Hinged loading/ ejection gate Winchester 1866 underlever rifle Six-chamber fluted cylinder Spring-loaded ejector rod Hammer notched to act as rear sight Trigger Barrel Blade fore sight Trigger guard extends to form cocking lever Blade fore sight Colt single-action army revolver Barrel hinge Hammer Over-andunder barrels Fore sight Trigger Six-chamber cylinder Cylinder locking slot Hammer Cylinder release catch Ejector rod Cylinder gate pin Hard rubber grip Trigger Stud trigger Lanyard ring Rear sight Bolt Remington Double Derringer pistol Forestock extends almost to the muzzle Smith & Wesson Military and Police revolver Lanyard ring Protected fore sight Bolt handle Studded muzzle Trigger Magazine release catch Detachable magazine Lee-Enfield No 4 bolt action rifle Sling swivel repeater firearms 18 At the other end of the scale, Wesson and his partner Horace Smith, who had worked for Winchester, had turned their attention to designing a revolver to take brass cartridges, but had discovered that a patent already existed for the “bored-through” cylinder that they needed to utilize. Fortunately, they were able to acquire it, in return for a royalty of 15 cents for every gun they produced, and in 1857, as soon as they were free to exploit Colt’s patent, they unveiled the first effective cartridge revolver. Colt was then frustrated by patent protection in his turn, and it was only in 1873, 11 years after his death, that his company was able to bring out another world-beater: the Single-Action Army revolver, widely known as the Peacemaker. Elsewhere, others were attempting to exploit the self-contained nature of the brass cartridge to produce other types of repeating firearm. Two were notably successful early on: Christopher Spencer and Benjamin Tyler Henry, both of whom produced tubular magazine repeater rifles in 1860 (Spencer’s had its magazine in the butt; Henry’s was below the barrel). Both were imperfect, however, for they could only handle lowpowered ammunition, and this did not satisfy military requirements. The US Army, therefore, clung to its single-shot breech-loaders, but in Europe, thanks largely to the Mauser brothers’ success with the M/71, attention swung to designing rifles with rotating bolts. Spencer’s and Henry’s guns had another weakness, too: their tubular magazines. The problem lay in the fact that the tip of the bullet was lodged against the primer of the cartridge ahead of it, and in certain circumstances could work as a firing pin, with catastrophic results. Springfield M1903 The US Army kept single-shot breech-loaders until 1892, when it adopted a bolt-action magazine rifle, the Norwegian Krag. In 1903 it replaced the Krag with a modified Mauser type rifle from the Springfield Armory. 4 Cocking Rear sight piece Loading/ ejection gate Barrel Fore sight Mauser C/96 automatic pistol Bolt Action how it works The bolt action, essentially no more complicated than the device that holds a garden gate closed, is (perhaps because it is so simple) the most sure and effective method of providing a rifle with an opening breech mechanism. The locking lugs may be at the head of the bolt or the tail, or even in both locations. Bolt advancing Bolt kicks cartridge into barrel Magazine Trigger Round butt Slide transfers recoil to cycle the action Holdopen notch Spring applies pressure in magazine Rear sight Exposed hammer Bolt fully cocked Sear keeps bolt cocked Firing pin Safety catch Cartridge fully chambered Colt M1911 automatic pistol Grip safety Trigger Fore sight Barrel Six-chambered cylinder Hammer Smith & wesson model 27 revolver Bolt fires forward Trigger trips sear Pin strikes cartridge Bolt withdrawn Trigger guard self-loading firearms Mauser was the dominant force in military rifle design during the latter part of the 19th century, and went on to capture much of the global market for heavy-caliber sport rifles, too. Most other designers simply copied Mauser’s work, and only in the United Kingdom, at the Royal Ordnance Factory at Enfield, was a markedly different type of bolt-action rifle, the work of an American of Scottish birth, James Paris Lee, produced in very significant numbers (though designs by other Europeans, notably the AustroGerman Ferdinand von Mannlicher and the Swiss Schmidt were adopted by smaller armies). Spent case is lifted, rotating the body of the bolt and freeing its locking lugs, and is then drawn fully to the rear. On its return, it picks up a cartridge from the magazine and chambers it. The bolt handle is returned to the closed position, seating the locking lugs and sealing the breech, while the firing pin is held off against its spring by the sear connected to the trigger. Pulling the trigger trips the sear, which then releases the firing pin. Under the influence of the spring, the pin flies forward and impacts with the primer in the head of the cartridge, detonating it. Withdrawing the bolt extracts the case by means of a hook on the bolt head, which engages with its rim. As it is withdrawn, it encounters a stop that disengages the case from the extractor, ejecting it. Trigger Some European gunmakers used tubular magazines in bolt-action rifles, but they were soon discredited, and box magazines took their place. Bullet The bolt handle Elsewhere in Germany, driven by Prussian militarism, increasing numbers of companies were entering the field of armaments manufacture. One, Ludwig Loewe, which had started life as a manufacturer of sewing machines, was to obtain a license to make Maxim’s machine guns, and prospered as Deutsche Waffen und Muntitionsfabrik (DWM), swallowing up Mauser in the process. It was at DWM that the first workable self-loading pistol, the Borchardt C/93, was produced. The company also made most of the Mauser C/96s, and it was while working for DWM that Georg Luger produced his masterpiece, the P’08. The latter part of the century saw the emergence of another singular force in gunmaking: John Moses Browning, a Mormon GLOSSARY HEAVY MACHINE GUN A machine gun chambered for a round of larger-thanrifle caliber, usually 12.7 mm. HINGED FRAME A pistol in which the barrel can be hinged down to expose the chamber or chambers. HOLD-OPEN DEVICE A catch that holds the bolt back if there is no cartridge to be chambered; a catch that holds the slide of a self-loading pistol back so that the weapon may be dismantled. HOLLOW-POINT A bullet with a chamber or a recess at its point, which causes it to expand or even fragment when it hits its target. LANDS The inner surfaces of a barrel, between the grooves. LIGHT MACHINE GUN A machine gun, usually fitted with a bipod, chambered for rifle-caliber ammunition, but not capable of sustained fire. LOCKED BREECH A weapon in which the breech-block is physically locked to the barrel during firing. MACHINE GUN A weapon that uses gas or recoil to cycle its action and thus give continuous fire. MACHINE-PISTOL See submachine gun. MAGAZINE A holder for cartridges that delivers them, usually by means of spring pressure, to the action. MEDIUM MACHINE GUN A machine gun cham bered for rifle-caliber ammunition, which is capable of sustained fire. MUZZLE The open front end of the barrel. MUZZLE BRAKE See compensator. OPEN BOLT A weapon in which the bolt is held back until the trigger is pulled, allowing the chamber to cool; see also closed bolt. PARABELLUM The 9 mm x 19 cartridge developed by Luger for his self-loading pistol. PRIMER Fine gunpowder used to initiate the firing sequence; a percussion cap set into a cartridge case. 3 from Ogden, Utah. Having worked for Winchester, where he produced the first pump- and self-loading shotguns, he then began an alliance with Fabrique National of Herstal, near Liège, in Belgium, and produced designs for machine guns and self-loading pistols, which were to be among the best in the world. bergmann m18/1 The unwieldiness of the first generation of rapidfire pistols lead to the creation of the submachine gun. One of the first of these was the Bergmann M18/1, made in 1918. 