How Close Are We To The Holy Grail Of Room-Temperature Superconductors?
When cooled to low enough temperatures, certain materials will superconduct: the electrical ... [+] resistance inside them will drop to zero. When exposed to a strong magnetic field, some superconductors will exhibit levitation effects, as flux pinning and flux expulsion can overcome the force of gravity for even weakly magnetic materials. Peter nussbaumer / Wikimedia Commons  One of the biggest physical problems in modern society is resistance. Not political or social resistance, mind you, but electrical resistance: the fact that you cannot send an electrical current through a wire without some of that energy getting lost, being dissipated into heat. Electrical currents are just electric charges that move over time, and are harnessed by humans to move through current-carrying wires. Yet even the best, most effective conductors  copper, silver, gold, and aluminum  all have some resistance to current passing through them. No matter how wide, shielded, or unoxidized these conductors are, theyre never 100% efficient at transporting electrical energy. Unless, that is, you can make your current-carrying wire go from a normal conductor to a superconductor. Unlike normal conductors, where the resistance gradually lowers when you cool them down, a superconductor has its resistance plummet to zero below a certain critical threshold. Without any resistance, superconductors can transmit electrical energy in a lossless fashion, leading to the holy grail of energy efficiency. Recent developments have brought about the highest-temperature superconductor ever discovered, but we probably wont be transforming our electronics infrastructure anytime soon. Heres the science of whats going on at the frontiers. One of Faraday's 1831 experiments demonstrating induction. The liquid battery (right) sends an ... [+] electric current through the small coil (A). When it is moved in or out of the large coil (B), its magnetic field induces a momentary voltage in the coil, which is detected by the galvanometer. As the temperature decreases, the resistance of the circuit decreases as well. J. Lambert  Superconductivity has a long and fascinating history. We realized back in the 19th century that all materials  even the best conductors  still exhibit some sort of electrical resistance. You can lower the resistance by increasing the cross-section of your wire, by lowering the temperature of your material, or by decreasing the length of your wire. However, no matter how thick you make your wire, how cold you cool your system, or how short you make your electric circuit, you can never achieve infinite conductivity with a standard conductor for a surprising reason: electrical currents create magnetic fields, and any change in your resistivity will change the current, which in turn will change the magnetic field inside your conductor. Yet perfect conductivity requires that the magnetic field inside your conductor not change. Classically, if you do anything to decrease the resistance of your conducting wire, the current will increase, and the magnetic field will change, meaning you cant achieve perfect conductivity. But theres an inherently quantum effect  the Meissner effect  that can arise for certain materials: where all magnetic fields inside a conductor are expelled. This makes the magnetic field inside your conductor zero for any current that flows through it. If you expel your magnetic fields, your conductor can begin behaving as a superconductor, with zero electrical resistance. Helium's unique elemental properties, such as its liquid nature at extremely low temperatures and ... [+] its superfluidic properties, make it well-suited to a series of scientific applications that no other element or compound can match. The superfluid helium shown here is dripping because there is no friction in the fluid to keep it from creeping up the sides of the container and spilling over, which it does spontaneously. Alfred Leitner  Superconductivity was discovered way back in 1911, when liquid helium first came into widespread use as a refrigerant. Scientist Heike Onnes was using liquid helium to cool down the element mercury into its solid phase, and was then studying the properties of its electrical resistance. Just as expected, for all conductors, the resistance gradually dropped as the temperature dropped, but only up until a point. Abruptly, at a temperature of 4.2 K, the resistance completely disappeared. Moreover, there was no magnetic field present inside the solid mercury once you crossed below that temperature threshold. Later only, several other materials were shown to exhibit this superconductivity phenomenon, all becoming superconductors at their own unique temperatures:  lead at 7 K,  niobium at 10 K,  niobium nitride at 16 K,  and many other compounds subsequently. Theoretical advances accompanied them, helping physicists understand the quantum mechanisms that cause materials to become superconducting. After a series of experiments in the 1980s, however, something fascinating began to occur: materials composed of vastly different types of molecules not only exhibited superconductivity, but some did so at significantly higher temperatures than the earliest known superconductors. This figure shows the development and discovery of superconductors and their critical temperatures ... [+] over time. The different colors represent different types of materials: BCS (dark green circle), Heavy-fermions-based (light green star), Cuprate (blue diamond), Buckminsterfullerene-based (purple inverted triangle), Carbon-allotrope (red triangle), and Iron-pnictogen-based (orange square). The novel states of matter achieved at high pressures have led to the current records. Pia Jensen Ray. Figure 