19 introduction FIREARMS Recoil Ammunition belt feedway Rear sight Fore sight Water jacket Rifle-type butt Integral bipod Rear sight Every action, Isaac Newton’s Third Law of Motion tells us, has an equal and opposite reaction. The action produced in a firearm propels the bullet down the barrel and on toward its target, and the reaction, known as the recoil, drives the gun into the shoulder or hand of the firer. Hiram Maxim was the first to realize that this reaction could be employed to cycle the gun’s mechanism, and produced his machine guns on that principle. Cocking handle Direction of force Barrel spring Sear retains bolt MG08/15 recoil-operated machine gun Trigger Pistol grip Muzzle compensator how it works Mainspring Firing pin Pin strikes cartridge Barrel shroud acts as radiator Drum magazine One of several lugs The cocking handle is drawn back against the mainspring. As it returns to battery, it strips a round from the magazine and chambers it, while the lugs that lock it in place are forced into their recesses. During the cocking Spring released by trigger Cooling fins Grip Trigger lewis gas-operated machine gun Bolt jumps forward, chambering cartridge Bullet fires from cartridge process, the firing pin is held off by the sear connected to the trigger. Pulling the trigger releases the sear, allowing the pin to fly forward and impact with the primer, detonating it. By the time the fn p90 gas-operated submachine gun Muzzle compensator Optical sight Box magazine Trigger retracted Direction of force Butt contains gun action Ejected shell projectile has left the muzzle, the recoil is working on the bolt to overcome the mechanism which is holding the locking lugs in place. When the locking Spring will propel bolt forward Recoil throws bolt to rear mechanism has been overcome, the bolt is free to Next cartridge travel to the rear, f0r chamber extracting the empty case and chambering a fresh one. Trigger machine guns 20 An American, Hiram Stevens Maxim, built his first machine gun in London in 1883. It used the weapon’s recoil to extract the fired case and chamber another, cocking the action in the process. If the trigger was held down, the process repeated until the ammunition supply was exhausted (or the gun jammed, which was more likely in the early days). It took some years for the real meaning of his invention to sink in, but when it did, it changed the very nature of warfare. Maxim’s patents had expired by the outbreak of World War I, and already there were competing designs in production. But inasmuch as three of the six major combatants—Britain, Germany, and Russia (and one of the minor: the Ottoman Empire, which was armed by Germany)—relied on Maxim designs, they can fairly be said to have dominated that conflict. Indeed, Britain and what was by then the Soviet Union, were still relying on Maxims (the former in the shape of the Vickers) throughout World War II. The French Army fielded a machine gun of its own, the gas-operated, air-cooled Hotchkiss, which had gone into production in 1893. It was considerably simpler than the Maxim, but tended to overheat—a problem from which the water-cooled gun never suffered, so long as a supply of coolant was available. Heavy machine guns like the Maxim and the Hotchkiss, and the Austro-Hungarian Skoda and Schwarzlose, and the American Browning (the denomination refers not to the ammunition for which they were chambered, which was rifle-caliber, but to their ability to maintain heavy sustained fire) were not the only automatic weapons found on the battlefields of World War I. Lighter, more portable weapons such as the Lewis and the lightened Maxim, known as the MG08/15, chambered for the same rounds, but which could accompany infantrymen in the assault, were also present. Desert Eagle, 1983 The Israeli Desert Eagle was the first self-loading pistol capable of handling the heaviest, most powerful Magnum pistol ammunition, thanks to its gas-operated, locked-breech design. 4 Barrel stocked close to muzzle Rear sight Fore sight Cocking handle Intergral box magazine Cocking handle how it works As an alternative to harnessing the force of the gun’s recoil, it is possible to use some of the energy produced by the sudden production of a relatively large volume of gas that propels the bullet down the barrel. Some of that gas can be tapped off after the bullet has passed, and employed to unlock the gun’s action and drive the breech-block or bolt to the rear, cycling it. Bayonet attachment lug Trigger Gas mi garand gas-operated rifle Spring Gas cylinder The bolt is drawn back against the mainspring. As it returns to battery, it strips a round from the magazine and chambers it. Barrel Direction of force Bullet fires from cartridge Bolt fully retracted Direction of force Ejected shell Gas pushes on piston Next cartridge f0r chamber Variable-magnification telescopic sight Gas bleeds off into cylinder Cocking handle On pressing the trigger, the bolt flies forward and detonates the charge in the cartridge. The bolt is attached to Firing pin strikes cartridge m16a2 gas-operated assault rifle Detachable magazine Ammunition belt Sear retains bolt Trigger releases bolt Grip Piston Carrying handle protects rear sight Plastic forestock Trigger Bolt a piston in a cylinder running parallel to the barrel. At its head is a vent into the barrel. As the projectile passes the vent, propellant gas is bled off, forcing the piston back. As the bolt travels to the rear, the spent cartridge case is ejected. If the trigger remains depressed, the cycle continues. Detachable box magazine Folded bipod Flash hider Safety catch walther wa2000 gas-operated sniper rifle Trigger Toward the end of World War I, the riflecaliber machine guns were joined by a much smaller automatic weapon, chambered for pistol ammunition and designed to put automatic firepower into the hands of the individual infantryman. The Bergmann MP18/I played only a very minor role, but it was to be a prophetic one. By the time war broke out in Europe again, the submachine gun had become ubiquitous. That, however, is not to say that its role has ever been completely understood in anything but close-quarters combat. Indeed many, even now, would maintain that its best feature is the shock it can generate, especially in a confined space, for such a weapon, capable of firing up to 1200 rounds per minute, is virtually impossible to control if the trigger is held down for any length of time. It is significant that perhaps the best of the genre in modern times, Heckler & Koch’s MP5, is available shorn of its rapid-fire setting. The police officers (and many of the soldiers) who carry such weapons do so not for their firepower, but for the increase in accuracy they offer over a pistol, thanks to their longer barrels, and for the greater capacity of their magazines. Submachine guns have never been seen as replacements for the infantryman’s assault rifle. Indeed, thanks to the drastic modifications the assault rifle has undergone, there is now more reason than ever to suggest that the submachine gun will soon join the pistol in having no effective military role beyond self-defense. More than any other man-portable weapon, GLOSSARY RECOIL The rearward movement of the barrel (or weapon) in reaction to the forward motion of the bullet. RECOIL INTENSIFIER A device attached to the muzzle that increases the recoil of a recoil-operated automatic weapon. RECOIL OPERATION A weapon in which the cycle is effected by the recoil of the barrel or breech-block. REVOLVER A weapon in which the ammunation is carried in a rotating cylinder. RIFLING The spiral grooves cut into the barrel that induce spin on the bullet. RIMLESS A type of cartridge case that has a recessed groove, rather than a rim, around its head, to allow the extractor to grip it. RIMMED A cartridge case with a rimmed head to allow the extractor to grip it. SEAR Part of the firing mechanism that connects the trigger to the cock, hammer, or striker by engaging in a bent in it. When the trigger is pulled, the sear clears the bent, allowing the hammer to fall. SELECTIVE FIRE A weapon that can fire single rounds or automatically. SELF-LOADING A weapon in which the act of firing a round recocks it, having chambered a fresh cartridge. SILENCER A device at the muzzle that slows the propellant gas, by diverting it through baffles, and also slows the bullet to below the speed of sound. SUBMACHINE GUN A handheld automatic weapon firing pistol-caliber rounds. TRIGGER The short lever that trips the sear out of the bent on the cock, hammer, etc. to initiate the firing sequence. WINDAGE The adjustment of a sight to compensate for the effect of a crosswind upon the bullet. ZEROING Adjusting a weapon’s sights so that the point of aim and the point of impact are the same. the assault rifle (much-reduced in weight and length, thanks to the introduction of “bullpup” designs, which have the mechanism housed within the shoulder stock, and chambered for much lighter ammunition) has changed to accommodate the nature of the task facing the soldier who carries it. Projector, Infantry, Anti-tank, 1942 The British Army’s PIAT of World War II vintage was perhaps one of the most bizarre weapons of the 20th century, yet despite its simplicity, it was capable of disabling even heavy tanks at up to a hundred yards, and could also function as a mortar and “bunker buster.” 21 introduction armor and helmets Leather neck strip Sallet Kabuto (Helmet) Helmet crest Visor Bevor Besagew Mempo (Face mask) Breastplate Kote (Armored sleeves) viking Mail shirt Spaulder Rerebrace Coulter Do (Cuirass) Kasazuri (Tasset) Gauntlet Reinforced scalloped plates Riveted mail cloak Cuisse Large protective plates Poleyn Haidate (Skirt guard) Greave Suneate (Shin guards) german gothic T 22 Leather shoes he most ancient form of armor was probably made of animal hides, followed by leather or cotton. As metal technology progressed, bronze, and then iron armor appeared. Greek hoplites from the 7th century bce wore a bronze helmet, a bell-shaped corselet of leather or bronze, and bronze greaves for the shins. During the early empire, the Romans developed banded-iron armor (called lorica segmentata), with reinforced sections across the shoulder, that allowed for more flexible movement. Later Roman infantry tended to be less heavily armored, although their cavalry (or cataphracts) wore a coat of heavy mail. mughal japanese samurai Mail then remained the dominant form of armor in western Europe until the 15th century. Steppe nomads, such as the Turks and Mongols, wore both scale and lamellar armor, the latter constructed of individual pieces (or lames) laced together in horizontal rows (rather than being sewn on). The arrangement of protective plates thus formed could become quite elaborate, reaching the summit of its development in the O-Yoroi armor of Japanese samurai. Their hardened leather Badge of rank The gorget was among the last pieces of armor to be worn on the battlefield. By the 18th century, a reduced version had become a badge marking out officers. plates coated in lacquer to give strength equal to steel also provided greater flexibility and lightness. technological improvements By the 15th century, the danger from improved weapons including the longbow, crossbow, and firearms meant that chain armor, well adapted for deflecting sword blows, became more vulnerable. Small plates or discs of steel had already been added to armor to protect the most vulnerable areas, and these now evolved into entire suits of toughened steel. Gradually, from the 16th century, armor was reduced to save weight—and expense—for foot soldiers. For the cavalry, however, backand breastplates (or cuirasses) survived into the 19th century, and in ceremonial form even later. With the development in the 20th century GLOSSARY Metal top knot Helmet bowl Reinforced ridge “Frogshaped” visor Cone-shaped headpiece Ridge shape to deflect lances Nosepiece Felt ear flaps contain iron plates jousting helm Cheek guard korean Eye holes viking Chin strap Stirnpanzer (additional steel plate) Stud Outer steel shell Attaching strap Inner padded lining us M1 Helmet Peak GERMAN World War I of lightweight materials such as Kevlar, which could impede bullets, body armor made a return to the battlefield in the form of ballistic jackets. HELMETS After the fall of Rome, the techniques for creating helmets from a single sheet of iron disappeared. Segmented helmets such as the Bandhelm, popular among the Vikings, replaced them, with a band holding the two parts of the bowl of the helmet together. Such early medieval European helmets did not protect the whole face, and just as body armor became heavier, so did head protection, leading to the evolution by the 12th century of “Great Helms” that covered the whole face and neck. Again, these proved too heavy and impractical and lighter versions, such as basinets, Armet Bowl-shaped helmet with cheek plates meeting at the chin, attached by hinges Arming cap Quilted cap worn under a helmet Aventail Skirt of mail to defend neck Bandenhelm Germanic helmet held together by central band or ridge Bard Armor