2.4 in Master's thesis, "Structural investigation of La2xSrxCuO4+y - Following staging as a function of temperature". Niels Bohr Institute, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen. Copenhagen, Denmark, November 2015. DOI:10.6084/m9.figshare.2075680.v2  It started with a simple class of materials: copper oxides. In the mid-1980s, experiments with copper oxides with the elements lanthanum and barium broke the longstanding temperature record by several degrees, being found to superconduct at temperatures greater than 30 K. That record was quickly broken by using strontium instead of barium, and then was broken once again  by a significant margin  by a new material: Yttrium-Barium-Copper-Oxide. This wasn't just a standard advance, but rather a huge leap: instead of superconducting at temperatures below ~40 K, which meant that either liquid hydrogen or liquid helium was required, Yttrium-Barium-Copper-Oxide became the first material discovered to superconduct at temperatures above 77 K (it superconducts at 92 K), meaning that you could use the much cheaper liquid nitrogen to cool your device down to superconducting temperatures. This discovery led to an explosion of superconductivity research, where a variety of materials were introduced and explored, and not only extreme temperatures but also extreme pressures were applied to these systems. Despite the huge explosion in research surrounding superconductivity, however, the maximum superconductivity temperature stagnated, failing to crack the 200 K barrier (while room temperature is just a hair under 300 K) for decades. Still image of a liquid nitrogen cooled puck, superconducting above a magnetic track. By creating a ... [+] track where the outside magnetic rails point in one direction and the inside magnetic rails point in the other, a Type II superconducting object will levitate, remained pinned above-or-below the track, and will move along it. This could, in principle, be scaled up to allow resistance-free motion on large scales if room-temperature superconductors are achieved. Henry Mhlpfordt / TU Dresden  Nevertheless, superconductivity has become incredibly important in enabling certain technological breakthroughs. Its widely used in the creation of the strongest magnetic fields on Earth, which are all made through superconducting electromagnets. With applications ranging from particle accelerators (including the Large Hadron Collider at CERN) to diagnostic medical imaging (theyre an essential component of MRI machines), superconductivity isnt just itself a fascinating scientific phenomenon, but one that enables some excellent science. While most of us are probably more familiar with the fun and novel applications of superconductivity  such as using those strong magnetic fields to levitate frogs or taking advantage of superconductivity to make frictionless pucks levitating above and sliding across magnetic tracks  thats not really the societal goal. The goal is to create an electrified infrastructure system for our planet, from power lines to electronics, where electrical resistance is a thing of the past. While some cryogenically cooled systems currently leverage this, a room-temperature superconductor could lead to an energy-efficiency revolution, as well as infrastructure revolutions in applications such as magnetically levitated trains and quantum computers. A modern high field clinical MRI scanner. MRI machines are the largest medical or scientific use of ... [+] helium today, and make use of quantum transitions in subatomic particles. The intense magnetic fields achieved by these MRI machines rely on field strengths that can only be achieved with superconducting electromagnets, at present. Wikimedia Commons user KasugaHuang  In 2015, scientists took a relatively simple molecule  hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a molecule very analogous to water (H2O)  and applied an incredible pressure to it: 155 gigapascals, which is over 1500000 times the pressure of Earths atmosphere at sea level. (For comparison, this would be like applying more than 10,000 tonnes of force to every square inch of your body!) For the first time, the 200 K barrier was cracked, but only under these extremely pressurized conditions. This line of research was so promising that many physicists who had become disillusioned with the prospect of achieving a practical solution to the superconductivity questioned took it up once again with renewed interest. In the October 14, 2020 issue of Nature, University of Rochester physicist Ranga Dias and his colleagues mixed hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, and methane under extreme pressures: ~267 gigapascals, and were able to create a material  a photochemically transformed carbonaceous sulfur hydride system  that shattered the temperature record for superconductors. For the first time, a maximum superconducting transition temperature of 288 K was observed: about 15 degrees Celsius or 59 degrees Fahrenheit. A simple refrigerator or heat pump would suddenly make superconductivity possible. Inside a material subjected to a changing external magnetic field, small electric currents known as ... [+] eddy currents will develop. Normally, these eddy currents decay away rapidly. But if the material is superconducting, there is no resistance, and they will persist indefinitely. Cedrat Technologies  Last years discovery represented a tremendous symbolic breakthrough, as the increase in known superconducting temperatures followed a steady progression in recent years under extreme pressures. The 2015 work in pressurizing hydrogen and sulfur cracked the 200 K barrier, and 2018 research in a high-pressure compound involving lanthanum and hydrogen cracked the 250 K barrier. The discovery of a compound that