designed for a horse Basinet Conical or globular skull, often without visor Besagew Small discs laced to the shoulder to defend armpit Bevor Cupped chin defense Chapeau de Fer Simple metal domed helmet Coolus helmet Late republican/early imperial Roman helmet with basin shape Corinthian helmet Classic Greek hoplite helmet Cuisse Armor for the thigh Do Japanese cuirass Gauntlet Hand armor of small plates attached to leather Gorget Neck armor, often fixed to the plate with a latch or pin Great Helm Large helmet enclosing entire skull and neck Greave Plate to defend lower leg Haidate Skirtlike guard to protect groin Hauberk A mail shirt Kabuto Japanese helmet Kote Armored sleeves in samurai armor Mempo Ornamented face mask in Japanese armor Poleyn Knee defense, often articulated and with projecting wings rerebrace Tubular defense for upper arm Sabaton Foot armor of articulated plates ending in toe-cap worn over leather shoes Sallet Helmet with flared tail and visor Spangenhelm Germanic helmet of segmented construction Top Indian Mughal helmet with mail veil vambrace Tubular defense for forearm appeared by the later Middle Ages. Turkish and Mongol helmets often took a peaked form, a version in metal of the steppe nomads’ felt cap, while the Japanese samurai wore elaborate helmets of lacquered leather, with a mempo for additional protection. With the increased use in firearms, helmets began to disappear until improved designs, which could defend against bullets and shrapnel, led to a renaissance in helmets, from World War I “tin-pot” helmets, to the reinforced Kevlar helmets of the modern infantryman. Samurai helmet Japanese samurai helmets came in a wide variety of styles. This Hineno zunari bachi is a “head-shaped” version, with a helmet bowl of simplified construction, lacquered in red, with its frontal plate finished in gold lacquer. 23 the ancient world the first warriors This rock painting from Algeria shows one of the earliest images of warfare, as ranks of warriors armed with hunting bows confront each other. In prehistoric times there were no armies as such, merely ad hoc bands of warriors armed with stone weapons for raids on neighboring groups. But, as Neolithic agricultural settlements coalesced into villages and then, from the 4th millennium bce, into towns and cities with organized ruling and priestly classes, the means and weapons for waging war increased correspondingly in sophistication and effectiveness. Agriculture implied the concentration of greater resources in a fixed position, and the need to defend food, manpower, and minerals gave rise to the first walled city, Jericho, and fortified villages such as Çatal Hüyük in modern Turkey. It was in the fertile river valleys of Egypt, India, and, more particularly in the Sumerian culture of Mesopotamia that this process reached its fruition, with the growth of the earliest armies from around 3000 bce. The Sumerians inhabited many city-states, existing in an almost continuous state of warfare fueled by competition for the bounty of the “land between the two rivers.” The c.3000 bce Beginning of bronze-working in Mesopotamia allows introduction of more lethal weapons 3000 “Royal Standard of Ur,” excavated from one of the most successful of these city-states, carries the earliest depiction of an organized armed force, led by its lugal or king. It consists of a mixture of light infantry bearing javelins and battle axes (but no shields) and helmeted heavy infantry wielding a mass of longer spears. The Sumerian chariots were cumbersome affairs with solid wheels drawn by four ass-like creatures—hardly practical vehicles for warfare. A commemorative tablet known as the Stele of Vultures shows that by c.2450 bce, the Sumerians were fighting in a tight formation of helmeted spearmen, which prefigured the phalanx—the mainstay of infantry warfare for over 2,000 years. The Sumerian cities were eventually overcome by Sargon of Agade (c.2300 bce), who built the world’s earliest empire, campaigning with an army that was the first to exploit mixed arms, combining light troops with heavier infantry and archers. Although warfare continued to plague the region, the pace of technological change was relatively 26 technological innovations A series of cultural and technological developments in the 2nd millennium bce changed the face of warfare and allowed states to project their power ever further, garner more resources, and repeat the process until they came up against a stronger foe. One of these developments was the widespread domestication of the horse. At the same time, the perfection of bent-wood techniques, allowed spokes to be used on chariot wheels. Along with the development of a practical composite bow that allowed rapid fire from these new chariots, these developments helped New Kingdom Egypt—which though long politically united, had remained very c.700 bce Earliest metal swords in Mesopotamia Development of hoplite armor and tactics c.1250 bce War chariots depicted on Royal Standard of Ur c.1000 bce Rise of Assyrian empire Composite bows in use in Egypt 1500 c.612 bce Scythians use bows from horseback Destruction of Nineveh; end of Assyrian empire 1000 bce c.4th century bce c.900 bce 500 bce c.3000 bce Palette of Narmer depicts Egyptian pharaoh using stone mace slow, mainly consisting of refinements of existing weaponry. One example of this is in the improved molding that allowed the Mesopotamian battle ax to become doublebladed, inflicting appalling slashing and gouging wounds, and leading, in turn, to the increased use of metal helmets. c.2000 bce c.2600 bce bce The earliest weapons—the bow, spear, club, and ax—had their origins in hunting, but it was in warfare—the competition for resources conducted by violent means—that they were honed and perfected as killing tools. Although the basic design of these weapons, and the materials used to make them, remained largely unchanged throughout the ancient period, from stone to copper, bronze and then iron, their efficacy (and the organization of those who wielded them) increased. 430–404 bce Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta Arthasastra Indian treatise on military science bce c.490 bce c.2500 bce First metal armor in Mesopotamia c.1600 bce c.1200 bce Chariot archers employed in warfare Use of chariot declines in West Asia and Europe c.1000 bce c.900 bce Iron begins to replace bronze in Mesopotamia Introduction of iron swords in West Asia Battle of Marathon: Greek phalanxes defeat invading Persian army 371 bce Theban victory at Leuctra ends Spartan hoplite supremacy conservative in its use of military technology —to launch a devastating series of campaigns in the Middle East. The chariots’ principle task was to disrupt opposing infantry and cut them down as they fled. Chariots rarely engaged each other directly, as at Kadesh (c.1275 bce), the earliest well-documented battle, where the army of Pharaoh Rameses II fought a draw with the Hittites, who had become Egypt’s principal rival. The discovery in around 1200 bce of hothammering and quenching iron in water to give stronger and longer-lasting blades added a new element of lethality to warfare, and also helped the spread of longer stabbing and slashing swords to supplant the daggers and axes, which had hitherto been the most common bladed weapons. the first standing army It was the Assyrians who were the first to really exploit this development. Employing the earliest standing army—as many as 100,000 strong according to one text—and exploiting their military prowess and reputation for ruthless extermination of those who opposed them, they carved out an enormous empire encompassing most of Mesopotamia. The Assyrians possessed a well-defined chain of command, with specialist units of cavalry, armed with iron-tipped spears, slingers, and bowmen, whose massed fire could be devastating to an enemy, and which led to an increased use in armor, such as knee-length scale tunics. They also developed extensive expertise in siege warfare, and in the taking of Lachish (701 bce) deployed siege engines that were not surpassed until Roman times. The Assyrian state under kings such as TiglathPileser III (745–27 bce) was capable of fighting sustained campaigns and defending a large area with mobile chariot forces. In the end, however, the multinational nature of its empire was to prove its undoing, as its resources became overstretched and a series of revolts caused its rapid collapse in c.612 bce. The Persians, too, built a multiethnic empire from the mid-6th century bce, but on a magnified scale, stretching from the borders of India to the Aegean. At the heart of their army was an elite corps of “Immortals,” fighting with short spear and bow from behind a shield-wall. As the Persian domain expanded, light cavalry from Media, light infantry from the mountain regions, and even a camel-corps from the Middle East were added. Ironically, despite this well-balanced combination, the Persians were eventually defeated by an apparently tactically inflexible force, the Greek hoplite army. Greece was ill-suited to cavalry, its generally mountainous terrain was better for to smallscale infantry warfare. Emerging by 800 bce from the dark age of heroic warfare depicted in the epic poems of Homer, the Greek city-states relied on massed ranks of infantry soldiers, or hoplites. Assyrian siege Archers formed a key component in an Assyrian army whose sophistication enabled it to fight pitched battles, send chariot forces across large distances, and deploy complex siege engines against any city that dared oppose it. c.350 bce Macedonians develop phalanx with long sarissa pike 350 216 bce Carthaginian Hannibal defeats Roman legions at Cannae 1 bce 333–326 bce Alexander the Great’s Macedonians conquer Persia and Egypt 107 bce Marian reforms establish standard Roman legionary equipment, including gladius sword, pilum javelin, and scutum shield 146 bce Rome defeats Carthage in 3rd Punic War 400 ce Bow and arrow introduced in eastern North America 117 ce Roman empire reaches greatest extent 632–c.750 ce Spread of Islam across West Asia and North Africa 500 ce c.800 ce Abbasids develop damascene steel swords 1000 ce ce c.750 ce 100 ce c.200 ce Spatha, longer slashing swords, come into use in Roman cavalry Indian forged steel used in weaponry 476 ce End of western Roman empire Carbon steel swords using folded steel process first appear in Japan c.900 ce Viking raids at peak in Europe 976 ce Magyars defeated at Battle of Lechfeld 27 the ancient world Wielding a large shield held by a central hand-grip that protected only the left-side of the body, hoplites were dependent on their neighbor to shield their unguarded right side. Deployed in a phalanx, eight to twelve men deep, wielding long spears and protected by bronze helmets that left only the eyes and mouth exposed, the hoplites presented a shield and spear wall that opponents found very difficult to penetrate. The earliest depiction of such a phalanx occurred in around 670 bce. By the time of the Persian invasion in 490 bce, the development of this style of warfare, which depended on the cohesion of the soldiers within it, and their momentum as a mass, had been perfected by the Spartans, who possessed a full-time army trained in basic drills and able to conduct maneuvers such as facing an enemy coming from two directions. At Marathon (490 bce) and Plataea (479 bce), the Persians crumbled in the face of a hoplite charge, unable to counter with their cavalry, and undermined by their inferior discipline and cohesion. the army of alexander the great By the 4th century bce, it was a very different Greek army that took the fight to the Persians. The Macedonian army of Alexander the Great resolved the fundamental weakness of the hoplite force—its lack of a mounted striking arm. Alexander’s “Companions,” an elite cavalry unit, was trained to fight in a wedgeshaped formation ideal for penetrating other cavalry formations and disrupting infantry shield-walls. Added to this were the footcompanions, who fought on foot in a phalanx formation and were armed with the sarissa, a pike around 19½ ft (6 m) long. The sarissa of the foremost rank would project around 13 ft (4 m) in front of the phalanx, that of the second rank 6½ ft (2 m) and so on, creating an obstacle to deter all but the most determined assailant and which could also deflect missiles. The weight of the sarissa was such that the members of the phalanx wore just light leather corselets and greaves and carried only daggers as sidearms. In battle, the Companions would generally punch a hole in the enemy line, which the sarissa phalanx would exploit. The tactical genius of Alexander, who used oblique formations, feints, and envelopments to devastating effect, combined with the tactical flexibility that the mixed cavalry-infantry army of Macedonia permitted, enabled him to defeat the numerically superior Persians at Issus (333 bce) and Gaugamela (331 bce) and take over their empire wholesale. What they won through military cohesion, the Macedonian successors of Alexander lost through political fractiousness, and by the 1st century bce, the successor states in Asia and Africa were much weakened, while a manpower crisis in Greece meant traditional hoplite armies were increasingly difficult to sustain. the rise of rome the roman army The Roman Empire’s survival for over 400 years is a tribute to its ability to modify its military organization to face changing strategic needs. Under Marius in the late 2nd century bce, extensive reforms created the classic Roman legion, with standardized equipment supplied by the state, the cohort of around 100 men as the tactical unit, and a legion strength of about 4–5,000 men. Legionaries bore the short gladius (sword), the pilum (heavy throwing spear) —designed to break on impact —– the oval scutum (shield), and, from the 1st century ce, generally lorica segmentata (armor). The carved tablet egyptian spearhead This spearhead, discovered wrapped in a linen binding, is typical of the weapons carried by Pharaonic armies from the Old