can superconduct at liquid water temperatures (albeit at extremely high pressures) isnt exactly a surprise, but it is a really big deal to break the room temperature barrier. However, it seems that practical applications remain significantly far off. Achieving superconductivity at mundane temperatures but extreme pressures is not significantly more accessible than achieving it at mundane pressures but extreme temperatures; both are barriers to widespread adoption. In addition, the superconducting material only persists as long as the extreme pressures are maintained; once the pressure drops, so does the temperature at which superconductivity occurs. The next big step  one that remains to be taken  is to create a room temperature superconductor without these extreme pressures. This is an image, taken with scanning SQUID microscopy, of a very thin (200 nanometers) ... [+] Yttrium-Barium-Copper-Oxide film subjected to liquid helium temperatures (4 K) and a significant magnetic field. The black spots are vortices created by the eddy currents around the impurities, while the blue/white regions are where all the magnetic flux has been expelled. F. S. Wells et al., 2015, Scientific Reports volume 5, Article number: 8677  The concern is that there may be some sort of a Catch-22 situation at play here. The highest-temperature superconductors at standard pressures dont appreciably change in behavior as you vary the pressure, while the ones that superconduct at even higher temperatures under high pressures no longer do so when you reduce the pressure. Solid materials that are good for making wires out of, like the various copper oxides discussed earlier, are very different than the pressurized compounds that are only created in trace quantities under these extreme laboratory conditions. But  as first reported by Emily Conover at Science News  its possible that theoretical work, aided by computational calculations, could help point the way. Each possible combination of materials can give rise to a unique set of structures, and this theoretical and computational search can help identify which structures may be promising for obtaining the desired properties of high-temperature but also lower-pressure superconductors. The 2018 advance that crossed the ~250 K superconducting barrier for the first time, for example, was based on such calculations, which led to the lanthanum-hydrogen compounds that were then experimentally tested. This diagram shows the structure of the first high-temperature low-pressure superhydride: LaBH8. The ... [+] authors on this 2021 work were able to predict a hydride superconductor, LaBH8, with a high superconducting temperature of 126 K at a pressure down to 40 gigapascals: the lowest pressure ever for a high temperature superconducting hydride. S. Di Cataldo et al., 2021, arXiv:2102.11227v2  Already, such calculations have pointed towards a substantial advance by leveraging a new set of compounds: yttrium and hydrogen, which superconduct at near-room temperatures (-11 Celsius, or 12 Fahrenheit) but at substantially lower pressures than were previously required. While metallic hydrogen  which only exists at ultra-high pressures, such as those found at the bottom of Jupiters atmosphere  is expected to be an excellent high-temperature superconductors, the addition of extra elements could lower the pressure requirements while still maintaining the high-temperature superconductivity property. Theoretically, all single-element combinations with hydrogen have now been explored for superconductivity properties, and the hunt is now on for two-element combinations, such as the carbon-sulfur-hydrogen compound previously discovered experimentally by Dias. Lanthanum and boron with hydrogen has shown promise experimentally, but the number of possible two-element combinations rises into the thousands. Only with computational methods can we receive guidance on what we ought to try next. Squeezed to high pressure between two diamonds, a material made of carbon, sulfur and hydrogen ... [+] superconducts: transmitting electricity without resistance at room temperature. So long as the pressure and temperature simultaneously remain above a certain critical threshold, the resistance will remain at zero. This compound holds the record for highest superconducting temperature: 15 C (59 F). J. Adam Fenster / University of Rochester  The biggest questions surrounding high-temperature superconductivity now all involve the pathway to getting to low pressures as well. The true holy grail moment will come when mundane conditions  in both temperature and pressure  can create a situation where superconductivity still persists, enabling a wide variety of electronic devices to leverage the power and promise of superconductors. Although individual technologies will advance, from computers to maglev devices to medical imaging and much more, perhaps the biggest benefits will come from the savings of vast amounts of energy in the electrical grid. High-temperature superconductivity, according to the US Department of Energy, could save the United States alone hundreds of billions of dollars in energy distribution costs annually. In a world of finite energy resources, the elimination of any inefficiencies can benefit everyone: energy providers, distributors, and consumers at all levels. They can eliminate problems such as overheating, greatly reducing the risk of electrical fires. And they can also increase the lifespan of electronic devices while simultaneously reducing the need for heat dissipation. Once a novelty, superconductivity leapt into the scientific mainstream with the 20th centurys advances. Perhaps, if nature is kind, it will leap into the consumer mainstream with 21st century advances. Impressively, were already well on our way.