Kingdom right up until military changes during the New Kingdom brought chariotborne archers to the fore. legions were supported by auxiliary troops, with more varied equipment, and specialists such as mounted archers and slingers. Under the later empire, legion sizes became much smaller—as little as 1,000—while the role of the cavalry and units recruited from Germanic tribes increased. It was into this arena that the new Mediterranean power of Rome encroached, backed up by a military force of unparalleled efficiency —the legion. Rome overcame its enemies, in part by its capacity to keep large armies constantly in the field (as many as 13 legions by 190 bce). The Romans could survive even such a devastating defeat as the Carthaginian Hannibal inflicted on them at Cannae in 216 bce—but their enemies had no such luxury. The organization of the legions developed over time, but by the early 1st century ce, had reached their full development (see box). It was above all the professionalism of the legionaries —who each served for 25 years—and the Roman Empire’s superior logistics, enabling it to equip, train, and transport large armies, that helped it to annex a huge area of Europe, North Africa, and West Asia and hold it for over four centuries. The Romans exceled in pitched battle and sought to force such confrontations whenever possible. Against more mobile foes, or opponents who had no cities or fixed centers to defend, however, the Roman way of war faltered. When defending long, fixed frontiers the legions could not cover all possible points of attack. Long vulnerable to mounted horse archers, such as the Parthians who overwhelmed Crassus at Carrhae in 53 bce, the Romans also found it increasingly difficult to absorb the sapping pillage and run tactics of the German warrior federations that evolved from the 3rd century. The late empire, from the time of Gallienus (260–68 ce), came to depend more on a mobile field force (the comitatenses), with an enhanced heavy cavalry arm, wielding longer spatha swords. With their suits of mail, and sometimes carrying lances, these armored soldiers began to resemble the knights of early medieval times. At the same time, the frontier troops (limitanei), starved of resources and motivation, became increasingly unable to withstand the successive waves of Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other barbarian invaders. after the romans When the Roman Empire in the West finally collapsed in 476 ce, the Germanic successor states inherited many of its legal and administrative systems. The most powerful of these, the Frankish kingdom, was able to project its power beyond the Rhine, into Italy and even northern Spain in the late 8th century under Charlemagne. Fighting in mailed byrnies (leather jackets) and armed with long swords and axes, the Frankish army’s superior arms and organization, along with its use of auxiliaries from conquered nations such as the Saxons and Carinthians, made it invulnerable to everything save the political division and dynastic squabbling that fragmented the kingdom in the 9th century. The break-up of the Frankish Empire came just as Europe and Byzantium—the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East—faced fresh military challenges. From the north came the Vikings, at first small groups of ship-borne raiders preying on lightly-defended coastal territories, and then larger forces carried inland on ponies or by portage along rivers to bring devastation as far afield as Anglo-Saxon Wessex, Paris, Kievan Rus, and Constantinople. Fighting with double-edged swords 28½–32 in (70–80 cm) in length, light spears for throwing and heavier ones for thrusting, and long-handled broad-bladed battle axes, the Vikings inspired terror in Europe for over 250 years. Out of the Middle East, meanwhile, came another military force, which was to endure far longer. From the 630s, Arab armies, united under the banner of the new religion of Islam, swept through the peninsula and then outward to overwhelm the tired autocracies of Byzantium and Persia. The Islamic victory was not achieved at first through any superior technology—although the Arab armies’ use of the camel for transportation doubtless assisted them in the desert terrain of many of their victories—but through the cohesive inspiration of ideology. When the new religion spread to the Turkic horse archers of the Central Asian steppes by the 9th century, the combination threatened for a time to be unstoppable. Terracotta Warrior The terracotta army, buried in the tomb of Emperor Huang Di, who unified China c.220 bce, is testament to the variety and sophistication of Chinese armies of the time. 3000 BCE—1000 CE the ancient world 3 32–33 mesopotamian weapons and armor 3 34–37 ancient egyptian weapons and armor the first weapons to manufacture tools was an early step toward gaining mastery over their environment. Among the first tools to appear were simple hand blades and axes made from hard rock; they would have been used to kill and dismember animals, but they also had the potential to be employed against other humans. The distinction between hunting and military weaponry necessarily remained blurred for many millennia. With the invention of the handle or shaft, and the development of projectile weapons—the spear and, above all, the bow and arrow—a revolution in hunting and fighting was underway. the ability of human beings paleolithic blades To be able to cut was of prime importance for early man, and these blades—dating back to about 40,000 BCE—would have been used to dismember animals that had been killed by paleolithic hunters. Such blades were capable of severing sinew, and separating the skin from the animal’s flesh. date c .40,000 bce origin unknown length 4 in (10 cm) Area held by hand Serrated teeth for sawing Narrowed point Rough cutting edge Fine cutting edge hand ax A key tool of the paleolithic age, the hand ax was shaped to provide both a cutting edge and a point. Although hand axes were essentially domestic tools, they were capable of inflicting savage wounds against both animals and people. Their cutting ability made them highly prized implements. date c .250,000–70,000 bce origin unknown length 6 in (15 cm) Sharp broad point 30 FLINT DAGGER head A development of the hand ax, this dagger is fashioned from flint, a hard rock readily available in areas of chalk downland and capable of taking a sharp edge. A piece of flint would be repeatedly struck by a stone hammer, knocking off small flakes of flint until a fine edge remained. date c .2000 bce origin unknown length 6 in (15 cm) serrated flint knife A development of the simple flint dagger is the serrated knife shown here. The knife’s teeth make possible a sawing action, and this provided the paleolithic hunter with an opportunity of cutting through harder objects such as bone, gristle, and— during the Ice Age—frozen meat. date 1,500,000–10,000 bce origin unknown length 8 in (20 cm) Antler horn sleeve Wooden shaft Stone ax head Leather binding Sinew or leather binding Flint blade flint hand dagger By lashing the flint blade to a wooden shaft with a binding of sinew or leather strips, the simple hand dagger was transformed into a deadly weapon of war. The addition of the shaft enabled the Stone-Age fighter to plunge the blade into his opponent with the full force of his arm. date 1,500,000–10,000 bce origin unknown length 12 in (30 cm) early adze The stone head of the adze is inserted into a sleeve made from antler-horn, which is then bound to the wooden shaft by strips of leather. The adze is primarily a domestic or agricultural tool, but it does not take too much imagination to see this as a forerunner to the battle ax. date 8000–4000 bce origin unknown Cutting edge length 8 in (20 cm) Originally attached to shaft Leather strips binding axhead to shaft Smooth stone axhead small clovis point In 1932 this Ice-Age spearhead was unearthed in Clovis, New Mexico, along with other weapon points. The broad blade of this spearhead could inflict severe wounds. The binding of the spearhead to a long wooden shaft gave the fighter an opportunity to throw it at his opponent with great force, from a relatively safe distance. Reproduction wooden handle stone axhead A dual-purpose tool, the stone ax could have been used for clearing vegetation, but would have been capable of smashing in a human skull. The addition of a wooden handle provided greater reach and power. This axhead was dredged from the Thames River in London. date date c .10,000 bce origin us length 4 in (10 cm) Triangular point 4000–2000 bce origin england length 8 in (20 cm) Reproduction wooden handle Tang to attach arrowhead to shaft flint arrowheads The bow was a leap forward in weapon technology, enabling the archer to fire from a distance with power and accuracy. Made from flint, these arrowheads have barbs that would embed themselves deep inside the victim, ensuring that any attempt to remove them would be difficult. date c .2700–1800 bce origin unknown length 2 in (5 cm) 31 3000 BCE–1000 CE the ancient world 4 30–31 prehistoric weapons 3 34–37 ancient egyptian weapons and armor Mesopotamian weapons and armor in the Sumerian city states of southern Mesopotamia in around 3000 BCE. Armor was made from leather, copper, and bronze, and the chief weapons were the bow and spear. Mobility was provided by chariots, at first four-wheeled vehicles drawn by asses, but improved to become light, horse-drawn, two-wheeled platforms for archers and spearmen. Improvements in city fortification led to developments in siege warfare techniques, such as the use of battering rams and scaling towers. organized warfare originated Hair-effect decoration ceremonial dagger Excavated from the burial site of the Sumerian Queen Pu-Abi in around 2500 BCE, this ceremonial dagger is of the highest quality—a suitable weapon for a monarch to carry on her journey to the afterlife. The blade and scabbard are made from gold, while the hilt is constructed from lapis lazuli finished with gold decoration. date c .2500 bce origin sumeria length 9½–12 in (20–30 cm) Blue lapis lazuli hilt Diadem Intricate geometric design Hole for attaching lining Cheek guards to protect side of face Gold scabbard Doubleedged blade 32 HELMET OF MESKalam-dug Made from an alloy of gold and silver, this ceremonial helmet was found in the Sumerian city of Ur and dates back to the third millennium BCE. Known as a wig helmet, the decoration mimics the hairstyle worn by Sumerian kings of the period. date c .2500 bce origin sumeria length 8½ in (22 cm) Bow nock in form of duck Holes for twine Flight made from feathers Bronze plates Laced twine ASSYRIAN scale ARMOR Constructed from bronze, this early example of lamellar armor—where small plates are laced together—was worn by an Assyrian warrior. Such armor was popular in the Middle East until the end of the Middle Ages. date 1800–620 bce origin assyria length each plate: 2 in (5 cm) Pieces of horn glued between wood Cane shaft Wooden grip Bowstring Bronze arrowhead assyrian bow and arrows While we know that the Ancient Egyptians used composite bows of wood, horn, and sinew glued together, our knowledge of Assyrian bows is less clear; they may have used composite bows, or simple wood bows. The bow and arrows shown here are replicas. date assyrian warfare Assyrian warriors, here depicted on a relief carving, in the Battle of Til-Tuba c.650 BCE. Some men are well protected with armor and large shields, and the two main Assyrian weapons, spear and bow, are clearly in evidence. arrows: c .1350 bce origin assyria length 37½ in (95.5 cm) date Bow nock bow: c .750 bce origin assyria length 56 in (142 cm) 33 3000 BCE—1000 CE the ancient world 4 32–33 mesopotamian weapons and armor 3 40–41 ancient greek weapons and armor 3 44–45 ancient roman weapons and armor Ancient Egyptian weapons and armor Crocodileskin helmet the Egyptian army fought mainly on foot, its soldiers protected by large wooden shields and armed with bows, spears, and axes. The long struggle with the people of Hyksos, who came to rule parts of Egypt in the second millennium bce, brought about a change in weapon technology. Helmets, armor, and swords became more common, and chariots provided highly mobile archery platforms. from approximately 3000–1500 bce Attachment holes CROCODILE-SKIN ARMOR The crocodile was revered by the Ancient Egyptians, who believed that the wearer of its skin would take on the strength and attributes of this fearsome animal. Crocodile cults continued into classical times, and the wearing of crocodile armor was popular with Roman soldiers garrisoned in Egypt. date 3rd century ce origin egypt length cuirass: 34 in (88.5 cm) bronze axhead The Egyptian enthusiasm for axes led to the development of a wide variety of axhead shapes. This broad, scalloped example has small holes where the head is bound to the shaft. The distinctive shape of the blade makes possible a wide slashing action, effective against opponents wearing little or no armor. date 2200–1640 bce origin egypt Thin, curved, scalloped ax blade length 6 in (17.1 cm) BRONZE SPEARHEAD This spearhead is typical of those carried by Egyptian infantrymen, whose main weapon was the spear. Made from bronze, it was covered in fine linen cloth, whose weave is apparent in this view. This weapon would have been used mainly for thrusting, not thrown as a javelin. Mummified remains of cuirass 34 Socket for insertion of shaft date c .2000 bce origin egypt length 10 in (25 cm) Triangular arrowhead designed to kill victim outright Tang Shield made from gilded wood Khepesh (sickle-shaped sword) FLINT ARROWHEAD The Egyptians were early exponents of the bow, and it formed the most effective element within their armory. The first composite bow was portrayed on a victory monument as early as 2800 BCE. Early arrowheads were made from flint, subsequently to be replaced by bronze. date 5500–3100 bce origin egypt length 2 in (6.1 cm) Pronounced barb Broad head BRONZE HEAD Used either to arm a thin spear or an arrow, this bronze head is notable for its pronounced barbs. Although expensive to produce, bronze arrowheads were widely used by the Egyptians, who fitted them to shafts made from the long reeds growing along the Nile River. date 1500–1070 bce origin egypt length 2 in (7 cm) Tutankhamen guarded by falcon god Horus “LION KING” shield One of the eight ceremonial shields discovered in the annex to Tutankhamun’s tomb, it depicts the king in the guise of a lion scattering his enemies before him. This is one of a number of depictions showing Tutankhamun adopting a martial pose. Simple wooden versions of this type of shield would have been carried by Egyptian foot soldiers. date 1333–1323 bce origin egypt length 33 in (85 cm) Intricate openwork wood carving Pattern of original fine Egyptian linen “SMITING A LION” ceremonial shield The discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun (who reigned c.1336–1327 BCE) provided a mass of information on Egyptian life, including the weapons and tools of the period. This ceremonial shield shows the king slaying a lion while armed with an unusual type of sword called a khepesh. date 1333–1323 bce origin egypt length 33 in (85 cm) Leaf-shaped spearpoint 35 3000 BCE–1000 CE 4 32–33 mesopotamian weapons and armor 3 40–41 ancient greek weapons and armor 3 44–45 ancient roman weapons and armor Ancient Egyptian weapons and armor Wide, double-edged metal blade Detailing influenced by Middle Eastern design short sword Until the New Kingdom (c.1539–1075 bce) the sword had not been highly regarded by the Egyptians, but military encounters with warlike peoples from the Middle East encouraged the development of edged weapons capable of penetrating armor. This broad-bladed short sword has a gold gilt handle, almost certainly that of a member of the Egyptian royal family. date Gold gilt handle 1539–1075 bce origin egypt Wooden shaft length 12½ in (32.3 cm) Double-edged iron blade Decorated gold handle A PHARaoH’S DAGGER Belonging to Tutankhamen, this gold-handled dagger has an iron blade rare in this period. The Egyptians had no direct access to iron ore and were dependent on supplies from the Middle East—often under the control of their enemies—which consequently made the production of iron weapons a difficult business. date c .1370–1352 BCE origin egypt length 16¼ in (41.1 cm) Wooden shaft Mushroom-shaped pommel long sword Featuring a large, mushroom-shaped pommel, this sword has a copper blade, while the handle is covered in gilded gold. Although copper was readily available in Egypt, it lacked the strength of bronze and iron, and the blade could not be made to take a sharp edge. Gold gilt handle date 1539–1075 bce origin egypt length 16 in (40.6 cm) Double-edged copper blade Wooden shaft battle ax This heavy bronze axhead is inserted into a wooden shaft and then bound securely in place. Such axes would have been capable of penetrating leather, and light bronze armor. Axhead inserted into groove in shaft date 1630–1520 bce origin egypt length 16¼ in (41.1 cm) Bronze axhead Original binding ceremonial ax The ax (and the mace) were weapons that had strong associations with power and prestige, and ceremonial versions were carried by Egyptian rulers. Typically, a scene showing the triumph of the Pharaoh would be engraved on the axhead, although in this instance, a warrior is depicted on horseback in an open metalwork design. Open metalwork axhead replica battle ax This modern reconstruction of an Egyptian battle ax shows the axhead in place within a wooden shaft. This is the type of weapon that would have been used by the ordinary Egyptian foot soldier, and was a response to the increased use of armor by Egypt’s enemies during the middle of the second millennium BCE. date Intricate warrior -on-horseback design date 1539–1075 bce origin egypt length 17 in (43.5 cm) 20th century origin egypt length 16½ in (42 cm) Leather strip binding to lash axhead to shaft Cutting edge of blade 37 Tutankhamun Egyptian King Tutankhamun (r.1332–1322 bce) shoots arrows at retreating enemies from his chariot. Evidence that bows and arrows were among the most common weapons of this period is found in tomb paintings, on coffins, and from excavated finds. These weapons would have been used alongside axes and short swords. 3000 BCE—1000 CE the ancient world 4 34–37 ancient egyptian weapons and armor 3 42–43 great warriors: greek hoplite Ancient Greek weapons and Armor 3 44–45 ancient roman weapons and armor was centered around the hoplite, a heavily equipped foot soldier armed with a spear and sword, and protected by a large round shield, bronze helmet, bronze or leather cuirass, and greaves. Hoplites fought closely together, forming a wall of shields in a phalanx that maximized their protection while enabling them to use their spear. The hoplite phalanx was supported by light infantry armed with bows and sling shots warfare in classical greece Spearpoint hoplite spear butt Made from bronze, this spear butt’s main purpose was to act as a counterweight to the head at the other end of the spear, although if the spearhead broke off in battle, the butt could be used as a weapon. A thick bronze ring secured the butt to the spear. date Ridges to align with body muscles 4th century ce origin macedonia length 15 in (38 cm) Socket for spear shaft Wide leafshaped spear blade Two plates joined at side by leather strap Indentation for bronze securing ring greek spearhead The spear was the hoplite’s principal weapon, his short iron sword only being used if his spear was broken during fighting. This spearhead is widebladed and made from iron, and the missing shaft would have been fashioned from strong wood such as ash. date 40 6–5th centuries bce origin greece length 12¼ in (31 cm) bronze cuirass This muscled cuirass consists of a breast- and backplate joined together by hooks and straps. It would have been worn by a senior officer and would have been made to measure. The ordinary hoplite wore a more simple cuirass made either from bronze or from stiffened leather. Open side areas most vulnerable sections date 5th century bce origin italy length 19½ in (50 cm) Ridge decoration Corinthian helmet The hoplite wearing his Corinthian helmet would have been a frightening sight to any opponent: a pair of glaring eyes behind stylized cutouts in the helmet face. A large horsehair crest was typically attached to the crown of the helmet to make the soldier look more impressive, as well as providing a means of identification in the thick of battle. date 6–5th centuries bce origin greece weight 3½–3¾ lb (1.5–1.75 kg) Long nosepiece Cheek guards Nasal between two eye sights Almond-shaped eye sights Helmet made from a single piece of bronze Corinthian helmet An early example of perhaps the most famous Greek helmet, this Corinthian design follows the shape of the skull, and extends downward toward the shoulders and neck, leaving a narrow face opening with space for the eyes between a nasal. date c .650 bce date origin greece weight 3½ lb (1.54 kg) Bronze greaves The hoplite’s large shield protected the lower abdomen and thi